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[
[
"MIPS"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''MIPS''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Businesses and organizations",
"* MIPS Technologies, an American semiconductor design firm* Maharana Institute of Professional Studies, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India* Mansehra International Public School and College, Mansehra, Pakistan* Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Science (MIPS), Parkville, Victoria, Australia* Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences, Germany"
],
[
"Economics and finance",
"* Material input per unit of service, an eco-efficiency indicator* Monthly income preferred stock, a financial instrument* Merit-based Incentive Payment System, in United States Medicare"
],
[
"Technology",
"=== Computing ===* Million instructions per second, a CPU performance measure* MIPS architecture, a RISC instruction set architecture* Maximum inner-product search, in computer science* Stanford MIPS, a research project* MIPS-X, a follow-on project=== Other technologies ===* Molecularly imprinted polymer* Multiband Imaging Photometer for Spitzer, on the Spitzer Space Telescope* Multi-directional Impact Protection System, a helmet safety technology"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* Menards Infiniti Pro Series, a former name of an Indy Pro Series automobile race* MIPS, a rabbit in ''Super Mario 64''* Minimum Ionizing Particles, a term widely used in experimental particle physics"
],
[
"See also",
"* MIP (disambiguation)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mexican cuisine"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Chile en nogada, maize, tamales, pozole, mezcal, pan de muerto, cóctel de camarón''Mole sauce'', which has dozens of varieties across the Republic, is seen as a symbol of ''Mexicanidad'' and is considered Mexico's national dish.",
"'''Mexican cuisine''' consists of the cooking cuisines and traditions of the modern country of Mexico.",
"Its earliest roots lie in Mesoamerican cuisine.",
"Its ingredients and methods begin with the first agricultural communities such as the Olmec and Maya who domesticated maize, created the standard process of nixtamalization, and established their foodways.",
"Successive waves of other Mesoamerican groups brought with them their cooking methods.",
"These included: the Teotihuacanos, Toltec, Huastec, Zapotec, Mixtec, Otomi, Purépecha, Totonac, Mazatec, Mazahua, and Nahua.",
"With the Mexica formation of the multi-ethnic Triple Alliance (Aztec Empire), culinary foodways became infused (Aztec cuisine).",
"Today's food staples native to the land include corn (maize), turkey, beans, squash, amaranth, chia, avocados, tomatoes, tomatillos, cacao, vanilla, agave, spirulina, sweet potato, cactus, and chili pepper.",
"Its history over the centuries has resulted in regional cuisines based on local conditions, including Baja Med, Chiapas, Veracruz, Oaxacan, and the American cuisines of New Mexican and Tex-Mex.After the Spanish Conquest of the Aztec empire and the rest of Mesoamerica, Spaniards introduced a number of other foods, the most important of which were meats from domesticated animals (beef, pork, chicken, goat, and sheep), dairy products (especially cheese and milk), rice, sugar, olive oil and various fruits and vegetables.",
"Various cooking styles and recipes were also introduced from Spain both throughout the colonial period and by Spanish immigrants who continued to arrive following independence.",
"Spanish influence in Mexican cuisine is also noticeable in its sweets such as: alfajores, alfeniques, borrachitos and churros.African influences was also introduced during this era as a result of African slavery in New Spain through the Atlantic slave trade and the Manila-Acapulco Galleons.Mexican cuisine is an important aspect of the culture, social structure and popular traditions of Mexico.",
"The most important example of this connection is the use of mole for special occasions and holidays, particularly in the South and Central regions of the country.",
"For this reason and others, traditional Mexican cuisine was inscribed in 2010 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO."
],
[
"Basic elements",
"Still-life with Fruit, Scorpion and Frog (1874) by Hermenegildo Bustos.Still-life, oil on canvas painting by José Agustín Arrieta (Mexican), c. 1870, San Diego Museum of ArtMexican cuisine is a complex and ancient cuisine, with techniques and skills developed over thousands of years of history.",
"It is created mostly with ingredients native to Mexico, as well as those brought over by the Spanish conquistadors, with some new influences since then.In addition to staples such as corn and chili peppers, native ingredients include squashes, avocados, cocoa and vanilla, as well as ingredients not generally used in other cuisines, such as edible flowers, vegetables like huauzontle and papaloquelite, or small criollo avocados, whose skin is edible.",
"Chocolate originated in Mexico and was prized by the Aztecs.",
"It remains an important ingredient in Mexican cookery.Vegetables play an important role in Mexican cuisine.",
"Common vegetables include zucchini, cauliflower, corn, potatoes, spinach, Swiss chard, mushrooms, jitomate (red tomato), and green tomato.",
"Other traditional vegetable ingredients include chili pepper, huitlacoche (corn fungus), huauzontle, and nopal (cactus pads).European contributions include pork, chicken, beef, cheese, herbs and spices, as well as some fruits.Tropical fruits, many of which are indigenous to the Americas, such as guava, prickly pear, sapote, mangoes, bananas, pineapple and cherimoya (custard apple) are popular, especially in the center and south of the country.Edible insects have been enjoyed in Mexico for millennia.",
"Entemophagy or insect-eating is becoming increasingly popular outside of poor and rural areas for its unique flavors, sustainability, and connection to pre-Hispanic heritage.",
"Popular species include chapulines (grasshoppers or crickets), escamoles (ant larvae), cumiles (stink bugs) and (water bug eggs).===Maize===Ancient mesoamerican engraving of maize, National Museum of Anthropology of Mexico.Despite the introduction of wheat and rice to Mexico, maize is the most commonly consumed grain in almost all areas of the country and serves as the main ingredient in many local recipes (e.g.",
"maize tortillas, atole, pozole, menudo, tamal).",
"While also eaten fresh, most maize is dried, nixtamalized and ground into a dough called ''masa''.",
"This dough is used both fresh and fermented to make a wide variety of dishes from drinks (atole, pozole, etc.)",
"to tamales, sopes, and much more.",
"However, the most common way to eat maize in Mexico is in the form of a tortilla, which accompanies almost every dish.",
"Tortillas are made of maize in most of the country, but other regional versions exist, such as wheat in the north or plantain, yuca and wild greens in Oaxaca.===Chile peppers===Chiles rellenos, stuffed chile peppers.The other basic ingredient in all parts of Mexico is the chile pepper.",
"Mexican food has a reputation for being very spicy, but it has a wide range of flavors and while many spices are used for cooking, not all are spicy.",
"Many dishes also have subtle flavors.",
"Chiles are indigenous to Mexico and their use dates back thousands of years.",
"They are used for their flavors and not just their heat, with Mexico using the widest variety.",
"If a savory dish or snack does not contain chile pepper, hot sauce is usually added, and chile pepper is often added to fresh fruit and sweets.A molcajete and tejolote, the traditional mortar and pestle of Mexico.The importance of the chile goes back to the Mesoamerican period, where it was considered to be as much of a staple as corn and beans.",
"In the 16th century, Bartolomé de las Casas wrote that without chiles, the indigenous people did not think they were eating.",
"Even today, most Mexicans believe that their national identity would be at a loss without chiles and the many varieties of sauces and salsas created using chiles as their base.Many dishes in Mexico are defined by their sauces and the chiles those sauces contain (which are usually very spicy), rather than the meat or vegetable that the sauce covers.",
"These dishes include entomatada (in tomato sauce), adobo or adobados, pipians and moles.",
"A hominy soup called pozole is defined as white, green or red depending on the chile sauce used or omitted.",
"Tamales are differentiated by the filling which is again defined by the sauce (red or green chile pepper strips or mole).",
"Dishes without a sauce are rarely eaten without salsa or without fresh or pickled chiles.",
"This includes street foods, such as tacos, tortas, soup, sopes, tlacoyos, tlayudas, gorditas and sincronizadas.",
"For most dishes, it is the type of chile used that gives it its main flavor.",
"Chipotle, smoked-dried jalapeño pepper, is very common in Mexican cuisine.=== Beans ===In addition to corn, common beans (''Phaseolus vulgaris'') are a historical component of the Mexican diet.",
"Genetic evidence indicates domestication occurred in Mesoamerica as well as South America Common bean varieties and cultivars used in Mexican cuisine include the pinto bean and the black turtle bean.",
"Beans and corn are deficient in different essential amino acids but complement each other.",
"When eaten in combination, they provide a complete protein source.===Spanish contributions===''Pechuga adobada'', chicken breast in adobo with a side of chayote, mushrooms, corn and poblano rajas.",
"Adobo, including a key item, vinegar, arrived with the Spanish.",
"A common characteristic of Mexican adobo is its incorporation of chile ancho.Together with Mesoamerica, Spain is the second basis of Mexican cuisine, contributing in two fundamental ways: Firstly, they brought with them old world staples and ingredients which did not exist in the Americas such as sugar, wheat, rice, onions, garlic, limes, oil, dairy products, pork, beef and many others.Secondly they brought various culinary traditions from the Iberian peninsula which have become prevalent in Mexico.",
"Equally, the discovery of the incorporation of New World ingredients to Spanish cuisine has led to many shared foods such as chorizo which uses paprika.Spanish cuisine was in turn heavily influenced by its Moorish heritage and this created one of the earliest instances of the world's greatest Fusion cuisines.",
"The Spanish also introduced the technique of frying in pork fat.",
"Today, the main meats found in Mexico are pork, chicken, beef, goat, and sheep.",
"Seafood and fish are also popular, especially along the coasts, and the way of cooking it commonly has Spanish origin such as Huachinango a la vizcaina.Cheesemaking in Mexico has evolved its specialties, although Spanish-style cheese such as Manchego is also produced in Mexico.",
"It is an important economic activity, especially in the north, and is frequently done at home.",
"The main cheese-making areas are Chihuahua, Oaxaca, Querétaro, and Chiapas.",
"Goat cheese is still made, but it is not as popular and is harder to find in stores.Churros are a common snack originating in Spain and because sugar cane was brought to the Americas through Spanish colonization, all of Mexico's sweets have a Hispanic origin, often with a Muslim heritage such as Alfeñiques."
],
[
"Food and society",
"===Home cooking===Huevos rancherosIn most of Mexico, especially in rural areas, much of the food is consumed in the home.",
"Cooking for the family is usually considered to be women's work, and this includes cooking for celebrations as well.",
"Traditionally girls have been considered ready to marry when they can cook, and cooking is considered a main talent for housewives.The main meal of the day in Mexico is the \"comida\", meaning 'meal' in Spanish.",
"The normal meal is, as follows; early morning meal, is called \"desayuno\", which entails coffee/atole (maize drink) and light meal, in some areas, the \"almuerzo\", around 11AM, includes a \"snack\" and drink, then followed by \"comida\", between noon and 2PM (lunch), which in itself is usually the heaviest meal of the day, or supper.",
"It sometimes begins with soup, often chicken broth with pasta or a \"dry soup\", which is pasta or rice flavored with onions, garlic or vegetables.",
"The main course is meat served in a cooked sauce with salsa on the side, accompanied with beans and tortillas and often with a fruit drink in some areas.",
"The last meal of the day is ''cena'', dinner, which varies greatly by region, and is usually eaten between 6PM and 9PM.In the evening, it is common to eat leftovers from the comida or sweet bread accompanied by coffee or chocolate.",
"Breakfast can consist of meat in broth (such as pancita), tacos, enchiladas or meat with eggs.",
"This is usually served with beans, tortillas, and coffee or juice.===Food and festivals===Pan de muerto traditionally baked in Mexico during the weeks leading up to the Day of the Dead.",
"''Chiles en nogada'', due to the dish's incorporation of red, white and green, is popularly consumed during the celebrations of the ''Grito de Dolores''.",
"Tied to the independence of the country since it is said they were prepared for the first time to entertain the future emperor Agustín de Iturbide when he came to signing of the Treaty of Córdoba.Mexican cuisine is elaborate and often tied to symbolism and festivals, which is one reason it was named as an example of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.",
"Many of the foods of Mexico are complicated because of their relation to the social structure of the country.",
"Food preparation, especially for family and social events, is considered to be an investment in order to maintain social relationships.",
"Even the idea of flavor is considered to be social, with meals prepared for certain dinners and certain occasions when they are considered the most tasty.The ability to cook well, called \"sazón\" (lit.",
"seasoning) is considered to be a gift generally gained from experience and a sense of commitment to the diners.",
"For the Day of the Dead festival, foods such as tamales and mole are set out on altars and it is believed that the visiting dead relatives eat the essence of the food.",
"If eaten afterwards by the living it is considered to be tasteless.",
"In central Mexico, the main festival foods are mole, barbacoa, carnitas and mixiotes.",
"They are often prepared to feed hundreds of guests, requiring groups of cooks.",
"The cooking is part of the social custom meant to bind families and communities.Actopan, Hidalgo.",
"The barbecue in a ground oven is a typical dish from the Mezquital Valley.Fruit punch is popular around Christmas time during Las Posadas.Mexican regional home cooking is completely different from the food served in most Mexican restaurants outside Mexico, which is usually some variety of Tex-Mex.",
"The original versions of Mexican dishes are vastly different from their Tex-Mex variation.Some of Mexico's traditional foods involved complex or long cooking processes, including cooking underground (such as cochinita pibil).",
"Before industrialization, traditional women spent several hours a day boiling dried corn then grinding it on a metate to make the dough for tortillas, cooking them one-by-one on a comal griddle.",
"In some areas, tortillas are still made this way.",
"Sauces and salsas were also ground in a mortar called a molcajete.",
"Today, blenders are more often used, though the texture is a bit different.",
"Most people in Mexico would say that those made with a molcajete taste better, but few do this now.The most important food for festivals and other special occasions is mole, especially mole poblano in the center of the country.",
"Mole is served at Christmas, Easter, Day of the Dead and at birthdays, baptisms, weddings and funerals, and tends to be eaten only for special occasions because it is such a complex and time-consuming dish.",
"While still dominant in this way, other foods have become acceptable for these occasions, such as barbacoa, carnitas and mixiotes, especially since the 1980s.",
"This may have been because of economic crises at that time, allowing for the substitution of these cheaper foods, or the fact that they can be bought ready-made or may already be made as part of the family business.Another important festive food is the tamale, also known as ''tamal'' in Spanish.",
"This is a filled cornmeal dumpling, steamed in a wrapping (usually a corn husk or banana leaf) and one of the basic staples in most regions of Mexico.",
"It has its origins in the pre-Hispanic era and today is found in many varieties in all of Mexico.",
"Like a mole, it is complicated to prepare and best done in large amounts.",
"Tamales are associated with certain celebrations such as Candlemas.",
"They are wrapped in corn husks in the highlands and desert areas of Mexico and in banana leaves in the tropics.===Street food===Mexican candy stand.Mexican street food can include tacos, quesadillas, pambazos, tamales, huaraches, alambres, al pastor, and food not suitable to cook at home, including barbacoa, carnitas, and since many homes in Mexico do not make use of ovens, roasted chicken.",
"One attraction of street food in Mexico is the satisfaction of hunger or craving without all the social and emotional connotation of eating at home, although longtime customers can have something of a friendship/familial relationship with a chosen vendor.Tacos are the top-rated and most well-known street Mexican food.",
"It is made up of meat or other fillings wrapped in a tortilla often served with cheese added.",
"Vegetarian fillings include mushrooms, potatoes, rice, or beans.Remnants of popcorn have been found in Mexico that date circa 3600 BC.The best known of Mexico's street foods is the taco, whose origin is based on the pre-Hispanic custom of picking up other foods with tortillas as utensils were not used.",
"The origin of the word is in dispute, with some saying it is derived from Nahuatl and others from various Spanish phrases.",
"It possible the term taco comes from the term tlaco or tlacatl, which means middle or half in nahuatl.",
"Tacos are not eaten as the main meal; they are generally eaten before midday or late in the evening.",
"Just about any other foodstuff can be wrapped in a tortilla, and in Mexico, it varies from rice, to meat (plain or in sauce), to cream, to vegetables, to cheese, or simply to plain chile peppers or fresh salsa.",
"Preferred fillings vary from region to region with pork generally found more often in the center and south, beef in the north, seafood along the coasts, and chicken and lamb in most of the country.Another popular street food, especially in Mexico City and the surrounding area is the torta.",
"It consists of a roll of some type, stuffed with several ingredients.",
"This has its origins in the 19th century, when the French introduced a number of new kinds of bread.",
"The torta began by splitting the roll and adding beans.",
"Today, refried beans can still be found on many kinds of tortas.",
"In Mexico City, the most common roll used for tortas is called ''telera'', a relatively flat roll with two splits on the upper surface.",
"In Puebla, the preferred bread is called a cemita, as is the sandwich.",
"In both areas, the bread is stuffed with various fillings, especially if it is a hot sandwich, with beans, cream (mayonnaise is rare) and some kind of hot chile pepper.The influence of American fast food on Mexican street food grew during the late 20th century.",
"One example of this is the invention of the Sonoran hot dog in the late 1980s.",
"The frankfurters are usually boiled then wrapped in bacon and fried.",
"They are served in a bolillo-style bun, typically topped by a combination of pinto beans, diced tomatoes, onions and jalapeño peppers, and other condiments.Along the US-Mexican border, specifically dense areas like Tijuana, Mexican vendors sell food such as fruit melanged with Tajin spice to people crossing the border via carts.",
"In recent years, these food carts have been threatened by tightened border security at the port of entry.",
"Both the US and the Mexican governments have proposed a project that would widen the streets at the border, allowing for more people to pass through the border, although widening them would decimate neighboring mercados that rely on the business of travelers.Besides food, street vendors also sell various kinds of drinks (including , , and ) and treats (such as , , and ).",
"Most tamale stands sell as a standard accompaniment.File:001_Tacos_de_carnitas,_carne_asada_y_al_pastor.jpg|Tacos of carnitas, carne asada and al pastor.File:Tostadas_shrimp_cooking_food_dinner_salsa.jpg|TostadaFile:tortamex.jpg|alt=Typical Mexican Torta|Mexican-style torta with typical accompanimentsFile:ElBajio02.JPG|Bean mini-gordita flavored with avocado leaf Veracruz-styleFile:Elote_recipe.jpg|Corn"
],
[
"History",
"===Pre-Hispanic period===A native American grinder stone tool or \"metate\" from Central Mexico.Around 7000 BCE, the indigenous peoples of Mexico and Central America hunted game and gathered plants, including wild chili peppers.",
"Corn was not yet cultivated, so one main source of calories was roasted agave hearts.",
"By 1200 BCE, corn was domesticated and a process called nixtamalization, or treatment with lye, was developed to soften corn for grinding and improve its nutritional value.",
"This allowed the creation of tortillas and other kinds of flat breads.",
"The indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica have numerous stories about the origin of corn, usually related to being a gift of one or more gods, such as Quetzalcoatl.The other staple was beans, eaten with corn and some other plants as a complementary protein.",
"Other protein sources included amaranth, domesticated turkey, insects such as grasshoppers, beetles and ant larvae, iguanas, and turtle eggs on the coastlines.",
"Vegetables included squash and their seeds; chilacayote; jicama, a kind of sweet potato; and edible flowers, especially those of squash.",
"The chile pepper was used as food, ritual and as medicine.When the Spanish arrived, the Aztecs had sophisticated agricultural techniques and an abundance of food, which was the base of their economy.",
"It allowed them to expand an empire, bringing in tribute which consisted mostly of foods the Aztecs could not grow themselves.",
"According to Bernardino de Sahagún, the Nahua peoples of central Mexico ate corn, beans, turkey, fish, small game, insects and a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, pulses, seeds, tubers, wild mushrooms, plants and herbs that they collected or cultivated.===Modern period===''Las Tortilleras'', an 1836 lithograph after a painting by Carl Nebel of women grinding corn and making tortillas.After the Conquest, the Spanish introduced a variety of foodstuffs and cooking techniques, like frying, to the New World.",
"Regional cuisines remained varied, with native staples more prevalent in the rural southern areas and Spanish foods taking root in the more sparsely populated northern region.",
"European style wheat bread was initially met unfavorably with Moctezuma's emissaries who reportedly described it as tasting of \"dried maize stalks\".",
"On the Spanish side, Bernal Díaz del Castillo complained about the \"maize cake\" rations on campaign.A reconstructed kitchen at the 16th century former monastery of San Miguel Arcángel, Huejotzingo, Puebla.The cuisine of Spain is a Mediterranean cuisine influenced by its Arab period, composed of a number of staples such as olive oil and rice.",
"Spanish settlers introduced these staples to the region, although some continued to be imported, such as wine, brandy, nuts, olives, spices, and capers.",
"They introduced domesticated animals, such as pigs, cows, chickens, goats, and sheep for meat and milk, raising the consumption of protein.",
"Cheese became the most important dairy product.The Spanish brought rice to Mexico, along with sugar cane, used extensively creation of many kinds of sweets, especially local fruits in syrup.",
"A sugar-based candy craft called alfeñique was imported and is now used for the Day of the Dead.",
"Over time ingredients like olive oil, rice, onions, garlic, oregano, coriander, cinnamon, and cloves became incorporated with native ingredients and cooking techniques.",
"One of the main avenues for the mixing of the two cuisines was in convents.A typical Mexican supermarket.Despite the influence of Spanish culture, Mexican cuisine has maintained its base of corn, beans and chili peppers.",
"Natives continued to be reliant on maize; it was less expensive than the wheat favored by European settlers, it was easier to cultivate and produced higher yields.",
"European control over the land grew stronger with the founding of wheat farms.",
"In 18th century Mexico City, wheat was baked into leaved rolls called ''pan francés'' or ''pan español'', but only two bakers were allowed to bake this style of bread and they worked on consignment to the viceroy and the archbishop.",
"Large ring loaves of choice flour known as ''pan floreado'' were available for wealthy \"Creoles\".",
"Other styles of bread used lower-quality wheat and maize to produce ''pan común'', ''pambazo'' and ''cemita''.Pozole is mentioned in the 16th century Florentine Codex by Bernardino de Sahagún.In the eighteenth century, an Italian Capuchin friar, Ilarione da Bergamo, included descriptions of food in his travelogue.",
"He noted that tortillas were eaten not only by the poor, but by the upper class as well.",
"He described lunch fare as pork products like chorizo and ham being eaten between tortillas, with a piquant red chili sauce.",
"For drink, pulque, as well as corn-based atole, and for those who could afford, it chocolate-based drinks were consumed twice a day.",
"According to de Bergamo's account neither coffee nor wine are consumed, and evening meals ended with a small portion of beans in a thick soup instead, \"served to set the stage for drinking water\".Hot chocolate and pan dulce are the quintessential breakfast in Mexico.",
"Many of Mexico's sweet breads were influenced by French immigrants.During the 19th century, Mexico experienced an influx of various immigrants, including French, Lebanese, German, Chinese and Italian, which have had some effect on the food.",
"During the French intervention in Mexico, French food became popular with the upper classes.",
"An influence on these new trends came from chef Tudor, who was brought to Mexico by the Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg.",
"One lasting evidence of this is the variety of breads and sweet breads, such as bolillos, conchas and much more, which can be found in Mexican bakeries.",
"The Germans brought beer brewing techniques and the Chinese added their cuisine to certain areas of the country.",
"This led to Mexico characterizing its cuisine more by its relation to popular traditions rather than on particular cooking techniques.Since the 20th century, there has been an interchange of food influences between Mexico and the United States.",
"Mexican cooking was of course still practiced in what is now the Southwest United States after the Mexican–American War, but Diana Kennedy, in her book ''The Cuisines of Mexico'' (published in 1972), drew a sharp distinction between Mexican food and Tex-Mex.Tex-Mex food was developed from Mexican and Anglo influences, and was traced to the late 19th century in Texas.",
"It still continues to develop with flour tortillas becoming popular north of the border only in the latter 20th century.",
"From north to south, much of the influence has been related to food industrialization, as well as the greater availability overall of food, especially after the Mexican Revolution.",
"One other very visible sign of influence from the United States is the appearance of fast foods, such as hamburgers, hot dogs and pizza.Pujol was named by ''The Wall Street Journal'' as the best in Mexico City.Mexican juice barIn the latter 20th century, international influence in Mexico has led to interest and development of haute cuisine.",
"In Mexico, many professional chefs are trained in French or international cuisine, but the use of Mexican staples and flavors is still favored, including the simple foods of traditional markets.",
"It is not unusual to see some quesadillas or small tacos among the other hors d'oeuvres at fancy dinner parties in Mexico.Professional cookery in Mexico is growing and includes an emphasis on traditional methods and ingredients.",
"In the cities, there is interest in publishing and preserving what is authentic Mexican food.",
"This movement is traceable to 1982 with the Mexican Culinary Circle of Mexico City.",
"It was created by a group of women chefs and other culinary experts as a reaction to the fear of traditions being lost with the increasing introduction of foreign techniques and foods.",
"In 2010, Mexico's cuisine was recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.In contemporary times, various world cuisines have become popular in Mexico, thus adopting a Mexican fusion.",
"For example, sushi in Mexico is often made by using a variety of sauces based on mango and tamarind, and very often served with serrano-chili blended soy sauce, or complemented with vinegar, habanero peppers, and chipotle peppers."
],
[
"Beverages",
"Corn in Mexico is not only eaten, but also drunk as a beverage.",
"Corn is the base of a hot drink called atole, which is then flavored with fruit, chocolate, rice or other flavors.",
"Fermented corn is the base of a cold drink, which goes by different names and varieties, such as tejuino, pozol and others.",
"Aguas frescas are flavored drinks usually made from fruit, water and sugar.",
"Beverages also include hibiscus iced tea, one made from tamarind and one from rice called horchata.",
"One variant of coffee is café de olla, which is coffee brewed with cinnamon and raw sugar.",
"Many of the most popular beverages can be found sold by street vendors and juice bars in Mexico.Champurrado, Mexican chocolate-based drinkChocolate played an important part in the history of Mexican cuisine.",
"The word \"chocolate\" originated from Mexico's Aztec cuisine, derived from the Nahuatl word ''xocolatl''.",
"Chocolate was first drunk rather than eaten.",
"It was also used for religious rituals.",
"The Maya civilization grew cacao trees and used the cacao seeds it produced to make a frothy, bitter drink.",
"The drink, called ''xocoatl'', was often flavored with vanilla, chile pepper, and ''achiote''.",
"Tejate is another Mexican beverage made from cacao.Alcoholic beverages from Mexico include tequila, pulque, aguardiente, mezcal and charanda.",
"Wine, rum and beer are also produced.",
"The most common alcoholic beverage consumed with food in Mexico is beer, followed by tequila.",
"A classic margarita, a popular cocktail, is composed of tequila, cointreau and lime juice.Rompope is believed to have been originally made in the convents of the city of Puebla, Mexico.",
"The word ''rompope'' is a derivation of the word ''rompon'', which is used to describe the Spanish version of eggnog that came to Mexico.A popular Soft drink from Mexico is Sangria Señorial a sangria-flavored, non-alcoholic beverage.",
"Sangria is a Spanish drink that was introduced by Spaniards, as was Horchata and Agua de Jamaica."
],
[
"Regional cuisines",
"===Chiapas===Cochito, a dish exclusive to Chiapas.Similar to other regions in Mexico, corn is a dietary staple and other indigenous foods remain strong in the cuisine as well.",
"Along with a chile called simojovel, used nowhere else in the country, the cuisine is also distinguished by the use of herbs, such as chipilín and hierba santa.",
"Like in Oaxaca, tamales are usually wrapped in banana leaves (or sometimes with the leaves of hoja santa), but often chipilín is incorporated into the dough.",
"As in the Yucatán Peninsula, boiled corn is drunk as a beverage called pozol, but here it is usually flavored with all-natural cacao.",
"Another beverage (which can be served hot or cold) typical from this region is Tascalate, which is made of powdered maize, cocoa beans, achiote (annatto), chilies, pine nuts and cinnamon.The favored meats are beef, pork and chicken (introduced by the Spanish), especially in the highlands, which favors the raising of livestock.",
"The livestock industry has also prompted the making of cheese, mostly done on ranches and in small cooperatives, with the best known from Ocosingo, Rayón and Pijijiapan.",
"Meat and cheese dishes are frequently accompanied by vegetables, such as squash, chayote, and carrots.===Mexico City===A taco stand in the Tacubaya neighborhood of Mexico City.The main feature of Mexico City cooking is that it has been influenced by those of the other regions of Mexico, as well as a number of foreign influences.",
"This is because Mexico City has been a center for migration of people from all over Mexico since pre-Hispanic times.",
"Most of the ingredients of this area's cooking are not grown in situ, but imported from all of the country (such as tropical fruits).Street cuisine is very popular, with taco stands, and lunch counters on every street.",
"Popular foods in the city include barbacoa (a specialty of the central highlands), birria (from western Mexico), cabrito (from the north), carnitas (originally from Michoacán), mole sauces (from Puebla and central Mexico), tacos with many different fillings, and large sub-like sandwiches called tortas, usually served at specialized shops called 'Torterías'.",
"This is also the area where most of Mexico's haute cuisine can be found.",
"There are eateries that specialize in pre-Hispanic food, including dishes with insects.===Northern Mexico===A ''cabrito'' (goat) on a spit in Monterrey, Nuevo León.The foods eaten in what is now the north of Mexico have differed from those in the south since the pre-Hispanic era.",
"Here, the indigenous people were hunter-gatherers with limited agriculture and settlements because of the arid land.arrachera'', shrimp, sausage, onions, potatoes and ''chiles toreados'' served on an iron skillet.When the Europeans arrived, they found much of the land in this area suitable for raising cattle, goats and sheep.",
"This led to the dominance of meat, especially beef, in the region, and some of the most popular dishes include machaca, arrachera and cabrito.",
"The region's distinctive cooking technique is grilling, as ranch culture has promoted outdoor cooking done by men.The ranch culture has also prompted cheese production and the north produces the widest varieties of cheese in Mexico.",
"These include queso fresco (fresh farmer's cheese), ranchero (similar to Monterey Jack), cuajada (a mildly sweet, creamy curd of fresh milk), requesón (similar to cottage cheese or ricotta), Chihuahua's creamy semi-soft queso menonita, and fifty-six varieties of asadero (smoked cheese).Another important aspect of northern cuisine is the presence of wheat, especially in the use of flour tortillas.",
"The area has at least forty different types of flour tortillas.",
"The main reason for this is that much of the land supports wheat production, introduced by the Spanish.",
"These large tortillas allowed for the creation of burritos, usually filled with machaca in Sonora, which eventually gained popularity in the Southwest United States.Carne a la tampiqueñaThe variety of foodstuffs in the north is not as varied as in the south of Mexico, because of the mostly desert climate.",
"Much of the cuisine of this area is dependent on food preservation techniques, namely dehydration and canning.",
"Dried foods include meat, chiles, squash, peas, corn, lentils, beans and dried fruit.",
"A number of these are also canned.",
"Preservation techniques change the flavor of foods; for example, many chiles are less hot after drying.In Northeastern Mexico, during the Spanish colonial period, Nuevo León was founded and settled by Spanish families of Jewish origin (Crypto-Jews).",
"They contributed to the regional cuisine with dishes, such as ''pan de semita'' or \"Semitic bread\" (a type of bread made without leavening), and ''cabrito'' or baby goat, which is the typical food of Monterrey and the state of Nuevo León, as well as some regions of Coahuila.The north has seen waves of immigration by the Chinese, Mormons, and Mennonites, who have influenced the cuisines in areas, such as Chihuahua and Baja California.",
"Most recently, Baja Med cuisine has emerged in Ensenada and elsewhere in Baja California, combining Mexican and Mediterranean flavors.===Oaxaca===''Chocolate'' being poured at a market at Villa de Etla, OaxacaTlayudaThe cooking of Oaxaca remained more intact after the conquest, as the Spanish took the area with less fighting and less disruption of the economy and food production systems.",
"However, it was the first area to experience the mixing of foods and cooking styles, while central Mexico was still recuperating.",
"Despite its size, the state has a wide variety of ecosystems and a wide variety of native foods.",
"Vegetables are grown in the central valley, seafood is abundant on the coast and the area bordering Veracruz grows tropical fruits.Much of the state's cooking is influenced by that of the Mixtec and, to a lesser extent, the Zapotec.",
"Later in the colonial period, Oaxaca lost its position as a major food supplier and the area's cooking returned to a more indigenous style, keeping only a small number of foodstuffs, such as chicken and pork.",
"It also adapted mozzarella, brought by the Spanish, and modified it to what is now known as Oaxaca cheese.Enchiladas with tasajo beef.One major feature of Oaxacan cuisine is its seven mole varieties, second only to mole poblano in popularity.",
"The seven are Negro (black), Amarillo (yellow), Coloradito (little red), Mancha Manteles (table cloth stainer), Chichilo (smoky stew), Rojo (red), and Verde (green).Corn is the staple food in the region.",
"Tortillas are called blandas and are a part of every meal.",
"Corn is also used to make empanadas, tamales and more.",
"Black beans are favored, often served in soup or as a sauce for enfrijoladas.",
"Oaxaca's regional chile peppers include pasilla oaxaqueña (red, hot and smoky), along with amarillos (yellow), chilhuacles, chilcostles and costeños.",
"These, along with herbs, such as hoja santa, give the food its unique taste.Another important aspect of Oaxacan cuisine is chocolate, generally consumed as a beverage.",
"It is frequently hand ground and combined with almonds, cinnamon and other ingredients.===Veracruz===Huachinango a la veracruzana, a dish based on red snapper.The cuisine of Veracruz is a mix of indigenous, Afro-Mexican and Spanish.",
"The indigenous contribution is in the use of corn as a staple, as well as vanilla (native to the state) and herbs called acuyo and hoja santa.",
"It is also supplemented by a wide variety of tropical fruits, such as papaya, mamey and zapote, along with the introduction of citrus fruit and pineapple by the Spanish.",
"The Spanish also introduced European herbs, such as parsley, thyme, marjoram, bay laurel, cilantro and others, which characterize much of the state's cooking.",
"They are found in the best known dish of the region Huachinango a la veracruzana, a red snapper dish.The African influence is from the importation of slaves through the Caribbean, who brought foods with them, which had been introduced earlier to Africa by the Portuguese.",
"As it borders the Gulf coast, seafood figures prominently in most of the state.",
"The state's role as a gateway to Mexico has meant that the dietary staple of corn is less evident than in other parts of Mexico, with rice as a heavy favorite.",
"Corn dishes include garnachas (a kind of corn cake), which are readily available especially in the mountain areas, where indigenous influence is strongest.Anthropologist and restaurateur Raquel Torres Cerdán has worked to preserve and record many of the foods of indigenous peoples of the region.===Western Mexico===ChilaquilesWest of Mexico City is the Pacific coast and the states of Michoacán, Jalisco and Colima.",
"The cuisine of Michoacan is based on the Purepecha culture which still dominates most of the state.",
"The area has a large network of rivers and lakes providing fish.",
"Its use of corn is perhaps the most varied.",
"While atole is drunk in most parts of Mexico, it is made with more different flavors in Michoacán, including blackberry, cascabel chili and more.",
"Tamales come in different shapes, wrapped in corn husks.",
"These include those folded into polyhedrons called corundas and can vary in name if the filling is different.",
"In the Bajío area, tamales are often served with a meat stew called , which is flavored with cactus fruit.The main Spanish contributions to Michoacán cuisine are rice, pork and spices.",
"One of the best-known dishes from the state is morisquesta, which is a sausage and rice dish, closely followed by carnitas, which is deep-fried (confit technique) pork.",
"The latter can be found in many parts of Mexico, often claimed to be authentically Michoacán.",
"Other important ingredients in the cuisine include wheat (where bread symbolizes fertility) found in breads and pastries.",
"Another is sugar, giving rise to a wide variety of desserts and sweets, such as fruit jellies and ice cream, mostly associated with the town of Tocumbo.",
"The town of Cotija has a cheese named after it.",
"The local alcoholic beverage is charanda, which is made with fermented sugar cane.The cuisine of the states of Jalisco and Colima is noted for dishes such as birria, chilayo, menudo, and pork dishes.",
"Jalisco's cuisine is known for tequila, with the liquor produced only in certain areas allowed to use the name.",
"The cultural and gastronomic center of the area is Guadalajara, an area where both agriculture and cattle raising have thrived.",
"The best-known dish from the area is birria, a stew of goat, beef, mutton, or pork, with chiles and spices.An important street food is tortas ahogadas, where the torta (sandwich) is drowned in a chile sauce.",
"Near Guadalajara is the town of Tonalá, known for its pozole, a hominy stew, reportedly said in the 16th century, to have been originally created with human flesh for ritual use.",
"The area which makes tequila surrounds the city.",
"A popular local drink is tejuino, made from fermented corn.",
"Bionico is also a popular dessert in the Guadalajara area.On the Pacific coast, seafood is common, generally cooked with European spices along with chile, and is often served with a spicy salsa.",
"Favored fish varieties include marlin, swordfish, snapper, tuna, shrimp and octopus.",
"Tropical fruits are also important.",
"The cuisine of the Baja California Peninsula is especially heavy on seafood, with the widest variety.",
"It also features a mild green chile pepper, as well as dates, especially in sweets.File:Carne En Su Jugo .jpg|''Carne en su jugo''.File:Tamales mexicanos.jpg|Tamales wrapped in corn husks.File:MojarraFritoJanitizio.JPG|Mojarra frita (fried) served with various garnishes, including ''nopales'', at Isla de Janitzio, Michoacán.File:Birria Tatemada, La Barca, Jalisco..jpg|''Birria'', a common dish in Guadalajara.File:AsadoBoda.JPG|Asado de boda (Wedding stew), typical dish of Zacatecas.File:Chapala133.JPG|Torta ahogada accompanied by light beer, Jalisco.File:Menudo-con-garbanzos-restaurante-chipiona-venta-aurelio.JPG|The folklore belief that menudo will alleviate some of the symptoms of a hangover is widely held.===Yucatán===The food of the Yucatán peninsula is distinct from the rest of the country.",
"It is based primarily on Maya food with influences from the Caribbean, Central Mexican, European (especially French) and Middle Eastern cultures.",
"As in other areas of Mexico, corn is the basic staple, as both a liquid and a solid food.",
"One common way of consuming corn, especially by the poor, is a thin drink or gruel of white corn called by such names as pozol or keyem.One of the main spices in the region is the annatto seed, called achiote in Spanish.",
"It gives food a reddish color and a slightly peppery smell with a hint of nutmeg.",
"Recados are seasoning pastes, based on achiote (recado rojo) or a mixture of habanero and chirmole both used on chicken and pork.Recado rojo is used for the area's best-known dish, cochinita pibil.",
"Pibil refers to the cooking method (from the Mayan word ''píib'', meaning \"buried\") in which foods are wrapped, generally in banana leaves, and cooked in a pit oven.",
"Various meats are cooked this way.",
"Habaneros are another distinctive ingredient, but they are generally served as (or part of) condiments on the side rather than integrated into the dishes.A prominent feature of Yucatán cooking is the use of bitter oranges, which gives Yucatán food the tangy element that characterizes it.",
"Bitter orange is used as a seasoning for broth, to marinate meat and its juice (watered down with sugar) is used as a refreshing beverage.Honey was used long before the arrival of the Spanish to sweeten foods and to make a ritual alcoholic drink called balché.",
"Today, a honey liquor called xtabentun is still made and consumed in the region.",
"The coastal areas feature several seafood dishes, based on fish like the Mero, a variety of grunt and Esmedregal, which is fried and served with a spicy salsa based on the x'catic pepper and achiote paste.",
"Other dishes include conch fillet (usually served raw, just marinated in lime juice), coconut flavored shrimp and lagoon snails.Traditionally, some dishes are served as entrées, such as the brazo de reina (a type of tamale made from chaya) and papadzules (egg tacos seasoned in a pumpkin seed gravy).Street food in the area usually consists of Cochinita Pibil Tacos, Lebanese-based kibbeh, shawarma tacos, snacks made from hardened corn dough called piedras, and fruit-flavored ices.Lime soup made of chicken or some other meat such as pork or beef, lime juice and served with tortilla chips.",
"Panucho made with a refried tortilla that is stuffed with refried black beans and topped with chopped cabbage, pulled chicken or turkey, tomato, pickled red onion, avocado, and pickled jalapeño pepper.File:Authentic_Cochinita_Pibil.jpg|Cochinita Pibil, a fire pit-smoked pork dish, seasoned with achiote, spices and Seville orange.File:Panucho3.jpg|PanuchoFile:Frijol con puerco 01.JPG|''Frijol con puerco'' (beans with pork) prepared with beans, pork, epazote, onion, cilantro, lemon, radishes and habanero chile."
],
[
"Desserts",
"Concha is a traditional Mexican sweet bread roll (''pan dulce'').Mexico is among the countries that produce the most honey in the world.Dessert culture in Mexico did not develop until after the introduction of the Spanish to the area.",
"There were foods which could be considered desserts by modern standards like chocolate, but they were consumed and used differently.",
"With the introduction of Europeans and their food and culture to the region came sugar and with it, sweets.",
"The range of desserts evolved and grew over time to include everything from churros to rice pudding, from cakes to fruit treats.",
"Some of the desserts which historically are made in Mexico are fairly easy to make and can be produced in high quantity.=== Chocolate ===Mexican chocolate discsChocolate consumption pre-European influence was drunk in a warm syrupy form mixed with honey.",
"This was done in order to create a pleasant drinking experience.",
"During this time chocolate was also treated as medicine.",
"After the arrival of Europeans, Chocolate was brought across the sea to Europe where it would be used in various forms including medicine and confections.",
"In the modern era, chocolate is used as both a topping and a dip, as well as in candies.",
"The traditional form of chocolate consumption lives on in the form of Mexican hot chocolate, the natural evolution of the warm syrup.=== Fruits ===There are a number of fruit related dessert recipes which are popular in Mexico, some using native fruits, such as plantains and others using foreign fruits like oranges.",
"Recipes for these foods can be found dating back to the early 19th century and incorporate both sugar and ice.",
"Fruit dishes are naturally sweet and juicy which made them popular in the Mexican climate.One such dessert is orange and lime ice, a treat similar to snow cones.",
"It is made by freezing strained oranges and lime juice mixed with sugar.=== Baked goods ===Baked dessert items in Mexico are mostly ideas imported from Europe over time.",
"These items came from a variety of different nations before becoming staples of desserts in the region.",
"Baked goods include cookies made with local fruits, churros which originated in the Iberian Peninsula, and macaroons which come from Italy.",
"Churros can be made by mixing flour with boiling water, shaping and frying that mixture then coating it in cinnamon and/or sugar.",
"Churros can be eaten hot or cold and can be molded into any number of different shapes."
],
[
"Mexican food outside Mexico",
"Greek style BBQ taco with Feta cheese.Mexican cuisine is offered in a few fine restaurants in Europe and the United States.",
"Sometimes landrace corn from Mexico is imported and ground on the premises.===United States===Mexican food in the United States is based on the food of Native Americans and Hispanos in the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico.",
"Mexican foods that originate in the United States often come from the Southwestern region, breakfast burritos and red or green chile come from New Mexican cuisine, likewise chili con carne and chimichangas are examples of Tex-Mex.",
"With the growing ethnic Mexican-American population in the United States, more authentic Mexican food is gradually appearing in the United States.",
"Most large American cities host a Mexican diaspora due to proximity and immigration, and Mexican restaurants and food trucks are generally easy to find in the continental states.",
"One reason is that Mexican immigrants use food as a means of combating homesickness, and for their descendants, it is a symbol of ethnicity.",
"Alternatively, with more Americans experiencing Mexican food in Mexico, there is a growing demand for more authentic flavors.",
"Korean tacos are a Korean-Mexican fusion dish popular in a number of urban areas in the United States and Canada.",
"Korean tacos originated in Los Angeles.",
"In 2013, Carlos Gaytán became the first Mexican to obtain a Michelin star for his work at the Mexique restaurant in Chicago.",
"In 2014, Daniela Soto-Innes helped to open Cosme in New York City, serving there as the Chef de Cuisine."
],
[
"See also",
"* Tex-Mex* Aztec cuisine* Diana Kennedy* Latin American cuisine* List of Mexican dishes* List of restaurants in Mexico* List of Mexican restaurants* Moctezuma's Table* Alejandro Ruiz Olmedo* Enrique Olvera* Gabriela Cámara* Carmen Ramírez Degollado* Ancient Maya cuisine* Mexican cuisine in the United States* Indigenous cuisine of the Americas* Spanish cuisine* Cuisine of California* Texan cuisine* New Mexican cuisine* Mexican tea culture* Korean-Mexican fusion"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * * * Pilcher, Jeffrey M. ''Planet Taco: A Global History of Mexican Food'' (Oxford University Press, 2012) online review* Pilcher, Jeffrey M. ''Que Vivan Los Tamales!",
"Food and the Making of Mexican National Identity'' (1998)* Hernandez-Rodriguez, R. ''Food Cultures of Mexico.",
"Recipes, Customs, and Issues''.",
"(Greenwood, 2021)."
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"MIPS architecture"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''MIPS''' ('''Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipelined Stages''') is a family of reduced instruction set computer (RISC) instruction set architectures (ISA) developed by MIPS Computer Systems, now MIPS Technologies, based in the United States.There are multiple versions of MIPS: including MIPS I, II, III, IV, and V; as well as five releases of MIPS32/64 (for 32- and 64-bit implementations, respectively).",
"The early MIPS architectures were 32-bit; 64-bit versions were developed later.",
"As of April 2017, the current version of MIPS is MIPS32/64 Release 6.MIPS32/64 primarily differs from MIPS I–V by defining the privileged kernel mode System Control Coprocessor in addition to the user mode architecture.The MIPS architecture has several optional extensions.",
"MIPS-3D which is a simple set of floating-point SIMD instructions dedicated to common 3D tasks, MDMX (MaDMaX) which is a more extensive integer SIMD instruction set using the 64-bit floating-point registers, MIPS16e which adds compression to the instruction stream to make programs take up less room, and MIPS MT, which adds multithreading capability.Computer architecture courses in universities and technical schools often study the MIPS architecture.",
"The architecture greatly influenced later RISC architectures such as Alpha.",
"In March 2021, MIPS announced that the development of the MIPS architecture had ended as the company is making the transition to RISC-V."
],
[
"History",
"The first version of the MIPS architecture was designed by MIPS Computer Systems for its R2000 microprocessor, the first MIPS implementation.",
"Both MIPS and the R2000 were introduced together in 1985.When MIPS II was introduced, ''MIPS'' was renamed ''MIPS I'' to distinguish it from the new version.MIPS Computer Systems' R6000 microprocessor (1989) was the first MIPS II implementation.",
"Designed for servers, the R6000 was fabricated and sold by Bipolar Integrated Technology, but was a commercial failure.",
"During the mid-1990s, many new 32-bit MIPS processors for embedded systems were MIPS II implementations because the introduction of the 64-bit MIPS III architecture in 1991 left MIPS II as the newest 32-bit MIPS architecture until MIPS32 was introduced in 1999.MIPS Computer Systems' R4000 microprocessor (1991) was the first MIPS III implementation.",
"It was designed for use in personal, workstation, and server computers.",
"MIPS Computer Systems aggressively promoted the MIPS architecture and R4000, establishing the Advanced Computing Environment (ACE) consortium to advance its Advanced RISC Computing (ARC) standard, which aimed to establish MIPS as the dominant personal computing platform.",
"ARC found little success in personal computers, but the R4000 (and the R4400 derivative) were widely used in workstation and server computers, especially by its largest user, Silicon Graphics.",
"Other uses of the R4000 included high-end embedded systems and supercomputers.",
"MIPS III was eventually implemented by a number of embedded microprocessors.",
"Quantum Effect Design's R4600 (1993) and its derivatives was widely used in high-end embedded systems and low-end workstations and servers.",
"MIPS Technologies' R4200 (1994), was designed for embedded systems, laptop, and personal computers.",
"A derivative, the R4300i, fabricated by NEC Electronics, was used in the Nintendo 64 game console.",
"The Nintendo 64, along with the PlayStation, were among the highest volume users of MIPS architecture processors in the mid-1990s.The first MIPS IV implementation was the MIPS Technologies R8000 microprocessor chipset (1994).",
"The design of the R8000 began at Silicon Graphics, Inc. and it was only used in high-end workstations and servers for scientific and technical applications where high performance on large floating-point workloads was important.",
"Later implementations were the MIPS Technologies R10000 (1996) and the Quantum Effect Devices R5000 (1996) and RM7000 (1998).",
"The R10000, fabricated and sold by NEC Electronics and Toshiba, and its derivatives were used by NEC, Pyramid Technology, Silicon Graphics, and Tandem Computers (among others) in workstations, servers, and supercomputers.",
"The R5000 and R7000 found use in high-end embedded systems, personal computers, and low-end workstations and servers.",
"A derivative of the R5000 from Toshiba, the R5900, was used in Sony Computer Entertainment's Emotion Engine, which powered its PlayStation 2 game console.Announced on October 21, 1996, at the Microprocessor Forum 1996 alongside the MIPS Digital Media Extensions (MDMX) extension, MIPS V was designed to improve the performance of 3D graphics transformations.",
"In the mid-1990s, a major use of non-embedded MIPS microprocessors were graphics workstations from Silicon Graphics.",
"MIPS V was completed by the integer-only MDMX extension to provide a complete system for improving the performance of 3D graphics applications.",
"MIPS V implementations were never introduced.",
"On May 12, 1997, Silicon Graphics announced the H1 (\"Beast\") and H2 (\"Capitan\") microprocessors.",
"The former was to have been the first MIPS V implementation, and was due to be introduced in the first half of 1999.The H1 and H2 projects were later combined and eventually canceled in 1998.While there have not been any MIPS V implementations, MIPS64 Release 1 (1999) was based on MIPS V and retains all of its features as an optional Coprocessor 1 (FPU) feature called Paired-Single.When MIPS Technologies was spun-out of Silicon Graphics in 1998, it refocused on the embedded market.",
"Through MIPS V, each successive version was a strict superset of the previous version, but this property was found to be a problem, and the architecture definition was changed to define a 32-bit and a 64-bit architecture: MIPS32 and MIPS64.Both were introduced in 1999.MIPS32 is based on MIPS II with some additional features from MIPS III, MIPS IV, and MIPS V; MIPS64 is based on MIPS V. NEC, Toshiba and SiByte (later acquired by Broadcom) each obtained licenses for MIPS64 as soon as it was announced.",
"Philips, LSI Logic, IDT, Raza Microelectronics, Inc., Cavium, Loongson Technology and Ingenic Semiconductor have since joined them.",
"MIPS32/MIPS64 Release 5 was announced on December 6, 2012.According to the Product Marketing Director at MIPS, Release 4 was skipped because the number four is perceived as unlucky in many Asian cultures.In December 2018, Wave Computing, the new owner of the MIPS architecture, announced that MIPS ISA would be open-sourced in a program dubbed the MIPS Open initiative.",
"The program was intended to open up access to the most recent versions of both the 32-bit and 64-bit designs making them available without any licensing or royalty fees as well as granting participants licenses to existing MIPS patents.In March 2019, one version of the architecture was made available under a royalty-free license, but later that year the program was shut down again.In March 2021, Wave Computing announced that the development of the MIPS architecture has ceased.",
"The company has joined the RISC-V foundation and future processor designs will be based on the RISC-V architecture.",
"In spite of this, some licensees such as Loongson continue with new extension of MIPS-compatible ISAs on their own.In January 2024, Loongson won a case over rights to use MIPS architecture."
],
[
"Design",
"MIPS is a modular architecture supporting up to four coprocessors (CP0/1/2/3).",
"In MIPS terminology, CP0 is the System Control Coprocessor (an essential part of the processor that is implementation-defined in MIPS I–V), CP1 is an optional floating-point unit (FPU) and CP2/3 are optional implementation-defined coprocessors (MIPS III removed CP3 and reused its opcodes for other purposes).",
"For example, in the PlayStation video game console, CP2 is the Geometry Transformation Engine (GTE), which accelerates the processing of geometry in 3D computer graphics."
],
[
"Versions",
"=== MIPS I ===MIPS is a load/store architecture (also known as a ''register-register architecture''); except for the load/store instructions used to access memory, all instructions operate on the registers.==== Registers ====MIPS I has thirty-two 32-bit general-purpose registers (GPR).",
"Register is hardwired to zero and writes to it are discarded.",
"Register is the link register.",
"For integer multiplication and division instructions, which run asynchronously from other instructions, a pair of 32-bit registers, ''HI'' and ''LO'', are provided.",
"There is a small set of instructions for copying data between the general-purpose registers and the HI/LO registers.The program counter has 32 bits.",
"The two low-order bits always contain zero since MIPS I instructions are 32 bits long and are aligned to their natural word boundaries.==== Instruction formats ====Instructions are divided into three types: R (register), I (immediate), and J (jump).",
"Every instruction starts with a 6-bit opcode.",
"In addition to the opcode, R-type instructions specify three registers, a shift amount field, and a function field; I-type instructions specify two registers and a 16-bit immediate value; J-type instructions follow the opcode with a 26-bit jump target.The following are the three formats used for the core instruction set: Type -31- format (bits) -0- '''R''' opcode (6) rs (5) rt (5) rd (5) shamt (5) funct (6) '''I''' opcode (6) rs (5) rt (5) immediate (16) '''J''' opcode (6) address (26)==== CPU instructions ====MIPS I has instructions that load and store 8-bit bytes, 16-bit halfwords, and 32-bit words.",
"Only one addressing mode is supported: base + displacement.",
"Since MIPS I is a 32-bit architecture, loading quantities fewer than 32 bits requires the datum to be either sign-extended or zero-extended to 32 bits.",
"The load instructions suffixed by \"unsigned\" perform zero extension; otherwise sign extension is performed.",
"Load instructions source the base from the contents of a GPR (rs) and write the result to another GPR (rt).",
"Store instructions source the base from the contents of a GPR (rs) and the store data from another GPR (rt).",
"All load and store instructions compute the memory address by summing the base with the sign-extended 16-bit immediate.",
"MIPS I requires all memory accesses to be aligned to their natural word boundaries, otherwise an exception is signaled.",
"To support efficient unaligned memory accesses, there are load/store word instructions suffixed by \"left\" or \"right\".",
"All load instructions are followed by a load delay slot.",
"The instruction in the load delay slot cannot use the data loaded by the load instruction.",
"The load delay slot can be filled with an instruction that is not dependent on the load; a nop is substituted if such an instruction cannot be found.MIPS I has instructions to perform addition and subtraction.",
"These instructions source their operands from two GPRs (rs and rt), and write the result to a third GPR (rd).",
"Alternatively, addition can source one of the operands from a 16-bit immediate (which is sign-extended to 32 bits).",
"The instructions for addition and subtraction have two variants: by default, an exception is signaled if the result overflows; instructions with the \"unsigned\" suffix do not signal an exception.",
"The overflow check interprets the result as a 32-bit two's complement integer.",
"MIPS I has instructions to perform bitwise logical AND, OR, XOR, and NOR.",
"These instructions source their operands from two GPRs and write the result to a third GPR.",
"The AND, OR, and XOR instructions can alternatively source one of the operands from a 16-bit immediate (which is zero-extended to 32 bits).",
"The Set on ''relation'' instructions write one or zero to the destination register if the specified relation is true or false.",
"These instructions source their operands from two GPRs or one GPR and a 16-bit immediate (which is sign-extended to 32 bits), and write the result to a third GPR.",
"By default, the operands are interpreted as signed integers.",
"The variants of these instructions that are suffixed with \"unsigned\" interpret the operands as unsigned integers (even those that source an operand from the sign-extended 16-bit immediate).The Load Immediate Upper instruction copies the 16-bit immediate into the high-order 16 bits of a GPR.",
"It is used in conjunction with the Or Immediate instruction to load a 32-bit immediate into a register.MIPS I has instructions to perform left and right logical shifts and right arithmetic shifts.",
"The operand is obtained from a GPR (rt), and the result is written to another GPR (rd).",
"The shift distance is obtained from either a GPR (rs) or a 5-bit \"shift amount\" (the \"sa\" field).MIPS I has instructions for signed and unsigned integer multiplication and division.",
"These instructions source their operands from two GPRs and write their results to a pair of 32-bit registers called HI and LO, since they may execute separately from (and concurrently with) the other CPU instructions.",
"For multiplication, the high- and low-order halves of the 64-bit product is written to HI and LO (respectively).",
"For division, the quotient is written to LO and the remainder to HI.",
"To access the results, a pair of instructions (Move from HI and Move from LO) is provided to copy the contents of HI or LO to a GPR.",
"These instructions are interlocked: reads of HI and LO do not proceed past an unfinished arithmetic instruction that will write to HI and LO.",
"Another pair of instructions (Move to HI or Move to LO) copies the contents of a GPR to HI and LO.",
"These instructions are used to restore HI and LO to their original state after exception handling.",
"Instructions that read HI or LO must be separated by two instructions that do not write to HI or LO.All MIPS I control flow instructions are followed by a branch delay slot.",
"Unless the branch delay slot is filled by an instruction performing useful work, an nop is substituted.",
"MIPS I branch instructions compare the contents of a GPR (rs) against zero or another GPR (rt) as signed integers and branch if the specified condition is true.",
"Control is transferred to the address computed by shifting the 16-bit offset left by two bits, sign-extending the 18-bit result, and adding the 32-bit sign-extended result to the sum of the program counter (instruction address) and 810.Jumps have two versions: absolute and register-indirect.",
"Absolute jumps (\"Jump\" and \"Jump and Link\") compute the address to which control is transferred by shifting the 26-bit instr_index left by two bits and concatenating the 28-bit result with the four high-order bits of the address of the instruction in the branch delay slot.",
"Register-indirect jumps transfer control to the instruction at the address sourced from a GPR (rs).",
"The address sourced from the GPR must be word-aligned, else an exception is signaled after the instruction in the branch delay slot is executed.",
"Branch and jump instructions that link (except for \"Jump and Link Register\") save the return address to GPR 31.The \"Jump and Link Register\" instruction permits the return address to be saved to any writable GPR.MIPS I has two instructions for software to signal an exception: System Call and Breakpoint.",
"System Call is used by user mode software to make kernel calls; and Breakpoint is used to transfer control to a debugger via the kernel's exception handler.",
"Both instructions have a 20-bit Code field that can contain operating environment-specific information for the exception handler.MIPS has 32 floating-point registers.",
"Two registers are paired for double precision numbers.",
"Odd numbered registers cannot be used for arithmetic or branching, just as part of a double precision register pair, resulting in 16 usable registers for most instructions (moves/copies and loads/stores were not affected).Single precision is denoted by the .s suffix, while double precision is denoted by the .d suffix.=== MIPS II ===MIPS II removed the load delay slot and added several sets of instructions.",
"For shared-memory multiprocessing, the ''Synchronize Shared Memory'', ''Load Linked Word'', and ''Store Conditional Word'' instructions were added.",
"A set of Trap-on-Condition instructions were added.",
"These instructions caused an exception if the evaluated condition is true.",
"All existing branch instructions were given ''branch-likely'' versions that executed the instruction in the branch delay slot only if the branch is taken.",
"These instructions improve performance in certain cases by allowing useful instructions to fill the branch delay slot.",
"Doubleword load and store instructions for COP1–3 were added.",
"Consistent with other memory access instructions, these loads and stores required the doubleword to be naturally aligned.The instruction set for the floating point coprocessor also had several instructions added to it.",
"An IEEE 754-compliant floating-point square root instruction was added.",
"It supported both single- and double-precision operands.",
"A set of instructions that converted single- and double-precision floating-point numbers to 32-bit words were added.",
"These complemented the existing conversion instructions by allowing the IEEE rounding mode to be specified by the instruction instead of the Floating Point Control and Status Register.=== MIPS III ===MIPS III is a backwards-compatible extension of MIPS II that added support for 64-bit memory addressing and integer operations.",
"The 64-bit data type is called a doubleword, and MIPS III extended the general-purpose registers, HI/LO registers, and program counter to 64 bits to support it.",
"New instructions were added to load and store doublewords, to perform integer addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and shift operations on them, and to move doubleword between the GPRs and HI/LO registers.",
"For shared-memory multiprocessing, the ''Load Linked Double Word'', and ''Store Conditional Double Word'' instructions were added.",
"Existing instructions originally defined to operate on 32-bit words were redefined, where necessary, to sign-extend the 32-bit results to permit words and doublewords to be treated identically by most instructions.",
"Among those instructions redefined was ''Load Word''.",
"In MIPS III it sign-extends words to 64 bits.",
"To complement ''Load Word'', a version that zero-extends was added.The R instruction format's inability to specify the full shift distance for 64-bit shifts (its 5-bit shift amount field is too narrow to specify the shift distance for doublewords) required MIPS III to provide three 64-bit versions of each MIPS I shift instruction.",
"The first version is a 64-bit version of the original shift instructions, used to specify constant shift distances of 0–31 bits.",
"The second version is similar to the first, but adds 3210 the shift amount field's value so that constant shift distances of 32–63 bits can be specified.",
"The third version obtains the shift distance from the six low-order bits of a GPR.MIPS III added a ''supervisor'' privilege level in between the existing kernel and user privilege levels.",
"This feature only affected the implementation-defined System Control Processor (Coprocessor 0).MIPS III removed the Coprocessor 3 (CP3) support instructions, and reused its opcodes for the new doubleword instructions.",
"The remaining coprocessors gained instructions to move doublewords between coprocessor registers and the GPRs.",
"The floating general registers (FGRs) were extended to 64 bits and the requirement for instructions to use even-numbered register only was removed.",
"This is incompatible with earlier versions of the architecture; a bit in the floating-point control/status register is used to operate the MIPS III floating-point unit (FPU) in a MIPS I- and II-compatible mode.",
"The floating-point control registers were not extended for compatibility.",
"The only new floating-point instructions added were those to copy doublewords between the CPU and FPU convert single- and double-precision floating-point numbers into doubleword integers and vice versa.=== MIPS IV ===MIPS IV is the fourth version of the architecture.",
"It is a superset of MIPS III and is compatible with all existing versions of MIPS.",
"MIPS IV was designed to mainly improve floating-point (FP) performance.",
"To improve access to operands, an indexed addressing mode (base + index, both sourced from GPRs) for FP loads and stores was added, as were prefetch instructions for performing memory prefetching and specifying cache hints (these supported both the base + offset and base + index addressing modes).MIPS IV added several features to improve instruction-level parallelism.",
"To alleviate the bottleneck caused by a single condition bit, seven condition code bits were added to the floating-point control and status register, bringing the total to eight.",
"FP comparison and branch instructions were redefined so they could specify which condition bit was written or read (respectively); and the delay slot in between an FP branch that read the condition bit written to by a prior FP comparison was removed.",
"Support for partial predication was added in the form of conditional move instructions for both GPRs and FPRs; and an implementation could choose between having precise or imprecise exceptions for IEEE 754 traps.MIPS IV added several new FP arithmetic instructions for both single- and double-precision FPNs: fused-multiply add or subtract, reciprocal, and reciprocal square-root.",
"The FP fused-multiply add or subtract instructions perform either one or two roundings (it is implementation-defined), to exceed or meet IEEE 754 accuracy requirements (respectively).",
"The FP reciprocal and reciprocal square-root instructions do not comply with IEEE 754 accuracy requirements, and produce results that differ from the required accuracy by one or two units of last place (it is implementation defined).",
"These instructions serve applications where instruction latency is more important than accuracy.=== MIPS V ===MIPS V added a new data type, the Paired Single (PS), which consisted of two single-precision (32-bit) floating-point numbers stored in the existing 64-bit floating-point registers.",
"Variants of existing floating-point instructions for arithmetic, compare and conditional move were added to operate on this data type in a SIMD fashion.",
"New instructions were added for loading, rearranging and converting PS data.",
"It was the first instruction set to exploit floating-point SIMD with existing resources.=== MIPS32/MIPS64 ===The first release of MIPS32, based on MIPS II, added conditional moves, prefetch instructions, and other features from the R4000 and R5000 families of 64-bit processors.",
"The first release of MIPS64 adds a MIPS32 mode to run 32-bit code.",
"The MUL and MADD (multiply-add) instructions, previously available in some implementations, were added to the MIPS32 and MIPS64 specifications, as were cache control instructions.",
"For the purpose of cache control, both SYNC and SYNCI instructions were prepared.MIPS32/MIPS64 Release 6 in 2014 added the following:* a new family of branches with no delay slot:** unconditional branches (BC) and branch-and-link (BALC) with a 26-bit offset,** conditional branch on zero/non-zero with a 21-bit offset,** full set of signed and unsigned conditional branches compare between two registers (e.g.",
"BGTUC) or a register against zero (e.g.",
"BGTZC),** full set of branch-and-link which compare a register against zero (e.g.",
"BGTZALC).",
"* index jump instructions with no delay slot designed to support large absolute addresses.",
"* instructions to load 16-bit immediates at bit position 16, 32 or 48, allowing to easily generate large constants.",
"* PC-relative load instructions, as well as address generation with large (PC-relative) offsets.",
"* bit-reversal and byte-alignment instructions (previously only available with the DSP extension).",
"* multiply and divide instructions redefined so that they use a single register for their result).",
"* instructions generating truth values now generate all zeroes or all ones instead of just clearing/setting the 0-bit,* instructions using a truth value now only interpret all-zeroes as false instead of just looking at the 0-bit.Removed infrequently used instructions:* some conditional moves* ''branch likely'' instructions (deprecated in previous releases).",
"* integer overflow trapping instructions with 16-bit immediate* integer accumulator instructions (together HI/LO registers, moved to the DSP Application-Specific Extension)* unaligned load instructions (LWL and LWR), (requiring that most ordinary loads and stores support misaligned access, possibly via trapping and with the addition of a new instruction (BALIGN))Reorganized the instruction encoding, freeing space for future expansions.=== microMIPS ===The microMIPS32/64 architectures are supersets of the MIPS32 and MIPS64 architectures (respectively) designed to replace the MIPS16e ASE.",
"A disadvantage of MIPS16e is that it requires a mode switch before any of its 16-bit instructions can be processed.",
"microMIPS adds versions of the most-frequently used 32-bit instructions that are encoded as 16-bit instructions.",
"This allows programs to intermix 16- and 32-bit instructions without having to switch modes.",
"microMIPS was introduced alongside of MIPS32/64 Release 3, and each subsequent release of MIPS32/64 has a corresponding microMIPS32/64 version.",
"A processor may implement microMIPS32/64 or both microMIPS32/64 and its corresponding MIPS32/64 subset.",
"Starting with MIPS32/64 Release 6, support for MIPS16e ended, and microMIPS is the only form of code compression in MIPS."
],
[
"Application-specific extensions",
"The base MIPS32 and MIPS64 architectures can be supplemented with a number of optional architectural extensions, which are collectively referred to as ''application-specific extensions'' (ASEs).",
"These ASEs provide features that improve the efficiency and performance of certain workloads, such as digital signal processing.",
"; MIPS MCU: Enhancements for microcontroller applications.",
"The MCU ASE (application-specific extension) has been developed to extend the interrupt controller support, reduce the interrupt latency and enhance the I/O peripheral control function typically required in microcontroller system designs.",
"* Separate priority and vector generation* Supports up to 256 interrupts in EIC (External Interrupt Controller) mode and eight hardware interrupt pins* Provides 16-bit vector offset address* Pre-fetching of the interrupt exception vector* Automated Interrupt Prologue – adds hardware to save and update system status before the interrupt handling routine* Automated Interrupt Epilogue – restores the system state previously stored in the stack for returning from the interrupt.",
"* Interrupt Chaining – supports the service of pending interrupts without the need to exit the initial interrupt routine, saving the cycles required to store and restore multiple active interrupts* Supports speculative pre-fetching of the interrupt vector address.",
"Reduces the number of interrupt service cycles by overlapping memory accesses with pipeline flushes and exception prioritization* Includes atomic bit set/clear instructions which enables bits within an I/O register that are normally used to monitor or control external peripheral functions to be modified without interruption, ensuring the action is performed securely.",
"; MIPS16: MIPS16 is an Application-Specific Extension for MIPS I through to V designed by LSI Logic and MIPS Technologies, announced on October 21, 1996, alongside its first implementation, the LSI Logic TinyRISC processor.",
"MIPS16 was subsequently licensed by NEC Electronics, Philips Semiconductors, and Toshiba (among others); and implemented as an extension to the MIPS I, II, an III architectures.",
"MIPS16 decreases the size of application by up to 40% by using 16-bit instructions instead of 32-bit instructions and also improves power efficiency, the instruction cache hit rate, and is equivalent in performance to its base architecture.",
"It is supported by hardware and software development tools from MIPS Technologies and other providers.",
"MIPS16e is an improved version of MIPS16 first supported by MIPS32 and MIPS64 Release 1.MIPS16e2 is an improved version of MIPS16 that is supported by MIPS32 and MIPS64 (up to Release 5).",
"Release 6 replaced it with microMIPS.",
"; MIPS Digital Signal Processing (DSP): The DSP ASE is an optional extension to the MIPS32/MIPS64 Release 2 and newer instruction sets which can be used to accelerate a large range of \"media\" computations—particularly audio and video.",
"The DSP module comprises a set of instructions and state in the integer pipeline and requires minimal additional logic to implement in MIPS processor cores.",
"Revision 2 of the ASE was introduced in the second half of 2006.This revision adds extra instructions to the original ASE, but is otherwise backwards-compatible with it.",
"Unlike the bulk of the MIPS architecture, it's a fairly irregular set of operations, many chosen for a particular relevance to some key algorithm.",
"Its main novel features (vs original MIPS32):* Saturating arithmetic (when a calculation overflows, deliver the representable number closest to the non-overflowed answer).",
"* Fixed-point arithmetic on signed 32- and 16-bit fixed-point fractions with a range of -1 to +1 (these are widely called \"Q31\" and \"Q15\").",
"* The existing integer multiplication and multiply-accumulate instructions, which deliver results into a double-size accumulator (called \"hi/lo\" and 64 bits on MIPS32 CPUs).",
"The DSP ASE adds three more accumulators, and some different flavours of multiply-accumulate.",
"* SIMD instructions operating on 4 x unsigned bytes or 2 x 16-bit values packed into a 32-bit register (the 64-bit variant of the DSP ASE supports larger vectors, too).",
"* SIMD operations are basic arithmetic, shifts and some multiply-accumulate type operations.",
"; MIPS SIMD architecture (MSA): Instruction set extensions designed to accelerate multimedia.",
"* 32 vector registers of 16 x 8-bit, 8 x 16-bit, 4 x 32-bit, and 2 x 64 bit vector elements* Efficient vector parallel arithmetic operations on integer, fixed-point and floating-point data* Operations on absolute value operands* Rounding and saturation options available* Full precision multiply and multiply-add* Conversions between integer, floating-point, and fixed-point data* Complete set of vector-level compare and branch instructions with no condition flag* Vector (1D) and array (2D) shuffle operations* Typed load and store instructions for endian-independent operation* IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic 754-2008 compliant* Element precise floating-point exception signaling* Pre-defined scalable extensions for chips with more gates/transistors* Accelerates compute-intensive applications in conjunction with leveraging generic compiler support* Software-programmable solution for consumer electronics applications or functions not covered by dedicated hardware* Emerging data mining, feature extraction, image and video processing, and human-computer interaction applications* High-performance scientific computing; MIPS virtualization: Hardware supported virtualization technology.",
"; MIPS multi-threading: Each multi-threaded MIPS core can support up to two VPEs (Virtual Processing Elements) which share a single pipeline as well as other hardware resources.",
"However, since each VPE includes a complete copy of the processor state as seen by the software system, each VPE appears as a complete standalone processor to an SMP Linux operating system.",
"For more fine-grained thread processing applications, each VPE is capable of supporting up to nine TCs allocated across two VPEs.",
"The TCs share a common execution unit but each has its own program counter and core register files so that each can handle a thread from the software.",
"The MIPS MT architecture also allows the allocation of processor cycles to threads, and sets the relative thread priorities with an optional Quality of Service (QoS) manager block.",
"This enables two prioritization mechanisms that determine the flow of information across the bus.",
"The first mechanism allows the user to prioritize one thread over another.",
"The second mechanism is used to allocate a specified ratio of the cycles to specific threads over time.",
"The combined use of both mechanisms allows effective allocation of bandwidth to the set of threads, and better control of latencies.",
"In real-time systems, system-level determinism is very critical, and the QoS block facilitates improvement of the predictability of a system.",
"Hardware designers of advanced systems may replace the standard QoS block provided by MIPS Technologies with one that is specifically tuned for their application.",
"; SmartMIPS: SmartMIPS is an Application-Specific Extension (ASE) designed by Gemplus International and MIPS Technologies to improve performance and reduce memory consumption for smart card software.",
"It is supported by MIPS32 only, since smart cards do not require the capabilities of MIPS64 processors.",
"Few smart cards use SmartMIPS.",
"; MIPS Digital Media eXtension (MDMX): Multimedia application accelerations that were common in the 1990s on RISC and CISC systems.",
"; MIPS-3D: Additional instructions for improving the performance of 3D graphics applications"
],
[
"Calling conventions",
"MIPS has had several calling conventions, especially on the 32-bit platform.The O32 ABI is the most commonly-used ABI, owing to its status as the original System V ABI for MIPS.",
"It is strictly stack-based, with only four registers - available to pass arguments.",
"Space on the stack is reserved in case the callee needs to save its arguments, but the registers are not stored there by the caller.",
"The return value is stored in register ; a second return value may be stored in .",
"The ABI took shape in 1990 and was last updated in 1994.This perceived slowness, along with an antique floating-point model with only 16 registers, has encouraged the proliferation of many other calling conventions.",
"It is only defined for 32-bit MIPS, but GCC has created a 64-bit variation called O64.For 64-bit, the N64 ABI by Silicon Graphics is most commonly used.",
"The most important improvement is that eight registers are now available for argument passing; it also increases the number of floating-point registers to 32.There is also an ILP32 version called N32, which uses 32-bit pointers for smaller code, analogous to the x32 ABI.",
"Both run under the 64-bit mode of the CPU.",
"The N32 and N64 ABIs pass the first eight arguments to a function in the registers -; subsequent arguments are passed on the stack.",
"The return value (or a pointer to it) is stored in the registers ; a second return value may be stored in .",
"In both the N32 and N64 ABIs all registers are considered to be 64-bits wide.A few attempts have been made to replace O32 with a 32-bit ABI that resembles N32 more.",
"A 1995 conference came up with MIPS EABI, for which the 32-bit version was quite similar.",
"EABI inspired MIPS Technologies to propose a more radical \"NUBI\" ABI additionally reuse argument registers for the return value.",
"MIPS EABI is supported by GCC but not LLVM, and neither supports NUBI.For all of O32 and N32/N64, the return address is stored in a register.",
"This is automatically set with the use of the JAL (jump and link) or JALR (jump and link register) instructions.",
"The function prologue of a (non-leaf) MIPS subroutine pushes the return address (in ) to the stack.On both O32 and N32/N64 the stack grows downwards, but the N32/N64 ABIs require 64-bit alignment for all stack entries.",
"The frame pointer () is optional and in practice rarely used except when the stack allocation in a function is determined at runtime, for example, by calling alloca().For N32 and N64, the return address is typically stored 8 bytes before the stack pointer although this may be optional.For the N32 and N64 ABIs, a function must preserve the - registers, the global pointer ( or ), the stack pointer ( or ) and the frame pointer ().",
"The O32 ABI is the same except the calling function is required to save the register instead of the called function.For multi-threaded code, the thread local storage pointer is typically stored in special hardware register and is accessed by using the mfhw (move from hardware) instruction.",
"At least one vendor is known to store this information in the register which is normally reserved for kernel use, but this is not standard.The and registers (–) are reserved for kernel use and should not be used by applications since these registers can be changed at any time by the kernel due to interrupts, context switches or other events.+ Registers for O32 calling convention Name Number Use Callee must preserve?",
"constant 0 assembler temporary – – values for function returns and expression evaluation – – function arguments – – temporaries – – saved temporaries – – temporaries – – reserved for OS kernel global pointer (except PIC code) stack pointer frame pointer return address + Registers for N32 and N64 calling conventions Name Number Use Callee must preserve?",
"constant 0 assembler temporary – – values for function returns and expression evaluation – – function arguments – – temporaries – – saved temporaries – – temporaries – – reserved for OS kernel global pointer stack pointer frame pointer return address Registers that are preserved across a call are registers that (by convention) will not be changed by a system call or procedure (function) call.",
"For example, $s-registers must be saved to the stack by a procedure that needs to use them, and and are always incremented by constants, and decremented back after the procedure is done with them (and the memory they point to).",
"By contrast, is changed automatically by any normal function call (ones that use jal), and $t-registers must be saved by the program before any procedure call (if the program needs the values inside them after the call).The userspace calling convention of position-independent code on Linux additionally requires that when a function is called the register must contain the address of that function.",
"This convention dates back to the System V ABI supplement for MIPS."
],
[
"Uses",
"MIPS processors are used in embedded systems such as residential gateways and routers.",
"Originally, MIPS was designed for general-purpose computing.",
"During the 1980s and 1990s, MIPS processors for personal, workstation, and server computers were used by many companies such as Digital Equipment Corporation, MIPS Computer Systems, NEC, Pyramid Technology, SiCortex, Siemens Nixdorf, Silicon Graphics, and Tandem Computers.Historically, video game consoles such as the Nintendo 64, Sony PlayStation, PlayStation 2, and PlayStation Portable used MIPS processors.",
"MIPS processors also used to be popular in supercomputers during the 1990s, but all such systems have dropped off the TOP500 list.",
"These uses were complemented by embedded applications at first, but during the 1990s, MIPS became a major presence in the embedded processor market, and by the 2000s, most MIPS processors were for these applications.In the mid- to late-1990s, it was estimated that one in three RISC microprocessors produced was a MIPS processor.By the late 2010s, MIPS machines were still commonly used in embedded markets, including automotive, wireless router, LTE modems (mainly via MediaTek), and microcontrollers (for example the Microchip Technology PIC32M).",
"They have mostly faded out of the personal, server, and application space."
],
[
"Simulators",
"Open Virtual Platforms (OVP) includes the freely available for non-commercial use simulator OVPsim, a library of models of processors, peripherals and platforms, and APIs which enable users to develop their own models.",
"The models in the library are open source, written in C, and include the MIPS 4K, 24K, 34K, 74K, 1004K, 1074K, M14K, microAptiv, interAptiv, proAptiv 32-bit cores and the MIPS 64-bit 5K range of cores.",
"These models are created and maintained by Imperas and in partnership with MIPS Technologies have been tested and assigned the MIPS-Verified mark.",
"Sample MIPS-based platforms include both bare metal environments and platforms for booting unmodified Linux binary images.",
"These platforms–emulators are available as source or binaries and are fast, free for non-commercial usage, and are easy to use.",
"OVPsim is developed and maintained by Imperas and is very fast (hundreds of million of instructions per second), and built to handle multicore homogeneous and heterogeneous architectures and systems.There is a freely available MIPS32 simulator (earlier versions simulated only the R2000/R3000) called SPIM for use in education.",
"EduMIPS64 is a GPL graphical cross-platform MIPS64 CPU simulator, written in Java/Swing.",
"It supports a wide subset of the MIPS64 ISA and allows the user to graphically see what happens in the pipeline when an assembly program is run by the CPU.MARS is another GUI-based MIPS emulator designed for use in education, specifically for use with Hennessy's ''Computer Organization and Design''.WebMIPS is a browser-based MIPS simulator with visual representation of a generic, pipelined processor.",
"This simulator is quite useful for register tracking during step by step execution.QtMips provides simple 5-stages pipeline visualization as well as cache principle visualization for basic computer architectures courses.",
"Windows, Linux, macOS and online version is available.More advanced free emulators are available from the GXemul (formerly known as the mips64emul project) and QEMU projects.",
"These emulate the various MIPS III and IV microprocessors in addition to entire computer systems which use them.Commercial simulators are available especially for the embedded use of MIPS processors, for example Wind River Simics (MIPS 4Kc and 5Kc, PMC RM9000, QED RM7000, Broadcom/Netlogic ec4400, Cavium Octeon I), Imperas (all MIPS32 and MIPS64 cores), VaST Systems (R3000, R4000), and CoWare (the MIPS4KE, MIPS24K, MIPS25Kf and MIPS34K).The Creator simulator is portable and allows the user to learn various assembly languages of different processors (Creator has examples with an implementation of MIPS32 and RISC-V instructions).WepSIM is a browser-based simulator where a subset of MIPS instructions are micro-programmed.",
"This simulator is very useful in order to learn how a CPU works( microprogramming, MIPS routines, interruptions, system calls,etc.)"
],
[
"See also",
"* DLX* List of MIPS architecture processors* MIPS architecture processors* Pipeline (computing)* Prpl Foundation"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* MIPS Processors* * Online MIPS emulator* MIPS Instructions - MIPS Instruction Set"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Murder"
],
[
"Introduction",
"''Murder in the House'' by Jakub Schikaneder, 1890'''Murder''' is the unlawful killing of another human without justification or valid excuse committed with the necessary intention as defined by the law in a specific jurisdiction.",
"This state of mind may, depending upon the jurisdiction, distinguish murder from other forms of unlawful homicide, such as manslaughter.",
"Manslaughter is killing committed in the absence of ''malice'', such as in the case of voluntary manslaughter brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity.",
"''Involuntary'' manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, recklessness.Most societies consider murder to be an extremely serious crime, and thus believe that a person convicted of murder should receive harsh punishments for the purposes of retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, or incapacitation.",
"In most countries, a person convicted of murder generally faces a long-term prison sentence, a life sentence, or capital punishment."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The modern English word \"murder\" descends from the Proto-Indo-European ''*mŕ̥-trom'' which meant \"killing\", a noun derived from ''*mer-'' \"to die\".Proto-Germanic, in fact, had two nouns derived from this word, later merging into the modern English noun: ''*murþrą'' \"death, killing, murder\" (directly from Proto-Indo-European''*mŕ̥-trom''), whence Old English ''morðor'' \"secret or unlawful killing of a person, murder; mortal sin, crime; punishment, torment, misery\"; and ''*murþrijô'' \"murderer; homicide\" (from the verb ''*murþrijaną'' \"to murder\"), giving Old English ''myrþra'' \"homicide, murder; murderer\".",
"There was a third word for \"murder\" in Proto-Germanic, continuing Proto-Indo-European ''*mr̥tós'' \"dead\" (compare Latin ''mors''), giving Proto-Germanic ''*murþą'' \"death, killing, murder\" and Old English ''morþ'' \"death, crime, murder\" (compare German ''Mord'').The ''-d-'' first attested in Middle English ''mordre, mourdre, murder, murdre'' could have been influenced by Old French ''murdre'', itself derived from the Germanic noun via Frankish ''*murþra'' (compare Old High German ''murdreo, murdiro''), though the same sound development can be seen with ''burden'' (from ''burthen'').",
"The alternative ''murther'' (attested up to the 19th century) springs directly from the Old English forms.",
"Middle English ''mordre'' is a verb from Anglo-Saxon ''myrðrian'' from Proto-Germanic ''*murþrijaną'', or, according to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', from the noun."
],
[
"Use of the term",
"In many countries, out of concern for being accused of defamation, journalists are generally careful not to identify a suspect as a murderer until the suspect is convicted of murder in a court of law.",
"After arrest, for example, journalists may instead write that the person was \"arrested on suspicion of murder\", or, after a prosecutor files charges, as an \"accused murderer\".Opponents of abortion consider abortion a form of murder.",
"In some countries, a fetus is a legal person who can be murdered, and killing a pregnant woman is considered a double homicide."
],
[
"Definition",
"The eighteenth-century English jurist William Blackstone (citing Edward Coke), in his ''Commentaries on the Laws of England'' set out the common law definition of murder, which by this definition occurs At common law, murder was normally punishable by death.The elements of common law murder are:* unlawful* killing* through criminal act or omission* of a human* by another human* intentional killing* with malice aforethought.",
"* ''Unlawful'' – This distinguishes murder from killings that are done within the boundaries of law, such as capital punishment, justified self-defense, or the killing of enemy combatants by lawful combatants as well as causing collateral damage to non-combatants during a war.",
"* ''Killing'' – At common law life ended with cardiopulmonary arrest – the total and irreversible cessation of blood circulation and respiration.",
"With advances in medical technology courts have adopted irreversible cessation of all brain function as marking the end of life.",
"* ''Criminal act or omission'' – Killing can be committed by an act or an omission.",
"* ''Of a human'' – This element presents the issue of when life begins.",
"At common law, a fetus was not a human being.",
"Life began when the fetus passed through the vagina and took its first breath.",
"* ''By another human'' – In early common law, suicide was considered murder.",
"The requirement that the person killed be someone other than the perpetrator excluded suicide from the definition of murder.",
"* ''With malice aforethought'' – Originally ''malice aforethought'' carried its everyday meaning – a deliberate and premeditated (prior intent) killing of another motivated by ill will.",
"Murder necessarily required that an appreciable time pass between the formation and execution of the intent to kill.",
"The courts broadened the scope of murder by eliminating the requirement of actual premeditation and deliberation as well as true malice.",
"All that was required for malice aforethought to exist is that the perpetrator act with one of the four states of mind that constitutes \"malice\".In contrast with manslaughter, murder requires the mental element known as malice aforethought.",
"Mitigating factors that weigh against a finding of intent to kill, such as \"loss of control\" or \"diminished responsibility\", may result in the reduction of a murder charge to voluntary manslaughter.The four states of mind recognised as constituting \"malice\" are:Under state of mind (i), intent to kill, the ''deadly weapon rule'' applies.",
"Thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorises a permissive inference of intent to kill.",
"Examples of deadly weapons and instruments include but are not limited to guns, knives, deadly toxins or chemicals or gases and even vehicles when intentionally used to harm one or more victims.Under state of mind (iii), an \"abandoned and malignant heart\", the killing must result from the defendant's conduct involving a reckless indifference to human life and a conscious disregard of an unreasonable risk of death or serious bodily injury.",
"In Australian jurisdictions, the unreasonable risk must amount to a foreseen probability of death (or grievous bodily harm in most states), as opposed to possibility.Under state of mind (iv), the felony-murder doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony, such as burglary, arson, rape, robbery or kidnapping.",
"Importantly, the underlying felony ''cannot'' be a lesser included offense such as assault, otherwise all criminal homicides would be murder as all are felonies.In Spanish criminal law, ''asesinato'' (literally 'assassination'): takes place when any of these requirements concur: Treachery (the use of means to avoid risk for the aggressor or to ensure that the crime goes unpunished), price or reward (financial gain) or viciousness (deliberately increasing the pain of the victim).",
"After the last reform of the Spanish Criminal Code, in force since July 1, 2015, another circumstance that turns homicide (''homicidio'') into assassination is the desire to facilitate the commission of another crime or to prevent it from being discovered.As with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in some form of legislation.",
"Even when the legal distinction between murder and manslaughter is clear, it is not unknown for a jury to find a murder defendant guilty of the lesser offense.",
"The jury might sympathize with the defendant (e.g.",
"in a crime of passion, or in the case of a bullied victim who kills their tormentor), and the jury may wish to protect the defendant from a sentence of life imprisonment or execution.=== Degrees ===Some jurisdictions divide murder by degrees.",
"The distinction between first- and second-degree murder exists, for example, in Canadian murder law and U.S. murder law.",
"Some US states maintain the offense of capital murder.The most common division is between first- and second-degree murder.",
"Generally, second-degree murder is common law murder, and first-degree is an aggravated form.",
"The aggravating factors of first-degree murder depend on the jurisdiction, but may include a specific intent to kill, premeditation, or deliberation.",
"In some, murders committed by acts such as strangulation, poisoning, or lying in wait are also treated as first-degree murder.",
"A few states in the U.S. further distinguish third-degree murder, but they differ significantly in which kinds of murders they classify as second-degree versus third-degree.",
"For example, Minnesota defines third-degree murder as depraved-heart murder, whereas Florida defines third-degree murder as felony murder (except when the underlying felony is specifically listed in the definition of first-degree murder).Some jurisdictions also distinguish premeditated murder.",
"This is the crime of wrongfully and intentionally causing the death of another human being (also known as murder) after rationally considering the timing or method of doing so, in order to either increase the likelihood of success, or to evade detection or apprehension.",
"State laws in the United States vary as to definitions of \"premeditation\".",
"In some states, premeditation may be construed as taking place mere seconds before the murder.",
"Premeditated murder is one of the most serious forms of homicide, and is punished more severely than manslaughter or other types of homicide, often with a life sentence without the possibility of parole, or in some countries, the death penalty.",
"In the U.S., federal law () criminalizes premeditated murder, felony murder and second-degree murder committed under situations where federal jurisdiction applies.",
"In Canada, the criminal code classifies murder as either first- or second-degree.",
"The former type of murder is often called premeditated murder, although premeditation is not the only way murder can be classified as first-degree.",
"In the Netherlands, the traditional strict distinction between premeditated intentional killing (classed as murder, ''moord'') and non-premeditated intentional killing (manslaughter, ''doodslag'') is maintained; when differentiating between murder and manslaughter, the only relevant factor is the existence or not of premeditation (rather than the existence or not of mitigating or aggravated factors).",
"Manslaughter (non-premeditated intentional killing) with aggravating factors is punished more severely, but it is not classified as murder, because murder is an offense which always requires premeditation.===Common law===According to Blackstone, English common law identified murder as a ''public wrong''.",
"According to common law, murder is considered to be ''malum in se'', that is, an act which is evil within itself.",
"An act such as murder is wrong or evil by its very nature, and it is the very nature of the act which does not require any specific detailing or definition in the law to consider murder a crime.Some jurisdictions still take a common law view of murder.",
"In such jurisdictions, what is considered to be murder is defined by precedent case law or previous decisions of the courts of law.",
"However, although the common law is by nature flexible and adaptable, in the interests both of certainty and of securing convictions, most common law jurisdictions have codified their criminal law and now have statutory definitions of murder.===Exclusions=======General====Although laws vary by country, there are circumstances of exclusion that are common in many legal systems.",
"* The killing of enemy combatants who have not surrendered, when committed by lawful combatants in accordance with lawful orders in war, is generally not considered murder.",
"Illicit killings within a war may constitute murder or homicidal war crimes; see Laws of war.",
"* Self-defense: acting in self-defense or in defense of another person is generally accepted as legal justification for killing a person in situations that would otherwise have been murder.",
"However, a self-defense killing might be considered manslaughter if the killer established control of the situation before the killing took place, such as imperfect self-defense.",
"In the case of self-defense, it is called a \"justifiable homicide\".",
"* Unlawful killings without malice or intent are considered manslaughter.",
"* In many common law countries, provocation is a partial defense to a charge of murder which acts by converting what would otherwise have been murder into manslaughter (this is voluntary manslaughter, which is more severe than involuntary manslaughter).",
"* Accidental killings are considered homicides.",
"Depending on the circumstances, these may or may not be considered criminal offenses; they are often considered manslaughter.",
"* Suicide does not constitute murder in most societies.",
"Assisting a suicide, however, may be considered murder in some circumstances.====Specific to certain countries====* Capital punishment: some countries practice the death penalty.",
"Capital punishment may be ordered by a legitimate court of law as the result of a conviction in a criminal trial with due process for a serious crime.",
"All member states of the Council of Europe are prohibited from using the death penalty.",
"* Euthanasia, doctor-assisted suicide: the administration of lethal drugs by a doctor to a terminally ill patient, if the intention is solely to alleviate pain, in many jurisdictions it is seen as a special case (see the doctrine of double effect and the case of Dr John Bodkin Adams).",
"* Killing to prevent the theft of one's property may be legal under certain circumstances, depending on the jurisdiction.",
"In 2013, a jury in south Texas acquitted a man who killed a sex worker who attempted to run away with his money.",
"* Killing an intruder who is found by an owner to be in the owner's home (having entered unlawfully): legal in most US states (see Castle doctrine).",
"* Killing to prevent specific forms of aggravated rape or sexual assault – killing of attacker by the potential victim or by witnesses to the scene; legal in parts of the US and in various other countries.",
"* In some countries, the killing for what are considered reasons connected to family honor, usually involving killing due to sexual, religious or caste reasons (known as honor killing), committed frequently by a husband, father or male relative of the victim, is not considered murder; it may not be considered a criminal act or it may be considered a criminal offense other than murder.",
"International law, including the Istanbul Convention (the first legally binding convention against domestic violence and violence against women) prohibits these types of killings (see Article 42 – Unacceptable justifications for crimes, including crimes committed in the name of so-called honor).",
"* In the United States, in most states and in federal jurisdiction, a killing by a police officer is excluded from prosecution if the officer reasonably believes they are being threatened with deadly force by the victim.",
"This may include such actions by the victim as reaching into a glove compartment or pocket for license and registration, if the officer reasonably believes that the victim might be reaching for a gun.===Victim===All jurisdictions require that the victim be a natural person; that is, a human being who was still alive before being murdered.",
"In other words, under the law one cannot murder a corpse, a corporation, a non-human animal, or any other non-human organism such as a plant or bacterium.California's murder statute, penal code section 187, expressly mentioned a fetus as being capable of being killed, and was interpreted by the Supreme Court of California in 1994 as not requiring any proof of the viability of the fetus as a prerequisite to a murder conviction.",
"This holding has two implications.",
"Firstly, a defendant in California can be convicted of murder for killing a fetus which the mother herself could have terminated without committing a crime.",
"And secondly, as stated by Justice Stanley Mosk in his dissent, because women carrying nonviable fetuses may not be visibly pregnant, it may be possible for a defendant to be convicted of intentionally murdering a person they did not know existed.===Mitigating circumstances===Some countries allow conditions that \"affect the balance of the mind\" to be regarded as mitigating circumstances.",
"This means that a person may be found guilty of \"manslaughter\" on the basis of \"diminished responsibility\" rather than being found guilty of murder, if it can be proved that the killer was suffering from a condition that affected their judgment at the time.",
"Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and medication side-effects are examples of conditions that may be taken into account when assessing responsibility.====Insanity====Mental disorder may apply to a wide range of disorders including psychosis caused by schizophrenia and dementia, and excuse the person from the need to undergo the stress of a trial as to liability.",
"Usually, sociopathy and other personality disorders are not legally considered insanity.",
"In some jurisdictions, following the pre-trial hearing to determine the extent of the disorder, the defense of \"not guilty by reason of insanity\" may be used to get a not guilty verdict.",
"This defense has two elements:* That the defendant had a serious mental illness, disease, or defect* That the defendant's mental condition, at the time of the killing, rendered the perpetrator unable to determine right from wrong, or that what they were doing was wrongAaron Alexis holding a shotgun during his rampageUnder New York law, for example:Under the French Penal Code:Those who successfully argue a defense based on a mental disorder are usually referred to mandatory clinical treatment until they are certified safe to be released back into the community, rather than prison.====Postpartum depression====Postpartum depression (also known as post-natal depression) is recognized in some countries as a mitigating factor in cases of infanticide.",
"According to Susan Friedman, \"Two dozen nations have infanticide laws that decrease the penalty for mothers who kill their children of up to one year of age.",
"The United States does not have such a law, but mentally ill mothers may plead not guilty by reason of insanity.\"",
"In the law of the Republic of Ireland, infanticide was made a separate crime from murder in 1949, applicable for the mother of a baby under one year old where \"the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child or by reason of the effect of lactation consequent upon the birth of the child\".",
"Since independence, death sentences for murder in such cases had always been commuted; the new act was intended \"to eliminate all the terrible ritual of the black cap and the solemn words of the judge pronouncing sentence of death in those cases ... where it is clear to the Court and to everybody, except perhaps the unfortunate accused, that the sentence will never be carried out.\"",
"In Russia, murder of a newborn child by the mother has been a separate crime since 1996.====Unintentional====For a killing to be considered murder in nine out of fifty states in the US, there normally needs to be an element of intent.",
"A defendant may argue that they took precautions not to kill, that the death could not have been anticipated, or was unavoidable.",
"As a general rule, manslaughter constitutes reckless killing, but manslaughter also includes criminally negligent (i.e.",
"grossly negligent) homicide.",
"Unintentional killing that results from an involuntary action generally cannot constitute murder.",
"After examining the evidence, a judge or jury (depending on the jurisdiction) would determine whether the killing was intentional or unintentional.====Diminished capacity====In jurisdictions using the Uniform Penal Code, such as California, diminished capacity may be a defense.",
"For example, Dan White used this defense to obtain a manslaughter conviction, instead of murder, in the assassination of Mayor George Moscone and Supervisor Harvey Milk.",
"Afterward, California amended its penal code to provide \"As a matter of public policy there shall be no defense of diminished capacity, diminished responsibility, or irresistible impulse in a criminal action....\"===Aggravating circumstances===Murder with specified aggravating circumstances is often punished more harshly.",
"Depending on the jurisdiction, such circumstances may include:* Premeditation* Poisoning* Lying in wait* Murder of a child* Murder committed during sexual assault* Murder committed during kidnapping* Multiple murders committed within one criminal transaction or in different transactions as part of one broader scheme* Murder of a police officer, judge, firefighter or witness to a crime* Murder of a pregnant woman* Crime committed for pay or other reward, such as contract killing* Exceptional brutality or cruelty, torture murder* Murder committed by an offender previously convicted of murder* Methods which are dangerous to the public e.g.",
"explosion, arson, shooting in a crowd etc.",
"* Murder for a political cause* Murder committed in order to conceal another crime or facilitate its commission.",
"* Murder committed in order to obtain material gain, for example to obtain an inheritance* Hate crimes, which occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of their perceived membership in a certain social group.",
"* Treachery (e.g.",
"''Heimtücke'' in German law)In the United States and Canada, these murders are referred to as first-degree or aggravated murders.",
"Under English criminal law, murder always carries a mandatory life sentence, but is not classified into degrees.",
"Penalties for murder committed under aggravating circumstances are often higher under English law than the 15-year minimum non-parole period that otherwise serves as a starting point for a murder committed by an adult.===Felony murder rule===A legal doctrine in some common law jurisdictions broadens the crime of murder: when an offender kills in the commission of a dangerous crime, (regardless of intent), he or she is guilty of murder.",
"The felony murder rule is often justified by its supporters as a means of preventing dangerous felonies, but the case of Ryan Holle shows it can be used very widely.===Year-and-a-day rule===In some common law jurisdictions, a defendant accused of murder is not guilty if the victim survives for longer than one year and one day after the attack.",
"This reflects the likelihood that if the victim dies, other factors will have contributed to the cause of death, breaking the chain of causation; and also means that the responsible person does not have a charge of murder \"hanging over their head indefinitely\".",
"Subject to any statute of limitations, the accused could still be charged with an offense reflecting the seriousness of the initial assault.With advances in modern medicine, most countries have abandoned a fixed time period and test causation on the facts of the case.",
"This is known as \"delayed death\" and cases where this was applied or was attempted to be applied go back to at least 1966.In England and Wales, the \"year-and-a-day rule\" was abolished by the Law Reform (Year and a Day Rule) Act 1996.However, if death occurs three years or more after the original attack then prosecution can take place only with the attorney-general's approval.In the United States, many jurisdictions have abolished the rule as well.",
"Abolition of the rule has been accomplished by enactment of statutory criminal codes, which had the effect of displacing the common-law definitions of crimes and corresponding defenses.",
"In 2001 the Supreme Court of the United States held that retroactive application of a state supreme court decision abolishing the year-and-a-day rule did not violate the Ex Post Facto Clause of Article I of the United States Constitution.The potential effect of fully abolishing the rule can be seen in the case of 74-year-old William Barnes, charged with the murder of a Philadelphia police officer Walter T. Barclay Jr., who he had shot nearly 41 years previously.",
"Barnes had served 16 years in prison for attempting to murder Barkley, but when the policeman died on August 19, 2007, this was alleged to be from complications of the wounds suffered from the shooting – and Barnes was charged with his murder.",
"He was acquitted on May 24, 2010."
],
[
"Contributing factors",
"According to Peter Morrall, the motivations for murder fit into the following 4 categories:* ''Lust:'' The murderer seeks to kill rivals to obtain objects of their sexual desire* ''Love:'' The murderer seeks to \"mercy kill\" a loved one with a major deformity or an incurable illness.",
"* ''Loathing:'' The murderer seeks to kill a loathed person (such as an abusive parent) or members of a loathed group or culture.",
"* ''Loot:'' The murderer seeks some form of financial gain.Morall takes a biological view of offending when he insists the risk factors that may increase the chance that somebody will commit a murder include:* Testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, is correlated with competitive and assertive behaviour.",
"* Reduction in serotonin increases likelihood of impulsive hostile behaviour.",
"* Alteration in the breakdown of glucose appears to affect mood and behaviour.",
"* Hyperglycemia and Hypoglycemia can both lead to aggression.",
"* Consumption of alcohol can lead to reduced self control.",
"* Environmental pollutants circulating in the body are linked to heightened aggression.",
"* Malnutrition from eating too much junk food can provoke aggressive behaviour and even murder.Parker argues that seven motives that explain homicides are anger, concealment, jealousy, revenge, love and gain.Certain personality disorders are associated with an increased homicide rate, most notably narcissistic, anti-social, and histrionic personality disorders and those associated with psychopathology.Several studies have shown that there is a correlation between murder rates and poverty.",
"A 2000 study showed that regions of the state of São Paulo in Brazil with lower income also had higher rates of murder."
],
[
"Religious attitudes",
"=== Abrahamic context ===Thugs strangling a traveller on a highway in the early 19th centuryIn the Abrahamic religions, the first ever murder was committed by Cain against his brother Abel out of jealousy.",
"In the past, certain types of homicide were lawful and justified.",
"Georg Oesterdiekhoff wrote:In many such societies the redress was not via a legal system, but by blood revenge, although there might also be a form of payment that could be made instead—such as the weregild which in early Germanic society could be paid to the victim's family in lieu of their right of revenge.One of the oldest-known prohibitions against murder appears in the Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu written sometime between 2100 and 2050 BC.",
"The code states, \"If a man commits a murder, that man must be killed.",
"\"=== Judaism and Christianity ===The prohibition against murder is one of the Ten Commandments given by God to Moses in Exodus and Deuteronomy , which are part of the scripture for both Jews and Christians.=== In Islam ===In Islam according to the Qur'an, one of the greatest sins is to kill a human being who has committed no fault.",
"\"Do not take a ˹human˺ life—made sacred by Allah—except with ˹legal˺ right.\"",
"\"That is why We ordained for the Children of Israel that whoever takes a life—unless as a punishment for murder or mischief in the land—it will be as if they killed all of humanity; and whoever saves a life, it will be as if they saved all of humanity.\"",
"\"˹They are˺ those who do not invoke any other god besides Allah, nor take a ˹human˺ life—made sacred by Allah—except with ˹legal˺ right,1 nor commit fornication.",
"And whoever does ˹any of˺ this will face the penalty.\""
],
[
"Historical attitudes",
"The term ''assassin'' derives from Hashshashin, a militant Ismaili Shi'ite sect, active from the 8th to 14th centuries.",
"This mystic secret society killed members of the Abbasid, Fatimid, Seljuq and Crusader elite for political and religious reasons.",
"The Thuggee cult that plagued India was devoted to Kali, the goddess of death and destruction.",
"According to some estimates the Thuggees murdered 1 million people between 1740 and 1840.The Aztecs believed that without regular offerings of blood the sun god Huitzilopochtli would withdraw his support for them and destroy the world as they knew it.",
"According to Ross Hassig, author of ''Aztec Warfare'', \"between 10,000 and 80,400 persons\" were sacrificed in the 1487 re-consecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan.",
"Japanese samurai had the right to strike with their sword at anyone of a lower class who compromised their honour.=== Slavery ===Southern slave codes did make willful killing of a slave illegal in most cases.",
"For example, the 1860 Mississippi case of ''Oliver v. State'' charged the defendant with murdering his own slave.",
"In 1811, the wealthy white planter Arthur Hodge was hanged for murdering several of his slaves on his plantation in the Virgin Islands.=== Honor killings in Corsica ===In Corsica, vendetta was a social code that required Corsicans to kill anyone who wronged their family honor.",
"Between 1821 and 1852, no fewer than 4,300 murders were perpetrated in Corsica."
],
[
"Incidence",
" International murder rate per 100,000 inhabitants, 2011 The World Health Organization reported in October 2002 that a person is murdered every 60 seconds.",
"An estimated 520,000 people were murdered in 2000 around the globe.",
"Another study estimated the worldwide murder rate at 456,300 in 2010 with a 35% increase since 1990.Two-fifths of them were young people between the ages of 10 and 29 who were killed by other young people.",
"Because murder is the least likely crime to go unreported, statistics of murder are seen as a bellwether of overall crime rates.===Historical variation===Intentional homicide rate per 100,000 inhabitants, 2009According to scholar Pieter Spierenburg homicide rates per 100,000 in Europe have fallen over the centuries, from 35 per 100,000 in medieval times, to 20 in 1500 AD, 5 in 1700, to below two per 100,000 in 1900.In the United States, murder rates have been higher and have fluctuated.",
"They fell below 2 per 100,000 by 1900, rose during the first half of the century, dropped in the years following World War II, and bottomed out at 4.0 in 1957 before rising again.",
"The rate stayed in 9 to 10 range most of the period from 1972 to 1994, before falling to 5 in present times.",
"The increase since 1957 would have been even greater if not for the significant improvements in medical techniques and emergency response times, which mean that more and more attempted homicide victims survive.",
"According to one estimate, if the lethality levels of criminal assaults of 1964 still applied in 1993, the country would have seen the murder rate of around 26 per 100,000, almost triple the actually observed rate of 9.5 per 100,000.The historical homicide rate in Stockholm since 1400 AD.",
"The murder rate was very high in the Middle Ages.",
"The rate has declined greatly: from 45/100,000 to a low of 0.6 in the 1950s.",
"The last decades have seen the homicide rate rise slowly.A similar, but less pronounced pattern has been seen in major European countries as well.",
"The murder rate in the United Kingdom fell to 1 per 100,000 by the beginning of the 20th century and as low as 0.62 per 100,000 in 1960, and was at 1.28 per 100,000 .",
"The murder rate in France (excluding Corsica) bottomed out after World War II at less than 0.4 per 100,000, quadrupling to 1.6 per 100,000 since then.The specific factors driving these dynamics in murder rates are complex and not universally agreed upon.",
"Much of the raise in the U.S. murder rate during the first half of the 20th century is generally thought to be attributed to gang violence associated with Prohibition.",
"Since most murders are committed by young males, the near simultaneous low in the murder rates of major developed countries circa 1960 can be attributed to low birth rates during the Great Depression and World War II.",
"Causes of further moves are more controversial.",
"Some of the more exotic factors claimed to affect murder rates include the availability of abortion and the likelihood of chronic exposure to lead during childhood (due to the use of leaded paint in houses and tetraethyllead as a gasoline additive in internal combustion engines).===Rates by country===Murder rates vary greatly among countries and societies around the world.",
"In the Western world, murder rates in most countries have declined significantly during the 20th century and are now between 1 and 4 cases per 100,000 people per year.",
"Latin America and the Caribbean, the region with the highest murder rate in the world, experienced more than 2.5 million murders between 2000 and 2017.UNODC: Per 100,000 population (2011)Murder rates in jurisdictions such as Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Iceland, Switzerland, Italy, Spain and Germany are among the lowest in the world, around 0.3–1 cases per 100,000 people per year; the rate of the United States is among the highest of developed countries, around 4.5 in 2014, with rates in larger cities sometimes over 40 per 100,000.The top ten highest murder rates are in Honduras (91.6 per 100,000), El Salvador, Ivory Coast, Venezuela, Belize, Jamaica, U.S. Virgin Islands, Guatemala, Saint Kitts and Nevis and Zambia.",
"(UNODC, 2011 – full table here).The following absolute murder counts per-country are not comparable because they are not adjusted by each country's total population.",
"Nonetheless, they are included here for reference, with 2010 used as the base year (they may or may not include justifiable homicide, depending on the jurisdiction).",
"There were 52,260 murders in Brazil, consecutively elevating the record set in 2009.Over half a million people were shot to death in Brazil between 1979 and 2003.33,335 murder cases were registered across India, approximately 17,000 murders in Colombia (the murder rate was 38 per 100,000 people, in 2008 murders went down to 15,000), approximately 16,000 murders in South Africa, approximately 15,000 murders in the United States, approximately 26,000 murders in Mexico, about 8,000 murders committed in Russia, approximately 13,000 murders in Venezuela, approximately 4,000 murders in El Salvador, approximately 1,400 murders in Jamaica, approximately 550 murders in Canada and approximately 470 murders in Trinidad and Tobago.",
"Pakistan reported 12,580 murders.==== United States ====The Lake Bodom murders in Espoo, Finland is the most famous unsolved homicide case in Finnish criminal history.",
"The tent is investigated immediately after the murders in 1960.The scene of a murder in Rio de Janeiro.",
"More than 800,000 people were murdered in Brazil between 1980 and 2004.In the United States, 666,160 people were killed between 1960 and 1996.Approximately 90% of murders in the US are committed by males.",
"Between 1976 and 2005, 23.5% of all murder victims and 64.8% of victims murdered by intimate partners were female.",
"For women in the US, homicide is the leading cause of death in the workplace.In the US, murder is the leading cause of death for African American males aged 15 to 34.Between 1976 and 2008, African Americans were victims of 329,825 homicides.",
"In 2006, Federal Bureau of Investigation's Supplementary Homicide Report indicated that nearly half of the 14,990 murder victims that year were Black (7421).",
"In the year 2007, there were 3,221 black victims and 3,587 white victims of non-negligent homicides.",
"While 2,905 of the black victims were killed by a black offender, 2,918 of the white victims were killed by white offenders.",
"There were 566 white victims of black offenders and 245 black victims of white offenders.",
"The \"white\" category in the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) includes non-black Hispanics.",
"Murder demographics are affected by the improvement of trauma care, which has resulted in reduced lethality of violent assaults – thus the murder rate may not necessarily indicate the overall level of social violence.Workplace homicide, which tripled during the 1980s, is the fastest growing category of murder in America.Development of murder rates over time in different countries is often used by both supporters and opponents of capital punishment and gun control.",
"Using properly filtered data, it is possible to make the case for or against either of these issues.",
"For example, one could look at murder rates in the United States from 1950 to 2000, and notice that those rates went up sharply shortly after a moratorium on death sentences was effectively imposed in the late 1960s.",
"This fact has been used to argue that capital punishment serves as a deterrent and, as such, it is morally justified.",
"Capital punishment opponents frequently counter that the United States has much higher murder rates than Canada and most European Union countries, although all those countries have abolished the death penalty.",
"Overall, the global pattern is too complex, and on average, the influence of both these factors may not be significant and could be more social, economic, and cultural.Despite the immense improvements in forensics in the past few decades, the fraction of murders solved has decreased in the United States, from 90% in 1960 to 61% in 2007.Solved murder rates in major U.S. cities varied in 2007 from 36% in Boston, Massachusetts to 76% in San Jose, California.",
"Major factors affecting the arrest rate include witness cooperation and the number of people assigned to investigate the case."
],
[
"Investigation",
"The success rate of criminal investigations into murders (the clearance rate) tends to be relatively high for murder compared to other crimes, due to its seriousness.",
"In the United States, the clearance rate was 62.6% in 2004."
],
[
"See also",
"===Related lists===* Lists of murders* List of types of killing** Axe murder* List of unsolved deaths===Related topics===* Child murder* Culpable homicide* Depraved-heart murder* Double murder* Letting die* Mass murder* Misdemeanor murder* Murder conviction without a body* Seven laws of Noah* Stigmatized property* Thrill killing* Capital murder* Assassination, the murder of a prominent person, such as a head of state or head of government.===Laws by country===* Australia* Brazil* Canada* China* Cuba* Denmark* England and Wales* Finland* France* Germany* Hong Kong* India* Israel* Italy* Netherlands* Northern Ireland* Norway* Peru* Portugal* Romania* Russia* Sweden* Switzerland* United States"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* Lord Mustill on the Common Law concerning murder* Sir Edward Coke Co.",
"Inst., Pt.",
"III, ch.7, p. 50"
],
[
"External links",
"* Introduction and Updated Information on the Seville Statement on Violence* The Seville Statement* Atlas of United States Mortality – U.S. Centers for Disease Control* Cezanne's depiction of \"The Murder\" – National Museums Liverpool"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mariner program"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Launch of Mariner 1 in 1962The '''Mariner program''' was conducted by the American space agency NASA to explore other planets.",
"Between 1962 and late 1973, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) designed and built 10 robotic interplanetary probes named Mariner to explore the inner Solar System - visiting the planets Venus, Mars and Mercury for the first time, and returning to Venus and Mars for additional close observations.The program included a number of interplanetary firsts, including the first planetary flyby, the planetary orbiter, and the first gravity assist maneuver.",
"Of the 10 vehicles in the Mariner series, seven were successful, forming the starting point for many subsequent NASA/JPL space probe programs.",
"The planned Mariner Jupiter-Saturn vehicles were adapted into the Voyager program, while the Viking program orbiters were enlarged versions of the Mariner 9 spacecraft.",
"Later Mariner-based spacecraft include Galileo and Magellan, while the second-generation Mariner Mark II series evolved into the Cassini–Huygens probe.The total cost of the Mariner program was approximately $554 million."
],
[
"Early concept",
"The Mariner program began in 1960 with a series of JPL mission studies for small-scale, frequent exploration of the nearest planets.",
"They were to take advantage of the soon-to-be-available Atlas launch vehicles as well as the developing capability of JPL’s Deep Space Instrumentation Facility (later named the Deep Space Network), a global network of ground stations designed to communicate with spacecraft in deep space.",
"The name of the Mariner program was decided in \"May 1960-at the suggestion of Edgar M. Cortright\" to have the \"planetary mission probes ... patterned after nautical terms, to convey 'the impression of travel to great distances and remote lands.'\"",
"That \"decision was the basis for naming Mariner, Ranger, Surveyor, and Viking probes.",
"\"Each spacecraft was to carry solar panels that would be pointed toward the Sun and a dish antenna that would be pointed at Earth.",
"Each would also carry a host of scientific instruments.",
"Some of the instruments, such as cameras, would need to be pointed at the target body it was studying.",
"Other instruments were non-directional and studied phenomena such as magnetic fields and charged particles.",
"JPL engineers proposed to make the Mariners \"three-axis-stabilized,\" meaning that unlike other space probes they would not spin.Each of the Mariner projects was designed to have two spacecraft launched on separate rockets, in case of difficulties with the nearly untried launch vehicles.",
"Mariner 1, Mariner 3, and Mariner 8 were in fact lost during launch, but their backups were successful.",
"No Mariners were lost in later flight to their destination planets or before completing their scientific missions."
],
[
"Basic layout",
"William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, presents a Mariner 2 spacecraft model to President John F. Kennedy in 1963.NASA Administrator James Webb is standing directly behind the Mariner model.All Mariner spacecraft were based on a hexagonal or octagonal bus, which housed all of the electronics, and to which all components were attached, such as antennae, cameras, propulsion, and power sources.",
"Mariner 2 was based on the Ranger Lunar probe.",
"All of the Mariners launched after Mariner 2 had four solar panels for power, except for Mariner 10, which had two.",
"Additionally, all except Mariner 1, Mariner 2 and Mariner 5 had TV cameras.The first five Mariners were launched on Atlas-Agena rockets, while the last five used the Atlas-Centaur.",
"All Mariner-based probes after Mariner 10 used the Titan IIIE, Titan IV uncrewed rockets or the Space Shuttle with a solid-fueled Inertial Upper Stage and multiple planetary flybys."
],
[
"Mariners",
"The Mariners were all relatively small robotic explorers, each launched on an Atlas rocket with either an Agena or Centaur upper-stage booster, and weighing less than half a ton (without onboard rocket propellant).",
"Each of their missions was completed within a few months to a year or two, though one of them outlived its original mission and continued to send useful scientific data for three years.",
"Spacecraft Mass Carrier rocket Launch date Last contact Destination Mission Outcome Remarks Mariner 1(P-37) Atlas-LV3 Agena-B (destroyed) Venus Flyby Failed to orbit; destroyed by range safety following guidance failure Mariner 2(P-38) 203 kg(446 lb) Atlas-LV3 Agena-B 7:00 UT Venus Flyby First flyby of Venus with data returned, on 14 December 1962.A copy of Mariner 1.Mariner 3 Atlas LV-3 Agena-D Mars Flyby Payload fairing failed to separate Mariner 4 261 kg(575 lb) Atlas LV-3 Agena-D Mars Flyby First flyby of Mars, on 15 July 1965.A copy of Mariner 3.Mariner 5 245 kg(540 lb) Atlas SLV-3 Agena-D (Briefly regained 14 October 1968) Venus Flyby Flyby on 19 October 1967, closest approach at 17:34:56 UTC.",
"Designed to measure magnetic fields and various emissions of the Venusian atmosphere.",
"Mariner 6 413 kg(908 lb) December 23, 1970(decommissioned) Mars Flyby Dual mission Mariner 7 413 kg(908 lb) Atlas SLV-3C Centaur-D December 28, 1970(decommissioned) Mars Flyby Mariner 8 Atlas SLV-3C Centaur-D (destroyed) Mars Orbiter One of two probes designed to orbit Mars and return images and data.",
"Lost in a vehicle malfunction.",
"Mariner 9 998 kg(2,200 lb) Atlas SLV-3C Centaur-D Mars Orbiter First orbiter of Mars.",
"Entered orbit on 14 November 1971, deactivated 516 days later.",
"A copy of Mariner 8.Mariner 10 433 kg(952 lb) Atlas SLV-3D Centaur-D1A Venus, Mercury Flyby First flyby of Mercury and the last Mariner probe launched"
],
[
"Mariners 1 and 2",
"Mariner 2Diagram of Mariner 1 and 2 with Atlas-Agena launch vehicleMariner 1 (P-37) and Mariner 2 (P-38) were two deep-space probes making up NASA's Mariner-R project.",
"The primary goal of the project was to develop and launch two spacecraft sequentially to the near vicinity of Venus, receive communications from the spacecraft and to perform radiometric temperature measurements of the planet.",
"A secondary objective was to make interplanetary magnetic field and/or particle measurements on the way to, and in the vicinity of, Venus.",
"Mariner 1 (designated Mariner R-1) was launched on July 22, 1962, but was destroyed approximately 5 minutes after liftoff by the Air Force Range Safety Officer when its malfunctioning Atlas-Agena rocket went off course.",
"Mariner 2 (designated Mariner R-2) was launched on August 27, 1962, sending it on a 3½-month flight to Venus.",
"The mission was a success, and Mariner 2 became the first spacecraft to have flown by another planet.On the way it measured for the first time the solar wind, a constant stream of charged particles flowing outward from the Sun.",
"It also measured interplanetary dust, which turned out to be more scarce than predicted.",
"In addition, Mariner 2 detected high-energy charged particles coming from the Sun, including several brief solar flares, as well as cosmic rays from outside the Solar System.",
"As it flew by Venus on December 14, 1962, Mariner 2 scanned the planet with infrared and microwave radiometers, revealing that Venus has cool clouds and an extremely hot surface (because the bright, opaque clouds hide the planet’s surface, Mariner 2 was not outfitted with a camera).",
"* Mission: Venus flyby* Mass: 203 kg (446 lb)* Sensors: microwave and infrared radiometers, cosmic dust, solar plasma and high-energy radiation, magnetic fieldsStatus:* Mariner 1 – Destroyed shortly after liftoff.",
"* Mariner 2 – Defunct after successful mission, occupies a heliocentric orbit."
],
[
"Mariners 3 and 4",
"Mariner 3/4Sisterships Mariner 3 and Mariner 4 were Mars flyby missions.Mariner 3 was launched on November 5, 1964, but the shroud encasing the spacecraft atop its rocket failed to open properly and Mariner 3 did not get to Mars.Mariner 4, launched on November 28, 1964, was the first successful flyby of the planet Mars and gave the first glimpse of Mars at close range.",
"The spacecraft flew past Mars on July 14, 1965, collecting the first close-up photographs of another planet.",
"The pictures, played back from a small tape recorder over a long period, showed lunar-type impact craters (just beginning to be photographed at close range from the Moon), some of them touched with frost in the chill Martian evening.",
"The Mariner 4 spacecraft, expected to survive something more than the eight months to Mars encounter, actually lasted about three years in solar orbit, continuing long-term studies of the solar wind environment and making coordinated measurements with Mariner 5, a sister ship launched to Venus in 1967.",
"* Mission: Mars flyby* Mass: 261 kg (575 lb)* Sensors: camera with digital tape recorder (about 20 pictures), cosmic dust, solar plasma, trapped radiation, cosmic rays, magnetic fields, radio occultation and celestial mechanicsStatus:* Mariner 3 – Malfunctioned.",
"Derelict in heliocentric orbit.",
"* Mariner 4 – Communications lost after bombardment by micrometeoroids.",
"Derelict in heliocentric orbit."
],
[
"Mariner 5",
"Mariner 5The Mariner 5 spacecraft was launched to Venus on June 14, 1967, and arrived in the vicinity of the planet in October 1967.It carried a complement of experiments to probe Venus' atmosphere with radio waves, scan its brightness in ultraviolet light, and sample the solar particles and magnetic field fluctuations above the planet.",
"* Mission: Venus flyby* Mass: 245 kg (540 lb)* Sensors: ultraviolet photometer, cosmic dust, solar plasma, trapped radiation, cosmic rays, magnetic fields, radio occultation and celestial mechanicsStatus:Mariner 5 – Defunct and now in a heliocentric orbit."
],
[
"Mariners 6 and 7",
"Mariner 6/7Mariners 6 and 7 were identical teammates in a two-spacecraft mission to Mars.",
"Mariner 6 was launched on February 24, 1969, followed by Mariner 7 on March 21, 1969.They flew over the equator and southern hemisphere of the planet Mars.",
"They analyzed atmosphere and surface with remote sensors as well as recording and relaying hundreds of pictures.",
"By chance, both flew over cratered regions and missed both the giant northern volcanoes and the equatorial grand canyon discovered later.",
"Their approach pictures did, however, show the dark features long seen from Earth, but no canals.",
"* Mission: Mars flybys* Mass 413 kg (908 lb)* Sensors: wide- and narrow-angle cameras with digital tape recorder, infrared spectrometer and radiometer, ultraviolet spectrometer, radio occultation and celestial mechanics.Status: Both Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 are now defunct and are in a heliocentric orbit."
],
[
"Mariners 8 and 9",
"Mariner 9Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 were identical sister craft designed to map the Martian surface simultaneously, but Mariner 8 was lost in a launch vehicle failure.",
"Mariner 9 was launched in May 1971 and became the first artificial satellite of Mars.",
"Its launch mass was nearly doubled by the onboard rocket propellant needed to thrust it into orbit around Mars, but otherwise it closely resembled its predecessors.",
"It entered Martian orbit in November 1971 and began photographing the surface and analyzing the atmosphere with its infrared and ultraviolet instruments.Since 1969, Mariner spacecraft operations such as science sequencing and pointing had been programmable, using simple flight computers with limited memory, and the spacecraft used a digital tape-recorder rather than film to store images and other science data.",
"The spacecraft was thus able to wait until the storm abated, the dust settled and the surface was clearly visible before compiling its global mosaic of high-quality images of the surface of Mars.It also provided the first closeup pictures of Mars’ two small, irregular moons, Phobos and Deimos.",
"* Mission: orbit Mars* Mass 998 kg (2,200 lb)* Sensors: wide- and narrow-angle cameras with digital tape recorder, infrared spectrometer and radiometer, ultraviolet spectrometer, radio occultation and celestial mechanicsStatus:* Mariner 8 – Destroyed in a launch vehicle failure.",
"* Mariner 9 – Shut off, in Areocentric (Mars) orbit until at least 2022 when it was projected to fall out of orbit and into the Martian atmosphere."
],
[
"Mariner 10",
"Mariner 10The Mariner 10 spacecraft launched on November 3, 1973, and was the first to use a gravity assist trajectory, accelerating as it entered the gravitational influence of Venus, then being flung by the planet's gravity onto a slightly different course to reach Mercury.",
"It was also the first spacecraft to encounter two planets at close range, and for 33 years the only spacecraft to photograph Mercury in closeup.Here a fortuitous gravity assist enabled the spacecraft to return at six-month intervals for close mapping passes over the planet, covering half the globe (Mercury’s slow rotation left the other half always in the dark when Mariner returned).",
"* Mission: plasma, charged particles, magnetic fields, radio occultation and celestial mechanicsStatus: Mariner 10 – Defunct and now in a heliocentric orbit."
],
[
"Mariner Jupiter-Saturn",
"Mariner Jupiter-Saturn was approved in 1972 after the cancellation of the Grand Tour program, which proposed visiting all the outer planets with multiple spacecraft.",
"The Mariner Jupiter-Saturn program proposed two Mariner-derived probes that would perform a scaled back mission involving flybys of only the two gas giants, though designers at JPL built the craft with the intention that further encounters past Saturn would be an option.",
"Trajectories were chosen to allow one probe to visit Jupiter and Saturn first, and perform a flyby of Saturn's moon Titan to gather information about the moon's substantial atmosphere.",
"The other probe would arrive at Jupiter and Saturn later, and its trajectory would enable it to continue on to Uranus and Neptune assuming the first probe accomplished all its objectives, or be redirected to perform a Titan flyby if necessary.",
"The program's name was changed to Voyager just before launch in 1977, and after ''Voyager 1'' successfully completed its Titan encounter, ''Voyager 2'' went on to visit the two ice giants."
],
[
"See also",
"* Exploration of Mars* Mariner Mark II* Mariner (crater)* Pioneer program* Tom Krimigis"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"'''Attribution:'''*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mariner 4"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Mariner 4''' (together with Mariner 3 known as '''Mariner-Mars 1964''') was the fourth in a series of spacecraft intended for planetary exploration in a flyby mode.",
"It was designed to conduct closeup scientific observations of Mars and to transmit these observations to Earth.",
"Launched on November 28, 1964, Mariner 4 performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first close-up pictures of the Martian surface.",
"It captured the first images of another planet ever returned from deep space; their depiction of a cratered, dead planet largely changed the scientific community's view of life on Mars.",
"Other mission objectives were to perform field and particle measurements in interplanetary space in the vicinity of Mars and to provide experience in and knowledge of the engineering capabilities for interplanetary flights of long duration.",
"Initially expected to remain in space for eight months, Mariner 4's mission lasted about three years in solar orbit.",
"On December 21, 1967, communications with Mariner 4 were terminated."
],
[
"Spacecraft and subsystems",
"Mariner 3 and 4 diagramThe Mariner 4 spacecraft consisted of an octagonal magnesium frame, across a diagonal and high.",
"Four solar panels were attached to the top of the frame with an end-to-end span of , including solar pressure vanes which extended from the ends.",
"A elliptical high-gain parabolic antenna was mounted at the top of the frame as well.",
"An omnidirectional low-gain antenna was mounted on a tall mast next to the high-gain antenna.",
"The overall height of the spacecraft was .",
"The octagonal frame housed the electronic equipment, cabling, midcourse propulsion system, and attitude control gas supplies and regulators.The scientific instruments included:* A helium magnetometer, mounted on the waveguide leading to the omnidirectional antenna, to measure the magnitude and other characteristics of the interplanetary and planetary magnetic fields.",
"* An ionization chamber/Geiger counter, mounted on the waveguide leading to the omnidirectional antenna nearer the body of the spacecraft, to measure the charged-particle intensity and distribution in interplanetary space and in the vicinity of Mars.",
"* A trapped radiation detector, mounted on the body with counter-axes pointing 70° and 135° from the solar direction, to measure the intensity and direction of low-energy particles.",
"* A cosmic ray telescope, mounted inside the body pointing in anti-solar direction, to measure the direction and energy spectrum of protons and alpha particles.",
"* A solar plasma probe, mounted on the body pointing 10° from the solar direction, to measure the very low energy charged particle flux from the Sun.",
"* A cosmic dust detector, mounted on the body with microphone plate approximately perpendicular to the plane of orbit, to measure the momentum, distribution, density, and direction of cosmic dust.",
"* A television camera, mounted on a scan platform at the bottom center of the spacecraft, to obtain closeup pictures of the surface of Mars.",
"This subsystem consisted of four parts: a Cassegrain telescope with a 1.05° by 1.05° field of view, a shutter and red/green filter assembly with 0.08 and 0.20 second exposure times, a slow scan vidicon tube which translated the optical image into an electrical video signal, and the electronic systems required to convert the analogue signal into a digital bitstream for transmission.The electric power for the instruments and the radio transmitter of Mariner 4 was supplied by 28,224 solar cells contained in the four solar panels, which could provide 310 watts at the distance of Mars.",
"A rechargeable 1200 W·h silver-zinc battery was also used for maneuvers and backup.",
"Monopropellant hydrazine was used for propulsion, via a four-jet vane vector control motor, with thrust, installed on one of the sides of the octagonal structure.",
"The space probe's attitude control was provided by 12 cold nitrogen gas jets mounted on the ends of the solar panels and three gyros.",
"Solar pressure vanes, each with an area of , were attached to the tips of the solar panels.",
"Positional information was provided by four Sun sensors, and a sensor for either the Earth, Mars, or the star Canopus, depending on the time in its spaceflight.",
"Mariner 4 was the first space probe that needed a star for a navigational reference object, since earlier missions, which remained near either the Earth, the Moon, or the planet Venus, had sighted onto either the bright face of the home planet or the brightly lit target.",
"During this flight, both the Earth and Mars would be too dim to lock onto.",
"Another bright source at a wide angle away from the Sun was needed and Canopus filled this requirement.",
"Subsequently, Canopus was used as a reference point in many following missions.The telecommunications equipment on Mariner 4 consisted of dual S-band transmitters (with either a seven-watt triode cavity amplifier or a ten watt traveling-wave tube amplifier) and a single radio receiver which together could send and receive data via the low- and high-gain antennas at 8⅓ or 33⅓ bits per second.",
"Data could also be stored onto a magnetic tape recorder with a capacity of 5.24 million bits for later transmission.",
"All electronic operations were controlled by a command subsystem which could process any of 29 direct command words or three quantitative word commands for mid-course maneuvers.",
"The central computer and sequencer operated stored time-sequence commands using a 38.4 kHz synchronization frequency as a time reference.",
"Temperature control was achieved through the use of adjustable louvers mounted on six of the electronics assemblies, plus multilayer insulating blankets, polished aluminum shields, and surface treatments.",
"Other measurements that could be made included:* Radio occultation* Celestial mechanics based on precision trackingMariner 4 was also supposed to carry an ultraviolet photometer on the left side of the aft TV Camera scan platform.",
"Late in testing, it was discovered that the inclusion of the UV photometer produced electrical problems that would have jeopardized the TV Camera.",
"As a result, it was removed and replaced with a thermal/inertial mass simulator that was designed to emulate the UV photometer's geometry, mass, and other characteristics so that any unintentional problems caused by the removal of the UV photometer would be negated.",
"This spare UV photometer was eventually flown on Mariner 5 in 1967."
],
[
"Mission profile",
"Mariner 4 is prepared for a weight test on November 1, 1963Mariner 4 TV Camera Scan PlatformLaunch of Mariner 4===Launch===After Mariner 3 was a total loss due to failure of the payload shroud to jettison, JPL engineers suggested that there had been a malfunction caused during separation of the metal fairing exterior from the fiberglass inner lining due to pressure differences between the inner and outer part of the shroud and that this could have caused the spring-loaded separation mechanism to become tangled and fail to detach properly.Testing at JPL confirmed this failure mode and an effort was made to develop a new, all-metal fairing.",
"The downside of this was that the new fairing would be significantly heavier and reduce the Atlas-Agena's lift capacity.",
"Convair and Lockheed-Martin had to make several performance enhancements to the booster to wring more power out of it.",
"Despite fears that the work could not be completed before the 1964 Mars window closed, the new shroud was ready by November.After launch from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 12, the protective shroud covering Mariner 4 was jettisoned and the Agena-D/Mariner 4 combination separated from the Atlas-D booster at 14:27:23 UTC on November 28, 1964.The Agena's first burn took place from 14:28:14 to 14:30:38.The initial burn put the spacecraft into an Earth parking orbit and the second burn from 15:02:53 to 15:04:28 injected the craft into a Mars transfer orbit.",
"Mariner 4 separated from the Agena at 15:07:09 and began cruise mode operations.",
"The solar panels deployed and the scan platform was unlatched at 15:15:00.Sun acquisition occurred 16 minutes later.===Lock on Canopus===After Sun acquisition, the Canopus star tracker went searching for Canopus.",
"The star tracker was set to respond to any object more than one-eighth as, and less than eight times as bright as Canopus.",
"Including Canopus, there were seven such objects visible to the sensor.",
"It took more than a day of \"star-hopping\" to find Canopus, as the sensor locked on to other stars instead: a stray light pattern from the near Earth, Alderamin, Regulus, Naos, and Gamma Velorum were acquired before Canopus.A consistent problem that plagued the spacecraft during the early portion of its mission was that roll error signal transients would occur frequently and on occasion would cause loss of the Canopus star lock.",
"The first attempt at a midcourse maneuver was aborted by a loss of lock shortly after the gyros began spinup.",
"Canopus lock was lost six times within a period of less than three weeks after launch and each time a sequence of radio commands would be required to reacquire the star.",
"After a study of the problem, the investigators concluded that the behavior was due to small dust particles that were being released from the spacecraft by some means and were drifting through the star sensor field-of-view.",
"Sunlight scattered from the particles then appeared as illumination equivalent to that from a bright star.",
"This would cause a roll error transient as the object passed through the field-of-view while the sensor was locked onto Canopus.",
"When the object was bright enough that it exceeded the high gate limits at eight times the Canopus intensity, the spacecraft would automatically disacquire Canopus and initiate a roll search for a new star.",
"Finally, a radio command was sent on December 17, 1964, that removed the high gate limit.",
"There was no further loss of Canopus lock, although roll transients occurred 38 more times before encounter with Mars.===Midcourse maneuver===The 7½ month flight of Mariner 4 involved one midcourse maneuver on December 5, 1964.The maneuver was initially scheduled for December 4, but due to a loss of lock with Canopus, it was postponed.",
"The maneuver was successfully completed on December 5; it consisted of a negative pitch turn of 39.16 degrees, a positive roll turn of 156.08 degrees, and a thrusting time of 20.07 seconds.",
"The turns aimed the motor of the spacecraft back in the general direction of Earth, as the motor was initially pointed along the direction of flight.",
"Both the pitch and roll changes were completed with better than 1% accuracy, the velocity change with about 2.5% accuracy.",
"After the maneuver, Mariner 4 was on course for Mars as planned.===Data transmission rate reduced===On January 5, 1965, 36 days after launch and from Earth, Mariner 4 reduced its rate of transmission of scientific data from 33 1/3 to 8 1/2 bits per second.",
"This was the first autonomous action the spacecraft had taken since the midcourse maneuver.===Mars flyby===The Mariner 4 spacecraft flew by Mars on July 14 and 15, 1965.Its closest approach was from the Martian surface at 01:00:57 UT July 15, 1965 (8:00:57 p.m. EST July 14), its distance to Earth was , its speed was relative to Mars, relative to Earth.Planetary science mode was turned on at 15:41:49 UT on July 14.The camera sequence started at 00:18:36 UT on July 15 (7:18:49 p.m. EST on July 14) and 21 pictures using alternate red and green filters, plus 21 lines of a 22nd picture were taken.",
"The images covered a discontinuous swath of Mars starting near 40° N, 170° E, down to about 35° S, 200° E, and then across to the terminator at 50° S, 255° E, representing about 1% of the planet's surface.",
"The images taken during the flyby were stored in the on-board tape recorder.",
"At 02:19:11 UT, Mariner 4 passed behind Mars as seen from Earth and the radio signal ceased.",
"The signal was reacquired at 03:13:04 UT when the spacecraft reappeared.",
"Cruise mode was then re-established.",
"Transmission of the taped images to Earth began about 8.5 hours after signal reacquisition and continued until August 3.All images were transmitted twice to ensure no data was missing or corrupt.",
"Each individual photograph took approximately six hours to be transmitted back to Earth.The spacecraft performed all programmed activities successfully and returned useful data from launch until 22:05:07 UT on October 1, 1965, when the long distance to Earth () and the imprecise antenna orientation led to a temporary loss of communication with the spacecraft until 1967.===First image hand drawn===Mariner 4 tape recorderThe on-board tape recorder used on Mariner 4 was a spare, not originally intended for the Mariner 4 flight.",
"Between the failure of Mariner 3, the fact that the Mariner 4 recorder was a spare, and some error readings suggesting an issue with the tape-recorder, it was determined that the team would test the camera function definitively.",
"This eventually led to the first digital image being hand drawn.",
"While waiting for the image data to be computer processed, the team used a pastel set from an art supply store to hand-color (paint-by-numbers style) a numerical printout of the raw pixels.",
"The resulting image provided early verification that the camera was functioning.",
"The hand drawn image compared favorably with the processed image when it became available.Image:First TV Image of Mars.jpg|The first digital image from Mars hand-colored like a paint-by-numbers pictureImage:M01setSx3.jpg | Processed first digital image from Mars===Micrometeoroid hits and end of communications===Data acquisition resumed in late 1967.The cosmic dust detector registered 17 hits in a 15-minute span on September 15, part of an apparent micrometeoroid shower that temporarily changed the spacecraft attitude and probably slightly damaged its thermal shield.",
"Later it was speculated that Mariner 4 passed through debris of D/1895 Q1 (D/Swift), and even made a flyby of that comet's possibly shattered nucleus at .On December 7 the gas supply in the attitude control system was exhausted, and between December 10 and 11, a total of 83 micrometeoroid hits were recorded which caused perturbation of the spacecraft's attitude and degradation of the signal strength.",
"On December 21, 1967, communications with Mariner 4 were terminated.",
"The spacecraft is now derelict in an exterior heliocentric orbit."
],
[
"Results",
"Jack N. James (center), JPL's Mariner 4 Project Manager, with a group in the White House presenting the spacecraft's famous picture Number 11 of Mars to US President Lyndon B. Johnson (center right) in July 1965The total data returned by the mission was 5.2 million bits (about 634 kB).",
"All instruments operated successfully with the exception of a part of the ionization chamber, namely the Geiger–Müller tube, which failed in February 1965.In addition, the plasma probe had its performance degraded by a resistor failure on December 8, 1964, but experimenters were able to recalibrate the instrument and still interpret the data.",
"The images returned showed a Moon-like cratered terrain, which scientists did not expect, although amateur astronomer Donald Cyr had predicted craters.",
"Later missions showed that the craters were not typical for Mars, but only for the more ancient region imaged by Mariner 4.A surface atmospheric pressure of and daytime temperatures of were estimated.",
"No magnetic field or Martian radiation belts or, again surprisingly, surface water was detected.Bruce C. Murray used photographs from Mariner 4 to elucidate Mars' geologic history.Image:M01Bx6Sx5C.jpg|The first digital image from Mars Image:Mars (Mariner 4).jpg | The first close-up image ever taken of Mars.",
"It shows an area about across by from limb to bottom of frame.Image:Mariner 4 craters.gif | The clearest Mariner 4 image showing cratersImage:M04 12.jpg | Mosaic of frames 1 and 2.The Martian atmosphere is visible over the planet's limb.",
"Image:M04 0910.jpg | Mosaic of frames 9 and 10Image:M04 1112.jpg | Mosaic of frames 11 and 12Images of craters and measurements of a thin atmosphere—much thinner than expected—indicating a relatively inactive planet exposed to the harshness of space, generally dissipated hopes of finding intelligent life on Mars.",
"Life on Mars had been the subject of speculation and science fiction for centuries.",
"If there was life on Mars, after Mariner 4 most concluded it would probably be smaller, simpler forms.",
"Others concluded that a search for life on Earth at kilometer resolution, using several thousand photographs, did not reveal a sign of life on the vast majority of these photographs; thus, based on the 22 photographs taken by Mariner 4, one could not conclude there was no intelligent life on Mars.The solar wind was measured, and compared with simultaneous records from Mariner 5 which went to Venus.The total cost of the Mariner 4 mission is estimated at $83.2 million (equivalent to $ million in ).",
"Total research, development, launch, and support costs for the Mariner series of spacecraft (Mariners 1 through 10) was approximately $554 million (equivalent to $ billion in )."
],
[
"See also",
"* Exploration of Mars* List of missions to Mars* Mariner (crater)* Space exploration* Space probe*REX (''New Horizons'') (Radio occultation for atmosphere data at Pluto in 2015, on ''New Horizons'' spacecraft)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Mariner 4 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration* Space Flight Operations Plan Mariner Mars '64 (PDF)* Processed images and mosaics from the Mariner 4 mission to Mars* Ted Stryk's Mariner 4 page* Mariner 4 photos"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Musical ensemble"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921Jalisco Philharmonic Orchestral is an example of a large classical musical ensemble.Pori Worker's Society Brass Band in the 1920s in Pori, FinlandA '''musical ensemble''', also known as a '''music group''' or '''musical group''', is a group of people who perform instrumental and/or vocal music, with the ensemble typically known by a distinct name.",
"Some music ensembles consist solely of instrumentalists, such as the jazz quartet or the orchestra.",
"Other music ensembles consist solely of singers, such as choirs and doo-wop groups.",
"In both popular music and classical music, there are ensembles in which both instrumentalists and singers perform, such as the rock band or the Baroque chamber group for basso continuo (harpsichord and cello) and one or more singers.",
"In classical music, '''trios''' or '''quartets''' either blend the sounds of musical instrument families (such as piano, strings, and wind instruments) or group instruments from the same instrument family, such as '''string ensembles''' (e.g., string quartet) or '''wind ensembles''' (e.g., wind quintet).",
"Some ensembles blend the sounds of a variety of instrument families, such as the orchestra, which uses a string section, brass instruments, woodwinds, and percussion instruments, or the concert band, which uses brass, woodwinds, and percussion.In '''jazz ensembles''' or '''combos''', the instruments typically include wind instruments (one or more saxophones, trumpets, etc.",
"), one or two chordal \"comping\" instruments (electric guitar, acoustic guitar, piano, or Hammond organ), a bass instrument (bass guitar or double bass), and a drummer or percussionist.",
"Jazz ensembles may be solely instrumental, or they may consist of a group of instruments accompanying one or more singers.",
"In '''rock and pop ensembles''', usually called '''rock bands''' or '''pop bands''', there are usually guitars and keyboards (piano, electric piano, Hammond organ, synthesizer, etc.",
"), one or more singers, and a rhythm section made up of a bass guitar and drum kit.Music ensembles typically have a leader.",
"In jazz bands, rock and pop groups, and similar ensembles, this is the band leader.",
"In classical music, orchestras, concert bands, and choirs are led by a conductor.",
"In orchestra, the concertmaster (principal first violin player) is the instrumentalist leader of the orchestra.",
"In orchestras, the individual sections also have leaders, typically called the \"principal\" of the section (e.g., the leader of the viola section is called the \"principal viola\").",
"Conductors are also used in jazz big bands and in some very large rock or pop ensembles (e.g., a rock concert that includes a string section, a horn section, and a choir that accompanies a rock band's performance)."
],
[
"Classical chamber music",
"Kneisel String Quartet, led by Franz Kneisel, is an example of chamber music.",
"This American ensemble debuted Dvořák's American Quartet, Opus 96 (photographed .",
")An Iranian musical ensemble, painted by Kamal-ol-molk in 1886In Western classical music, smaller ensembles are called chamber music ensembles.",
"The terms duo, trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet, nonet, and decet describe groups of two up to ten musicians, respectively.",
"A group of eleven musicians, such as found in ''The Carnival of the Animals'', is called an ''undecet'', and a group of twelve is called a ''duodecet'' (see Latin numerical prefixes).",
"A soloist playing unaccompanied (e.g., a pianist playing a solo piano piece or a cellist playing a Bach suite for unaccompanied cello) is not an ensemble because it only contains one musician.===Four parts=======Strings====A string quartet consists of two violins, a viola, and a cello.",
"There is a vast body of music written for string quartets, making it an important genre in classical music.====Wind====A woodwind quartet usually features a flute, an oboe, a clarinet, and a bassoon.",
"A brass quartet features two trumpets, a trombone, and a tuba (or French horn (more commonly known as \"horn\")).",
"A saxophone quartet consists of a soprano saxophone, an alto saxophone, a tenor saxophone, and a baritone saxophone.===Five parts===The string ''quintet'' is a common type of group.",
"It is similar to the string quartet, but with an additional viola, cello, or more rarely, the addition of a double bass.",
"Terms such as \"piano quintet\" or \"clarinet quintet\" frequently refer to a string quartet ''plus'' a fifth instrument.",
"Mozart's Clarinet Quintet is similarly a piece written for an ensemble consisting of two violins, a viola, a cello, and a clarinet, the last being the exceptional addition to a \"normal\" string quartet.Some other quintets in classical music are the wind quintet, usually consisting of flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn; the brass quintet, consisting of two trumpets, one horn, a trombone, and a tuba; and the reed quintet, consisting of an oboe, a soprano clarinet, a saxophone, a bass clarinet, and a bassoon.===Six or more instruments===London Symphony Orchestra, Barbican Hall, conducted by Bernard HaitinkThe Indiana Wind Symphony concert bandClassical chamber ensembles of six (sextet), seven (septet), or eight musicians (octet) are fairly common; the use of latinate terms for larger groups is rare, except for the nonet (nine musicians).",
"In most cases, a larger classical group is referred to as an orchestra of some type or a concert band.",
"A small orchestra with fifteen to thirty members (violins, violas, four cellos, two or three double basses, and several woodwind or brass instruments) is called a chamber orchestra.",
"A sinfonietta usually denotes a somewhat smaller orchestra (though still not a chamber orchestra).",
"Larger orchestras are called symphony orchestras (see below) or philharmonic orchestras.A pops orchestra is an orchestra that mainly performs light classical music (often in abbreviated, simplified arrangements) and orchestral arrangements and medleys of popular jazz, music theater, or pop music songs.",
"A string orchestra has only string instruments, i.e., violins, violas, cellos, and double basses.A symphony orchestra is an ensemble usually comprising at least thirty musicians; the number of players is typically between fifty and ninety-five and may exceed one hundred.",
"A symphony orchestra is divided into families of instruments.",
"In the string family, there are sections of violins (I and II), violas, cellos (often eight), and basses (often from six to eight).",
"The standard woodwind section consists of flutes (one doubling piccolo), oboes (one doubling English horn), soprano clarinets (one doubling bass clarinet), and bassoons (one doubling contrabassoon).",
"The standard brass section consists of horns, trumpets, trombones, and tuba.",
"The percussion section includes the timpani, bass drum, snare drum, and any other percussion instruments called for in a score (e.g., triangle, glockenspiel, chimes, cymbals, wood blocks, etc.).",
"In Baroque music (1600–1750) and music from the early Classical period music (1750–1820), the percussion parts in orchestral works may only include timpani.A concert band is a large classical ensemble generally made up of between 40 and 70 musicians from the woodwind, brass, and percussion families, along with the double bass.",
"The concert band has a larger number and variety of wind instruments than the symphony orchestra but does not have a string section (although a single double bass is common in concert bands).",
"The woodwind section of a concert band consists of piccolo, flutes, oboes (one doubling English horn), bassoons (one doubling contrabassoon), soprano clarinets (one doubling E clarinet, one doubling alto clarinet), bass clarinets (one doubling contrabass clarinet or contra-alto clarinet), alto saxophones (one doubling soprano saxophone), tenor saxophone, and baritone saxophone.",
"The brass section consists of horns, trumpets or cornets, trombones, euphoniums, and tubas.",
"The percussion section consists of the timpani, bass drum, snare drum, and any other percussion instruments called for in a score (e.g., triangle, glockenspiel, chimes, cymbals, wood blocks, etc.",
").When orchestras perform baroque music (from the 17th century and early 18th century), they may also use a harpsichord or pipe organ, to play the continuo part.",
"When orchestras perform Romantic-era music (from the 19th century), they may also use harps or unusual instruments such as the wind machine or cannons.",
"When orchestras perform music from the 20th century or the 21st century, occasionally instruments such as electric guitar, theremin, or even an electronic synthesizer may be used."
],
[
"Vocal group",
"A '''vocal group''' is a performing ensemble of vocalists who sing and harmonize together.",
"The first well-known vocals groups emerged in the 19th century, and the style had reached widespread popularity by the 1940s.Vocal groups can come in several different forms, including:=== Based on genders ===* Boy band – vocal group consisting of (young) males* Girl group – vocal group consisting of (young) females* Co-ed group – vocal group consisting of both males and females, typically in their teens or early twenties=== Based on project type ===* Sub-unit – a group that is descended from the main group, with smaller number of members.",
"Usually, all the members are from the main group.",
"* Supergroup – a musical group formed with members who are already successful as solo artists or as members of other successful groups.=== Others ===* Choir – a group of voices.",
"By analogy, sometimes a group of similar instruments in a symphony orchestra is referred to as a choir.",
"For example, the woodwind instruments of a symphony orchestra could be called the woodwind choir.",
"* Doo-wop group* Vocal quartet (as well as vocal trios and quintets)** Barbershop quartet – a cappella close-harmony vocal group** Gospel quartet"
],
[
"Other western musical ensembles",
"A group that plays popular music or military music is usually called a band; a drum and bugle corps is a type of the latter.",
"These bands perform a wide range of music, ranging from arrangements of jazz orchestral, or popular music to military-style marches.",
"Drum corps perform on brass and percussion instruments only.",
"Drum and Bugle Corps incorporate costumes, hats, and pageantry in their performances.Other band types include:*Brass bands: groups consisting of around 30 brass and percussion players;*Jug bands;*Mexican Mariachi groups typically consist of at least two violins, two trumpets, one Spanish guitar, one vihuela (a high-pitched, five-string guitar), and one Guitarrón (a Mexican acoustic bass that is roughly guitar-shaped), and one or more singers.",
"*Mexican banda groups*Marching bands and military bands, dating back to the Ottoman military bands.",
"* String bands"
],
[
"Role of women",
"Suzi Quatro is a singer, bassist and bandleader.",
"When she launched her career in 1973, she was one of the few prominent women instrumentalists and bandleaders in rock musicWomen have a high prominence in many popular music styles as singers.",
"However, professional women instrumentalists are uncommon in popular music, especially in rock genres such as heavy metal.",
"\"Playing in a band is largely a male homosocial activity, that is, learning to play in a band is largely a peer-based... experience, shaped by existing sex-segregated friendship networks.\"",
"As well, rock music \"...is often defined as a form of male rebellion vis-à-vis female bedroom culture.\"",
"In popular music, there has been a gendered \"distinction between public (male) and private (female) participation\" in music.",
"\"Several scholars have argued that men exclude women from bands or the bands' rehearsals, recordings, performances, and other social activities.\"",
"\"Women are mainly regarded as passive and private consumers of allegedly slick, prefabricated – hence, inferior – pop music..., excluding them from participating as high-status rock musicians.\"",
"One of the reasons that there are rarely mixed gender bands is that \"bands operate as tight-knit units in which homosocial solidarity – social bonds between people of the same sex... – plays a crucial role.\"",
"In the 1960s pop music scene, \"singing was sometimes an acceptable pastime for a girl, but playing an instrument...simply wasn't done.",
"\"\"The rebellion of rock music was largely a male rebellion; the women—often, in the 1950s and '60s, girls in their teens—in rock usually sang songs as personæ utterly dependent on their macho boyfriends...\" Philip Auslander says that \"Although there were many women in rock by the late 1960s, most performed only as singers, a traditionally feminine position in popular music.\"",
"Though some women played instruments in American all-female garage rock bands, none of these bands achieved more than regional success.",
"So they \"did not provide viable templates for women's on-going participation in rock\".",
"About the gender composition of heavy metal bands, it has been said that \"heavy metal performers are almost exclusively male\" \"...at least until the mid-1980s\" apart from \"...exceptions such as Girlschool\".",
"However, \"...now in the 2010s maybe more than ever–strong metal women have put up their dukes and got down to it,\" \"carving out a considerable place for themselves\".When Suzi Quatro emerged in 1973, \"no other prominent female musician worked in rock simultaneously as a singer, instrumentalist, songwriter, and bandleader.\"",
"According to Auslander, she was \"kicking down the male door in rock and roll and proving that a female ''musician'' ... and this is a point I am extremely concerned about ... could play as well if not better than the boys\"."
],
[
"See also",
"*Band (rock and pop)*All-female band*Boy band*Girl group*Pop duo*Live band karaoke*Music industry*Percussion ensemble*Musical collective"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"** Bands and Musician Listing* Vivre Musicale *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Marienburg"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Marienburg''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Historical German names",
"*Ordensburg Marienburg (Malbork Castle), the large brick castle built by the Teutonic Knights**Malbork, Poland, the site of the Ordensburg Marienburg, formerly Marienburg (Royal Prussia/Crown of the Kingdom of Poland 1466-1772)*Alūksne, Latvia*Feldioara, Romania"
],
[
"Places",
"===Germany===* Marienburg Castle (Ostalbkreis), a castle in Niederalfingen near Aalen, Germany* Marienburg Castle (Hanover), a castle in Hanover district, residence of the Prince of Hanover* Marienburg Castle (Hildesheim), a castle in Hildesheim, Lower Saxony* Köln-Marienburg, a district of Rodenkirchen in the city of Cologne* A former castle and monastery on the River Moselle* Marienburg Airport (currently a park), an airport in Nuremberg before the construction of the Nuremberg Airport===Elsewhere===* Marienburg, Papua New Guinea, a town in the East Sepik province* Marienburg, Suriname, a village and former sugar plantation===Fictional places===*Marienburg (''Warhammer''), a fictional city in the ''Warhammer Fantasy'' world"
],
[
"See also",
"* Siege of Marienburg (disambiguation)* Treaty of Marienburg* Marienberg (disambiguation)* Marienborg, the summer residence of Denmark's Prime Minister"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Military history of Afghanistan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Military history of Afghanistan''' () began before 1709 when the Hotaki dynasty was established in Kandahar followed by the Durrani Empire.",
"The Afghan military was re-organized with assistance from the British in 1880, when the country was ruled by Amir Abdur Rahman Khan.",
"It was modernized during King Amanullah Khan's rule in the early 20th century, and then during King Zahir Shah's forty-year rule; the Soviet Union supplied almost all weapons, training and military needs between the 1950s and 1970s.",
"From 1978 to 1992, the Soviet-backed Afghan Armed Forces engaged in heavy fighting with the multi-national mujahideen groups who were then backed by the United States, Pakistan and others.",
"After President Najibullah's resignation in 1992 and the end of Soviet support, the Afghan military dissolved into portions controlled by different factions.",
"This era was followed by the Taliban regime, whose leaders were trained and influenced by the Pakistan Armed Forces.After the removal of the Taliban regime in late 2001 and the formation of the Afghan Interim Administration, new military units were created.",
"They were trained by NATO-member states, primarily by the United States.",
"The Afghan Armed Forces operated independently but received some air support from the U.S. Air Force.",
"As a major non-NATO ally, Afghanistan continued to receive billions of dollars in military assistance from the United States up until mid-2021.With the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in August 2021, the Islamic Republic Armed Forces are effectively dissolved, with the former insurgents becoming the country's new military.",
"Remnants of the disbanded Afghan National Army regrouped as the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan to wage guerrilla warfare against the Emirate."
],
[
"Origins",
"Afghans have served in the militaries of the Ghaznavids (963–1187), Ghurids (1148–1215), Delhi Sultanate (1206–1527), Mughals (1526–1858) and the Persian army.",
"The current Afghan military traces its origin to the early 18th century when the Hotaki dynasty rose to power in Kandahar and defeated the Persian Safavid Empire at the Battle of Gulnabad in 1722.When Ahmad Shah Durrani formed the Durrani Empire in 1747, his Afghan army fought a number of wars in the Punjab region of Hindustan during the 18th to the 19th century.",
"One of the famous battles was the 1761 Battle of Panipat in which the Afghans invaded and won a victory against the Maratha Empire.",
"The Afghans then engaged multiple wars with the Sikh Empire, the Afghan–Sikh Wars saw major territorial losses for the Afghans.",
"During the First Anglo-Afghan War, British India invaded Afghanistan in 1838 but withdrew in 1842.During the three years a number of battles took place in different parts of Afghanistan.King Habibullah Khan with the military men of Afghanistan in the early 1900s.Traditionally, Afghan governments relied on three military institutions: the regular army, tribal levies, and community militias.",
"The regular army was sustained by the state and commanded by government leaders.",
"The tribal or regional levies - irregular forces - had part-time soldiers provided by tribal or regional chieftains.",
"The chiefs received tax breaks, land ownership, cash payments, or other privileges in return.",
"The community militia included all available able-bodied members of the community, mobilized to fight, probably only in exceptional circumstances, for common causes under community leaders.",
"Combining these three institutions created a formidable force whose components supplemented each other's strengths and minimized their weaknesses.At the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–80) the regular army was about 50,000 strong and consisted of 62 infantry and 16 cavalry regiments, with 324 guns mostly organized in horse and mountain artillery batteries.",
"Jalali writes that '..although Amir Shir Ali Khan (1863–78) is widely credited for founding the modern Afghan Army, it was only under Abdur Rahman that it became a viable and effective institution.'",
"The Library of Congress Country Study for Afghanistan states:Abdur Rahman was the creator of the modern Afghan state.",
"When he came to the throne in 1880, the army was virtually nonexistent.",
"With the assistance of a liberal financial loan from the British, plus their aid in the form of weapons, ammunition, and other military supplies, he began a 20-year task of creating a respectable regular force by instituting measures that formed the long-term basis of the military system.",
"These included increasing the equalization of military obligation by setting up a system known as the hasht nafari (whereby one man in every eight between the ages of 20 and 40 took his turn at military service); constructing an arsenal in Kabul to reduce dependence on foreign sources for small arms and other ordnance; introducing supervised training courses; organizing troops into divisions, brigades, and regiments, including battalions of artillery; developing pay schedules; and introducing an elementary (and harsh) disciplinary system."
],
[
"20th century",
"===Soviet aid===After the Third Anglo-Afghan War ended, the reforming Amanullah Khan did not see the need for a large army, instead deciding to rely on Afghanistan's historical martial qualities.",
"This resulted in neglect, cutbacks, recruitment problems, and finally an army unable to quell the 1929 uprising that cost him his throne.",
"However, under his reign, the Afghan Air Force was formed in 1924.The Afghan Armed Forces were expanded during King Zahir Shah's reign, reaching a strength of 70,000 in 1933.Adamec writes that the army was 60,000 strong in 1936, and included two corps in Kabul; three divisions in the Southern Province; one division Household troops (Guard Division); one artillery division; and two independent mixed divisions.",
"Total divisions were 13 plus the artillery division.",
"It is not clear how much the Army was involved in the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947.Following the Second World War, Afghanistan briefly received continued military support from the British government under the Lancaster Plan from 1945 to 1947, until the partition of India transformed British priorities.",
"Afghanistan declined to join the 1955 United States-sponsored Baghdad Pact; this rebuff did not stop the United States from continuing its low-level aid program, but it was reluctant to provide Afghanistan with military assistance, so Daoud turned to the Soviet Union and its allies, and in 1955 he received approximately US$25 million of military aid.",
"During the 1950s and 1960s, Afghanistan purchased moderate quantities of Soviet weapons.",
"It was mainly Sukhoi Su-7, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 fighter jets, T-34 and Iosif Stalin tanks, SU-76 self-propelled guns, GAZ-69 4x4 light trucks of jeep class (in many versions), ZIL-157 military trucks, Katyusha multiple rocket launchers, and BTR-40 and BTR-152 armored personnel carriers.",
"Also included were PPSh-41 and RPK machine guns.",
"In addition, the Soviet Union and its allies began construction of military airfields in Bagram, Mazar-e-Sharif, and Shindand.",
"By the 1960s, Soviet assistance started to improve the structure, armament, training, and command and control arrangements for the military.",
"The Afghan Armed Forces reached a strength of 98,000 (90,000 soldiers and 8,000 airmen) by this period.Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 fighters and Ilyushin Il-28 bombers of the Royal Afghan Air Force in 1959.During this time in September 1960, irregulars & regulars of the Royal Afghan Army invaded the Bajaur district of Pakistan which resulted in intense skirmishes with Pakistani forces & local Pakistani tribesmen.",
"However, the Afghan forces faced a defeat after they were flushed out of the area.After the exile of King Zahir Shah in 1973, President Daud Khan forged stronger ties with the Soviets by signing two highly controversial military aid packages for his nation in 1973 and 1975.Between 1973 and 1978, Afghanistan obtained more sophisticated Soviet weapons such as Mi-4 and Mi-8 helicopters, Sukhoi Su-22 and Il-28 jets.",
"A great many T-55, T-62, and PT-76 tanks arrived and huge amounts of AKM assault rifles were ordered.",
"Armored vehicles delivered in the 1970s also included ZIL-135s, BMP-1s, BRDM-1s, BTR-60s, UAZ-469, and GAZ-66 as well as large quantities of small arms and artillery.",
"The Afghan Armed Forces and police continued to receive up-to-date Soviet weapons, as well as training by the KGB and Soviet Armed Forces, for another three years.",
"Due to problems with local political parties in his country, President Daud Khan decided to distance himself from the Soviets in 1976.He made Afghanistan's ties closer to the Greater Middle East and the United States instead.By the time Daoud visited the Soviet Union again in April 1977, the Soviets were aware of his purge of the left that began in 1975, his removal of Soviet advisers from some Afghan military units, and his diversification of Afghan military training (especially to nations like India and Egypt, where they could be trained with Soviet weapons but not by Soviets).In April 1978 there was a coup, known as the Saur Revolution, orchestrated by members of the government loyal to the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA).",
"This led to a full-scale Soviet invasion in December 1979, led by the 40th Army and the Airborne Forces.",
"In 1981 the total strength of the Afghan Armed Forces was around 85,000 troops according to The New York Times.",
"The Afghan Army had around 35–40,000 soldiers, mostly conscripts; the Air Force had around 7,000 personnel; and the total of all military personnel was around 87,000 in 1984.Throughout the 1980s, the Afghan Armed Forces was heavily involved in fighting against the multi-national mujahiddin rebel groups who were largely backed by the United States and trained by the Pakistan Armed Forces.",
"The rebel groups were fighting to force the Soviet Union to withdraw from Afghanistan as well as to remove the Soviet-backed government of President Mohammad Najibullah.",
"Due to large number of defectors, the Afghan Armed Forces in 1985 were reduced to no more than about 47,000, the actual figure probably being lower.",
"The Air Force had over 150 combat aircraft with about 7,000 officers who were supported by up to 5,000 Cuban Revolutionary Air and Air Defense Force and Czechoslovak Air Force advisers.Under the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1992), weapon deliveries by the Soviets were increased and included Mi-24 helicopters, MiG-23 fighter aircraft, ZSU-23-4 \"Shilka\" and ZSU-57-2 anti-aircraft self-propelled mounts, MT-LB armored personnel carriers, BM-27 \"Uragan\" and BM-21 \"Grad\" multiple-launch rocket systems and FROG-7 and Scud launchers.",
"Some of the weapons that were not damaged during the decades of wars are still being used today.Weapons supplies were made available to the mujahideen rebel groups through numerous countries; the United States purchased all of Israel's captured Soviet weapons clandestinely, and then funnelled the weapons to the mujahideen rebels, while Egypt upgraded their own Army's weapons, and sent the older weapons to the mujahideen, Turkey sold its World War II stockpiles to the warlords, and the British and Swiss provided Blowpipe missiles and Oerlikon anti-aircraft guns respectively, after they were found to be poor models for their own forces.",
"China provided the most relevant weapons, likely due to their own experience with guerrilla warfare, and kept meticulous record of all the shipments.Following the Soviet withdrawal in 1989 the mujahiddin rebel attacks continued and grew in intensity.",
"For several years the Afghan Armed Forces had actually increased their effectiveness past levels ever achieved during the Soviet military presence.",
"The eleven-year Siege of Khost ended with the city's fall in March 1991.But the government was dealt a major blow when Abdul Rashid Dostum, a leading general, switched allegiances to the mujahideen forces in 1992 and together they captured the city of Kabul.",
"By 1992 the Army fragmented into regional militias under local warlords because of the fall of the Soviet Union which stopped supplying the Afghan Armed Forces and later in 1992 when the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan government lost power.After the fall of Najibullah's regime in 1992, the various Afghan political parties began to assemble their own more formal armed forces.",
"By February 1992 Massoud's Jamiat-i-Islami had a central force reported at six battalions strong, plus additional second tier units, \"the bulk of the army, ..made up of regional battalions, subordinate to local commanders of the Supervisory Council.\"",
"On 16 January 1993 ''Jane's Defence Weekly'' reported that \"a special assembly of 1335 delegates elected from across Afghanistan\" had both elected Professor Burhanuddin Rabbani as President of the Islamic State of Afghanistan for two years, and agreed to \"establish a regular army with soldiers mostly drawn from Mojahedin groups.\"",
"Pakistan had offered training assistance.",
"However, a Civil War started between the various warlords, including Ahmad Shah Massoud, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Abdul Rashid Dostum, Abdul Ali Mazari, Jalaluddin Haqqani, Ismail Khan, Atta Muhammad Nur, Abdul Rasul Sayyaf, Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi, Mohammad Yunus Khalis, Gul Agha Sherzai and many others.",
"They received logistics support from foreign powers including Russia, Pakistan, India, Iran, China, France and others."
],
[
"First Taliban Government period",
"When the Taliban took power in 1996, the local warlords and their followers fled Kabul to the north of the country.",
"With the backing and support of Pakistan, the Taliban solidified their own state military forces.Al-Qaeda was also training its fighters in the Taliban controlled territory, including their high-quality 055 Brigade.",
"The Taliban forces possessed over 400 T-54/55 and T-62 tanks and more than 200 Armoured personnel carriers.",
"The Afghan Air Force under the Taliban maintained five supersonic MIG-21MFs and 10 Sukhoi-22 fighter-bombers.",
"In 1995, during the 1995 Airstan incident, a Taliban fighter plane captured a Russian transport.",
"They also held six Mil Mi-8 helicopters, five Mi-35s, five L-39Cs, six Antonov An-12, 25 An-26, a dozen An-24/32, an IL-18, and a Yakovlev."
],
[
"U.S. war in Afghanistan (2002–2021)",
"A-29 Super Tucano of the Afghan Air Force (AAF)UH-60A Black HawkM1117 Armored Security Vehicle (ASV)After the formation of the Karzai administration in late 2001, the Afghan armed forces was gradually reestablished by the United States and its allies.",
"They assumed their current form from May 2002.Over two decades, 2001–2021, the United States spent an estimated $83 billion on the Afghan military through the Afghanistan Security Forces Fund and an additional $36 billion to support the Afghan government.Initially, a new land force, the Afghan National Army (ANA), was created, along with an air arm, the Afghan National Army Air Corps, as part of the army.",
"The army later included Commandos and Special Forces.",
"The ANA Air Corps later split off to become an independent branch, the Afghan Air Force.",
"Training was managed initially by the U.S. Office of Military Cooperation, followed by other U.S. organizations and then Combined Security Transition Command-Afghanistan, and was finally run by the Resolute Support Mission.The President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was the Commander-in-Chief of the Afghan Armed Forces, who were administratively controlled through the Ministry of Defence.",
"Before the Fall of Kabul, they had major bases and small outposts all across Afghanistan, including in the provinces of Badakhshan, Balkh, Helmand, Herat, Kabul, Kandahar, Nangarhar and Parwan, as well as in the cities of Kunduz, Ghazni, Gardez, Khost, Fayzabad, Farah and Zaranj.The Afghan Air Force was relatively capable before and during the 1980s but by late 2001, the number of operational aircraft available was minimal.",
"The United States and its allies quickly eliminated the remaining strength and ability of the Taliban to operate aircraft in the opening stages of their intervention.",
"With the occupation of airbases by American forces it became clear how destitute the Air Force had become since the withdrawal of the Soviet Union.",
"Most aircraft were only remnants rusting away for a decade or more.",
"Many others were relocated to neighboring countries for storage purposes or sold cheaply.",
"The AAF was reduced to a very small force while the country was torn by civil war.",
"It was gradually strengthened by CSTC-A's NATO-led multinational Combined Air Power Transition Force.Soldiers of the Afghan National Army, including members of its Commando Corps standing in the front.Soldiers training on how to clear improvised explosive devices (IEDs) on roadsBy 2006, more than 60,000 former militiamen from around the country were disarmed.",
"In 2007, it was reported that the DDR programmes had dismantled 274 paramilitary organizations, reintegrated over 62,000 militia members into civilian life, and recovered more than 84,000 weapons, including heavy weapons.",
"But ''The New York Times'' also reported a rise in hoarded weapons and a growing Taliban threat, even in the north of the country.Commandos were established in 2007, later growing from a battalion to a brigade.",
"The aim of Disbandment of Illegal Armed Groups programme was to ban all illegal armed groups in all provinces of the country.",
"Approximately 2,000 such groups have been identified; most of them surrendered to the Afghan government or joined the new armed forces.The NATO-trained Afghan National Army grew to a size of 31 Kandaks, or Battalions, at one point 28 of which were announced as combat ready.",
"Seven regional corps headquarters were created.",
"The National Military Academy of Afghanistan was built to provide future officers, modeled after the United States Military Academy.",
"The Marshal Fahim National Defense University is located in Kabul province and consists of a headquarters building, classrooms, dining facility, library, and medical clinic.",
"In addition to this, an $80 million central command center was built next to the Hamid Karzai International Airport.",
"In 2012, Afghanistan became a major non-NATO ally of the United States.Sizable numbers of Afghan officers are sent to be trained in India either at the Indian Military Academy in Dehradun, the National Defence Academy near Pune or the Officers Training Academy in Chennai.",
"The Indian Military Academy which has been in existence since 1932, provides a 4-year degree to army officers, while the National Defence Academy is a tri-service college provides a 3-year degree after which officers undergo a 1-year specialization in their respective service colleges.",
"The Officers Training Academy on the other hand provides a 49-week course to Graduate officer candidates.",
"In 2014 the number of Afghan officers in training in India was nearly 1,100.The total manpower of the Afghan Armed Forces was approximately 186,000 as of 2021.It was around 164,000 in May 2011.The United States was also largely responsible for the growth of the Afghan Air Force, as part of the Combined Air Power Transition Force, from four aircraft at the end of 2001 to about 100 as of 2011.Types include Lockheed C-130 Hercules and Pilatus PC-12 transport aircraft, as well as Mi-17 troop-carrying helicopters and Mil Mi-35 attack helicopters.",
"The aircrew are being trained by an American team.",
"Eventually the air force had over 200 refurbished aircraft, which includes A-29 Super Tucano attack aircraft, Lockheed C-130 Hercules and Pilatus PC-12s military transport aircraft, as well as UH-60A Black Hawk, Mil Mi-17, and other types of helicopters.",
"It also included trainers such as Aero L-39 Albatros and Cessna 182s.",
"The manpower of the Afghan Air Force was around 7,000, which includes over 450 pilots.",
"It also had a small number of female pilots."
],
[
"Taliban government since mid-2021",
" As of 15 August 2021, what remained of the Ghani government's armed forces were left leaderless and dispersed due to the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul to the Taliban.",
"Some have since partly regrouped as the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan.As Afghan forces accepted the circumstances of the Doha Agreement and the withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan, they understood that American close air support and other strategic assets would no longer be available to support them in combat situations against the Taliban, and they became more willing to surrender to the attacking Taliban forces.Other Afghans allied with the Afghan government looked for ways to maneuver themselves into better positions, having accepted the impending collapse of the government.",
"The Taliban extended their control over the provinces through a series of negotiated surrenders.",
"After Kunduz province was captured, a days long negotiation between the tribes and the Taliban resulted in a surrender of the government-controlled base to the Taliban.",
"Similar negotiations in Herat saw a wave of resignations in the provincial government, and then the same in Helmand and Ghazni.",
"Outgunned, Afghan special forces based in Kandahar fled.",
"Police officers in Kandahar complained that they had not been paid for six months.In early September 2021 the Taliban announced a new interim government.",
"Among the appointees was Molvi Mullah Yaqoob, Defence Minister, son of ex-Taliban leader Mullah Omar; Mullah Mohammed Fazil Mazloom Akhund, deputy to the Defence Minister; and Qari Farseehuddin, a Tajik, listed as Army Chief.",
"the Islamic Emirate Army is subdivided into eight corps, mostly superseding the previous corps of the Afghan National Army.",
"They are listed below.",
"In November 2021 Mullah Yaqoob, Acting Minister of Defense, announced the new names and of the corps.+ Army Corps Corps Headquarters Superseded Corps Commander(s) Ref(s) 313 Central Corps Kabul Maulvi Naqibullah \"Sahib\" ()Maulvi Nasrullah \"Mati\" ()Maulvi Nusrat () 201 Khalid Ibn Walid Corps Laghman 201st Corps Abdul Rahman Mansoori ()Abu Dujana ()Ibrahim () 203 Mansoori Corps Gardez 203rd CorpsAhmadullah Mubarak ()Mohammad Ayub ()Rohul Amin () 205 Al-Badr Corps Kandahar 205th CorpsHizbullah Afghan () Mehrullah Hamad ()Wali Jan Hamza () 207 Al-Farooq Corps Herat 207th Corps Abdul Rahman Haqqani () Mohammad Zarif Muzaffar ()Abdul Shakur Baryalai () 209 Al-Fatah Corps Mazar-i-Sharif 209th Corps Abdul Razzaq Faizullah ()Attaullah Omari ()Maulvi Amanuddin () 215 Azam Corps Helmand 215th Corps Maulvi Abdul Aziz \"Ansari\" ()Sharafuddin Taqi ()Mohibullah Nusrat () 217 Omari Corps Kunduz 217th Corps Mohammad Shafiq ()Rahmatullah Mohammad ()Mohammad Ismail Turkman ()Badri 313 Battalion, reported as operating in Kabul, is the only unit of the Taliban's armed forces that had the numerical designation 313."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"*** Self published English version of originally \"Persian\" work; see translator's note.",
"* 288 pp.",
"; £35.00.Due to its 'simplicity, which matched low technology and basic organization found among the human resources available' the Taliban's army from 1996 to 2001 was perhaps the most successful national army for Afghanistan (p. 121).",
"** * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* How are the Taliban Organized?",
"- some details on the Military Commission.",
"\"the biggest and most significant Taliban commission.\"",
"\"The Taliban deputy chief, Mullah Yaqoob Umari, heads that commission with three deputies — Maulawi Sadar Ibrahim, Maulawi Abul Qayum Zakir, and Qari Fasihuddin.",
"All three are prominent military commanders.",
"Fasihuddin is the senior commander for nine northern provinces and is of Tajik ethnicity.\""
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Motorcycle sport"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Motorcycle sport''' is a broad field that encompasses all sporting aspects of motorcycling.",
"The disciplines are not all races or timed-speed events, as several disciplines test a competitor's various riding skills."
],
[
"Motorcycle racing",
"Motorcycle racing (also known as moto racing and motorbike racing) is a motorcycle sport involving racing motorcycles.",
"Motorcycle racing can be divided into two categories, tarmac-based road disciplines and off-road."
],
[
"Track racing",
"Track racing is a motorcycle sport where teams or individuals race opponents around an oval track.",
"There are differing variants, with each variant racing on a different surface type."
],
[
"Rally",
"A road rally is a navigation event on public roads whereby competitors must visit a number of checkpoints in diverse geographical locations while still obeying road traffic laws (not to be confused with car rallies such as WRC)."
],
[
"Speedway",
"Speedway is a motorcycle sport in which the motorcycles have one gear and no brakes."
],
[
"Other Motorcycle sports",
"===Land speed===Land speed is where a single rider accelerates over a 1 to long straight track (usually on dry lake beds) and is timed for top speed through a trap at the end of the run.",
"The rider must exceed the previous top speed record for that class or type of bike for their name to be placed on the record books.",
"See— for an example.===Enduro===Enduro is not exactly racing, because the main objective is to traverse a series of checkpoints, arriving exactly \"on time\" in accordance with your beginning time and the time it is supposed to take to arrive at each checkpoint.",
"The courses are usually run over thick wooded terrain, sometimes with large obstacles such as logs, ditches, and sudden drops.===Freestyle Motocross===A competition based upon points for acrobatic ability on an MX bike over jumps.",
"This activity evolved from Motocross a continuing popular form of racing at both the Amateur and Professional levels.===Trials===Trials commonly take place on rocky terrainKnown in the US as Observed Trials, it is not racing, but a sport nevertheless.",
"Trials is a test of skill on a motorcycle whereby the rider attempts to traverse an observed section without placing a foot on the ground (and traditionally, although not always, without ceasing forward motion).",
"The winner is the rider with the least penalty points.====Time and observation====Time and observation trials are trials with a time limit.",
"The person who completes the route the quickest sets the \"standard time\" and all other competitors must finish within a certain amount of time of the standard time to be counted as a finisher (they received penalty points for every minute after the quickest finisher).",
"This is combined with the penalty points accrued from the observed sections to arrive at a winner, who is not always the quickest rider or the rider who lost the less marks on observation but the rider who balanced these competing demands the best.",
"One of the most famous time and observation trials is the \"Scott\" trial held annually in North Yorkshire.====Indoor trials====Indoor trials held in stadiums (not necessarily with a roof) which by their very nature use human-made artificial sections in contrast to outdoor trials which rely heavily on the natural terrain.====Long distance trials====Long Distance Trials (often shortened to 'LDT') in the UK are events for road-registered motorcycles.",
"A course of typically 80 to 120 miles is plotted by the organiser, taking in roads, lanes and Byways Open to All Traffic (known as BOATs).",
"The event is not a race and riders are required to follow the course by using a RoadBook compiled by the organiser.===Motorcycle Gymkhana===Similar to car Autocross, Motorcycle Gymkhana is a motorcycle time trial sport round cones on a paved area.",
"The winner is the competitor who completes the course in the shortest time.",
"Time penalties are incurred by putting a foot down, hitting a cone, or going outside the designated area.=== Motoball (Motorcycle Polo) ===Similar to football, but all players (except goalkeepers) are riding motorcycles, and the ball is much bigger.",
"Motorcycle Polo first began as an officially organized sport in the mid-1930s.",
"In France, there are organized motoball competitions, and the sport was included in the inaugural Goodwill Games.=== Hill Climbs ===In the United States the completions are usually held on off-road courses, where one competitor at a time attempts to ride up a very steep hill, often 45 degrees or more.",
"In some cases, few riders actually complete the course and results are judged on the distance that they manage to achieve.",
"Of those that do complete the course, the rider to reach the top with the shortest elapsed time wins.",
"The motorcycle of choice in the early decades was the Harley-Davidson 45 cubic inch model due to its high torque at low rpms, similar to farm engines.",
"For years the national competitions was held at Mount Garfield near Muskegon, Michigan.In other countries, notably the United Kingdom, completions mostly take place on tarmac courses, occasionally closed public roads, with the machines used for competition being similar to those used for other road disciplines."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"Phillip Island.",
";Sanctioning bodies* Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM) – World governing body* Motorcycling Australia (MA) – Australian Governing Body* Auto Cycle Union – UK governing body* American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) – US governing body* Motorcycle Federation of Japan (MFJ) – Japan governing body* Motosport South Africa (MSA) – South African governing body* Federation Francaise de moto (FFM) – French governing body* MCUI Southern Centre – \"governing body of motor cycle sport in Leinster, Munster and Connacht\" (i.e., Republic of Ireland)* Championship Cup Series – Sanctioning body for Sportsman Level motorcycle road racing in the United States"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Marina Tsvetaeva"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Marina Ivanovna Tsvetaeva''' (; 31 August 1941) was a Russian poet.",
"Her work is some of the most well known in twentieth century Russian literature.",
"She lived through and wrote of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Moscow famine that followed it.",
"Marina attempted to save her daughter Irina from starvation by placing her in a state orphanage in 1919, where Irina died of hunger.",
"Tsvetaeva left Russia in 1922 and lived with her family in increasing poverty in Paris, Berlin and Prague before returning to Moscow in 1939.Her husband Sergei Efron and their daughter Ariadna (Alya) were arrested on espionage charges in 1941, when her husband was executed.Tsvetaeva died by suicide in 1941.As a lyrical poet, her passion and daring linguistic experimentation mark her as a historical chronicler of her times and the depths of the human condition."
],
[
"Early years",
"Marina Tsvetaeva was born in Moscow, the daughter of Ivan Vladimirovich Tsvetaev, a professor of Fine Art at the University of Moscow, who later founded the Alexander III Museum of Fine Arts (known from 1937 as the Pushkin Museum).",
"Tsvetaeva's mother, , Ivan's second wife, was a concert pianist, highly literate, with German and Polish ancestry.",
"Growing up in considerable material comfort, Tsvetaeva would later come to identify herself with the Polish aristocracy.Tsvetaeva's two half-siblings, Valeria and Andrei, were the children of Ivan's deceased first wife, Varvara Dmitrievna Ilovaiskaya, daughter of the historian Dmitry Ilovaisky.",
"Tsvetaeva's only full sister, Anastasia, was born in 1894.The children quarrelled frequently and occasionally violently.",
"There was considerable tension between Tsvetaeva's mother and Varvara's children, and Tsvetaeva's father maintained close contact with Varvara's family.",
"Tsvetaeva's father was kind, but deeply wrapped up in his studies and distant from his family.",
"He was also still deeply in love with his first wife; he would never get over her.",
"Likewise, Tsvetaeva's mother Maria had never recovered from a love affair she'd had before her marriage.",
"Maria disapproved of Marina's poetic inclination; she wanted her daughter to become a pianist, holding the opinion that her poetry was poor.In 1902, Maria contracted tuberculosis.",
"A change in climate was recommended to help cure the disease, and so the family travelled abroad until shortly before her death in 1906, when Tsvetaeva was 14.They lived for a while by the sea at Nervi, near Genoa.",
"There, away from the rigid constraints of a bourgeois Muscovite life, Tsvetaeva was able for the first time to run free, climb cliffs, and vent her imagination in childhood games.",
"There were many Russian ''émigré'' revolutionaries residing at that time in Nervi, who may have had some influence on the young Tsvetaeva.In June 1904, Tsvetaeva was sent to school in Lausanne.",
"Changes in the Tsvetaev residence led to several changes in school, and during the course of her travels she acquired the Italian, French, and German languages.",
"She gave up the strict musical studies that her mother had imposed and turned to poetry.",
"She wrote \"With a mother like her, I had only one choice: to become a poet\".In 1908, aged 16, Tsvetaeva studied literary history at the Sorbonne.",
"During this time, a major revolutionary change was occurring within Russian poetry: the flowering of the Russian symbolist movement, and this movement was to colour most of her later work.",
"It was not the theory which was to attract her, but the poetry and the gravity which writers such as Andrei Bely and Alexander Blok were capable of generating.",
"Her own first collection of poems, ''Vecherny Albom'' (''Evening Album''), self-published in 1910, promoted her considerable reputation as a poet.",
"It was well received, although her early poetry was held to be insipid compared to her later work.",
"It attracted the attention of the poet and critic Maximilian Voloshin, whom Tsvetaeva described after his death in ''A Living Word About a Living Man''.",
"Voloshin came to see Tsvetaeva and soon became her friend and mentor."
],
[
"Family and career",
"The house where Marina lived in MoscowTsvetaeva's husband Sergei EfronAriadne (Alya) Efron, 1926She began spending time at Voloshin's home in the Black Sea resort of Koktebel (\"Blue Height\"), which was a well-known haven for writers, poets and artists.",
"She became enamoured of the work of Alexander Blok and Anna Akhmatova, although she never met Blok and did not meet Akhmatova until the 1940s.",
"Describing the Koktebel community, the ''émigré'' Viktoria Schweitzer wrote: \"Here inspiration was born.\"",
"At Koktebel, Tsvetaeva met Sergei Yakovlevich Efron, a cadet in the Officers' Academy.",
"She was 19, he 18: they fell in love and were married in 1912, the same year as her father's project, the Alexander III Museum of Fine Arts, was ceremonially opened, an event attended by Tsar Nicholas II.",
"Tsvetaeva's love for Efron was intense; however, this did not preclude her from having affairs, including one with Osip Mandelstam, which she celebrated in a collection of poems called ''Mileposts''.",
"At around the same time, she became involved in an affair with the poet Sophia Parnok, who was 7 years older than Tsvetaeva, an affair that caused her husband great grief.",
"The two women fell deeply in love, and the relationship profoundly affected both women's writings.",
"She deals with the ambiguous and tempestuous nature of this relationship in a cycle of poems which at times she called ''The Girlfriend'', and at other times ''The Mistake''.",
"Tsvetaeva and her husband spent summers in the Crimea until the revolution, and had two daughters: Ariadna, or Alya (born 1912) and Irina (born 1917).In 1914, Efron volunteered for the front and by 1917 he was an officer stationed in Moscow with the 56th Reserve.",
"Tsvetaeva was a close witness of the Russian Revolution, which she rejected.",
"On trains, she came into contact with ordinary Russian people and was shocked by the mood of anger and violence.",
"She wrote in her journal: \"In the air of the compartment hung only three axe-like words: bourgeois, Junkers, leeches.\"",
"After the 1917 Revolution, Efron joined the White Army, and Marina returned to Moscow hoping to be reunited with her husband.",
"She was trapped in Moscow for five years, where there was a terrible famine.She wrote six plays in verse and narrative poems.",
"Between 1917 and 1922 she wrote the epic verse cycle ''Lebedinyi stan'' (''The Encampment of the Swans'') about the civil war, glorifying those who fought against the communists.",
"The cycle of poems in the style of a diary or journal begins on the day of Tsar Nicholas II's abdication in March 1917, and ends late in 1920, when the anti-communist White Army was finally defeated.",
"The 'swans' of the title refers to the volunteers in the White Army, in which her husband was fighting as an officer.",
"In 1922, she published a long pro-imperial verse fairy tale, ''Tsar-devitsa'' (\"Tsar-Maiden\").The Moscow famine was to exact a toll on Tsvetaeva.",
"With no immediate family to turn to, she had no way to support herself or her daughters.",
"In 1919, she placed both her daughters in a state orphanage, mistakenly believing that they would be better fed there.",
"Alya became ill, and Tsvetaeva removed her, but Irina died there of starvation in 1920.The child's death caused Tsvetaeva great grief and regret.",
"In one letter, she wrote, \"God punished me.",
"\"During these years, Tsvetaeva maintained a close and intense friendship with the actress Sofia Evgenievna Holliday, for whom she wrote a number of plays.",
"Many years later, she would write the novella \"Povest o Sonechke\" about her relationship with Holliday."
],
[
"Exile",
"===Berlin and Prague=== Marina Tsvetaeva (1913)In May 1922, Tsvetaeva and Ariadna left Soviet Russia and were reunited in Berlin with Efron, who she had thought had been killed by the Bolsheviks.",
"There she published the collections ''Separation'', ''Poems to Blok'', and the poem ''The Tsar Maiden''.",
"Much of her poetry was published in Moscow and Berlin, consolidating her reputation.",
"In August 1922, the family moved to Prague.",
"Living in unremitting poverty, unable to afford living accommodation in Prague itself, with Efron studying politics and sociology at the Charles University and living in hostels, Tsvetaeva and Ariadna found rooms in a village outside the city.",
"She wrote: \"We are devoured by coal, gas, the milkman, the baker... the only meat we eat is horsemeat.\"",
"When offered an opportunity to earn money by reading her poetry, she had to beg a simple dress from a friend to replace the one she had been living in.Tsvetaeva began a passionate affair with , a former military officer, a liaison which became widely known throughout émigré circles.",
"Efron was devastated.",
"Her break-up with Rodziewicz in 1923 was almost certainly the inspiration for her ''The Poem of the End'' and \"The Poem of the Mountain\".",
"At about the same time, Tsvetaeva began correspondence with poet Rainer Maria Rilke and novelist Boris Pasternak.",
"Tsvetaeva and Pasternak were not to meet for nearly twenty years, but maintained friendship until Tsvetaeva's return to Russia.In summer 1924, Efron and Tsvetaeva left Prague for the suburbs, living for a while in Jíloviště, before moving on to Všenory, where Tsvetaeva completed \"The Poem of the End\", and was to conceive their son, Georgy, whom she was to later nickname 'Mur'.",
"Tsvetaeva wanted to name him Boris (after Pasternak); Efron insisted on Georgy.",
"He was to be a most difficult child but Tsvetaeva loved him obsessively.",
"With Efron now rarely free from tuberculosis, their daughter Ariadna was relegated to the role of mother's helper and confidante, and consequently felt robbed of much of her childhood.",
"In Berlin, before settling in Paris, Tsvetaeva wrote some of her greatest verse, including ''Remeslo'' (\"Craft\", 1923) and ''Posle Rossii'' (\"After Russia\", 1928).",
"Reflecting a life in poverty and exiled, the work holds great nostalgia for Russia and its folk history, while experimenting with verse forms.===Paris===In 1925, the family settled in Paris, where they would live for the next 14 years.",
"At about this time Tsvetaeva had a relapse of the tuberculosis she had previously contracted in 1902.She received a small stipend from the Czechoslovak government, which gave financial support to artists and writers who had lived in Czechoslovakia.",
"In addition, she tried to make whatever she could from readings and sales of her work.",
"She turned more and more to writing prose because she found it made more money than poetry.",
"Tsvetaeva did not feel at all at home in Paris's predominantly ex-bourgeois circle of Russian émigré writers.",
"Although she had written passionately pro-'White' poems during the Revolution, her fellow émigrés thought that she was insufficiently anti-Soviet, and that her criticism of the Soviet régime was altogether too nebulous.",
"She was particularly criticised for writing an admiring letter to the Soviet poet Vladimir Mayakovsky.",
"In the wake of this letter, the émigré paper ''Posledniye Novosti'', to which Tsvetaeva had been a frequent contributor, refused point-blank to publish any more of her work.",
"She found solace in her correspondence with other writers, including Boris Pasternak, Rainer Maria Rilke, the Czech poet Anna Tesková, the critics D. S. Mirsky and Aleksandr Bakhrakh, and the Georgian émigré princess Salomea Andronikova, who became her main source of financial support.",
"Her poetry and critical prose of the time, including her autobiographical prose works of 1934–7, is of lasting literary importance.",
"But she felt \"consumed by the daily round\", resenting the domesticity that left her no time for solitude or writing.",
"Moreover her émigré milieu regarded Tsvetaeva as a crude sort who ignored social graces.",
"Describing her misery, she wrote to Tesková: \"In Paris, with rare personal exceptions, everyone hates me, they write all sorts of nasty things, leave me out in all sorts of nasty ways, and so on\".",
"To Pasternak she complained \"They don't like poetry and what am I apart from that, not poetry but that from which it is made.",
"I am an inhospitable hostess.",
"A young woman in an old dress.\"",
"She began to look back at even the Prague times with nostalgia and resent her exiled state more deeply.Meanwhile, Tsvetaeva's husband Efron was developing Soviet sympathies and was homesick for Russia.",
"Eventually, he began working for the NKVD, the forerunner of the KGB.",
"Their daughter Alya shared his views, and increasingly turned against her mother.",
"In 1937, she returned to the Soviet Union.",
"Later that year, Efron too had to return to the USSR.",
"The French police had implicated him in the murder of the former Soviet defector Ignace Reiss in September 1937, on a country lane near Lausanne, Switzerland.",
"After Efron's escape, the police interrogated Tsvetaeva, but she seemed confused by their questions and ended up reading them some French translations of her poetry.",
"The police concluded that she was deranged and knew nothing of the murder.",
"Later it was learned that Efron possibly had also taken part in the assassination of Trotsky's son in 1936.Tsvetaeva does not seem to have known that her husband was a spy, nor the extent to which he was compromised.",
"However, she was held responsible for his actions and was ostracised in Paris because of the implication that he was involved with the NKVD.",
"World War II had made Europe as unsafe and hostile as the USSR.",
"In 1939, Tsvetaeva became lonely and alarmed by the rise of fascism, which she attacked in ''Stikhi k Chekhii'' (\"Verses to Czechia\" 1938–39)."
],
[
"Last years: Return to the Soviet Union",
" Сenotaph to TsvetaevaIn 1939, she and her son returned to Moscow, unaware of the reception she would receive.",
"In Stalin's USSR, anyone who had lived abroad was suspect, as was anyone who had been among the intelligentsia before the Revolution.",
"Tsvetaeva's sister had been arrested before Tsvetaeva's return; although Anastasia survived the Stalin years, the sisters never saw each other again.",
"Tsvetaeva found that all doors had closed to her.",
"She got bits of work translating poetry, but otherwise the established Soviet writers refused to help her, and chose to ignore her plight; Nikolai Aseev, whom she had hoped would assist, shied away, fearful for his life and position.Efron and Alya were arrested on espionage charges in 1941; Efron was sentenced to death.",
"Alya's fiancé was actually an NKVD agent who had been assigned to spy on the family.",
"Efron was shot in September 1941; Alya served over eight years in prison.",
"Both were exonerated after Stalin's death.",
"In 1941, Tsvetaeva and her son were evacuated to Yelabuga (Elabuga), while most families of the Union of Soviet Writers were evacuated to Chistopol.",
"Tsvetaeva had no means of support in Yelabuga, and on 24 August 1941 she left for Chistopol desperately seeking a job.",
"On 26 August, Marina Tsvetaeva and poet Valentin Parnakh applied to the Soviet of Literature Fund asking for a job at the LitFund's canteen.",
"Parnakh was accepted as a doorman, while Tsvetaeva's application for a permission to live in Chistopol was turned down and she had to return to Yelabuga on 28 August.On 31 August 1941, Tsvetaeva hanged herself in Yelabuga.",
"She left a note for her son Georgy (\"Mur\"): \"Forgive me, but to go on would be worse.",
"I am gravely ill, this is not me anymore.",
"I love you passionately.",
"Do understand that I could not live anymore.",
"Tell Papa and Alya, if you ever see them, that I loved them to the last moment and explain to them that I found myself in a trap.",
"\"According to the book ''The Death of a Poet: The Last Days of Marina Tsvetaeva'', the local NKVD department tried to force Tsvetaeva to start working as their informant, which left her no choice other than to die by suicide.Tsvetaeva was buried in Yelabuga cemetery on 2 September 1941, but the exact location of her grave remains unknown.Her son Georgy volunteered for the Eastern Front of World War II and died in battle in 1944.Her daughter Ariadna spent 16 years in Soviet prison camps and exile and was released in 1955.Ariadna wrote a memoir of her family; an English-language edition was published in 2009.She died in 1975.In the town of Yelabuga, the Tsvetaeva house is now a museum; there is a monument to her.",
"The apartment in Moscow where she lived from 1914 to 1922 is now a museum as well.",
"Much of her poetry was republished in the Soviet Union after 1961, and her passionate, articulate and precise work, with its daring linguistic experimentation, brought her increasing recognition as a major Russian poet.A minor planet, 3511 Tsvetaeva, discovered in 1982 by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina, is named after her.In 1989, in Gdynia, Poland, a special-purpose ship was built for the Russian Academy of Sciences and named Marina Tsvetaeva in her honor.",
"From 2007, the ship served as a tourist vessel to the polar regions for Aurora Expeditions.",
"In 2011, she was renamed and is currently operated by Oceanwide Expeditions as a tourist vessel in the polar regions."
],
[
"Work",
"Tsvetaeva's poetry was admired by poets such as Valery Bryusov, Maximilian Voloshin, Osip Mandelstam, Boris Pasternak, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Anna Akhmatova.",
"Later, that recognition was also expressed by the poet Joseph Brodsky, pre-eminent among Tsvetaeva's champions.",
"Tsvetaeva was primarily a lyrical poet, and her lyrical voice remains clearly audible in her narrative poetry.",
"Brodsky said of her work: \"Represented on a graph, Tsvetaeva's work would exhibit a curve – or rather, a straight line – rising at almost a right angle because of her constant effort to raise the pitch a note higher, an idea higher (or, more precisely, an octave and a faith higher.)",
"She always carried everything she has to say to its conceivable and expressible end.",
"In both her poetry and her prose, nothing remains hanging or leaves a feeling of ambivalence.",
"Tsvetaeva is the unique case in which the paramount spiritual experience of an epoch (for us, the sense of ambivalence, of contradictoriness in the nature of human existence) served not as the object of expression but as its means, by which it was transformed into the material of art.\"",
"Critic Annie Finch describes the engaging, heart-felt nature of the work.",
"\"Tsvetaeva is such a warm poet, so unbridled in her passion, so completely vulnerable in her love poetry, whether to her female lover Sofie Parnak, to Boris Pasternak.",
"... Tsvetaeva throws her poetic brilliance on the altar of her heart’s experience with the faith of a true romantic, a priestess of lived emotion.",
"And she stayed true to that faith to the tragic end of her life.Tsvetaeva's lyric poems fill ten collections; the uncollected lyrics would add at least another volume.",
"Her first two collections indicate their subject matter in their titles: ''Evening Album'' (Vecherniy albom, 1910) and ''The Magic Lantern'' (Volshebnyi fonar, 1912).",
"The poems are vignettes of a tranquil childhood and youth in a professorial, middle-class home in Moscow, and display considerable grasp of the formal elements of style.",
"The full range of Tsvetaeva's talent developed quickly, and was undoubtedly influenced by the contacts she had made at Koktebel, and was made evident in two new collections: ''Mileposts'' (Versty, 1921) and ''Mileposts: Book One'' (Versty, Vypusk I, 1922).Three elements of Tsvetaeva's mature style emerge in the ''Mileposts'' collections.",
"First, Tsvetaeva dates her poems and publishes them chronologically.",
"The poems in ''Mileposts: Book One'', for example, were written in 1916 and resolve themselves as a versified journal.",
"Secondly, there are cycles of poems which fall into a regular chronological sequence among the single poems, evidence that certain themes demanded further expression and development.",
"One cycle announces the theme of ''Mileposts: Book One'' as a whole: the \"Poems of Moscow.\"",
"Two other cycles are dedicated to poets, the \"Poems to Akhmatova\" and the \"Poems to Blok\", which again reappear in a separate volume, Poems to Blok (''Stikhi k Bloku'', 1922).",
"Thirdly, the ''Mileposts'' collections demonstrate the dramatic quality of Tsvetaeva's work, and her ability to assume the guise of multiple ''dramatis personae'' within them.The collection ''Separation'' (Razluka, 1922) was to contain Tsvetaeva's first long verse narrative, \"On a Red Steed\" (\"Na krasnom kone\").",
"The poem is a prologue to three more verse-narratives written between 1920 and 1922.All four narrative poems draw on folkloric plots.",
"Tsvetaeva acknowledges her sources in the titles of the very long works, ''The Maiden Tsar: A Fairy-tale Poem'' (''Tsar-devitsa: Poema-skazka'', 1922) and \"The Swain\", subtitled \"A Fairytale\" (\"Molodets: skazka\", 1924).",
"The fourth folklore-style poem is \"Byways\" (\"Pereulochki\", published in 1923 in the collection ''Remeslo''), and it is the first poem which may be deemed incomprehensible in that it is fundamentally a soundscape of language.",
"The collection ''Psyche'' (''Psikheya'', 1923) contains one of Tsvetaeva's best-known cycles \"Insomnia\" (Bessonnitsa) and the poem The Swans' Encampment (Lebedinyi stan, Stikhi 1917–1921, published in 1957) which celebrates the White Army.===Emigrant===Subsequently, as an émigré, Tsvetaeva's last two collections of lyrics were published by émigré presses, ''Craft'' (''Remeslo'', 1923) in Berlin and ''After Russia'' (''Posle Rossii'', 1928) in Paris.",
"There then followed the twenty-three lyrical \"Berlin\" poems, the pantheistic \"Trees\" (\"Derev'ya\"), \"Wires\" (\"Provoda\") and \"Pairs\" (\"Dvoe\"), and the tragic \"Poets\" (\"Poety\").",
"\"After Russia\" contains the poem \"In Praise of the Rich\", in which Tsvetaeva's oppositional tone is merged with her proclivity for ruthless satire.",
"USSR stamp featuring Tsvetaeva (1991)===Satire===Satire is a secondary element after lyricism in Tsvetaeva's poetry.",
"Several satirical poems, moreover, are among Tsvetaeva's best-known works: \"The Train of Life\" (\"Poezd zhizni\") and \"The Floorcleaners' Song\" (\"Poloterskaya\"), both included in After Russia, and The Ratcatcher (Krysolov, 1925–1926), a long, folkloric narrative.",
"The target of Tsvetaeva's satire is everything petty and petty bourgeois.",
"Unleashed against such dull creature comforts is the vengeful, unearthly energy of workers both manual and creative.",
"In her notebook, Tsvetaeva writes of \"The Floorcleaners' Song\": \"Overall movement: the floorcleaners ferret out a house's hidden things, they scrub a fire into the door... What do they flush out?",
"Coziness, warmth, tidiness, order...",
"Smells: incense, piety.",
"Bygones.",
"Yesterday...",
"The growing force of their threat is far stronger than the climax.\"",
"''The Ratcatcher'' poem, which Tsvetaeva describes as a ''lyrical satire'', is loosely based on the legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin.",
"The Ratcatcher, which is also known as The Pied Piper, is considered by some to be the finest of Tsvetaeva's work.",
"It was also partially an act of ''homage'' to Heinrich Heine's poem ''Die Wanderratten''.",
"The Ratcatcher appeared initially, in serial format, in the émigré journal '''' in 1925–1926 whilst still being written.",
"It was not to appear in the Soviet Union until after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1956.Its hero is the Pied Piper of Hamelin who saves a town from hordes of rats and then leads the town's children away too, in retribution for the citizens' ingratitude.",
"As in the other folkloric narratives, The Ratcatcher's story line emerges indirectly through numerous speaking voices which shift from invective, to extended lyrical flights, to pathos.",
"The poem \"For my poems\" by Tsvetaeva on a wall of the building at Nieuwsteeg 1, Leiden, NetherlandsTsvetaeva's last ten years of exile, from 1928 when \"After Russia\" appeared until her return in 1939 to the Soviet Union, were principally a \"prose decade\", though this would almost certainly be by dint of economic necessity rather than one of choice.===Translators===Translators of Tsvetaeva's work into English include Elaine Feinstein and David McDuff.",
"Nina Kossman translated many of Tsvetaeva's long (narrative) poems, as well as her lyrical poems; they are collected in three books, ''Poem of the End'' (bilingual edition published by Ardis in 1998, by Overlook in 2004, and by Shearsman Books in 2021), ''In the Inmost Hour of the Soul'' (Humana Press, 1989), and ''Other Shepherds'' (Poets & Traitors Press, 2020).",
"Robin Kemball translated the cycle ''The Demesne of the Swans'', published as a separate (bilingual) book by Ardis in 1980.J.",
"Marin King translated a great deal of Tsvetaeva's prose into English, compiled in a book called ''A Captive Spirit''.",
"Tsvetaeva scholar Angela Livingstone has translated a number of Tsvetaeva's essays on art and writing, compiled in a book called ''Art in the Light of Conscience''.",
"Livingstone's translation of Tsvetaeva's \"The Ratcatcher\" was published as a separate book.",
"Mary Jane White has translated the early cycle \"Miles\" in a book called \"Starry Sky to Starry Sky\", as well as Tsvetaeva's elegy for Rilke, \"New Year's\", (Adastra Press 16 Reservation Road, Easthampton, MA 01027 USA) and \"Poem of the End\" (The Hudson Review, Winter 2009; and in the anthology Poets Translate Poets, Syracuse U.",
"Press 2013) and \"Poem of the Hill\", (New England Review, Summer 2008) and Tsvetaeva's 1914–1915 cycle of love poems to Sophia Parnok.",
"In 2002, Yale University Press published Jamey Gambrell's translation of post-revolutionary prose, entitled ''Earthly Signs: Moscow Diaries, 1917–1922'', with notes on poetic and linguistic aspects of Tsvetaeva's prose, and endnotes for the text itself.===Cultural influence===* 2017: ''Zerkalo'' (\"Mirror\"), American magazine in MN for the Russian-speaking readers.",
"It was a special publication to the 125th Anniversary of the Russian poet Marina Tsvetaeva, where the article \"Marina Tsvetaeva in America\" was written by Dr. Uli Zislin, the founder and director of the Washington Museum of Russian Poetry and Music, Sep/Oct 2017.===Music and songs===In 1973, Soviet composer Dmitri Shostakovich set six of Tsvetaeva's poems in his ''Six Poems by Marina Tsvetayeva''.",
"Later the Russian-Tatar composer Sofia Gubaidulina wrote an ''Hommage à Marina Tsvetayeva'' featuring her poems.",
"Her poem \"Mne Nravitsya...\" (\"I like that...\"), was performed by Alla Pugacheva in the film ''The Irony of Fate''.",
"In 2003, the opera ''Marina: A Captive Spirit'', based on Tsvetaeva's life and work, premiered from American Opera Projects in New York with music by Deborah Drattell and libretto by poet Annie Finch.",
"The production was directed by Anne Bogart and the part of Tsvetaeva was sung by Lauren Flanigan.",
"The poetry by Tsvetaeva was set to music and frequently performed as songs by Elena Frolova, Larisa Novoseltseva, Zlata Razdolina and other Russian bards.",
"In 2019, American composer Mark Abel wrote ''Four Poems of Marina Tsvetaeva'', the first classical song cycle of the poet in an English translation.",
"Soprano Hila Plitmann recorded the piece for Abel’s album ''The Cave of Wondrous Voice''."
],
[
"Tribute",
"On 8 October 2015, Google Doodle commemorated her 123rd birthday."
],
[
"Translations into English",
"* ''Selected Poems'', trans.",
"Elaine Feinstein.",
"(Oxford University Press, 1971; 2nd ed., 1981; 3rd ed., 1986; 4th ed., 1993; 5th ed., 1999; 6th ed.",
"2009 as ''Bride of Ice: New Selected Poems'') * ''The Demesne of the Swans'', trans.",
"Robin Kemball (bilingual edition, Ardis, 1980) ISBN 978-0882334936*''Marina Tsvetayeva: Selected Poems'', trans.",
"David McDuff.",
"(Bloodaxe Books, 1987) *\"Starry Sky to Starry Sky (Miles)\", trans.",
"Mary Jane White.",
"(Holy Cow!",
"Press, 1988), (paper) and (cloth)*''In the Inmost Hour of the Soul: Poems by Marina Tsvetayeva '', trans.",
"Nina Kossman (Humana Press, 1989) *''Black Earth'', trans.",
"Elaine Feinstein (The Delos Press and The Menard Press, 1992) ISBN I-874320-00-4 and ISBN I-874320-05-5 (signed ed.",
")*\"After Russia\", trans.",
"Michael Nayden (Ardis, 1992).",
"* ''A Captive Spirit: Selected Prose'', trans.",
"J. Marin King (Vintage Books, 1994) *''Poem of the End: Selected Narrative and Lyrical Poems '', trans.",
"Nina Kossman (Ardis / Overlook, 1998, 2004) ; Poem of the End: Six Narrative Poems, trans.",
"Nina Kossman (Shearsman Books, 2021) ISBN 978-1-84861-778-0)*''The Ratcatcher: A Lyrical Satire'', trans.",
"Angela Livingstone (Northwestern University, 2000) *''Letters: Summer 1926'' (Boris Pasternak, Marina Tsvetayeva, Rainer Maria Rilke) (New York Review Books, 2001)* ''Earthly Signs: Moscow Diaries, 1917–1922'', ed.",
"& trans.",
"Jamey Gambrell (Yale University Press, 2002) *''Phaedra: a drama in verse; with New Year's Letter and other long poems'', trans.",
"Angela Livingstone (Angel Classics, 2012) *\"To You – in 10 Decades\", trans.",
"by Alexander Givental and Elysee Wilson-Egolf (Sumizdat 2012) *''Moscow in the Plague Year'', translated by Christopher Whyte (180 poems written between November 1918 and May 1920) (Archipelago Press, New York, 2014), 268pp, *''Milestones (1922),'' translated by Christopher Whyte (Bristol, Shearsman Books, 2015), 122p, *''After Russia: The First Notebook,'' translated by Christopher Whyte (Bristol, Shearsman Books, 2017), 141 pp, *''After Russia: The Second Notebook'', translated by Christopher Whyte (Bristol, Shearsman Books, 2018) 121 pp, *\"Poem of the End\" in \"From A Terrace in Prague, A Prague Poetry Anthology\", trans.",
"Mary Jane White, ed.",
"Stephan Delbos (Univerzita Karlova v Praze, 2011) *''Youthful Verses'', translated by Christopher Whyte (Bristol, Shearsman Books, 2021), 114 pp, ISBN 9781848617315*''Head on a Gleaming Plate: Poems 1917-1918'', translated by Christopher Whyte (Bristol, Shearsman Books, 2022), 120 pp, ISBN 9781848618435*''Poems'', trans.",
"Alyssa Gillespie (Columbia University Press, forthcoming)*''Three by Tsvetaeva'', trans.",
"Andrew Davis (New York Review Books, 2024)"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Schweitzer, Viktoria ''Tsvetaeva'' (1993)* Mandelstam, Nadezhda ''Hope Against Hope''* Mandelstam, Nadezhda ''Hope Abandoned''* Pasternak, Boris ''An Essay in Autobiography''"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Poetry Foundation profile* Poetry Academy profile* \"Marina Tsvetaeva, ''Poet of the extreme''\" by Belinda Cooke from ''South'' magazine #31, April 2005.Republished online in the Poetry Library's Poetry Magazines site.",
"* Marina Tsvetaeva biography at Carcanet Press, English language publisher of Tsvetaeva's ''Bride of Ice'' and ''Marina Tsvetaeva: Selected Poems'', translated by Elaine Feinstein.",
"* Heritage of Marina Tsvetayeva, a resource in English with a more extensive version in Russian."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Matilda of Tuscany"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Matilda of Tuscany''' ( , , ; 1046 – 24 July 1115 or '''Matilda of Canossa''' after her ancestral castle of Canossa), also referred to as '''''' (\"the Great Countess\"), was a member of the House of Canossa (also known as the Attonids) in the second half of the eleventh century.",
"Matilda was one of the most important governing figures of the Italian Middle Ages.",
"She reigned in a period of constant battles, political intrigues and Roman Catholic excommunications, and was able to demonstrate an innate and skilled strategic leadership capacity in both military and diplomatic matters.She ruled as a feudal margravine and, as a relative of the imperial Salian dynasty, she brokered a settlement in the so-called Investiture Controversy.",
"In this extensive conflict with the emerging reform Papacy over the relationship between spiritual (''sacerdotium'') and secular (''regnum'') power, Pope Gregory VII dismissed and excommunicated the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV in 1076.At the same time, Matilda came into possession of a substantial territory that included present-day Lombardy, Emilia, Romagna and Tuscany, and made the Canossa Castle, in the Apennines south of Reggio, the centre of her domains.In January 1077, Henry IV was, after his famous penitential walk in front of the Canossa () Castle, accepted back into the church community by the Pope.",
"The understanding between the Emperor and the Pope was short-lived, however.",
"In the conflicts with Henry IV that arose a little later, Matilda put all her military and material resources into the service of the Papacy from 1080.Her court became a refuge for many displaced persons during the turmoil of the investiture dispute and enjoyed a cultural boom.",
"Even after Pope Gregory VII's death in 1085, Matilda remained an important pillar of the Reform Church.",
"Between 1081 and 1098, the Canossa rule fell into a major crisis due to the grueling disputes with Henry IV.",
"The historical record is sparse for this time.",
"A turning point resulted from Matilda forming a coalition with the southern German dukes, who were in opposition to Henry IV.After Henry IV's retreat in 1097 past the Alps to the empire's north, a power vacuum developed in Italy.",
"The struggle between and changed the social and rulership structure of the Italian cities permanently, giving them space for emancipation from foreign rule and their own communal development.",
"From autumn 1098 Matilda was able to regain many of her lost domains.",
"Until the end she tried to bring the cities under her control.",
"After 1098, she increasingly used the opportunities offered to her to consolidate her rule again.",
"In her final years she was worried about her own memory, which is why the childless Matilda focused her donation activity on the Polirone Abbey rather than find a suitable heir.Between 6 and 11 May 1111, Matilda was reportedly crowned Imperial Vicar and Vice-Queen of Italy by Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor at the Castle of Bianello (Quattro Castella, Reggio Emilia), following the account of Donizo.",
"With her death, the House of Canossa became extinct in 1115.Popes and emperors fought over their rich inheritance, called the \"Matildine domains\", well into the 13th century.",
"Matilda became a myth in Italy, which found its expression in numerous artistic, musical and literary designs as well as miracle stories and legends.",
"This legacy reached its peak during the Counter-Reformation and the Baroque Period.",
"Pope Urban VIII had Matilda's body transferred to Rome in 1630, where she was the first woman to be buried in Saint Peter's Basilica."
],
[
"Origins of the House of Canossa",
"Adalbert-Atto of Canossa and his wife Hildegard surrounded by arches, and their sons Rudolph, Geoffrey (Gotofred) and Tedald at their feet.",
"Donizo's ''Vita Mathildis'' (Vatican Library, Codex Vat.",
"Lat.",
"4922, fol.",
"20v) Matilda came from the noble House of Canossa, also named the Attonids, although these names were only created by later generations.",
"The oldest proven ancestor of the House of Canossa was the nobleman Sigifred, who lived in the first third of the 10th century and came from the County of Lucca.",
"He probably increased his sphere of influence in the area around Parma and probably also in the foothills of the Apennines.",
"His son Adalbert-Atto was able to bring several castles in the foothills of the Apennines under his control in the politically fragmented region and built in the southwest of the mountains of Reggio Emilia the Canossa Castle.King Lothair II of Italy died unexpectedly in 950, whereupon Berengar of Ivrea wanted to take power in Italy.",
"After a short imprisonment, Lothair's widow Queen Adelaide found refuge with Adalbert-Atto in Canossa Castle.",
"King Otto I of East Francia then intervened in Italy himself and married Adelaide in 951.This resulted in a close bond between the House of Canossa and the Ottonian dynasty.",
"Adalbert-Atto appeared in Otto I's documents as an advocate and was able to establish contacts with the Papacy for the first time in the wake of the Ottonians.",
"Adalbert-Atto also received from Otto I the Counties of Reggio and Modena.",
"In 977 at the latest, the County of Mantua was added to his domains.Adalbert-Atto's son and Matilda's grandfather Tedald continued their close ties to the Ottonian rulers from 988.In 996 he is listed as ''dux et marchio'' (Duke and Margrave) in a document.",
"This title was adopted by all subsequent rulers of the House of Canossa.An inheritance dispute among the three sons of Tedald could be prevented.",
"The rise of the family reached the climax under Matilda's father Boniface.",
"The three successive Canossa rulers (Adalbert-Atto, Tedald and Boniface) instituted monasteries for their expansion of rule.",
"The founded monasteries (Brescello, Polirone, Santa Maria di Felonica) were established in places of transport and strategic importance for the administrative consolidation of their large estates, and used three family saints (Genesius, Apollonius and Simeon) to stabilize the House of Canossa's power structure and sought to exert influence on convents that had been in existence for a long time (Abbey of Nonantola).",
"The transfer of monasteries to local bishops and the promotion of spiritual institutions also enlarged their network of alliances.",
"The appearance as the guardian of order consolidated their position along the ''Via Aemilia''.",
"Historian Arnaldo Tincani was able to prove the considerable number of 120 farms in the Canossa estate near the Po river."
],
[
"Parents, Birth and early years",
"On the occasion of the wedding of Conrad II's son Henry with Gunhilda of Denmark in 1036 at the city of Nijmegen, Boniface met Beatrice of Lorraine, niece and foster daughter of Empress Gisela of Swabia.",
"A marriage covenant could be arranged and one year later, in June 1037, Boniface and Beatrice celebrated their marriage in high style, keeping court at Marengo for three months afterwards.",
"According to the marital agreements, Beatrice brought important assets in Lorraine: the Château of Briey and the Lordships of Stenay, Mouzay, Juvigny, Longlier and Orval, all the northern part of her paternal family's ancestral lands.",
"As the daughter of Duke Frederick II of Upper Lorraine and Matilda of Swabia, she and her sister Sophia were raised in the imperial court by their aunt Empress Gisela (her mother's sister) after the deaths of their parents.",
"For Boniface, the marriage to Beatrice, a close relative of the Emperor, brought him not only prestige but also the prospect to finally have an heir; his first marriage with Richilda (died after February 1036), daughter of Giselbert II, Count Palatine of Bergamo, brought only one daughter, born and died in 1014.Boniface and Beatrice had three children, one son, Frederick (named after his maternal grandfather), and two daughters, Beatrice (named after her own mother) and Matilda (named after her maternal grandmother).",
"Matilda, probably born around 1046, was the youngest child.Matilda's birthplace and exact date of birth are unknown.",
"Italian scholars have been arguing about her place of birth for centuries.",
"According to Francesco Maria Fiorentini, a doctor and scholar of the 17th century, she was born in Lucca, an assumption reinforced by a miniature in the early twelfth-century ''Vita Mathildis'' by the monk Donizo (or, in Italian, Donizone), where Matilda is referred to as 'Resplendent Matilda' (''Mathildis Lucens''): since the Latin word ''lucens'' is similar to ''lucensis'' (of/from Lucca), this may also be a reference to Matilda's birth place.",
"By the other hand, for Benedictine scholar Camillo Affarosi, Canossa was the place of birth.",
"Lino Lionello Ghirardini and Paolo Golinelli both advocated Mantua as her birth place.",
"A recent publication by Michèle Kahn Spike also favors Mantua, as it was the center for Boniface's court at the time.",
"In addition, Ferrara or the small Tuscan town of San Miniato were also discussed as possible birth places.",
"According to Elke Goez, the sources cannot prove that there was a permanent household for Boniface of Canossa in either Mantua or any other place.Matilda must have spent her early years around her mother.",
"Renowned for her learning, she was literate in Latin, as well as reputed to speak German and French.",
"The extent of Matilda's education in military matters is debated.",
"It has been asserted that she was taught strategy, tactics, riding and wielding weapons, but recent scholarship challenges these claims.Boniface of Canossa was a feared and hated prince for some small vassals throughout his life.",
"On 7 May 1052 he was ambushed while hunting in the forest of San Martino dall'Argine near Mantua and killed.",
"Following the death of their father, Matilda's brother, Frederick, inherited the family lands and titles under the regency of their mother, who not only managed to hold the family patrimony together but also made important contacts with leading figures in the Church renewal movement.",
"Beatrice developed into an increasingly important pillar of the reform of the Papacy.",
"Matilda's older sister, Beatrice, died the next year (before 17 December 1053), making Matilda heiress presumptive to Frederick's personal holdings.",
"Beatrice was Regent of Tuscany from 1052 until her death in 1076, during the minority of and in co-regency with Matilda.In mid-1054, determined to safeguard the interests of her children as well as her own, Beatrice of Lorraine married Godfrey the Bearded, a distant kinsman who had been stripped of the Duchy of Upper Lorraine after openly rebelling against Emperor Henry III.Emperor Henry III was enraged by his cousin Beatrice's unauthorised union with his most vigorous adversary and took the opportunity to have her arrested, along with Matilda, when he marched south to attend a synod in Florence on Pentecost in 1055.Frederick's rather suspicious death soon thereafter made Matilda the last member of the House of Canossa.",
"Mother and daughter were taken to Germany, but Godfrey the Bearded successfully avoided capture.",
"Unable to defeat him, Henry III sought a rapprochement.",
"The Emperor's early death in October 1056, which brought to throne the underage Henry IV, seems to have accelerated the negotiations and the restoration of the previous balance of power.",
"Godfrey the Bearded was reconciled with the imperial family and recognized as Margrave of Tuscany in December, while Beatrice and Matilda were released.",
"By the time she and her mother returned to Italy, in the company of Pope Victor II, Matilda was formally acknowledged as sole heiress to the greatest territorial lordship in the southern part of the Empire.",
"In June 1057 the Pope held a synod in Florence; he was present during the infamous capture of Beatrice and Matilda, and with the deliberated choice of location of the synod also made it clear that the House of Canossa had returned to Italy, strengthened at the side of the Pope and had been completely rehabilitated; with Henry IV being a minor, the reform Papacy sought the protection of the powerful House of Canossa.",
"According to Donizo, the Panegyric biographer of Matilda and her ancestors, she was familiar with both French and German due to her origins and living conditions.Matilda's mother and stepfather thus became heavily involved in the series of disputed papal elections during their regency, supporting the Gregorian Reforms.",
"Godfrey the Bearded's brother Frederick became Pope Stephen IX, while both of the following two popes, Nicholas II and Alexander II, had been Tuscan bishops.",
"Matilda made her first journey to Rome with her family in the entourage of Nicholas II in 1059.Godfrey and Beatrice actively assisted them in dealing with antipopes, while the adolescent Matilda's role remains unclear.",
"A contemporary account of her stepfather's 1067 expedition against Prince Richard I of Capua on behalf of the papacy mentions Matilda's participation in the campaign, describing it as the \"first service that the most excellent daughter of Boniface offered to the blessed prince of the apostles\"."
],
[
"First marriage: Godfrey the Hunchback",
"The states of the Apennine Peninsula in the second half of the 11th century.Possibly taking advantage of the minority of Henry IV, Beatrice and Godfrey the Bearded wanted to consolidate the connection between the Houses of Lorraine and Canossa in the long term by marrying their two children.",
"Around 1055, Matilda and her stepbrother Godfrey the Hunchback (son of Godfrey the Bearded from his first marriage) were betrothed.",
"In May 1069, as Godfrey the Bearded lay dying in Verdun, Beatrice and Matilda hastened to reach Lorraine, anxious to ensure a smooth transition of power.",
"Matilda was present at her stepfather's deathbed, and on that occasion she is for the first time clearly mentioned as the wife of her stepbrother.",
"After the death of Godfrey the Bearded on 30 December, the newlyweds stayed in Lorraine while Beatrice returned to Italy alone.",
"Matilda became pregnant in 1070; Godfrey the Hunchback seems to have informed the Salian imperial court about this event: in a charter from Henry IV dated 9 May 1071, Godfrey or his heirs are mentioned.",
"Matilda gave birth to a daughter, named Beatrice after her maternal grandmother, but the child died a few weeks after the birth before 29 August 1071.Matilda and Godfrey the Hunchback's marriage proved a failure after a short time; the death of their only child and Godfrey's physical deformity may have helped fuel deep animosity between the spouses.",
"By the end of 1071, Matilda had left her husband and returned to Italy, where her stay in Mantua on 19 January 1072 can be proven: there she and her mother issued a deed of donation for the Monastery of Sant'Andrea.",
"Godfrey the Hunchback fiercely protested the separation and demanded that Matilda come back to him, which she repeatedly refused.",
"In early 1072 he descended into Italy and visited several places in Tuscany, determined not only to enforce the marriage, but to lay claim to these areas as Matilda's husband.",
"During this time, Matilda stayed in Lucca; there's no evidence that the couple met: only in a single document dated 18 August 1073 in Mantua for a donation for the Monastery of San Paolo in Parma, Matilda named Godfrey the Hunchback as her husband.",
"In his efforts to restore his marital bond, Godfrey the Hunchback sought the help of both Matilda's mother and her ally, the newly elected Pope Gregory VII, promising military aid to the latter.",
"However, Matilda's resolution was unshakable, and in the summer of 1073 Godfrey the Hunchback returned to Lorraine alone, losing all hope for a reconciliation by 1074.Matilda wanted to enter in a monastery as a nun, and during 1073–1074 she tried in vain to obtain the dissolution of her marriage with the Pope; however, Gregory VII needed Godfrey the Hunchback as an ally and was therefore not interested in a divorce.",
"At the same time he hoped for Matilda's help with his crusade plans.Rather than supporting the Pope as promised in exchange for preserving his marriage, Godfrey the Hunchback turned his attention to imperial affairs.",
"Meanwhile, the conflict later known as the Investiture Controversy was brewing between Gregory VII and Henry IV, with both men claiming the right to appoint bishops and abbots within the Empire.",
"Matilda and Godfrey the Hunchback soon found themselves on opposing sides of the dispute, leading to a further deterioration of their difficult relationship.",
"German chroniclers, writing of the synod held at Worms in January 1076, even suggested that Godfrey the Hunchback inspired Henry IV's allegation of a licentious affair between Gregory VII and Matilda.Matilda and her husband continued to live separately until Godfrey the Hunchback was assassinated in Vlaardingen, near Antwerp on 26 February 1076.Having been accused of adultery with the Pope the previous month, Matilda was suspected of ordering her estranged husband's death.",
"She couldn't have known about the proceedings at the Synod of Worms at the time, however, since the news took three months to reach the Pope himself, and it is more likely that Godfrey the Hunchback was killed at the instigation of an enemy nearer to him.",
"Matilda made no spiritual gifts either for Godfrey the Hunchback or for their infant daughter; however, her mother Beatrice in 1071 donated property to the Abbey of Frassinoro for the salvation of her granddaughter's soul and granted twelve farms \"for the health and life of my beloved daughter Matilda\" (''pro incolomitate et anima Matilde dilecte filie mee'')."
],
[
"Co-rulership with her mother Beatrice",
"Matilda's bold decision to repudiate her husband came at a cost, but ensured her independence.",
"Beatrice started preparing Matilda for rule as head of the House of Canossa by holding court jointly with her and, eventually, encouraging her to issue charters on her own as countess (''comitissa'') and duchess (''ducatrix'').",
"Both mother and daughter tried to be present throughout their territory.",
"In what is now Emilia-Romagna their position was much more stable than in the southern Apennines, where they couldn't get their followers behind them despite rich donations.",
"They therefore tried to act as guardians of justice and public order.",
"Matilda's participation is mentioned in seven of the sixteen ''placitum'' held by Beatrice.",
"Supported by judges, Matilda had already held ''placitum'' placita alone.",
"On 7 June 1072 Matilda and her mother presided over the court in favor of the Abbey of San Salvatore in Monte Amiata.",
"On 8 February 1073, Matilda went to Lucca without her mother and presided over the court alone, where she made a donation in favor of the local Monastery of San Salvatore e Santa Giustina.",
"At the instigation of the abbess Eritha, the monastery possessions in Lucca and Villanova near Serchio were secured by the King's ban (''Königsbann'').",
"For the next six months Matilda's residence is not known, while her mother took part in the ceremony of enthronement of Pope Gregory VII.Matilda was introduced by her mother to numerous personalities in church reform, especially Pope Gregory VII himself.",
"She had already met the future Pope, then Archdeacon Hildebrand, in the 1060s.",
"After his election as Pope, she met him for the first time during 9–17 March 1074.With Matilda and Beatrice, the Pope developed a special relationship of trust in the period that followed.",
"However, Beatrice died on 18 April 1076.On 27 August 1077 Matilda donated her town of Scanello and other estates to the extent of 600 ''mansus'' near the court to Bishop Landulf and the chapter of Pisa Cathedral as a soul device (''Seelgerät'') for herself and her parents.The deaths of both her husband and mother within two months of difference considerably augmented Matilda's power; she was now the undisputed heir of all her parents' allodial lands.",
"Her inheritance would have been threatened had Godfrey the Hunchback survived her mother, but she now enjoyed the privileged status of a widow.",
"It seemed unlikely, however, that Emperor Henry IV would formally invest her with the margraviate."
],
[
"Personal rule",
"===Matilda's role during the Investiture Controversy=======State of Matilda's domains after her accession to power====After the death of her mother, Matilda took over her immense paternal inheritance, contrary to the provisions of the Salic and Lombard law currently in force in the Kingdom of Italy, according to which Emperor Henry IV would have been the legal heir.",
"A lending under imperial law was of secondary importance for the House of Canossa in view of Henry IV's minority and close cooperation with the reform Papacy.Between 1076 and 1080, Matilda travelled to Lorraine to lay claim to her husband's estate in Verdun, which he had willed (along with the rest of his patrimony) to his sister Ida's son, Godfrey of Bouillon.",
"Godfrey of Bouillon also disputed her rights to Stenay and Mosay, which her mother had received as dowry.",
"The quarrel between aunt and nephew over the episcopal County of Verdun was eventually settled by Theoderic, Bishop of Verdun, who enjoyed the right to nominate the counts.",
"He easily found in favor of Matilda, as such verdict happened to please both Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV.",
"Matilda then proceeded to enfeoff Verdun to her husband's pro-reform cousin, Albert III of Namur.",
"The deep animosity between Matilda and her nephew is thought to have prevented her from travelling to Jerusalem during the First Crusade, led by him in the late 1090s.====Efforts to achieve a balance between King and Pope====Miniature of Matilda from the frontispiece of Donizo's ''Vita Mathildis'' (Vatican Library, Codex Vat.",
"Lat.",
"4922, fol.",
"7v.).",
"Matilda is depicted seated.",
"On her right, Donizo is presenting her with a copy of the ''Vita Mathildis'', on her left is a man with a sword (possibly her man-at-arms).",
"The script underneath reads: ''Mathildis lucens, precor hoc cape cara volumen'' (Resplendent Matilda, please accept this book, oh you dear one.",
")Ruins of the Canossa Castle.Depiction of Pope Gregory VII at the beginning of the ''Vita Gregorii VII'' of Pauls von Bernried in the manuscript Heiligenkreuz, ''Stiftsbibliothek'', Cod.",
"12, fol.",
"181v.Matilda was a second cousin of Henry IV through their respective grandmothers, sisters Matilda of Swabia and Empress Gisela.",
"Because of her family ties to the Salian dynasty, she was suitable for a mediator role between the Emperor and the Holy See.",
"Matilda's mother died at the time when the conflict between King Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII was escalating.",
"Matilda and Beatrice were among Gregory VII's closest confidants.",
"From the beginning he took both into his confidence and let them know about his plans against the Roman-German king.The disagreement between Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV culminated in the aftermath of the synod of Worms on 24 January 1076; together with the Archbishops Siegfried of Mainz and Udo of Trier and another 24 bishops, the king formulated drastic accusations against Gregory VII.",
"The allegations included Gregory VII's election (which was described as illegitimate), the government of the Church through a \"women's senate\" and that \"he shared a table with a strange woman and housed her, more familiar than necessary.\"",
"The contempt was so immense that Matilda was not even called by name.",
"The Pope responded on 15 February 1076 with the excommunication of the king, releasing all his subjects from the oath of allegiance to him and providing the perfect reason for rebellion against his rule.",
"These measures had a tremendous effect on contemporaries, like the words of the chronicler Bonizo of Sutri show: \"When the news of the banishment of the king reached the ears of the people, our whole world trembled\".Insubordinate southern German princes gathered in Trebur, awaiting the Pope.",
"Matilda's first military endeavor, as well as the first major task altogether as ruler, turned out to be protecting the Pope during his perilous journey north.",
"Gregory VII could rely on nobody else; as the sole heiress to the House of Canossa patrimony, Matilda controlled all the Apennine passes and nearly all the rest that connected central Italy to the north.",
"The Lombard bishops, who were also excommunicated for taking part in the synod and whose sees bordered Matilda's domain, were keen to capture the Pope.",
"Gregory VII was aware of the danger, and recorded that all his advisors except Matilda counselled him against travelling to Trebur.Henry IV had other plans, however.",
"He decided to descend into Italy and intercept Gregory VII, who was thus delayed.",
"The German princes held a council by themselves and informed the King that he had to submit to the Pope within a year or be replaced.",
"Henry IV's predecessors had dealt easily with troublesome pontiffs — they had simply deposed them, and the excommunicated Lombard bishops rejoiced at this prospect.",
"When Matilda heard about Henry IV's approach, she urged Gregory VII to take refuge in the Canossa Castle, her family's eponymous stronghold.",
"The Pope took her advice.It soon became clear that the intention behind Henry's walk to Canossa was to show penance.",
"By 25 January 1077, the king stood barefoot in the snow before the gates of Matilda's castle, accompanied by his wife Bertha of Savoy, their infant son Conrad and Bertha's mother, the powerful Margravine Adelaide of Susa (Matilda's second cousin; Adelaide's grandmother was Prangarda, sister of Tedald of Canossa, Matilda's paternal grandfather).",
"Since Matilda's castle became the setting for the reconciliation between the Emperor and the Pope, she must have been very closely involved in the negotiations.",
"The King remained there, in a penitent's robe, barefoot and without a sign of authority, despite the winter cold, until 28 January, when Matilda convinced the Pope to see him.",
"Matilda and Adelaide brokered a deal between the men.",
"Henry IV was taken back into the Church, with both Matilda and Adelaide acting as sponsors and formally swearing to the agreement.",
"For Matilda, the days in Canossa were a challenge.",
"All those arriving had to be accommodated and looked after appropriately.",
"She had to take care of the procurement and storage of food and fodder, and the supplies in the middle of winter.",
"After the ban was dissolved, Henry IV stayed in the Po Valley for several months and demonstratively devoted himself to his rulership.",
"Pope Gregory VII stayed in Matilda's castles for the next few months.",
"Henry IV and Matilda never met again in person after the Canossa days.",
"From 1077 to 1080 Matilda followed the usual activities of her rule.",
"In addition to a few donations for the dioceses of Lucca and Mantua, court documents were in dominance.====Disputes with Henry IV====In 1079, Matilda gave the Pope all her domains (the so-called ''Terre Matildiche''), in open defiance of Henry IV's claims both as the overlord of some of those domains, and as one of her close relatives.",
"One year later, the fortunes of Papacy and Empire turned again: at the Roman synod of Lent in early March 1080 Henry IV was again excommunicated by Gregory VII.",
"The Pope combined the anathem with a warning: if the king didn't submit to the Papal authority by 1 August he should be dethroned.",
"However, unlike previously, the German bishops and princes stood behind Henry IV.",
"In Brixen on 25 June 1080, seven German, one Burgundian and 20 Italian bishops decided to depose Gregory VII and nominated Archbishop Guibert of Ravenna as pope, who took the name of Clement III.",
"The break between the Empire and the Papacy also escalated the relationship between Henry IV and Matilda.",
"In September 1080 the Margravine stood on behalf of Bishop Gratianus of Ferrara to court.",
"Marquis Azzo d'Este, Counts Ugo and Ubert, Albert (son of Count Boso), Paganus di Corsina, Fulcus de Rovereto, Gerardo di Corviago, Petrus de Ermengarda and Ugo Armatus all met there.",
"Matilda swore there to maintain the upcoming fight against Henry IV.",
"On 15 October 1080 at Volta Mantovana, the imperial troops defeated the army of Matilda and Gregory VII in battle.",
"Some Tuscan nobles took advantage of the uncertainty and positioned themselves against Matilda; few places remained faithful to her.",
"In a donation of 9 December 1080 to the Modenese monastery of San Prospero, only a few local followers are named.Matilda, however, did not surrender.",
"While Gregory VII was forced into exile, she, retaining control over all the western passes in the Apennines, could force Henry IV to approach Rome via Ravenna; even with this route open, the Emperor would find it hard to besiege Rome with a hostile territory at his back.",
"In December 1080 the citizens of Lucca, then the capital of Tuscany, had revolted and driven out her ally Bishop Anselm.",
"She is believed to have commissioned the renowned Ponte della Maddalena where the Via Francigena crosses the river Serchio at Borgo a Mozzano just north of Lucca.Henry IV crossed the Alps in the spring of 1081.He gave up his previous reluctance towards his cousin Matilda and honored the city of Lucca for their transfer to the royal side.",
"On 23 June 1081, the king issued the citizens of Lucca a comprehensive privilege in the army camp outside Rome.",
"By granting special urban rights, the king intended to weaken Matilda's rule.",
"In July 1081 at a synod in Lucca, Henry IV—on account of her 1079 donation to the Church—imposed Imperial ban upon Matilda and all her domains were forfeit, although this was not enough to eliminate her as a source of trouble, for she retained substantial allodial holdings.",
"The consequences for Matilda, however, were relatively minor in Italy, but she suffered losses in her far-away Lorraine possessions.",
"On 1 June 1085, Henry IV gave Matilda's domains Stenay and Mosay to Bishop Dietrich of Verdun.Matilda remained Pope Gregory VII's chief intermediary for communication with northern Europe even as he lost control of Rome and was holed up in the Castel Sant'Angelo.",
"After Henry IV caught hold of the Pope's seal, Matilda wrote to supporters in Germany only to trust papal messages that came through her.A guerrilla war developed which Matilda waged from her castles in the Apennines.",
"In 1082 she was apparently insolvent.",
"Therefore she could no longer bind her vassals to her with generous gifts or fiefs.",
"But even in dire straits, she did not let up in her zeal for the reform papacy.",
"Although her mother was also a supporter of church reform, she had distanced herself from Gregory VII's revolutionary goals, where these endangered the foundations of her rule structures.",
"In this setting, mother and daughter differ significantly from one another.",
"Matilda had the church treasure of the Apollonius monastery built near Canossa Castle meltdown; precious metal vessels and other treasures from Nonantola Abbey were also melted down.",
"She even sold her Allod city of Donceel to the Abbey of Saint-Jacques in Liège.",
"All the proceeds were made available to the Pope.",
"The royal side then accused her of plundering churches and monasteries.",
"Pisa and Lucca sided with Henry IV.",
"As a result, Matilda lost two of her most important pillars of power in Tuscany.",
"She had to stand by and watch as anti-Gregorian bishops were installed in several places.Henry IV's control of Rome enabled him to enthrone Antipope Clement III, who, in turn, crowned him Emperor.",
"After this, Henry IV returned to Germany, leaving it to his allies to attempt Matilda's dispossession.",
"These attempts foundered after Matilda (with help of the city of Bologna) defeated them at Sorbara near Modena on 2 July 1084.In the battle, Matilda was able to capture Bishop Bernardo of Parma hostage.",
"By 1085 Archbishop Tedaldo of Milan and the Bishops Gandolfo of Reggio Emilia and Bernardo of Parma, all members of the pro-imperial party, were dead.",
"Matilda took this opportunity and filled the Bishoprics sees in Modena, Reggio, and Pistoia with church reformers again.",
"Gregory VII died on 25 May 1085, and Matilda's forces, with those of Prince Jordan I of Capua (her off and on again enemy), took to the field in support of a new pope, Victor III.",
"In 1087, Matilda led an expedition to Rome in an attempt to install Victor III, but the strength of the imperial counterattack soon convinced the Pope to withdraw from the city.On his third expedition to Italy, Henry IV besieged Mantua and attacked Matilda's sphere of influence.",
"In April 1091 he was able to take the city after an eleven-month siege.",
"In the following months, the Emperor achieved further successes against the vassals of the Margravine.",
"In the summer of 1091, he managed to get the entire north area of the Po with the Counties of Mantua, Brescia and Verona under his control.",
"In 1092 Henry IV was able to conquer most of the Counties of Modena and Reggio.",
"The Monastery of San Benedetto in Polirone suffered severe damages in the course of the military conflict so that on 5 October 1092 Matilda gave the monastery the churches of San Prospero, San Donino in Monte Uille, and San Gregorio in Antognano to compensate.",
"Matilda had a meeting with her few remaining faithful allies in the late summer of 1092 at Carpineti, with the majority of them were in favor of peace.",
"Only the hermit Johannes from Marola strongly advocated a continuation of the fight against the Emperor.",
"Thereupon Matilda implored her followers not to give up the fight.",
"The imperial army began to siege Canossa in the autumn of 1092, but withdrew after a sudden failure of the siege; after this defeat, Henry IV's influence in Italy was never recovered.In the 1090s Henry IV got increasingly on the defensive.",
"A coalition of the southern German princes had prevented him from returning to the empire over the Alpine passes.",
"For several years the Emperor remained inactive in the area around Verona.",
"In the spring of 1093, Conrad, his eldest son and heir to the throne, fell from him.",
"With the support of Matilda along with the Patarene-minded cities of northern Italy (Cremona, Lodi, Milan and Piacenza), the prince rebelled against his father.",
"Sources close to the Emperor saw the reason for the rebellion of the son against his father as Matilda's influence on Conrad, but contemporary sources don't reveal any closer contact between the two before the rebellion.",
"A little later, Conrad was taken prisoner by his father but with Matilda's help, he was freed.",
"With the support of the Margravine, Conrad crowned King of Italy by Archbishop Anselm III of Milan before 4 December 1093.Together with the Pope, Matilda organized the marriage of King Conrad with Maximilla, daughter of Count Roger I of Sicily.",
"This was intended to win the support of the Normans of southern Italy against Henry IV.",
"Conrad's initiatives to expand his rule in northern Italy probably led to tensions with Matilda, and for this, he didn't find any more support for his rule.",
"After 22 October 1097, his political activity was virtually ended, being only mentioned his death in the summer of 1101 from a fever.In 1094 Henry IV's second wife, the Rurikid princess Eupraxia of Kiev (renamed Adelaide after her marriage), escaped from her imprisonment at the monastery of San Zeno and spread serious allegations against him.",
"Henry IV then had her arrested in Verona.",
"With the help of Matilda, Adelaide was able to escape again and find refuge with her.",
"At the beginning of March 1095 Pope Urban II called the Council of Piacenza under the protection of Matilda.",
"There Adelaide appeared and made a public confession about Henry IV \"because of the unheard-of atrocities of fornication which she had endured with her husband\": she accused Henry IV of forcing her to participate in orgies, and, according to some later accounts, of attempting a black mass on her naked body.",
"Thanks to these scandals and division within the Imperial family, the prestige and power of Henry IV was increasingly weakened.",
"After the synod, Matilda no longer had any contact with Adelaide.====Second marriage: Welf V of Bavaria====Matilda's wedding with Welf V (l), and she presents her property to her new husband (r).",
"Illumination from the 14th century in a manuscript of the ''Nuova Chronica'' by Giovanni Villani.",
"Vatican Library, Chigi LVIII 296, fol.",
"56r.In 1088 Matilda was facing a new attempt at invasion by Henry IV, and decided to pre-empt it by means of a political marriage.",
"In 1089 Matilda (in her early forties) married Welf V, heir to the Duchy of Bavaria and who was probably fifteen to seventeen years old, but none of the contemporary sources goes into the great age difference.",
"The marriage was probably concluded at the instigation of Pope Urban II in order to politically isolate Henry IV.",
"According to historian Elke Goez, the union of northern and southern Alpine opponents of the Salian dynasty initially had no military significance, because Welf V didn't appear in northern Italy with troops.",
"In Matilda's documents, no Swabian names are listed in the subsequent period, so that Welf V could have moved to Italy alone or with a small entourage.",
"According to the Rosenberg Annals, he even came across the Alps disguised as a pilgrim.",
"Matilda's motive for this marriage, despite the large age difference and the political alliance—her new husband was a member of the Welf dynasty, who were important supporters of the Papacy from the 11th to the 15th centuries in their conflict with the German emperors (see Guelphs and Ghibellines)—, may also have been the hope for offspring: late pregnancy was quite possible, as the example of Constance of Sicily shows.Cosmas of Prague (writing in the early twelfth century), included a letter in his ''Chronica Boemorum'', which he claimed that Matilda sent to her future husband, but which is now thought to be spurious:::''Not for feminine lightness or recklessness, but for the good of all my kingdom, I send you this letter: agreeing to it, you take with it myself and the rule over the whole of Lombardy.",
"I'll give you so many cities, so many castles and noble palaces, so much gold and silver, that you will have a famous name, if you endear yourself to me; do not reproof me for boldness because I first address you with the proposal.",
"It's reason for both male and female to desire a legitimate union, and it makes no difference whether the man or the woman broaches the first line of love, sofar as an indissoluble marriage is sought.",
"Goodbye''.After this, Matilda sent an army of thousands to the border of Lombardy to escort her bridegroom, welcomed him with honors, and after the marriage (mid-1089), she organized 120 days of wedding festivities, with such splendor that any other medieval ruler's pale in comparison.",
"Cosmas also reports that for two nights after the wedding, Welf V, fearing witchcraft, refused to share the marital bed.",
"The third day, Matilda appeared naked on a table especially prepared on sawhorses, and told him that ''everything is in front of you and there is no hidden malice''.",
"But the Duke was dumbfounded; Matilda, furious, slapped him and spat in his face, taunting him: ''Get out of here, monster, you don't deserve our kingdom, you vile thing, viler than a worm or a rotten seaweed, don't let me see you again, or you'll die a miserable death''....Despite the reportedly bad beginning of their marriage, Welf V is documented at least three times as Matilda's consort.",
"By the spring of 1095 the couple were separated: in April 1095 Welf V had signed Matilda's donation charter for Piadena, but a next diploma dated 21 May 1095 was already issued by Matilda alone.",
"Welf V's name no longer appears in any of the Mathildic documents.",
"As a father-in-law, Welf IV tried to reconcile the couple; he was primarily concerned with the possible inheritance of the childless Matilda.",
"The couple was never divorced, nor was the marriage declared invalid.====Henry IV's final defeat and new room for maneuvers for Matilda====With the ''de facto'' end of Matilda's marriage, Henry IV regained his capacity to act.",
"Welf IV switched to the imperial side.",
"The Emperor locked in Verona was finally able to return to the north of the Alps in 1097.After that he never returned to Italy, and it would have been 13 years before his son and namesake set foot on Italian soil for the first time.",
"With the assistance of the French armies heading off to the First Crusade, Matilda was finally able to restore Pope Urban II to Rome.",
"She ordered or led successful expeditions against Ferrara (1101), Parma (1104), Prato (1107) and Mantua (1114).In 11th century Italy, the rise of the cities began, in interaction with the overarching conflict.",
"They soon succeeded in establishing their own territories.",
"In Lucca, Pavia and Pisa, consuls appeared as early as the 1080s, which are considered to be signs of the legal independence of the \"communities\".",
"Pisa sought its advantage in changing alliances with the Salian dynasty and the House of Canossa.",
"Lucca remained completely closed to the Margravine from 1081.It was not until Allucione de Luca's marriage to the daughter of the royal judge Flaipert that she gained new opportunities to influence.",
"Flaipert had already been one of the most important advisors of the House of Canossa since the times of Matilda's mother.",
"Allucione was a vassal of Count Fuidi, with whom Matilda worked closely.",
"Mantua had to make considerable concessions in June 1090; the inhabitants of the city and the suburbs were freed from all \"unjustified\" oppression and all rights and property in Sacca, Sustante and Corte Carpaneta were confirmed.After 1096 the balance of power slowly began to change again in favor of the Margravine.",
"Matilda resumed her donations to ecclesiastical and social institutions in Lombardy, Emilia and Tuscany.",
"In the summer of 1099 and 1100 her route first led to Lucca and Pisa.",
"There it can be detected again in the summer of 1105, 1107 and 1111.In early summer of 1099 she gave the Monastery of San Ponziano a piece of land for the establishment of a hospital.",
"With this donation, Matilda resumed her relations with Lucca.After 1090 Matilda accentuated the consensual rule.",
"After the profound crises, she was no longer able to make political decisions on her own.",
"She held meetings with spiritual and secular nobles in Tuscany and also in her home countries of Emilia.",
"She had to take into account the ideas of her loyal friends and come to an agreement with them.",
"In her role as the most important guarantor of the law, she increasingly lost importance in relation to the bishops.",
"They repeatedly asked the Margravine to put an end to grievances.",
"As a result, the bishops expanded their position within the episcopal cities and in the surrounding area.",
"After 1100 Matilda had to repeatedly protect churches from her own subjects.",
"The accommodation requirements had also been reduced.===Court culture and rulership===Anselm of Canterbury hands over his work to Matilda.",
"Miniature in a manuscript by Anselm's ''Orationes'' (Diocese of Salzburg, around 1160).",
"Admont, Abbey Library, Ms. 289, fol.",
"1v.The court had developed since the 12th century to a central institution of royal and princely power.",
"The most important tasks were the visualization of the rule through festivals, art and literature.",
"The term \"court\" can be understood as \"presence with the ruler\".",
"In contrast to the Brunswick court of the Guelphs, Matilda's court offices cannot be verified.",
"Scholars such as Anselm of Lucca, Heribert of Reggio and Johannes of Mantua were around the Margravine.",
"Matilda encouraged some of them to write their works: for example, Bishop Anselm of Lucca wrote a psalter at her request and Johannes of Mantua a commentary on the Song of Songs and a reflection on the life of Virgin Mary.",
"Works were dedicated or presented to Matilda, such as the ''Liber de anulo et baculo'' of Rangerius of Lucca, the ''Orationes sive meditationes'' of Anselm of Canterbury, the ''Vita Mathildis'' of Donizo, the miracle reports of Ubald of Mantua and the ''Liber ad amicum'' of Bonizo of Sutri.",
"Matilda contributed to the distribution of the books intended for her by making copies.",
"More works were dedicated only to Henry IV among their direct contemporaries.",
"As a result, the Margravine's court temporarily became the most important non-royal spiritual center of the Salian period.",
"It also served as a contact point for displaced Gregorians in the church political disputes.",
"Historian Paolo Golinelli interpreted the repeated admission of high-ranking refugees and their care as an act of charity.",
"As the last political expellee, she granted asylum for a long time to Archbishop Conrad I of Salzburg, the pioneer of the canon reform.",
"This brought her into close contact with this reform movement.Matilda regularly sought the advice of learned lawyers when making court decisions.",
"A large number of legal advisors are named in their documents.",
"There are 42 ''causidici'', 29 ''iudices sacri palatii'', 44 ''iudices'', 8 ''legis doctore''s and 42 ''advocati''.",
"According to historian Elke Goez, Matilda's court can be described as \"a focal point for the use of learned jurists in the case law by lay princes\".",
"Matilda encouraged these scholars and drew them to her court.",
"According to Goez, the administration of justice was not a scholarly end in itself, but served to increase the efficiency of rulership.",
"Goez sees a legitimation deficit as the most important trigger for the Margravine's intensive administration of justice, since Matilda was never formally enfeoffed by the king.",
"In Tuscany in particular, an intensive administration of justice can be documented with almost 30 ''placitum''.",
"Matilda's involvement in the founding of the Bolognese School of Law, which has been suspected again and again, is viewed by Elke Goez as unlikely.",
"According to chronicler Burchard of Ursperg, the alleged founder of this school, Irnerius, produced an authentic text of the Roman legal sources on behalf of Margravine Matilda.",
"According to historian Johannes Fried, this can at best affect the referring to the Vulgate version of the ''Digest'', and even that is considered unlikely.",
"The role of this scholar in Matilda's environment is controversial.",
"According to historian Wulf Eckart Voss, Irnerius had been a legal advisor since 1100.In an analysis of the documentary mentions, however, Gundula Grebner came to the conclusion that this scholar should not be classified in the circle of Matilda, but in Henry V's.Until well into the 14th century, medieval rule was exercised through Itinerant court practice.",
"There was neither a capital nor did the rulers of the House of Canossa have a preferred place of residence.",
"Rule in the High Middle Ages was based on presence.",
"Matilda's domains comprised most of what is now the dual province of Emilia-Romagna and part of Tuscany.",
"She traveled in her domains in all seasons, and was never alone in this.",
"There were always a number of advisors, clergy and armed men in their vicinity that could not be precisely estimated.",
"She maintained a special relationship of trust with Bishop Anselm of Lucca, who was her closest advisor until his death in May 1086.In the later years of her life, cardinal legates often stayed in her vicinity.",
"They arranged for communication with the Pope.",
"The Margravine had a close relationship with the cardinal legates Bernard degli Uberti and Bonsignore of Reggio.",
"In view of the rigors of travel domination, according to Elke Goez's judgment, she must have been athletic, persistent and capable.",
"The distant possessions brought a considerable administrative burden and were often threatened with takeover by rivals.",
"Therefore Matilda had to count on local confidants, in whose recruitment she was supported by Pope Gregory VII.In a rulership without a permanent residence, the visualization of rulership and the representation of rank were of great importance.",
"From Matilda's reign there are 139 documents (74 of which are original), four letters and 115 lost documents (''Deperdita'').",
"The largest proportion of the number of documents are donations to ecclesiastical recipients (45) and court documents (35).",
"In terms of the spatial distribution of the documentary tradition, Northern Italy predominates (82).",
"Tuscany and the neighboring regions (49) are less affected, while Lorraine has only five documents.",
"There is thus a unique tradition for a princess of the High Middle Ages; a comparable number of documents only come back for the time being Henry the Lion five decades later.",
"At least 18 of Matilda's documents were sealed.",
"At the time, this was unusual for lay princes in imperial Italy.",
"There were very few women who had their own seal: the Margravine had two seals of different pictorial types —one shows a female bust with loose, falling hair, while the second seal from the year 1100 is an antique gem and not a portrait of Matilda and Godfrey the Hunchback or Welf V. Matilda's chancellery for issuing the diplomas on their own can be excluded with high probability.",
"To consolidate her rule and as an expression of the understanding of rule, Matilda referred in her title to her powerful father; it was called ''filia quondam magni Bonifatii ducis''.The castles in their domain and high church festivals also served to visualize the rule.",
"Matilda celebrated Easter as the most important act of power representation in Pisa in 1074.Matilda's pictorial representations also belong in this context, some of which are controversial, however.",
"The statue of the so-called Bonissima on the Palazzo Comunale, the cathedral square of Modena, was probably made in the 1130s at the earliest.",
"The Margravine's mosaic in the church of Polirone was also made after her death.",
"Matilda had her ancestors put in splendid coffins.",
"However, she didn't succeed in bringing together all the remains of her ancestors to create a central point of reference for rule and memory: her grandfather remained buried in Brescello, while the remains of her father were kept in Mantua and those of her mother in Pisa.",
"Their withdrawal would have meant a political retreat and the loss of Pisa and Mantua.Matilda's signature (\"Matilda, Dei gratia si quid est\"), quite tremulous due to her old age.",
"''Notitia Confirmationis (Prato, June 1107), Archivio Storico Diocesano of Lucca, Diplomatico Arcivescovile, perg.",
"++ I29''By using the written form, Matilda supplemented the presence of the immediate presence of power in all parts of her sphere of influence.",
"In her great courts she used the script to increase the income from her lands.",
"Scripture-based administration was still a very unusual means of realizing rule for lay princes in the 11th century.In the years from 1081 to 1098, however, the rule of the House of Canossa was in a crisis.",
"The documentary and letter transmission is largely suspended for this period.",
"A total of only 17 pieces have survived, not a single document from eight years.",
"After this finding Matilda wasn't in Tuscany for almost twenty years.",
"However, from autumn 1098 she was able to regain a large part of her lost territories.",
"This increased interest in receiving certificates from her.",
"Ninety-four documents have survived from its last 20 years.",
"Matilda tried to consolidate her rule with the increased use of writing.",
"After the death of her mother (18 April 1076), she often provided her documents with the phrase \"''Matilda Dei gratia si quid est''\" (\"Matilda, by God's grace, if she is something\").",
"The personal combination of symbol (cross) and text was unique in the personal execution of the certificates.",
"By referring to the immediacy of God, she wanted to legitimize her contestable position.",
"There is no consensus in research about the meaning of the qualifying suffix \"''si quid est''\".",
"This formulation, which can be found in 38 original and 31 copiously handed down texts by the Margravine, ultimately remains as puzzling as it is singular in terms of tradition.",
"One possible explanation for their use is that Matilda was never formally enfeoffed with the Margraviate of Tuscany by the king.",
"Like her mother, Matilda carried out all kinds of legal transactions without mentioning her husbands and thus with full independence.",
"Both princesses took over the official titles of their husbands, but refrained from masculinizing their titles.===Patronage of churches and hospitals===After the discovery of contemporary diplomas, Elke Goez refuted the widespread notion that the Margravine had given churches and monasteries rich gifts at all times of her life.",
"Very few donations were initially made.",
"Already one year after the death of her mother, Matilda lost influence on the inner-city monasteries in Tuscany and thus an important pillar of her rule.The issuing of deeds for monasteries concentrated on convents that were located in Matilda's immediate sphere of influence in northern and central Italy or Lorraine.",
"The main exception to this was Montecassino.",
"Among the most important of her numerous donations to monasteries and churches were those to Fonte Avellana, Farfa, Montecassino, Vallombrosa, Nonantola and Polirone.",
"In this way she secured the financing of the old church buildings.",
"She often stipulated that the proceeds from the donated land should be used to build churches in the center of the episcopal cities.",
"This money was an important contribution to the funds for the expansion and decoration of the churches of San Pietro in Mantua, Santa Maria Assunta e San Geminiano of Modena, Santa Maria Assunta of Parma, San Martino of Lucca, Santa Maria Assunta of Pisa and Santa Maria Assunta of Volterra.Matilda supported the construction of Pisa Cathedral with several donations (in 1083, 1100 and 1103).",
"Her name should be permanently associated with the cathedral building project.",
"They released Nonantola from paying tithes to the Bishop of Modena; the funds thus freed up could be used for the monastery buildings.",
"In Modena, with her participation, she secured the continued construction of the cathedral.",
"Matilda acted as mediator in the dispute between cathedral canons and citizens about the remains of Saint Geminianus.",
"The festive consecration could take place in 1106, with the ''Relatio fundationis cathedralis Mutinae'' recording these processes.",
"Matilda is presented as a political authority: she is present with an army, gives support, recommends receiving the Pope and reappears for the ordination, during which she dedicates immeasurable gifts to the patron.Numerous examples show that Matilda made donations to bishops who were loyal to the Gregorian reforms.",
"In May 1109 she gave land in the area of Ferrara to the Gregorian Bishop Landolfo of Ferrara in San Cesario sul Panaro and in June of the same year possessions in the vicinity of Ficarolo.",
"The Bishop Wido of Ferrara, however, was hostile to Pope Gregory VII and had written ''De scismate Hildebrandi'' against him.",
"The siege of Ferrara undertaken by Matilda in 1101 led to the expulsion of the schismatic bishop.On the other hand, nothing is known of Matilda's sponsorship of nunneries.",
"Their only relevant intervention concerned the Benedictine nuns of San Sisto of Piacenza, whom they chased out of the monastery for their immoral behavior and replaced with monks.Matilda founded and sponsored numerous hospitals to care for the poor and pilgrims.",
"For the hospitals, she selected municipal institutions and important Apennine passes.",
"The welfare institutions not only fulfilled charitable tasks, but were also important for the legitimation and consolidation of the margravial rule.Some churches traditionally said to have been founded by Matilda include: Sant'Andrea Apostolo of Vitriola in Montefiorino (Modena); Sant'Anselmo in Pieve di Coriano (Province of Mantua); San Giovanni Decollato in Pescarolo ed Uniti (Cremona); Santa Maria Assunta in Monteveglio (Bologna); San Martino in Barisano near Forlì; San Zeno in Cerea (Verona) and San Salvaro in Legnago (Verona).===Adoption of Guido Guidi around 1099===In the later years of her life, Matilda was increasingly faced with the question of who should take over the House of Canossa's inheritance.",
"She could no longer have children of her own, and apparently for this reason she adopted Guido ''Guerra'', member of the Guidi family, who were one of her main supporters in Florence (although in a genealogically strictly way, the Margravine's feudal heirs were the House of Savoy, descendants of Prangarda of Canossa, Matilda's paternal great-aunt).",
"On 12 November 1099, he was referred to in a diploma as Matilda's adopted son (''adoptivus filius domine comitisse Matilde'').",
"With his consent, Matilda renewed and expanded a donation from her ancestors to the Brescello monastery.",
"However, this is the only time that Guido had the title of adoptive son (''adoptivus filius'') in a document that was considered to be authentic.",
"At that time there were an unusually large number of vassals in Matilda's environment.",
"In March 1100, the Margravine and Guido ''Guerra'' took part in a meeting of abbots of the Vallombrosians Order, which they both sponsored.",
"On 19 November 1103 they gave the monastery of Vallombrosa possessions on both sides of the Vicano and half of the castle of Magnale with the town of Pagiano.",
"After Matilda had bequeathed her property to the Apostolic See in 1102 (so-called second \"Matildine Donation\"), Guido withdrew from her.",
"With the donation he lost hope of the inheritance.",
"However, he signed three more documents with Matilda for the Abbey of Polirone.From these sources, Elke Goez, for example, concludes that Guido ''Guerra'' was adopted by Matilda.",
"According to her, the Margravine must have consulted with her loyal followers beforehand and reached a consensus for this far-reaching political decision.",
"Ultimately, pragmatic reasons were decisive: Matilda needed a political and economic administrator for Tuscany.",
"The Guidi family estates in the north and east of Florence were also a useful addition to the House of Canossa possessions.",
"Guido ''Guerra'' hoped that Matilda's adoption would not only give him the inheritance, but also an increase in rank.",
"He also hoped for support in the dispute between the Guidi and the Cadolinger families for supremacy in Tuscany.",
"The Cadolinger were named after one of their ancestors, Count Cadalo, who was attested from 952 to 986; they died out in 1113.Paolo Golinelli doubts this reconstruction of the events.",
"He thinks that Guido ''Guerra'' held an important position among the Margravine's vassals, but was not adopted by her.",
"This is supported by the fact that after 1108 he only appeared once as a witness in one of their documents, namely in a document dated 6 May 1115, which Matilda granted in favor of the Abbey of Polirone while she was on her deathbed at Bondeno di Roncore.===Matildine Donation===On 17 November 1102 Matilda donated her property to the Apostolic See at Canossa Castle in the presence of the Cardinal Legate Bernardo of San Crisogono.",
"This is a renewal of the donation, as the first diploma was allegedly lost.",
"Matilda had initially transferred all of her property to the Apostolic See in the Holy Cross Chapel of the Lateran before Pope Gregory VII.",
"Most research has dated this first donation to the years between 1077 and 1080.Paolo Golinelli spoke out for the period between 1077 and 1081.Werner Goez placed the first donation in the years 1074 and 1075, when Matilda's presence in Rome can be proven.",
"At the second donation, despite the importance of the event, very few witnesses were present.",
"With Atto from Montebaranzone and Bonusvicinus from Canossa, the diploma was attested by two people of no recognizable rank who are not mentioned in any other certificate.The Matildine Donation caused a sensation in the 12th century and has also received a lot of attention in research.",
"The entire tradition of the document comes from the curia.",
"According to Paolo Golinelli, the donation of 1102 is a forgery from the 1130s; in reality, Matilda made Henry V her only heir in 1110/11.Even Johannes Laudage in his study of the contemporary sources, thought that the Matildine Donation was spurious.",
"Elke and Werner Goez, on the other hand, viewed the second donation diploma from November 1102 as authentic in their document edition.",
"Bernd Schneidmüller and Elke Goez believe that a diploma was issued about the renewed transfer of the ''Terre Matildiche'' out of curial fear of the Welfs.",
"Welf IV died in November 1101.His eldest son and successor Welf V had rulership rights over the House of Canossa domains through his marriage to Matilda.",
"Therefore, reference was made to an earlier award of the inheritance before Matilda's second marriage.",
"Otherwise, given the spouse's considerable influence, their consent should have been obtained.Werner Goez explains with different ideas about the legal implications of the process that Matilda often had her own property even after 1102 without recognizing any consideration for Rome's rights.",
"Goez observed that the donation is only mentioned in Matildine documents that were created under the influence of papal legates.",
"Matilda didn't want a complete waiver of all other real estates and usable rights and perhaps did not notice how far the consequences of the formulation of the second Matildine Donation went.===Last years and death===Abbey of San Benedetto in PolironeNew York, Morgan Library & Museum, MS M.492, fol.",
"84r.Matilda's tombstone at St. Peter's Basilica, by BerniniIn the last phase of her life, Matilda pursued the plan to strengthen the Abbey of Polirone.",
"The Church of Gonzaga freed them in 1101 from the ''malos sacerdotes fornicarios et adulteros'' (\"wicked, unchaste and adulterous priests\") and gave them to the monks of Polirone.",
"The Gonzaga clergy were charged with violating the duty of celibacy.",
"One of the main evils that the church reformers acted against.",
"In the same year she gave the Abbey of Polirone a poor house that she had built in Mantua; she thus withdrew it from the monks of the monastery of Sant'Andrea in Mantua who had been accused of simony.",
"The Abbey of Polirone received a total of twelve donations in the last five years of Matilda's life.",
"So she transferred her property in Villola (16 kilometers southeast of Mantua) and the Insula Sancti Benedicti (island in the Po, today on the south bank in the area of San Benedetto Po) to this monastery.",
"The Abbey thus rose to become the official monastery of the House of Canossa, with Matilda choosing it as her burial place.",
"The monks used Matilda's generous donations to rebuild the entire Abbey and the main church.",
"Matilda wanted to secure her memory not only through gifts, but also through written memories.",
"Polirone was given a very valuable Gospel manuscript.",
"The book, preserved today in New York, contains a liber vitae, a memorial book, in which all important donors and benefactors of the monastery are listed.",
"This document also deals with Matilda's memorial.",
"The Gospel manuscript was commissioned by the Margravine herself.",
"It is not clear whether the codex originated in Polirone or was sent there as a gift from Matilda.",
"It is the only larger surviving memorial from a Cluniac monastery in northern Italy.",
"Paolo Golinelli emphasized that, through Matilda's favor, Polirone also became a base where reform forces gathered.Henry V had been in diplomatic contact with Matilda since 1109.He emphasized his blood relationship with the Margravine and demonstratively cultivated the connection.",
"At his coronation as Emperor in 1111, disputes over the investiture question broke out again.",
"Henry V captured Pope Paschal II and some of the cardinals in St. Peter's Basilica and forced his imperial coronation.",
"When Matilda found out about this, she asked for the release of two Cardinals, Bernard of Parma and Bonsignore of Reggio, who were close to her.",
"Henry V complied with her request and released both cardinals.",
"Matilda did nothing to get the Pope and the other cardinals free.",
"On the way back from the Rome train, Henry V visited the Margravine during 6–11 May 1111 at Castle of Bianello in Quattro Castella, Reggio Emilia.",
"Matilda then achieved the solution from the imperial ban imposed to her.",
"According to the unique testimony of her biographer Donizo, Henry V transferred to Matilda the rule of Liguria and crowned her Imperial Vicar and Vice-Queen of Italy.",
"At this meeting he also concluded a firm agreement (''firmum foedus'') with her, which was mentioned only by Donizo and whose details are unknown.",
"This agreement has been undisputedly interpreted in German historical studies since Wilhelm von Giesebrecht as an inheritance treaty, while Italian historians like Luigi Simeoni and Werner Goez repeatedly questioned this.",
"Elke Goez, on the other hand, assumed a mutual agreement with benefits from both sides: Matilda, whose health was weakened, probably waived her further support for Pope Paschal II with a view to a good understanding with the Emperor.",
"Paolo Golinelli thinks that Matilda recognized Henry V as the heir to her domains and only after this, the imperial ban against Matilda was lifted and she recovered the possessions in the northern Italian parts of the formerly powerful House of Canossa with the exception of Tuscany.",
"Donizo imaginatively embellished this process with the title of Vice-Queen.",
"Some researchers see in the agreement with Henry V a turning away from the ideals of the so-called Gregorian reform, but Enrico Spagnesi emphasizes that Matilda had by no means given up her church reform-minded policy.A short time after her meeting with Henry V, Matilda retired to Montebaranzone near Prignano sulla Secchia.",
"In Mantua in the summer of 1114 the rumor that she had died sparked jubilation.",
"The Mantuans strived for autonomy and demanded admission to the margravial Rivalta Castle located five kilometers west of Mantua.",
"When the citizens found out that Matilda was still alive, they burned the castle down.",
"Rivalta Castle symbolized the hated power of the Margravine.",
"Donizo, in turn, used this incident as an instrument to illustrate the chaotic conditions that the sheer rumor of Matilda's death could trigger.",
"The Margravine guaranteed peace and security for the population, and was able to recapture Mantua.",
"In April 1115, the aging Margravine gave the Church of San Michele in Mantua the rights and income of the Pacengo court.",
"This documented legal transaction proves their intention to win over an important spiritual community in Mantua.Matilda often visited the town of Bondeno di Roncore (today Bondanazzo), in the district of Reggiolo, Reggio Emilia, just in the middle of the Po valley, where she owned a small castle, which she often visited between 1106 and 1115.During a stay there, she fell seriously ill, so that she could finally no longer leave the castle.",
"In the last months of her life, the sick Margravine was no longer able to travel strenuously.",
"According to Vito Fumagalli, she stayed in the Polirone area not only because of her illness: the House of Canossa had largely been ousted from its previous position of power at the beginning of the 12th century.",
"In her final hours the Bishop of Reggio, Cardinal Bonsignore, stayed at her deathbed and gave her the sacraments of death.",
"On the night of 24 July 1115, Matilda died of sudden cardiac arrest at the age of 69.After her death in 1116 Henry V succeeded in taking possession of the ''Terre Matildiche'' without any apparent resistance from the curia.",
"The once loyal subjects of the Margravine accepted the Emperor as their new master without resistance; for example, powerful vassals such as Arduin de Palude, Sasso of Bibianello, Count Albert of Sabbioneta, Ariald of Melegnano, Opizo of Gonzaga and many others came to the Emperor and accept it as their overlord.Matilda was at first buried in the Abbey of San Benedetto in Polirone, located in the town of San Benedetto Po; then, in 1633, at the behest of Pope Urban VIII, her body was moved to Rome and placed in Castel Sant'Angelo.",
"Finally, in 1645 her remains were definitely deposited in the Vatican, where they now lie in St. Peter's Basilica.",
"She is one of only six women who have the honor of being buried in the Basilica, the others being Queen Christina of Sweden, Maria Clementina Sobieska (wife of James Francis Edward Stuart), St. Petronilla, Queen Charlotte of Cyprus and Agnesina Colonna Caetani.",
"A memorial tomb for Matilda, commissioned by Pope Urban VIII and designed by Gianlorenzo Bernini with the statues being created by sculptor Andrea Bolgi, marks her burial place in St Peter's and is often called the ''Honor and Glory of Italy''."
],
[
"Legacy",
"===High and Late Middle Ages===Between 1111 and 1115 Donizo wrote the chronicle ''De principibus Canusinis'' in Latin hexameters, in which he tells the story of the House of Canossa, especially Matilda.",
"Since the first edition by Sebastian Tengnagel, it has been called ''Vita Mathildis''.",
"This work is the main source to the Margravine's life.",
"The ''Vita Mathildis'' consists of two parts.",
"The first part is dedicated to the early members of the House of Canossa, the second deals exclusively with Matilda.",
"Donizo was a monk in the monastery of Sant'Apollonio; with the ''Vita Mathildis'' he wanted to secure eternal memory of the Margravine.",
"Donizo has most likely coordinated his ''Vita'' with Matilda in terms of content, including the book illumination, down to the smallest detail.",
"Shortly before the work was handed over, Matilda died.",
"Text and images on the family history of the House of Canossa served to glorify Matilda, were important for the public staging of the family and were intended to guarantee eternal memory.",
"Positive events were highlighted, negative events were skipped.",
"The ''Vita Mathildis'' stands at the beginning of a new literary genre.",
"With the early Guelph tradition, it establishes medieval family history.",
"The house and reform monasteries, sponsored by Guelph and Canossa women, attempted to organize the memories of the community of relatives and thereby \"to express awareness of the present and an orientation towards the present\" in the memory of one's own past.",
"Eugenio Riversi considers the memory of the family epoch, especially the commemoration of the anniversaries of the dead, to be one of the characteristic elements in Donizo's work.Bonizo of Sutri gave Matilda his ''Liber ad amicum''.",
"In it he compared her to her glorification with biblical women.",
"After an assassination attempt on him in 1090, however, his attitude changed, as he didn't feel sufficiently supported by the Margravine.",
"In his ''Liber de vita christiana'' he took the view that domination by women was harmful; as examples he named Cleopatra and the Merovingian Queen Fredegund.",
"Rangerius of Lucca also distanced himself from Matilda when she didn't position herself against Henry V in 1111.Out of bitterness, he didn't dedicated his ''Liber de anulo et baculo'' to Matilda but John of Gaeta, later Pope Gelasius II.Violent criticism of Matilda is related to the Investiture Controversy and relates to specific events.",
"Thus the ''Vita Heinrici IV.",
"imperatoris'' blames her for the rebellion of Conrad against his father Henry IV.",
"The Milanese chronicler Landulfus Senior made a polemical statement in the 11th century: he accused Matilda of having ordered the murder of her first husband.",
"She is also said to have incited Pope Gregory VII to excommunicate the king.",
"Landulf's polemics were directed against Matilda's Patarian partisans for the archbishop's chair in Milan.Matilda's tomb was converted into a mausoleum before the middle of the 12th century.",
"For Paolo Golinelli, this early design of the grave is the beginning of the Margravine's myth.",
"In the course of the 12th century two opposing developments occurred: Matilda's person was mystified, at the same time historical memory of the House of Canossa declined.",
"In the 13th century, Matilda's guilty feelings about the murder of her first husband became a popular topic.",
"The ''Gesta episcoporum Halberstadensium'' took it up: Matilda confessed to Pope Gregory VII her participation in the murder of her husband, whereupon the pontiff released her from the crime.",
"Through this act of leniency, Matilda felt obliged to donate her property to the Holy See.",
"In the 14th century there was a lack of clarity about the historical facts about Matilda.",
"Only the name of the Margravine, her reputation as a virtuous woman, her many donations to churches and hospitals and the transfer of her goods to the Holy See were present.",
"Knowledge of the conflicts between Henry IV and Gregory VII was forgotten.",
"Because of their connection to the Guidi family gave her little attention in the Florentine chronicles as the Guidi were mortal enemies of Florence.",
"In the ''Nuova Cronica'' wrote by Giovanni Villani in 1306, Matilda was a decent and pious person.",
"She is described there as product of a secret marriage between a Byzantine princess with an Italian knight.",
"She also didn't consummate the marriage with Welf V; instead, she decided to live her life chaste and with pious works.===Early modern times===In the 15th century, Matilda's marriage to Welf V disappeared from chronicles and narrative literature.",
"Numerous families in Italy tried rather to claim Matilda as their ancestor and to derive their power from her.",
"Giovanni Battista Panetti wanted to prove the Margravine's belonging to the House of Este in his ''Historia comitissae Mathildis''.",
"He claimed that Matilda was married to Albert Azzo II d'Este, the grandfather of Welf V. In his epic ''Orlando Furioso'', poet Ludovico Ariosto also mentioned Matilda's alleged relationship with the House of Este; Giovanni Battista Giraldi also assumed a marriage between Matilda and Albert Azzo II and mentioned Ariosto as reference.",
"Many more generations followed this tradition, and only the Este archivist Ludovico Antonio Muratori was the one able to dismiss the alleged relationship of Matilda and the House of Este in the 18th century.",
"Nevertheless, he did not draw a more realistic picture of the Margravine; for him she was an Amazon queen.",
"In Mantua, Matilda was also linked by marriage with the House of Gonzaga.",
"Giulio Dal Pozzo underpinned the claims of the Malaspina family of descent from Matilda in his work ''Meraviglie Heroiche del Sesso Donnesco Memorabili nella Duchessa Matilda Marchesana Malaspina, Contessa di Canossa'', written in 1678.Dante's ''Divine Comedy'' made a significant contribution to Matilda's myth: she has been posited by some critics as the origin of the mysterious \"Matelda\" who appears to Dante gathering flowers in the earthly paradise in Dante's ''Purgatorio''; whether Dante is referring to the Margravine, Mechthild of Magdeburg or Mechthild of Hackeborn is still a matter of dispute.",
"In the 15th century, Matilda was stylized by Giovanni Sabadino degli Arienti and Jacopo Filippo Foresti as a warrior for God and the Church.Matilda reached the climax of the positive assessment in the time of the Counter-Reformation and in the Baroque; she should serve as a symbol of the triumph of the church over all adversaries for everyone to see.",
"In the dispute between Catholics and Protestants in the 16th century, two opposing judgments were received.",
"From a Catholic perspective, Matilda was glorified for supporting the Pope; for the Protestants, she was responsible for the humiliation of Henry IV in Canossa and was denigrated as a \"pope whore\", as in the biography of Henry IV by Johann Stumpf.In the historiography of the 18th century (Ludovico Antonio Muratori, Girolamo Tiraboschi) Matilda was the symbol of the new Italian nobility, who wanted to create a pan-Italian identity.",
"Contemporary representations (Saverio Dalla Rosa) presented her as the Pope's protector.In addition to the upscale literature, numerous regional legends and miracle stories in particular contributed to Matilda's subsequent stylization.",
"She was transfigured relatively early from the benefactress of numerous churches and monasteries to the sole monastery and church donor of the entire Apennine landscape.",
"Around 100 churches are attributed to Matilda, this developed from the 12th century.",
"Numerous miracles are also associated with the Margravine.",
"She is said to have asked the Pope to bless the Branciana fountain; according to a legend, women can get pregnant after a single drink from the well.",
"According to another legend, Matilda should prefer to stay at the Savignano Castle; there one should see the princess galloping in the sky on full moon nights on a white horse.",
"According to a legend from Montebaranzone, she brought justice to a poor widow and her twelve-year-old son.",
"Numerous legends also surround about Matilda's marriages: she is said to have had up to seven husbands and, as a young girl, fell in love with Henry IV.===Modern times===In the 19th century, which was enthusiastic about the Middle Ages, the Margravine's myth was renewed.",
"The remains of Canossa Castle were rediscovered and Matilda's whereabouts became popular travel destinations.",
"In addition, Dante's praise for ''Matelda'' came back into the spotlight.",
"One of the first German pilgrims to Canossa was the poet August von Platen-Hallermünde.",
"In 1839 Heinrich Heine published the poem ''Auf dem Schloßhof zu Canossa steht der deutsche Kaiser Heinrich'' (\"The German Emperor Henry stands in the courtyard of Canossa\"), in which it says: \"Peep out of the window above / Two figures, and the moonlight / Gregory's bald head flickers / And the breasts of Mathildis\".In the era of the ''Risorgimento'', the struggle for national unification was in the foreground in Italy.",
"Matilda was instrumentalized for daily political events.",
"Silvio Pellico stood up for the political unity of Italy, and he designed a play called ''Mathilde''.",
"Antonio Bresciani Borsa wrote a historical novel ''La contessa Matilde di Canossa e Isabella di Groniga'' (1858).",
"The work was very successful in its time and saw Italian editions in 1858, 1867, 1876 and 1891.French (1850 and 1862), German (1868) and English (1875) translations were also published.The Matilda's myth lives on in Italy to the present day.",
"The Matildines were a Catholic women's association founded in Reggio Emilia in 1918, similar to the ''Azzione Cattolica''.",
"The organization wanted to bring together young people from the province who wanted to work with the church hierarchy to spread the Christian faith.",
"The Matildines revered the Margravine as a pious, strong, and steadfast daughter of St. Peter.",
"After the World War II, numerous biographies and novels were written in Italy on Matilda and Canossa.",
"Maria Bellonci published the story ''Trafitto a Canossa'' (\"Tormented in Canossa\"), Laura Mancinelli the novel ''Il principe scalzo''.",
"Local historical publications honor her as the founder of churches and castles in the regions of Reggio Emilia, Mantua, Modena, Parma, Lucca and Casentino.Quattro Castella is named after the four Canusinian castles on the four hills at the foot of the Apennines.",
"Bianello is the only castle that is still in use.",
"A large number of communities on the northern and southern Apennines traces their origins and their heyday back to Matilda's epoch.",
"Numerous citizens' initiatives in Italy organize removals under the motto \"Matilda and her time\".",
"Emilian circles applied for Matilda's beatification in 1988 without success.",
"The place Quattro Castella had its name changed to Canossa out of reverence for Matilda.",
"Since 1955 the ''Corteo Storico Matildico'' in Bianello Castle has been a reminiscent display of Matilda's meeting with Henry V and reported coronation as Vicar and Vice-Queen; the event has taken place every year since then, usually on the last Sunday of May.",
"The organizer is the municipality of Quattro Castella, which has owned the castle since 2000.The ruins on the hills of Quattro Castella have been the subject of a petition for UNESCO World Heritage.===Research history===Matilda receives a lot of attention in Italian history.",
"Matildine Congresses were held in 1963, 1970 and 1977.On the occasion of the 900th anniversary of the Walk of Canossa, the Istituto Superiore di Studi Matildici was founded in Italy in 1977 and inaugurated in May 1979.The institute is dedicated to the research of all notable citizens of Canossa and publishes a magazine called ''Annali Canossani''.In Italy, Ovidio Capitani was one of the best experts on Canossa history in the 20th century.",
"According to his judgment in 1978, Matilda's policy was \"''tutto legato al passato''\", completely tied to the past, i.e.",
"outdated and inflexible in the face of a changing time.",
"Vito Fumagalli presented several national historical studies on the Margraves of Canossa; he saw the causes of the Canossa's power in rich and centralized allodial goods, in a strategic network of fortifications, and in the support of the Salian rulers.",
"In 1998, a year after his death, Fumagalli's biography of Matilda was published.Of the Italian medievalists, Paolo Golinelli has dealt most intensively with Matilda in the past three decades.",
"In 1991 he published a biography of Matilda, which appeared in 1998 in a German translation.",
"On the occasion of the 900th return of Matilda's meeting with her allies in Carpineti, a financially supported congress was held in October 1992 by the province of Reggio Emilia.",
"The rule of the House of Canossa and the various problems of rule in northern Italy of the 10th and 11th centuries were dealt with.",
"The contributions to this conference were edited by Paolo Golinelli.",
"An international congress in Reggio Emilia in September 1997 was devoted to her afterlife in cultural and literary terms.",
"The aim of the conference was to find out why Matilda attracted such interest in posterity.",
"Thematically, arts and crafts, tourism and folklore have been dealt with until recently.",
"Most of the contributions were devoted to the genealogical attempts of the northern Italian nobility to link Matilda in the early modern period.",
"Golinelli published the anthology in 1999.As an important result of this conference it turned out that goods and family relationships have been ascribed to her that have not been historically proven.In German history, Alfred Overmann's dissertation formed the starting point for studying the history of the margravine.",
"Since 1893 Overmann placed his investigation about Matilda in several ''Regest'' publications.",
"The work was reprinted in 1965 and published in 1980 in an Italian translation.",
"In the last few decades Werner and Elke Goez in particular have dealt with Matilda.",
"From 1986 the couple worked together on the scientific edition of their documents.",
"More than 90 archives and libraries in six countries were visited.",
"The edition was created in 1998 in the series ''Diplomata'', which the ''Monumenta Germaniae Historica'' published.",
"In addition to numerous individual studies on Matilda, Elke Goez published a biography of Matilda's mother Beatrice (1995) and emerged as the author of a history of Italy in the Middle Ages (2010).",
"In 2012 she presented a biography of Matilda.The 900th year of Henry IV's death in 2006 brought Matilda into the spotlight in the exhibitions in Paderborn (2006) and Mantua (2008).",
"The 900th anniversary of her death in 2015 was the occasion for various initiatives in Italy and sessions at the International Medieval Congress at Leeds.",
"The 21st ''Congresso Internazionale di Studi Langobardi'' took place in October of the same year.",
"This resulted in two conference volumes.",
"In Williamsburg, Virginia from February to April 2015, an exhibition took place at the Muscarelle Museum of Art, the first in the United States on Matilda.===Popular culture===In the arts, the story of Matilda and Henry IV is the main plot device in Luigi Pirandello's play ''Enrico IV'', and the Margravine is the main historical character in Kathleen McGowan's novel ''The Book of Love'' (Simon & Schuster, 2009).Matilda is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece The Dinner Party, being represented as one of the 999 names on the Heritage Floor, along some other contemporaries like her second cousin Adelaide of Susa.In the grand strategy role-playing video game ''Crusader Kings III'', Matilda is a playable character and is featured in the Rags to Riches start in 1066."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"See also",
"*House of Canossa*March of Tuscany*Terre Matildiche"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"*************************** *************"
],
[
"External links",
"** ''Women's Biography: Matilda of Tuscany, countess of Tuscany, duchess of Lorraine'', contains several letters to and from Matilda."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mesopotamia"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Mesopotamia''' is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent.",
"Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq.",
"In the broader sense, the historical region of Mesopotamia included parts of present-day Iran, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey.",
"The Sumerians and Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians), each originating from different areas, dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of recorded history () to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire.",
"Mesopotamia was next conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 BC, and after his death, it became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC.",
"It has been identified as having \"inspired some of the most important developments in human history, including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops, and the development of cursive script, mathematics, astronomy, and agriculture\".",
"It is recognised as the cradle of some of the world's earliest civilizations.Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the Parthian Empire.",
"It became a battleground between the Romans and Parthians, with western parts of the region coming under ephemeral Roman control.",
"In 226 AD, the eastern regions of Mesopotamia fell to the Sassanid Persians.",
"The division of the region between the Roman (Byzantine Empire from 395 AD) and Sassanid Empires lasted until the 7th century Muslim conquest of Persia of the Sasanian Empire and Muslim conquest of the Levant from Byzantines.",
"A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, including Adiabene, Osroene, and Hatra."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The regional toponym ''Mesopotamia'' (, 'land between rivers'; or ; ; \"(land) between the (two) rivers\") comes from the ancient Greek root words (, 'middle') and (, 'river') and translates to '(land) between rivers', likely being a calque of the older Aramaic term, with the Aramaic term itself likely being a calque of the Akkadian ''birit narim''.",
"It is used throughout the Greek Septuagint () to translate the Hebrew and Aramaic equivalent ''Naharaim''.",
"An even earlier Greek usage of the name ''Mesopotamia'' is evident from ''The Anabasis of Alexander'', which was written in the late 2nd century AD but specifically refers to sources from the time of Alexander the Great.",
"In the ''Anabasis'', Mesopotamia was used to designate the land east of the Euphrates in north Syria.",
"The Akkadian term corresponded to a similar geographical concept.",
"Later, the term ''Mesopotamia'' was more generally applied to all the lands between the Euphrates and the Tigris, thereby incorporating not only parts of Syria but also almost all of Iraq and southeastern Turkey.",
"The neighbouring steppes to the west of the Euphrates and the western part of the Zagros Mountains are also often included under the wider term ''Mesopotamia''.A further distinction is usually made between ''Northern'' or ''Upper Mesopotamia'' and ''Southern'' or ''Lower Mesopotamia''.",
"Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the ''Jazira'', is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to Baghdad.",
"Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf and includes Kuwait and parts of western Iran.In modern academic usage, the term ''Mesopotamia'' often also has a chronological connotation.",
"It is usually used to designate the area until the Muslim conquests, with names like ''Syria'', ''Jazira'', and ''Iraq'' being used to describe the region after that date.",
"It has been argued that these later euphemisms are Eurocentric terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments."
],
[
"Geography",
"The Tigris river flowing through the region of modern Mosul in Upper Mesopotamia.Mesopotamian Marshes at night, southern Iraq; reed house (Mudhif) and narrow canoe (Mashoof) in the water.",
"Mudhif structures have been one of the traditional types of structures, built by the Marsh people of southern Mesopotamia for at least 5,000 years.",
"A carved elevation of a typical mudhif, dating to around 3,300 BCE was discovered at Uruk.Mesopotamia encompasses the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, both of which have their headwaters in the neighboring Armenian highlands.",
"Both rivers are fed by numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region.",
"Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult.",
"The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert expanse in the north which gives way to a region of marshes, lagoons, mudflats, and reed banks in the south.",
"In the extreme south, the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into the Persian Gulf.The arid environment ranges from the northern areas of rain-fed agriculture to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential.",
"This irrigation is aided by a high water table and by melting snows from the high peaks of the northern Zagros Mountains and from the Armenian Highlands, the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers that give the region its name.",
"The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted the development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority.Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism, where tent-dwelling nomads herded sheep and goats (and later camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season.",
"The area is generally lacking in building stone, precious metals, and timber, and so historically has relied upon long-distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying areas.",
"In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since prehistoric times and has added to the cultural mix.Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons.",
"The demands for labor has from time to time led to population increases that push the limits of the ecological carrying capacity, and should a period of climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining populations can occur.",
"Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists has led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems.",
"Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city-states have meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power into tribal or smaller regional units.",
"These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq."
],
[
"History",
"One of 18 Statues of Gudea, a ruler around 2090 BCThe prehistory of the Ancient Near East begins in the Lower Paleolithic period.",
"Therein, writing emerged with a pictographic script, Proto-cuneiform, in the Uruk IV period ().",
"The documented record of actual historical events — and the ancient history of lower Mesopotamia — commenced in the early-third millennium BC with cuneiform records of early dynastic kings.",
"This entire history ends with either the arrival of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 6th century BC or with the Muslim conquest and the establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, from which point the region came to be known as Iraq.",
"In the long span of this period, Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient highly developed, and socially complex states.The region was one of the four riverine civilizations where writing was invented, along with the Nile valley in Ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley civilization in the Indian subcontinent, and the Yellow River in Ancient China.",
"Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as Uruk, Nippur, Nineveh, Assur and Babylon, as well as major territorial states such as the city of Eridu, the Akkadian kingdoms, the Third Dynasty of Ur, and the various Assyrian empires.",
"Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were Ur-Nammu (king of Ur), Sargon of Akkad (who established the Akkadian Empire), Hammurabi (who established the Old Babylonian state), Ashur-uballit I and Tiglath-Pileser I (who established the Assyrian Empire).Scientists analysed DNA from the 8,000-year-old remains of early farmers found at an ancient graveyard in Germany.",
"They compared the genetic signatures to those of modern populations and found similarities with the DNA of people living in today's Turkey and Iraq.===Periodization===After early starts in Jarmo (red dot, circa 7500 BC), the civilization of Mesopotamia in the 7th–5th millennium BC was centered around the Hassuna culture in the north, the Halaf culture in the northwest, the Samarra culture in central Mesopotamia and the Ubaid culture in the southeast, which later expanded to encompass the whole region.Overview map in the 15th century BC showing the core territory of Assyria with its two major cities Assur and Nineveh wedged between Babylonia downstream and the states of Mitanni and Hatti upstream.",
"* Pre- and protohistory** Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (10,000–8700 BC)** Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8700–6800 BC)** Jarmo (7500–5000 BC)** Hassuna (~6000 BC)** Samarra (~5700–4900 BC)** Halaf cultures (~6000–5300 BC)** Ubaid period (~6500–4000 BC)** Uruk period (~4000–3100 BC)** Jemdet Nasr period (~3100–2900 BC)* Early Bronze Age** Early Dynastic period (~2900–2350 BC)** Akkadian Empire (~2350–2100 BC)** Third Dynasty of Ur (2112–2004 BC)* Middle Bronze Age** Isin-Larsa period (19th to 18th century BC)** First Babylonian dynasty (18th to 17th century BC)** Minoan eruption ()* Late Bronze Age** Old Assyrian period (16th to 11th century BC)** Middle Assyrian period ()** Kassites in Babylon, ()** Late Bronze Age collapse (12th to 11th century BC)* Iron Age** Syro-Hittite states (11th to 7th century BC)** Neo-Assyrian Empire (10th to 7th century BC)** Neo-Babylonian Empire (7th to 6th century BC)* Classical antiquity** Fall of Babylon (6th century BC)** Achaemenid Babylonia, Achaemenid Assyria (6th to 4th century BC)** Seleucid Mesopotamia (4th to 3rd century BC)** Parthian Babylonia (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD)** Osroene (2nd century BC to 3rd century AD)** Adiabene (1st to 2nd century AD)** Hatra (1st to 2nd century AD)** Roman Mesopotamia (2nd to 7th centuries AD), Roman Assyria (2nd century AD)* Late Antiquity** Asōristān (3rd to 7th century AD)** Muslim conquest (mid-7th century AD)"
],
[
"Language and writing",
"The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed c. 1755–1750 BC.",
"It is the longest, best-organised, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East.",
"It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian, purportedly by Hammurabi, sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon.The earliest language written in Mesopotamia was Sumerian, an agglutinative language isolate.",
"Along with Sumerian, Semitic languages were also spoken in early Mesopotamia.",
"Subartuan, a language of the Zagros possibly related to the Hurro-Urartuan language family, is attested in personal names, rivers and mountains and in various crafts.",
"Akkadian came to be the dominant language during the Akkadian Empire and the Assyrian empires, but Sumerian was retained for administrative, religious, literary and scientific purposes.",
"Different varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of the Neo-Babylonian period.",
"Old Aramaic, which had already become common in Mesopotamia, then became the official provincial administration language of first the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and then the Achaemenid Empire: the official lect is called Imperial Aramaic.",
"Akkadian fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in temples for some centuries.",
"The last Akkadian texts date from the late 1st century AD.Early in Mesopotamia's history (around the mid-4th millennium BC) cuneiform was invented for the Sumerian language.",
"Cuneiform literally means \"wedge-shaped\", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay.",
"The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appears to have been developed from pictograms.",
"The earliest texts (7 archaic tablets) come from the É, a temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk, from a building labeled as Temple C by its excavators.The early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master.",
"Thus, only a limited number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its use.",
"It was not until the widespread use of a syllabic script was adopted under Sargon's rule that significant portions of the Mesopotamian population became literate.",
"Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated.Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate), but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD.===Literature===Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia, regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature.Libraries were extant in towns and temples during the Babylonian Empire.",
"An old Sumerian proverb averred that \"he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn.\"",
"Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary.A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer.",
"Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases.",
"The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists were drawn up.Many Babylonian literary works are still studied today.",
"One of the most famous of these was the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain Sîn-lēqi-unninni, and arranged upon an astronomical principle.",
"Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of Gilgamesh.",
"The whole story is a composite product, although it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure."
],
[
"Science and technology",
"===Mathematics===Clay tablet, mathematical, geometric-algebraic, similar to the Euclidean geometry.",
"From Shaduppum Iraq.",
"2003–1595 BC.",
"Iraq Museum.Mesopotamian mathematics and science was based on a sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system.",
"This is the source of the 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-degree circle.",
"The Sumerian calendar was lunisolar, with three seven-day weeks of a lunar month.",
"This form of mathematics was instrumental in early map-making.",
"The Babylonians also had theorems on how to measure the area of several shapes and solids.",
"They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if were fixed at 3.The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the area of the base and the height; however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases.",
"Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used as 25/8 (3.125 instead of 3.14159~).",
"The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven modern miles (11 km).",
"This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time.==== Algebra ====The roots of algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonia who developed an advanced arithmetical system with which they were able to do calculations in an algorithmic fashion.",
"The Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 (–1600 BC) gives an approximation of in four sexagesimal figures, , which is accurate to about six decimal digits, and is the closest possible three-place sexagesimal representation of :: The Babylonians were not interested in exact solutions, but rather approximations, and so they would commonly use linear interpolation to approximate intermediate values.",
"One of the most famous tablets is the Plimpton 322 tablet, created around 1900–1600 BC, which gives a table of Pythagorean triples and represents some of the most advanced mathematics prior to Greek mathematics.===Astronomy===From Sumerian times, temple priesthoods had attempted to associate current events with certain positions of the planets and stars.",
"This continued to Assyrian times, when Limmu lists were created as a year by year association of events with planetary positions, which, when they have survived to the present day, allow accurate associations of relative with absolute dating for establishing the history of Mesopotamia.The Babylonian astronomers were very adept at mathematics and could predict eclipses and solstices.",
"Scholars thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy.",
"Most of these related to religion and omens.",
"Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12-month calendar based on the cycles of the moon.",
"They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter.",
"The origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this time.During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy.",
"They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems.",
"This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution.",
"This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were thoroughly scientific; how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain.",
"The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the history of astronomy.The only Greek-Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was Seleucus of Seleucia (b.",
"190 BC).",
"Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch.",
"He supported Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun.",
"According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used (except that he correctly theorized on tides as a result of Moon's attraction).Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian, Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western European astronomy.===Medicine===Medical recipe concerning poisoning.",
"Terracotta tablet, from Nippur, Iraq.The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC.",
"The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the ''Diagnostic Handbook'' written by the ''ummânū'', or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa, during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069–1046 BC).Along with contemporary Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, enemas, and prescriptions.",
"In addition, the ''Diagnostic Handbook'' introduced the methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic, and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy.",
"The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis.The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills.",
"If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from any curses.",
"Esagil-kin-apli's ''Diagnostic Handbook'' was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology, its future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery.Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his ''Diagnostic Handbook''.",
"These include the symptoms for many varieties of epilepsy and related ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis.===Technology===Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, and irrigation.",
"They were also one of the first Bronze Age societies in the world.",
"They developed from copper, bronze, and gold on to iron.",
"Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals.",
"Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and maces.According to a recent hypothesis, the Archimedes' screw may have been used by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, for the water systems at the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and Nineveh in the 7th century BC, although mainstream scholarship holds it to be a Greek invention of later times.",
"Later, during the Parthian or Sasanian periods, the Baghdad Battery, which may have been the world's first battery, was created in Mesopotamia."
],
[
"Religion and philosophy",
"The Burney Relief, First Babylonian dynasty, around 1800 BCThe Ancient Mesopotamian religion was the first recorded.",
"Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc, surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that, heaven.",
"They also believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the universe was born from this enormous sea.",
"In addition, Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic.",
"Although the beliefs described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were also regional variations.",
"The Sumerian word for universe is '''an-ki''', which refers to the god An and the goddess Ki.",
"Their son was Enlil, the air god.",
"They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god.",
"He was the chief god of the pantheon.===Philosophy===The numerous civilizations of the area influenced the Abrahamic religions, especially the Hebrew Bible; its cultural values and literary influence are especially evident in the Book of Genesis.Giorgio Buccellati believes that the origins of philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogues, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose works, and proverbs.",
"Babylonian reason and rationality developed beyond empirical observation.Babylonian thought was also based on an open-systems ontology which is compatible with ergodic axioms.",
"Logic was employed to some extent in Babylonian astronomy and medicine.Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early Ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophy.",
"In particular, the Babylonian text ''Dialogue of Pessimism'' contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the Sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of dialectic, and the dialogs of Plato, as well as a precursor to the Socratic method.",
"The Ionian philosopher Thales was influenced by Babylonian cosmological ideas."
],
[
"Culture",
"Meli-shipak I (1186–1172 BC) presents his daughter to the goddess Nannaya.",
"The crescent moon represents the god Sin, the sun the Shamash and the star the goddess Ishtar.===Festivals===Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month.",
"The theme of the rituals and festivals for each month was determined by at least six important factors:# The Lunar phase (a waxing moon meant abundance and growth, while a waning moon was associated with decline, conservation, and festivals of the Underworld)# The phase of the annual agricultural cycle# Equinoxes and solstices# The local mythos and its divine Patrons# The success of the reigning Monarch# The Akitu, or New Year Festival (first full moon after spring equinox)# Commemoration of specific historical events (founding, military victories, temple holidays, etc.",
")===Music===lyre from the Royal Cemetery at Ur.",
".",
"Iraq MuseumSome songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events.",
"Although music and songs amused kings, they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in the marketplaces.",
"Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children.",
"Thus songs were passed on through many generations as an oral tradition until writing was more universal.",
"These songs provided a means of passing on through the centuries highly important information about historical events.===Games===Jemdet Nasr Cylinder presenting a hunting scene with two lions and an antelope.",
"to 2900 BC.",
"Hunting was popular among Assyrian kings.",
"Boxing and wrestling feature frequently in art, and some form of polo was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses.",
"They also played a board game similar to senet and backgammon, now known as the \"Royal Game of Ur\".===Family life===''The Babylonian marriage market'' by the 19th-century painter Edwin LongMesopotamia, as shown by successive law codes, those of Urukagina, Lipit Ishtar and Hammurabi, across its history became more and more a patriarchal society, one in which the men were far more powerful than the women.",
"For example, during the earliest Sumerian period, the ''\"en\"'', or high priest of male gods was originally a woman, that of female goddesses.",
"Thorkild Jacobsen, as well as others, have suggested that early Mesopotamian society was ruled by a \"council of elders\" in which men and women were equally represented, but that over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased.",
"As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, went to school.",
"Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade.",
"Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children.",
"Some children would help with crushing grain or cleaning birds.",
"Unusually for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had rights.",
"They could own property and, if they had good reason, get a divorce.===Burials===Hundreds of graves have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamian burial habits.",
"In the city of Ur, most people were buried in family graves under their houses, along with some possessions.",
"A few have been found wrapped in mats and carpets.",
"Deceased children were put in big \"jars\" which were placed in the family chapel.",
"Other remains have been found buried in common city graveyards.",
"17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them.",
"It is assumed that these were royal graves.",
"Rich of various periods, have been discovered to have sought burial in Bahrein, identified with Sumerian Dilmun."
],
[
"Economy",
"Mining areas of the ancient West Asia.Sumerian temples functioned as banks and developed the first large-scale system of loans and credit, but the Babylonians developed the earliest system of commercial banking.",
"It was comparable in some ways to modern post-Keynesian economics, but with a more \"anything goes\" approach.=== Agriculture ===Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara and Hadji Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BC.In the early period down to Ur III temples owned up to one third of the available land, declining over time as royal and other private holdings increased in frequency.",
"The word ''Ensi'' was used to describe the official who organized the work of all facets of temple agriculture.",
"Villeins are known to have worked most frequently within agriculture, especially in the grounds of temples or palaces.The geography of southern Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation and with good drainage, a fact which had a profound effect on the evolution of early Mesopotamian civilization.",
"The need for irrigation led the Sumerians, and later the Akkadians, to build their cities along the Tigris and Euphrates and the branches of these rivers.",
"Major cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash, were built on branches of the Tigris.",
"The rivers provided the further benefits of fish (used both for food and fertilizer), reeds, and clay (for building materials).",
"With irrigation, the food supply in Mesopotamia was comparable to that of the Canadian prairies.A map of the Fertile Crescent including the location of ancient Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys form the northeastern portion of the Fertile Crescent, which also included the Jordan River valley and that of the Nile.",
"Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for crops, portions of land farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable.",
"Thus the development of irrigation became very important for settlers of Mesopotamia.",
"Other Mesopotamian innovations include the control of water by dams and the use of aqueducts.",
"Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden plows to soften the soil before planting crops such as barley, onions, grapes, turnips, and apples.",
"Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make beer and wine.",
"As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian region, farmers did not generally depend on slaves to complete farm work for them, but there were some exceptions.",
"There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical (i.e.",
"the escape/mutiny of the slaves).",
"Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire cities.",
"The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers; crops were often ruined so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were also kept.",
"Over time the southernmost parts of Sumerian Mesopotamia suffered from increased salinity of the soils, leading to a slow urban decline and a centring of power in Akkad, further north.=== Trade ===Mesopotamian trade with the Indus Valley civilisation flourished as early as the third millennium BC.",
"Starting in the 4th millennium BC, Mesopotamian civilizations also traded with ancient Egypt (see Egypt–Mesopotamia relations).For much of history, Mesopotamia served as a trade nexus – east-west between Central Asia and the Mediterranean world(part of the Silk Road), as well as north–south between the Eastern Europe and Baghdad (Volga trade route).",
"Vasco da Gama's pioneering (1497–1499) of the sea route between India and Europe and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 impacted on this nexus."
],
[
"Government",
"The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political development of the region.",
"Among the rivers and streams, the Sumerian people built the first cities along with irrigation canals which were separated by vast stretches of open desert or swamp where nomadic tribes roamed.",
"Communication among the isolated cities was difficult and, at times, dangerous.",
"Thus, each Sumerian city became a city-state, independent of the others and protective of its independence.",
"At times one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were resisted and failed for centuries.",
"As a result, the political history of Sumer is one of almost constant warfare.",
"Eventually Sumer was unified by Eannatum, but the unification was tenuous and failed to last as the Akkadians conquered Sumer in 2331 BC only a generation later.",
"The Akkadian Empire was the first successful empire to last beyond a generation and see the peaceful succession of kings.",
"The empire was relatively short-lived, as the Babylonians conquered them within only a few generations.===Kings===7th-century BC relief depicting Ashurbanipal (669–631 BC) and three royal attendants in a chariot.The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended from the city gods, but, unlike the ancient Egyptians, they never believed their kings were real gods.",
"Most kings named themselves \"king of the universe\" or \"great king\".",
"Another common name was \"shepherd\", as kings had to look after their people.===Power===When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called provinces.",
"Each of these were named after their main cities, like Nineveh, Samaria, Damascus, and Arpad.",
"They all had their own governor who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes.",
"Governors also had to call up soldiers to war and supply workers when a temple was built.",
"He was also responsible for enforcing the laws.",
"In this way, it was easier to keep control of a large empire.",
"Although Babylon was quite a small state in Sumer, it grew tremendously throughout the time of Hammurabi's rule.",
"He was known as \"the lawmaker\" and created the Code of Hammurabi, and soon Babylon became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia.",
"It was later called Babylonia, which meant \"the gateway of the gods.\"",
"It also became one of history's greatest centers of learning.===Warfare===Campaign in the Mesopotamian Marshes of southern Babylonia during the reign of Ashurbanipal.",
"Showing Assyrian soldiers on boat chasing enemies trying to run away; some are hiding in the reedsThe Standard of Ur; 2600 BC (the Early Dynastic Period III); shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood; height: 21.7 cm, length: 50.4 cm; discovered at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq)With the end of the Uruk phase, walled cities grew and many isolated Ubaid villages were abandoned indicating a rise in communal violence.",
"An early king Lugalbanda was supposed to have built the white walls around the city.",
"As city-states began to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between other city-states, especially over land and canals.",
"These arguments were recorded in tablets several hundreds of years before any major war—the first recording of a war occurred around 3200 BC but was not common until about 2500 BC.",
"An Early Dynastic II king (Ensi) of Uruk in Sumer, Gilgamesh (c. 2600 BC), was commended for military exploits against Humbaba guardian of the Cedar Mountain, and was later celebrated in many later poems and songs in which he was claimed to be two-thirds god and only one-third human.",
"The later Stele of the Vultures at the end of the Early Dynastic III period (2600–2350 BC), commemorating the victory of Eannatum of Lagash over the neighbouring rival city of Umma is the oldest monument in the world that celebrates a massacre.",
"From this point forwards, warfare was incorporated into the Mesopotamian political system.",
"At times a neutral city may act as an arbitrator for the two rival cities.",
"This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states.",
"When empires were created, they went to war more with foreign countries.",
"King Sargon, for example, conquered all the cities of Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with cities in modern-day Syria.",
"Many Assyrian and Babylonian palace walls were decorated with the pictures of the successful fights and the enemy either desperately escaping or hiding amongst reeds.The Neo-Babylonian kings used deportation as a means of control, like their predecessors, the Assyrians.",
"For the Neo-Babylonian kings, war was a means to obtain tribute, plunder, sought after materials such as various metals and quality wood) and prisoners of war which could be put to work as slaves in the temples which they built.",
"The Assyrians had displaced populations throughout their vast empire, however, this particular practice under the Babylonian kings would appear to have been more limited, only being used to establish new populations in Babylonia itself.",
"Though royal inscriptions from the Neo-Babylonian period don't speak of acts of destruction and deportation in the same boastful way royal inscriptions from the Neo-Assyrian period do, this however, does not prove that the practice ceased or that the Babylonians were less brutal than the Assyrians, since there is evidence that the city Ascalon was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II in 604 BC.===Laws===City-states of Mesopotamia created the first law codes, drawn from legal precedence and decisions made by kings.",
"The codes of Urukagina and Lipit-Ishtar (the Code of Lipit-Ishtar) have been found.",
"The most renowned of these was that of Hammurabi, as mentioned above, who was posthumously famous for his set of laws, the Code of Hammurabi (created ), which is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia.",
"He codified over 200 laws for Mesopotamia.",
"Examination of the laws show a progressive weakening of the rights of women, and increasing severity in the treatment of slaves."
],
[
"Art",
"The art of Mesopotamia rivalled that of Ancient Egypt as the most grand, sophisticated and elaborate in western Eurasia from the 4th millennium BC until the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered the region in the 6th century BC.",
"The main emphasis was on various, very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay; little painting has survived, but what has suggests that painting was mainly used for geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes, though most sculpture was also painted.The Protoliterate period, dominated by Uruk, saw the production of sophisticated works like the Warka Vase and cylinder seals.The Guennol Lioness is an outstanding small limestone figure from Elam of about 3000–2800 BC, part man and part lion.",
"A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyed priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a foot high, who attended temple cult images of the deity, but very few of these have survived.",
"Sculptures from the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large, staring eyes, and long beards on the men.",
"Many masterpieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur (c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a ''Ram in a Thicket'', the ''Copper Bull'' and a bull's head on one of the Lyres of Ur.From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently not.",
"The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate and relatively large (20 x 15 inches) terracotta plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions.",
"It comes from the 18th or 19th century BC, and may also be moulded.",
"Stone stelae, votive offerings, or ones probably commemorating victories and showing feasts, are also found from temples, which unlike more official ones lack inscriptions that would explain them; the fragmentary Stele of the Vultures is an early example of the inscribed type, and the Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large and solid late one.The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian empire.",
"The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with scenes of war or hunting; the British Museum has an outstanding collection.",
"They produced very little sculpture in the round, except for colossal guardian figures, often the human-headed lamassu, which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads effectively in the round (and also five legs, so that both views seem complete).",
"Even before dominating the region they had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined.File:Mask of Sargon of Akkad.jpg|Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in Nineveh in 1931, presumably depicting either Sargon of Akkad or Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin.File:Striding lions - Processional Way of Babylon - Pergamonmuseum - Berlin - Germany 2017.jpg|Striding lions from the Processional Street of Babylon.File:Assyrian Winged Bull.jpg|Lamassu, initially depicted as a goddess in Sumerian times, when it was called ''Lamma'', it was later depicted from Assyrian times as a hybrid of a human, bird, and either a bull or lion—specifically having a human head, the body of a bull or a lion, and bird wings, under the name ''Lamassu''.File:Ancient Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian costumes and decorations (1920) (14741970056).jpg|Assyrian ornaments and patterns, illustrated in a book from 1920File:Detail, Nebuchadnezzar II's Building Inscription plaque of the Ishtar Gate, from Babylon, Iraq.",
"6th century BCE.",
"Pergamon Museum.jpg|alt=|Detail of Nebuchadnezzar II's Building Inscription plaque of the Ishtar Gate, from BabylonFile:Artist’s impression of a hall in an Assyrian palace from The Monuments of Nineveh by Sir Austen Henry Layard, 1853.jpg|alt=|Artist's impression of a hall in an Assyrian palace from ''The Monuments of Nineveh'' by Austen Henry Layard, 1853File:Ashur god.jpg|alt=|A Neo-Assyrian relief of Ashur as a feather robed archer holding a bow instead of a ring (9th-8th century BC)File:The Assyrian king Shalmaneser III receives tribute from Sua, king of Gilzanu, The Black Obelisk..JPG|alt=|The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III.",
"The king, surrounded by his royal attendants and a high-ranking official, receives a tribute from Sua, king of Gilzanu (north-west Iran), who bows and prostrates before the king.",
"From NimrudFile:Genien, Nimrud 870 v. Chr.",
"Aegyptisches Museum, Muenchen-4.jpg|alt=|\"Winged genie\", Nimrud c. 870 BC, with inscription running across his midriff."
],
[
"Architecture",
"The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices.",
"Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well.",
"Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities.Brick is the dominant material, as the material was freely available locally, whereas building stone had to be brought a considerable distance to most cities.",
"The ziggurat is the most distinctive form, and cities often had large gateways, of which the Ishtar Gate from Neo-Babylonian Babylon, decorated with beasts in polychrome brick, is the most famous, now largely in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil) and Ur (Sanctuary of Nanna), Middle Bronze Age remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late Bronze Age palaces at Hattusa, Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon), Urartian (Tushpa/Van, Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe).",
"Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur.",
"Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age.File:Ishtar Gate.gif|The Ishtar gate was constructed in about 575 BCE by order of King Nebuchadnezzar II.",
"Pergamon Museum, BerlinFile:Street in Babylon.jpg|The walls of Babylon, in BabylonFile:Zig front right side.JPG|Ziggurat of UrFile:The ziggurat at Aqar Quf.jpg|Ziggurat of Dur-kuriagalzu in 2010File:SumerianZiggurat.jpg|A suggested reconstruction of the appearance of a Sumerian zigguratFile:20160105-Abraham house in Ur Iraq.jpg|alt=|The alleged Abraham house in Ur"
],
[
"References",
"===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Algaze, Guillermo, 2008'' Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization: the Evolution of an Urban Landscape''.",
"University of Chicago Press.",
"* ''Atlas de la Mésopotamie et du Proche-Orient ancien'', Brepols, 1996 .",
"* Bottéro, Jean; 1987.''Mésopotamie.",
"L'écriture, la raison et les dieux'', Gallimard, coll.",
"« Folio Histoire », .",
"* * Edzard, Dietz Otto; 2004.",
"''Geschichte Mesopotamiens.",
"Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen'', München, * Hrouda, Barthel and Rene Pfeilschifter; 2005.''Mesopotamien.",
"Die antiken Kulturen zwischen Euphrat und Tigris.''",
"München 2005 (4.Aufl.",
"), * Joannès, Francis; 2001.",
"''Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne'', Robert Laffont.",
"* Korn, Wolfgang; 2004.",
"''Mesopotamien – Wiege der Zivilisation.",
"6000 Jahre Hochkulturen an Euphrat und Tigris'', Stuttgart, * Matthews, Roger; 2005.",
"''The early prehistory of Mesopotamia – 500,000 to 4,500 BC'', Turnhout 2005, * Oppenheim, A. Leo; 1964.",
"''Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a dead civilization''.",
"The University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London.",
"Revised edition completed by Erica Reiner, 1977.",
"* Pollock, Susan; 1999.''",
"Ancient Mesopotamia: the Eden that never was''.",
"Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.",
"* Postgate, J. Nicholas; 1992.",
"''Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the dawn of history''.",
"Routledge: London and New York.",
"* Roux, Georges; 1964.",
"''Ancient Iraq'', Penguin Books.",
"* Silver, Morris; 2007.",
"''Redistribution and Markets in the Economy of Ancient Mesopotamia: Updating Polanyi'', Antiguo Oriente 5: 89–112."
],
[
"External links",
"* Ancient Mesopotamia – timeline, definition, and articles at World History Encyclopedia* Mesopotamia – introduction to Mesopotamia from the British Museum* ''By Nile and Tigris, a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913'', by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, 1920 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)* ''Mesopotamian Archaeology'' , by Percy S. P. Handcock, 1912 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & )"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Miranda Richardson"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Miranda Jane Richardson''' (born 3 March 1958) is an English actress who has worked extensively in film, television and theatre.After graduating from the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School, Richardson began her career in 1979 and made her West End debut in the 1981 play ''Moving'', before being nominated for the 1987 Olivier Award for Best Actress for ''A Lie of the Mind''.Her films include ''Empire of the Sun'', ''The Crying Game'', ''The Line, the Cross, and the Curve'', ''The Apostle'', ''Sleepy Hollow'', ''Chicken Run'', ''The Hours'', ''Spider'', ''The Phantom Of The Opera'', ''Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire'', ''The Young Victoria'', ''Made in Dagenham'', ''Belle'', and ''Stronger''.Her television credits include ''Blackadder'', ''A Dance to the Music of Time'', ''Merlin'', ''The Lost Prince'', ''Gideon's Daughter'', the sitcom ''The Life and Times of Vivienne Vyle'', ''Rubicon'' and ''Good Omens''.Richardson has been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for ''Damage'' and the Academy Award for Best Actress for ''Tom & Viv''.",
"A seven-time BAFTA Award nominee, she won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for ''Damage''.",
"She has also been nominated for seven Golden Globe Awards, winning twice for ''Enchanted April'' and the TV film ''Fatherland''."
],
[
"Early life",
"Richardson was born in Southport, Lancashire.",
"She recalls \"a cinema about 50 yards from my house.",
"So Saturday mornings were spent with The ABC Minors: the Saturday cinema club with the theme song set to the tune of Blaze Away by Abe Holzmann, a red ball bouncing over the lyrics so you could sing along.",
"As I got older, I would go to the cinema by myself to watch matinees of westerns and historical Technicolor dramas.\""
],
[
"Career",
"=== Theatre ===Richardson enrolled at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School, where she studied alongside Daniel Day-Lewis and Jenny Seagrove, having started out with juvenile performances in ''Cinderella'' and ''Lord Arthur Savile's Crime'' at the Southport Dramatic Club.Richardson joined the Manchester Library Theatre in 1979 as an assistant stage manager, followed by a number of appearances in repertory theatre.",
"Her London stage debut was in ''Moving'' at the Queen's Theatre in 1981.She found recognition in the West End for a series of stage performances, ultimately receiving an Olivier Award nomination for her performance in ''A Lie of the Mind'', and, in 1996, she appeared in the single-actor theatrical adaptation of ''Orlando'' at the Edinburgh Festival.",
"She returned to the London stage in May 2009 to play the lead role in Wallace Shawn's new play, ''Grasses of a Thousand Colours'' at the Royal Court Theatre.",
"Richardson has said that she prefers new works rather than the classics because of the history which goes with them.=== Film and television ===In 1985, Richardson made her film debut as Ruth Ellis, the last woman to be hanged in the United Kingdom, in the biographical drama ''Dance with a Stranger''.",
"Around the same time, Richardson played a comedic Queen Elizabeth I, aka Queenie, in the British television comedy ''Blackadder II''.Following ''Dance with a Stranger'', Richardson turned down numerous parts in which her character was unstable or disreputable, including the Glenn Close role in ''Fatal Attraction''.",
"In this period, she appeared in ''Empire of the Sun'' (1987).",
"In an episode of the TV series ''The Storyteller'' (\"The Three Ravens\", 1988), she played a witch.",
"Meanwhile, she returned in guest roles in one episode each in ''Blackadder the Third'' (1987) and ''Blackadder Goes Forth'' (1989).",
"She returned to play Queenie in the Christmas special ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol'' (1988) and, later, a special edition for the millennium ''Blackadder: Back and Forth''.Other television roles include Pamela Flitton in ''A Dance to the Music of Time'' (1997), Miss Gilchrist in ''St.",
"Ives'' (1998), Bettina the interior decorator in ''Absolutely Fabulous'', Queen Elspeth, Snow White's stepmother, in ''Snow White: The Fairest of Them All'' (2001), and Queen Mary in ''The Lost Prince'' (2003).Richardson at Metropolitan Opera's 2010–2011 Season Opening Night of ''Das Rheingold''Richardson has appeared in supporting roles in film, including Vanessa Bell in ''The Hours'', Lady Van Tassel in ''Sleepy Hollow'' and Patsy Carpenter in ''The Evening Star''.",
"She also won acclaim for her performances in ''The Crying Game'' and ''Enchanted April'', for which she won a Golden Globe.",
"She received Academy Award nominations for her performances in ''Damage'' and ''Tom & Viv''.Her film credits also include ''Kansas City'' (1996), ''The Apostle'' (1997) and ''Wah-Wah'' (2005).",
"She voiced Mrs Tweedy, the main antagonist, in the stop-motion animated film, ''Chicken Run'' (2000).",
"In 2002, she performed a triple role in the thriller ''Spider''.Richardson also appeared as Queen Rosalind of Denmark in ''The Prince and Me'' and as the ballet mistress Madame Giry in the film version of the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical ''The Phantom of the Opera'' (2004).",
"In 2005, she appeared in the role of Rita Skeeter, the toxic ''Daily Prophet'' journalist in ''Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire''.",
"She also did the voice for Corky in ''The Adventures of Bottle Top Bill and His Best Friend Corky'' (2005), an Australian animated series for children.",
"In 2006, she appeared in ''Gideon's Daughter''.",
"She played Mrs Claus in the film ''Fred Claus'' (2007).Richardson appeared in the BBC sitcom, ''The Life and Times of Vivienne Vyle''.In 2008, Richardson was cast in a leading role in the original AMC pilot, ''Rubicon''.",
"She plays Katherine Rhumor, a New York socialite who finds herself drawn into the central intrigue of a think tank after the death of her husband.Additionally, she played Labour politician Barbara Castle in the British film ''Made in Dagenham''.In 2014, Richardson was cast as Queen Ulla in ''Maleficent'', where she was to play the titular character's aunt, but her role was cut from the film during post-production.",
"In 2015, she played Sybil Birling in Helen Edmundson's BBC One adaptation of J.",
"B. Priestley's ''An Inspector Calls''.",
"Richardson reprised her role as the voice of Mrs Tweedy in the 2023 film, ''Chicken Run: Dawn of the Nugget''.In 2015, she was cast as Emily Brent in BBC One's three-part adaptation of Dame Agatha Christie's 1939 novel \"And Then There Were None.\""
],
[
"Personal life",
"Richardson's hobbies include dog walking, gardening and falconry.",
"In 2013, she began learning the cello."
],
[
"Filmography"
],
[
"Awards and nominations",
"YearAwardWorkResultNotes1987Olivier Award for Best Actress''A Lie of the Mind''1988BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress''After Pilkington''1993Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical''Enchanted April''Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture''Damage''BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role''The Crying Game''Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress''Damage''1995Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama''Tom & Viv''Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Television''Fatherland''Academy Award for Best Actress''Tom & Viv''BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role1998BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress''A Dance to the Music of Time'' 1999Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film''Merlin''2000Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Television''The Big Brass Ring''Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress''Sleepy Hollow''2003Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture''The Hours''2004BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress''The Lost Prince''2005Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film2011BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role''Made in Dagenham''2015Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Narrator''Operation Orangutan''"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mecklenburg"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Mecklenburg''' (; ) is a historical region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal-state Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania.",
"The largest cities of the region are Rostock, Schwerin, Neubrandenburg, Wismar and Güstrow.The name Mecklenburg derives from a castle named ''Mikilenburg'' (Old Saxon for \"big castle\", hence its translation into Neo-Latin and Greek as ), located between the cities of Schwerin and Wismar.",
"In Slavic languages it was known as ''Veligrad'', which also means \"big castle\".",
"It was the ancestral seat of the House of Mecklenburg; for a time the area was divided into Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz among the same dynasty.Linguistically Mecklenburgers retain and use many features of Low German vocabulary or phonology.The adjective for the region is ''Mecklenburgian'' or ''Mecklenburgish'' (); inhabitants are called Mecklenburgians or Mecklenburgers ()."
],
[
"Geography",
"Mecklenburg is known for its mostly flat countryside.",
"Much of the terrain is boggy, with ponds, marshes and fields as common features, with small forests interspersed.",
"The terrain changes as one moves north towards the Baltic Sea.Under the peat of Mecklenburg are sometimes found deposits of ancient lava flows.",
"Traditionally, at least in the countryside, the stone from these flows is cut and used in the construction of homes, often in joint use with cement, brick and wood, forming a unique look to the exterior of country houses.Mecklenburg has productive farming, but the land is most suitable for grazing for livestock.===List of urban centers in Mecklenburg=== Town/municipality District Populationas of December 31, 2012 ImageRostockdistrict-free city206,011 (12-31-2015)Rostock-WarnemündeSchwerindistrict-free city91,264Schwerin Palace (seat of the state parliament of Mecklenburg-VorpommernNeubrandenburgMecklenburgische Seenplatte63,509Neubrandenburg im Morgennebel, by Caspar David FriedrichWismarNordwestmecklenburg42,433Wismar waterworksGüstrowRostock28,586Güstrow renaissance palaceNeustrelitzMecklenburgische Seenplatte20,322Royal Church NeustrelitzWaren (Müritz)Mecklenburgische Seenplatte21,074The Müritzeum aquarium in WarenParchimLudwigslust-Parchim17,174Parchim post officeLudwigslustLudwigslust-Parchim11,998Ludwigslust baroque palace (\"Versaille of the North\")Bad DoberanRostock11,427Brick Gothic Doberan MinsterHagenowLudwigslust-Parchim11,324Old town and church of HagenowGrevesmühlenNordwestmecklenburg10,621Windmill of GrevesmühlenBoizenburg/ElbeLudwigslust-Parchim10,169Boizenburg moat around the old townTeterowRostock8,733Teterow Bergring race trackMalchinMecklenburgische Seenplatte7,657Kalensches Tor, city gate in Malchin"
],
[
"History",
"===Early history===Mecklenburg is the site of many prehistoric dolmen tombs.",
"Its earliest organised inhabitants may have had Celtic origins.",
"By no later than 100 BC the area had been populated by pre-Christian Germanic peoples.The traditional symbol of Mecklenburg, the grinning steer's head (Low German: ''Ossenkopp'', lit.",
": 'oxen's head', with ''osse'' being a synonym for steer and bull in Middle Low German), with an attached hide, and a crown above, may have originated from this period.",
"It represents what early peoples would have worn, i.e.",
"a steers's head as a helmet, with the hide hanging down the back to protect the neck from the sun, and overall as a way to instill fear in the enemy.From the 7th through the 12th centuries, Mecklenburg was inhabited by Western Slavs who migrated there from what is now eastern Poland and north-western Ukraine.",
"Among them were the Obotrites and other tribes that Frankish sources referred to as \"Wends\".",
"The 11th-century founder of the Mecklenburger dynasty of Dukes and later Grand Dukes, which lasted until 1918, was Nyklot of the Obotrites.In the late 12th century, Henry the Lion, Duke of the Saxons, reconquered the region, took oaths from its local lords, and Christianized its people, in a precursor to the Northern Crusades.",
"From the 12th to 14th centuries, large numbers of Germans and Flemings settled the area (Ostsiedlung), importing German law and improved agricultural techniques.",
"The Wends who survived all warfare and devastation of the centuries before, including invasions of and expeditions into Saxony, Denmark and Liutizic areas as well as internal conflicts, were assimilated in the centuries thereafter.",
"However, elements of certain names and words used in Mecklenburg speak to the lingering Slavic influence.",
"An example would be the city of Schwerin, which was originally called ''Zuarin'' in Slavic.",
"Another example is the town of Bresegard, the 'gard' portion of the town name deriving from the Slavic word 'grad', meaning city or town.Since the 12th century, the territory remained stable and relatively independent of its neighbours; one of the few German territories for which this is true.",
"During the Reformation, the Duke in Schwerin would convert to Protestantism and so would follow the Duchy of Mecklenburg in 1549.Historical 7-field coat of arms, symbolizing the seven lordships of Mecklenburg: The duchy of Mecklenburg, the princedoms (former dioceses) of Schwerin and Ratzeburg, the county of Schwerin and the ''Herrschafts'' (lordships) of Rostock, Werle and Stargard.===History, 1621–1933===Like many German territories, Mecklenburg was sometimes partitioned and re-partitioned among different members of the ruling dynasty.",
"In 1621 it was divided into the two duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Güstrow.",
"With the extinction of the Güstrow line in 1701, the Güstrow lands were redivided, part going to the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and part going to the new line of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.In 1815, the two Mecklenburgian duchies were raised to Grand Duchies, the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and subsequently existed separately as such in Germany under enlightened but absolute rule (constitutions being granted on the eve of World War I) until the revolution of 1918.Life in Mecklenburg could be quite harsh.",
"Practices such as having to ask for permission from the Grand Duke to get married, or having to apply for permission to emigrate, would linger late into the history of Mecklenburg (i.e.",
"1918), long after such practices had been abandoned in other German areas.",
"Even as late as the later half of the 19th century the Grand Duke personally owned half of the countryside.",
"The last Duke abdicated in 1918, as monarchies fell throughout Europe.",
"The Duke's ruling house reigned in Mecklenburg uninterrupted (except for two years) from its incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire until 1918.From 1918 to 1933, the duchies were free states in the Weimar Republic.Traditionally Mecklenburg has always been one of the poorer German regions.",
"The reasons for this may be varied, but one factor stands out: agriculturally the land is poor and can not produce at the same level as other parts of Germany.",
"The two Mecklenburgs made attempts at being independent states after 1918, but eventually failed as their dependence on the rest of the German lands became apparent.===History since 1934===After three centuries of partition, Mecklenburg was united on 1 January 1934 by the German government.",
"During World War II the Wehrmacht assigned Mecklenburg and Pomerania to Wehrkreis II under the command of ''General der Infanterie'' Werner Kienitz, with the headquarters at Stettin.",
"Mecklenburg was assigned to an Area headquartered at Schwerin, which was responsible for military units in Schwerin, Rostock, Parchim, and Neustrelitz.After World War II, the Soviet government occupying eastern Germany merged Mecklenburg with the smaller neighbouring region of Western Pomerania (German ''Vorpommern'') to form the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.",
"Mecklenburg contributed about two-thirds of the geographical size of the new state and the majority of its population.",
"Also, the new state became temporary or permanent home for many refugees expelled from former German territories seized by the Soviet Union and Poland after the war.",
"The Soviets changed the name from \"Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania\" to \"Mecklenburg\" in 1947.In 1952, the East German government ended the independent existence of Mecklenburg, creating three districts (\"Bezirke\") out of its territory: Rostock, Schwerin and Neubrandenburg.During German reunification in 1990, the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was revived, and is now one of the 16 states of the Federal Republic of Germany."
],
[
"Coat of arms of the duchies of Mecklenburg",
"Coat of arms used by both duchies, mid 19th century.The House of Mecklenburg was founded by Niklot, prince of the Obotrites, Chizzini and Circipani on the Baltic Sea, who died in 1160.His Christian progeny was recognized as prince of the Holy Roman Empire 1170 and Duke of Mecklenburg 8 July 1348.On 27 February 1658 the ducal house divided in two branches: Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz.The flag of both Mecklenburg duchies is traditionally made of the colours blue, yellow and red.",
"The sequence however changed more than once in the past 300 years.",
"In 1813 the duchies used yellow-red-blue.",
"23 December 1863 for Schwerin and 4 January 1864 for Strelitz blue-yellow-red was ordered.",
"Mecklenburg-Schwerin however used white instead of yellow for flags on sea by law of 24 March 1855.Siebmachers Wappenbuch gives therefore (?)",
"blue-white-red for Schwerin and blue-yellow-red for Strelitz.According to this source, the grand ducal house of Schwerin used a flag of 3.75 to 5.625 M with the middle arms on a white quadrant (1.75 M) in the middle.The middle arms show the shield of Mecklenburg as arranged in the 17th century.",
"The county of Schwerin in the middle and in the quartering Mecklenburg (bull's head with hide), Rostock (griffin), principality of Schwerin (griffin surmounting green rectangle), Ratzeburg (cross surmounted by crown), Stargard (arm with hand holding ring) and Wenden (bull's head).",
"The shield is supported by a bull and a griffin and surmounted by a royal crown.The dukes of Strelitz used according to Siebmachers the blue-yellow-red flag with just the (oval) shield of Mecklenburg in the yellow band.Ströhl in 1897 and Bulgaria show another arrangement: The grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin flows a flag (4:5) with the arms of the figures from the shield of arms.The former Schwerin standard with the white quadrant is now ascribed to the grand dukes of Strelitz.Ströhl mentions a flag for the grand ducal house by law of 23 December 1863 with the middle arms in the yellow band.",
"And he mentions a special sea flag, the same but with a white middle band.",
"'Berühmte Fahnen' shows furthermore a standard for grand duchess Alexandra of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, princess of Hannover (1882–1963), showing her shield and that of Mecklenburg joined by the order of the Wendic Crown in a white oval.",
"On sea the yellow band in her flag was of course white.",
"The princes (dukes) of Mecklenburg-Schwerin had according to this source their own standard, showing the griffin of Rostock."
],
[
"Economy",
"===Agriculture===A flat landscape, Mecklenburg is known for its farmlands—which produces quinoa, wheat, barley and maize—and its animal husbandry, notably its cattle and the Mecklenburger breed of horse.",
"Recently, given the upheavals and environmental disruptions created by globalisation, German farmers have become concerned about potentially invasive species such as the Greater rhea and the Asian hornet.===Tourism===Mecklenburg has seen a huge increase in tourism since German reunification in 1990, particularly with its beaches and seaside resorts at the Baltic Sea (\"German Riviera\", Warnemünde, Boltenhagen, Heiligendamm, Kühlungsborn, Rerik and others), the Mecklenburg Lakeland (''Mecklenburgische Seenplatte'') and the Mecklenburg Switzerland (''Mecklenburgische Schweiz'') with their pristine nature, the old Hanseatic towns of Rostock, Greifswald, Stralsund and Wismar (the latter two being World Heritage) well known for their medieval Brick Gothic buildings, and the former royal residences of Schwerin, Güstrow, Ludwigslust and Neustrelitz."
],
[
"Notable Mecklenburgers",
"Queen Charlotte, 1781*Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher (1742–1819), Prussian army leader*Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1744–1818), wife of George III of the United Kingdom and grandmother of Queen Victoria.",
"*Fritz Reuter (1810–1874), poet and novelist*Ludwig Jacoby, (1813–1874), born in Altstrelitz, an author and Methodist clergyman*Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890), classical archaeologist*Siegfried Marcus (1831–1898), automobile pioneer*Gottlob Frege (1848–1925) a German philosopher, logician, and mathematician.",
"*Johannes Gillhoff (1861–1930), teacher, author of book on Mecklenburg emigrants to the US*Michael Buddrus (born 1957), historian*Jan Ullrich (born 1973) a German former professional road bicycle racer."
],
[
"See also",
"*Mecklenburg-Vorpommern*Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin*Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz*List of Dukes and Grand Dukes of Mecklenburg*Mecklenburg County, North Carolina*Mecklenburg County, Virginia"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Literature",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* Government portal of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania*** Virtual State Museum of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"March 10"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Events",
"===Pre-1600===*241 BC – First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates: The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing the First Punic War to an end.",
"* 298 – Roman Emperor Maximian concludes his campaign in North Africa and makes a triumphal entry into Carthage.",
"* 947 – The Later Han is founded by Liu Zhiyuan.",
"He declares himself emperor.",
"*1496 – After establishing the city of Santo Domingo, Christopher Columbus departs for Spain, leaving his brother in command.",
"*1535 – Spaniard Fray Tomás de Berlanga, the fourth Bishop of Panama, discovers the Galápagos Islands by chance on his way to Peru.===1601–1900===*1607 – Susenyos I defeats the combined armies of Yaqob and Abuna Petros II at the Battle of Gol in Gojjam, making him Emperor of Ethiopia.",
"*1629 – Charles I dissolves the Parliament of England, beginning the eleven-year period known as the Personal Rule.",
"*1661 – French \"Sun King\" Louis XIV begins his personal rule of France after the death of his premier, the Cardinal Mazarin.",
"*1735 – An agreement between Nader Shah and Russia is signed near Ganja, Azerbaijan and Russian troops are withdrawn from occupied territories.",
"*1762 – French Huguenot Jean Calas, who had been wrongly convicted of killing his son, dies after being tortured by authorities; the event inspired Voltaire to begin a campaign for religious tolerance and legal reform.",
"*1814 – Emperor Napoleon I is defeated at the Battle of Laon in France.",
"*1830 – The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army is created.",
"*1831 – The French Foreign Legion is created by Louis Philippe, the King of France, from the foreign regiments of the Kingdom of France.",
"*1848 – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is ratified by the United States Senate, ending the Mexican–American War.",
"*1861 – El Hadj Umar Tall seizes the city of Ségou, destroying the Bamana Empire of Mali.",
"*1873 – The first Azerbaijani play, ''The Adventures of the Vizier of the Khan of Lenkaran'', prepared by Akhundov, is performed by Hassan-bey Zardabi and dramatist and Najaf-bey Vezirov.",
"*1876 – The first successful test of a telephone is made by Alexander Graham Bell.",
"*1891 – Almon Strowger patents the Strowger switch, a device which led to the automation of telephone circuit switching.===1901–present===*1906 – The Courrières mine disaster, Europe's worst ever, kills 1099 miners in northern France.",
"*1909 – By signing the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, Thailand relinquishes its sovereignty over the Malay states of Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu, which become British protectorates.",
"*1922 – Mahatma Gandhi is arrested in India, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years in prison, only to be released after nearly two years for an appendicitis operation.",
"*1933 – The Long Beach earthquake affects the Greater Los Angeles Area, leaving around 108 people dead.",
"*1944 – Greek Civil War: The Political Committee of National Liberation is established in Greece by the National Liberation Front.",
"*1945 – World War II: The U.S. Army Air Force firebombs Tokyo, and the resulting conflagration kills more than 100,000 people, mostly civilians.",
"*1949 – Mildred Gillars (\"Axis Sally\") is convicted of treason.",
"*1952 – Fulgencio Batista leads a successful coup in Cuba.",
"*1959 – Tibetan uprising: Fearing an abduction attempt by China, thousands of Tibetans surround the Dalai Lama's palace to prevent his removal.",
"*1966 – Military Prime Minister of South Vietnam Nguyễn Cao Kỳ sacks rival General Nguyễn Chánh Thi, precipitating large-scale civil and military dissension in parts of the nation.",
"*1969 – In Memphis, Tennessee, James Earl Ray pleads guilty to assassinating Martin Luther King Jr.",
"He later unsuccessfully attempts to recant.",
"*1970 – Vietnam War: Captain Ernest Medina is charged by the U.S. military with My Lai war crimes.",
"*1975 – Vietnam War: Ho Chi Minh Campaign: North Vietnamese troops attack Ban Mê Thuột in the South on their way to capturing Saigon in the final push for victory over South Vietnam.",
"*1977 – Astronomers discover the rings of Uranus.",
"*1989 – Air Ontario Flight 1363, a Fokker F-28 Fellowship, crashes at Dryden Regional Airport in Dryden, Ontario, Canada, killing 24.",
"*1990 – In Haiti, Prosper Avril is ousted 18 months after seizing power in a coup.",
"*2000 – The Dot-com bubble peaks with the NASDAQ Composite stock market index reaching 5,048.62.",
"*2006 – The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter arrives at Mars.",
"*2017 – The impeachment of President Park Geun-hye of South Korea in response to a major political scandal is unanimously upheld by the country's Constitutional Court, ending her presidency.",
"*2019 – Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302, a Boeing 737 MAX, crashes, leading to all 737 MAX aircraft being grounded worldwide.",
"*2023 – Silicon Valley Bank collapses due to a run on its deposits, in the second largest bank failure in US history.",
"Its operations are taken over by the FDIC."
],
[
"Births",
"===Pre-1600===*1452 – Ferdinand II, king of Castile and León (d. 1516)*1503 – Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1564)*1536 – Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, English politician, Earl Marshal of the United Kingdom (d. 1572)*1596 – Princess Maria Elizabeth of Sweden, daughter of King Charles IX of Sweden (d. 1618)===1601–1900===*1604 – Johann Rudolf Glauber, German-Dutch alchemist and chemist (d. 1670)*1628 – François Girardon, French sculptor (d. 1715)* 1628 – Marcello Malpighi, Italian physician and biologist (d. 1694)*1653 – John Benbow, Royal Navy admiral (d. 1702)*1656 – Giacomo Serpotta, Italian Rococo sculptor (d. 1732)*1709 – Georg Wilhelm Steller, German botanist, zoologist, physician, and explorer (d. 1746)*1749 – Lorenzo Da Ponte, Italian-American priest and poet (d. 1838)*1769 – Joseph Williamson, English businessman and philanthropist (d. 1840)*1772 – Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel, German poet and critic (d. 1829)*1777 – Louis Hersent, French painter (d. 1860)*1787 – Francisco de Paula Martínez de la Rosa y Berdejo, Spanish playwright and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1862)* 1787 – William Etty, English painter and academic (d. 1849)*1788 – Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff, German author, poet, playwright, and critic (d. 1857)* 1788 – Edward Hodges Baily, English sculptor (d. 1867)*1789 – Manuel de la Peña y Peña, Mexican lawyer and 20th President (1847) (d. 1850) *1795 – Joseph Légaré, Canadian painter and glazier, artist, seigneur and political figure (d. 1855)*1810 – Samuel Ferguson, Irish poet and lawyer (d. 1886)*1843 – Evelyn Abbott, English classical scholar (d. 1901)*1844 – Pablo de Sarasate, Spanish violinist and composer (d. 1908)* 1844 – Marie Euphrosyne Spartali, British Pre-Raphaelite painter (d. 1927)*1845 – Alexander III of Russia (d. 1894)*1846 – Edward Baker Lincoln, American son of Abraham Lincoln (d. 1850)*1849 – Hallie Quinn Brown, African-American educator, writer and activist (d. 1949)*1850 – Spencer Gore, English tennis player and cricketer (d. 1906)*1853 – Thomas Mackenzie, Scottish-New Zealand cartographer and politician, 18th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1930)*1867 – Hector Guimard, French-American architect (d. 1942)* 1867 – Lillian Wald, American nurse, humanitarian, and author, founded the Henry Street Settlement (d. 1940)*1870 – David Riazanov, Russian theorist and politician (d. 1938)*1873 – Jakob Wassermann, German-Austrian soldier and author (d. 1934)*1876 – Anna Hyatt Huntington, American sculptor (d. 1973)*1877 – Pascual Ortiz Rubio, Mexican diplomat and president (1930-1932) (d. 1963)*1881 – Jessie Boswell, English painter (d. 1956)*1888 – Barry Fitzgerald, Irish actor (d. 1961)*1890 – Albert Ogilvie, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1939)*1892 – Arthur Honegger, French composer and educator (d. 1955)* 1892 – Gregory La Cava, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1952)*1896 – Frederick Coulton Waugh, British cartoonist, painter, teacher and author (d. 1973)*1900 – Violet Brown, Jamaican supercentenarian, oldest Jamaican ever (d. 2017) * 1900 – Pandelis Pouliopoulos, Greek lawyer and politician (d. 1943)*1901 – Michel Seuphor, Belgian painter (d. 1999)===1901–present===*1903 – Bix Beiderbecke, American cornet player, pianist, and composer (d. 1931)* 1903 – Edward Bawden, British artist and illustrator (d. 1989)* 1903 – Clare Boothe Luce, American playwright, journalist, and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Italy (d. 1987)*1915 – Harry Bertoia, Italian-American sculptor and furniture designer (d. 1978) * 1915 – Joža Horvat, Croatian writer (d. 2012)*1917 – David Hare, American Surrealist artist, sculptor, photographer and painter (d. 1992)*1918 – Günther Rall, German general and pilot (d. 2009)*1919 – Leonor Oyarzún, Chilean socialite, First Lady of Chile from 1990 to 1994 (d.",
"2022).",
"*1920 – Alfred Peet, Dutch-American businessman, founded Peet's Coffee & Tea (d. 2007)*1923 – Val Logsdon Fitch, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015)*1924 – Judith Jones, American literary and cookbook editor (d. 2017)*1925 – Bob Lanier, American lawyer, banker, and politician, Mayor of Houston (d. 2014)*1926 – Marques Haynes, American basketball player (d. 2015)*1927 – Claude Laydu, Belgian-French actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2011)*1928 – Sara Montiel, Spanish actress (d. 2013)* 1928 – James Earl Ray, American criminal; assassin of Martin Luther King Jr. (d. 1998)*1929 – Sam Steiger, American journalist and politician (d. 2012)*1930 – Sándor Iharos, Hungarian runner (d. 1996)*1931 – Georges Dor, Canadian author, playwright, and composer (d. 2001)*1932 – Marcia Falkender, Baroness Falkender, English politician (d. 2019)*1934 – Gergely Kulcsár, Hungarian javelin thrower (d. 2020)*1935 – Polly Farmer, Australian footballer and coach (d. 2019)*1936 – Sepp Blatter, Swiss businessman*1937 – María Kodama, Argentine writer and translator (d. 2023)*1938 – Norman Blake, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1938 – Ron Mix, American football player*1939 – Asghar Ali Engineer, Indian activist and author (d. 2013)* 1939 – Irina Press, Ukrainian-Russian hurdler and pentathlete (d. 2004)*1940 – Chuck Norris, American actor, producer, and martial artist* 1940 – David Rabe, American playwright and screenwriter*1943 – Peter Berresford Ellis, English historian and author*1945 – Katharine Houghton, American actress and playwright* 1945 – Madhavrao Scindia, Indian politician, Indian Minister of Railways (d. 2001)*1946 – Curley Culp, American football player (d. 2021)* 1946 – Gérard Garouste, French contemporary artist* 1946 – Jim Valvano, American basketball player and coach (d. 1993)*1947 – Kim Campbell, Canadian lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Canada* 1947 – Tom Scholz, American rock musician*1948 – Austin Carr, American basketball player*1951 – Gloria Diaz, Filipino actress and beauty queen, Miss Universe 1969 *1952 – Morgan Tsvangirai, Zimbabwean politician, Prime Minister of Zimbabwe (d. 2018)*1953 – Paul Haggis, Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter*1955 – Toshio Suzuki, Japanese race car driver*1956 – Robert Llewellyn, English actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1956 – Larry Myricks, American long jumper and sprinter*1957 – Osama bin Laden, Saudi Arabian terrorist, founded al-Qaeda (d. 2011)*1958 – Garth Crooks, English footballer and sportscaster* 1958 – Steve Howe, American baseball player (d. 2006)* 1958 – Sharon Stone, American actress and producer*1961 – Laurel Clark, American captain, physician, and astronaut (d. 2003)*1962 – Jasmine Guy, American actress, singer, and director* 1962 – Seiko Matsuda, Japanese singer-songwriter*1963 – Jeff Ament, American bass player and songwriter* 1963 – Rick Rubin, American record producer*1964 – Greg Campbell, Australian cricketer* 1964 – Neneh Cherry, Swedish singer-songwriter* 1964 – Prince Edward, Duke of Edinburgh*1965 – Jillian Richardson, Canadian sprinter* 1965 – Rod Woodson, American football player, coach, and sportscaster*1966 – Mike Timlin, American baseball player*1968 – Pavel Srníček, Czech footballer and coach (d. 2015)* 1968 – Alma Čardžić, Bosnian singer*1971 – Jon Hamm, American actor and director*1972 – Timbaland, American rapper and producer*1973 – Jason Croker, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1973 – Chris Sutton, English footballer* 1973 – Mauricio Taricco, Argentinian footballer and assistant manager*1976 – Barbara Schett, Austrian tennis player*1977 – Shannon Miller, American gymnast* 1977 – Robin Thicke, American singer, songwriter, and record producer*1978 – Camille, French singer-songwriter and actress* 1978 – Benjamin Burnley, American musician*1981 – Samuel Eto'o, Cameroonian footballer* 1981 – Steven Reid, English-Irish footballer*1982 – Kwame Brown, American basketball player* 1982 – Logan Mankins, American football player*1983 – Étienne Boulay, Canadian football player* 1983 – Rafe Spall, English actor* 1983 – Janet Mock, American journalist, author, and activist* 1983 – Carrie Underwood, American singer-songwriter*1984 – Ben May, English footballer* 1984 – Olivia Wilde, American actress and director*1987 – Martellus Bennett, American football player* 1987 – Greg Eastwood, New Zealand rugby league player* 1987 – Māris Štrombergs, Latvian BMX racer*1988 – Josh Hoffman, Australian-New Zealand rugby league player* 1988 – Ego Nwodim, American actress* 1988 – Ivan Rakitić, Croatian football player*1990 – Stefanie Vögele, Swiss tennis player*1992 – Neeskens Kebano, French-born Congolese international footballer*1993 – Jack Butland, English footballer* 1993 – Aminata Namasia, Congolese politician*1994 – Bad Bunny, Puerto Rican rapper and singer* 1994 – Nikita Parris, English footballer*1995 – DaeSean Hamilton, American football player* 1995 – Zach LaVine, American basketball player* 1995 – Sergey Mozgov, Russian ice dancer*1997 – Belinda Bencic, Swiss tennis player*1998 – Justin Herbert, American football player*2004 – Matthew Poitras, Canadian ice hockey player"
],
[
"Deaths",
"===Pre-1600===* 483 – Pope Simplicius* 948 – Liu Zhiyuan, Shatuo founder of the Later Han dynasty (b.",
"895)*1291 – Arghun, Mongol ruler in Persia (b. c.1258)*1315 – Agnes Blannbekin, Austrian mystic*1513 – John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, English commander and politician, Lord High Constable of England (b.",
"1442)*1528 – Balthasar Hübmaier, German/Moravian Anabaptist leader*1572 – William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester*1585 – Rembert Dodoens, Flemish physician and botanist (b.",
"1517)===1601–1900===*1682 – Jacob van Ruisdael, Dutch painter and etcher (b.",
"1628)*1724 – Urban Hjärne, Swedish chemist, geologist, and physician (b.",
"1641)*1776 – Élie Catherine Fréron, French author and critic (b.",
"1718)*1792 – John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, Scottish politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.",
"1713)*1826 – John Pinkerton, Scottish antiquarian, cartographer, author, numismatist and historian (b.",
"1758)*1832 – Muzio Clementi, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.",
"1752)*1861 – Taras Shevchenko, Ukrainian poet, playwright, and ethnographer (b.",
"1814)*1872 – Giuseppe Mazzini, Italian journalist and politician (b.",
"1805)*1895 – Charles Frederick Worth, English-French fashion designer (b.",
"1825)*1897 – Savitribai Phule, Indian poet and activist (b.",
"1831)*1898 – Marie-Eugénie de Jésus, French nun and saint, founded the Religious of the Assumption (b.",
"1817)===1901–present===*1910 – Karl Lueger, Austrian lawyer and politician Mayor of Vienna (b.",
"1844)* 1910 – Carl Reinecke, German pianist, composer, and conductor (b.",
"1824)*1913 – Harriet Tubman, American nurse and activist (b. c.1820)*1925 – Myer Prinstein, Polish-American jumper (b.",
"1878)*1937 – Yevgeny Zamyatin, Russian journalist and author (b.",
"1884)*1940 – Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian novelist and playwright (b.",
"1891)*1942 – Wilbur Scoville, American pharmacist and chemist (b.",
"1865)*1948 – Zelda Fitzgerald, American author, visual artist, and ballet dancer (b.",
"1900)* 1948 – Jan Masaryk, Czech soldier and politician (b.",
"1886)*1951 – Kijūrō Shidehara, Japanese lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Japan (b.",
"1872)*1966 – Frits Zernike, Dutch physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1888)* 1966 – Frank O'Connor, Irish short story writer, novelist, and poet (b.",
"1903)*1977 – E. Power Biggs, English-American organist and composer (b.",
"1906)*1985 – Konstantin Chernenko, Russian soldier and politician, Head of State of The Soviet Union (b.",
"1911)* 1985 – Bob Nieman, American baseball player (b.",
"1927)*1986 – Ray Milland, Welsh-American actor and director (b.",
"1907)*1988 – Andy Gibb, Australian singer-songwriter and actor (b.",
"1958)*1992 – Giorgos Zampetas, Greek bouzouki player and composer (b.",
"1925)*1996 – Ross Hunter, American film producer (b.",
"1926)*1997 – LaVern Baker, American singer and actress (b.",
"1929)*1998 – Lloyd Bridges, American actor and director (b.",
"1913)*1999 – Oswaldo Guayasamín, Ecuadorian painter and sculptor (b.",
"1919)*2005 – Dave Allen, Irish-English comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b.",
"1936)*2007 – Ernie Ladd, American football player and wrestler (b.",
"1938)*2010 – Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy, Egyptian scholar and academic (b.",
"1928)* 2010 – Corey Haim, Canadian actor (b.",
"1971)*2011 – Bill Blackbeard, American author and illustrator (b.",
"1926)*2012 – Jean Giraud, French author and illustrator (b.",
"1938)* 2012 – Frank Sherwood Rowland, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1927)*2013 – Princess Lilian, Duchess of Halland, British born Swedish Princess (b.1915)*2015 – Richard Glatzer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.",
"1952)*2016 – Ken Adam, German-English production designer and art director (b.",
"1921)* 2016 – Roberto Perfumo, Argentinian footballer and sportscaster* 2016 – Jovito Salonga, Filipino lawyer and politician, 14th President of the Senate of the Philippines (b.",
"1920)* 2016 – Anita Brookner, English novelist and art historian (b.",
"1928)*2022 – John Elliott, English historian and academic (b.",
"1930)"
],
[
"Holidays and observances",
"*Christian feast day**Attala**Harriet Tubman (Lutheran)**John Ogilvie**Macarius of Jerusalem**Marie-Eugénie de Jésus**Pope Simplicius**Sojourner Truth (Lutheran)**March 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Harriet Tubman Day (United States of America)*Holocaust Remembrance Day (Bulgaria)*Mario Day (Globally)*Men's Day (Poland)*National Women and Girls HIV/AIDS Awareness Day (United States)*Székely Freedom Day (Romania)*Tibetan Uprising Day (Tibetan independence movement)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 10"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"March 12"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Events",
"===Pre-1600===* 538 – Vitiges, king of the Ostrogoths ends his siege of Rome and retreats to Ravenna, leaving the city to the victorious Byzantine general, Belisarius.",
"*1088 – Election of Urban II as the 159th Pope of the Catholic Church.",
"He is best known for initiating the Crusades.",
"*1158 – German city Munich (München) is first mentioned as ''forum apud Munichen'' in the Augsburg arbitration by Holy Roman Emperor Friedrich I.",
"*1579 – Start of the Siege of Maastricht, part of the Eighty Years' War.===1601–1900===*1622 – Ignatius of Loyola and Francis Xavier, founders of the Society of Jesus, are canonized by the Roman Catholic Church.",
"*1689 – James II of England landed at Kinsale, starting the Williamite War in Ireland.",
"*1811 – Peninsular War: A day after a successful rearguard action, French Marshal Michel Ney once again successfully delays the pursuing Anglo-Portuguese force at the Battle of Redinha.===1901–present===*1912 – The Girl Guides (later renamed the Girl Scouts of the USA) are founded in the United States.",
"*1913 – The future capital of Australia is officially named Canberra.",
"*1918 – Moscow becomes the capital of Russia again after Saint Petersburg held this status for most of the period since 1713.",
"*1920 – The Kapp Putsch begins when the Marinebrigade Ehrhardt is ordered to march on Berlin.",
"*1928 – In California, the St. Francis Dam fails; the resulting floods kill 431 people.",
"*1930 – Mahatma Gandhi begins the ''Salt March'', a march to the sea to protest the British monopoly on salt in India.",
"*1933 – Great Depression: Franklin D. Roosevelt addresses the nation for the first time as President of the United States.",
"This is also the first of his \"fireside chats\".",
"*1938 – ''Anschluss:'' German troops occupy and absorb Austria.",
"*1940 – Winter War: Finland signs the Moscow Peace Treaty with the Soviet Union, ceding almost all of Finnish Karelia.",
"* 1940 – The most destructive train accident in Finnish history kills 39 and injures 69 people in Turenki, Janakkala.",
"*1942 – The Battle of Java ends with the surrender of the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command to the Japanese Empire in Bandung, West Java, Dutch East Indies.",
"*1947 – Cold War: The Truman Doctrine is proclaimed to help stem the spread of Communism.",
"*1950 – The Llandow air disaster kills 80 people when the aircraft they are travelling in crashes near Sigingstone, Wales.",
"At the time this was the world's deadliest air disaster.",
"*1967 – Suharto takes power from Sukarno when the People's Consultative Assembly inaugurate him as Acting President of Indonesia.",
"*1968 – Mauritius gains independence from the United Kingdom.",
"*1971 – The 1971 Turkish military memorandum is sent to the Süleyman Demirel government of Turkey and the government resigns.",
"*1989 – Sir Tim Berners-Lee submits his proposal to CERN for an information management system, which subsequently develops into the World Wide Web.",
"*1992 – Mauritius becomes a republic while remaining a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.",
"*1993 – Several bombs explode in Mumbai, India, killing about 300 people and injuring hundreds more.",
"* 1993 – North Korea announces that it will withdraw from the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and refuses to allow inspectors access to its nuclear sites.",
"*1999 – Former Warsaw Pact members the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland join NATO.",
"*2003 – Zoran Đinđić, Prime Minister of Serbia, is assassinated in Belgrade.",
"* 2003 – The World Health Organization officially release a global warning of outbreaks of Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).",
"*2004 – The President of South Korea, Roh Moo-hyun, is impeached by its National Assembly: the first such impeachment in the nation's history.",
"*2009 – Financier Bernie Madoff pleads guilty to one of the largest frauds in Wall Street's history.",
"*2011 – A reactor at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant explodes and releases radioactivity into the atmosphere a day after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.",
"*2014 – A gas explosion in the New York City neighborhood of East Harlem kills eight and injures 70 others.",
"*2018 – US-Bangla Airlines Flight 211 crashes at Tribhuvan International Airport in Katmandu, killing 51 and injuring 20.",
"*2019 – In the House of Commons, the revised EU Withdrawal Bill was rejected by a margin of 149 votes.",
"*2020 – The United States suspends travel from Europe due to the COVID-19 pandemic."
],
[
"Births",
"===Pre-1600===*1270 – Charles, Count of Valois (d. 1325)*1515 – Caspar Othmayr, German Lutheran pastor and composer (d. 1553)===1601–1900===*1607 – Paul Gerhardt, German poet and composer (d. 1676)*1613 – André Le Nôtre, French gardener and architect (d. 1700)*1626 – John Aubrey, English historian and philosopher (d. 1697)*1637 – Anne Hyde, Duchess of York and Albany (d. 1671)*1672 – Richard Steele, Irish-Welsh journalist and politician (d. 1729)*1685 – George Berkeley, Irish bishop and philosopher (d. 1753)*1710 – Thomas Arne, English composer (d. 1778)*1735 – François-Emmanuel Guignard, comte de Saint-Priest, French politician and diplomat (d. 1821)*1753 – Jean Denis, French politician, lawyer, jurist, journalist, and historian (d. 1827)*1766 – Claudius Buchanan, Scottish theologian (d. 1815)*1781 – Frederica of Baden, Queen consort to Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden (d. 1826)*1784 – William Buckland, English geologist and paleontologist; Dean of Westminster (d. 1856)*1795 – William Lyon Mackenzie, Scottish-Canadian journalist and politician, 1st Mayor of Toronto (d. 1861)* 1795 – George Tyler Wood, American military officer and politician (d. 1858)*1806 – Jane Pierce, American wife of Franklin Pierce, 15th First Lady of the United States (d. 1863)*1807 – James Abbott, Indian Army officer (d. 1896)*1815 – Louis-Jules Trochu, French military leader and politician (d. 1896)*1821 – John Abbott, Canadian lawyer and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1893)* 1821 – Medo Pucić, Croatian writer and politician (d. 1882)*1823 – Katsu Kaishū, Japanese statesman (d. 1899)*1824 – Gustav Kirchhoff, Russian-German physicist and academic (d. 1887)*1832 – Charles Boycott, English farmer and agent (d. 1897)*1834 – Hilary A. Herbert, Secretary of the Navy (d. 1919)*1835 – Simon Newcomb, Canadian-American astronomer and mathematician (d. 1909)* 1835 – Sigismondo Savona, Maltese educator and politician (d. 1908)*1837 – Alexandre Guilmant, French organist and composer (d. 1911)*1838 – William Henry Perkin, English chemist and academic (d. 1907)*1843 – Gabriel Tarde, French sociologist and criminologist (d. 1904)*1855 – Eduard Birnbaum, Polish-born German cantor (d. 1920)*1857 – William V. Ranous, American actor and director (d. 1915)*1858 – Adolph Ochs, American publisher (d. 1935)*1859 – Ernesto Cesàro, Italian mathematician (d. 1906)*1860 – Eric Stenbock, Estonian poet and author (d. 1895)*1863 – Gabriele D'Annunzio, Italian soldier, journalist, poet, and playwright (d. 1938)* 1863 – Vladimir Vernadsky, Russian and Ukrainian mineralogist and chemist (d. 1945)*1864 – W. H. R. Rivers, English anthropologist, neurologist, ethnologist, and psychiatrist (d. 1922)* 1864 – Alice Tegnér, Swedish organist, composer, and educator (d. 1943)*1869 – George Forbes, New Zealand politician, 22nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1947)*1874 – Edmund Eysler, Austrian composer (d. 1949)*1877 – Wilhelm Frick, German lawyer and politician, German Federal Minister of the Interior (d. 1946)*1878 – Gemma Galgani, Italian mystic and saint (d. 1903)*1880 – Henry Drysdale Dakin, English-American chemist and academic (d. 1952)*1881 – Väinö Tanner, Finnish politician of Social Democratic Party of Finland; the Prime Minister of Finland (d. 1966)*1882 – Carlos Blanco Galindo, Bolivian politician (d. 1943)*1883 – Sándor Jávorka, Hungarian botanist (d. 1961)*1888 – Walter Hermann Bucher, German-American geologist and paleontologist (d. 1965)* 1888 – Hans Knappertsbusch, German conductor (d. 1965)*1890 – Evert Taube, Swedish singer-songwriter and lute player (d. 1976)*1896 – Jesse Fuller, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1976)*1898 – Tian Han, Chinese playwright (d. 1968)* 1898 – Luitpold Steidle, German army officer and politician (d. 1984)*1899 – Ramón Muttis, Argentine footballer (d. 1955)*1900 – Rinus van den Berge, Dutch athlete (d. 1972)* 1900 – Sylvi Kekkonen, Finnish writer and wife of President of Finland Urho Kekkonen (d. 1974)* 1900 – Gustavo Rojas Pinilla, 19th President of Colombia (d. 1975)===1901–present===*1904 – Lyudmila Keldysh, Russian mathematician (d. 1976)*1905 – Takashi Shimura, Japanese actor (d. 1982)*1907 – Dorrit Hoffleit, American astronomer and academic (d. 2007)*1908 – Rita Angus, New Zealand painter (d. 1970)* 1908 – David Marshall, Singaporean lawyer and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Singapore (d. 1995)*1909 – Petras Cvirka, Lithuanian author (d. 1947)*1910 – Masayoshi Ōhira, Japanese politician, 68th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1980)* 1910 – László Lékai, Archbishop of Esztergom and Cardinal (d. 1986)*1911 – Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, Mexican academic and politician, 49th President of Mexico (d. 1979)*1912 – Willie Hall, English international footballer (d. 1967)* 1912 – Irving Layton, Romanian-Canadian poet and academic (d. 2006)*1913 – Yashwantrao Chavan, Indian politician, 5th Deputy Prime Minister of India (d. 1984)* 1913 – Agathe von Trapp, Hungarian-American singer and author (d. 2010)*1915 – Alberto Burri, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1995)* 1915 – Jiří Mucha, Czech journalist (d. 1991)*1917 – Leonard Chess, American record company executive, co-founder of Chess Records (d. 1969)* 1917 – Millard Kaufman, American author and screenwriter (d. 2009)* 1917 – Googie Withers, Indian-Australian actress (d. 2011)*1918 – Pádraig Faulkner, Irish Fianna Fáil politician (d. 2012)* 1918 – Elaine de Kooning, American painter and academic (d. 1989)*1921 – Gianni Agnelli, Italian businessman (d. 2001)* 1921 – Gordon MacRae, American actor and singer (d. 1986)*1922 – Jack Kerouac, American author and poet (d. 1969)* 1922 – Lane Kirkland, American sailor and union leader (d. 1999)*1923 – Hjalmar Andersen, Norwegian speed skater and cyclist (d. 2013)* 1923 – Norbert Brainin, Austrian violinist (d. 2005)* 1923 – Wally Schirra, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2007)* 1923 – Mae Young, American wrestler (d. 2014)*1925 – Leo Esaki, Japanese physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1925 – Harry Harrison, American author and illustrator (d. 2012)*1926 – George Ariyoshi, American lawyer and politician, 3rd Governor of Hawaii* 1926 – Arthur A. Hartman, American career diplomat (d. 2015)* 1926 – John Clellon Holmes, American author and professor (d. 1988)* 1926 – David Nadien, American violinist (d. 2014)*1927 – Raúl Alfonsín, Argentinian lawyer and politician, 46th President of Argentina (d. 2009)* 1927 – Emmett Leith, professor of electrical engineering and co-inventor of three-dimensional holography (d. 2005)* 1927 – Sudharmono, 5th Vice President of Indonesia (d. 2006)*1928 – Edward Albee, American director and playwright (d. 2016)*1929 – Win Tin, Burmese journalist and politician, co-founded the National League for Democracy (d. 2014)*1930 – Antony Acland, British former diplomat and Provost of Eton College (d. 2021)*1931 – Józef Tischner, Polish priest and philosopher (d. 2000)*1932 – Bob Houbregs, Canadian basketball player (d. 2014)* 1932 – Andrew Young, American pastor and politician, 14th United States Ambassador to the United Nations*1933 – Myrna Fahey, American actress (d. 1973)* 1933 – Barbara Feldon, American actress*1934 – Francisco J. Ayala, Spanish-American evolutionary biologist and philosopher (d. 2023)*1936 – Virginia Hamilton, American children's books author (d. 2002)* 1936 – Michał Heller, Polish professor of philosophy* 1936 – Eddie Sutton, American basketball player and coach (d. 2020) *1937 – Zoltán Horvath, Hungarian sabre fencer* 1937 – Zurab Sotkilava, Georgian operatic tenor (d. 2017)*1938 – Vladimir Msryan, Armenian actor (d. 2010)* 1938 – Johnny Rutherford, American race car driver and sportscaster* 1938 – Ken Spears, American writer (d. 2020)* 1938 – Juan Horacio Suárez, Argentine bishop* 1938 – Ron Tutt, American drummer (d. 2021)*1940 – Al Jarreau, American singer (d. 2017)*1941 – Josip Skoblar, former Croatian footballer*1942 – Jimmy Wynn, American baseball player (d. 2020)*1943 – Ratko Mladić, Serbian general*1944 – Erwin Mueller, former American basketball player (d. 2018)*1945 – Anne Summers, Australian feminist writer, editor, publisher and public servant *1946 – Dean Cundey, American cinematographer and film director* 1946 – Liza Minnelli, American actress, singer and dancer* 1946 – Frank Welker, American voice actor and singer*1947 – Peter Harry Carstensen, German educator and politician* 1947 – Jan-Erik Enestam, Finland-Swedish politician* 1947 – David Rigert, Soviet Olympic weightlifter* 1947 – Mitt Romney, American businessman and politician, 70th Governor of Massachusetts*1948 – Virginia Bottomley, Scottish social worker and politician, Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport* 1948 – Kent Conrad, American politician* 1948 – James Taylor, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1949 – Rob Cohen, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1949 – David Mellor, British politician*1950 – Javier Clemente, Spanish footballer and manager*1952 – André Comte-Sponville, French philosopher* 1952 – Yasuhiko Okudera, former Japanese footballer* 1952 – John Mitchell, English footballer*1953 – Pavel Pinigin, former Soviet wrestler and Olympic champion*1954 – Anish Kapoor, Indian-English sculptor*1956 – Ove Aunli, former Norwegian cross-country skier* 1956 – Stanisław Bobak, Polish ski jumper (d. 2010)* 1956 – Steve Harris, English bass player and songwriter* 1956 – Lesley Manville, English actress* 1956 – Dale Murphy, American baseball player* 1956 – Pim Verbeek, Dutch football manager (d. 2019)*1957 – Patrick Battiston, French footballer and coach* 1957 – Marlon Jackson, American singer-songwriter and dancer* 1957 – Andrey Lopatov, Soviet basketball player*1958 – Phil Anderson, English-Australian cyclist*1959 – Milorad Dodik, Bosnian Serb politician and president of Republika Srpska* 1959 – Luenell, American comedian and actress* 1959 – Michael Walter, German luger (d. 2016)*1960 – Jason Beghe, American actor* 1960 – Courtney B. Vance, American actor and painter*1962 – Julia Campbell, American actress* 1962 – Andreas Köpke, German footballer* 1962 – Chris Sanders, American illustrator and voice actor* 1962 – Darryl Strawberry, American baseball player and minister*1963 – John Andretti, American race car driver (d. 2020)* 1963 – Candy Costie, American swimmer* 1963 – Joaquim Cruz, Brazilian runner and coach* 1963 – Reiner Gies, German boxer* 1963 – Ian Holloway, English footballer and manager* 1963 – Paul Way, English golfer* 1963 – Jake Weber, English actor*1964 – Dieter Eckstein, German footballer* 1964 – Umirzak Shukeyev, Kazakh chairman of Samruk-Kazyna*1965 – Steve Finley, American baseball player* 1965 – Ivari Padar, former Minister of Finance and Minister of Agriculture of the Estonian Social Democratic Party*1966 – David Daniels, American countertenor* 1966 – Grant Long, American basketball player and sportscaster*1967 – Julio Dely Valdés, Panamanian footballer and manager*1968 – Tammy Duckworth, Thai-American colonel, pilot, and politician* 1968 – Aaron Eckhart, American actor and producer*1969 – Graham Coxon, English singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1969 – Jake Tapper, American journalist and author*1970 – Karen Bradley, British politician* 1970 – Dave Eggers, American author and screenwriter* 1970 – Mathias Grönberg, Swedish golfer* 1970 – Rex Walters, American basketball player and coach*1971 – Isaiah Rider, American basketball player and rapper* 1971 – Dragutin Topić, Serbian high jumper*1972 – Doron Sheffer, Israeli basketball player*1974 – Charles Akonnor, Ghanaian footballer* 1974 – Walid Badir, Israeli footballer*1975 – Nicolae Grigore, Romanian footballer* 1975 – Edgaras Jankauskas, Lithuanian footballer* 1975 – Srđan Pecelj, Bosnian footballer*1976 – Deron Quint, American ice hockey defenseman* 1976 – Zhao Wei, Chinese actress, film director, producer and pop singer*1977 – Michelle Burgher, track and field athlete* 1977 – Ramiro Corrales, American soccer player* 1977 – Amdy Faye, Senegalese footballer* 1977 – Brent Johnson, American ice hockey player*1978 – Casey Mears, American race car driver* 1978 – Marco Ferreira, Portuguese footballer* 1978 – Arina Tanemura, Japanese author and illustrator*1979 – Rhys Coiro, American actor* 1979 – Pete Doherty, English musician, songwriter, actor, poet, writer, and artist* 1979 – Jamie Dwyer, Australian field hockey player and coach* 1979 – Gerard López, Spanish footballer* 1979 – Ben Sandford, New Zealand skeleton racer* 1979 – Tim Wieskötter, German sprint canoer* 1979 – Edwin Villafuerte, Ecuadorian footballer*1980 – Césinha, Brazilian footballer* 1980 – Becky Holliday, American pole vaulter* 1980 – Jens Mouris, Dutch cyclist* 1980 – Douglas Murray, Swedish ice hockey player*1981 – Kenta Kobayashi, Japanese wrestler and kick-boxer* 1981 – Katarina Srebotnik, Slovenian tennis player* 1981 – Holly Williams, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1982 – Lili Bordán, Hungarian-American actress* 1982 – Samm Levine, American actor and comedian* 1982 – Ilya Nikulin, Russian ice hockey player* 1982 – Hisato Satō, Japanese footballer* 1982 – Yūto Satō, Japanese footballer* 1982 – Tobias Schweinsteiger, German footballer*1983 – Atif Aslam, Pakistani singer and actor*1984 – Shreya Ghoshal, Indian singer* 1984 – Jaimie Alexander, American actress*1985 – Marco Bonanomi, Italian racing driver* 1985 – Aleksandr Bukharov, Russian footballer* 1985 – Ed Clancy, English track and road cyclist* 1985 – Andriy Tovt, Ukrainian footballer*1986 – Martynas Andriuškevičius, Lithuanian basketball player* 1986 – Oleh Dopilka, Ukrainian footballer* 1986 – Danny Jones, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor* 1986 – Ben Offereins, Australian runner* 1986 – František Rajtoral, Czech footballer (d. 2017)*1987 – Manuele Boaro, Italian cyclist* 1987 – Jessica Hardy, American swimmer* 1987 – Maxwell Holt, American volleyball player* 1987 – Teimour Radjabov, Azerbaijani chess player* 1987 – Chris Seitz, American soccer player* 1987 – Vadim Shipachyov, Russian ice hockey player* 1987 – Pablo Velázquez, Paraguayan footballer*1988 – Sebastian Brendel, German canoe racer* 1988 – Kostas Mitroglou, Greek footballer* 1988 – Cristian Chagas Tarouco, Brazilian footballer*1989 – Jordan Adéoti, French footballer* 1989 – Vytautas Černiauskas, Lithuanian footballer* 1989 – Tyler Clary, American swimmer* 1989 – Richard Eckersley, English footballer* 1989 – Chen Jianghua, Chinese basketball player* 1989 – Siim Luts, Estonian footballer*1990 – Alexander Kröckel, German skeleton racer* 1990 – Irakli Kvekveskiri, Georgian footballer* 1990 – Dawid Kubacki, Polish ski jumper* 1990 – Matias Myttynen, Finnish ice hockey player* 1990 – Ilija Nestorovski, Macedonian footballer* 1990 – Milena Raičević, Montenegrin handballer* 1990 – Mikko Sumusalo, Finnish footballer*1991 – Felix Kroos, German footballer* 1991 – Niclas Heimann, German footballer* 1991 – Leandro Fernandez, Argentine footballer*1992 – Daniele Baselli, Italian footballer* 1992 – Jordan Ferri, French footballer* 1992 – Ciara Mageean, Irish middle-distance runner* 1992 – Jiří Skalák, Czech footballer*1993 – Shehu Abdullahi, Nigerian footballer* 1993 – Amjad Attwan, Iraqi footballer* 1993 – Anton Shramchenko, Belarusian footballer*1994 – Katie Archibald, Scottish track cyclist* 1994 – Jerami Grant, American basketball player* 1994 – Christina Grimmie, American singer-songwriter (d. 2016)*1996 – Serhou Guirassy, French footballer* 1996 – Karim Hafez, Egyptian footballer* 1996 – Robert Murić, Croatian footballer* 1996 – Cene Prevc, Slovenian ski jumper*1997 – Dean Henderson, English footballer* 1997 – Allan Saint-Maximin, French footballer* 1997 – Felipe Vizeu, Brazilian footballer*1998 – Mecole Hardman, American football player* 1998 – Daniel Samohin, Israeli figure skater* 1998 – Elizaveta Ukolova, Czech figure skater*2001 – Kim Min-kyu, South Korean singer and actor"
],
[
"Deaths",
"===Pre-1600===* 417 – Innocent I, pope of the Catholic Church* 604 – Gregory I, pope of the Catholic Church (b.",
"540)*1022 – Symeon the New Theologian (b.",
"949)*1160 – Al-Muqtafi, caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate (b.",
"1096)*1316 – Stefan Dragutin (b. c. 1244)*1539 – Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, English diplomat and politician (b.",
"1477)===1601–1900===*1699 – Peder Griffenfeld, Danish politician (b.",
"1635)*1898 – Zachris Topelius, Finnish-Swedish journalist, historian, and author (b.",
"1818)===1901–present===*1916 – Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach, Austrian author (b.",
"1830)*1925 – Sun Yat-sen, Chinese physician and politician, 1st President of the Republic of China (b.",
"1866)*1929 – Asa Griggs Candler, American businessman and politician, 44th Mayor of Atlanta (b.",
"1851)*1935 – Mihajlo Pupin, Serbian-American physicist and chemist (b.",
"1858)*1942 – William Henry Bragg, English physicist, chemist, and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1862)*1943 – Gustav Vigeland, Norwegian sculptor (b.",
"1869)*1946 – Ferenc Szálasi, Hungarian soldier and politician, Head of State of Hungary (b.",
"1897)*1949 – Wilhelm Steinkopf, German chemist (b.",
"1879)*1954 – Marianne Weber, German sociologist and suffragist (b.",
"1870)*1955 – Charlie Parker, American saxophonist and composer (b.",
"1920)* 1955 – Theodor Plievier, German author best known for his anti-war novel (b.",
"1892)*1957 – Josephine Hull, American actress (b.",
"1877)*1971 – Eugene Lindsay Opie, American physician and pathologist (b.",
"1873)*1973 – Frankie Frisch, American baseball player and manager (b.",
"1898)*1974 – George D. Sax, American banker and businessman (b.",
"1904)*1985 – Eugene Ormandy, Hungarian-American violinist and conductor (b.",
"1899)*1989 – Maurice Evans, English-American actor (b.",
"1901)*1991 – Ragnar Granit, Finnish-Swedish neuroscientist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1900)* 1991 – William Heinesen, Faroese author, poet, and author (b.",
"1900)*1992 – Lucy M. Lewis, American potter (b.",
"1890)*1998 – Beatrice Wood, American painter and potter (b.",
"1893)*1999 – Yehudi Menuhin, American-Swiss violinist and conductor (b.",
"1916)* 1999 – Bidu Sayão, Brazilian-American soprano (b.",
"1902)*2000 – Aleksandar Nikolić, Yugoslav basketball coach (b.",
"1924)*2001 – Morton Downey Jr., American singer-songwriter, actor, and talk show host (b.",
"1933)* 2001 – Robert Ludlum, American author (b.",
"1927)* 2001 – Victor Westhoff, Dutch botanist and academic (b.",
"1916)*2002 – Spyros Kyprianou, Cypriot lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Cyprus (b.",
"1932)* 2002 – Jean-Paul Riopelle, Canadian painter and sculptor (b.",
"1923)*2003 – Zoran Đinđić, Serbian philosopher and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Serbia (b.",
"1952)* 2003 – Howard Fast, American novelist and screenwriter (b.",
"1914)* 2003 – Lynne Thigpen, American actress and singer (b.",
"1948)*2004 – Milton Resnick, Russian-American painter (b.",
"1917)*2006 – Victor Sokolov, Russian-American priest and journalist (b.",
"1947)*2008 – Jorge Guinzburg, Argentinian journalist and producer (b.",
"1949)* 2008 – Lazare Ponticelli, Italian-French soldier and supercentenarian (b.",
"1897)*2010 – Miguel Delibes, Spanish journalist and author (b.",
"1920)*2011 – Nilla Pizzi, Italian singer (b.",
"1919)*2012 – Dick Harter, American basketball player and coach (b.",
"1930)* 2012 – Michael Hossack, American drummer (b.",
"1946)* 2012 – Friedhelm Konietzka, German-Swiss footballer and manager (b.",
"1938)* 2013 – Michael Grigsby, English director and producer (b.",
"1936)* 2013 – Ganesh Pyne, Indian painter and illustrator (b.",
"1937)*2014 – Věra Chytilová, Czech actress, director, and screenwriter (b.",
"1929)* 2014 – Paul C. Donnelly, American scientist and engineer (b.",
"1923)* 2014 – José Policarpo, Portuguese cardinal (b.",
"1936)*2015 – Willie Barrow, American minister and activist (b.",
"1924)* 2015 – Michael Graves, American architect and academic, designed the Portland Building and the Humana Building (b.",
"1934)* 2015 – Ada Jafri, Pakistani poet and author (b.",
"1924)* 2015 – Terry Pratchett, English journalist, author, and screenwriter (b.",
"1948)*2016 – Rafiq Azad, Bangladeshi poet and author (b.",
"1942)* 2016 – Felix Ibru, Nigerian architect and politician, Governor of Delta State (b.",
"1935)* 2016 – Lloyd Shapley, American mathematician and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1923)*2021 – Ronald DeFeo Jr., American criminal (b.",
"1951)"
],
[
"Holidays and observances",
"*Arbor Day (China)*Arbor Day (Taiwan)*Aztec New Year*Christian feast day:**Alphege**Bernard of Carinola (or of Capua)**Gorgonius, Peter Cubicularius and Dorotheus of Nicomedia**Mura (McFeredach)**Fina**Maximilian of Tebessa**Paul Aurelian**Pope Gregory I (Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Catholic Church, and Anglican Communion)**Theophanes the Confessor**March 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*National Day (Mauritius)*World Day Against Cyber Censorship*Youth Day (Zambia)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 12"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"March 14"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Events",
"===Pre-1600===*1074 – Battle of Mogyoród: Dukes Géza and Ladislaus defeat their cousin Solomon, King of Hungary, forcing him to flee to Hungary's western borderland.",
"*1590 – Battle of Ivry: Henry of Navarre and the Huguenots defeat the forces of the Catholic League under Charles, Duke of Mayenne, during the French Wars of Religion.===1601–1900===*1647 – Thirty Years' War: Bavaria, Cologne, France and Sweden sign the Truce of Ulm.",
"*1663 – According to his own account, Otto von Guericke completes his book ''Experimenta Nova (ut vocantur) Magdeburgica de Vacuo Spatio'', detailing his experiments on vacuum and his discovery of electrostatic repulsion.",
"*1674 – The Third Anglo-Dutch War: The Battle of Ronas Voe results in the Dutch East India Company ship ''Wapen van Rotterdam'' being captured with a death toll of up to 300 Dutch crew and soldiers.",
"*1757 – Admiral Sir John Byng is executed by firing squad aboard for breach of the Articles of War.",
"*1780 – American Revolutionary War: Spanish forces capture Fort Charlotte in Mobile, Alabama, the last British frontier post capable of threatening New Orleans.",
"*1794 – Eli Whitney is granted a patent for the cotton gin.",
"*1885 – ''The Mikado'', a light opera by W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan, receives its first public performance at the Savoy Theatre in London.",
"*1900 – The Gold Standard Act is ratified, placing the United States currency on the gold standard.===1901–present===*1901 – Utah governor Heber Manning Wells vetoes a bill that would have eased restriction on polygamy.",
"*1903 – Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge, the first national wildlife refuge in the US, is established by President Theodore Roosevelt.",
"*1920 – In the second of the 1920 Schleswig plebiscites, about 80% of the population in Zone II votes to remain part of Weimar Germany.",
"*1921 – Six members of a group of Irish Republican Army activists known as the Forgotten Ten, are hanged in Dublin's Mountjoy Prison.",
"*1926 – The El Virilla train accident, Costa Rica, kills 248 people and wounds another 93 when a train falls off a bridge over the Río Virilla between Heredia and Tibás.",
"*1931 – ''Alam Ara'', India's first talking film, is released.",
"*1939 – Slovakia declares independence under German pressure.",
"*1942 – Anne Miller becomes the first American patient to be treated with penicillin, under the care of Orvan Hess and John Bumstead.",
"*1943 – The Holocaust: The liquidation of the Kraków Ghetto is completed.",
"*1945 – The R.A.F.",
"drop the Grand Slam bomb in action for the first time, on a railway viaduct near Bielefeld, Germany.",
"*1951 – Korean War: United Nations troops recapture Seoul for the second time.",
"*1961 – A USAF B-52 bomber crashes near Yuba City, California whilst carrying nuclear weapons.",
"*1964 – Jack Ruby is convicted of killing Lee Harvey Oswald, the assumed assassin of John F.",
"Kennedy.",
"*1967 – The body of U.S. President John F. Kennedy is moved to a permanent burial place at Arlington National Cemetery.",
"*1972 – Sterling Airways Flight 296 crashes near Kalba, United Arab Emirates while on approach to Dubai International Airport, killing 112 people.",
"*1978 – The Israel Defense Forces launch Operation Litani, a seven-day campaign to invade and occupy southern Lebanon.",
"*1979 – Alia Royal Jordanian Flight 600 crashes at Doha International Airport, killing 45 people.",
"*1980 – LOT Polish Airlines Flight 007 crashes during final approach near Warsaw, Poland, killing 87 people, including a 14-man American boxing team.",
"*1982 – The South African government bombs the headquarters of the African National Congress in London.",
"*1988 – In the Johnson South Reef Skirmish Chinese forces defeat Vietnamese forces in an altercation over control of one of the Spratly Islands.",
"*1995 – Norman Thagard becomes the first American astronaut to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle.",
"*2006 – The 2006 Chadian coup d'état attempt ends in failure.",
"* 2006 – Operation Bringing Home the Goods: Israeli troops raid an American-supervised Palestinian prison in Jericho to capture six Palestinian prisoners, including PFLP chief Ahmad Sa'adat.",
"*2007 – The Nandigram violence in Nandigram, West Bengal, results in the deaths of at least 14 people.",
"*2008 – A series of riots, protests, and demonstrations erupt in Lhasa and subsequently spread elsewhere in Tibet.",
"*2017 – A naming ceremony for the chemical element nihonium takes place in Tokyo, with then Crown Prince Naruhito in attendance.",
"*2019 – Cyclone Idai makes landfall near Beira, Mozambique, causing devastating floods and over 1,000 deaths.",
"*2021 – Burmese security forces kill at least 65 civilians in the Hlaingthaya massacre."
],
[
"Births",
"===1601–1900===*1638 – Johann Georg Gichtel, German mystic (d. 1710)*1737 – Ioan Nicolidi of Pindus, Aromanian physician and noble (d. 1828)*1772 – José Núñez de Cáceres, Dominican politician and writer.",
"He was the leader of the Independence movement of the Dominican Republic against Spain in 1821 (d. 1846)*1790 – Ludwig Emil Grimm, German painter and engraver (d. 1863)*1800 – James Bogardus, American inventor and architect (d. 1874)*1801 – Kristjan Jaak Peterson, Estonian poet (d. 1822)*1804 – Johann Strauss I, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1849)*1813 – Joseph P. Bradley, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1892)*1820 – Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (d. 1878)*1822 – Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies (d. 1889)*1823 – Théodore de Banville, French poet and critic (d. 1891)*1833 – Frederic Shields, English painter and illustrator (d. 1911)* 1833 – Lucy Hobbs Taylor, American dentist and educator (d. 1910)*1835 – Giovanni Schiaparelli, Italian astronomer and historian (d. 1910)*1836 – Isabella Beeton, English author of ''Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management'' (d. 1865)*1837 – Charles Ammi Cutter, American librarian (d. 1903)*1844 – Umberto I of Italy (d. 1900)* 1844 – Arthur O'Shaughnessy, English poet and herpetologist (d. 1881)*1847 – Castro Alves, Brazilian poet and playwright (d. 1871)*1853 – Ferdinand Hodler, Swiss painter (d. 1918)*1854 – Paul Ehrlich, German physician and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1915)* 1854 – John Lane, English publisher, co-founded The Bodley Head (d. 1925)* 1854 – Alexandru Macedonski, Romanian author and poet (d. 1920)* 1854 – Thomas R. Marshall, American lawyer and politician, 28th Vice President of the United States of America (d. 1925)*1862 – Vilhelm Bjerknes, Norwegian physicist and meteorologist (d. 1951)*1864 – Casey Jones, American engineer (d. 1900)*1868 – Emily Murphy, Canadian jurist, author, and activist (d. 1933)*1869 – Algernon Blackwood, English author and playwright (d. 1951)*1874 – Anton Philips, Dutch businessman, co-founded Philips Electronics (d. 1951)*1879 – Albert Einstein, German-American physicist, engineer, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955)*1882 – Wacław Sierpiński, Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1969)*1885 – Raoul Lufbery, French-American soldier and pilot (d. 1918)*1886 – Firmin Lambot, Belgian cyclist (d. 1964)*1887 – Sylvia Beach, American-French bookseller and publisher, who founded Shakespeare and Company (d. 1962)*1898 – Reginald Marsh, French-American painter and illustrator (d. 1954)*1899 – K. C. Irving, Canadian businessman, founded Irving Oil (d. 1992)===1901–present===*1901 – Sid Atkinson, South African hurdler and long jumper (d. 1977)*1903 – Adolph Gottlieb, American painter and sculptor (d. 1974)*1904 – Doris Eaton Travis, American actress and dancer (d. 2010)*1905 – Raymond Aron, French journalist, sociologist, and philosopher (d. 1983)*1906 – Ulvi Cemal Erkin, Turkish composer and educator (d. 1972)*1908 – Ed Heinemann, American designer of military aircraft (d. 1991)* 1908 – Maurice Merleau-Ponty, French philosopher and academic (d. 1961)* 1908 – Philip Conrad Vincent, English engineer and businessman, founded Vincent Motorcycles (d. 1979)*1911 – Akira Yoshizawa, Japanese origamist (d. 2005)*1912 – Cliff Bastin, English footballer (d. 1991)* 1912 – Les Brown, American saxophonist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2001)* 1912 – W. Graham Claytor, Jr. American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 15th United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 1994)* 1912 – W. Willard Wirtz, American lawyer and politician, 10th United States Secretary of Labor (d. 2010)*1913 – Dominik Tatarka, Slovak writer (d.1989)*1914 – Lee Hays, American singer-songwriter (d. 1981)* 1914 – Bill Owen, English actor and songwriter (d. 1999)* 1914 – Lee Petty, American race car driver and businessman, founded Petty Enterprises (d. 2000)*1915 – Alexander Brott, Canadian violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 2005)*1916 – Horton Foote, American author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 2009)*1917 – Alan Smith, English lieutenant and pilot (d. 2013)*1918 – Zoia Horn, American librarian (d. 2014) *1919 – Max Shulman, American author and screenwriter (d. 1988)*1920 – Hank Ketcham, American author and cartoonist, created ''Dennis the Menace'' (d. 2001)* 1920 – Dorothy Tyler-Odam, English high jumper (d. 2014)*1921 – S. Truett Cathy, American businessman, founded Chick-fil-A (d. 2014)* 1921 – Ada Louise Huxtable, American author and critic (d. 2013)*1922 – Les Baxter, American pianist and composer (d. 1996)*1923 – Diane Arbus, American photographer (d. 1971)*1925 – William Clay Ford, Sr., American businessman (d. 2014)* 1925 – Joseph A. Unanue, American sergeant and businessman (d. 2013)*1926 – François Morel, Canadian pianist, composer, conductor, and educator (d. 2018)*1928 – Frank Borman, American astronaut (d. 2023)* 1928 – Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, Spanish environmentalist (d. 1980)*1929 – Bob Goalby, American golfer (d. 2022)*1932 – Mark Murphy, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2015)* 1932 – Naina Yeltsina, Russian wife of Boris Yeltsin, First Lady of Russia*1933 – Michael Caine, English actor* 1933 – Quincy Jones, American producer*1934 – Eugene Cernan, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2017)* 1934 – Paul Rader, American 15th General of The Salvation Army*1936 – Bob Charles, New Zealand golfer*1937 – Peter van der Merwe, South African cricketer and referee (d. 2013)*1938 – Eleanor Bron, English actress and screenwriter* 1938 – Jan Crouch, American televangelist, co-founder of the Trinity Broadcasting Network (d. 2016)* 1938 – John Gleeson, Australian cricketer (d. 2016)* 1938 – Árpád Orbán, Hungarian footballer (d. 2008)*1939 – Raymond J. Barry, American actor* 1939 – Bertrand Blier, French director and screenwriter* 1939 – Yves Boisset, French director and screenwriter*1941 – Wolfgang Petersen, German-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2022)*1942 – Rita Tushingham, English actress*1943 – Anita Morris, American actress and singer (d. 1994)*1944 – Boris Brott, Canadian composer and conductor* 1944 – Václav Nedomanský, Czech ice hockey player and manager* 1944 – Bobby Smith, English footballer and manager* 1944 – Tom Stannage, Australian historian and academic (d. 2012)*1945 – Jasper Carrott, English comedian, actor, and game show host* 1945 – Michael Martin Murphey, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \t* 1945 – Walter Parazaider, American saxophonist*1946 – William Lerach, American securities and class action attorney* 1946 – Wes Unseld, American basketball player, coach, and manager (d. 2020)*1947 – Roy Budd, English pianist and composer (d. 1993)* 1947 – William J. Jefferson, American lawyer and politician* 1947 – Jona Lewie, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player*1948 – Tom Coburn, American physician and politician (d. 2020)* 1948 – Billy Crystal, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter* 1948 – Theo Jansen, Dutch sculptor*1950 – Rick Dees, American actor and radio host*1951 – Jerry Greenfield, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Ben & Jerry's*1953 – Nick Keir, Scottish singer-songwriter (d. 2013)*1955 – Jonathan Kaufer, American director and screenwriter (d. 2013)*1956 – Indu Malhotra, Judge of the Supreme Court of India* 1956 – Butch Wynegar, American baseball player and coach*1957 – Tad Williams, American author*1958 – Albert II, Prince of Monaco*1959 – Laila Robins, American actress* 1959 – Tamara Tunie, American actress*1960 – Heidi Hammel, American astronomer and academic* 1960 – Kirby Puckett, American baseball player (d. 2006)*1961 – Garry Jack, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1961 – Mike Lazaridis, Greek–Canadian businessman and philanthropist, founded BlackBerry Limited*1963 – Bruce Reid, Australian cricketer and coach*1965 – Kevin Brown, American baseball player and coach* 1965 – Aamir Khan, Indian film actor, producer, and director* 1965 – Billy Sherwood, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer* 1965 – Kevin Williamson, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1966 – Jonas Elmer, Danish actor, director, and screenwriter* 1966 – Elise Neal, American actress and producer*1968 – Megan Follows, Canadian-American actress*1969 – Larry Johnson, American basketball player and actor*1970 – Kristian Bush, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1972 – Irom Chanu Sharmila, Indian poet and activist*1973 – Rohit Shetty, Indian film director and producer*1974 – Santino Marella, Canadian professional wrestler* 1974 – Patrick Traverse, Canadian ice hockey player*1975 – Steve Harper, English footballer and referee* 1975 – Dmitri Markov, Belarusian-Australian pole vaulter*1976 – Phil Vickery, English rugby player and sportscaster*1977 – Vadims Fjodorovs, Latvian footballer and coach* 1977 – Naoki Matsuda, Japanese footballer (d. 2011)* 1977 – Jeremy Paul, New Zealand-Australian rugby player*1978 – Pieter van den Hoogenband, Dutch swimmer*1979 – Nicolas Anelka, French footballer and manager* 1979 – Chris Klein, American actor* 1979 – Sead Ramović, German-Bosnian footballer*1980 – Aaron Brown, English footballer and coach* 1980 – Ben Herring, New Zealand rugby player*1981 – Bobby Jenks, American baseball player* 1981 – George Wilson, American football player*1982 – Carlos Marinelli, Argentinian footballer* 1982 – François Sterchele, Belgian footballer (d. 2008)*1983 – Bakhtiyar Artayev, Kazakh boxer*1986 – Elton Chigumbura, Zimbabwean cricketer* 1986 – Jessica Gallagher, Australian skier and cyclist* 1986 – Andy Taylor, English footballer*1988 – Stephen Curry, American basketball player* 1988 – Rico Freimuth, German decathlete*1989 – Kevin Lacroix, Canadian race car driver*1990 – Joe Allen, Welsh footballer* 1990 – Tamás Kádár, Hungarian footballer* 1990 – Haru Kuroki, Japanese actress* 1990 – Kolbeinn Sigþórsson, Icelandic footballer*1991 – Emir Bekrić, Serbian hurdler* 1991 – László Szűcs, Hungarian footballer* 1991 – Steven Zellner, German footballer*1993 – Philipp Ziereis, German footballer*1994 – Ansel Elgort, American actor and DJ*1996 – Batuhan Altıntaş, Turkish footballer*1997 – Simone Biles, American gymnast*1999 – Marvin Bagley III, American professional basketball player*1999 – Piri, English singer*2000 – Paige Rini, Canadian water skier*2008 – Abby Ryder Fortson, American actress"
],
[
"Deaths",
"===Pre-1600===* 840 – Einhard, Frankish scholar* 968 – Matilda of Ringelheim, Saxon queen (b. c. 896)*1555 – John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford (b.",
"1485)===1601–1900===*1647 – Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange (b.",
"1584)*1648 – Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron, English general and politician (b.",
"1584)*1696 – Jean Domat, French lawyer and jurist (b.",
"1625)*1698 – Claes Rålamb, Swedish statesman (b.",
"1622)*1748 – George Wade, Irish field marshal and politician (b.",
"1673)*1757 – John Byng, British admiral and politician, 11th Commodore Governor of Newfoundland (b.",
"1704)*1791 – Johann Salomo Semler, German historian and critic (b.",
"1725)*1803 – Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, German poet (b.",
"1724)*1811 – Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton, English politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (b.",
"1735)*1823 – Charles François Dumouriez, French general and politician, French Minister of War (b.",
"1739)*1860 – Carl Ritter von Ghega, Italian engineer, designed the Semmering railway (b.",
"1802)*1877 – Juan Manuel de Rosas, Argentinian general and politician, 17th Governor of Buenos Aires Province (b.",
"1793)*1883 – Karl Marx, German philosopher and theorist (b.",
"1818)*1884 – Quintino Sella, Italian economist and politician, Italian Minister of Finances (b.",
"1827)===1901–present===*1921 – Bernard Ryan executed Irish republican (b.",
"1901)*1923 – Charlie Daly, Executed Irish republican (b.",
"1896)*1930 – A.",
"A. Kannisto, Finnish politician (b.",
"1876)*1932 – George Eastman, American inventor and businessman, founded Eastman Kodak (b.",
"1854)* 1932 – Frederick Jackson Turner, American historian (b.",
"1861)*1941 – C. R. M. F. Cruttwell, English historian (b.",
"1887)*1953 – Klement Gottwald, Czechoslovak Communist politician and 14th President of Czechoslovakia (b.",
"1896)*1957 – Evagoras Pallikarides, Cypriot activist (b.",
"1938)*1965 – Marion Jones Farquhar, American tennis player (b.",
"1879)*1968 – Erwin Panofsky, German historian and academic (b.",
"1892)*1969 – Ben Shahn, Lithuanian-American painter, illustrator, and educator (b.",
"1898)*1973 – Howard H. Aiken, American computer scientist and engineer (b.",
"1900)* 1973 – Chic Young, American cartoonist (b.",
"1901)*1975 – Susan Hayward, American actress (b.",
"1917)*1976 – Busby Berkeley, American director and choreographer (b.",
"1895)*1977 – Fannie Lou Hamer, American activist and philanthropist (b.",
"1917)*1980 – Mohammad Hatta, Indonesian politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Indonesia (b.",
"1902)* 1980 – Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, Spanish environmentalist (b.",
"1928)*1984 – Hovhannes Shiraz, Armenian poet (b.",
"1915)*1989 – Zita of Bourbon-Parma, Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary (b.",
"1892)*1991 – Howard Ashman, American playwright and composer (b.",
"1950)*1995 – William Alfred Fowler, American physicist and astronomer, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1911)*1997 – Fred Zinnemann, Austrian-American director and producer (b.",
"1907)*1999 – Kirk Alyn, American actor (b.",
"1910)* 1999 – John Broome, American author (b.",
"1913)*2003 – Jack Goldstein, Canadian-American painter (b.",
"1945)* 2003 – Jean-Luc Lagardère, French engineer and businessman (b.",
"1928)*2006 – Lennart Meri, Estonian director and politician, 2nd President of Estonia (b.",
"1929)*2007 – Lucie Aubrac, French educator and activist (b.",
"1912)*2008 – Chiara Lubich, Italian activist, co-founded the Focolare Movement (b.",
"1920)*2010 – Peter Graves, American actor (b.",
"1926)*2012 – Pierre Schoendoerffer, French director and screenwriter (b.",
"1928)* 2012 – Ċensu Tabone, Maltese general and politician, 4th President of Malta (b.",
"1913)*2013 – Jack Greene, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.",
"1930)* 2013 – Aramais Sahakyan, Armenian poet and author (b.",
"1936)* 2013 – Ieng Sary, Vietnamese-Cambodian politician, Cambodian Minister for Foreign Affairs (b.",
"1925)*2014 – Tony Benn, English politician, Postmaster General of the United Kingdom (b.",
"1925)* 2014 – Meir Har-Zion, Israeli commander (b.",
"1934)*2016 – John W. Cahn, German-American metallurgist and academic (b.",
"1928)* 2016 – Peter Maxwell Davies, English composer and conductor (b.",
"1934)* 2016 – Suranimala Rajapaksha, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (b.",
"1949)*2018 – Jim Bowen, English stand-up comedian and TV personality (b.",
"1937)* 2018 – Marielle Franco, Brazilian politician and human rights activist (b.",
"1979)* 2018 – Stephen Hawking, English physicist and author (b.",
"1942)* 2018 – Liam O'Flynn, Irish uileann piper (b.",
"1945)*2019 – Jake Phelps, American skateboarder and Thrasher editor-in-chief (b.",
"1962)* 2019 – Charlie Whiting, British motorsport director (b.",
"1952)* 2019 – Haig Young, Canadian politician (b.",
"1928)*2022 – Scott Hall, Professional wrestler (b.",
"1958)"
],
[
"Holidays and observances",
"*Christian feast day:**Leobinus**Matilda of Ringelheim**March 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Constitution Day (Andorra)*Heroes' Day (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)*Mother Tongue Day (Estonia)*Nanakshahi New Year, first day of the month of Chet (Sikhism)*Pi Day*Summer Day (Albania)*White Day on which men give gifts to women; complementary to Valentine's Day (Japan and other Asian nations)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 14"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Management science"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Management science''' (or '''managerial science''') is a wide and interdisciplinary study of solving complex problems and making strategic decisions as it pertains to institutions, corporations, governments and other types of organizational entities.",
"It is closely related to management, economics, business, engineering, management consulting, and other fields.",
"It uses various scientific research-based principles, strategies, and analytical methods including mathematical modeling, statistics and numerical algorithms and aims to improve an organization's ability to enact rational and accurate management decisions by arriving at optimal or near optimal solutions to complex decision problems.Management science looks to help businesses achieve goals using a number of scientific methods.",
"The field was initially an outgrowth of applied mathematics, where early challenges were problems relating to the optimization of systems which could be modeled linearly, i.e., determining the optima (maximum value of profit, assembly line performance, crop yield, bandwidth, etc.",
"or minimum of loss, risk, costs, etc.)",
"of some objective function.",
"Today, the discipline of management science may encompass a diverse range of managerial and organizational activity as it regards to a problem which is structured in mathematical or other quantitative form in order to derive managerially relevant insights and solutions."
],
[
"Overview",
"Management science is concerned with a number of areas of study: * Developing and applying models and concepts that may prove useful in helping to illuminate management issues and solve managerial problems.",
"The models used can often be represented mathematically, but sometimes computer-based, visual or verbal representations are used as well or instead.",
"* Designing and developing new and better models of organizational excellence.",
"* Helping to improve, stabilize or otherwise manage profit margins in enterprises.Management science research can be done on three levels:* The fundamental level lies in three mathematical disciplines: probability, optimization, and dynamical systems theory.",
"* The modeling level is about building models, analyzing them mathematically, gathering and analyzing data, implementing models on computers, solving them, experimenting with them—all this is part of management science research on the modeling level.",
"This level is mainly instrumental, and driven mainly by statistics and econometrics.",
"* The application level, just as in any other engineering and economics disciplines, strives to make a practical impact and be a driver for change in the real world.The management scientist's mandate is to use rational, systematic and science-based techniques to inform and improve decisions of all kinds.",
"The techniques of management science are not restricted to business applications but may be applied to military, medical, public administration, charitable groups, political groups or community groups.",
"The norm for scholars in management science is to focus their work in a certain area or subfield of management like public administration, finance, calculus, information and so forth."
],
[
"History",
"Although management science as it exists now is a rather large idea that covers a myriad of topics having to do with coming up with solutions that increase the efficiency of a business, it was not even a field of study in the not too distant past.",
"There are a number of businessmen and management specialists who can receive credit for the creation of the idea of management science.",
"Most commonly, however, the founder of the field is considered to be Frederick Winslow Taylor in the early 20th century.",
"Likewise, administration expert Luther Gulick and management expert Peter Drucker both had an impact on the development of management science in the 1930’s and 1940’s.",
"Drucker is quoted as having said that, “the purpose of the corporation is to be economically efficient.” This thought process is foundational to management science.",
"Even before the influence of these men, there was Louis Brandeis who became known as “the people’s lawyer”.",
"In 1910, Brandeis was the creator of a new business approach which he coined as “scientific management”.",
"A term that is often falsely attributed to the aforementioned Frederick Winslow Taylor.",
"These men represent some of the earliest ideas of management science at its conception.",
"After the idea was born, it was further explored around the time of World War II.",
"It was at this time that management science became more than an idea and was put into practice.",
"This sort of experimentation was essential to the development of the field as it is known today.The origins of management science can be traced to operations research, which became influential during World War II when the Allied forces recruited scientists of various disciplines to assist with military operations.",
"In these early applications, the scientists used simple mathematical models to make efficient use of limited technologies and resources.",
"The application of these models to the corporate sector became known as management science.In 1967 Stafford Beer characterized the field of management science as \"the business use of operations research\"."
],
[
"Theory",
"Some of the fields that management science involves include: * Contract theory* Data mining* Decision analysis * Engineering* Forecasting * Marketing* Finance* Operations* Game theory* Industrial engineering* Logistics* Management consulting * Mathematical modeling* Optimization* Operational research* Probability and statistics* Project management* Psychology* Simulation* Social network / Transportation forecasting models* Sociology* Supply chain management"
],
[
"Applications",
"Management science's applications are diverse allowing the use of it in many fields.",
"Below are examples of the applications of management science.",
"In finance, management science is instrumental in portfolio optimization, risk management, and investment strategies.",
"By employing mathematical models, analysts can assess market trends, optimize asset allocation, and mitigate financial risks, contributing to more informed and strategic decision-making.In healthcare, management science plays a crucial role in optimizing resource allocation, patient scheduling, and facility management.",
"Mathematical models aid healthcare professionals in streamlining operations, reducing waiting times, and improving overall efficiency in the delivery of care.Logistics and supply chain management benefit significantly from management science applications.",
"Optimization algorithms assist in route planning, inventory management, and demand forecasting, enhancing the efficiency of the entire supply chain.In manufacturing, management science supports process optimization, production planning, and quality control.",
"Mathematical models help identify bottlenecks, reduce production costs, and enhance overall productivity.Furthermore, management science contributes to strategic decision-making in project management, marketing, and human resources.",
"By leveraging quantitative techniques, organizations can make data-driven decisions, allocate resources effectively, and enhance overall performance across diverse functional areas.In summary, the applications of management science are far-reaching, providing valuable insights and solutions across a spectrum of industries, ultimately fostering more efficient and effective decision-making processes."
],
[
"See also",
"* Fayolism* Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences* John von Neumann Theory Prize* Managerial economics* Management engineering* Management cybernetics* Innovation management* Organization studies* Outline of management"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Kenneth R. Baker, Dean H. Kropp (1985).",
"''Management Science: An Introduction to the Use of Decision Models''* David Charles Heinze (1982).",
"''Management Science: Introductory Concepts and Applications''* Lee J. Krajewski, Howard E. Thompson (1981).",
"\"Management Science: Quantitative Methods in Context\"* Thomas W. Knowles (1989).",
"''Management science: Building and Using Models''* Kamlesh Mathur, Daniel Solow (1994).",
"''Management Science: The Art of Decision Making''* Laurence J. Moore, Sang M. Lee, Bernard W. Taylor (1993).",
"''Management Science''* William Thomas Morris (1968).",
"''Management Science: A Bayesian Introduction''.",
"* William E. Pinney, Donald B. McWilliams (1987).",
"''Management Science: An Introduction to Quantitative Analysis for Management''* Gerald E. Thompson (1982).",
"''Management Science: An Introduction to Modern Quantitative Analysis and Decision Making.",
"New York : McGraw-Hill Publishing Co."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Musical notation"
],
[
"Introduction",
"J. S. Bach (1685–1750).",
"This is the beginning of the Prelude from the Suite for Lute in G minor, BWV 995 (transcription of Cello Suite No.",
"5, BWV 1011).",
"'''Musical notation''' is any system used to visually represent auditorily perceived music, played with instruments or sung by the human voice through the use of symbols, including notation for durations of absence of sound such as rests.",
"The act of deciphering or reading a piece using musical notation, is known as \"'''reading music'''\".The types and methods of notation have varied between cultures and throughout history, and much information about ancient music notation is fragmentary.",
"Even in the same time period, such as in the 2010s, different styles of music and different cultures use different music notation methods; for example, for professional classical music performers, sheet music using staves and noteheads is the most common way of notating music, but for professional country music session musicians, the Nashville Number System is the main method.The symbols used include ancient symbols and modern symbols made upon any media such as symbols cut into stone, made in clay tablets, made using a pen on papyrus or parchment or manuscript paper; printed using a printing press (), a computer printer () or other printing or modern copying technology.Although many ancient cultures used symbols to represent melodies and rhythms, none of them was particularly comprehensive, which has limited today's understanding of their music.",
"The seeds of what would eventually become modern Western notation were sown in medieval Europe, starting with the Christian Church's goal for ecclesiastical uniformity.",
"The church began notating plainchant melodies so that the same chants could be used throughout the church.",
"Music notation developed further during the Renaissance and Baroque music eras.",
"In the classical period (1750–1820) and the Romantic music era (1820–1900), notation continued to develop as new musical instrument technologies were developed.",
"In the contemporary classical music of the 20th and 21st century, music notation has continued to develop, with the introduction of graphical notation by some modern composers and the use, since the 1980s, of computer-based score writer programs for notating music.",
"Music notation has been adapted to many kinds of music, including classical music, popular music, and traditional music."
],
[
"History",
"===Ancient Near East===A tablet with the Hymn to Nikkal inscribedThe earliest form of musical notation can be found in a cuneiform tablet that was created at Nippur, in Babylonia (today's Iraq), in about 1400 BCE.",
"The tablet represents fragmentary instructions for performing music, that the music was composed in harmonies of thirds, and that it was written using a diatonic scale.",
"A tablet from about 1250 BCE shows a more developed form of notation.",
"Although the interpretation of the notation system is still controversial, it is clear that the notation indicates the names of strings on a lyre, the tuning of which is described in other tablets.",
"Although they are fragmentary, these tablets represent the earliest notated melodies found anywhere in the world.A photograph of the original stone at Delphi containing the second of the two Delphic Hymns to Apollo.",
"The music notation is the line of occasional symbols ''above'' the main, uninterrupted line of Greek lettering.===Ancient Greece===Ancient Greek musical notation was in use from at least the 6th century BCE until approximately the 4th century CE; only one complete composition (Seikilos epitaph) and a number of fragments using this notation survive.",
"The notation for sung music consists of letter symbols for the pitches, placed above text syllables.",
"Rhythm is indicated in a rudimentary way only, with long and short symbols.",
"The Seikilos epitaph has been variously dated between the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.Three hymns by Mesomedes of Crete exist in manuscript.",
"The Delphic Hymns, dated to the 2nd century BCE also use this notation, but they are not completely preserved.",
"Ancient Greek notation appears to have fallen out of use around the time of the Decline of the Western Roman Empire.===Byzantine Empire===oktoechos order, each section began with the evening psalm 140 (here section of echos protos with Romanian transliterated in Cyrillic script)Byzantine music once included music for court ceremonies, but has only survived as vocal church music within various Orthodox traditions of monodic (monophonic) chant written down in Byzantine round notation (see Macarie's ''anastasimatarion'' with the Greek text translated into Romanian and transliterated into Cyrillic script).Since the 6th century, Greek theoretical categories (''melos'', ''genos'', ''harmonia'', ''systema'') played a key role to understand and transmit Byzantine music, especially the tradition of Damascus had a strong impact on the pre-Islamic Near East comparable to the impact coming from Persian music.",
"The earliest evidence are papyrus fragments of Greek tropologia.",
"These fragments just present the hymn text following a modal signature or key (like \"\" for ''echos plagios protos'' or \"\" for ''echos devteros'').Unlike Western notation, Byzantine neumes used since the 10th century were always related to modal steps (same modal degree, one degree lower, two degrees higher, etc.)",
"in relation to such a clef or modal key (modal signatures).",
"Originally this key or the incipit of a common melody was enough to indicate a certain melodic model given within the echos.",
"Next to ekphonetic notation, only used in lectionaries to indicate formulas used during scriptural lessons, melodic notation developed not earlier than between the 9th and the 10th century, when a ''theta'' (), ''oxeia'' () or ''diple'' () were written under a certain syllable of the text, whenever a longer melisma was expected.",
"This primitive form was called \"theta\" or \"diple notation\".Today, one can study the evolution of this notation in Greek monastic chant books like those of the sticherarion and the heirmologion (Chartres notation was rather used on Mount Athos and Constantinople, Coislin notation within the patriarchates of Jerusalem and Alexandria), while there was another gestic notation originally used for the ''asmatikon'' (choir book) and kontakarion (book of the soloist or monophonaris) of the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite.",
"The earliest books which have survived, are \"kondakars\" in Slavonic translation which already show a notation system known as Kondakarian notation.",
"Like the Greek alphabet notational signs are ordered left to right (though the direction could be adapted like in certain Syriac manuscripts).",
"The question of rhythm was entirely based on ''cheironomia'' (the interpretation of so-called great signs which derived from different chant books).",
"These great signs () indicated well-known melodic phrases given by gestures of the choirleaders of the cathedral rite.",
"They existed once as part of an oral tradition, developed Kondakarian notation and became, during the 13th century, integrated into Byzantine round notation as a kind of universal notation system.Today the main difference between Western and Eastern neumes is that Eastern notation symbols are \"differential\" rather than absolute, i.e., they indicate pitch steps (rising, falling or at the same step), and the musicians know to deduce correctly, from the score and the note they are singing presently, which correct interval is meant.",
"These step symbols themselves, or better \"phonic neumes\", resemble brush strokes and are colloquially called ''gántzoi'' ('hooks') in modern Greek.Notes as pitch classes or modal keys (usually memorised by modal signatures) are represented in written form only between these neumes (in manuscripts usually written in red ink).",
"In modern notation they simply serve as an optional reminder and modal and tempo directions have been added, if necessary.",
"In Papadic notation medial signatures usually meant a temporary change into another echos.The so-called \"great signs\" were once related to cheironomic signs; according to modern interpretations they are understood as embellishments and microtonal attractions (pitch changes smaller than a semitone), both essential in Byzantine chant.Chrysanthos's ''Kanonion'' with a comparison between Ancient Greek tetraphonia (column 1), Western Solfeggio, the ''Papadic Parallage'' (ascending: column 3 and 4; descending: column 5 and 6) according to the ''trochos system'', and his heptaphonic ''parallage'' according to the New Method (syllables in the fore-last and ''martyriai'' in the last column))Since Chrysanthos of Madytos there are seven standard note names used for \"solfège\" (''parallagē'') ''pá, vú, ghá, dhi, ké, zō, nē'', while the older practice still used the four enechemata or intonation formulas of the four echoi given by the modal signatures, the authentic or ''kyrioi'' in ascending direction, and the plagal or ''plagioi'' in descending direction (Papadic Octoechos).",
"With exception of ''vú and zō'' they do roughly correspond to Western solmization syllables as ''re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, do''.",
"Byzantine music uses the eight natural, non-tempered scales whose elements were identified by ''Ēkhoi'', \"sounds\", exclusively, and therefore the absolute pitch of each note may slightly vary each time, depending on the particular ''Ēkhos'' used.",
"Byzantine notation is still used in many Orthodox Churches.",
"Sometimes cantors also use transcriptions into Western or Kievan staff notation while adding non-notatable embellishment material from memory and \"sliding\" into the natural scales from experience, but even concerning modern neume editions since the reform of Chrysanthos a lot of details are only known from an oral tradition related to traditional masters and their experience.===13th-century Near East===In 1252, Safi al-Din al-Urmawi developed a form of musical notation, where rhythms were represented by geometric representation.",
"Many subsequent scholars of rhythm have sought to develop graphical geometrical notations.",
"For example, a similar geometric system was published in 1987 by Kjell Gustafson, whose method represents a rhythm as a two-dimensional graph.===Early Europe===Music notation from an early 14th-century English MissalThe scholar and music theorist Isidore of Seville, while writing in the early 7th century, considered that \"unless sounds are held by the memory of man, they perish, because they cannot be written down.\"",
"By the middle of the 9th century, however, a form of neumatic notation began to develop in monasteries in Europe as a mnemonic device for Gregorian chant, using symbols known as neumes; the earliest surviving musical notation of this type is in the ''Musica Disciplina'' of Aurelian of Réôme, from about 850.There are scattered survivals from the Iberian Peninsula before this time, of a type of notation known as Visigothic neumes, but its few surviving fragments have not yet been deciphered.",
"The problem with this notation was that it only showed melodic contours and consequently the music could not be read by someone who did not know the music already.Early music notationNotation had developed far enough to notate melody, but there was still no system for notating rhythm.",
"A mid-13th-century treatise, ''De Mensurabili Musica'', explains a set of six rhythmic modes that were in use at the time, although it is not clear how they were formed.",
"These rhythmic modes were all in triple time and rather limited rhythm in chant to six different repeating patterns.",
"This was a flaw seen by German music theorist Franco of Cologne and summarised as part of his treatise ''Ars Cantus Mensurabilis'' (the art of measured chant, or mensural notation).",
"He suggested that individual notes could have their own rhythms represented by the shape of the note.",
"Not until the 14th century did something like the present system of fixed note lengths arise.",
"The use of regular measures (bars) became commonplace by the end of the 17th century.The founder of what is now considered the standard music staff was Guido d'Arezzo, an Italian Benedictine monk who lived from about 991 until after 1033.He taught the use of solmization syllables based on a hymn to Saint John the Baptist, which begins Ut Queant Laxis and was written by the Lombard historian Paul the Deacon.",
"The first stanza is:# '''Ut''' queant laxis# '''re'''sonare fibris,# '''Mi'''ra gestorum# '''fa'''muli tuorum,# '''Sol'''ve polluti# '''la'''bii reatum,# '''S'''ancte '''I'''ohannes.Guido used the first syllable of each line, Ut, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, and Si, to read notated music in terms of hexachords; they were not note names, and each could, depending on context, be applied to any note.",
"In the 17th century, Ut was changed in most countries except France to the easily singable, open syllable Do, believed to have been taken either from the name of the Italian theorist Giovanni Battista '''Do'''ni, or from the Latin word '''''Do'''minus'', meaning ''Lord''.Christian monks developed the first forms of modern European musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church, and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages.",
"This led directly to the emergence and development of European classical music, and its many derivatives.",
"The Baroque style, which encompassed music, art, and architecture, was particularly encouraged by the post-Reformation Catholic Church as such forms offered a means of religious expression that was stirring and emotional, intended to stimulate religious fervor."
],
[
"Modern staff notation",
"An example of modern musical notation: Prelude, Op.",
"28, No.",
"7, by Frédéric Chopin Modern music notation is used by musicians of many different genres throughout the world.",
"The staff (or stave, in British English) consists of 5 parallel horizontal lines which acts as a framework upon which pitches are indicated by placing oval note-heads on (ie crossing) the staff lines, between the lines (ie in the spaces) or above and below the staff using small additional lines called ledger lines.",
"Notation is read from left to right, which makes setting music for right-to-left scripts difficult.",
"The '''pitch''' of a note is indicated by the vertical position of the note-head within the staff, and can be modified by accidentals.",
"The '''duration''' (note length or note value) is indicated by the form of the note-head or with the addition of a note-stem plus beams or flags.",
"A stemless hollow oval is a whole note or semibreve, a hollow rectangle or stemless hollow oval with one or two vertical lines on both sides is a double whole note or breve.",
"A stemmed hollow oval is a half note or minim.",
"Solid ovals always use stems, and can indicate quarter notes (crotchets) or, with added beams or flags, smaller subdivisions.",
"Additional symbols such as dots and ties can lengthen the duration of a note.",
"A staff of written music generally begins with a clef, which indicates the pitch-range of the staff.",
"The treble clef or G clef was originally a letter G and it identifies the second line up on the five line staff as the note G above middle C. The bass clef or F clef identifies the second line down as the note F below middle C. While the treble and bass clef are the most widely used, other clefs, which identify middle C, are used for some instruments, such as the alto clef (for viola and alto trombone) and the tenor clef (used for some cello, bassoon, tenor trombone, and double bass music).",
"Some instruments use mainly one clef, such as violin and flute which use treble clef, and double bass and tuba which use bass clef.",
"Some instruments, such as piano and pipe organ, regularly use both treble and bass clefs.Following the clef, the key signature is a group of from 0 to 7 sharp (♯) or flat (♭) signs placed on the staff to indicate the key of the piece or song by specifying that certain notes are sharp or flat throughout the piece, unless otherwise indicated with accidentals added before certain notes.",
"When a flat (♭) sign is placed before a note, the pitch of the note is lowered by one semitone.",
"Similarly, a sharp sign (♯) raises the pitch by one semitone.",
"For example, a sharp on the note D would raise it to D♯ while a flat would lower it to D♭.",
"Double sharps and double flats are less common, but they are used.",
"A double sharp is placed before a note to make it two semitones higher, a double flat - two semitones lower.",
"A natural sign placed before a note renders that note in its \"natural\" form, which means that any sharp or flat applied to that note from the key signature or an accidental, is cancelled.",
"Sometimes a courtesy accidental is used in music where it is not technically required, to remind the musician of what pitch is required.Following the key signature is the time signature.",
"The time signature typically consists of two numbers, with one of the most common being .",
"The top \"4\" indicates that there are four beats per measure (also called bar).",
"The bottom \"4\" indicates that each of those beats are quarter notes.",
"Measures divide the piece into groups of beats, and the time signatures specify those groupings.",
"is used so often that it is also called \"common time\", and it may be indicated with rather than numbers.",
"Other frequently used time signatures are (three beats per bar, with each beat being a quarter note); (two beats per bar, with each beat being a quarter note); (six beats per bar, with each beat being an eighth note) and (twelve beats per bar, with each beat being an eighth note; in practice, the eighth notes are typically put into four groups of three eighth notes.",
"is a compound time type of time signature).",
"Many other time signatures exist, such as , , , , , and so on.Many short classical music pieces from the classical era and songs from traditional music and popular music are in one time signature for much or all of the piece.",
"Music from the Romantic music era and later, particularly contemporary classical music and rock music genres such as progressive rock and the hardcore punk subgenre mathcore, may use mixed meter; songs or pieces change from one meter to another, for example alternating between bars of and .Directions to the player regarding matters such as tempo (e.g., Allegro, Andante, Largo, Vif, Lent, Modérément, Presto, etc.",
"), dynamics (pianississimo, pianissimo, piano, mezzopiano, mezzoforte, forte, fortissimo, fortississimo, etc.)",
"appear above or below the staff.",
"Terms indicating the musical expression or \"feel\" to a song or piece are indicated at the beginning of the piece and at any points where the mood changes (e.g., \"Slow March\", \"Fast Swing\", \"Medium Blues\", \"Fougueux\", \"Feierlich\", \"Gelassen\", \"Piacevole\", \"Con slancio\", \"Majestic\", \"Hostile\" etc.)",
"For vocal music, lyrics are written near the pitches of the melody.",
"For short pauses (breaths), retakes (retakes are indicated with a ' mark) are added.In music for ensembles, a \"score\" shows music for all players together, with the staves for the different instruments and/or voices stacked vertically.",
"The conductor uses the score while leading an orchestra, concert band, choir or other large ensemble.",
"Individual performers in an ensemble play from \"parts\" which contain only the music played by an individual musician.",
"A score can be constructed from a complete set of parts and vice versa.",
"The process was laborious and time consuming when parts were hand-copied from the score, but since the development of scorewriter computer software in the 1980s, a score stored electronically can have parts automatically prepared by the program and quickly and inexpensively printed out using a computer printer.===Variations on staff notation===A lead sheetA chord chart.",
"* Percussion notation conventions are varied because of the wide range of percussion instruments.",
"Percussion instruments are generally grouped into two categories: pitched (e.g.",
"glockenspiel or tubular bells) and non-pitched (e.g.",
"bass drum and snare drum).",
"The notation of non-pitched percussion instruments is less standardized.",
"Pitched instruments use standard Western classical notation for the pitches and rhythms.",
"In general, notation for unpitched percussion uses the five line staff, with different lines and spaces representing different drum kit instruments.",
"Standard Western rhythmic notation is used to indicate the rhythm.",
"* Figured bass notation originated in Baroque basso continuo parts.",
"It is also used extensively in accordion notation.",
"The bass notes of the music are conventionally notated, along with numbers and other signs that determine which chords the harpsichordist, organist or lutenist should improvise.",
"It does not, however, specify the exact pitches of the harmony, leaving that for the performer to improvise.",
"* A lead sheet specifies only the melody, lyrics and harmony, using one staff with chord symbols placed above and lyrics below.",
"It is used to capture the essential elements of a popular song without specifying how the song should be arranged or performed.",
"* A chord chart or \"chart\" contains little or no melodic or voice-leading information at all, but provides basic harmonic information about the chord progression.",
"Some chord charts also contain rhythmic information, indicated using slash notation for full beats and rhythmic notation for rhythms.",
"This is the most common kind of written music used by professional session musicians playing jazz or other forms of popular music and is intended primarily for the rhythm section (usually containing piano, guitar, bass and drums).",
"* Simpler chord charts for songs may contain only the chord changes, placed above the lyrics where they occur.",
"Such charts depend on prior knowledge of the melody, and are used as reminders in performance or informal group singing.",
"Some chord charts intended for rhythm section accompanists contain only the chord progression.",
"* The shape note system is found in some church hymnals, sheet music, and song books, especially in the Southern United States.",
"Instead of the customary elliptical note head, note heads of various shapes are used to show the position of the note on the major scale.",
"''The Sacred Harp'' is one of the most popular tune books using shape notes."
],
[
"In various countries",
"===Korea===''Jeongganbo musical notation system''''Jeongganbo'' is a traditional musical notation system created during the time of Sejong the Great that was the first East Asian system to represent rhythm, pitch and time.",
"Among various kinds of Korean traditional music, Jeong-gan-bo targets a particular genre, Jeong-ak ().Jeong-gan-bo specifies the pitch by writing the pitch's name down in a box called 'jeong-gan'.",
"One jeong-gan is one beat each, and it can be split into two, three or more to hold half beats and quarter beats, and more.",
"Also, there are many markings indicating things such as ornaments.",
"Most of these were later created by Ki-su Kim.===India===Indian music, early 20th century.The Samaveda text (1200 BCE – 1000 BCE) contains notated melodies, and these are probably the world's oldest surviving ones.",
"The musical notation is written usually immediately above, sometimes within, the line of Samaveda text, either in syllabic or a numerical form depending on the Samavedic ''Sakha'' (school).",
"The Indian scholar and musical theorist Pingala (c. 200 BCE), in his ''Chanda Sutra'', used marks indicating long and short syllables to indicate meters in Sanskrit poetry.A rock inscription from circa 7th–8th century CE at Kudumiyanmalai, Tamil Nadu contains an early example of a musical notation.",
"It was first identified and published by archaeologist/epigraphist D. R. Bhandarkar.",
"Written in the Pallava-grantha script of the 7th century, it contains 38 horizontal lines of notations inscribed on a rectangular rock face (dimension of around 13 by 14 feet).",
"Each line of the notation contains 64 characters (characters representing musical notes), written in groups of four notes.",
"The basic characters for the seven notes, 'sa ri ga ma pa dha ni', are seen to be suffixed with the vowels a, i, u, e. For example, in the place of 'sa', any one of 'sa', 'si', 'su' or 'se' is used.",
"Similarly, in place of ri, any one of 'ra', 'ri', 'ru' or 're' is used.",
"Horizontal lines divide the notation into 7 sections.",
"Each section contains 4 to 7 lines of notation, with a title indicating its musical 'mode'.",
"These modes may have been popular at least from the 6th century CE and were incorporated into the Indian 'raga' system that developed later.",
"But some of the unusual features seen in this notation have been given several non-conclusive interpretations by scholars.In the notation of Indian rāga, a solfege-like system called sargam is used.",
"As in Western solfege, there are names for the seven basic pitches of a major scale (Shadja, Rishabha, Gandhara, Madhyama, Panchama, Dhaivata and Nishada, usually shortened to Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni).",
"The tonic of any scale is named Sa, and the dominant Pa. Sa is fixed in any scale, and Pa is fixed at a fifth above it (a Pythagorean fifth rather than an equal-tempered fifth).",
"These two notes are known as achala swar ('fixed notes').Each of the other five notes, Re, Ga, Ma, Dha and Ni, can take a 'regular' (shuddha) pitch, which is equivalent to its pitch in a standard major scale (thus, shuddha Re, the second degree of the scale, is a whole-step higher than Sa), or an altered pitch, either a half-step above or half-step below the shuddha pitch.",
"Re, Ga, Dha and Ni all have altered partners that are a half-step lower (Komal-\"flat\") (thus, komal Re is a half-step higher than Sa).Ma has an altered partner that is a half-step higher (-\"sharp\") (thus, Ma is an augmented fourth above Sa).",
"Re, Ga, Ma, Dha and Ni are called ('movable notes').",
"In the written system of Indian notation devised by Ravi Shankar, the pitches are represented by Western letters.",
"Capital letters are used for the achala swar, and for the higher variety of all the vikrut swar.",
"Lowercase letters are used for the lower variety of the vikrut swar.Other systems exist for non-twelve-tone equal temperament and non-Western music, such as the Indian ''Swaralipi''.===Russia===Cross we honour, oh Lord, and Thy holy Resurrection we praise.",
"\"Hand-drawn lubok featuring 'hook and banner notation'Znamenny Chant is a singing tradition used in the Russian Orthodox Church which uses a \"hook and banner\" notation.",
"Znamenny Chant is unison, melismatic liturgical singing that has its own specific notation, called the ''stolp'' notation.",
"The symbols used in the stolp notation are called '''' (, 'hooks') or '''' (, 'signs').",
"Often the names of the signs are used to refer to the stolp notation.",
"Znamenny melodies are part of a system, consisting of Eight Modes (intonation structures; called glasy); the melodies are characterized by fluency and well-balancedness .",
"There exist several types of Znamenny Chant: the so-called ''Stolpovoy'', ''Malyj'' (Little) and ''Bolshoy'' (Great) Znamenny Chant.",
"Ruthenian Chant (Prostopinije) is sometimes considered a sub-division of the Znamenny Chant tradition, with the Muscovite Chant (Znamenny Chant proper) being the second branch of the same musical continuum.Znamenny Chants are not written with notes (the so-called linear notation), but with special signs, called ''Znamëna'' (Russian for \"marks\", \"banners\") or ''Kryuki'' (\"hooks\"), as some shapes of these signs resemble hooks.",
"Each sign may include the following components: a large black hook or a black stroke, several smaller black 'points' and 'commas' and lines near the hook or crossing the hook.",
"Some signs may mean only one note, some 2 to 4 notes, and some a whole melody of more than 10 notes with a complicated rhythmic structure.",
"The stolp notation was developed in Kievan Rus' as an East Slavic refinement of the Byzantine neumatic musical notation.The most notable feature of this notation system is that it records transitions of the melody, rather than notes.",
"The signs also represent a mood and a gradation of how this part of melody is to be sung (tempo, strength, devotion, meekness, etc.)",
"Every sign has its own name and also features as a spiritual symbol.",
"For example, there is a specific sign, called \"little dove\" (Russian: голубчик ''(golubchik)''), which represents two rising sounds, but which is also a symbol of the Holy Ghost.",
"Gradually the system became more and more complicated.",
"This system was also ambiguous, so that almost no one, except the most trained and educated singers, could sing an unknown melody at sight.",
"The signs only helped to reproduce the melody, not coding it in an unambiguous way.",
"(See Byzantine Empire)===China===Chinese Guqin notation, 1425The earliest known examples of text referring to music in China are inscriptions on musical instruments found in the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (d. 433 B.C.).",
"Sets of 41 chimestones and 65 bells bore lengthy inscriptions concerning pitches, scales, and transposition.",
"The bells still sound the pitches that their inscriptions refer to.",
"Although no notated musical compositions were found, the inscriptions indicate that the system was sufficiently advanced to allow for musical notation.",
"Two systems of pitch nomenclature existed, one for relative pitch and one for absolute pitch.",
"For relative pitch, a solmization system was used.Gongche notation used Chinese characters for the names of the scale.===Japan===''Tempyō Biwa Fu'' (circa 738 AD), musical notation for Biwa.",
"(Shōsōin, at Nara, Japan)Japanese music is highly diversified, and therefore requires various systems of notation.",
"In Japanese shakuhachi music, for example, glissandos and timbres are often more significant than distinct pitches, whereas taiko notation focuses on discrete strokes.Ryukyuan sanshin music uses kunkunshi, a notation system of kanji with each character corresponding to a finger position on a particular string.===Indonesia===Notation plays a relatively minor role in the oral traditions of Indonesia.",
"However, in Java and Bali, several systems were devised beginning at the end of the 19th century, initially for archival purposes.",
"Today the most widespread are cipher notations (\"not angka\" in the broadest sense) in which the pitches are represented with some subset of the numbers 1 to 7, with 1 corresponding to either highest note of a particular octave, as in Sundanese gamelan, or lowest, as in the kepatihan notation of Javanese gamelan.Notes in the ranges outside the central octave are represented with one or more dots above or below the each number.",
"For the most part, these cipher notations are mainly used to notate the skeletal melody (the balungan) and vocal parts (gerongan), although transcriptions of the elaborating instrument variations are sometimes used for analysis and teaching.",
"Drum parts are notated with a system of symbols largely based on letters representing the vocables used to learn and remember drumming patterns; these symbols are typically laid out in a grid underneath the skeletal melody for a specific or generic piece.The symbols used for drum notation (as well as the vocables represented) are highly variable from place to place and performer to performer.",
"In addition to these current systems, two older notations used a kind of staff: the Solonese script could capture the flexible rhythms of the pesinden with a squiggle on a horizontal staff, while in Yogyakarta a ladder-like vertical staff allowed notation of the balungan by dots and also included important drum strokes.",
"In Bali, there are a few books published of Gamelan gender wayang pieces, employing alphabetical notation in the old Balinese script.Composers and scholars both Indonesian and foreign have also mapped the slendro and pelog tuning systems of gamelan onto the western staff, with and without various symbols for microtones.",
"The Dutch composer Ton de Leeuw also invented a three line staff for his composition ''Gending''.",
"However, these systems do not enjoy widespread use.In the second half of the twentieth century, Indonesian musicians and scholars extended cipher notation to other oral traditions, and a diatonic scale cipher notation has become common for notating western-related genres (church hymns, popular songs, and so forth).",
"Unlike the cipher notation for gamelan music, which uses a \"fixed Do\" (that is, 1 always corresponds to the same pitch, within the natural variability of gamelan tuning), Indonesian diatonic cipher notation is \"moveable-Do\" notation, so scores must indicate which pitch corresponds to the number 1 (for example, \"1=C\").Image:Surakarta gamelan notation slendro.png|A short melody in slendro notated using the Surakarta method.Image:Yogyakarta gamelan notation slendro.png|The same notated using the Yogyakarta method or 'chequered notation'.Image:Kepatihan gamelan notation slendro.png|The same notated using Kepatihan notation.Image:Western gamelan notation slendro.png|The same approximated using Western notation.",
"=== Judea ===Ancient Jewish texts include a series of marks assigning musical cantillation notes.",
"Known in Hebrew as Ta'amim and Yiddish as Trope, there are records of these marks from the 6th and 7th centuries, having been passed down as a tradition for Jewish prayers and texts.",
"Traditionally a series of marks written above and around the accompanying Hebrew texts, Trope marks represent a short musical motif.",
"Throughout the Jewish diaspora there are variations in the accompanying melodies.",
"There are three main systems of Hebrew cantillation: The Babylonian System, The Palestinian System, and the Tiberian System.",
"Example of biblical Hebrew Trope"
],
[
"Other systems and practices",
"===Cipher notation===Amazing Grace in numbered notation.Cipher notation systems assigning Arabic numerals to the major scale degrees have been used at least since the Iberian organ tablatures of the 16th-century and include such exotic adaptations as ''Siffernotskrift''.",
"The one most widely in use today is the Chinese ''Jianpu'', discussed in the main article.",
"Numerals can also be assigned to different scale systems, as in the Javanese ''kepatihan'' notation described above.===Solfège===Solfège is a way of assigning syllables to names of the musical scale.",
"In order, they are today: ''Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Ti Do'' (for the octave).",
"The classic variation is: ''Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si Do''.",
"The first Western system of functional names for the musical notes was introduced by Guido of Arezzo (c. 991 – after 1033), using the beginning syllables of the first six musical lines of the Latin hymn Ut queant laxis.",
"The original sequence was ''Ut Re Mi Fa Sol La'', where each verse started a scale note higher.",
"\"Ut\" later became \"Do\".",
"The equivalent syllables used in Indian music are: ''Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni''.",
"See also: solfège, sargam, Kodály hand signs.Tonic sol-fa is a type of notation using the initial letters of solfège.===Letter notation===The notes of the 12-tone scale can be written by their letter names A–G, possibly with a trailing accidental, such as A or B.===Tablature===Tablature was first used in the Middle Ages for organ music and later in the Renaissance for lute music.",
"In most lute tablatures, a staff is used, but instead of pitch values, the lines of the staff represent the strings of the instrument.",
"The frets to finger are written on each line, indicated by letters or numbers.",
"Rhythm is written separately with one or another variation of standard note values indicating the duration of the fastest moving part.",
"Few seem to have remarked on the fact that tablature combines in one notation system both the physical and technical requirements of play (the lines and symbols on them and in relation to each other representing the actual performance actions) with the unfolding of the music itself (the lines of tablature taken horizontally represent the actual temporal unfolding of the music).",
"In later periods, lute and guitar music was written with standard notation.",
"Tablature caught interest again in the late 20th century for popular guitar music and other fretted instruments, being easy to transcribe and share over the internet in ASCII format.===Klavar notation===Klavarskribo (sometimes shortened to '''klavar''') is a music notation system that was introduced in 1931 by the Dutchman Cornelis Pot.",
"The name means \"keyboard writing\" in Esperanto.",
"It differs from conventional music notation in a number of ways and is intended to be easily readable.",
"Many klavar readers are from the Netherlands.===Piano-roll-based notations===Some chromatic systems have been created taking advantage of the layout of black and white keys of the standard piano keyboard.",
"The \"staff\" is most widely referred to as \"piano roll\", created by extending the black and white piano keys.===Chromatic staff notations===Over the past three centuries, hundreds of music notation systems have been proposed as alternatives to traditional western music notation.",
"Many of these systems seek to improve upon traditional notation by using a \"chromatic staff\" in which each of the 12 pitch classes has its own unique place on the staff.",
"An example is Jacques-Daniel Rochat's Dodeka music notation.",
"These notation systems do not require the use of standard key signatures, accidentals, or clef signs.",
"They also represent interval relationships more consistently and accurately than traditional notation, e.g.",
"major 3rds appear wider than minor 3rds.",
"Many of these systems are described and illustrated in Gardner Read's \"Source Book of Proposed Music Notation Reforms\".===Graphic notation===The term 'graphic notation' refers to the contemporary use of non-traditional symbols and text to convey information about the performance of a piece of music.",
"Composers such as Johanna Beyer.",
"Christian Wolff, Carmen Barradas, Earle Brown, Yoko Ono, Anthony Braxton, John Cage, Morton Feldman, Cathy Berberian, Graciela Castillo, Krzysztof Penderecki, Cornelius Cardew, Pauline Oliveros and Roger Reynolds are among the early generation of practitioners.",
"The book Notations, by John Cage and Alison Knowles, is another example of this kind of notation.===Simplified music notation===Simplified Music Notation is an alternative form of musical notation designed to make sight-reading easier.",
"It is based on classical staff notation, but incorporates sharps and flats into the shape of the note heads.",
"Notes such as double sharps and double flats are written at the pitch they are actually played at, but preceded by symbols called ''history signs'' that show they have been transposed.===Modified Stave Notation===Modified Stave Notation (MSN) is an alternative way of notating music for people who cannot easily read ordinary musical notation even if it is enlarged.===Parsons code===Parsons code is used to encode music so that it can be easily searched.===Braille music===Braille music is a complete, well developed, and internationally accepted musical notation system that has symbols and notational conventions quite independent of print music notation.",
"It is linear in nature, similar to a printed language and different from the two-dimensional nature of standard printed music notation.",
"To a degree Braille music resembles musical markup languages such as MusicXML or NIFF.===Integer notation===In integer notation, or the integer model of pitch, all pitch classes and intervals between pitch classes are designated using the numbers 0 through 11.===Rap notation===The standard form of rap notation is the \"flow diagram\", where rappers line up their lyrics underneath \"beat numbers\".",
"Hip-hop scholars also make use of the same flow diagrams that rappers use: the books ''How to Rap'' and ''How to Rap 2'' extensively use the diagrams to explain rap's triplets, flams, rests, rhyme schemes, runs of rhyme, and breaking rhyme patterns, among other techniques.",
"Similar systems are used by musicologists Adam Krims in his book ''Rap Music and the Poetics of Identity'' and Kyle Adams in his work on rap's flow.",
"As rap usually revolves around a strong 4/4 beat, with certain syllables aligned to the beat, all the notational systems have a similar structure: they all have four beat numbers at the top of the diagram, so that syllables can be written in-line with the beat.===ABC===ABC notation is a compact format using plain text characters, readable by computers and by humans.",
"More than 100,000 tunes are now transcribed in this format.===Tin Whistle Fingering Charts===It is being used for six-hole woodwind instruments, basically for Irish folk songs.",
"Tin whistle tabs are particularly useful for those unfamiliar with sheet music notation."
],
[
"Music notation on computers",
"===Unicode===The Musical Symbols Unicode block encodes an extensive system of formal musical notation.The Miscellaneous Symbols block has a few of the more common symbols:* * * * * * * The Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs block has three emoji that may include depictions of musical notes:* * * ===Software===Various computer programs have been developed for creating music notation (called ''scorewriters'' or ''music notation software'').",
"Music may also be stored in various digital file formats for purposes other than graphic notation output."
],
[
"Perspectives of musical notation in composition and musical performance",
"According to Philip Tagg and Richard Middleton, musicology and to a degree European-influenced musical practice suffer from a 'notational centricity', a methodology slanted by the characteristics of notation.",
"A variety of 20th- and 21st-century composers have dealt with this problem, either by adapting standard Western musical notation or by using graphic notation.",
"These include George Crumb, Luciano Berio, Krzystof Penderecki, Earl Brown, John Cage, Witold Lutoslawski, and others."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of musical symbols of modern notation.",
"* Hebrew cantillation* Colored music notation* Eye movement in music reading* Guido of Arezzo, inventor of modern musical notation* History of music publishing* List of scorewriters* Mensural notation* Modal notation* Music engraving, drawing music notation for the purpose of mechanical reproduction* Music OCR, the application of optical character recognition to interpret sheet music* Neume (plainchant notation)* Pitch class* Rastrum, a five-pointed writing implement used to draw parallel staff lines across a blank piece of sheet music* Scorewriter* Semasiography* Sheet music* Time unit box system, a notation system useful for polyrhythms* Tongan music notation, a subset of standard music notation* Tonnetz* Znamenny chant"
],
[
"Notes",
"===Sources===* *** ** ** * * ***** * * * * * * *** * ** English translation of \"Kojak—50 sekunders tv-musik\".",
"* * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * ** * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Byzantine Music Notation.",
"Contains a Guide to Byzantine Music Notation (neumes).",
"* CCARH—Center for Computer Assisted Research in the Humanities Information on Stanford University Course on music representation.",
"Links page shows examples of different notations.",
"* Music Markup Language.",
"XML-based language for music notation.",
"* * Synopsis of Musical Notation Encyclopedias (An index from topics of CWN into the books of Gould, Vinci, Wanske, Stone and Read.",
")* Gehrkens, Karl Wilson ''Music Notation and Terminology''.",
"Project Gutenberg.",
"* Gilbert, Nina. \"",
"Glossary of U.S. and British English musical terms.\"",
"Posted 17 June 1998; updated 7 September 2000."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Meir Kahane"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Meir David HaKohen Kahane''' ( ; ; born '''Martin David Kahane'''; August 1, 1932 – November 5, 1990) was an American-born Israeli ordained Orthodox rabbi, writer, and ultra-nationalist politician who served one term in Israel's Knesset before being convicted of acts of terrorism.",
"He founded the Israeli political party Kach.",
"A cofounder of the Jewish Defense League (JDL), he espoused strong views against antisemitism.According to his widow, he organized defense squads and patrols in Jewish neighborhoods, and demanded that the Soviet Union allow Refusenik to emigrate to Israel.",
"He supported violence against those he regarded as enemies of the Jewish people, and called for immediate Jewish mass migration to Israel to avoid a potential \"Holocaust\" in the United States, popularizing the slogan ''Never Again'' through a book of the same name.",
"He also popularized the slogan \"For Every Jew a .22.\"",
"He supported the restriction of Israel's democracy to its Jewish citizens, and endorsed the annexation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip.In 1968, Kahane was one of the co-founders of the JDL in the United States.",
"In 1971, he co-founded Kach (\"Thus\"), a new political party in Israel.",
"That same year, he was convicted in New York for conspiracy to manufacture explosives and received a suspended sentence of five years.",
"In Israel, he was convicted for plotting to blow up the Libyan embassy in Brussels in revenge for the massacre of 11 Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, receiving a suspended sentence and probation.",
"In 1984, he became a member of the Knesset, when Kach gained its only-ever seat in parliamentary elections.",
"Kahane was boycotted across the aisles of the Knesset, and would often speak in front of an empty chamber.",
"The Israel Broadcasting Authority similarly avoided coverage of his activities.",
"The Central Elections Committee tried to ban Kahane from running in the 1984 elections, but this ban was overturned by the Supreme Court because there was no law to support it.",
"In response, the Knesset approved an ad hoc law that allowed for the banning of parties that are \"racist\" or \"undemocratic\".",
"In 1988, despite polls showing Kach gaining popularity due in part to the ongoing First Intifada, Kach was banned from entering that year's elections.Kahane publicized his Kahanism ideology through published works, weekly articles, speeches, debates on college campuses and in synagogues throughout the United States, and appearances on various televised programs and radio shows.",
"In Israel, he proposed enforcing ''Halakha'' as codified by Maimonides and hoped that Israel would eventually adopt ''Halakha'' as state law.",
"Non-Jews wishing to dwell in Israel would have three options: remain as \"resident strangers\" with limited rights, leave Israel and receive compensation for their property, or be forcibly removed without compensation.",
"While serving in the Knesset in the mid-1980s Kahane proposed numerous laws, none of which passed, to emphasize Judaism in public schools, reduce Israel's bureaucracy, forbid sexual relations between Jews and non-Jews, separate Jewish and Arab neighborhoods, and end cultural meetings between Jewish and Arab students.",
"Kahane was assassinated in a New York City hotel by an Egyptian-born U.S. citizen in November 1990.His legacy continues to influence militant and far-right political groups active today in Israel."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Meir Kahane was born in Brooklyn, New York, to an Orthodox Jewish family.",
"Kahane was a member of an established rabbinic family, including his father, who was head of the Flatbush Board of Rabbis.",
"His father, Yechezkel Shragei (Charles) Kahane (1905–1978), was the rabbi of a large synagogue in Brooklyn, author of the interpretive Torah translation ''Torah Yesharah'', and a strong supporter of the Revisionist Zionist movement.",
"Kahane's grandfather was Nachman Kahane (1869–1937), a leading rabbinic scholar in Safed, who was the son of Baruch David Kahane (1850–1925), the author of ''Hibat ha-Eretz'', and a disciple of Chaim Halberstam of Sanz.",
"Baruch David was a direct descendant of Simcha Rappaport (1650–1718), of the Rappaport rabbinic family, who were allegedly able to trace their ancestry back to Eleazar ben Azariah, a 1st-century sage in the Land of Israel.",
"Baruch David immigrated to Ottoman Palestine from Poland in 1873.Kahane's father was born in Safed while his mother Sonia was born in Latvia.",
"An uncle of Kahane's was killed in Safed during the 1929 Palestine riots.As a teenager, Kahane became an ardent admirer of Jabotinsky and Peter Bergson, who were frequent guests in his parents' home.",
"He joined the Betar (Brit Trumpeldor) youth wing of Revisionist Zionism.",
"He was active in protests against Ernest Bevin, the British Foreign Secretary who maintained restrictions on the immigration of Jews, even Holocaust survivors, to Palestine after the end of the Second World War.",
"In 1947, Kahane was arrested for throwing eggs and tomatoes at Bevin, who was disembarking at Pier 84 on a visit to New York.",
"A photo of the arrest appeared in the ''New York Daily News''.",
"In 1954, he became the Mazkir (Secretary) of Greater New York City's 16 Bnei Akiva chapters.Kahane's formal education included Yeshiva of Flatbush for elementary school and Brooklyn Talmudical Academy for high school.",
"Kahane received his rabbinical ordination from the Mir Yeshiva in Brooklyn, where he was especially admired by the head Rabbi Abraham Kalmanowitz.",
"He was fully conversant in the Tanakh (Jewish Bible), the Talmud, the Midrash and Jewish law.",
"Subsequently, Kahane earned a B.A.",
"in political science from Brooklyn College in 1954, a Bachelor of Law – LL.B.",
"from New York Law School, and an M.A.",
"in International Relations from New York University.In 1956, Kahane married Libby Blum, with whom he had four children: Tzipporah, Tova, Baruch, and Binyamin.",
"Binyamin became an Orthodox Jewish scholar, rabbi, and far-right political leader aligned with Kahane's political movement, and was later killed in 2000.In 1966, Kahane, under the alias of Michael King and while already married, had an affair and became engaged to marry the 21-year-old model Gloria Jean D'Argenio (who used the stage name Estelle Donna Evans).",
"Kahane sent a letter to D'Argenio in which he unilaterally ended their relationship.",
"D'Argenio was never aware of Kahane's real identity and at the time she received the letter, she had been expecting him to marry her in two days and had recently learned she was pregnant by him.",
"Upon receiving the letter, D'Argenio jumped off the Queensboro Bridge and died of her injuries the next day.",
"In 2008, Kahane's wife dismissed the incident as lacking proof.After D'Argenio's death, Kahane started the Estelle Donna Evans Foundation in her name.",
"Kahane claimed D'Argenio had been his former secretary in his failed consulting operation, had died of cancer, and that her \"well-to-do\" family had endowed the foundation.",
"In reality, the money was used to fund the JDL, including supplies for bombings and Kahane's lavish travel."
],
[
"Early career",
"===Pulpit rabbi===Kahane in Canarsie in 1975In 1958, Kahane became the rabbi of the Howard Beach Jewish Center in Queens, New York City.",
"Although the synagogue was originally Conservative, rather than strictly Orthodox, the board of directors agreed to Kahane's conditions, which included resigning from the Conservative movement's United Synagogue of America, installing a partition separating men and women during prayer, instituting traditional prayers, and maintaining a kosher kitchen.",
"At the Jewish Center, Kahane influenced many of the synagog's youngsters to adopt a more observant lifestyle, which often troubled parents.",
"He trained Arlo Guthrie for his bar mitzvah.",
"When his contract was not renewed, he soon published an article entitled \"End of the Miracle of Howard Beach\".",
"That was Kahane's first article in ''The Jewish Press'', an American Orthodox Jewish weekly for which he would continue to write for the rest of his life.",
"Kahane also used the pen name David Sinai, and the pseudonyms Michael King, David Borac, and Martin Keene.===Infiltrating the John Birch Society===In the late 1950s and the early 1960s, Kahane's life of secrecy and his strong anticommunism landed him a position as a consultant with the FBI.",
"According to his wife, Libby, his assignment was to infiltrate the anticommunist John Birch Society and report his findings to the FBI.===Collaboration with Joseph Churba===''Never Again!",
"A Program for Survival'' (1972)At some time in the late 1950s, Kahane assumed the persona of a Gentile, along with the pseudonym Michael King.",
"Kahane began openly expressing his anticommunism.",
"He and Joseph Churba created the July Fourth Movement, which was formed to counteract widespread opposition towards U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.",
"Subsequently, they coauthored the book ''The Jewish Stake in Vietnam'', an attempt to convince American Jews of the \"evil of Communism\".",
"The introduction states that, \"All Americans have a stake in this grim war against Communism...",
"It is vital that Jews realize the threat to their very survival should Communism succeed.\"",
"Churba had a major falling out with Kahane over the use of paramilitary activities, and they parted ways permanently.",
"Churba went on to pursue his own career, joining the U.S. Air Force, writing many books on the Middle East, and eventually becoming one of Ronald Reagan's consultants.",
"Kahane chose to fight for Jewish rights, and was willing to use extreme measures.",
"He even attempted to acquire and grow biological weapons to use on a Soviet military installation.",
"He began using the phrase \"Never again\" and conceived the Jewish Star and fist insignia, a symbol resembling that of the Black Panther Party.",
"However, Kahane himself opposed the Black Panthers, claiming they had supported anti-Jewish riots in Massachusetts and had left-wing views."
],
[
"Jewish Defense League",
"Kahane founded the Jewish Defense League (JDL) in New York City in 1968.Its self-described purpose was to protect Jews from local manifestations of anti-Semitism.",
"Kahane encouraged Jews to take up firearms, through his slogan \"every Jew a .22\".The JDL said it was committed to five fundamental principles:* Love of Jewry: One Jewish people, indivisible and united, from which flows the love for, and the feeling of pain of, all Jews.",
"* Dignity and Pride: Pride in and knowledge of Jewish tradition, faith, culture, land, history, strength, pain, and peoplehood.",
"* Iron: The need to both move to help Jews everywhere and to change the Jewish image through sacrifice and all necessary means—even strength, force, and violence.",
"* Discipline and Unity: The knowledge that he (or she) can and will do whatever must be done, and the unity and strength of willpower to bring this into reality.",
"* Faith in the Indestructibility of the Jewish People: Faith in the greatness and indestructibility of the Jewish people, our religion, and our Land of Israel.According to his wife Libby Kahane, the JDL favored \"civil rights for blacks, but opposed black anti-Semites and racism of any form.\"",
"In 1971, the JDL formed an alliance with a black rights group in what Kahane termed \"a turning point in Black-Jewish relations\".",
"The Anti-Defamation League claimed that Kahane \"preached a radical form of Jewish nationalism which reflected racism, violence and political extremism\" that was replicated by Irv Rubin, the JDL's successor to Kahane."
],
[
"Terrorism and convictions",
"A number of the JDL's members and leaders, including Kahane, were convicted of acts related to domestic terrorism.",
"In 1971, Kahane was sentenced to a suspended five-year prison sentence and fined $5,000 for conspiring to manufacture explosives.",
"In 1975, Kahane was arrested for leading the attack on the Soviet United Nations mission and injuring two officers, but he was released after being given summonses for disorderly conduct.",
"Later the same year, Kahane was accused of conspiring to kidnap a Soviet diplomat, bomb the Iraqi embassy in Washington, and ship arms abroad from Israel.",
"He was convicted of violating his probation for the 1971 bombing conviction and was sentenced to one year in prison.",
"However, he served most of it in a hotel, with frequent unsupervised absences, because of a concession over the provision of kosher food.In a 1984 interview with ''Washington Post'' correspondent Carla Hall, Kahane admitted that the JDL \"bombed the Russian Soviet mission in New York, the Russian cultural mission here Washington in 1971, the Soviet trade offices\"."
],
[
"Immigration to Israel",
"In 1971, Kahane moved to Israel.",
"At the time, he declared that he would focus on Jewish education.",
"He later began gathering lists of Arab citizens of the State of Israel who were willing to emigrate for compensation, and eventually, he initiated protests that advocated the expulsion of Arabs from that country, and Israeli-occupied territories.",
"In 1972, Jewish Defense League leaflets were distributed in Hebron, calling for the mayor to stand trial for the 1929 Hebron massacre.",
"Kahane was arrested dozens of times.",
"In 1971, he founded Kach, a political party that ran for the Knesset, the Israeli Parliament, during the 1973 general elections under the name \"The League List\".",
"It won 12,811 votes (0.82%), just 2,857 (0.18%) short of the electoral threshold at the time (1%) for winning a Knesset seat.",
"The party was even less successful in the 1977 elections, winning only 4,836 votes.In 1980, Kahane was arrested for the 62nd time since his emigration, and he was jailed for six months after a detention order that was based on allegations of him planning armed attacks against Palestinians in response to the killings of Jewish settlers.",
"Kahane was held in prison in Ramla, where he wrote the book ''They Must Go''.",
"Kahane was banned from entering the UK in 1981.In 1981, Kahane's party again ran for the Knesset during the 1981 elections, but it did not win a seat and received only 5,128 votes.",
"In 1984, the Israeli Central Elections Committee banned him from being a candidate on the grounds that Kach was a racist party, but the Supreme Court of Israel overturned the ban on the grounds that the committee was not authorized to ban Kahane's candidacy.",
"The Supreme Court suggested that the Knesset pass a law excluding racist parties from future elections.",
"The Knesset responded in 1985 by amending the \"Basic Law: Knesset\" to include a prohibition (paragraph 7a) against the registration of parties that explicitly or implicitly incite racism.=== Election to Knesset ===In the 1984 legislative elections, Kahane's Kach party received 25,907 votes (1.2%), gaining one seat in the Knesset, which was taken by Kahane.",
"He refused to take the standard oath of office and insisted on adding a Biblical verse from Psalms to indicate that national laws were overruled by the Torah if they conflict.",
"Kahane's legislative proposals focused on Jewish education, an open economy, transferring the Arab population out of the Land of Israel, revoking Israeli citizenship from non-Jews, and banning Jewish-Gentile marriages and sexual relations.While his popularity in Israel grew, Kahane was boycotted in the Knesset, where his speeches were often made to an empty assembly except for the duty chairman and the transcriptionist.",
"The Knesset revoked his Parliamentary immunity to prevent his freedom of movement in areas where his inflammatory rhetoric could cause harm.",
"Kahane's legislative proposals and motions of no-confidence against the government were ignored or rejected.",
"Kahane often pejoratively called other Knesset members \"Hellenists,\" a reference to Jews who assimilated into Greek culture after Judea's occupation by Alexander the Great.In 1987, Kahane opened a yeshiva (\"HaRaayon HaYehudi\") with funding from US supporters to teach \"the Authentic Jewish Idea\".",
"Despite the boycott, his popularity grew among the Israeli public, especially for working-class Sephardi Jews.",
"Polls showed that Kach would have likely received anywhere from four to twelve seats in the coming November 1988 elections.In 1985, the Knesset passed an amendment to the Basic Law of Israel, barring political parties that incited to racism.",
"The Central Elections Committee banned Kahane a second time, and he appealed to the Israeli Supreme Court.",
"However, the Supreme Court this time ruled in favor of the committee, disqualifying Kach from running in the 1988 legislative elections.",
"Kahane was thus the first candidate in Israel to be barred from election for racism.",
"The move was criticized as being anti-democratic by the well-known lawyer and professor Alan Dershowitz.After Kahane's election to the Knesset in 1984, the United States government attempted to revoke his U.S. citizenship, an action which Kahane successfully challenged in court.",
"However, in 1987, the Knesset passed a law declaring that a Knesset member could only be an Israeli citizen.",
"To remain eligible for office, Kahane renounced his United States citizenship, but after being banned from the Knesset for his politics, he again filed suit to get his U.S. citizenship reinstated based on the argument that he was compelled to relinquish it by the Knesset.",
"The court rejected this argument, but he was permitted to continue traveling to the United States."
],
[
"Assassination",
"In November 1990, Kahane gave a speech to an audience of mostly Orthodox Jews from Brooklyn, where he warned American Jews to emigrate to Israel before it was \"too late\".",
"As a crowd gathered around Kahane in the second-floor lecture hall in Midtown Manhattan's New York Marriott East Side, Kahane was assassinated by El Sayyid Nosair, an Egyptian-born U.S. citizen.",
"He was initially charged and acquitted of the murder.",
"Nosair was later convicted of the murder in a U.S. district court for his involvement in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing.",
"Prosecutors were able to try Nosair again for the murder because the federal indictment included the killing as part of the alleged terrorist conspiracy.",
"He was sentenced to life imprisonment and later made a confession to federal agents.Kahane was buried on Har HaMenuchot, in Jerusalem.",
"He was eulogized by supporters in both the U.S. and in Israel, including Rabbi Moshe Tendler and the Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel, Mordechai Eliyahu, who spoke of how little the people understood of Kahane's true value.A few hours after news of the assassination of Kahane reached Israel, two elderly Palestinians, Mohammed Ali (73) and Mariam Suleiman Hassan (71), were gunned down in an incident ascribed to Kach militants.",
"Noam Federman was quoted as saying that the slayings had been committed as revenge by Kahane supporters, and that more violence was in the pipeline."
],
[
"Ideology",
"Kahane argued that there was a glory in Jewish destiny, which came through the observance of the Torah and ''halakha'' (Jewish law).",
"He observed, \"Democracy and Judaism are not the same thing.\"",
"Kahane was of the view a Jewish state and a Western democracy were incompatible, since Western democracy is religion-blind, and a Jewish state is religion-oriented by its very name.",
"He feared non-Jewish citizens becoming a majority and voting against the Jewish character of the state: \"The question is as follows: if the Arabs settle among us and make enough children to become a majority, will Israel continue to be a Jewish state?",
"Do we have to accept that the Arab majority will decide?\"",
"He also said that \"you cannot have Zionism and democracy at the same ... Western democracy has to be ruled out.",
"For me, that's cut and dried: There's no question of setting up democracy in Israel, because democracy means equal rights for all, irrespective of racial or religious origins.",
"\"Kahane proposed an \"exchange of populations\" that would continue the Jewish exodus from Arab lands: \"A total of some 750,000 Jews fled Arab lands since 1948.Surely it is time for Jews, worried over the huge growth of Arabs in Israel, to consider finishing the exchange of populations that began 35 years ago.\"",
"Kahane proposed a $40,000 compensation plan for Arabs who would leave voluntarily, and forcible expulsion for those who \"don't want to leave\".",
"He encouraged retaliatory violence against Arabs who attacked Jews: \"I approve of anybody who commits such acts of violence.",
"Really, I don't think that we can sit back and watch Arabs throwing rocks at buses whenever they feel like it.",
"They must understand that a bomb thrown at a Jewish bus is going to mean a bomb thrown at an Arab bus.",
"\"In some of his writings, Kahane argued that Israel should never start a war for territory but that if a war were launched against Israel, Biblical territory should be annexed.",
"However, in an interview, he defined Israel's \"minimal borders\" as follows: \"The southern boundary goes up to El Arish, which takes in all of northern Sinai, including Yamit.",
"To the east, the frontier runs along the western part of the East Bank of the Jordan River, hence part of what is now Jordan.",
"Eretz Yisrael also includes part of Lebanon and certain parts of Syria, and part of Iraq, all the way to the Euphrates River.\"",
"When critics suggested that following Kahane's plans would mean a perpetual war between Jews and Arabs, Kahane responded, \"There will be a perpetual war.",
"With or without Kahane.\""
],
[
"Support",
"* Shlomo Aviner stated that Kahane was a righteous man who displayed self-sacrifice for the Jewish nation and also referred to him as a \"Torah hero\" whose every word was rooted in Torah sources.",
"* Herbert Bomzer referred to Kahane as \"truly immersed in Torah all the time.",
"\"* Irving M. Bunim was a strong supporter and admirer of Kahane.",
"* Shlomo Carlebach and Kahane organized one of the first Noahide conferences in the 1980s for non-Jews wishing to accept the Noahide laws.",
"* Bob Dylan made positive comments about Kahane.",
"In a 1971 interview for ''Time'' magazine, Dylan said, \"He's a really sincere guy.",
"He's really put it all together.\"",
"According to Kahane, Dylan attended several meetings of the Jewish Defense League to find out \"what we're all about\", and he started to have talks with the rabbi.",
"Subsequently, Dylan downplayed the extent of his contact with Kahane.",
"* Mordechai Eliyahu was one of Kahane's staunchest supporters.",
"He wrote a glowing approbation to one of Kahane's books, and eulogized him at his funeral in messianic terms.",
"* Zvi Yehuda Kook endorsed Kahane in his bid for a Knesset seat.",
"In his letter of support for Kahane, Kook stated, \"The presence of Rabbi Meir Kahane and his uncompromising words from the Knesset platform will undoubtedly add strength and value to the obligatory struggle on behalf of the entire Land of Israel.",
"\"* Yosef Mendelevitch said \"Kahane was a representative for us.",
"His activities made us feel good.",
"His actions showed that Jews cared.",
"His actions may have been controversial, but his role was very important.",
"He was a symbol for Russian Jews.",
"\"* Aaron Rakeffet-Rothkoff said, \"You can't imagine the influence Kahane had on so many young people.",
"Kahane was a ''talmid chacham'' (Torah scholar) that we all looked up to.",
"\"* Menachem Mendel Schneerson supported Kahane on many issues concerning Israel, including the issue of Arabs, relinquishing land, building settlements and the incorporation of Jewish law into Israeli policy.",
"After hearing of Kahane's death, Schneerson remarked that \"one of the greatest Jewish leaders in history has fallen.\"",
"He later blessed Kahane's son to be successful in fulfilling his \"holy father's\" work.",
"* Avraham Shapira stated that Kahane was an inseparable part of Orthodox Judaism.",
"He later openly backed Kahane's State of Judea movement.",
"* After the Kach party was outlawed, a member of the Sicarii terrorist group pledged allegiance to Kahane and his political party during a phone call.",
"* Ahron Soloveichik stated, \"What Kahane said was absolutely correct, just we don't say it because the world will criticize us, but somebody had to say it.",
"\"* Noach Weinberg wanted to hire Kahane for his staff.",
"* Ya'akov Yosef described Kahane as one who fulfilled his role faithfully.",
"He declared that \"we must learn from his great actions in order that we learn the way of the Torah.\""
],
[
"Legacy",
"Stickers in Hebrew: \"Today Everybody Knows: Kahane was Right\"Following Kahane's death, no leader emerged to replace him in the movement.",
"However, the idea of transferring populations, attributed mainly to Kahane, was subsequently incorporated into the political platform of several parties in Israel, such as Moledet (applying to Arab non-citizen residents of the West Bank) and Yisrael Beiteinu (in the form of population exchange).",
"Two small Kahanist factions later emerged; one under the name ''Kach'', and the other under the name ''Kahane chai'' (Hebrew: כהנא חי, literally \"Kahane lives on\"), the second one being led by his younger son, Binyamin Ze'ev Kahane.",
"Neither one was permitted to participate in the Knesset elections by the Central Elections Committee.In 1994, following the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre of Palestinian Muslim worshippers in Hebron by Kach supporter Baruch Goldstein, in which 29 Muslim worshipers were killed, the Israeli government declared both parties to be terrorist organizations.",
"The US State Department also added Kach and Kahane Chai to its list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations.In the 2003 Knesset elections, Herut, which had split off from the National Union list, ran with Michael Kleiner and former Kach activist Baruch Marzel taking the top two spots on the list.",
"The joint effort narrowly missed the 1.5% barrier.",
"In the following 2006 elections, the Jewish National Front, led by Baruch Marzel, fared better, but it also failed to pass the minimum threshold.",
"A follower of Kahane who was involved with Kach for many years, Michael Ben-Ari, was elected to the Knesset in the 2009 elections on renewed National Union list.",
"He stood again in the 2013 elections as the second candidate on the list of Otzma LeYisrael, but the party failed to pass the minimum threshold.In 2007, the FBI released over a thousand documents relating to its daily surveillance of Kahane from the early 1960s.In 2015, Kahane's grandson, Meir Ettinger, was detained by Israeli law enforcement.",
"He was the alleged leader of the radical Jewish group \"The Revolt\".",
"In an online \"manifesto\" echoing some of his grandfather's teachings, Ettinger promotes the \"dispossession of gentiles\" who live in Israel and the establishment of a new \"kingdom of Israel\", a theocracy ruled according to the Halacha.",
"Ettinger's writings condemned Israel's government, mainstream rabbis, and the IDF, and also have denounced Christian churches as \"idolatry\".Libby Kahane, his widow, published the first volume of a biography ''Rabbi Meir Kahane: His Life and Thought Vol.",
"One: 1932–1975'' around 2008.A contributor to ''Haartez'' said the book \"lacks serious analysis\", \"ignores important unflattering details\" and \"serves as an apologetic\".",
"In 2016, Libby Kahane claimed that modern Jewish extremists in Israel do not follow the ideology of her late husband.",
"She justified that claim by arguing that, unlike modern Jewish extremists, Rabbi Kahane had a more mature approach that did not encourage illegal activities.JDL\" graffiti in Hebron.",
"The persistent graffiti in Hebron that calls for the expulsion or killing of Arabs has been characterized as Kahane's legacy.",
"The prosecution argued that Arab MK Haneen Zoabi should be banned for denying the Jewish people's existence, and she was banned by the Central Elections Committee, which uses the Kahane precedent.",
"A week later, the ruling was unanimously overturned by the Supreme Court.",
"Attempts to ban the Strong Israel and Balad political parties by using the Kahane precedent were also overturned.In 2017, ''The Forward'' reported that some of Kahane's followers were aligning themselves with white nationalists and the alt-right.",
"Other Kahanists declared that such moves did not reflect Kahane's teachings, and they supported that declaration by arguing that Kahane worked together with African Americans."
],
[
"Publications",
"* (Partially under pseudonym Michael King; with Joseph Churba) ''The Jewish Stake in Vietnam'', Crossroads, 1967* ''Never Again!",
"A Program for Survival'', Pyramid Books, 1972* ''Time to Go Home'', Nash, 1972.",
"* ''Letters from Prison'', Jewish Identity Center, 1974* ''Our Challenge: The Chosen Land'', 1974* ''The Story of the Jewish Defense League'', Chilton, 1975, 2nd edition, Institute for Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane, (Brooklyn, NY), 2000* ''Why Be Jewish?",
"Intermarriage, Assimilation, and Alienation'', Stein & Day, 1977* ''Listen, Vanessa, I Am a Zionist'', Institute of the Authentic Jewish Idea, 1978* ''They Must Go'', Grosset & Dunlop, 1981* ''Forty Years'', Institute of the Jewish Idea, 2nd edition, 1983* ''Uncomfortable Questions for Comfortable Jews'', Lyle Stuart, 1987* ''Israel: Revolution or Referendum'', Barricade Books (Secaucus, NJ), 1990* ''Or ha-ra'yon'', English title: ''The Jewish Idea'', n.p.",
"(Jerusalem), 1992, translated from the Hebrew by Raphael Blumberg, Institute for Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane (Jerusalem), 1996* ''On Jews and Judaism: Selected Articles 1961–1990'', Institute for Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane (Jerusalem), 1993* ''Perush ha-Makabi: al Sefer Devarim'', Institute for Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane (Jerusalem), 1993, 1995* ''Pirush HaMaccabee: al Sefer Shemu'el u-Nevi'im rishonim'', Institute for Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane (Jerusalem), 1994* ''Listen World, Listen Jew'', 3rd edition, Institute for the Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane (Jerusalem), 1995* ''Beyond Words'', 1st edition, Institute for the Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane (Jerusalem), 2010.",
"* ''Kohen ve-navi: osef ma'amarim'', ha-Makhon le-hotsa'at kitve ha-Rav Kahana (Jerusalem), 2000* ''Cuckooland'', illustrated by Shulamith bar Itzhak (yet unpublished)."
],
[
"See also",
"* Jewish fundamentalism* Politics of Israel* Zionist political violence"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"For supplementary information and insights:* .",
"* ''Miracle Man'', Yeshivat \"HaRaayon HaYehudi\" (Jerusalem), 2010** * .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* ."
],
[
"External links",
"* * Words online educational resource* FBI file on Meir Kahane"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Marietta Alboni"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Marietta Alboni''carte de visite'' by E. Disdéri'''Maria Anna Marzia''' (called '''Marietta''') '''Alboni''' (6 March 1826 – 23 June 1894) was a renowned Italian contralto opera singer.",
"She is considered \"one of the greatest contraltos in operatic history\"."
],
[
"Biography",
"Alboni was born at Città di Castello, in Umbria.",
"She became a pupil of of Cesena, Emilia–Romagna, and later of the composer Gioachino Rossini, when he was 'perpetual honorary adviser' in (and then the principal of) the Liceo Musicale, now Conservatorio Giovanni Battista Martini, in Bologna.",
"Rossini tested the humble thirteen-year-old girl himself, had her admitted to the school with special treatment, and even procured her an early engagement to tour his ''Stabat Mater'' around Northern Italy, so that she could pay for her studies.",
"After she achieved her diploma and made a modest debut in Bologna, in 1842, as \"Climene\" in Pacini's ''Saffo'', she obtained a triennial engagement thanks to Rossini's influence on the impresario Bartolomeo Merelli, Intendant at both Milan's Teatro alla Scala and Vienna's Imperial Kärntnertortheater.",
"The favourable contract was signed by Rossini himself, \"on behalf of Eustachio Alboni\", father of Marietta, who was still a minor.",
"The singer remained, throughout her life, deeply grateful to her ancient \"maestro\", nearly a second father to her.Her debut at Teatro alla Scala took place in December 1842 as \"Neocle\" in the Italian version of ''Le siège de Corinthe'', which was followed by roles in operas by Marliani, Donizetti (as \"Maffio Orsini\" and \"Leonora\" in the Scala premiere of an Italian version of ''La favorite''), Salvi and Pacini.",
"In the season 1844–1845 she was engaged in the Saint Petersburg Imperial Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre; later, in 1846–47, she toured the principal cities of Central Europe, finally reaching London and Paris, where she settled permanently.",
"In London, \"she appeared in leading roles by Rossini and Donizetti (where she outshone Giulia Grisi and Jenny Lind) and also sang Cherubino (performing with Henriette Sontag)\".",
"For the 1848 London run of ''Les Huguenots'', Meyerbeer transposed the role of the page \"Urbain\" 'from soprano to contralto and composed the aria \"Non!",
"– non, non, non, non, non!",
"Vous n'avez jamais, je gage\" in Act 2' for her.",
"On 28 August 1848, she sang at a concert in Manchester's Concert Hall, sharing the stage with Lorenzo Salvi and Frédéric Chopin.",
"She toured the United States in 1852–53, appearing there with Camilla Urso.In 1853 she wed a nobleman, Count Carlo Pepoli, of the Papal States, but she kept her maiden name for the stage.",
"In 1863 she had to retire the first time on account of her husband's serious mental illness.",
"He died in 1867.A year later, in 1868, Alboni would take part in the funeral of her beloved master and friend, Rossini, in the Église de la Sainte-Trinité.",
"There she sang, alongside Adelina Patti, the leading soprano of the time, a stanza of ''Dies irae'', \"Liber scriptum\", adjusted to the music of the duet \"Quis est Homo\" from Rossini's own ''Stabat Mater''.",
"Out of deference to her master, she also accepted to resume her singing career mainly in order to tour the orchestral version of the ''Petite messe solennelle'' around Europe.",
"Rossini had once expressed his hope that she would take upon herself to perform it when he was dead.",
"He had said that he had composed it, and especially the new section \"O salutaris\", just having her voice in mind.In 1872 she permanently retired from the stage with four performances of \"Fidalma\" in Cimarosa's ''Il matrimonio segreto'', at the Paris Théâtre des Italiens but, in fact, she never gave up singing in private and in benefit concerts.",
"When in 1887 the French and Italian Governments agreed upon moving the mortal remains of Rossini into the Basilica di Santa Croce in Florence, Alboni, then a sixty-one-year-old lady living in seclusion, wrote to the Italian Foreign Minister, Di Robilant, proposing that the ''Petite Messe Solennelle'', \"the last musical composition by Rossini\", be performed in Santa Croce the day of the funeral, and \"demanding the honour, as an Italian and a pupil of the immortal Maestro,\" of singing it herself in her \"dear and beloved homeland\".",
"Her wish, however, never came true and she was just given the chance of being present at the exhumation ceremony in Paris.",
"The Paris correspondent of the Rome newspaper ''Il Fanfulla'' wrote on the occasion: \"photographers snapped in the same shot the greatest performer of ''Cenerentola'' and ''Semiramide'', and what is left of the man who wrote these masterpieces\".In 1877 she had remarried—to a French military officer named Charles Zieger.",
"She died at Ville-d'Avray, near Paris, in her \"Villa La Cenerentola\", and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery.",
"Always engaged in charity (often in memory of Maestro Rossini), she left nearly all her estate to the poor of Paris.",
"In her will she wrote that by singing she had earned all her fortune, and on singing she would pass away, with the sweet thought that she had employed it to encourage and to console."
],
[
"Artistic features",
"Alboni's voice, an exceptionally fine contralto with a seamless compass of two and one-half octaves, extending as high as the soprano range, was said to possess at once power, sweetness, fullness, and extraordinary flexibility.",
"She had no peers in passages requiring a sensitive delivery and semi-religious calmness, owing to the moving quality of her velvety tone.",
"She possessed vivacity, grace, and charm as an actress of the ''comédienne'' type; but she was not a natural ''tragédienne'', and her attempt at the strongly dramatic part of Norma was sometimes reported to have turned out a failure.",
"Nevertheless, she scored a real triumph in 1850, when she made her operatic debut at the Paris Opéra performing the tragic role of \"Fidès\" in Meyerbeer's ''Le prophète'', which had been created the year before by no less than Pauline Viardot.",
"Furthermore, she was able to cope with such dramatic roles as \"Azucena\" and \"Ulrica\" in Verdi's ''Il trovatore'' and ''Un ballo in maschera'', and even with the baritone role of \"Don Carlo\" in ''Ernani'' (London, 1847)."
],
[
"Repertoire",
"By Charles Vogt, 1855The following list of the roles performed by Marietta Alboni was drawn up by Arthur Pougin and published in his biography of the singer.",
"It is reported here with the addition of further works and characters according to the sources stated in footnotes.",
"* ''Anna Bolena'', by Donizetti – Anna and Smeton* ''L'assedio di Corinto'', by Rossini – Neocle* ''Un ballo in maschera'', by Verdi – Ulrica* ''Il barbiere di Siviglia'', by Rossini – Rosina* ''La Cenerentola'', by Rossini – Cenerentola* ''Charles VI'', by Halévy – Odette* ''Consuelo'', by Giovanni Battista Gordigiani – Anzoletto* ''Così fan tutte'', by Mozart – Dorabella* ''Il crociato'', by Meyerbeer – Felicia* ''Un curioso accidente'', ''pastiche'' with music by Rossini* ''David'', oratorio, by Muhlig* ''Don Giovanni'', by Mozart – Zerlina* ''Don Pasquale'', by Donizetti – Norina* ''La donna del lago'', by Rossini – Malcolm and Elena* ''L'ebrea'', by Pacini – Berenice* ''Ernani'', by Verdi – Don Carlo, Giovanna* ''La favorite'', by Donizetti – Léonor* ''La fille du régiment'', by Donizetti – Marie* ''La gazza ladra'', by Rossini – Pippo and Ninetta* '''', cantata, by Rossini* ''Giulietta e Romeo'', by Vaccai – Romeo* ''Il giuramento'', by Mercadante – Bianca* ''Ildegonda'', by Marco Aurelio Marliani – Rizzardo* ''L'italiana in Algeri'', by Rossini – Isabella* ''Lara'', by Salvi – Mirza* ''Linda di Chamounix'', by Donizetti – Pierotto* ''Lucrezia Borgia'', by Donizetti – Maffio Orsini* ''Luisa Miller'', by Verdi – Federica* ''Maria di Rohan'', by Donizetti – Gondi* ''Martha'', by Flotow – Nancy* ''Il matrimonio segreto'', by Cimarosa – Fidalma* ''Messiah'', oratorio by Händel* ''La pazza per amore'', by Coppola – Nina* ''Norma'', by Bellini – Norma* ''Le nozze di Figaro'', by Mozart – The page (Cherubino)* ''Oberon'', by Weber – Fatima* Petite messe solennelle, mass by Rossini* ''Le prophète'', by Meyerbeer – Fidès* ''La reine de Chypre'', by Halévy – Catarina* ''Rigoletto'', by Verdi – Maddalena* ''Saffo'', by Pacini – Climene* Semiramide, by Rossini – Arsace* ''La sibilla'', by Pietro Torrigiani – Ismailia* ''La sonnambula'', by Bellini – Amina* ''Stabat mater'', Marian hymn, by Rossini* ''Tancredi'', by Rossini – Tancredi* ''Il trovatore'', by Verdi – Azucena* ''Zerline'', by Auber – Zerline* ''La zingara'', by Balfe – Queen of the Gypsies* ''Les Huguenots'', by Meyerbeer – The page (Urbain)"
],
[
"References",
"'''Notes''''''Sources'''* Rodolfo Celletti, ''La grana della voce.",
"Opere, direttori e cantanti'', 2nd edition (Milano, 2000).",
"* Henry Fothergill Chorley (1862), ''Thirty Years' Musical Recollections''.",
"Hurst & Blackett, London, Volume II, The Year 1847, 8–13.",
"* Galliano Ciliberti, \"Alboni, Marietta\", in S. Sadie, cited, I, p. 59* F. M. Colby and T. Williams (Eds.)",
"(1917–1926), ''New International Encyclopedia'' (2nd Edition).",
"Dodd, Mead & Co., The University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts.",
"* G. T. Ferris, ''Great Singers'' (New York, 1893)* Arthur Pougin, ''Marietta Alboni'' (Paris, 1912; accessible for free online at gallica.bnf.fr Gallica – Bibliothèque nationale de France)* Arthur Pougin, ''Marietta Alboni'' (Cesena, 2001) (translated into Italian by Michele Massarelli with additions to the original text by Lelio Burgini).",
"* Sadie, Stanley (ed.",
"), ''The New Grove Dictionary of Opera'', Grove (Oxford University Press), New York, 1997.",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* www.coroalboni.it* www.coralealboni.com* Coro Lirico Città di Cesena (Italian)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Manatee"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Manatees''' (, family Trichechidae, genus '''''Trichechus''''') are large, fully aquatic, mostly herbivorous marine mammals sometimes known as '''sea cows'''.",
"There are three accepted living species of Trichechidae, representing three of the four living species in the order Sirenia: the Amazonian manatee (''Trichechus inunguis''), the West Indian manatee (''Trichechus manatus''), and the West African manatee (''Trichechus senegalensis'').",
"They measure up to long, weigh as much as , and have paddle-like tails.Manatees are herbivores and eat over 60 different freshwater and saltwater plants.",
"Manatees inhabit the shallow, marshy coastal areas and rivers of the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, the Amazon basin, and West Africa.The main causes of death for manatees are human-related issues, such as habitat destruction and human objects.",
"Their slow-moving, curious nature has led to violent collisions with propeller-driven boats and ships.",
"Some manatees have been found with over 50 scars on them from propeller blades.",
"Natural causes of death include adverse temperatures, predation by crocodiles on young, and disease."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The etymology of the name is unclear, with connections having been made to Latin \"hand\" and to pre-Columbian Taíno ''manati'' \"breast\".",
"The term ''sea cow'' is a reference to the species' slow, peaceful, herbivorous nature, reminiscent of that of bovines."
],
[
"Taxonomy",
"Manatees are three of the four living species in the order Sirenia.",
"The fourth is the Eastern Hemisphere's dugong.",
"The Sirenia are thought to have evolved from four-legged land mammals more than 60 million years ago, with the closest living relatives being the Proboscidea (elephants) and Hyracoidea (hyraxes)."
],
[
"Description",
"A skeleton of a manatee and calf, the Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma CitySkull of a West Indian manatee, the Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma CityManatees weigh , and average in length, sometimes growing to and and females tend to be larger and heavier than males.",
"At birth, baby manatees weigh about each.",
"The female manatee has two teats, one under each flipper, a characteristic that was used to make early links between the manatee and elephants.The lids of manatees' small, widely spaced eyes close in a circular manner.",
"The manatee has a large, flexible, prehensile upper lip, used to gather food and eat and for social interaction and communication.",
"Manatees have shorter snouts than their fellow sirenians, the dugongs.Manatee adults have no incisor or canine teeth, just a set of cheek teeth, which are not clearly differentiated into molars and premolars.",
"These teeth are repeatedly replaced throughout life, with new teeth growing at the rear as older teeth fall out from farther forward in the mouth, somewhat as elephants' teeth do.",
"At any time, a manatee typically has no more than six teeth in each jaw of its mouth.The manatee's tail is paddle-shaped, and is the clearest visible difference between manatees and dugongs; a dugong tail is fluked, similar in shape to that of a whale.The manatee is unusual among mammals in having just six cervical vertebrae, a number that may be due to mutations in the homeotic genes.",
"All other mammals have seven cervical vertebrae, other than the two-toed and three-toed sloths.Like the horse, the manatee has a simple stomach, but a large cecum, in which it can digest tough plant matter.",
"Generally, the intestines are about 45 meters, unusually long for an animal of the manatee's size.=== Evolution ===Fossil remains of manatee ancestors - also known as sirenians - date back to the Early Eocene.",
"It is thought that they reached the isolated area of the South American continent and became known as Trichechidae.",
"In the Late Miocene, trichechids were likely restricted in South American coastal rivers and they fed on many freshwater plants.",
"Dugongs inhabited the West Atlantic and Caribbean waters and fed on seagrass meadows instead.",
"As the sea grasses began to grow, manatees adapted to the changing environment by growing supernumerary molars.",
"Sea levels lowered and increased erosion and silt runoff was caused by glaciation.",
"This increased the tooth wear of the bottom-feeding manatees."
],
[
"Behavior",
"Endangered Florida manatee (''Trichechus manatus'')Apart from mothers with their young, or males following a receptive female, manatees are generally solitary animals.",
"Manatees spend approximately 50% of the day sleeping submerged, surfacing for air regularly at intervals of less than 20 minutes.",
"The remainder of the time is mostly spent grazing in shallow waters at depths of .",
"The Florida subspecies (''T.",
"m. latirostris'') has been known to live up to 60 years.===Locomotion===Generally, manatees swim at about .",
"However, they have been known to swim at up to in short bursts.===Intelligence and learning===Manatee postures in captivityManatees are capable of understanding discrimination tasks and show signs of complex associative learning.",
"They also have good long-term memory.",
"They demonstrate discrimination and task-learning abilities similar to dolphins and pinnipeds in acoustic and visual studies.",
"Social interactions between manatees are highly complex and intricate, which may indicate higher intelligence than previously thought, although they remain poorly understood by science.===Reproduction===Manatees typically breed once every two years; generally only a single calf is born.",
"Gestation lasts about 12 months and to wean the calf takes a further 12 to 18 months, although females may have more than one estrous cycle per year.===Communication===Manatees emit a wide range of sounds used in communication, especially between cows and their calves.",
"Their ears are large internally but the external openings are small, and they are located four inches behind each eye.",
"Adults communicate to maintain contact and during sexual and play behaviors.",
"Taste and smell, in addition to sight, sound, and touch, may also be forms of communication.===Diet===Manatees are herbivores and eat over 60 different freshwater (e.g., floating hyacinth, pickerel weed, alligator weed, water lettuce, hydrilla, water celery, musk grass, mangrove leaves) and saltwater plants (e.g., sea grasses, shoal grass, manatee grass, turtle grass, widgeon grass, sea clover, and marine algae).",
"Using their divided upper lip, an adult manatee will commonly eat up to 10%–15% of their body weight (about 50 kg) per day.",
"Consuming such an amount requires the manatee to graze for up to seven hours a day.",
"To be able to cope with the high levels of cellulose in their plant based diet, manatees utilize hindgut fermentation to help with the digestion process.",
"Manatees have been known to eat small numbers of fish from nets.===Feeding behavior===Manatee plateManatees use their flippers to \"walk\" along the bottom whilst they dig for plants and roots in the substrate.",
"When plants are detected, the flippers are used to scoop the vegetation toward the manatee's lips.",
"The manatee has prehensile lips; the upper lip pad is split into left and right sides which can move independently.",
"The lips use seven muscles to manipulate and tear at plants.",
"Manatees use their lips and front flippers to move the plants into the mouth.",
"The manatee does not have front teeth, however, behind the lips, on the roof of the mouth, there are dense, ridged pads.",
"These horny ridges, and the manatee's lower jaw, tear through ingested plant material.===Dentition===Manatees have four rows of teeth.",
"There are 6 to 8 high-crowned, open-rooted molars located along each side of the upper and lower jaw giving a total of 24 to 32 flat, rough-textured teeth.",
"Eating gritty vegetation abrades the teeth, particularly the enamel crown; however, research indicates that the enamel structure in manatee molars is weak.",
"To compensate for this, manatee teeth are continually replaced.",
"When anterior molars wear down, they are shed.",
"Posterior molars erupt at the back of the row and slowly move forward to replace these like enamel crowns on a conveyor belt, similarly to elephants.",
"This process continues throughout the manatee's lifetime.",
"The rate at which the teeth migrate forward depends on how quickly the anterior teeth abrade.",
"Some studies indicate that the rate is about 1 cm/month although other studies indicate 0.1 cm/month."
],
[
"Ecology",
"===Range and habitat===alt=Map drawing showing range of three manatee populationsalt=Underwater photo of three manatees swimming along bottomMother manatee and calfManatees inhabit the shallow, marshy coastal areas and rivers of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico (''T.",
"manatus'', West Indian manatee), the Amazon basin (''T.",
"inunguis'', Amazonian manatee), and West Africa (''T.",
"senegalensis'', West African manatee).West Indian manatees prefer warmer temperatures and are known to congregate in shallow waters.",
"They frequently migrate through brackish water estuaries to freshwater springs.",
"They cannot survive below 15 °C (60 °F).",
"Their natural source for warmth during winter is warm, spring-fed rivers.====West Indian====The coast of the state of Georgia is usually the northernmost range of the West Indian manatees because their low metabolic rate does not protect them in cold water.",
"Prolonged exposure to water below 20 °C (68 °F) can cause \"cold stress syndrome\" and death.West Indian manatees can move freely between fresh water and salt water.",
"However, studies suggest that they are susceptible to dehydration if freshwater is not available for an extended period of time.Manatees can travel hundreds of miles annually, and have been seen as far north as Cape Cod, and in 1995 and again in 2006, one was seen in New York City and Rhode Island's Narragansett Bay.",
"A manatee was spotted in the Wolf River harbor near the Mississippi River in downtown Memphis in 2006, and was later found dead downriver in McKellar Lake.",
"Another manatee was found dead on a New Jersey beach in February 2020, considered especially unusual given the time of year.",
"At the time of the manatee's discovery, the water temperature in the area was below 6.5 °C (43.7 °F).The West Indian manatee migrates into Florida rivers—such as the Crystal, the Homosassa, and the Chassahowitzka rivers, whose headsprings are 22 °C (72 °F) all year.",
"Between November and March each year, about 600 West Indian manatees gather in the rivers in Citrus County, Florida such as the Crystal River National Wildlife Refuge.In winter, manatees often gather near the warm-water outflows of power plants along the Florida coast, instead of migrating south as they once did.",
"Some conservationists are concerned that these manatees have become too reliant on these artificially warmed areas.",
"The U.S.",
"Fish and Wildlife Service is trying to find a new way to heat the water for manatees that depended on plants that have closed.Accurate population estimates of the West Indian manatee in Florida are difficult.",
"They have been called scientifically weak because they vary widely from year to year, with most areas showing decreases, and little strong evidence of increases except in two areas.",
"Manatee counts are highly variable without an accurate way to estimate numbers.",
"In Florida in 1996, a winter survey found 2,639 manatees; in 1997, a January survey found 2,229, and a February survey found 1,706.A statewide synoptic survey in January 2010 found 5,067 manatees living in Florida, the highest number recorded to that time.As of January 2016, the USFWS estimates the range-wide West Indian manatee population to be at least 13,000; as of January 2018, at least 6,100 are estimated to be in Florida.Population viability studies conducted in 1997 found that decreasing adult survival and eventual extinction were probable future outcomes for Florida manatees unless they received more protection.",
"The U.S.",
"Fish and Wildlife Service proposed downgrading the manatee's status from endangered to threatened in January 2016 after more than 40 years.====Amazonian====The freshwater Amazonian manatee (''T.",
"inunguis'') inhabits the Central Amazon Basin in Brazil, eastern Perú, southeastern Colombia, but not Ecuador.",
"It is the only exclusively freshwater manatee, and is also the smallest.",
"Since they are unable to reduce peripheral heat loss, it is found primarily in tropical waters.====West African====They are found in coastal marine and estuarine habitats, and in freshwater river systems along the west coast of Africa from the Senegal River south to the Cuanza River in Angola.",
"They live as far upriver on the Niger River as Koulikoro in Mali, from the coast.===Predation===In relation to the threat posed by humans, predation does not present a significant threat to manatees.",
"When threatened, the manatee's response is to dive as deeply as it can, suggesting that threats have most frequently come from land dwellers such as humans rather than from other water-dwelling creatures such as caimans or sharks."
],
[
"Relation to humans",
"===Threats===Young manatees can be curious; this individual is inspecting a kayak.The main causes of death for manatees are human-related issues, such as habitat destruction and human objects.",
"Natural causes of death include adverse temperatures, predation by crocodiles on young, and disease.====Ship strikes====Their slow-moving, curious nature, coupled with dense coastal development, has led to many violent collisions with propeller-driven boats and ships, leading frequently to maiming, disfigurement, and even death.",
"As a result, a large proportion of manatees exhibit spiral cutting propeller scars on their backs, usually caused by larger vessels that do not have skegs in front of the propellers like the smaller outboard and inboard-outboard recreational boats have.",
"They are now even identified by humans based on their scar patterns.",
"Many manatees have been cut in two by large vessels like ships and tug boats, even in the highly populated lower St. Johns River's narrow channels.",
"Some are concerned that the current situation is inhumane, with upwards of 50 scars and disfigurements from vessel strikes on a single manatee.",
"Often, the lacerations lead to infections, which can prove fatal.",
"Internal injuries stemming from being trapped between hulls and docks and impacts have also been fatal.",
"Recent testing shows that manatees may be able to hear speed boats and other watercraft approaching, due to the frequency the boat makes.",
"However, a manatee may not be able to hear the approaching boats when they are performing day-to-day activities or distractions.",
"The manatee has a tested frequency range of 8 to 32 kilohertz.Manatees hear on a higher frequency than would be expected for such large marine mammals.",
"Many large boats emit very low frequencies, which confuse the manatee and explain their lack of awareness around boats.",
"The Lloyd's mirror effect results in low frequency propeller sounds not being discernible near the surface, where most accidents occur.",
"Research indicates that when a boat has a higher frequency the manatees rapidly swim away from danger.In 2003, a population model was released by the United States Geological Survey that predicted an extremely grave situation confronting the manatee in both the Southwest and Atlantic regions where the vast majority of manatees are found.",
"It states,Manatee bearing scars on its back from a boat propeller.According to marine mammal veterinarians:These veterinarians go on to state:One quarter of annual manatee deaths in Florida are caused by boat collisions with manatees.",
"In 2009, of the 429 Florida manatees recorded dead, 97 were killed by commercial and recreational vessels, which broke the earlier record number of 95 set in 2002.====Red tide====Another cause of manatee deaths are red tides, a term used for the proliferation, or \"blooms\", of the microscopic marine algae ''Karenia brevis''.",
"This dinoflagellate produces brevetoxins that can have toxic effects on the central nervous system of animals.In 1996, a red tide was responsible for 151 manatee deaths in Florida.",
"The bloom was present from early March to the end of April and killed approximately 15% of the known population of manatees along South Florida's western coast.Other blooms in 1982 and 2005 resulted in 37 and 44 deaths, respectively.====Starvation====In 2021 a massive die-off of seagrass along the Atlantic coast of Florida left manatees without enough food to eat.",
"As a result of this ecological disaster Florida's manatees began dying at an alarming rate, largely from starvation.",
"In early 2022 the U.S.",
"Fish and Wildlife Service began a feeding program to address the situation by distributing 3,000 pounds (1,361 kg) of lettuce per day to save the malnourished animals.====Additional threats====Manatees can also be crushed and isolated in water control structures (navigation locks, floodgates, etc.)",
"and are occasionally killed by entanglement in fishing gear, such as crab pot float lines, box traps, and shark nets.While humans are allowed to swim with manatees in one area of Florida, there have been numerous charges of people harassing and disturbing the manatees.",
"According to the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, approximately 99 manatee deaths each year are related to human activities.",
"In January 2016, there were 43 manatee deaths in Florida alone.===Conservation===All three species of manatee are listed by the World Conservation Union as vulnerable to extinction.",
"However, The U.S.",
"Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) does not consider the West Indian manatee to be \"endangered\" anymore, having downgraded its status to \"threatened\" as of March 2017.They cite improvements to habitat conditions, population growth and reductions of threats as reasoning for the change.",
"The reclassification was met with controversy, with Florida congressman Vern Buchanan and groups such as the Save the Manatee Club and the Center for Biological Diversity expressing concerns that the change would have a detrimental effect on conservation efforts.",
"The new classification will not affect current federal protections.",
"West Indian manatees were originally classified as endangered with the 1967 class of endangered species.Manatee deaths in the state of Florida nearly doubled in 2021 from 637 (2020) to 1100.Although this number decreased to 800 in 2022, it is likely that current rate of development in Florida, climate change, and decreasing water quality, habitat range, and genetic diversity among this population may lead to reconsideration of the West Indian Manatee as an endangered species.",
"Manatee population in the United States reached a low in the 1970s, during which only a few hundred individuals lived in the nation.",
"As of February 2016, 6,250 manatees were reported swimming in Florida's springs.",
"It is illegal under federal and Florida law to injure or harm a manatee.There are many conservation programs that have been created to help manatees.",
"Save the Manatee Club is a non-profit group and membership organization that works to protect manatees and their aquatic ecosystems.",
"Founded by Bob Graham, former Florida governor, and singer/songwriter Jimmy Buffett, this is today's leading manatee conservation club.The MV ''Freedom Star'' and MV ''Liberty Star'', ships used by NASA to tow Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters back to Kennedy Space Center, were propelled only by water jets to protect the endangered manatee population that inhabits regions of the Banana River where the ships are based.Brazil outlawed hunting in 1973 in an effort to preserve the species.",
"Deaths by boat strikes are still common.",
"Although countries are protecting Amazonian manatees in the locations where they are endangered, as of 1994 there were no enforced laws, and the manatees were still being captured throughout their range.===Captivity===alt=Underwater photo of manateeThere are a number of manatee rehabilitation centers in the United States.",
"These include three government-run critical care facilities in Florida at Lowry Park Zoo, Miami Seaquarium, and SeaWorld Orlando.",
"After initial treatment at these facilities, the manatees are transferred to rehabilitation facilities before release.",
"These include the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden, Columbus Zoo and Aquarium, Epcot's The Seas, South Florida Museum, and Homosassa Springs Wildlife State Park.The Columbus Zoo was a founding member of the Manatee Rehabilitation Partnership in 2001.Since 1999, the zoo's Manatee Bay facility has helped rehabilitate 20 manatees.",
"The Cincinnati Zoo has rehabilitated and released more than a dozen manatees since 1999.Manatees can also be viewed in a number of European zoos, such as the Tierpark Berlin and the Nuremberg Zoo in Germany, in ZooParc de Beauval in France, the Aquarium of Genoa in Italy and the Royal Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem, the Netherlands, where manatees have parented offspring.",
"The River Safari at Singapore features seven of them.The oldest manatee in captivity was Snooty, at the South Florida Museum's Parker Manatee Aquarium in Bradenton, Florida.",
"Born at the Miami Aquarium and Tackle Company on July 21, 1948, Snooty was one of the first recorded captive manatee births.",
"Raised entirely in captivity, Snooty was never to be released into the wild.",
"As such he was the only manatee at the aquarium, and one of only a few captive manatees in the United States that was allowed to interact with human handlers.",
"That made him uniquely suitable for manatee research and education.Snooty died suddenly two days after his 69th birthday, July 23, 2017, when he was found in an underwater area only used to access plumbing for the exhibit life support system.",
"The South Florida Museum's initial press release stated, “Early indications are that an access panel door that is normally bolted shut had somehow been knocked loose and that Snooty was able to swim in.”==== Guyana ====Since the 19th century, Georgetown, Guyana has kept West Indian manatees in its botanical garden, and later, its national park.In the 1910s and again in the 1950s, sugar estates in Guyana used manatees to keep their irrigation canals weed-free.Between the 1950s and 1970s, the Georgetown water treatment plant used manatees in their storage canals for the same purpose.===Culture===The ''Manatee at Blue Springs, Florida'' diorama at the Milwaukee Public MuseumThe manatee has been linked to folklore on mermaids.",
"In West African folklore, they were considered sacred and thought to have been once human.",
"Killing one was taboo and required penance.In the novel ''Moby-Dick'', Herman Melville distinguishes manatees (\"Lamatins\", cf.",
"''lamatins'') from small whales; stating, \"I am aware that down to the present time, the fish styled Lamatins and Dugongs (Pig-fish and Sow-fish of the Coffins of Nantucket) are included by many naturalists among the whales.",
"But as these pig-fish are a noisy, contemptible set, mostly lurking in the mouths of rivers, and feeding on wet hay, and especially as they do not spout, I deny their credentials as whales; and have presented them with their passports to quit the Kingdom of Cetology.",
"\"A manatee called Wardell appears in the Animal Crossing: New Horizons video game.",
"He is part of a paid downloadable content expansion, managing and selling furniture to the player.In Rudyard Kipling's ''The White Seal'' (one of the stories in ''The Jungle Book''), Sea Cow, about whom the story says that he has only six cervical vertebrae, is a manatee."
],
[
"See also",
"* Dwarf manatee* Manatee of Helena"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* Save the Manatee* Murie, James ''On the Form and Structure of the Manatee'' (''Manatus americanus''), (1872) London, Zoological Society of London Year* Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission * Reuters: Florida manatees may lose endangered status* A website with many manatee photos* USGS/SESC Sirenia Project* ''Bibliography and Index of the Sirenia and Desmostylia'' – Dr. Domning's authoritative manatee research bibliography"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Marsupial"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Marsupials''' are any members of the mammalian infraclass '''Marsupialia'''.",
"All extant marsupials are endemic to Australasia, Wallacea and the Americas.",
"A distinctive characteristic common to most of these species is that the young are carried in a pouch.",
"Living marsupials include kangaroos, koalas, opossums, Tasmanian devils, wombats, wallabies, and bandicoots among others, while many extinct species, such as the thylacine, ''Thylacoleo'', and ''Diprotodon'', are also known.Marsupials represent the clade originating from the last common ancestor of extant metatherians, the group containing all mammals more closely related to marsupials than to placentals.",
"Placentals and marsupials diverged from each other at least 125 million years ago, and possibly over 160 million years ago, during the Middle Jurassic-Early Cretaceous.",
"Marsupials give birth to relatively undeveloped young that often reside in a pouch located on their mothers' abdomen for a certain amount of time.",
"Close to 70% of the 334 extant species occur on the Australian continent (the mainland, Tasmania, New Guinea and nearby islands).",
"The remaining 30% are found in the Americas—primarily in South America, thirteen in Central America, and one species, the Virginia opossum, in North America, north of Mexico.The word ''marsupial'' comes from ''marsupium'', the technical term for the abdominal pouch.",
"It, in turn, is borrowed from the Latin and ultimately from the ancient Greek , meaning \"pouch\"."
],
[
"Anatomy",
"Koala (''Phascolarctos cinereus'')Marsupials have the typical characteristics of mammals—e.g., mammary glands, three middle ear bones, and true hair.",
"There are, however, striking differences as well as a number of anatomical features that separate them from eutherians.Most female marsupials have a front pouch, which contains multiple teats for the sustenance of their young.",
"Marsupials also have other common structural features.",
"Ossified patellae are absent in most modern marsupials (though a small number of exceptions are reported) and epipubic bones are present.",
"Marsupials (and monotremes) also lack a gross communication (corpus callosum) between the right and left brain hemispheres.=== Skull and teeth ===The skull has peculiarities in comparison to placental mammals.",
"In general, the skull is relatively small and tight.",
"Holes (''foramen lacrimale'') are located in the front of the orbit.",
"The cheekbone is enlarged and extends farther to the rear.",
"The angular extension (''processus angularis'') of the lower jaw is bent toward the center.",
"The hard palate has more openings than placental mammals' foramina.",
"The teeth also differ from that of placental mammals.",
"For example, all Australia marsupials not in the order Diprotodontia have a different number of incisors in the upper and lower jaws.",
"The early marsupials had a dental formula from , that is, per quadrant; they have five (maxillary) or four (mandibular) incisors, one canine, three premolars and four molars, for a total of 50 teeth.",
"Some taxa, such as the opossum, have the original number of teeth.",
"In other groups the number of teeth is reduced.",
"The dental formula for Macropodidae (kangaroos and wallabies etc.)",
"is 3/1 – (0 or 1)/0 – 2/2 – 4/4.Marsupials in many cases have 40 to 50 teeth, significantly more than most placental mammals.",
"The second set of teeth grows in only at the 3rd premolar site and back; all teeth more anterior to that erupt initially as permanent teeth.=== Torso ===Few general characteristics describe their skeleton.",
"In addition to unique details in the construction of the ankle, epipubic bones (''ossa epubica'') are observed projecting forward from the pubic bone of the pelvis.",
"Since these are present in males and pouchless species, it is believed that they originally had nothing to do with reproduction, but served in the muscular approach to the movement of the hind limbs.",
"This could be explained by an original feature of mammals, as these epipubic bones are also found in monotremes.",
"Marsupial reproductive organs differ from the placental mammals.",
"For them, the reproductive tract is doubled.",
"The females have two uteri and two vaginas, and before birth, a birth canal forms between them, the median vagina.",
"The males have a split or double penis lying in front of the scrotum.A pouch is present in most, but not all, species.",
"Many marsupials have a permanent bag, whereas in others the pouch develops during gestation, as with the shrew opossum, where the young are hidden only by skin folds or in the fur of the mother.",
"The arrangement of the pouch is variable to allow the offspring to receive maximum protection.",
"Locomotive kangaroos have a pouch opening at the front, while many others that walk or climb on all fours have the opening in the back.",
"Usually, only females have a pouch, but the male water opossum has a pouch that is used to accommodate his genitalia while swimming or running.=== General and convergences ===Marsupials have adapted to many habitats, reflected in the wide variety in their build.",
"The largest living marsupial, the red kangaroo, grows up to in height and in weight, but extinct genera, such as ''Diprotodon'', were significantly larger and heavier.",
"The smallest members of this group are the marsupial mice, which often reach only in body length.Some species resemble placental mammals and are examples of convergent evolution.",
"This convergence is evident in both brain evolution and behaviour.",
"The extinct thylacine strongly resembled the placental wolf, hence one of its nicknames \"Tasmanian wolf\".",
"The ability to glide evolved in both marsupials (as with sugar gliders) and some placental mammals (as with flying squirrels), which developed independently.",
"Other groups such as the kangaroo, however, do not have clear placental counterparts, though they share similarities in lifestyle and ecological niches with ruminants.===Body temperature===Marsupials, along with monotremes (platypuses and echidnas), typically have lower body temperatures than similarly sized placental mammals (eutherians), with the averages being for marsupials and for placental mammals.",
"Some species will bask to conserve energy ===Reproductive system===Female eastern grey kangaroo with a joey in her pouchMarsupials' reproductive systems differ markedly from those of placental mammals.",
"During embryonic development, a choriovitelline placenta forms in all marsupials.",
"In bandicoots, an additional chorioallantoic placenta forms, although it lacks the chorionic villi found in eutherian placentas.The evolution of reproduction in marsupials, and speculation about the ancestral state of mammalian reproduction, have engaged discussion since the end of the 19th century.",
"Both sexes possess a cloaca, which is connected to a urogenital sac used to store waste before expulsion.",
"The bladder of marsupials functions as a site to concentrate urine and empties into the common urogenital sinus in both females and males.====Male reproductive system====macropodMost male marsupials, except for macropods and marsupial moles, have a bifurcated penis, separated into two columns, so that the penis has two ends corresponding to the females' two vaginas.",
"The penis is used only during copulation, and is separate from the urinary tract.",
"It curves forward when erect, and when not erect, it is retracted into the body in an S-shaped curve.",
"Neither marsupials nor monotremes possess a baculum.",
"The shape of the glans penis varies among marsupial species.The male thylacine had a pouch that acted as a protective sheath, covering his external reproductive organs while running through thick brush.The shape of the urethral grooves of the males' genitalia is used to distinguish between ''Monodelphis brevicaudata'', ''Monodelphis domestica'', and ''Monodelphis americana''.",
"The grooves form 2 separate channels that form the ventral and dorsal folds of the erectile tissue.",
"Several species of dasyurid marsupials can also be distinguished by their penis morphology.The only accessory sex glands marsupials possess are the prostate and bulbourethral glands.",
"Male marsupials have 1-3 pairs of bulbourethral glands.",
"There are no ampullae of vas deferens, seminal vesicles or coagulating glands.",
"The prostate is proportionally larger in marsupials than in placental mammals.",
"During the breeding season, the male tammar wallaby's prostate and bulbourethral gland enlarge.",
"However, there does not appear to be any seasonal difference in the weight of the testes.====Female reproductive system====Female reproductive anatomy of several marsupial speciesFemale marsupials have two lateral vaginas, which lead to separate uteri, but both open externally through the same orifice.",
"A third canal, the median vagina, is used for birth.",
"This canal can be transitory or permanent.",
"Some marsupial species are able to store sperm in the oviduct after mating.Marsupials give birth at a very early stage of development; after birth, newborn marsupials crawl up the bodies of their mothers and attach themselves to a teat, which is located on the underside of the mother, either inside a pouch called the marsupium, or open to the environment.",
"Mothers often lick their fur to leave a trail of scent for the newborn to follow to increase chances of making it into the marsupium.",
"There they remain for a number of weeks, attached to the teat.",
"The offspring are eventually able to leave the marsupium for short periods, returning to it for warmth, protection, and nourishment.=====Early development=====A red-necked wallaby joey inside its mother's pouchPrenatal development differs between marsupials and placental mammals.",
"Key aspects of the first stages of placental mammal embryo development, such as the inner cell mass and the process of compaction, are not found in marsupials.",
"The cleavage stages of marsupial development are very variable between groups and aspects of marsupial early development are not yet fully understood.An infant marsupial is known as a '''joey'''.",
"Marsupials have a very short gestation period—usually between 12.5 and 33 days, but as low as 10.7 days in the case of the stripe-faced dunnart and as long as 38 days for the long-nosed potoroo.",
"The joey is born in an essentially fetal state, equivalent to an 8–12 week human fetus, blind, furless, and small in comparison to placental newborns with sizes ranging from 4g to over 800g.",
"A newborn marsupial can be arranged into one of three grades of developmental complexity.",
"Those who are the least developed at birth are found in dasyurids, intermediate ones are found in didelphids and peramelids, and the most developed are in macropods.",
"Despite the lack of development it crawls across its mother's fur to make its way into the pouch, which acts like an external womb, where it latches onto a teat for food.",
"It will not re-emerge for several months, during which time it is fully reliant on its mother's milk for essential nutrients, growth factors and immunological defence.",
"Genes expressed in the eutherian placenta that are important for the later stages of fetal development are in female marsupials expressed in their mammary glands during their lactation period instead.",
"After this period, the joey begins to spend increasing lengths of time out of the pouch, feeding and learning survival skills.",
"However, it returns to the pouch to sleep, and if danger threatens, it will seek refuge in its mother's pouch for safety.An early birth removes a developing marsupial from its mother's body much sooner than in placental mammals; thus marsupials have not developed a complex placenta to protect the embryo from its mother's immune system.",
"Though early birth puts the tiny newborn marsupial at greater environmental risk, it significantly reduces the dangers associated with long pregnancies, as there is no need to carry a large fetus to a full term in bad seasons.",
"Marsupials are extremely altricial animals, needing to be intensely cared for immediately following birth (cf.",
"precocial).",
"Newborn marsupials lack histologically mature immune tissues and are highly reliant on their mother's immune system for immunological protection., as well as the milk.Newborn marsupials must climb up to their mother's teats and their front limbs and facial structures are much more developed than the rest of their bodies at the time of birth.",
"This requirement has been argued to have resulted in the limited range of locomotor adaptations in marsupials compared to placentals.",
"Marsupials must develop grasping forepaws during their early youth, making the evolutive transition from these limbs into hooves, wings, or flippers, as some groups of placental mammals have done, more difficult.",
"However, several marsupials do possess atypical forelimb morphologies, such as the hooved forelimbs of the pig-footed bandicoot, suggesting that the range of forelimb specialization is not as limited as assumed.Joeys stay in the pouch for up to a year in some species, or until the next joey is born.",
"A marsupial joey is unable to regulate its body temperature and relies upon an external heat source.",
"Until the joey is well-furred and old enough to leave the pouch, a pouch temperature of must be constantly maintained.Joeys are born with \"oral shields\", which consist of soft tissue that reduces the mouth opening to a round hole just large enough to accept the mother's teat.",
"Once inside the mouth, a bulbous swelling on the end of the teat attaches it to the offspring till it has grown large enough to let go.",
"In species without pouches or with rudimentary pouches these are more developed than in forms with well-developed pouches, implying an increased role in maintaining the young attached to the mother's teat."
],
[
"Geography",
"In Australasia, marsupials are found in Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea; throughout the Maluku Islands, Timor and Sulawesi to the west of New Guinea, and in the Bismarck Archipelago (including the Admiralty Islands) and Solomon Islands to the east of New Guinea.In the Americas, marsupials are found throughout South America, excluding the central/southern Andes and parts of Patagonia; and through Central America and south-central Mexico, with a single species (the Virginia opossum ''Didelphis virginiana'') widespread in the eastern United States and along the Pacific coast."
],
[
"Interaction with Europeans",
"The first American marsupial (and marsupial in general) that a European encountered was the common opossum.",
"Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, commander of the ''Niña'' on Christopher Columbus' first voyage in the late fifteenth century, collected a female opossum with young in her pouch off the South American coast.",
"He presented them to the Spanish monarchs, though by then the young were lost and the female had died.",
"The animal was noted for its strange pouch or \"second belly\", and how the offspring reached the pouch was a mystery.On the other hand, it was the Portuguese who first described Australasian marsupials.",
"António Galvão, a Portuguese administrator in Ternate (1536–1540), wrote a detailed account of the northern common cuscus (''Phalanger orientalis''):From the start of the 17th century more accounts of marsupials arrived.",
"For instance, a 1606 record of an animal, killed on the southern coast of New Guinea, described it as \"in the shape of a dog, smaller than a greyhound\", with a snakelike \"bare scaly tail\" and hanging testicles.",
"The meat tasted like venison, and the stomach contained ginger leaves.",
"This description appears to closely resemble the dusky pademelon (''Thylogale brunii''), in which case this would be the earliest European record of a member of the kangaroo family (Macropodidae)."
],
[
"Taxonomy",
"Marsupials are taxonomically identified as members of mammalian infraclass Marsupialia, first described as a family under the order Pollicata by German zoologist Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger in his 1811 work ''Prodromus Systematis Mammalium et Avium''.",
"However, James Rennie, author of ''The Natural History of Monkeys, Opossums and Lemurs'' (1838), pointed out that the placement of five different groups of mammals – monkeys, lemurs, tarsiers, aye-ayes and marsupials (with the exception of kangaroos, that were placed under the order Salientia) – under a single order (Pollicata) did not appear to have a strong justification.",
"In 1816, French zoologist George Cuvier classified all marsupials under the order Marsupialia.",
"In 1997, researcher J.",
"A. W. Kirsch and others accorded infraclass rank to Marsupialia.===Classification===Marsupialia is further divided as follows: – Extinct* Superorder Ameridelphia (American marsupials)** Order Didelphimorphia (93 species) – see list of didelphimorphs*** Family Didelphidae: opossums** Order Paucituberculata (seven species)*** Family Caenolestidae: shrew opossums* Superorder Australidelphia (Australian marsupials)** Order Microbiotheria (one extant species)*** Family Microbiotheriidae: monitos del monte** Order †Yalkaparidontia (''incertae sedis'')** Grandorder Agreodontia*** Order Dasyuromorphia (73 species) – see list of dasyuromorphs**** Family †Thylacinidae: thylacine**** Family Dasyuridae: antechinuses, quolls, dunnarts, Tasmanian devil, and relatives**** Family Myrmecobiidae: numbat*** Order Notoryctemorphia (two species)**** Family Notoryctidae: marsupial moles*** Order Peramelemorphia (27 species)**** Family Thylacomyidae: bilbies**** Family †Chaeropodidae: pig-footed bandicoots**** Family Peramelidae: bandicoots and allies** Order Diprotodontia (136 species) – see list of diprotodonts*** Suborder Vombatiformes**** Family Vombatidae: wombats**** Family Phascolarctidae: koalas**** Family Diprotodontidae: giant wombats**** Family Palorchestidae: marsupial tapirs**** Family Thylacoleonidae: marsupial lions*** Suborder Phalangerida**** Infraorder Phalangeriformes – see list of phalangeriformes***** Family Acrobatidae: feathertail glider and feather-tailed possum***** Family Burramyidae: pygmy possums***** Family †Ektopodontidae: sprite possums***** Family Petauridae: striped possum, Leadbeater's possum, yellow-bellied glider, sugar glider, mahogany glider, squirrel glider***** Family Phalangeridae: brushtail possums and cuscuses***** Family Pseudocheiridae: ringtailed possums and relatives***** Family Tarsipedidae: honey possum**** Infraorder Macropodiformes – see list of macropodiformes***** Family Macropodidae: kangaroos, wallabies, and relatives***** Family Potoroidae: potoroos, rat kangaroos, bettongs***** Family Hypsiprymnodontidae: musky rat-kangaroo***** Family Balbaridae: basal quadrupedal kangaroos"
],
[
"Evolutionary history",
"Comprising over 300 extant species, several attempts have been made to accurately interpret the phylogenetic relationships among the different marsupial orders.",
"Studies differ on whether Didelphimorphia or Paucituberculata is the sister group to all other marsupials.",
"Though the order Microbiotheria (which has only one species, the monito del monte) is found in South America, morphological similarities suggest it is closely related to Australian marsupials.",
"Molecular analyses in 2010 and 2011 identified Microbiotheria as the sister group to all Australian marsupials.",
"However, the relations among the four Australidelphid orders are not as well understood.",
"Cladogram of Marsupialia by Gallus et al.",
"2015DNA evidence supports a South American origin for marsupials, with Australian marsupials arising from a single Gondwanan migration of marsupials from South America, across Antarctica, to Australia.",
"There are many small arboreal species in each group.",
"The term \"opossum\" is used to refer to American species (though \"possum\" is a common abbreviation), while similar Australian species are properly called \"possums\".petrosals of ''Djarthia murgonensis'', Australia's oldest marsupial fossilsDentition of the herbivorous eastern grey kangaroo, as illustrated in Knight's ''Sketches in Natural History''The relationships among the three extant divisions of mammals (monotremes, marsupials, and placentals) were long a matter of debate among taxonomists.",
"Most morphological evidence comparing traits such as number and arrangement of teeth and structure of the reproductive and waste elimination systems as well as most genetic and molecular evidence favors a closer evolutionary relationship between the marsupials and placental mammals than either has with the monotremes.Phylogenetic tree of marsupials derived from retroposon dataThe ancestors of marsupials, part of a larger group called metatherians, probably split from those of placental mammals (eutherians) during the mid-Jurassic period, though no fossil evidence of metatherians themselves are known from this time.",
"From DNA and protein analyses, the time of divergence of the two lineages has been estimated to be around 100 to 120 mya.",
"Fossil metatherians are distinguished from eutherians by the form of their teeth; metatherians possess four pairs of molar teeth in each jaw, whereas eutherian mammals (including true placentals) never have more than three pairs.",
"Using this criterion, the earliest known metatherian was thought to be ''Sinodelphys szalayi'', which lived in China around 125 mya.",
"However ''Sinodelphys'' was later reinterpreted as an early member of Eutheria.",
"The unequivocal oldest known metatherians are now 110 million years old fossils from western North America.",
"Metatherians were widespread in North America and Asia during the Late Cretaceous, but suffered a severe decline during the end-Cretaceous extinction event.Cladogram from Wilson et al.",
"(2016)In 2022 a study provided strong evidence that the earliest known marsupial was ''Deltatheridium'' known from specimens from the Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous in Mongolia.",
"This study placed both ''Deltatheridium'' and ''Pucadelphys'' as sister taxa to the modern large American opossums.Marsupials spread to South America from North America during the Paleocene, possibly via the Aves Ridge.",
"Northern Hemisphere metatherians, which were of low morphological and species diversity compared to contemporary placental mammals, eventually became extinct during the Miocene epoch.In South America, the opossums evolved and developed a strong presence, and the Paleogene also saw the evolution of shrew opossums (Paucituberculata) alongside non-marsupial metatherian predators such as the borhyaenids and the saber-toothed ''Thylacosmilus''.",
"South American niches for mammalian carnivores were dominated by these marsupial and sparassodont metatherians, which seem to have competitively excluded South American placentals from evolving carnivory.",
"While placental predators were absent, the metatherians did have to contend with avian (terror bird) and terrestrial crocodylomorph competition.",
"Marsupials were excluded in turn from large herbivore niches in South America by the presence of native placental ungulates (now extinct) and xenarthrans (whose largest forms are also extinct).",
"South America and Antarctica remained connected until 35 mya, as shown by the unique fossils found there.",
"North and South America were disconnected until about three million years ago, when the Isthmus of Panama formed.",
"This led to the Great American Interchange.",
"Sparassodonts disappeared for unclear reasons – again, this has classically assumed as competition from carnivoran placentals, but the last sparassodonts co-existed with a few small carnivorans like procyonids and canines, and disappeared long before the arrival of macropredatory forms like felines, while didelphimorphs (opossums) invaded Central America, with the Virginia opossum reaching as far north as Canada.Marsupials reached Australia via Antarctica during the Early Eocene, around 50 mya, shortly after Australia had split off.",
"This suggests a single dispersion event of just one species, most likely a relative to South America's monito del monte (a microbiothere, the only New World australidelphian).",
"This progenitor may have rafted across the widening, but still narrow, gap between Australia and Antarctica.",
"The journey must not have been easy; South American ungulate and xenarthran remains have been found in Antarctica, but these groups did not reach Australia.In Australia, marsupials radiated into the wide variety seen today, including not only omnivorous and carnivorous forms such as were present in South America, but also into large herbivores.",
"Modern marsupials appear to have reached the islands of New Guinea and Sulawesi relatively recently via Australia.",
"A 2010 analysis of retroposon insertion sites in the nuclear DNA of a variety of marsupials has confirmed all living marsupials have South American ancestors.",
"The branching sequence of marsupial orders indicated by the study puts Didelphimorphia in the most basal position, followed by Paucituberculata, then Microbiotheria, and ending with the radiation of Australian marsupials.",
"This indicates that Australidelphia arose in South America, and reached Australia after Microbiotheria split off.In Australia, terrestrial placental mammals disappeared early in the Cenozoic (their most recent known fossils being 55 million-year-old teeth resembling those of condylarths) for reasons that are not clear, allowing marsupials to dominate the Australian ecosystem.",
"Extant native Australian terrestrial placental mammals (such as hopping mice) are relatively recent immigrants, arriving via island hopping from Southeast Asia.Genetic analysis suggests a divergence date between the marsupials and the placentals at .",
"The ancestral number of chromosomes has been estimated to be 2n = 14.A new hypothesis suggests that South American microbiotheres resulted from a back-dispersal from eastern Gondwana due to new cranial and post-cranial marsupial fossils from the ''Djarthia murgonensis'' from the early Eocene Tingamarra Local Fauna in Australia that indicate the ''Djarthia murgonensis'' is the most plesiomorphic, the oldest unequivocal australidelphian, and may be the ancestral morphotype of the Australian marsupial radiation.In 2023, imaging of a partial skeleton found in Australia by paleontologists from Flinders University led to the identification of ''Ambulator keanei'', the first long-distance walker in Australia."
],
[
"See also",
"* Marsupial lawn* Metatheria* List of mammal genera* List of recently extinct mammals* List of prehistoric mammals"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * Frith, H. J. and J. H. Calaby.",
"Kangaroos.",
"New York: Humanities Press, 1969.",
"* * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * First marsupial genome released.",
"Most differences between the opossom and placental mammals stem from non-coding DNA"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Manchester"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Manchester''' ( ) is a city and metropolitan borough of Greater Manchester, England, which had a population of 552,000 at the 2021 census.",
"It is bordered by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east, and the neighbouring city of Salford to the west.",
"The city borders the boroughs of Trafford, Stockport, Tameside, Oldham, Rochdale, Bury and Salford.The history of Manchester began with the civilian settlement associated with the Roman fort (''castra'') of ''Mamucium'' or ''Mancunium'', established in about AD 79 on a sandstone bluff near the confluence of the rivers Medlock and Irwell.",
"Throughout the Middle Ages, Manchester remained a manorial township but began to expand \"at an astonishing rate\" around the turn of the 19th century.",
"Manchester's unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution and resulted in it becoming the world's first industrialised city.• • Historically part of Lancashire, areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated into Manchester in the 20th century, including Wythenshawe in 1931.Manchester achieved city status in 1853.The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and linking the city to the Irish Sea, to the west.",
"The city's fortune declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation, and the IRA bombing in 1996 led to extensive investment and regeneration.",
"Following considerable redevelopment, Manchester was the host city for the 2002 Commonwealth Games.The city is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections.",
"Manchester Liverpool Road railway station is the world's oldest surviving inter-city passenger railway station.",
"At the University of Manchester, Ernest Rutherford first split the atom in 1917; Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill developed the world's first stored-program computer in 1948; and Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov first isolated graphene in 2004.Manchester has a large urban sprawl, which forms from the city centre into the other neighbouring authorities; these include The Four Heatons, Failsworth, Prestwich, Stretford, Sale, Droylsden, Old Trafford and Reddish.",
"The city is also contiguous with Salford and its borough but is separated from it by the River Irwell.",
"This urban area is cut off by the M60, also known as the Manchester Outer Ring Road, which runs in a circular around the city and these areas.",
"It joins the M62 to the north-east and the M602 to the west, as well as the East Lancashire Road and A6."
],
[
"Toponymy",
"The name ''Manchester'' originates from the Latin name '''' or its variant '''' and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians ().",
"These names are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name.",
"The generally accepted etymology of this name is that it comes from Brittonic *''-'' (\"breast\", in reference to a \"breast-like hill\").",
"However, more recent work suggests that it could come from *'''' (\"mother\", in reference to a local river goddess).",
"Both usages are preserved in Insular Celtic languages, such as '''' meaning \"breast\" in Irish and \"mother\" in Welsh.",
"The suffix ''-chester'' is from Old English '''' (\"Roman fortification\", itself a loanword from Latin '''', \"fort; fortified town\")."
],
[
"History",
"===Early history===The Brigantes were the major Celtic tribe in what is now known as Northern England; they had a stronghold in the locality at a sandstone outcrop on which Manchester Cathedral now stands, opposite the bank of the River Irwell.",
"Their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford.",
"Following the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century, General Agricola ordered the construction of a fort named Mamucium in the year 79 to ensure that Roman interests in Deva Victrix (Chester) and Eboracum (York) were protected from the Brigantes.",
"Central Manchester has been permanently settled since this time.",
"A stabilised fragment of foundations of the final version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield.",
"The Roman habitation of Manchester probably ended around the 3rd century; its civilian settlement appears to have been abandoned by the mid-3rd century, although the fort may have supported a small garrison until the late 3rd or early 4th century.",
"After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell and Irk sometime before the arrival of the Normans after 1066.Much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North.Cotton mills in Ancoats, The Peterloo Massacre of 1819 resulted in 15 deaths and several hundred injured.In the Domesday Book of 1086, Manchester is recorded as within the hundred of Salford and held as tenant in chief by a Norman named Roger of Poitou, later being held by the family of Grelley, lord of the manor and residents of Manchester Castle until 1215 before a Manor House was built.",
"By 1421 Thomas de la Warre founded and constructed a collegiate church for the parish, now Manchester Cathedral; the domestic premises of the college house Chetham's School of Music and Chetham's Library.",
"The library, which opened in 1653 and is still open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom.Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282.Around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the region's textile industry.",
"Manchester became an important centre for the manufacture and trade of woollens and linen, and by about 1540, had expanded to become, in John Leland's words, \"The fairest, best builded, quickest, and most populous town of all Lancashire\".",
"The cathedral and Chetham's buildings are the only significant survivors of Leland's Manchester.During the English Civil War Manchester strongly favoured the Parliamentary interest.",
"Although not long-lasting, Cromwell granted it the right to elect its own MP.",
"Charles Worsley, who sat for the city for only a year, was later appointed Major General for Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshire during the Rule of the Major Generals.",
"He was a diligent puritan, turning out ale houses and banning the celebration of Christmas; he died in 1656.Significant quantities of cotton began to be used after about 1600, firstly in linen/cotton fustians, but by around 1750 pure cotton fabrics were being produced and cotton had overtaken wool in importance.",
"The Irwell and Mersey were made navigable by 1736, opening a route from Manchester to the sea docks on the Mersey.",
"The Bridgewater Canal, Britain's first wholly artificial waterway, was opened in 1761, bringing coal from mines at Worsley to central Manchester.",
"The canal was extended to the Mersey at Runcorn by 1776.The combination of competition and improved efficiency halved the cost of coal and halved the transport cost of raw cotton.",
"Manchester became the dominant marketplace for textiles produced in the surrounding towns.",
"A commodities exchange, opened in 1729, and numerous large warehouses, aided commerce.",
"In 1780, Richard Arkwright began construction of Manchester's first cotton mill.",
"In the early 1800s, John Dalton formulated his atomic theory in Manchester.===Industrial Revolution===Manchester was one of the centres of textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution.",
"The great majority of cotton spinning took place in the towns of south Lancashire and north Cheshire, and Manchester was for a time the most productive centre of cotton processing.Manchester became known as the world's largest marketplace for cotton goods and was dubbed \"Cottonopolis\" and \"Warehouse City\" during the Victorian era.",
"In Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the term \"manchester\" is still used for household linen: sheets, pillow cases, towels, etc.",
"The industrial revolution brought about huge change in Manchester and was key to the increase in Manchester's population.Manchester began expanding \"at an astonishing rate\" around the turn of the 19th century as people flocked to the city for work from Scotland, Wales, Ireland and other areas of England as part of a process of unplanned urbanisation brought on by the Industrial Revolution.",
"It developed a wide range of industries, so that by 1835 \"Manchester was without challenge the first and greatest industrial city in the world\".",
"Engineering firms initially made machines for the cotton trade, but diversified into general manufacture.",
"Similarly, the chemical industry started by producing bleaches and dyes, but expanded into other areas.",
"Commerce was supported by financial service industries such as banking and insurance.Trade, and feeding the growing population, required a large transport and distribution infrastructure: the canal system was extended, and Manchester became one end of the world's first intercity passenger railway—the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.",
"Competition between the various forms of transport kept costs down.",
"In 1878 the GPO (the forerunner of British Telecom) provided its first telephones to a firm in Manchester.The Manchester Ship Canal was built between 1888 and 1894, in some sections by canalisation of the Rivers Irwell and Mersey, running from Salford to Eastham Locks on the tidal Mersey.",
"This enabled oceangoing ships to sail right into the Port of Manchester.",
"On the canal's banks, just outside the borough, the world's first industrial estate was created at Trafford Park.",
"Large quantities of machinery, including cotton processing plant, were exported around the world.A centre of capitalism, Manchester was once the scene of bread and labour riots, as well as calls for greater political recognition by the city's working and non-titled classes.",
"One such gathering ended with the Peterloo massacre of 16 August 1819.The economic school of Manchester Capitalism developed there, and Manchester was the centre of the Anti-Corn Law League from 1838 onward.Manchester has a notable place in the history of Marxism and left-wing politics; being the subject of Friedrich Engels' work ''The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844''; Engels spent much of his life in and around Manchester, and when Karl Marx visited Manchester, they met at Chetham's Library.",
"The economics books Marx was reading at the time can be seen in the library, as can the window seat where Marx and Engels would meet.",
"The first Trades Union Congress was held in Manchester (at the Mechanics' Institute, David Street), from 2 to 6 June 1868.Manchester was an important cradle of the Labour Party and the Suffragette Movement.At that time, it seemed a place in which anything could happen—new industrial processes, new ways of thinking (the Manchester School, promoting free trade and ''laissez-faire''), new classes or groups in society, new religious sects, and new forms of labour organisation.",
"It attracted educated visitors from all parts of Britain and Europe.",
"A saying capturing this sense of innovation survives today: \"What Manchester does today, the rest of the world does tomorrow.",
"\"•• Manchester's golden age was perhaps the last quarter of the 19th century.",
"Many of the great public buildings (including Manchester Town Hall) date from then.",
"The city's cosmopolitan atmosphere contributed to a vibrant culture, which included the Hallé Orchestra.",
"In 1889, when county councils were created in England, the municipal borough became a county borough with even greater autonomy.Oxford Road, Manchester, in 1910, by ValetteAlthough the Industrial Revolution brought wealth to the city, it also brought poverty and squalor to a large part of the population.",
"Historian Simon Schama noted that \"Manchester was the very best and the very worst taken to terrifying extremes, a new kind of city in the world; the chimneys of industrial suburbs greeting you with columns of smoke\".",
"An American visitor taken to Manchester's blackspots saw \"wretched, defrauded, oppressed, crushed human nature, lying and bleeding fragments\".The number of cotton mills in Manchester itself reached a peak of 108 in 1853.Thereafter the number began to decline and Manchester was surpassed as the largest centre of cotton spinning by Bolton in the 1850s and Oldham in the 1860s.",
"However, this period of decline coincided with the rise of the city as the financial centre of the region.",
"Manchester continued to process cotton, and in 1913, 65% of the world's cotton was processed in the area.",
"The First World War interrupted access to the export markets.",
"Cotton processing in other parts of the world increased, often on machines produced in Manchester.",
"Manchester suffered greatly from the Great Depression and the underlying structural changes that began to supplant the old industries, including textile manufacture.===Blitz===Like most of the UK, the Manchester area was mobilised extensively during the Second World War.",
"For example, casting and machining expertise at Beyer, Peacock & Company's locomotive works in Gorton was switched to bomb making; Dunlop's rubber works in Chorlton-on-Medlock made barrage balloons; and just outside the city in Trafford Park, engineers Metropolitan-Vickers made Avro Manchester and Avro Lancaster bombers and Ford built the Rolls-Royce Merlin engines to power them.",
"Manchester was thus the target of bombing by the Luftwaffe, and by late 1940 air raids were taking place against non-military targets.",
"The biggest took place during the Christmas Blitz on the nights of 22/23 and 24 December 1940, when an estimated of high explosives plus over 37,000 incendiary bombs were dropped.",
"A large part of the historic city centre was destroyed, including 165 warehouses, 200 business premises, and 150 offices.",
"376 were killed and 30,000 houses were damaged.",
"Manchester Cathedral, Royal Exchange and Free Trade Hall were among the buildings seriously damaged; restoration of the cathedral took 20 years.",
"In total, 589 civilians were recorded to have died as result of enemy action within the Manchester County Borough.===Post-Second World War===Cotton processing and trading continued to decline in peacetime, and the exchange closed in 1968.By 1963 the port of Manchester was the UK's third largest,• and employed over 3,000 men, but the canal was unable to handle the increasingly large container ships.",
"Traffic declined, and the port closed in 1982.Heavy industry suffered a downturn from the 1960s and was greatly reduced under the economic policies followed by Margaret Thatcher's government after 1979.Manchester lost 150,000 jobs in manufacturing between 1961 and 1983.Corporation Street after the Manchester bombing on 15 June 1996.There were no fatalities, but it was one of the most expensive man-made disasters.",
"A large rebuilding project of Manchester ensued.Regeneration began in the late 1980s, with initiatives such as the Metrolink, the Bridgewater Concert Hall, the Manchester Arena, and (in Salford) the rebranding of the port as Salford Quays.",
"Two bids to host the Olympic Games were part of a process to raise the international profile of the city.Oxford Road, one of the main thoroughfares into Manchester city centreManchester has a history of attacks attributed to Irish Republicans, including the Manchester Martyrs of 1867, arson in 1920, a series of explosions in 1939, and two bombs in 1992.On Saturday 15 June 1996, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) carried out the 1996 Manchester bombing, the detonation of a large bomb next to a department store in the city centre.",
"The largest to be detonated on British soil, the bomb injured over 200 people, heavily damaged nearby buildings, and broke windows away.",
"The cost of the immediate damage was initially estimated at £50 million, but this was quickly revised upwards.",
"The final insurance payout was over £400 million; many affected businesses never recovered from the loss of trade.===Since 2000===Spurred by the investment after the 1996 bombing and aided by the XVII Commonwealth Games, the city centre has undergone extensive regeneration.",
"New and renovated complexes such as The Printworks and Corn Exchange have become popular shopping, eating and entertainment areas.",
"Manchester Arndale is the UK's largest city-centre shopping centre.Large city sections from the 1960s have been demolished, re-developed or modernised with the use of glass and steel.",
"Old mills have been converted into apartments.",
"Hulme has undergone extensive regeneration, with million-pound loft-house apartments being developed.",
"The 47-storey, Beetham Tower was the tallest UK building outside of London and the highest residential accommodation in Europe when completed in 2006.It was surpassed in 2018 by the South Tower of the Deansgate Square project, also in Manchester.",
"In January 2007, the independent Casino Advisory Panel licensed Manchester to build the UK's only supercasino, but plans were abandoned in February 2008.On 22 May 2017, an Islamist terrorist carried out a bombing at an Ariana Grande concert in the Manchester Arena; the bomb killed 23, including the attacker, and injured over 800.It was the deadliest terrorist attack and first suicide bombing in Britain since the 7 July 2005 London bombings.",
"It caused worldwide condemnation and changed the UK's threat level to \"critical\" for the first time since 2007.Birmingham has historically been considered to be England or the UK's second city, but in the 21st century claims to this unofficial title have also been made for Manchester."
],
[
"Government",
"Manchester Town Hall in Albert Square, seat of local government, is an example of Victorian era Gothic revival architecture.The City of Manchester is governed by the Manchester City Council.",
"The Greater Manchester Combined Authority, with a directly elected mayor, has responsibilities for economic strategy and transport, amongst other areas, on a Greater Manchester-wide basis.",
"Manchester has been a member of the English Core Cities Group since its inception in 1995.The town of Manchester was granted a charter by Thomas Grelley in 1301 but lost its borough status in a court case of 1359.Until the 19th century local government was largely in the hands of manorial courts, the last of which was dissolved in 1846.From a very early time, the township of Manchester lay within the historic or ceremonial county boundaries of Lancashire.",
"Pevsner wrote \"That neighbouring Stretford and Salford are not administratively one with Manchester is one of the most curious anomalies of England\".",
"A stroke of a baron's pen is said to have divorced Manchester and Salford, though it was not Salford that became separated from Manchester, it was Manchester, with its humbler line of lords, that was separated from Salford.",
"It was this separation that resulted in Salford becoming the judicial seat of Salfordshire, which included the ancient parish of Manchester.",
"Manchester later formed its own Poor Law Union using the name \"Manchester\".",
"In 1792, Commissioners – usually known as \"Police Commissioners\" – were established for the social improvement of Manchester.",
"Manchester regained its borough status in 1838 and comprised the townships of Beswick, Cheetham Hill, Chorlton upon Medlock and Hulme.",
"By 1846, with increasing population and greater industrialisation, the Borough Council had taken over the powers of the \"Police Commissioners\".",
"In 1853, Manchester was granted city status.In 1885, Bradford, Harpurhey, Rusholme and parts of Moss Side and Withington townships became part of the City of Manchester.",
"In 1889, the city became a county borough, as did many larger Lancashire towns, and therefore not governed by Lancashire County Council.",
"Between 1890 and 1933, more areas were added to the city, which had been administered by Lancashire County Council, including former villages such as Burnage, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Didsbury, Fallowfield, Levenshulme, Longsight, and Withington.",
"In 1931, the Cheshire civil parishes of Baguley, Northenden and Northen Etchells from the south of the River Mersey were added.",
"In 1974, by way of the Local Government Act 1972, the City of Manchester became a metropolitan district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester.",
"That year, Ringway, the village where the Manchester Airport is located, was added to the city.In November 2014, it was announced that Greater Manchester would receive a new directly elected mayor.",
"The mayor would have fiscal control over health, transport, housing and police in the area.",
"Andy Burnham was elected as the first mayor of Greater Manchester in 2017."
],
[
"Geography",
"Manchester skyline with the cathedral and surrounding city buildingsAt , northwest of London, Manchester lies in a bowl-shaped land area bordered to the north and east by the Pennines, an upland chain that runs the length of northern England, and to the south by the Cheshire Plain.",
"Manchester is north-east of Liverpool and north-west of Sheffield, making the city the halfway point between the two.",
"The city centre is on the east bank of the River Irwell, near its confluences with the Rivers Medlock and Irk, and is relatively low-lying, being between above sea level.",
"The River Mersey flows through the south of Manchester.",
"Much of the inner city, especially in the south, is flat, offering extensive views from many highrise buildings in the city of the foothills and moors of the Pennines, which can often be capped with snow in the winter months.",
"Manchester's geographic features were highly influential in its early development as the world's first industrial city.",
"These features are its climate, its proximity to a seaport at Liverpool, the availability of waterpower from its rivers, and its nearby coal reserves.The City of Manchester.",
"The land use is overwhelmingly urban.The name Manchester, though officially applied only to the metropolitan district within Greater Manchester, has been applied to other, wider divisions of land, particularly across much of the Greater Manchester county and urban area.",
"The \"Manchester City Zone\", \"Manchester post town\" and the \"Manchester Congestion Charge\" are all examples of this.For purposes of the Office for National Statistics, Manchester forms the most populous settlement within the Greater Manchester Urban Area, the United Kingdom's third-largest conurbation.",
"There is a mix of high-density urban and suburban locations.",
"The largest open space in the city, at around , is Heaton Park.",
"Manchester is contiguous on all sides with several large settlements, except for a small section along its southern boundary with Cheshire.",
"The M60 and M56 motorways pass through Northenden and Wythenshawe respectively in the south of Manchester.",
"Heavy rail lines enter the city from all directions, the principal destination being Manchester Piccadilly station.===Climate===Manchester experiences a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: ''Cfb''), like much of the British Isles, with warm summers and cold winters compared to other parts of the UK.",
"Summer daytime temperatures regularly top 20 °C, quite often reaching 25 °C on sunny days during July and August in particular.",
"In more recent years, temperatures have occasionally reached over 30 °C.",
"There is regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year.",
"The city's average annual rainfall is compared to a UK average of , and its mean rain days are 140.4 per annum, compared to the UK average of 154.4.Manchester has a relatively high humidity level, and this, along with abundant soft water, was one factor that led to advancement of the textile industry in the area.",
"Snowfalls are not common in the city because of the urban warming effect but the West Pennine Moors to the north-west, South Pennines to the north-east and Peak District to the east receive more snow, which can close roads leading out of the city.",
"They include the A62 via Oldham and Standedge, the A57, Snake Pass, towards Sheffield, and the Pennine section of the M62.The lowest temperature ever recorded in Manchester was on 7 January 2010.===Green belt===Manchester lies at the centre of a green belt region extending into the wider surrounding counties.",
"This reduces urban sprawl, prevents towns in the conurbation from further convergence, protects the identity of outlying communities, and preserves nearby countryside.",
"It is achieved by restricting inappropriate development within the designated areas and imposing stricter conditions on permitted building.Due to being already highly urban, the city contains limited portions of protected green-belt area within greenfield throughout the borough, with minimal development opportunities, at Clayton Vale, Heaton Park, Chorlton Water Park along with the Chorlton Ees & Ivy Green nature reserve and the floodplain surrounding the River Mersey, as well as the southern area around Manchester Airport.",
"The green belt was first drawn up in 1961."
],
[
"Demographics",
"City of Manchester population pyramid in 2021UK and foreign born population pyramid of Manchester in 2021.Males and females representing the UK born population while foreign males and females representing the foreign born population.Historically the population of Manchester began to increase rapidly during the Victorian era, estimated at 354,930 for Manchester and 110,833 for Salford in 1865, and peaking at 766,311 in 1931.From then the population began to decrease rapidly, due to slum clearance and the increased building of social housing overspill estates by Manchester City Council after the Second World War such as Hattersley and Langley.The 2012 mid-year estimate for the population of Manchester was 510,700.This was an increase of 7,900, or 1.6 per cent, since the 2011 estimate.",
"Since 2001, the population has grown by 87,900, or 20.8 per cent, making Manchester the third fastest-growing area in the 2011 census.",
"The city experienced the greatest percentage population growth outside London, with an increase of 19 per cent to over 500,000.Manchester's population is projected to reach 532,200 by 2021, an increase of 5.8 per cent from 2011.This represents a slower rate of growth than the previous decade.The Greater Manchester Built-up Area in 2011 had an estimated population of 2,553,400.In 2012 an estimated 2,702,200 people lived in Greater Manchester.",
"An 6,547,000 people were estimated in 2012 to live within of Manchester and 11,694,000 within .Between the beginning of July 2011 and end of June 2012 (mid-year estimate date), births exceeded deaths by 4,800.Migration (internal and international) and other changes accounted for a net increase of 3,100 people between July 2011 and June 2012.Compared with Greater Manchester and with England, Manchester has a younger population, with a particularly large 20–35 age group.There were 76,095 undergraduate and postgraduate students at Manchester Metropolitan University, the University of Manchester and Royal Northern College of Music in the 2011/2012 academic year.Of all households in Manchester, 0.23 per cent were Same-Sex Civil Partnership households, compared with an English national average of 0.16 per cent in 2011.The Manchester Larger Urban Zone, a Eurostat measure of the functional city-region approximated to local government districts, had a population of 2,539,100 in 2004.In addition to Manchester itself, the LUZ includes the remainder of the county of Greater Manchester.",
"The Manchester LUZ is the second largest within the United Kingdom, behind that of London.=== Religion ===Since the 2001 census, the proportion of Christians in Manchester has fallen by 22 per cent from 62.4 per cent to 48.7 per cent in 2011.The proportion of those with no religious affiliation rose by 58.1 per cent from 16 per cent to 25.3 per cent, whilst the proportion of Muslims increased by 73.6 per cent from 9.1 per cent to 15.8 per cent.",
"The size of the Jewish population in Greater Manchester is the largest in Britain outside London.=== Ethnicity ===Ethnic demography of Manchester from 1971 to 2021In terms of ethnic composition, the City of Manchester has the highest non-white proportion of any district in Greater Manchester.",
"Statistics from the 2011 census showed that 66.7 per cent of the population was White (59.3 per cent White British, 2.4 per cent White Irish, 0.1 per cent Gypsy or Irish Traveller, 4.9 per cent Other White – although the size of mixed European and British ethnic groups is unclear, there are reportedly over 25,000 people in Greater Manchester of at least partial Italian descent alone, which represents 5.5 per cent of the population of Greater Manchester).",
"4.7 per cent were mixed race (1.8 per cent White and Black Caribbean, 0.9 per cent White and Black African, 1.0 per cent White and Asian, 1.0 per cent other mixed), 17.1 per cent Asian (2.3 per cent Indian, 8.5 per cent Pakistani, 1.3 per cent Bangladeshi, 2.7 per cent Chinese, 2.3 per cent other Asian), 8.6 per cent Black (5.1 per cent African, 1.6 per cent other Black), 1.9 per cent Arab and 1.2 per cent of other ethnic heritage.Chinatown PaifangKidd identifies Moss Side, Longsight, Cheetham Hill, Rusholme, as centres of population for ethnic minorities.",
"Manchester's Irish Festival, including a St Patrick's Day parade, is one of Europe's largest.",
"There is also a well-established Chinatown in the city with a substantial number of Chinese restaurants and supermarkets.",
"The area also attracts large numbers of Chinese students to the city who, in attending the local universities, contribute to Manchester having the third-largest Chinese population in Europe.",
"'''Ethnicity of Manchester, from 1971 to 2021:'''Ethnic groupYear1971 estimations1981 estimations1991200120112021Number%Number%Number%Number%Number%Number%White: Total512,93695.8%396,48792.1%353,68587.4%318,01381%335,10966.6%313,63256.8%White: British––––––292,49874.5%298,23759.3%268,57248.7%White: Irish––––––14,8263.8%11,8432.4%9,4421.7%White: Traveller of Irish heritage––––––––5090.1%5970.1%White: Gypsy/Roma––––––––––8830.2%White: Other––––––10,6892.7%24,5204.9%34,1386.2%Asian / Asian British: Total––––26,7666.6%41,00310.4%85,98617.1%115,10920.9%Asian / Asian British: Indian––––4,4045,81711,4172.3%14,8572.7%Asian / Asian British: Pakistani––––15,3603.8%23,1045.9%42,9048.5%65,87511.9%Asian / Asian British: Bangladeshi––––2,0003,6546,4371.3%9,6731.8%Asian / Asian British: Chinese––––3,1035,12613,5392.7%12,6442.3%Asian / Asian British: Other Asians––––1,8993,30211,6892.3%12,0602.2%Black / Black British: Total––––18,8984.7%17,7394.5%43,4848.6%65,89312%Black: African––––3,4650.9%6,6551.7%25,7185.1%47,8588.7%Black: Caribbean––––10,3902.6%9,0442.3%9,6421.9%10,4721.9%Black: Other Blacks––––5,0432,0408,1241.6%7,5631.4%Mixed / British Mixed––––––12,6733.2%23,1614.6%29,0265.2%White and Black Caribbean––––––5,2958,8771.8%9,9871.8%White and Black African––––––2,4124,3970.9%5,9921.1%White and Asian––––––2,4594,7911%6,1491.1%Any other mixed background––––––2,5075,0961%6,8981.2%Other: Total––––5,5171.4%3,3910.9%15,3873.1%28,2785.1%Other: Arab––––5,5171.4%3,3910.9%9,5031.9%15,0282.7%Other: Any other ethnic group––––––––5,8841.2%13,2502.4%Ethnic minority22,4844.2%33,9447.9%51,18112.6%74,80619%168,01833.4%238,30643.2%Total:535,420100%430,431100%404,866100%392,819100%503,127100%551,938100%'''Ethnicity of school pupils'''Ethnic groupSchool year2004/20052021/2022Number%Number%White: Total34,86064%34,60937.6%White: British33,69861.9%29,59132.2%White: Irish3733200.3%White: Traveller of Irish heritage106870.1%White: Gypsy/Roma232860.3%White: Other6584,3254.7%Asian / Asian British: Total8,89316.3%23,59425.9%Asian / Asian British: Indian7702,1632.4%Asian / Asian British: Pakistani6,20415,83817.3%Asian / Asian British: Bangladeshi9712,1572.4%Asian / Asian British: Chinese3901,0731.2%Asian / Asian British: Other Asians5582,3632.6%Black / Black British: Total4,7008.6%15,69917.1%Black: Caribbean1,5171,3241.4%Black: African2,61811,01412.0%Black: Other Blacks5643,3613.7%Mixed / British Mixed3,5306.5%8,8089.5%Other: Total1,6903.1%7,4488.1%Unclassified7931.5%1,6281.8%Total:54,470100%91,786100%"
],
[
"Economy",
"+''GVA for Greater Manchester South 2002–2012'' Year GVA (£ million) Growth (%) 2002 24,011 3.8% 2003 25,063 4.4% 2004 27,862 11.2% 2005 28,579 2.6% 2006 30,384 6.3% 2007 32,011 5.4% 2008 32,081 0.2% 2009 33,186 3.4% 2010 33,751 1.7% 2011 33,468 0.8% 2012 34,755 3.8% 2013 37,560 9.6%The Great Jackson Street skyscraper district under construction in Central ManchesterThe Office for National Statistics does not produce economic data for the City of Manchester alone, but includes four other metropolitan boroughs, Salford, Stockport, Tameside, Trafford, in an area named Greater Manchester South, which had a GVA of £34.8 billion.",
"The economy grew relatively strongly between 2002 and 2012, when growth was 2.3 per cent above the national average.",
"The wider metropolitan economy is the third largest in the United Kingdom.",
"It is ranked as a beta world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.As the UK economy continues to recover from its 2008–2010 downturn, Manchester compares favourably according to recent figures.",
"In 2012 it showed the strongest annual growth in business stock (5 per cent) of all core cities.",
"The city had a relatively sharp increase in the number of business deaths, the largest increase in all the core cities, but this was offset by strong growth in new businesses, resulting in strong net growth.Manchester's civic leadership has a reputation for business acumen.",
"It owns two of the country's four busiest airports and uses its earnings to fund local projects.",
"Meanwhile, KPMG's competitive alternative report found that in 2012 Manchester had the 9th lowest tax cost of any industrialised city in the world, and fiscal devolution has come earlier to Manchester than to any other British city: it can keep half the extra taxes it gets from transport investment.KPMG's competitive alternative report also found that Manchester was Europe's most affordable city featured, ranking slightly better than the Dutch cities of Rotterdam and Amsterdam, which all have a cost-of-living index of less than 95.Manchester is a city of contrast, where some of the country's most deprived and most affluent neighbourhoods can be found.",
"According to 2010 Indices of Multiple Deprivation, Manchester is the 4th most deprived local council in England.",
"Unemployment throughout 2012–2013 averaged 11.9 per cent, which was above national average, but lower than some of the country's comparable large cities.",
"On the other hand, Greater Manchester is home to more multi-millionaires than anywhere outside London, with the City of Manchester taking up most of the tally.",
"In 2013 Manchester was ranked 6th in the UK for quality of life, according to a rating of the UK's 12 largest cities.Women fare better in Manchester than the rest of the country in comparative pay with men.",
"The per hours-worked gender pay gap is 3.3 per cent compared with 11.1 per cent for Britain.",
"37 per cent of the working-age population in Manchester have degree-level qualifications, as opposed to an average of 33 per cent across other core cities, although its schools under-perform slightly compared with the national average.Manchester has the largest UK office market outside London, according to GVA Grimley, with a quarterly office uptake (averaged over 2010–2014) of some 250,000 square feet – equivalent to the quarterly office uptake of Leeds, Liverpool and Newcastle combined and 90,000 square feet more than the nearest rival, Birmingham.",
"The strong office market in Manchester has been partly attributed to \"northshoring\" (from offshoring), which entails the relocation or alternative creation of jobs away from the overheated South to areas where office space is possibly cheaper and the workforce market less saturated."
],
[
"Landmarks",
"Lancaster House.",
"Manchester is known for opulent warehouses from the city's textile trade.Manchester's buildings display a variety of architectural styles, ranging from Victorian to contemporary architecture.",
"The widespread use of red brick characterises the city, much of the architecture of which harks back to its days as a global centre for the cotton trade.",
"Just outside the immediate city centre are a large number of former cotton mills, some of which have been left virtually untouched since their closure, while many have been redeveloped as apartment buildings and office space.",
"Manchester Town Hall, in Albert Square, was built in the Gothic revival style and is seen as one of the most important Victorian buildings in England.Manchester also has a number of skyscrapers built in the 1960s and 1970s, the tallest being the CIS Tower near Manchester Victoria station until the Beetham Tower was completed in 2006.The latter exemplifies a new surge in high-rise building.",
"It includes a Hilton hotel, a restaurant and apartments.",
"The largest skyscraper is now Deansgate Square South Tower, at 201 metres (659 feet).The Green Building, opposite Oxford Road station, is a pioneering eco-friendly housing project, while the recently completed One Angel Square, is one of the most sustainable large buildings in the world.The award-winning Heaton Park in the north of the city borough is one of the largest municipal parks in Europe, covering of parkland.",
"The city has 135 parks, gardens, and open spaces.Two large squares hold many of Manchester's public monuments.",
"Albert Square has monuments to Prince Albert, Bishop James Fraser, Oliver Heywood, William Gladstone and John Bright.",
"Piccadilly Gardens has monuments dedicated to Queen Victoria, Robert Peel, James Watt and the Duke of Wellington.",
"The cenotaph in St Peter's Square is Manchester's main memorial to its war dead.",
"Designed by Edwin Lutyens, it echoes the original on Whitehall in London.",
"The Alan Turing Memorial in Sackville Park commemorates his role as the father of modern computing.",
"A larger-than-life statue of Abraham Lincoln by George Gray Barnard in the eponymous Lincoln Square (having stood for many years in Platt Fields) was presented to the city by Mr and Mrs Charles Phelps Taft of Cincinnati, Ohio, to mark the part Lancashire played in the cotton famine and American Civil War of 1861–1865.A Concorde is on display near Manchester Airport.Manchester has six designated local nature reserves: Chorlton Water Park, Blackley Forest, Clayton Vale and Chorlton Ees, Ivy Green, Boggart Hole Clough and Highfield Country Park."
],
[
"Transport",
"Map of tram lines, railways and main bus routes in Greater Manchester===Rail===Manchester Liverpool Road was the world's first purpose-built passenger and goods railway station and served as the Manchester terminus on the Liverpool & Manchester Railway – the world's first inter-city passenger railway.",
"It is still extant and its buildings form part of the Science & Industry Museum.Manchester Piccadilly railway station, the busiest of the four major railway stations in the Manchester station group with over 32 million passengers using the station in 2019/20Two of the city's four main line termini did not survive the 1960s: Manchester Central and Manchester Exchange each closed in 1969.In addition, Manchester Mayfield station closed to passenger services in 1960; its buildings and platforms are still extant, next to Piccadilly station, but are due to be redeveloped in the 2020s.Today, the city is well served by its rail network although it is now working to capacity, and is at the centre of an extensive county-wide railway network, including the West Coast Main Line, with two mainline stations: Manchester Piccadilly and Manchester Victoria.",
"The Manchester station group – comprising Manchester Piccadilly, Manchester Victoria, Manchester Oxford Road and Deansgate – is the third busiest in the United Kingdom, with 44.9 million passengers recorded in 2017/2018.The High Speed 2 link to Birmingham and London was also planned, which would have included a tunnel under Manchester on the final approach into an upgraded Piccadilly station, however this was cancelled by Prime Minister Rishi Sunak in October 2023.Recent improvements in Manchester as part of the Northern Hub in the 2010s have been numerous electrification schemes into and through Manchester, redevelopment of Victoria station and construction of the Ordsall Chord directly linking Victoria and Piccadilly.",
"Work on two new through platforms at Piccadilly and an extensive upgrade at Oxford Road had not commenced as of 2019.Manchester city centre, specifically the Castlefield Corridor, suffers from constrained rail capacity that frequently leads to delays and cancellations – a 2018 report found that all three major Manchester stations are among the top ten worst stations in the United Kingdom for punctuality, with Oxford Road deemed the worst in the country.===Metrolink (tram/light rail)===largest tram system in the UK, with a total route length of .Manchester became the first city in the UK to acquire a modern light rail tram system when the Manchester Metrolink opened in 1992.In 2016–2017, 37.8 million passenger journeys were made on the system.",
"The present system mostly runs on former commuter rail lines converted for light rail use, and crosses the city centre via on-street tram lines.",
"The network consists of eight lines with 99 stops.",
"A new line to the Trafford Centre opened in 2020.Manchester city centre is also serviced by over a dozen heavy and light rail-based park and ride sites.===Bus===Free buses operate on three Manchester Metroshuttle routes around Manchester city centre.The city has one of the most extensive bus networks outside London, with over 50 bus companies operating in the Greater Manchester region radiating from the city.",
"In 2011, 80 per cent of public transport journeys in Greater Manchester were made by bus, amounting to 220 million passenger journeys each year.",
"After deregulation in 1986, the bus system was taken over by GM Buses, which after privatisation was split into GM Buses North and GM Buses South.",
"Later these were taken over by First Greater Manchester and Stagecoach Manchester.",
"Much of the First Greater Manchester business was sold to Diamond North West and Go North West in 2019.Go North West operate a three-route zero-fare Manchester Metroshuttle, which carries 2.8 million commuters a year around Manchester's business districts.",
"Stagecoach Manchester is the Stagecoach Group's largest subsidiary and operates around 690 buses.===Air===Manchester Airport from aboveManchester Airport serves Manchester, Northern England and North Wales.",
"The airport is the third busiest in the United Kingdom, with over double the number of annual passengers of the next busiest non-London airport.",
"Services cover many destinations in Europe, North America, the Caribbean, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia (with more destinations from Manchester than any other airport in Britain).",
"A second runway was opened in 2001 and there have been continued terminal improvements.",
"The airport has the highest rating available: \"''Category 10''\", encompassing an elite group of airports able to handle \"''Code F''\" aircraft, including the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-8.From September 2010 the airport became one of only 17 airports in the world and the only UK airport other than Heathrow Airport and Gatwick Airport to operate the Airbus A380.A smaller City Airport Manchester exists to the west of Manchester city centre.",
"It was Manchester's first municipal airport and became the site of the first air traffic control tower in the UK, and the first municipal airfield in the UK to be licensed by the Air Ministry.",
"Today, private charter flights and general aviation use City.",
"It also has a flight school, and both the Greater Manchester Police Air Support Unit and the North West Air Ambulance have helicopters based there.===Canal===An extensive canal network, including the Manchester Ship Canal, was built to carry freight from the Industrial Revolution onward; the canals are still maintained, though now largely repurposed for leisure use.",
"In 2012, plans were approved to introduce a water taxi service between Manchester city centre and MediaCityUK at Salford Quays.",
"It ceased to operate in June 2018, citing poor infrastructure.===Cycling===Cycling for transportation and leisure enjoys popularity in Manchester and the city also plays a major role in British cycle racing."
],
[
"Culture",
"===Music===The Gallagher brothers of OasisBands that have emerged from the Manchester music scene include Van der Graaf Generator, Oasis, the Smiths, Joy Division and its successor group New Order, Buzzcocks, the Stone Roses, the Fall, the Durutti Column, 10cc, Godley & Creme, the Verve, Elbow, Doves, the Charlatans, M People, the 1975, Simply Red, Take That, Dutch Uncles, Everything Everything, the Courteeners, Pale Waves, and the Outfield.",
"Manchester was credited as the main driving force behind British indie music of the 1980s led by the Smiths, later including the Stone Roses, Happy Mondays, Inspiral Carpets, and James.",
"The later groups came from what became known as the \"Madchester\" scene that also centred on The Haçienda nightclub developed by the founder of Factory Records, Tony Wilson.",
"Although from southern England, the Chemical Brothers subsequently formed in Manchester.",
"Former Smiths frontman Morrissey, whose lyrics often refer to Manchester locations and culture, later found international success as a solo artist.",
"Previously, notable Manchester acts of the 1960s include the Hollies, Herman's Hermits, and Davy Jones of the Monkees (famed in the mid-1960s for their albums and their American TV show), and the earlier Bee Gees, who grew up in Chorlton.",
"Prominent rap artists from Manchester include Bugzy Malone and Aitch.largest purpose-built arenas in EuropeIts main pop music venue is Manchester Arena, voted \"International Venue of the Year\" in 2007.With over 21,000 seats, it is the largest arena of its type in Europe.",
"In terms of concertgoers, it is the busiest indoor arena in the world, ahead of Madison Square Garden in New York and The O2 Arena in London, which are second and third busiest.",
"Other venues include Manchester Apollo, Albert Hall, Victoria Warehouse and the Manchester Academy.",
"Smaller venues include the Band on the Wall, the Night and Day Café, the Ruby Lounge, and The Deaf Institute.",
"Manchester also has the most indie and rock music events outside London.Manchester has two symphony orchestras, The Hallé and the BBC Philharmonic, and a chamber orchestra, the Manchester Camerata.",
"In the 1950s, the city was home to a so-called \"Manchester School\" of classical composers, which was composed of Harrison Birtwistle, Peter Maxwell Davies, David Ellis and Alexander Goehr.",
"Manchester is a centre for musical education: the Royal Northern College of Music and Chetham's School of Music.",
"Forerunners of the RNCM were the Northern School of Music (founded 1920) and the Royal Manchester College of Music (founded 1893), which merged in 1973.One of the earliest instructors and classical music pianists/conductors at the RNCM, shortly after its founding, was the Russian-born Arthur Friedheim, (1859–1932), who later had the music library at the famed Peabody Institute conservatory of music in Baltimore, Maryland, named after him.",
"The main classical music venue was the Free Trade Hall on Peter Street until the opening in 1996 of the 2,500 seat Bridgewater Hall.Brass band music, a tradition in the north of England, is important to Manchester's musical heritage; some of the UK's leading bands, such as the CWS Manchester Band and the Fairey Band, are from Manchester and surrounding areas, and the Whit Friday brass-band contest takes place annually in the neighbouring areas of Saddleworth and Tameside.===Performing arts===The Opera House, one of Manchester's largest theatre venuesManchester has a thriving theatre, opera and dance scene, with a number of large performance venues, including Manchester Opera House, which feature large-scale touring shows and West End productions; the Palace Theatre; and the Royal Exchange Theatre in Manchester's former cotton exchange, which is the largest theatre in the round in the UK.Smaller venues include the Contact Theatre and Z-arts in Hulme.",
"The Dancehouse on Oxford Road is dedicated to dance productions.",
"In 2014, HOME, a new custom-built arts complex opened.",
"Housing two theatre spaces, five cinemas and an art exhibition space, it replaced the Cornerhouse and The Library Theatre.Since 2007, the city has hosted the Manchester International Festival, a biennial international arts festival with a focus on original work, which has included major new commissions by artists, including Bjork.",
"In 2023, the festival, operated by Factory International, was given a permanent home in Aviva Studios, a purpose-built multi-million pound venue designed by Rem Koolhaas from the Office for Metropolitan Architecture.===Museums and galleries===Science and Industry MuseumManchester's museums celebrate Manchester's Roman history, rich industrial heritage and its role in the Industrial Revolution, the textile industry, the Trade Union movement, women's suffrage and football.",
"A reconstructed part of the Roman fort of Mamucium is open to the public in Castlefield.The National Football MuseumThe Science and Industry Museum, housed in the former Liverpool Road railway station, has a large collection of steam locomotives, industrial machinery, aircraft and a replica of the world's first stored computer program (known as the Manchester Baby).",
"The Museum of Transport displays a collection of historic buses and trams.",
"Trafford Park in the neighbouring borough of Trafford is home to Imperial War Museum North.",
"The Manchester Museum opened to the public in the 1880s, has notable Egyptology and natural history collections.Other exhibition spaces and museums in Manchester include Islington Mill in Salford, the National Football Museum at Urbis, Castlefield Gallery, the Manchester Costume Gallery at Platt Fields Park, the People's History Museum and the Manchester Jewish Museum.Manchester Art GalleryThe municipally owned Manchester Art Gallery in Mosley Street houses a permanent collection of European painting and one of Britain's main collections of Pre-Raphaelite paintings.",
"In the south of the city, the Whitworth Art Gallery displays modern art, sculpture and textiles and was voted Museum of the Year in 2015.The work of Stretford-born painter , known for \"matchstick\" paintings of industrial Manchester and Salford, can be seen in the City and Whitworth Manchester galleries, and at the Lowry art centre in Salford Quays (in the neighbouring borough of Salford), which devotes a large permanent exhibition to his works.===Literature===Gaskell House, where Mrs Gaskell wrote most of her novels.",
"The house is now a museum.Manchester is a UNESCO City of Literature known for a \"radical literary history\".",
"Manchester in the 19th century featured in works highlighting the changes that industrialisation had brought.",
"They include Elizabeth Gaskell's novel ''Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life'' (1848), and studies such as ''The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844'' by Friedrich Engels, while living and working here.",
"Manchester was the meeting place of Engels and Karl Marx.",
"The two began writing ''The Communist Manifesto'' in Chetham's Library – founded in 1653 and claiming to be the oldest public library in the English-speaking world.",
"Elsewhere in the city, the John Rylands Library holds an extensive collection of early printing.",
"The Rylands Library Papyrus P52, believed to be the earliest extant New Testament text, is on permanent display there.Letitia Landon's poetical illustration ''Manchester'' to a vista over the city by G. Pickering in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1835, records the rapid growth of the city and its cultural importance.Charles Dickens is reputed to have set his novel ''Hard Times'' in the city, and though partly modelled on Preston, it shows the influence of his friend Mrs Gaskell.",
"Gaskell penned all her novels but ''Mary Barton'' at her home in 84 Plymouth Grove.",
"Often her house played host to influential authors: Dickens, Charlotte Brontë, Harriet Beecher Stowe and Charles Eliot Norton, for example.",
"It is now open as a literary museum.Charlotte Brontë began writing her novel ''Jane Eyre'' in 1846, while staying at lodgings in Hulme.",
"She was accompanying her father Patrick, who was convalescing in the city after cataract surgery.",
"She probably envisioned Manchester Cathedral churchyard as the burial place for Jane's parents and the birthplace of Jane herself.",
"Also associated with the city is the Victorian poet and novelist Isabella Banks, famed for her 1876 novel ''The Manchester Man''.",
"Anglo-American author Frances Hodgson Burnett was born in the city's Cheetham Hill district in 1849, and wrote much of her classic children's novel ''The Secret Garden'' while visiting nearby Salford's Buile Hill Park.Anthony Burgess is among the 20th-century writers who made Manchester their home.",
"He wrote here the dystopian satire ''A Clockwork Orange'' in 1962.Dame Carol Ann Duffy, Poet Laureate from 2009 to 2019, moved to the city in 1996 and lives in West Didsbury.===Nightlife===The night-time economy of Manchester has expanded significantly since about 1993, with investment from breweries in bars, public houses and clubs, along with active support from the local authorities.",
"The more than 500 licensed premises in the city centre have a capacity to deal with more than visitors, with 110,000–130,000 people visiting on a typical weekend night, making Manchester the most popular city for events at 79 per thousand people.",
"The night-time economy has a value of about £100 million, and supports 12,000 jobs.The Madchester scene of the 1980s, from which groups including the Stone Roses, the Happy Mondays, Inspiral Carpets, 808 State, James and the Charlatans emerged, was based around clubs such as The Haçienda.",
"The period was the subject of the movie ''24 Hour Party People''.",
"Many of the big clubs suffered problems with organised crime at that time; Haslam describes one where staff were so completely intimidated that free admission and drinks were demanded (and given) and drugs were openly dealt.",
"Following a series of drug-related violent incidents, The Haçienda closed in 1997.Canal Street, one of Manchester's liveliest nightspots, part of the city's gay village===Gay village===Public houses in the Canal Street area have had an LGBTQ+ clientele since at least 1940, and now form the centre of Manchester's LGBTQ+ community.",
"Since the opening of new bars and clubs, the area attracts 20,000 visitors each weekend and has hosted a popular festival, Manchester Pride, each August since 1995."
],
[
"Education",
"Whitworth Hall at the University of Manchester.",
"With approximately 44,000 students, it is the second-largest university in the UK in terms of enrolment.There are three universities in the City of Manchester.",
"The University of Manchester, Manchester Metropolitan University and Royal Northern College of Music.",
"The University of Manchester is the second largest full-time non-collegiate university in the United Kingdom, created in 2004 by the merger of Victoria University of Manchester, founded in 1904, and UMIST, founded in 1956, having developed from the Mechanics' Institute founded, as indicated in the university's logo, in 1824.The University of Manchester includes the Manchester Business School, which offered the first MBA course in the UK in 1965.Manchester Metropolitan University was formed as Manchester Polytechnic on the merger of three colleges in 1970.It gained university status in 1992, and in the same year absorbed Crewe and Alsager College of Higher Education in South Cheshire.",
"The Cheshire campus permanently closed in 2019.The University of Law, the largest provider of vocation legal training in Europe, has a campus in the city.The three universities are grouped around Oxford Road on the southern side of the city centre, which forms Europe's largest urban higher-education precinct.",
"Together they have a combined population of over 80,000 students as of 2022.One of Manchester's notable secondary schools is Manchester Grammar School.",
"Established in 1515, as a free grammar school next to what is now the cathedral, it moved in 1931 to Old Hall Lane in Fallowfield, south Manchester, to accommodate the growing student body.",
"In the post-war period, it was a direct grant grammar school (i.e.",
"partially state funded), but it reverted to independent status in 1976 after abolition of the direct-grant system.",
"Its previous premises are now used by Chetham's School of Music.",
"There are three schools nearby: William Hulme's Grammar School, Withington Girls' School and Manchester High School for Girls.In 2019, the Manchester Local Education Authority was ranked second to last out of Greater Manchester's ten LEAs and 140th out of 151 in the country LEAs based on the percentage of pupils attaining grades 4 or above in English and mathematics GCSEs (General Certificate of Secondary Education) with 56.2 per cent compared with the national average of 64.9 per cent.",
"Of the 63 secondary schools in the LEA, four had 80 per cent or more pupils achieving Grade 4 or above in English and maths GCSEs: Manchester High School for Girls, The King David High School, Manchester Islamic High School for Girls, and Kassim Darwish Grammar School for Boys."
],
[
"Sport",
"Etihad Stadium is home to Premier League club Manchester City F.C.",
"and host stadium for the 2002 Commonwealth Games.Two Premier League football clubs bear the city's name – Manchester City and Manchester United.",
"Manchester City's home is the City of Manchester Stadium in east Manchester, built for the 2002 Commonwealth Games and then reconfigured as a football ground in 2003.Manchester United, despite originating in Manchester, have been based in the neighbouring borough of Trafford since 1910.Their stadium Old Trafford is adjacent to Lancashire County Cricket Club ground, also called Old Trafford.",
"The cricket club has strong association with Manchester due to proximity to the city and Manchester historically being part of Lancashire.",
"Sporting facilities built for the 2002 Commonwealth Games include the City of Manchester Stadium, National Squash Centre and Manchester Aquatics Centre.",
"Manchester has competed twice to host the Olympic Games, beaten by Atlanta for 1996 and Sydney for 2000.The National Cycling Centre includes a velodrome, BMX Arena and Mountainbike trials, and is the home of British Cycling, UCI ProTeam Team Sky and Sky Track Cycling.",
"The Manchester Velodrome, built as a part of the bid for the 2000 games, has become a catalyst for British success in cycling.",
"The velodrome hosted the UCI Track Cycling World Championships for a record third time in 2008.The National Indoor BMX Arena (2,000 capacity) adjacent to the velodrome opened in 2011.The Manchester Arena hosted the FINA World Swimming Championships in 2008.Manchester hosted the World Squash Championships in 2008, the 2010 World Lacrosse Championship, the 2013 Ashes series, 2013 Rugby League World Cup, 2015 Rugby World Cup and 2019 Cricket World Cup."
],
[
"Media",
"===Print===Daily Express Building, Manchester, a remnant of Britain's \"second Fleet Street\"''The Guardian'' newspaper was founded in the city in 1821 as ''The Manchester Guardian''.",
"Until 2008, its head office was still in the city, though many of its management functions were moved to London in 1964.For many years most national newspapers had offices in Manchester: ''The Daily Telegraph'', ''Daily Express'', ''Daily Mail'', ''Daily Mirror'', ''The Sun''.",
"At its height, 1,500 journalists were employed, earning the city the nickname \"second Fleet Street\".",
"In the 1980s the titles closed their northern offices and centred their operations in London.The main regional newspaper in the city is the ''Manchester Evening News'', which was for over 80 years the sister publication of ''The Manchester Guardian''.",
"The ''Manchester Evening News'' has the largest circulation of a UK regional evening newspaper and is distributed free of charge in the city centre on Thursdays and Fridays, but paid for in the suburbs.",
"Despite its title, it is available all day.Several local weekly free papers are distributed by the MEN group.",
"The ''Metro North West'' is available free at Metrolink stops, rail stations and other busy locations.",
"An attempt to launch a Northern daily newspaper, the ''North West Times'', employing journalists made redundant by other titles, closed in 1988.Another attempt was made with the ''North West Enquirer'', which hoped to provide a true \"regional\" newspaper for the North West, much in the same vein as the ''Yorkshire Post'' does for Yorkshire or ''The Northern Echo'' does for the North East; it folded in October 2006.===Television===Granada Studios, the former headquarters of Granada TelevisionManchester has been a centre of television broadcasting since the 1950s.",
"A number of television studios have been in operation around the city, and have since relocated to MediaCityUK in neighbouring Salford.The ITV franchise Granada Television has been based in Manchester since 1954.Now based at MediaCityUK, the company's former headquarters at Granada Studios on Quay Street with its distinctive illuminated sign were a prominent landmark on the Manchester skyline for several decades.",
"Granada produces ''Coronation Street'', local news and programmes for North West England.",
"Although its influence has waned, Granada had been described as \"the best commercial television company in the world\".With the growth in regional television in the 1950s, Manchester became one of the BBC's three main centres in England.",
"In 1954, the BBC opened its first regional BBC Television studio outside London, Dickenson Road Studios, in a converted Methodist chapel in Rusholme.",
"The first edition of ''Top of the Pops'' was broadcast here on New Year's Day 1964.From 1975, BBC programmes including ''Mastermind'', and ''Real Story'', were made at New Broadcasting House on Oxford Road.",
"The ''Cutting It'' series set in the city's Northern Quarter and ''The Street'' were set in Manchester as was ''Life on Mars''.",
"Manchester was the regional base for BBC One North West Region programmes before it relocated to MediaCityUK in nearby Salford Quays.",
"The Manchester television channel, Channel M, owned by the Guardian Media Group operated from 2000, but closed in 2012.Manchester is also covered by two internet television channels: Quays News and Manchester.tv.",
"The city had a new terrestrial channel from January 2014 when YourTV Manchester, which won the OFCOM licence bid in February 2013.It began its first broadcast, but in 2015, That's Manchester took over to air on 31 May and launched the freeview channel 8 service slot, before moving to channel 7 in April 2016.===Radio===The city has the highest number of local radio stations outside London, including BBC Radio Manchester, Hits Radio Manchester, Capital Manchester and Lancashire, Greatest Hits Radio Manchester & The North West, Heart North West, Smooth North West, Gold, Radio X, NMFM (North Manchester FM) and XS Manchester.",
"Student radio stations include Fuse FM at the University of Manchester and MMU Radio at the Manchester Metropolitan University.",
"A community radio network is coordinated by Radio Regen, with stations covering Ardwick, Longsight and Levenshulme (All FM 96.9) and Wythenshawe (Wythenshawe FM 97.2).",
"Defunct radio stations include Sunset 102, which became Kiss 102, then Galaxy Manchester, and KFM which became Signal Cheshire (later Imagine FM).",
"These stations and pirate radio played a significant role in the city's house music culture, the Madchester scene."
],
[
"International relations",
"Manchester has formal twinning arrangements (or \"friendship agreements\") with several places.",
"In addition, the British Council maintains a metropolitan centre in Manchester.",
"* Amsterdam, Netherlands (2007)* Bilwi, Nicaragua* Chemnitz, Germany (1983)* Córdoba, Spain* Faisalabad, Pakistan (1997)* Los Angeles, United States (2009)* Rehovot, Israel* Saint Petersburg, Russia (1962)* Wuhan, People's Republic of China (1986)* Melbourne, Australia * Osaka, JapanManchester is home to the largest group of consuls in the UK outside London.",
"The expansion of international trade links during the Industrial Revolution led to the introduction of the first consuls in the 1820s and since then over 800, from all parts of the world, have been based in Manchester.",
"Manchester hosts consular services for most of the north of England."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Freemen of the City of Manchester* Manchester dialect* Symbols of Manchester, including the city's worker bee motif"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"===Architecture===* * * * * * ===General===* * * * * * * * ===Culture===* * * * * * * * ===Sport===* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official tourist board site"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Margaret Murray"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Margaret Alice Murray''' (13 July 1863 – 13 November 1963) was a British-Indian Egyptologist, archaeologist, anthropologist, historian, and folklorist who was born in India.",
"The first woman to be appointed as a lecturer in archaeology in the United Kingdom, she worked at University College London (UCL) from 1898 to 1935.She served as president of the Folklore Society from 1953 to 1955, and published widely over the course of her career.Born to a wealthy middle-class English family in Calcutta, British India, Murray divided her youth between India, Britain, and Germany, training as both a nurse and a social worker.",
"Moving to London, in 1894 she began studying Egyptology at UCL, developing a friendship with department head Flinders Petrie, who encouraged her early academic publications and appointed her junior lecturer in 1898.In 1902–03 she took part in Petrie's excavations at Abydos, Egypt, there discovering the Osireion temple and the following season investigated the Saqqara cemetery, both of which established her reputation in Egyptology.",
"Supplementing her UCL wage by giving public classes and lectures at the British Museum and Manchester Museum, it was at the latter in 1908 that she led the unwrapping of Khnum-nakht, one of the mummies recovered from the Tomb of two Brothersthe first time that a woman had publicly unwrapped a mummy.",
"Recognising that British Egyptomania reflected the existence of a widespread public interest in Ancient Egypt, Murray wrote several books on Egyptology targeted at a general audience.Murray also became closely involved in the first-wave feminist movement, joining the Women's Social and Political Union and devoting much time to improving women's status at UCL.",
"Unable to return to Egypt due to the First World War, she focused her research on the witch-cult hypothesis, the theory that the witch trials of Early Modern Christendom were an attempt to extinguish a surviving pre-Christian, pagan religion devoted to a Horned God.",
"Although later academically discredited, the theory gained widespread attention and proved a significant influence on the emerging new religious movement of Wicca.",
"From 1921 to 1931 Murray undertook excavations of prehistoric sites on Malta and Menorca and developed her interest in folkloristics.",
"Awarded an honorary doctorate in 1927, she was appointed assistant professor in 1928 and retired from UCL in 1935.That year she visited Palestine to aid Petrie's excavation of Tall al-Ajjul and in 1937 she led a small excavation at Petra in Jordan.",
"Taking on the presidency of the Folklore Society in later life, she lectured at such institutions as the University of Cambridge and City Literary Institute, and continued to publish in an independent capacity until her death.Murray's work in Egyptology and archaeology was widely acclaimed and earned her the nickname of \"The Grand Old Woman of Egyptology\", although after her death many of her contributions to the field were overshadowed by those of Petrie.",
"Conversely, Murray's work in folkloristics and the history of witchcraft has been academically discredited and her methods in these areas heavily criticised.",
"The influence of her witch-cult theory in both religion and literature has been examined by various scholars, and she herself has been dubbed the \"Grandmother of Wicca\"."
],
[
"Early life",
"===Youth: 1863–1893===Margaret Murray was born on 13 July 1863 in Calcutta, Bengal Presidency, then a major military city and the capital of British India.",
"She lived in the city with her family: parents James and Margaret Murray, an older sister named Mary, and her paternal grandmother and great-grandmother.",
"James Murray, born in India of English descent, was a businessman and manager of the Serampore paper mills who was thrice elected President of the Calcutta Chamber of Commerce.",
"His wife, Margaret (née Carr), had moved to India from Britain in 1857 to work as a missionary, preaching Christianity and educating Indian women.",
"She continued with this work after marrying James and giving birth to her two daughters.Although most of their lives were spent in the European area of Calcutta, which was walled off from the Indian sectors of the city, Murray encountered members of Indian society through her family's employment of ten Indian servants and through childhood holidays to Mussoorie.",
"The historian Amara Thornton has suggested that Murray's Indian childhood continued to exert an influence over her throughout her life, expressing the view that Murray could be seen as having a hybrid transnational identity that was both British and Indian.",
"During her childhood, Murray never received a formal education, and in later life expressed pride in the fact that she had never had to sit an exam before entering university.In 1870, Margaret and her sister Mary were sent to Britain, moving in with their uncle John, a vicar, and his wife Harriet at their home in Lambourn, Berkshire.",
"Although John provided them with a strongly Christian education and a belief in the inferiority of women, both of which she would reject, he awakened Murray's interest in archaeology through taking her to see local monuments.",
"In 1873, the girls' mother arrived in Europe and took them with her to Bonn in Germany, where they both became fluent in German.",
"In 1875 they returned to Calcutta, staying there till 1877.They then moved with their parents back to England, where they settled in Sydenham, South London.",
"There, they spent much time visiting The Crystal Palace, while their father worked at his firm's London office.",
"In 1880, they returned to Calcutta, where Margaret remained for the next seven years.",
"She became a nurse at the Calcutta General Hospital, which was run by the Sisters of the Anglican Sisterhood of Clower, and there was involved with the hospital's attempts to deal with a cholera outbreak.",
"In 1887, she returned to England, moving to Rugby, Warwickshire, where her uncle John, now widowed, had moved.",
"Here she took up employment as a social worker dealing with local underprivileged people.",
"When her father retired and moved to England, she moved into his house in Bushey Heath, Hertfordshire, living with him until his death in 1891.In 1893 she then travelled to Madras, Tamil Nadu, where her sister had moved to with her new husband.===Early years at University College London: 1894–1905===Murray studied Egyptology at the UCL Wilkins Building (pictured).Encouraged by her mother and sister, Murray decided to enroll at the newly opened department of Egyptology at University College London (UCL) in Bloomsbury, Central London.",
"Having been founded by an endowment from Amelia Edwards, one of the co-founders of the Egypt Exploration Fund (EEF), the department was run by the pioneering early archaeologist Sir William Flinders Petrie, and based in the Edwards Library of UCL's South Cloisters.",
"Murray began her studies at UCL at age 30 in January 1894, as part of a class composed largely of other women and older men.",
"There, she took courses in the Ancient Egyptian and Coptic languages which were taught by Francis Llewellyn Griffith and Walter Ewing Crum respectively.Murray soon got to know Petrie, becoming his copyist and illustrator and producing the drawings for the published report on his excavations at Qift, ''Koptos''.",
"In turn, he aided and encouraged her to write her first research paper, \"The Descent of Property in the Early Periods of Egyptian History\", which was published in the ''Proceedings of the Society for Biblical Archaeology'' in 1895.Becoming Petrie's ''de facto'' though unofficial assistant, Murray began to give some of the linguistic lessons in Griffith's absence.",
"In 1898 she was appointed to the position of junior lecturer, responsible for teaching the linguistic courses at the Egyptology department; this made her the first female lecturer in archaeology in the United Kingdom.",
"In this capacity, she spent two days a week at UCL, devoting the other days to caring for her ailing mother.",
"As time went on, she came to teach courses on Ancient Egyptian history, religion, and language.",
"Among Murray's students – to whom she referred as \"the Gang\" – were several who went on to produce noted contributions to Egyptology, including Reginald Engelbach, Georgina Aitken, Guy Brunton, and Myrtle Broome.",
"She supplemented her UCL salary by teaching evening classes in Egyptology at the British Museum.The Osireion (pictured), which was first excavated by MurrayAt this point, Murray had no experience in field archaeology, and so during the 1902–03 field season, she travelled to Egypt to join Petrie's excavations at Abydos.",
"Petrie and his wife, Hilda Petrie, had been excavating at the site since 1899, having taken over the archaeological investigation from French Coptic scholar Émile Amélineau.",
"Murray at first joined as site nurse, but was subsequently taught how to excavate by Petrie and given a senior position.",
"This led to some issues with some of the male excavators, who disliked the idea of taking orders from a woman.",
"This experience, coupled with discussions with other female excavators (some of whom were active in the feminist movement) led Murray to adopt openly feminist viewpoints.",
"While excavating at Abydos, Murray uncovered the Osireion, a temple devoted to the god Osiris which had been constructed by order of Pharaoh Seti I during the period of the New Kingdom.",
"She published her site report as ''The Osireion at Abydos'' in 1904; in the report, she examined the inscriptions that had been discovered at the site to discern the purpose and use of the building.During the 1903–04 field season, Murray returned to Egypt, and at Petrie's instruction began her investigations at the Saqqara cemetery near to Cairo, which dated from the period of the Old Kingdom.",
"Murray did not have legal permission to excavate the site, and instead spent her time transcribing the inscriptions from ten of the tombs that had been excavated during the 1860s by Auguste Mariette.",
"She published her findings in 1905 as ''Saqqara Mastabas I'', although would not publish translations of the inscriptions until 1937 as ''Saqqara Mastabas II''.",
"Both ''The Osireion at Abydos'' and ''Saqqara Mastabas I'' proved to be very influential in the Egyptological community, with Petrie recognising Murray's contribution to his own career.===Feminism, the First World War, and folklore: 1905–1920===Murray came to do much lecturing and cataloguing at Manchester Museum (pictured).On returning to London, Murray took an active role in the feminist movement, volunteering and financially donating to the cause and taking part in feminist demonstrations, protests, and marches.",
"Joining the Women's Social and Political Union, she was present at large marches like the Mud March of 1907 and the Women's Coronation Procession of June 1911.She concealed the militancy of her actions in order to retain the image of respectability within academia.",
"Murray also pushed the professional boundaries for women throughout her own career, and mentored other women in archaeology and throughout academia.",
"As women could not use the men's common room, she successfully campaigned for UCL to open a common room for women, and later ensured that a larger, better-equipped room was converted for the purpose; it was later renamed the Margaret Murray Room.",
"At UCL, she became a friend of fellow female lecturer Winifred Smith, and together they campaigned to improve the status and recognition of women in the university, with Murray becoming particularly annoyed at female staff who were afraid of upsetting or offending the male university establishment with their demands.",
"Feeling that students should get nutritious yet affordable lunches, for many years she sat on the UCL Refectory Committee.",
"She took on an unofficial administrative role within the Egyptology Department, and was largely responsible for introduction of a formal certificate in Egyptian archaeology in 1910.Various museums around the United Kingdom invited Murray to advise them on their Egyptological collections, resulting in her cataloguing the Egyptian artefacts owned by the Dublin National Museum, the National Museum of Antiquities in Edinburgh, and the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, being elected a Fellow of the latter in thanks.Petrie had established connections with the Egyptological wing of Manchester Museum in Manchester, and it was there that many of his finds had been housed.",
"Murray thus often travelled to the museum to catalogue these artefacts, and during the 1906–07 school year regularly lectured there.",
"In 1907, Petrie excavated the Tomb of the Two Brothers, a Middle Kingdom burial of two Egyptian priests, Nakht-ankh and Khnum-nakht, and it was decided that Murray would carry out the public unwrapping of the latter's mummified body.",
"Taking place at the museum in May 1908, it represented the first time that a woman had led a public mummy unwrapping and was attended by over 500 onlookers, attracting press attention.",
"Murray was particularly keen to emphasise the importance that the unwrapping would have for the scholarly understanding of the Middle Kingdom and its burial practices, and lashed out against members of the public who saw it as immoral; she declared that \"every vestige of ancient remains must be carefully studied and recorded without sentimentality and without fear of the outcry of the ignorant\".",
"She subsequently published a book about her analysis of the two bodies, ''The Tomb of the Two Brothers'', which remained a key publication on Middle Kingdom mummification practices into the 21st century.Glastonbury Abbey (pictured) inspired Murray's interest in British folklore.Murray was dedicated to public education, hoping to infuse Egyptomania with solid scholarship about Ancient Egypt, and to this end authored a series of books aimed at a general audience.",
"In 1905 she published ''Elementary Egyptian Grammar'' which was followed in 1911 by ''Elementary Coptic (Sahidic) Grammar''.",
"In 1913, she published ''Ancient Egyptian Legends'' for John Murray's \"The Wisdom of the East\" series.",
"She was particularly pleased with the increased public interest in Egyptology that followed Howard Carter's discovery of the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun in 1922.From at least 1911 until his death in 1940, Murray was a close friend of the anthropologist Charles Gabriel Seligman of the London School of Economics, and together they co-authored a variety of papers on Egyptology that were aimed at an anthropological audience.",
"Many of these dealt with subjects that Egyptological journals would not publish, such as the \"Sa\" sign for the uterus, and thus were published in ''Man'', the journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute.",
"It was at Seligman's recommendation that she was invited to become a member of the Institute in 1916.In 1914, Petrie launched the academic journal ''Ancient Egypt'', published through his own British School of Archaeology in Egypt (BSAE), which was based at UCL.",
"Given that he was often away from London excavating in Egypt, Murray was left to operate as ''de facto'' editor much of the time.",
"She also published many research articles in the journal and authored many of its book reviews, particularly of the German-language publications which Petrie could not read.The outbreak of the First World War in 1914, in which the United Kingdom went to war against Germany and the Ottoman Empire, meant that Petrie and other staff members were unable to return to Egypt for excavation.",
"Instead, Petrie and Murray spent much of the time reorganising the artefact collections that they had attained over the past decades.",
"To aid Britain's war effort, Murray enrolled as a volunteer nurse in the Volunteer Air Detachment of the College Women's Union Society, and for several weeks was posted to Saint-Malo in France.",
"After being taken ill herself, she was sent to recuperate in Glastonbury, Somerset, where she became interested in Glastonbury Abbey and the folklore surrounding it which connected it to the legendary figure of King Arthur and to the idea that the Holy Grail had been brought there by Joseph of Aramathea.",
"Pursuing this interest, she published the paper \"Egyptian Elements in the Grail Romance\" in the journal ''Ancient Egypt'', although few agreed with her conclusions and it was criticised for making unsubstantiated leaps with the evidence by the likes of Jessie Weston."
],
[
"Later life",
"===Witch-cult, Malta, and Menorca: 1921–1935===Murray's interest in folklore led her to develop an interest in the witch trials of Early Modern Europe.",
"In 1917, she published a paper in ''Folklore'', the journal of the Folklore Society, in which she first articulated her version of the witch-cult theory, arguing that the witches persecuted in European history were actually followers of \"a definite religion with beliefs, ritual, and organization as highly developed as that of any cult in the end\".",
"She followed this up with papers on the subject in the journals ''Man'' and the ''Scottish Historical Review''.",
"She articulated these views more fully in her 1921 book ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'', published by Oxford University Press after receiving a positive peer review by Henry Balfour, and which received both criticism and support on publication.",
"Many reviews in academic journals were critical, with historians claiming that she had distorted and misinterpreted the contemporary records that she was using, but the book was nevertheless influential.Murray in London in 1928As a result of her work in this area, she was invited to provide the entry on \"witchcraft\" for the fourteenth edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' in 1929.She used the opportunity to propagate her own witch-cult theory, failing to mention the alternate theories proposed by other academics.",
"Her entry would be included in the encyclopedia until 1969, becoming readily accessible to the public, and it was for this reason that her ideas on the subject had such a significant impact.",
"It received a particularly enthusiastic reception by occultists such as Dion Fortune, Lewis Spence, Ralph Shirley, and J. W. Brodie Innes, perhaps because its claims regarding an ancient secret society chimed with similar claims common among various occult groups.",
"Murray joined the Folklore Society in February 1927, and was elected to the society's council a month later, although she stood down in 1929.Murray reiterated her witch-cult theory in her 1933 book, ''The God of the Witches'', which was aimed at a wider, non-academic audience.",
"In this book, she cut out or toned down what she saw as the more unpleasant aspects of the witch-cult, such as animal and child sacrifice, and began describing the religion in more positive terms as \"the Old Religion\".At UCL, Murray was promoted to lecturer in 1921 and to senior lecturer in 1922.From 1921 to 1927, she led archaeological excavations on Malta, assisted by Edith Guest and Gertrude Caton Thompson.",
"She excavated the Bronze Age megalithic monuments of Santa Sofia, Santa Maria tal-Bakkari, Għar Dalam, and Borġ in-Nadur, all of which were threatened by the construction of a new aerodrome.",
"In this she was funded by the Percy Sladen Memorial Fund.",
"Her resulting three-volume excavation report came to be seen as an important publication within the field of Maltese archaeology.",
"During the excavations, she had taken an interest in the island's folklore, resulting in the 1932 publication of her book ''Maltese Folktales'', much of which was a translation of earlier stories collected by Manuel Magri and her friend Liza Galea.",
"In 1932 Murray returned to Malta to aid in the cataloguing of the Bronze Age pottery collection held in Malta Museum, resulting in another publication, ''Corpus of the Bronze Age Pottery of Malta''.Murray excavated at Borġ in-Nadur in Malta (pictured).On the basis of her work in Malta, Louis Clarke, the curator of the Cambridge Museum of Ethnology and Anthropology, invited her to lead excavations on the island of Menorca from 1930 to 1931.With the aid of Guest, she excavated the talaiotic sites of Trepucó and Sa Torreta de Tramuntana, resulting in the publication of ''Cambridge Excavations in Minorca''.",
"Murray also continued to publish works on Egyptology for a general audience, such as ''Egyptian Sculpture'' (1930) and ''Egyptian Temples'' (1931), which received largely positive reviews.",
"In the summer of 1925 she led a team of volunteers to excavate Homestead Moat in Whomerle Wood near to Stevenage, Hertfordshire; she did not publish an excavation report and did not mention the event in her autobiography, with her motives for carrying out the excavation remaining unclear.In 1924, UCL promoted Murray to the position of assistant professor, and in 1927 she was awarded an honorary doctorate for her career in Egyptology.",
"That year, Murray was tasked with guiding Mary of Teck, the Queen consort, around the Egyptology department during the latter's visit to UCL.",
"The pressures of teaching had eased by this point, allowing Murray to spend more time travelling internationally; in 1920 she returned to Egypt and in 1929 visited South Africa, where she attended the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, whose theme was the prehistory of southern Africa.",
"In the early 1930s she travelled to the Soviet Union, where she visited museums in Leningrad, Moscow, Kharkiv, and Kyiv, and then in late 1935 she undertook a lecture tour of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Estonia.Although having reached legal retirement age in 1927, and thus unable to be offered another five-year contract, Murray was reappointed on an annual basis each year until 1935.At this point, she retired, expressing the opinion that she was glad to leave UCL, for reasons that she did not make clear.",
"In 1933, Petrie had retired from UCL and moved to Jerusalem in Mandatory Palestine with his wife; Murray therefore took over as editor of the ''Ancient Egypt'' journal, renaming it ''Ancient Egypt and the East'' to reflect its increasing research interest in the ancient societies that surrounded and interacted with Egypt.",
"The journal folded in 1935, perhaps due to Murray's retirement.",
"Murray then spent some time in Jerusalem, where she aided the Petries in their excavation at Tall al-Ajjul, a Bronze Age mound south of Gaza.===Petra, Cambridge, and London: 1935–1953===Murray in 1938During Murray's 1935 trip to Palestine, she had taken the opportunity to visit Petra in neighbouring Jordan.",
"Intrigued by the site, in March and April 1937 she returned in order to carry out a small excavation in several cave dwellings at the site, subsequently writing both an excavation report and a guidebook on Petra.",
"Back in England, from 1934 to 1940, Murray aided the cataloguing of Egyptian antiquities at Girton College, Cambridge, and also gave lectures in Egyptology at the university until 1942.Her interest in folklore more broadly continued and she wrote the introduction to ''Lincolshire Folklore'' by Ethel Rudkin, in which she discussed how superior women were as folklorists to men.During the Second World War, Murray evaded the Blitz of London by moving to Cambridge, where she volunteered for a group (probably the Army Bureau of Current Affairs or The British Way and Purpose) who educated military personnel to prepare them for post-war life.",
"Based in the city, she embarked on research into the town's Early Modern history, examining documents stored in local parish churches, Downing College, and Ely Cathedral; she never published her findings.",
"In 1945, she briefly became involved in the \"Who put Bella in the Wych Elm?\"",
"murder case.After the war ended she returned to London, settling into a bedsit room in Endsleigh Street, which was close to University College London (UCL) and the Institute of Archaeology (then an independent institution, now part of UCL); she continued her involvement with the former and made use of the latter's library.",
"On most days she visited the British Museum in order to consult their library, and twice a week she taught adult education classes on Ancient Egyptian history and religion at the City Literary Institute; upon her retirement from this position she nominated her former pupil, Veronica Seton-Williams, to replace her.Murray's interest in popularising Egyptology among the wider public continued; in 1949 she published ''Ancient Egyptian Religious Poetry'', her second work for John Murray's \"The Wisdom of the East\" series.",
"That year she also published ''The Splendour That Was Egypt'', in which she collated many of her UCL lectures.",
"The book adopted a diffusionist perspective that argued that Egypt influenced Greco-Roman society and thus modern Western society.",
"This was seen as a compromise between Petrie's belief that other societies influenced the emergence of Egyptian civilisation and Grafton Elliot Smith's highly unorthodox and heavily criticised hyperdiffusionist view that Egypt was the source of all global civilisation.",
"The book received a mixed reception from the archaeological community.===Final years: 1953–1963===In 1953, Murray was appointed to the presidency of the Folklore Society following the resignation of former president Allan Gomme.",
"The Society had initially approached John Mavrogordato for the post, but he had declined, with Murray accepting the nomination several months later.",
"Murray remained president for two terms, until 1955.In her 1954 presidential address, \"England as a Field for Folklore Research\", she lamented what she saw as the English people's disinterest in their own folklore in favour of that from other nations.",
"For the autumn 1961 issue of ''Folklore'', the society published a ''festschrift'' to Murray to commemorate her 98th birthday.",
"The issue contained contributions from various scholars paying tribute to her – with papers dealing with archaeology, fairies, Near Eastern religious symbols, Greek folk songs – but notably not about witchcraft, potentially because no other folklorists were willing to defend her witch-cult theory.In May 1957, Murray had championed the archaeologist T. C. Lethbridge's controversial claims that he had discovered three pre-Christian chalk hill figures on Wandlebury Hill in the Gog Magog Hills, Cambridgeshire.",
"Privately she expressed concern about the reality of the figures.",
"Lethbridge subsequently authored a book championing her witch-cult theory in which he sought the cult's origins in pre-Christian culture.",
"In 1960, she donated her collection of papers – including correspondences with a wide range of individuals across the country – to the Folklore Society Archive, where it is now known as \"the Murray Collection\".Murray being interviewed by the BBC, Crippled with arthritis, Murray had moved into a home in North Finchley, north London, where she was cared for by a retired couple who were trained nurses; from here she occasionally took taxis into central London to visit the UCL library.Amid failing health, in 1962 Murray moved into the Queen Victoria Memorial Hospital in Welwyn, Hertfordshire, where she could receive 24-hour care; she lived here for the final 18 months of her life.",
"To mark her hundredth birthday, on 13 July 1963 a group of her friends, former students, and doctors gathered for a party at nearby Ayot St. Lawrence.",
"Two days later, her doctor drove her to UCL for a second birthday party, again attended by many of her friends, colleagues, and former students; it was the last time that she visited the university.",
"In ''Man'', the journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, it was noted that Murray was \"the only Fellow of the Institute to reach their centenary within living memory, if not in its whole history\".",
"That year she published two books; one was ''The Genesis of Religion'', in which she argued that humanity's first deities had been goddesses rather than male gods.",
"The second was her autobiography, ''My First Hundred Years'', which received predominantly positive reviews.",
"She died on 13 November 1963, and her body was cremated."
],
[
"Murray's witch-cult hypotheses",
"The later folklorists Caroline Oates and Juliette Wood have suggested that Murray was best known for her witch-cult theory, with biographer Margaret S. Drower expressing the view that it was her work on this subject which \"perhaps more than any other, made her known to the general public\".",
"It has been claimed that Murray's was the \"first feminist study of the witch trials\", as well as being the first to have actually \"empowered the witches\" by giving the (largely female) accused both free will and a voice distinct from that of their interrogators.",
"The theory was faulty, in part because all of her academic training was in Egyptology, with no background knowledge in European history, but also because she exhibited a \"tendency to generalize wildly on the basis of very slender evidence\".",
"Oates and Wood, however, noted that Murray's interpretations of the evidence fit within wider perspectives on the past that existed at the time, stating that \"Murray was far from isolated in her method of reading ancient ritual origins into later myths\".",
"In particular, her approach was influenced by the work of the anthropologist James Frazer, who had argued for the existence of a pervasive dying-and-resurrecting god myth, and she was also influenced by the interpretative approaches of E. O. James, Karl Pearson, Herbert Fleure, and Harold Peake.===Argument===In ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'', Murray stated that she had restricted her research to Great Britain, although made some recourse to sources from France, Flanders, and New England.",
"She drew a division between what she termed \"Operative Witchcraft\", which referred to the performance of charms and spells with any purpose, and \"Ritual Witchcraft\", by which she meant \"the ancient religion of Western Europe\", a fertility-based faith that she also termed \"the Dianic cult\".",
"She claimed that the cult had \"very probably\" once been devoted to the worship of both a male deity and a \"Mother Goddess\" but that \"at the time when the cult is recorded the worship of the male deity appears to have superseded that of the female\".",
"In her argument, Murray claimed that the figure referred to as the Devil in the trial accounts was the witches' god, \"manifest and incarnate\", to whom the witches offered their prayers.",
"She claimed that at the witches' meetings, the god would be personified, usually by a man or at times by a woman or an animal; when a human personified this entity, Murray claimed that they were usually dressed plainly, though they appeared in full costume for the witches' Sabbaths.Members joined the cult either as children or adults through what Murray called \"admission ceremonies\"; Murray asserted that applicants had to agree to join of their own free will, and agree to devote themselves to the service of their deity.",
"She also claimed that in some cases, these individuals had to sign a covenant or were baptised into the faith.",
"At the same time, she claimed that the religion was largely passed down hereditary lines.",
"Murray described the religion as being divided into covens containing thirteen members, led by a coven officer who was often termed the \"Devil\" in the trial accounts, but who was accountable to a \"Grand Master\".",
"According to Murray, the records of the coven were kept in a secret book, with the coven also disciplining its members, to the extent of executing those deemed traitors.Describing this witch-cult as \"a joyous religion\", she claimed that the two primary festivals that it celebrated were on May Eve and November Eve, although that other dates of religious observation were 1 February and 1 August, the winter and summer solstices, and Easter.",
"She asserted that the \"General Meeting of all members of the religion\" were known as Sabbaths, while the more private ritual meetings were known as Esbats.",
"The Esbats, Murray claimed, were nocturnal rites that began at midnight, and were \"primarily for business, whereas the Sabbath was purely religious\".",
"At the former, magical rites were performed both for malevolent and benevolent ends.",
"She also asserted that the Sabbath ceremonies involved the witches paying homage to the deity, renewing their \"vows of fidelity and obedience\" to him, and providing him with accounts of all the magical actions that they had conducted since the previous Sabbath.",
"Once this business had been concluded, admissions to the cult or marriages were conducted, ceremonies and fertility rites took place, and then the Sabbath ended with feasting and dancing.The Devil on horseback.",
"''Nuremberg Chronicle'' (1493).Deeming Ritual Witchcraft to be \"a fertility cult\", she asserted that many of its rites were designed to ensure fertility and rain-making.",
"She claimed that there were four types of sacrifice performed by the witches: blood-sacrifice, in which the neophyte writes their name in blood; the sacrifice of animals; the sacrifice of a non-Christian child to procure magical powers; and the sacrifice of the witches' god by fire to ensure fertility.She interpreted accounts of witches shapeshifting into various animals as being representative of a rite in which the witches dressed as specific animals which they took to be sacred.",
"She asserted that accounts of familiars were based on the witches' use of animals, which she divided into \"divining familiars\" used in divination and \"domestic familiars\" used in other magic rites.Murray asserted that a pre-Christian fertility-based religion had survived the Christianization process in Britain, although that it came to be \"practised only in certain places and among certain classes of the community\".",
"She believed that folkloric stories of fairies in Britain were based on a surviving race of dwarfs, who continued to live on the island up until the Early Modern period.",
"She asserted that this race followed the same pagan religion as the witches, thus explaining the folkloric connection between the two.",
"In the appendices to the book, she also alleged that Joan of Arc and Gilles de Rais were members of the witch-cult and were executed for it, a claim which has been refuted by historians, especially in the case of Joan of Arc.The later historian Ronald Hutton commented that ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'' \"rested upon a small amount of archival research, with extensive use of printed trial records in 19th-century editions, plus early modern pamphlets and works of demonology\".",
"He also noted that the book's tone was generally \"dry and clinical, and every assertion was meticulously footnoted to a source, with lavish quotation\".",
"It was not a bestseller; in its first thirty years, only 2,020 copies were sold.",
"However, it led many people to treat Murray as an authority on the subject; in 1929, she was invited to provide the entry on \"Witchcraft\" for the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', and used it to present her interpretation of the subject as if it were universally accepted in scholarship.",
"It remained in the encyclopedia until being replaced in 1969.Murray followed ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'' with ''The God of the Witches'', published by the popular press Sampson Low in 1931; although similar in content, unlike her previous volume it was aimed at a mass market audience.",
"The tone of the book also differed strongly from its predecessor, containing \"emotionally inflated language and coloured with religious phraseology\" and repeatedly referring to the witch-cult as \"the Old Religion\".",
"In this book she also \"cut out or toned down\" many of the claims made in her previous volume which would have painted the cult in a bad light, such as those which discussed sex and the sacrifice of animals and children.In this book she began to refer to the witches' deity as the Horned God, and asserted that it was an entity who had been worshipped in Europe since the Palaeolithic.She further asserted that in the Bronze Age, the worship of the deity could be found throughout Europe, Asia, and parts of Africa, claiming that the depiction of various horned figures from these societies proved that.",
"Among the evidence cited were the horned figures found at Mohenjo-Daro, which are often interpreted as depictions of Pashupati, as well as the deities Osiris and Amon in Egypt and the Minotaur of Minoan Crete.",
"Within continental Europe, she claimed that the Horned God was represented by Pan in Greece, Cernunnos in Gaul, and in various Scandinavian rock carvings.",
"Claiming that this divinity had been declared the Devil by the Christian authorities, she nevertheless asserted that his worship was testified in officially Christian societies right through to the Modern period, citing folkloric practices such as the Dorset Ooser and the Puck Fair as evidence of his veneration.In 1954, she published ''The Divine King in England'', in which she greatly extended on the theory, taking influence from Frazer's ''The Golden Bough'', an anthropological book that made the claim that societies all over the world sacrificed their kings to the deities of nature.",
"In her book, she claimed that this practice had continued into medieval England, and that, for instance, the death of William II was really a ritual sacrifice.No academic took the book seriously, and it was ignored by many of her supporters.===Academic reception=======Early support====Upon initial publication, Murray's thesis gained a favourable reception from many readers, including some significant scholars, albeit none who were experts in the witch trials.",
"Historians of Early Modern Britain like George Norman Clark and Christopher Hill incorporated her theories into their work, although the latter subsequently distanced himself from the theory.",
"For the 1961 reprint of ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'', the Medieval historian Steven Runciman provided a foreword in which he accepted that some of Murray's \"minor details may be open to criticism\", but in which he was otherwise supportive of her thesis.",
"Her theories were recapitulated by Arno Runeberg in his 1947 book ''Witches, Demons and Fertility Magic'' as well as Pennethorne Hughes in his 1952 book ''Witches''.",
"As a result, the Canadian historian Elliot Rose, writing in 1962, claimed that the Murrayite interpretations of the witch trials \"seem to hold, at the time of writing, an almost undisputed sway at the higher intellectual levels\", being widely accepted among \"educated people\".Rose suggested that the reason that Murray's theory gained such support was partly because of her \"imposing credentials\" as a member of staff at UCL, a position that lent her theory greater legitimacy in the eyes of many readers.",
"He further suggested that the Murrayite view was attractive to many as it confirmed \"the general picture of pre-Christian Europe a reader of Frazer or Robert Graves|Robert Graves would be familiar with\".",
"Similarly, Hutton suggested that the cause of the Murrayite theory's popularity was because it \"appealed to so many of the emotional impulses of the age\", including \"the notion of the English countryside as a timeless place full of ancient secrets\", the literary popularity of Pan, the widespread belief that the majority of British had remained pagan long after the process of Christianisation, and the idea that folk customs represented pagan survivals.",
"At the same time, Hutton suggested, it seemed more plausible to many than the previously dominant rationalist idea that the witch trials were the result of mass delusion.",
"Related to this, the folklorist Jacqueline Simpson suggested that part of the Murrayite theory's appeal was that it appeared to give a \"sensible, demystifying, liberating approach to a longstanding but sterile argument\" between the rationalists who denied that there had been any witches and those, like Montague Summers, who insisted that there had been a real Satanic conspiracy against Christendom in the Early Modern period replete with witches with supernatural powers.",
"\"How refreshing\", noted the historian Hilda Ellis Davidson, \"and exciting her first book was .",
"A new approach, and such a surprising one.",
"\"====Early criticism====Murray's theories never received support from experts in the Early Modern witch trials, and from her early publications onward many of her ideas were challenged by those who highlighted her \"factual errors and methodological failings\".",
"Indeed, the majority of scholarly reviews of her work produced during the 1920s and 1930s were largely critical.",
"George L. Burr reviewed both of her initial books on the witch-cult for the ''American Historical Review''.",
"He stated that she was not acquainted with the \"careful general histories by modern scholars\" and criticised her for assuming that the trial accounts accurately reflected the accused witches' genuine experiences of witchcraft, regardless of whether those confessions had been obtained through torture and coercion.",
"He also charged her with selectively using the evidence to serve her interpretation, for instance by omitting any supernatural or miraculous events that appear in the trial accounts.",
"W. R. Halliday was highly critical in his review for ''Folklore'', as was E. M. Loeb in his review for ''American Anthropologist''.Soon after, one of the foremost specialists of the trial records, L'Estrange Ewen, brought out a series of books which rejected Murray's interpretation.Rose suggested that Murray's books on the witch-cult \"contain an incredible number of minor errors of fact or of calculation and several inconsistencies of reasoning\".",
"He accepted that her case \"could, perhaps, still be proved by somebody else, though I very much doubt it\".",
"Highlighting that there is a gap of about a thousand years between the Christianisation of Britain and the start of the witch trials there, he argues that there is no evidence for the existence of the witch-cult anywhere in the intervening period.",
"He further criticises Murray for treating pre-Christian Britain as a socially and culturally monolithic entity, whereas in reality, it contained a diverse array of societies and religious beliefs.",
"He also challenges Murray's claim that the majority of Britons in the Middle Ages remained pagan as \"a view grounded on ignorance alone\".Murray did not respond directly to the criticisms of her work, but reacted to her critics in a hostile manner; in later life she asserted that she eventually ceased reading reviews of her work, and believed that her critics were simply acting out of their own Christian prejudices to non-Christian religion.Simpson noted that despite these critical reviews, within the field of British folkloristics, Murray's theories were permitted \"to pass unapproved but unchallenged, either out of politeness or because nobody was really interested enough to research the topic\".",
"As evidence, she noted that no substantial research articles on the subject of witchcraft were published in ''Folklore'' between Murray's in 1917 and Rossell Hope Robbins's in 1963.She also highlighted that when regional studies of British folklore were published in this period by folklorists like Theo Brown, Ruth Tongue, or Enid Porter, none adopted the Murrayite framework for interpreting witchcraft beliefs, thus evidencing her claim that Murray's theories were widely ignored by scholars of folkloristics.====Academic rejection====Murray's work was increasingly criticised following her death in 1963, with the definitive academic rejection of the Murrayite witch-cult theory occurring during the 1970s.",
"During these decades, a variety of scholars across Europe and North America – such as Alan Macfarlane, Erik Midelfort, William Monter, Robert Muchembled, Gerhard Schormann, Bente Alver and Bengt Ankarloo – published in-depth studies of the archival records from the witch trials, leaving no doubt that those tried for witchcraft were not practitioners of a surviving pre-Christian religion.In 1971, the English historian Keith Thomas stated that on the basis of this research, there was \"very little evidence to suggest that the accused witches were either devil-worshippers or members of a pagan fertility cult\".",
"He stated that Murray's conclusions were \"almost totally groundless\" because she ignored the systematic study of the trial accounts provided by Ewen and instead used sources very selectively to argue her point.In 1975, the historian Norman Cohn commented that Murray's \"knowledge of European history, even of English history, was superficial and her grasp of historical method was non-existent\", adding that her ideas were \"firmly set in an exaggerated and distorted version of the Frazerian mould\".",
"That same year, the historian of religion Mircea Eliade described Murray's work as \"hopelessly inadequate\", containing \"numberless and appalling errors\".",
"In 1996, the feminist historian Diane Purkiss stated that although Murray's thesis was \"intrinsically improbable\" and commanded \"little or no allegiance within the modern academy\", she felt that male scholars like Thomas, Cohn, and Macfarlane had unfairly adopted an androcentric approach by which they contrasted their own, male and methodologically sound interpretation against Murray's \"feminised belief\" about the witch-cult.Hutton stated that Murray had treated her source material with \"reckless abandon\", in that she had taken \"vivid details of alleged witch practices\" from \"sources scattered across a great extent of space and time\" and then declared them to be normative of the cult as a whole.",
"Simpson outlined how Murray had selected her use of evidence very specifically, particularly by ignoring and/or rationalising any accounts of supernatural or miraculous events in the trial records, thereby distorting the events that she was describing.",
"Thus, Simpson pointed out, Murray rationalised claims that the cloven-hoofed Devil appeared at the witches' Sabbath by stating that he was a man with a special kind of shoe, and similarly asserted that witches' claims to have flown through the air on broomsticks were actually based on their practice of either hopping along on broomsticks or smearing hallucinogenic salves onto themselves.",
"Concurring with this assessment, the historian Jeffrey Burton Russell, writing with the independent author Brooks Alexander, stated that \"Murray's use of sources, in general, is appalling\".",
"The pair went on to claim that \"today, scholars are agreed that Murray was more than just wrong – she was completely and embarrassingly wrong on nearly all of her basic premises\".The Italian historian Carlo Ginzburg has been cited as being willing to give \"some slight support\" to Murray's theory.",
"Ginzburg stated that although her thesis had been \"formulated in a wholly uncritical way\" and contained \"serious defects\", it did contain \"a kernel of truth\".",
"He stated his opinion that she was right in claiming that European witchcraft had \"roots in an ancient fertility cult\", something that he argued was vindicated by his work researching the , an agrarian visionary tradition recorded in the Friuli district of Northeastern Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries.",
"Several historians and folklorists have pointed out that Ginzburg's arguments are very different to Murray's: whereas Murray argued for the existence of a pre-Christian witches' cult whose members physically met during the witches' Sabbaths, Ginzburg argued that some of the European visionary traditions that were conflated with witchcraft in the Early Modern period had their origins in pre-Christian fertility religions.",
"Moreover, other historians have expressed criticism of Ginzburg's interpretation of the ; Cohn stated that there was \"nothing whatsoever\" in the source material to justify the idea that the were the \"survival of an age-old fertility cult\".",
"Echoing these views, Hutton commented that Ginzburg's claim that the 's visionary traditions were a survival from pre-Christian practices was an idea resting on \"imperfect material and conceptual foundations\".",
"He added that Ginzburg's \"assumption\" that \"what was being dreamed about in the sixteenth century had in fact been acted out in religious ceremonies\" dating to \"pagan times\", was entirely \"an inference of his own\" and not one supported by the documentary evidence."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Bust of Murray held in the library of the UCL Institute of Archaeology.",
"The bronze cast was produced by Stephen Rickard after having been commissioned by Murray's student Violet MacDermot.On researching the history of UCL's Egyptology department, the historian Rosalind M. Janssen stated that Murray was \"remembered with gratitude and immense affection by all her former students.",
"A wise and witty teacher, two generations of Egyptologists have forever been in her debt.\"",
"Alongside teaching them, Murray was known to socialise with her UCL students outside of class hours.",
"The archaeologist Ralph Merrifield, who knew Murray through the Folklore Society, described her as a \"diminutive and kindly scholar, who radiated intelligence and strength of character into extreme old age\".",
"Davidson, who also knew Murray through the Society, noted that at their meetings \"she would sit near the front, a bent and seemingly guileless old lady dozing peacefully, and then in the middle of a discussion would suddenly intervene with a relevant and penetrating comment which showed that she had missed not one word of the argument\".",
"The later folklorist Juliette Wood noted that many members of the Folklore Society \"remember her fondly\", adding that Murray had been \"especially keen to encourage younger researchers, even those who disagreed with her ideas\".One of Murray's friends in the Society, E. O. James, described her as a \"mine of information and a perpetual inspiration ever ready to impart her vast and varied stores of specialised knowledge without reserve, or, be it said, much if any regard for the generally accepted opinions and conclusions of the experts!\"",
"Davidson described her as being \"not at all assertive... she never thrust her ideas on anyone.",
"In relation to her witch-cult theory, she behaved in fact rather like someone who was a fully convinced member of some unusual religious sect, or perhaps, of the Freemasons, but never on any account got into arguments about it in public.\"",
"The archaeologist Glyn Daniel observed that Murray remained mentally alert into her old age, commenting that \"her vigour and forthrightness and ruthless energy never deserted her\".Murray never married, instead devoting her life to her work, and for this reason, Hutton drew comparisons between her and two other prominent female British scholars of the period, Jane Harrison and Jessie Weston.",
"Murray's biographer Kathleen L. Sheppard stated that she was deeply committed to public outreach, particularly when it came to Egyptology, and that as such she \"wanted to change the means by which the public obtained knowledge about Egypt's history: she wished to throw open the doors to the scientific laboratory and invite the public in\".",
"She considered travel to be one of her favourite activities, although due to restraints on her time and finances she was unable to do this regularly; her salary remained small and the revenue from her books was meagre.Raised a devout Christian by her mother, Murray had initially become a Sunday School teacher to preach the faith, but after entering the academic profession she rejected religion, gaining a reputation among other members of the Folklore Society as a noted sceptic and a rationalist.",
"She was openly critical of organised religion, although continued to maintain a personal belief in a God of some sort, relating in her autobiography that she believed in \"an unseen over-ruling Power\", \"which science calls Nature and religion calls God\".She was also a believer and a practitioner of magic, performing curses against those she felt deserved it; in one case she cursed a fellow academic, Jaroslav Černý, when she felt that his promotion to the position of Professor of Egyptology over her friend Walter Bryan Emery was unworthy.",
"Her curse entailed mixing up ingredients in a frying pan, and was undertaken in the presence of two colleagues.",
"In another instance, she was said to have created a wax image of Kaiser Wilhelm II and then melted it during the First World War.",
"Ruth Whitehouse argues that, given Murray's lack of mention of such incidents in her autobiography and generally rational approach, a \"spirit of mischief\" as opposed to \"a real belief in the efficacy of the spells\" may have motivated her practice of magic."
],
[
"Legacy",
"===In academia===Hutton noted that Murray was one of the earliest women to \"make a serious impact upon the world of professional scholarship\", and the archaeologist Niall Finneran described her as \"one of the greatest characters of post-war British archaeology\".",
"Upon her death, Daniel referred to her as \"the Grand Old Woman of Egyptology\", with Hutton noting that Egyptology represented \"the core of her academic career\".",
"In 2014, Thornton referred to her as \"one of Britain's most famous Egyptologists\".",
"However, according to the archaeologist Ruth Whitehouse, Murray's contributions to archaeology and Egyptology were often overlooked as her work was overshadowed by that of Petrie, to the extent that she was often thought of primarily as one of Petrie's assistants rather than as a scholar in her own right.",
"By her retirement she had come to be highly regarded within the discipline, although, according to Whitehouse, Murray's reputation declined following her death, something that Whitehouse attributed to the rejection of her witch-cult theory and the general erasure of women archaeologists from the discipline's male-dominated history.In his obituary for Murray in ''Folklore'', James noted that her death was \"an event of unusual interest and importance in the annals of the Folk-Lore Society in particular as well as in the wider sphere in which her influence was felt in so many directions anddisciplines\".",
"However, later academic folklorists, such as Simpson and Wood, have cited Murray and her witch-cult theory as an embarrassment to their field, and to the Folklore Society specifically.",
"Simpson suggested that Murray's position as President of the Society was a causal factor in the mistrustful attitude that many historians held toward folkloristics as an academic discipline, as they erroneously came to believe that all folklorists endorsed Murray's ideas.",
"Similarly, Catherine Noble stated that \"Murray caused considerable damage to the study of witchcraft\".In 1935, UCL introduced the Margaret Murray Prize, awarded to the student who is deemed to have produced the best dissertation in Egyptology; it continued to be presented annually into the 21st century.",
"In 1969, UCL named one of their common rooms in her honour, but it was converted into an office in 1989.In June 1983, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother visited the room and there was gifted a copy of Murray's ''My First Hundred Years''.",
"UCL also hold two busts of Murray, one kept in the Petrie Museum and the other in the library of the UCL Institute of Archaeology.",
"This sculpture was commissioned by one of her students, Violet MacDermot, and produced by the artist Stephen Rickard.",
"UCL also possess a watercolour painting of Murray by Winifred Brunton; formerly exhibited in the Petrie Gallery, it was later placed into the Art Collection stores.In 2013, on the 150th anniversary of Murray's birth and the 50th of her death, the UCL Institute of Archaeology's Ruth Whitehouse described Murray as \"a remarkable woman\" whose life was \"well worth celebrating, both in the archaeological world at large and especially in UCL\".The historian of archaeology Rosalind M. Janssen titled her study of Egyptology at UCL ''The First Hundred Years'' \"as a tribute\" to Murray.",
"Murray's friend Margaret Stefana Drower authored a short biography of her, which was included as a chapter in the 2004 edited volume on ''Breaking Ground: Pioneering Women Archaeologists''.",
"In 2013, Lexington Books published ''The Life of Margaret Alice Murray: A Woman's Work in Archaeology'', a biography of Murray authored by Kathleen L. Sheppard, then an assistant professor at Missouri University of Science and Technology; the book was based upon Sheppard's doctoral dissertation produced at the University of Oklahoma.",
"Although characterising it as being \"written in a clear and engaging manner\", one reviewer noted that Sheppard's book focuses on Murray the \"scientist\" and as such neglects to discuss Murray's involvement in magical practices and her relationship with Wicca.===In Wicca===A sculpture of the Horned God of Wicca found in the Museum of Witchcraft and Magic in Boscastle, CornwallMurray's witch-cult theories provided the blueprint for the contemporary Pagan religion of Wicca, with Murray being referred to as the \"Grandmother of Wicca\".",
"The Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White stated that it was the theory which \"formed the historical narrative around which Wicca built itself\", for on its emergence in England during the 1940s and 1950s, Wicca claimed to be the survival of this witch-cult.",
"Wicca's theological structure, revolving around a Horned God and Mother Goddess, was adopted from Murray's ideas about the ancient witch-cult, and Wiccan groups were named ''covens'' and their meetings termed ''esbats'', both words that Murray had popularised.",
"As with Murray's witch-cult, Wicca's practitioners entered via an initiation ceremony; Murray's claims that witches wrote down their spells in a book may have been an influence on Wicca's Book of Shadows.",
"Wicca's early system of seasonal festivities were also based on Murray's framework.Noting that there is no evidence of Wicca existing before the publication of Murray's books, Merrifield commented that for those in 20th century Britain who wished to form their own witches' covens, \"Murray may have seemed the ideal fairy godmother, and her theory became the pumpkin coach that could transport them into the realm of fantasy for which they longed\".",
"The historian Philip Heselton suggested that the New Forest coven – the oldest alleged Wiccan group – was founded ''circa'' 1935 by esotericists aware of Murray's theory and who may have believed themselves to be reincarnated witch-cult members.",
"It was Gerald Gardner, who claimed to be an initiate of the New Forest coven, who established the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca and popularised the religion; according to Simpson, Gardner was the only member of the Folklore Society to \"wholeheartedly\" accept Murray's witch-cult hypothesis.",
"The duo knew each other, with Murray writing the foreword to Gardner's 1954 book ''Witchcraft Today'', although in that foreword she did not explicitly specify whether she believed Gardner's claim that he had discovered a survival of her witch-cult.",
"In 2005, Noble suggested that \"Murray's name might be all but forgotten today if it were not for Gerald Gardner\".Murray's witch-cult theories were likely also a core influence on the non-Gardnerian Wiccan traditions that were established in Britain and Australia between 1930 and 1970 by the likes of Bob Clay-Egerton, Robert Cochrane, Charles Cardell, and Rosaleen Norton.The prominent Wiccan Doreen Valiente eagerly searched for what she believed were other surviving remnants of the Murrayite witch-cult around Britain.",
"Valiente remained committed to a belief in Murray's witch-cult after its academic rejection, and she described Murray as \"a remarkable woman\".",
"In San Francisco during the late 1960s, Murray's writings were among the sources used by Aidan A. Kelly in the creation of his Wiccan tradition, the New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn.",
"In Los Angeles during the early 1970s, they were used by Zsuzsanna Budapest when she was establishing her feminist-oriented tradition of Dianic Wicca.",
"The Murrayite witch-cult theory also provided the basis for the ideas espoused in ''Witchcraft and the Gay Counterculture'', a 1978 book written by the American gay liberation activist Arthur Evans.Members of the Wiccan community gradually became aware of academia's rejection of the witch-cult theory.",
"Accordingly, belief in its literal truth declined during the 1980s and 1990s, with many Wiccans instead coming to view it as a myth that conveyed metaphorical or symbolic truths.",
"Others insisted that the historical origins of the religion did not matter and that instead Wicca was legitimated by the spiritual experiences it gave to its participants.",
"In response, Hutton authored ''The Triumph of the Moon'', a historical study exploring Wicca's early development; on publication in 1999 the book exerted a strong impact on the British Pagan community, further eroding belief in the Murrayite theory among Wiccans.",
"Conversely, other practitioners clung on to the theory, treating it as an important article of faith and rejecting post-Murrayite scholarship on European witchcraft.",
"Several prominent practitioners continued to insist that Wicca was a religion with origins stretching back to the Palaeolithic, but others rejected the validity of historical scholarship and emphasised intuition and emotion as the arbiter of truth.",
"A few \"counter-revisionist\" Wiccans – among them Donald H. Frew, Jani Farrell-Roberts, and Ben Whitmore – published critiques in which they attacked post-Murrayite scholarship on matters of detail, but none defended Murray's original hypothesis completely.===In literature===Simpson noted that the publication of the Murray thesis in the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' made it accessible to \"journalists, film-makers popular novelists and thriller writers\", who adopted it \"enthusiastically\".",
"It influenced the work of Aldous Huxley and Robert Graves.",
"Murray's ideas shaped the depiction of paganism in the work of historical novelist Rosemary Sutcliff.",
"It was also an influence on the American horror author H. P. Lovecraft, who cited ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'' in his writings about the fictional cult of Cthulhu.The author Sylvia Townsend Warner cited Murray's work on the witch-cult as an influence on her 1926 novel ''Lolly Willowes'', and sent a copy of her book to Murray in appreciation, with the two meeting for lunch shortly after.",
"There was nevertheless some difference in their depictions of the witch-cult; whereas Murray had depicted an organised pre-Christian cult, Warner depicted a vague family tradition that was explicitly Satanic.In 1927, Warner lectured on the subject of witchcraft, exhibiting a strong influence from Murray's work.",
"Analysing the relationship between Murray and Warner, the English literature scholar Mimi Winick characterised both as being \"engaged in imagining new possibilities for women in modernity\".The fantasy novel Lammas Night is based on the same idea of the role of the royal family."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"A bibliography of Murray's published work was published in ''Folklore'' by Wilfrid Bonser in 1961, and her friend Drower produced a posthumous limited bibliography in 2004, and another limited bibliography appeared in Kathleen L. Sheppard's 2013 biography of her.",
"Year of publication Title Co-authors Publisher 1903 ''Guide to the Collection of Egyptian Antiquities'' — Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art (Edinburgh) 1904 — Egyptian Research Account (London) 1905 ''Saqqara Mastabas''.",
"Part I; Part II.",
"With chapters by Kurt Sethe Bernard Quaritch (London) 1905 ''Saqqara Mastabas Part I and Gurob'' ''Gurob'' by L. Loat Egyptian Research Account (London) 1905 ''Elementary Egyptian Grammar'' — University College Press (London) 1908 ''Index of Names and Titles of the Old Kingdom'' — British School of Archaeology in Egypt (London) 1910 — Sheratt & Hughes (Manchester) 1911 Coptic (Sahidic) Grammar'' (2nd ed.",
"1927) — University College Press (London) 1913 ''Ancient Egyptian Legends'' — John Murray (London); The Wisdom of the East Series 1921 — Oxford University Press (Oxford) 1923 ''Excavations in Malta, Part I'' — Bernard Quaritch (London) 1925 ''Excavations in Malta, Part II'' — Bernard Quaritch (London) 1929 ''Excavations in Malta, Part III'' — Bernard Quaritch (London) 1930 Sculpture'' — Duckworth (London) 1931 ''Egyptian Temples'' — Sampson Low, Marston & Co. (London) 1931 (Ed/1960) — Faber & Faber (London) 1932 ''Maltese Folk-Tales'' Empire Press (Malta) 1933 Bernard Quaritch (London) 1934 ''Cambridge Excavations in Minorca, Sa Torreta'' — Bernard Quaritch (London) 1934 ''Corpus of the Bronze-Age Pottery of Malta'' and Themosticles Zammit Bernard Quaritch (London) 1937 ''Saqqara Mastabas Part II'' — Egyptian Research Account (London) 1938 ''Cambridge Excavations in Minorca, Trapucó'' — Bernard Quaritch (London) 1939 ''Petra, the Rock City of Edom'' — Blackie 1940 British School of Archaeology in Egypt and Bernard Quaritch 1949 ''Ancient Egyptian Religious Poetry'' — John Murray (London) 1949 — Philosophical Library (London) 1954 — Faber & Faber (London) 1963 ''My First Hundred Years'' — William Kimber & Co. (London) 1963 — Kegan Paul (London)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Johann Jakob Bachofen* Howard Carter* James Frazer* René Girard* Robert Graves* Flinders Petrie"
],
[
"References",
"===Footnotes======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"** *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"March 24"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Events",
"===Pre-1600===*1199 – King Richard I of England is wounded by a crossbow bolt while fighting in France, leading to his death on April 6.",
"*1387 – English victory over a Franco-Castilian-Flemish fleet in the Battle of Margate off the coast of Margate.",
"*1401 – Turco-Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus.===1601–1900===*1603 – James VI of Scotland is proclaimed King James I of England and Ireland, upon the death of Elizabeth I.",
"* 1603 – Tokugawa Ieyasu is granted the title of ''shōgun'' from Emperor Go-Yōzei, and establishes the Tokugawa shogunate in Edo, Japan.",
"*1663 – The Province of Carolina is granted by charter to eight Lords Proprietor in reward for their assistance in restoring Charles II of England to the throne.",
"*1720 – Count Frederick of Hesse-Kassel is elected King of Sweden by the Riksdag of the Estates, after his consort Ulrika Eleonora abdicated the throne on 29 February.",
"*1721 – Johann Sebastian Bach dedicated six concertos to Margrave Christian Ludwig of Brandenburg-Schwedt, now commonly called the Brandenburg Concertos, BWV 1046–1051.",
"*1765 – Great Britain passes the Quartering Act, which requires the Thirteen Colonies to house British troops.",
"*1794 – In Kraków, Tadeusz Kościuszko announces a general uprising against Imperial Russia and the Kingdom of Prussia, and assumes the powers of the Commander in Chief of all of the Polish forces.",
"*1829 – The Parliament of the United Kingdom passes the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, allowing Catholics to serve in Parliament.",
"*1832 – In Hiram, Ohio, a group of men beat and tar and feather Mormon leader Joseph Smith.",
"*1854 – President José Gregorio Monagas abolishes slavery in Venezuela.",
"*1860 – Sakuradamon Incident: Japanese Chief Minister (Tairō) Ii Naosuke is assassinated by ''rōnin'' ''samurai'' outside the Sakurada Gate of Edo Castle.",
"*1869 – The last of Tītokowaru's forces surrendered to the New Zealand government, ending his uprising.",
"*1870 – a Chilean prospecting party led by José Díaz Gana discovers the silver ores of Caracoles in the Bolivian portion of Atacama Desert, leading to the last of the Chilean silver rushes and a diplomatic dispute over its taxation between Chile and Bolivia.",
"*1878 – The British frigate sinks, killing more than 300.",
"*1882 – Robert Koch announces the discovery of ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'', the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis.",
"*1900 – Mayor of New York City Robert Anderson Van Wyck breaks ground for a new underground \"Rapid Transit Railroad\" that would link Manhattan and Brooklyn.",
"*1900 – Carnegie Steel Company is formed in New Jersey; its capitalization of $160 million is the largest to date.===1901–present===*1921 – The 1921 Women's Olympiad began in Monte Carlo, becoming the first international women's sports event.",
"*1927 – Nanking Incident: Foreign warships bombard Nanjing, China, in defence of the foreign citizens within the city.",
"*1934 – The Tydings–McDuffie Act is passed by the United States Congress, allowing the Philippines to become a self-governing commonwealth.",
"*1939 – The 1939 Liechtenstein putsch takes place; approximatley 40 members of the VBDL starting from Nendeln march towards Vaduz with the intention of overthrowing the government and provoking Liechtenstein's annexation into Germany.",
"*1944 – German troops massacre 335 Italian civilians in Rome.",
"* 1944 – World War II: In an event later dramatized in the movie ''The Great Escape'', 76 Allied prisoners of war begin breaking out of the German camp Stalag Luft III.",
"*1946 – A British Cabinet Mission arrives in India to discuss and plan for the transfer of power from the British Raj to Indian leadership.",
"*1949 – Hanns Albin Rauter, a chief SS and Police Leader, in the Netherlands, is convicted and executed for crimes against humanity.",
"*1961 – The Quebec Board of the French Language is established.",
"*1972 – Direct rule is imposed on Northern Ireland by the Government of the United Kingdom under Edward Heath.",
"*1976 – In Argentina, the armed forces overthrow the constitutional government of President Isabel Perón and start a seven-year dictatorial period self-styled the ''National Reorganization Process''.",
"*1977 – Morarji Desai became the Prime Minister of India, the first Prime Minister not to belong to Indian National Congress.",
"*1980 – El Salvadorian Archbishop Óscar Romero is assassinated while celebrating Mass in San Salvador.",
"*1982 – Bangladeshi President Abdus Sattar is deposed in a bloodless coup led by Army Chief Lieutenant general Hussain Muhammad Ershad, who suspends the Constitution and imposes martial law.",
"*1986 – The Loscoe gas explosion leads to new UK laws on landfill gas migration and gas protection on landfill sites.",
"*1989 – In Prince William Sound in Alaska, the ''Exxon Valdez'' spills of crude oil after running aground.",
"*1990 – Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War ends with last ship of Indian Peace Keeping Force leaving Sri Lanka.",
"*1993 – Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 is discovered by Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker, and David Levy at the Palomar Observatory in California.",
"*1998 – Mitchell Johnson and Andrew Golden, aged 11 and 13 respectively, fire upon teachers and students at Westside Middle School in Jonesboro, Arkansas; five people are killed and ten are wounded.",
"* 1998 – A tornado sweeps through Dantan in India, killing 250 people and injuring 3,000 others.",
"* 1998 – Dr. Rüdiger Marmulla performed the first computer-assisted Bone Segment Navigation at the University of Regensburg, Germany.",
"*1999 – Kosovo War: NATO began attacks on Yugoslavia without United Nations Security Council (UNSC) approval, marking the first time NATO has attacked a sovereign country.",
"* 1999 – A lorry carrying margarine and flour catches fire inside the Mont Blanc Tunnel, creating an inferno that kills 38 people.",
"*2003 – The Arab League votes 21–1 in favor of a resolution demanding an end to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.",
"*2008 – Bhutan officially becomes a democracy, with its first ever general election.",
"*2015 – Germanwings Flight 9525 crashes in the French Alps in an apparent pilot mass murder-suicide, killing all 150 people on board.",
"*2018 – Syrian civil war: The Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) and Syrian National Army (SNA) take full control of Afrin District, marking the end of the Afrin offensive.",
"* 2018 – Students across the United States stage the March for Our Lives demanding gun control in response to the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting.",
"*2019 – Jakarta MRT, a rapid transit system in Jakarta, began operation."
],
[
"Births",
"===Pre-1600===*1103 – Yue Fei, Chinese military general (d. 1142)*1441 – Ernest, Elector of Saxony, German ruler of Saxony (d. 1486)*1494 – Georgius Agricola, German mineralogist and scholar (d. 1555)*1577 – Francis, Duke of Pomerania-Stettin, Bishop of Cammin (d. 1620)===1601–1900===*1607 – Michiel de Ruyter, Dutch admiral (d. 1667)*1628 – Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1685)*1657 – Arai Hakuseki, Japanese academic and politician (d. 1725)*1693 – John Harrison, English carpenter and clock-maker, invented the Marine chronometer (d. 1776)*1725 – Samuel Ashe, American lawyer and politician, 9th Governor of North Carolina (d. 1813)* 1725 – Thomas Cushing, American lawyer and politician, 1st Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1788)*1755 – Rufus King, American lawyer and politician, United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom (d. 1827)*1762 – Marcos Portugal, Portuguese organist and composer (d. 1830)*1775 – Muthuswami Dikshitar, Indian poet and composer (d. 1835)*1782 – Orest Kiprensky, Russian-Italian painter (d. 1836)*1796 – Zulma Carraud, French author (d. 1889)* 1796 – John Corry Wilson Daly, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1878)*1803 – Egerton Ryerson, Canadian minister, educator, and politician (d. 1882)*1808 – Maria Malibran, Spanish-French soprano (d. 1836)*1809 – Mariano José de Larra, Spanish journalist and author (d. 1837)* 1809 – Joseph Liouville, French mathematician and academic (d. 1882)*1816 – Pelagio Antonio de Labastida y Dávalos, Mexican politician and Roman Catholic archbishop, regent during the Second Mexican Empire (d. 1891) *1820 – Edmond Becquerel, French physicist and academic (d. 1891)* 1820 – Fanny Crosby, American poet and composer (d. 1915)*1823 – Thomas Spencer Baynes, English philosopher and critic (d. 1887)*1826 – Matilda Joslyn Gage, American activist and author (d. 1898)*1828 – Horace Gray, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1902)*1829 – George Francis Train, American businessman (d. 1904)* 1829 – Ignacio Zaragoza, Mexican general (d. 1862)*1830 – Robert Hamerling, Austrian poet and playwright (d. 1889)*1834 – William Morris, English textile designer, poet, and author (d. 1896)* 1834 – John Wesley Powell, American soldier, geologist, and explorer (d. 1902)*1835 – Joseph Stefan, Austrian physicist, mathematician, and poet (d. 1893)*1848 – Honoré Beaugrand, Canadian journalist and politician, 18th Mayor of Montreal (d. 1906)*1850 – Silas Hocking, English minister and author (d. 1935)*1854 – Henry Lefroy, Australian politician, 11th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1930)*1855 – Andrew W. Mellon, American banker, financier, and diplomat, 49th United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 1937)* 1855 – Olive Schreiner, South African author and activist (d. 1920)*1862 – Frank Weston Benson, American painter and educator (d. 1951)*1869 – Émile Fabre, French author and playwright (d. 1955)*1871 – Alec Hurley, English music hall singer (d. 1913)*1874 – Luigi Einaudi, Italian economist and politician, 2nd President of the Italian Republic (d. 1961)* 1874 – Harry Houdini, Hungarian-American magician and actor (d. 1926)*1875 – William Burns, Canadian lacrosse player (d. 1953)*1879 – Neyzen Tevfik, Turkish philosopher, poet, and composer (d. 1953)*1882 – Marcel Lalu, French gymnast (d. 1951)* 1882 – George Monckton-Arundell, 8th Viscount Galway, English politician, 5th Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 1943)*1883 – Dorothy Campbell, Scottish-American golfer (d. 1945)*1884 – Peter Debye, Dutch-American physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1966)* 1884 – Chika Kuroda, Japanese chemist (d. 1968)* 1884 – Eugène Tisserant, French cardinal (d. 1972)*1885 – Charles Daniels, American swimmer (d. 1973)* 1885 – Dimitrie Cuclin, Romanian violinist and composer (d. 1978)*1886 – Edward Weston, American photographer (d. 1958)* 1886 – Robert Mallet-Stevens, French architect and designer (d. 1945)*1887 – Roscoe Arbuckle, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1933)*1888 – Viktor Kingissepp, Estonian politician (d. 1922)*1889 – Albert Hill, English-Canadian runner (d. 1969)*1890 – Agnes Macphail, Canadian educator and politician (d. 1954)*1891 – Sergey Ivanovich Vavilov, Russian physicist and academic (d. 1951)*1892 – Marston Morse, American mathematician and academic (d. 1977)*1893 – Walter Baade, German astronomer and author (d. 1960)* 1893 – George Sisler, American baseball player and scout (d. 1973)*1897 – Wilhelm Reich, Austrian-American psychotherapist and academic (d. 1957)===1901–present===*1901 – Ub Iwerks, American animator, director, and producer, co-created Mickey Mouse (d. 1971)*1902 – Thomas E. Dewey, American lawyer and politician, 47th Governor of New York (d. 1971)*1903 – Adolf Butenandt, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995)* 1903 – Malcolm Muggeridge, English journalist, author, and scholar (d. 1990)*1905 – Pura Santillan-Castrence, Filipino author and diplomat (d. 2007)*1907 – Paul Sauvé, Canadian lawyer and politician, 17th Premier of Quebec (d. 1960)*1909 – Clyde Barrow, American criminal (d. 1934)*1909 – Richard Wurmbrand, Romanian pastor and evangelist (d. 2001)*1910 – Richard Conte, American actor, singer, and director (d. 1975)*1911 – Joseph Barbera, American animator, director, and producer, co-founded Hanna-Barbera (d. 2006)*1912 – Dorothy Height, American educator and activist (d. 2010)*1915 – Eugène Martin, French racing driver (d. 2006)*1916 – Donald Hamilton, Swedish-American soldier and author (d. 2006)* 1916 – Harry B. Whittington, English palaeontologist and academic (d. 2010)*1917 – Constantine Andreou, Greek painter and sculptor (d. 2007) * 1917 – John Kendrew, English biochemist and crystallographer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997)*1919 – Lawrence Ferlinghetti, American poet and publisher, co-founded City Lights Bookstore (d. 2021)* 1919 – Robert Heilbroner, American economist and historian (d. 2005)*1920 – Gene Nelson, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1996)* 1920 – Mary Stolz, American author (d. 2006)*1921 – Franciszek Blachnicki, Polish priest (d. 1987)* 1921 – Vasily Smyslov, Russian chess player (d. 2010)*1922 – Onna White, Canadian dancer and choreographer (d. 2005)*1923 – Murray Hamilton, American actor (d. 1986)* 1923 – Michael Legat, English author and publisher (d. 2011)*1924 – Norman Fell, American actor (d. 1998)*1925 – Puig Aubert, German-French rugby league player and coach (d. 1994)*1926 – Desmond Connell, Irish cardinal (d. 2017)* 1926 – Dario Fo, Italian playwright, actor, director, and composer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2016)* 1926 – William Porter, American hurdler (d. 2000)*1927 – John Woodland Hastings, American biochemist and academic (d. 2014)* 1927 – Martin Walser, German author and playwright (d. 2023)*1928 – Byron Janis, American pianist and composer*1929 – Pat Renella, Italian-American actor (d. 2012)*1930 – David Dacko, Central African politician, 1st President of the Central African Republic (d. 2003)* 1930 – Steve McQueen, American actor and producer (d. 1980)*1931 – Hanno Drechsler, German educator and politician, Mayor of Marburg (d. 2003)*1933 – Stephen De Staebler, American sculptor and educator (d. 2011)* 1933 – Lee Mendelson, American television producer (d. 2019)*1936 – Don Covay, American singer-songwriter (d. 2015)* 1936 – Alex Olmedo, Peruvian-American tennis player (d. 2020)*1937 – Billy Stewart, American singer and pianist (d. 1970)*1938 – David Irving, English historian and author* 1938 – Larry Wilson, American football player (d. 2020)*1940 – Bob Mackie, American fashion designer*1941 – Michael Masser, American songwriter, composer and producer (d. 2015)*1942 – Jesús Alou, Dominican baseball player (d. 2023)*1944 – R. Lee Ermey, American sergeant and actor (d. 2018)* 1944 – Vojislav Koštunica, Serbian academic and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Serbia*1945 – Robert T. Bakker, American paleontologist and academic* 1945 – Curtis Hanson, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2016)* 1945 – Patrick Malahide, English actor and screenwriter*1946 – Klaus Dinger, German guitarist and songwriter (d. 2008)* 1946 – Kitty O'Neil, American stuntwoman (d. 2018)*1947 – Dennis Erickson, American football player and coach* 1947 – Christine Gregoire, American lawyer and politician, 22nd Governor of Washington* 1947 – Mick Jones, English footballer and coach* 1947 – Alan Sugar, English businessman*1948 – Javier Diez Canseco, Peruvian sociologist and politician (d. 2013)* 1948 – Jerzy Kukuczka, Polish mountaineer (d. 1989)* 1948 – Lee Oskar, Danish musician*1949 – Tabitha King, American author and poet* 1949 – Ruud Krol, Dutch footballer and coach* 1949 – Steve Lang, Canadian bass player (d. 2017)* 1949 – Nick Lowe, English singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer * 1949 – Ali Akbar Salehi, Iranian academic and politician, 36th Foreign Affairs Minister of Iran* 1949 – Ranil Wickremesinghe, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Sri Lanka*1950 – Gary Wichard, American football player and agent (d. 2011)*1951 – Peter Boyle, Scottish-Australian footballer and manager (d. 2013)* 1951 – Pat Bradley, American golfer* 1951 – Tommy Hilfiger, American fashion designer, founded the Tommy Hilfiger Corporation* 1951 – Dougie Thomson, Scottish bass player* 1951 – Anna Włodarczyk, Polish long jumper and coach*1952 – Greg McCrary, American football player (d. 2013)*1953 – Anita L. Allen, American lawyer, philosopher, and academic* 1953 – Louie Anderson, American actor and comedian (d. 2022)*1954 – Rafael Orozco Maestre, Colombian singer (d. 1992)*1955 – Doug Jarvis, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1955 – Pat Price, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1956 – Steve Ballmer, American businessman* 1956 – Bill Wray, American cartoonist and painter*1957 – Pierre Harvey, Canadian cyclist and skier* 1957 – Pat Jarvis, Australian rugby league player*1958 – Mike Woodson, American basketball player and coach*1959 – Emmit King, American sprinter* 1959 – Renaldo Nehemiah, American hurdler and football player* 1959 – Derek Statham, English footballer*1960 – Jan Berglin, Swedish cartoonist* 1960 – Barry Horowitz, American wrestler* 1960 – Kelly Le Brock, English-American actress and model* 1960 – Nena, German singer-songwriter and actress* 1960 – Scott Pruett, American race car driver* 1960 – Annabella Sciorra, American actress *1961 – Dean Jones, Australian cricketer and coach (d. 2020)* 1961 – Yanis Varoufakis, Greek economist and politician, Greek Minister of Finance*1962 – Angèle Dubeau, Canadian violinist* 1962 – Star Jones, American lawyer, journalist, and talk show host* 1962 – Irina Meszynski, German discus thrower*1963 – Raimond van der Gouw, Dutch footballer and coach* 1963 – Vadym Tyshchenko, Ukrainian footballer and manager (d. 2015)* 1963 – Torsten Voss, German decathlete and bobsledder*1965 – The Undertaker, American wrestler and actor*1966 – Floyd Heard, American sprinter and coach* 1966 – Rico Hizon, Filipino broadcast journalist*1967 – Diann Roffe, American skier*1968 – Minarti Timur, Indonesian badminton player*1969 – Ilir Meta, Albanian politician, incumbent President of Albania* 1969 – S.S. Sivasankar, Indian Tamil politician, incumbent Minister for Transport, Tamil Nadu* 1969 – Stephan Eberharter, Austrian skier*1970 – Lara Flynn Boyle, American actress * 1970 – Sharon Corr, Irish singer-songwriter and violinist * 1970 – Judith Draxler, Austrian swimmer* 1970 – Erica Kennedy, American journalist and author (d. 2012)* 1970 – Mike Vanderjagt, Canadian-American football player*1971 – Tig Notaro, American comedian and actor*1972 – Christophe Dugarry, French footballer* 1972 – Steve Karsay, American baseball player and coach*1973 – Jacek Bąk, Polish footballer* 1973 – Philippe Boucher, Canadian ice hockey player and manager* 1973 – Steve Corica, Australian footballer and coach* 1973 – Jure Ivanušič, Slovenian actor, concert pianist and chansonnier* 1973 – Mette Jacobsen, Danish swimmer* 1973 – Glen Jakovich, Australian footballer* 1973 – Jim Parsons, American actor*1974 – Alyson Hannigan, American actress* 1974 – Sergey Klyugin, Russian high jumper* 1974 – Tado, Filipino comedian and activist (d. 2014)*1975 – Thomas Johansson, Swedish-Monégasque tennis player*1976 – Aaron Brooks, American football player* 1976 – Aliou Cissé, Senegalese footballer and coach* 1976 – Athanasios Kostoulas, Greek footballer* 1976 – Peyton Manning, American football player and entrepreneur*1977 – Jessica Chastain, American actress * 1977 – Maxim Kuznetsov, Russian ice hockey player* 1977 – Darren Lockyer, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster*1978 – Michael Braun, Australian footballer and coach* 1978 – Tomáš Ujfaluši, Czech footballer and manager* 1978 – José Valverde, Dominican baseball player*1979 – Lake Bell, American actress, director, and screenwriter* 1979 – Norris Hopper, American baseball player* 1979 – Periklis Iakovakis, Greek hurdler* 1979 – Graeme Swann, English cricketer*1980 – Tassos Venetis, Greek footballer*1981 – Mike Adams, American football player* 1981 – Ron Hainsey, American ice hockey player* 1981 – Dirk Hayhurst, American baseball player* 1981 – Mark Looms, Dutch footballer* 1981 – Gary Paffett, English racing driver*1982 – Corey Hart, American baseball player* 1982 – Jack Swagger, American mixed martial artist and professional wrestler* 1982 – Epico Colon, Puerto Rican professional wrestler* 1982 – Jimmy Hempte, Belgian footballer* 1982 – Dustin McGowan, American baseball player*1983 – Luca Ceccarelli, Italian footballer* 1983 – Riccardo Musetti, Italian footballer* 1983 – Pierre-Alexandre Parenteau, Canadian ice hockey player* 1983 – T. J. Ford, American basketball player*1984 – Benoît Assou-Ekotto, French-born Cameroonian international footballer* 1984 – Chris Bosh, American basketball player* 1984 – Adrian D'Souza, Indian field hockey player* 1984 – Lucy Wangui Kabuu, Kenyan runner* 1984 – Park Bom, South Korean singer * 1984 – Philipp Petzschner, German tennis player*1985 – Lana, American wrestler and manager* 1985 – Haruka Ayase, Japanese actress and singer*1987 – Ramires, Brazilian footballer* 1987 – Shakib Al Hasan, Bangladeshi cricketer* 1987 – Billy Jones, English footballer* 1987 – Yuma Asami, Japanese actress and singer*1988 – Aiga Grabuste, Latvian heptathlete* 1988 – Ryan Higgins, Zimbabwean cricketer* 1988 – Matías Martínez, Argentinian footballer* 1988 – Kardo Ploomipuu, Estonian swimmer* 1988 – Matt Todd, New Zealand rugby union player* 1989 – Aziz Shavershian, Russian-born Australian bodybuilder (d. 2011)*1990 – Starlin Castro, American baseball player* 1990 – Aljur Abrenica, Filipino actor* 1990 – Keisha Castle-Hughes, Australian-New Zealand actress* 1990 – Lacey Evans, American wrestler* 1990 – Alyssa Healy, Australian cricketer*1991 – Nick Browne, English cricketer* 1991 – Dalila Jakupovic, Slovenian tennis player*1995 – Enzo Zidane, French-Spanish footballer*1997 – Mina Myōi, Japanese singer and dancer*1998 – Damar Hamlin, American football player*1999 – Katie Swan, British tennis player*2001 – Clara Burel, French tennis player"
],
[
"Deaths",
"===Pre-1600===* 809 – Harun al-Rashid, Arab caliph (b.",
"763)* 832 – Wulfred, archbishop of Canterbury*1284 – Hugh III of Cyprus (b.",
"1235)*1296 – Odon de Pins, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller*1381 – Catherine of Vadstena, Swedish saint (b.",
"1332)*1396 – Walter Hilton, English mystic and saint (b.",
"1340)*1399 – Margaret, Duchess of Norfolk (b.c.",
"1320)*1443 – James Douglas, 7th Earl of Douglas (b.",
"1371)*1455 – Pope Nicholas V (b.",
"1397)*1499 – Edward Stafford, 2nd Earl of Wiltshire, English nobleman (b.",
"1470)*1563 – Hosokawa Harumoto, Japanese daimyō (b.",
"1514)*1575 – Joseph ben Ephraim Karo, Spanish-Portuguese rabbi and author (b.",
"1488)===1601–1900===*1603 – Elizabeth I of England (b.",
"1533)*1653 – Samuel Scheidt, German organist and composer (b.",
"1587)*1684 – Pieter de Hooch, Dutch painter (b.",
"1629)* 1684 – Elizabeth Ridgeway, English woman convicted of poisoning her husband*1773 – Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield, English politician, Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard (b.",
"1694)*1776 – John Harrison, English carpenter and clockmaker, invented the Marine chronometer (b.",
"1693)*1824 – Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux, French lawyer (b.",
"1753)*1838 – Abraham Hume, English floriculturist and Tory politician (b.",
"1748/49)*1866 – Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily, Queen of France (b.",
"1782)*1869 – Antoine-Henri Jomini, French-Russian general (b.",
"1779)*1881 – Achille Ernest Oscar Joseph Delesse, French geologist and mineralogist (b.",
"1817)*1882 – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, American poet and educator (b.",
"1807)*1887 – Ivan Kramskoi, Russian painter and critic (b.",
"1837)*1888 – Vsevolod Garshin, Russian author (b.",
"1855)===1901–present===*1905 – Jules Verne, French novelist, poet, and playwright (b.",
"1828)*1909 – John Millington Synge, Irish playwright and poet (b.",
"1871)*1915 – Margaret Lindsay Huggins, Anglo-Irish astronomer (b.",
"1848)* 1915 – Karol Olszewski, Polish chemist, mathematician, and physicist (b.",
"1846)*1916 – Enrique Granados, Spanish pianist and composer (b.",
"1867)*1926 – Phan Châu Trinh, Vietnamese activist (b.",
"1872)*1932 – Frantz Reichel, French rugby player and hurdler (b.",
"1871)*1938 – Yondonwangchug, Mongolian politician (b.",
"1870)*1940 – Édouard Branly, French physicist and academic (b.",
"1844)*1944 – Orde Wingate, Indian-English general (b.",
"1903)*1946 – Alexander Alekhine, Russian chess player (b.",
"1892)* 1946 – Carl Schuhmann, German gymnast, shot putter, and jumper (b.",
"1869)*1948 – Sigrid Hjertén, Swedish painter and illustrator (b.",
"1885)*1950 – James Rudolph Garfield, American lawyer and politician, 23rd United States Secretary of the Interior (b.",
"1865)*1951 – Lorna Hodgkinson''',''' Australian educator and educational psychologist (b.",
"1887)*1953 – Mary of Teck (b.",
"1867)*1956 – E. T. Whittaker, British mathematician and physicist (b.",
"1873)*1962 – Jean Goldkette, French-American pianist and bandleader (b.",
"1899)* 1962 – Auguste Piccard, Swiss physicist and explorer (b.",
"1884)*1968 – Alice Guy-Blaché, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.",
"1873)*1971 – Arne Jacobsen, Danish architect, designed the Radisson Blu Royal Hotel and Aarhus City Hall (b.",
"1902)* 1971 – Arthur Metcalfe, Australian public servant (b.",
"1895)*1973 – Bertram Stevens, Australian accountant and politician, 25th Premier of New South Wales (b.",
"1889)*1976 – Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, English field marshal (b.",
"1887)*1978 – Park Mok-wol, influential Korean poet and academic (b.",
"1916)*1980 – Óscar Romero, Salvadoran archbishop (b.",
"1917)*1984 – Sam Jaffe, American actor (b.",
"1891)*1988 – Turhan Feyzioğlu, Turkish academic and politician, 27th Deputy Prime Minister of Turkey (b.",
"1922)*1990 – Ray Goulding, American comedian and radio host (b.",
"1922)*1991 – John Kerr, Australian lawyer and politician, 18th Governor-General of Australia (b.",
"1914)*1993 – Albert Arlen, Australian pianist, composer, actor, and playwright (b.",
"1905)* 1993 – John Hersey, American journalist and author (b.",
"1914)*1995 – Joseph Needham, English historian and academic (b.",
"1900)*1999 – Gertrud Scholtz-Klink, German politician (b.",
"1902)* 1999 – Birdie Tebbetts, American baseball player and manager (b.",
"1912)*2001 – Muriel Young, English television host and producer (b.",
"1928)*2002 – César Milstein, Argentinian-English biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1927)* 2002 – Bob Said, American race car driver and bobsledder (b.",
"1932)*2003 – Hans Hermann Groër, Austrian cardinal (b.",
"1919)*2006 – Rudra Rajasingham, Sri Lankan police officer and diplomat (b.",
"1926)*2007 – Shripad Narayan Pendse, Indian Marathi novelist (b.",
"1913)*2008 – Chalmers Alford, American guitarist (b.",
"1955)* 2008 – Neil Aspinall, Welsh-English record producer and manager (b.",
"1941)* 2008 – Rafael Azcona, Spanish author and screenwriter (b.",
"1926)* 2008 – Richard Widmark, American actor (b.",
"1914)*2009 – George Kell, American baseball player and sportscaster (b.",
"1922)* 2009 – Hans Klenk, German racing driver (b.",
"1919)* 2009 – Gábor Ocskay, Hungarian ice hockey player (b.",
"1975)*2010 – Robert Culp, American actor (b.",
"1930)* 2010 – Jim Marshall, American photographer (b.",
"1936)*2012 – Paul Callaghan, New Zealand physicist and academic (b.",
"1947)* 2012 – Nick Noble, American singer-songwriter (b.",
"1926)*2013 – Barbara Anderson, New Zealand author (b.",
"1926)* 2013 – Inge Lønning, Norwegian theologian, academic, and politician (b.",
"1938)* 2013 – Gury Marchuk, Russian physicist, mathematician, and academic (b.",
"1925)* 2013 – Paolo Ponzo, Italian footballer (b.",
"1972)* 2013 – Mohamed Yousri Salama, Egyptian dentist and politician (b.",
"1974)* 2013 – Francis Hovell-Thurlow-Cumming-Bruce, 8th Baron Thurlow, English diplomat (b.",
"1912)*2014 – Oleksandr Muzychko, Ukrainian activist (b.",
"1962)* 2014 – John Rowe Townsend, English author and scholar (b.",
"1922)* 2014 – David A. Trampier, American illustrator (b.",
"1954)*2015 – Yehuda Avner, English-Israeli diplomat (b.",
"1928)* 2015 – notable deaths of the Germanwings Flight 9525 crash:** Oleg Bryjak, Kazakhstani-German opera singer (b.",
"1960)** Maria Radner, German opera singer (b.",
"1981)*2016 – Johan Cruyff, Dutch footballer (b.",
"1947)* 2016 – Garry Shandling, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b.",
"1949)*2018 – Lys Assia, Swiss singer and First Winner of the Eurovision Song Contest (b.",
"1924)* 2018 – Rim Banna, Palestinian singer, composer, arranger and activist (b.",
"1966)*2019 – Joseph Pilato, American film and voice actor (b.",
"1949)*2020 – Albert Uderzo, French comic book artist (b.",
"1927)* 2020 – Manu Dibango, Cameroonian musician and songwriter (b.",
"1933)*2021 – Jessica Walter, American actress and voice artist (b.",
"1941)*2022 – Dagny Carlsson, Swedish blogger and influencer (b.",
"1912)*2023 – Gordon Moore, American businessman, engineer and co-founder of Intel Corporation (b.",
"1929)* 2023 – Pradeep Sarkar, Indian writer and director (b.",
"1955)"
],
[
"Holidays and observances",
"*Christian feast day:**Catherine of Vadstena**Hildelith of Barking**Mac Cairthinn of Clogher**Óscar Romero (Catholic Church, Anglican Communion, Lutheranism)**Paul Couturier (Church of England)**Walter Hilton (Church of England)**March 24 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Day of Remembrance for Truth and Justice (Argentina)*International Day for the Right to the Truth Concerning Gross Human Rights Violations and for the Dignity of Victims*National Tree Planting Day (Uganda)*World Tuberculosis Day (International)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* BBC: On This Day** Historical Events on March 24"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"March 23"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Events",
"===Pre-1600===*1400 – The Trần dynasty of Vietnam is deposed, after one hundred and seventy-five years of rule, by Hồ Quý Ly, a court official.",
"*1540 – Waltham Abbey is surrendered to King Henry VIII of England; the last religious community to be closed during the Dissolution of the Monasteries.",
"*1568 – The Peace of Longjumeau is signed, ending the second phase of the French Wars of Religion.===1601–1900===*1775 – American Revolutionary War: Patrick Henry delivers his speech – \"Give me liberty, or give me death!\"",
"– at St. John's Episcopal Church, Richmond, Virginia.",
"*1801 – Tsar Paul I of Russia is struck with a sword, then strangled, and finally trampled to death inside his bedroom at St. Michael's Castle.",
"*1806 – After traveling through the Louisiana Purchase and reaching the Pacific Ocean, explorers Lewis and Clark and their \"Corps of Discovery\" begin their arduous journey home.",
"*1821 – Greek War of Independence: Battle and fall of city of Kalamata.",
"*1839 – A massive earthquake destroys the former capital Inwa of the Konbaung dynasty, present-day Myanmar.",
"*1848 – The ship ''John Wickliffe'' arrives at Port Chalmers carrying the first Scottish settlers for Dunedin, New Zealand.",
"Otago province is founded.",
"*1857 – Elisha Otis's first elevator is installed at 488 Broadway New York City.",
"*1862 – American Civil War: The First Battle of Kernstown, Virginia, marks the start of Stonewall Jackson's Valley Campaign.",
"Although a Confederate defeat, the engagement distracts Federal efforts to capture Richmond.",
"*1868 – The University of California is founded in Oakland, California when the Organic Act is signed into law.",
"*1879 – War of the Pacific: The Battle of Topáter, the first battle of the war is fought between Chile and the joint forces of Bolivia and Peru.",
"*1885 – Sino-French War: Chinese victory in the Battle of Phu Lam Tao near Hưng Hóa, northern Vietnam.",
"*1888 – In England, The Football League, the world's oldest professional association football league, meets for the first time.",
"*1889 – The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is established by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in Qadian, British India.===1901–present===*1901 – Emilio Aguinaldo, only President of the First Philippine Republic, is captured at Palanan, Isabela by the forces of General Frederick Funston.",
"*1905 – Eleftherios Venizelos calls for Crete's union with Greece, and begins what is to be known as the Theriso revolt.",
"*1909 – Theodore Roosevelt leaves New York for a post-presidency safari in Africa.",
"The trip is sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution and National Geographic Society.",
"*1913 – A tornado outbreak kills more than 240 people in the central United States, while an ongoing flood in the Ohio River watershed was killing 650 people.",
"*1918 – First World War: On the third day of the German Spring Offensive, the 10th Battalion of the Royal West Kent Regiment is annihilated with many of the men becoming prisoners of war*1919 – In Milan, Italy, Benito Mussolini founds his Fascist political movement.",
"*1931 – Bhagat Singh, Shivaram Rajguru and Sukhdev Thapar are hanged for the killing of a deputy superintendent of police during the Indian independence movement.",
"*1933 – The ''Reichstag'' passes the Enabling Act of 1933, making Adolf Hitler dictator of Germany.",
"*1935 – Signing of the Constitution of the Commonwealth of the Philippines.",
"*1939 – The Hungarian air force attacks the headquarters of the Slovak air force in Spišská Nová Ves, killing 13 people and beginning the Slovak–Hungarian War.",
"*1940 – The Lahore Resolution (''Qarardad-e-Pakistan'' or ''Qarardad-e-Lahore'') is put forward at the Annual General Convention of the All-India Muslim League.",
"*1956 – Pakistan becomes the first Islamic republic in the world.",
"This date is now celebrated as Republic Day in Pakistan.",
"*1965 – NASA launches Gemini 3, the United States' first two-man space flight (crew: Gus Grissom and John Young).",
"*1977 – The first of The Nixon Interviews (12 will be recorded over four weeks) is videotaped with British journalist David Frost interviewing former United States President Richard Nixon about the Watergate scandal and the Nixon tapes.",
"*1978 – The first UNIFIL troops arrived in Lebanon for peacekeeping mission along the Blue Line.",
"*1980 – Archbishop Óscar Romero of El Salvador gives his famous speech appealing to men of the El Salvadoran armed forces to stop killing the Salvadorans.",
"*1982 – Guatemala's government, headed by Fernando Romeo Lucas García is overthrown in a military coup by right-wing General Efraín Ríos Montt.",
"*1983 – Strategic Defense Initiative: President Ronald Reagan makes his initial proposal to develop technology to intercept enemy missiles.",
"*1988 – Angolan and Cuban forces defeat South Africa in the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.",
"*1991 – The Revolutionary United Front, with support from the special forces of Charles Taylor's National Patriotic Front of Liberia, invades Sierra Leone in an attempt to overthrow Joseph Saidu Momoh, sparking the 11-year Sierra Leone Civil War.",
"*1994 – At an election rally in Tijuana, Mexican presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio is assassinated by Mario Aburto Martínez.",
"* 1994 – A United States Air Force (USAF) F-16 aircraft collides with a USAF C-130 at Pope Air Force Base and then crashes, killing 24 United States Army soldiers on the ground.",
"This later became known as the Green Ramp disaster.",
"* 1994 – Aeroflot Flight 593 crashed into the Kuznetsk Alatau mountain, Kemerovo Oblast, Russia, killing 75.",
"*1996 – Taiwan holds its first direct elections and chooses Lee Teng-hui as President.",
"*1999 – Gunmen assassinate Paraguay's Vice President Luis María Argaña.",
"*2001 – The Russian ''Mir'' space station is disposed of, breaking up in the atmosphere before falling into the southern Pacific Ocean near Fiji.",
"*2003 – Battle of Nasiriyah, first major conflict during the invasion of Iraq.",
"*2008 – Official opening of Rajiv Gandhi International Airport in Hyderabad, India *2009 – FedEx Express Flight 80: A McDonnell Douglas MD-11 flying from Guangzhou, China crashes at Tokyo's Narita International Airport, killing both the captain and the co-pilot.",
"*2010 – The Affordable Care Act becomes law in the United States.",
"*2018 – President of Peru Pedro Pablo Kuczynski resigns from the presidency amid a mass corruption scandal before certain impeachment by the opposition-majority Congress of Peru.",
"*2019 – The Kazakh capital of Astana was renamed to Nur-Sultan.",
"* 2019 – The US-backed ''Syrian Democratic Forces'' capture the town of Baghuz in Eastern Syria, declaring military victory over the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant after four years of fighting, although the group maintains a scattered presence and sleeper cells across Syria and Iraq.",
"*2020 – Prime Minister Boris Johnson put the United Kingdom into its first national lockdown in response to COVID-19.",
"*2021 – A container ship runs aground and obstructs the Suez Canal for six days."
],
[
"Births",
"===Pre-1600===*1338 – Emperor Go-Kōgon of Japan (d. 1374)*1430 – Margaret of Anjou (d. 1482)*1514 – Lorenzino de' Medici, Italian writer and assassin (d. 1548)*1599 – Thomas Selle, German composer (d. 1663)===1601–1900===*1614 – Jahanara Begum, Mughal princess (d. 1681)*1643 – Mary of Jesus de León y Delgado, Spanish Dominican lay sister and mystic (d. 1731)*1699 – John Bartram, American botanist and explorer (d. 1777)*1732 – Princess Marie Adélaïde of France (d. 1800)*1749 – Pierre-Simon Laplace, French mathematician and astronomer (d. 1827)*1750 – Johannes Matthias Sperger, Austrian bassist and composer (d. 1812)*1754 – Jurij Vega, Slovene mathematician, physicist and artillery officer (d. 1802)*1769 – Augustin Daniel Belliard, French general and diplomat (d. 1832)* 1769 – William Smith, English geologist and cartographer (d. 1839)*1823 – Schuyler Colfax, American journalist and politician, 17th Vice President of the United States (d. 1885)*1826 – Ludwig Minkus, Austrian violinist and composer (d. 1917)*1834 – Julius Reubke, German pianist and composer (d. 1858)*1838 – Marie Adam-Doerrer, Swiss women's rights activist and unionist (d. 1908)*1842 – Friedrich Amelung, Estonian-German historian, businessman and composer (d. 1909)* 1842 – Susan Jane Cunningham, American mathematician (d. 1921)*1858 – Ludwig Quidde, German activist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1941)*1860 – Horatio Bottomley, British politician and businessman (d. 1933)*1862 – Nathaniel Reed, American criminal (d. 1950)*1868 – Dietrich Eckart, German journalist and politician (d. 1923)*1869 – Calouste Gulbenkian, Turkish-Armenian businessman and philanthropist (d. 1955)*1872 – Michael Joseph Savage, Australian-New Zealand union leader and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1940)*1874 – Grantley Goulding, English hurdler (d. 1947)* 1874 – J. C. Leyendecker, German-American painter and illustrator (d. 1951)*1876 – Ziya Gökalp, Turkish sociologist, poet and activist (d. 1924)* 1876 – Thakin Kodaw Hmaing, Burmese poet, writer and political leader (d. 1964)*1878 – Franz Schreker, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1934)*1880 – Heikki Ritavuori, Finnish lawyer and politician, Finnish Minister of the Interior (d. 1922)*1881 – Lacey Hearn, American sprinter (d. 1969)* 1881 – Roger Martin du Gard, French novelist and paleographer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958)* 1881 – Hermann Staudinger, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965)*1882 – Emmy Noether, Jewish German-American mathematician, physicist and academic (d. 1935)*1884 – Joseph Boxhall, English sailor (d. 1967)*1885 – Platt Adams, American jumper and politician (d. 1961)* 1885 – Roque González Garza, Mexican general and acting president (1915) (d. 1962)*1886 – Frank Irons, American long jumper (d. 1942)*1887 – Josef Čapek, Czech painter and poet (d. 1945)* 1887 – Rudolf Kinau, German author (d. 1975)* 1887 – Juan Gris, Spanish painter and sculptor (d. 1927)* 1887 – Sidney Hillman, Lithuanian-born American labor leader (d. 1946)*1891 – Po Kya, Burmese author and educationist (d. 1942)*1893 – Cedric Gibbons, Irish-American art director and production designer (d. 1960)* 1893 – Gopalswamy Doraiswamy Naidu, Indian engineer and businessman (d. 1974)*1894 – Arthur Grimsdell, English international footballer and cricketer (d. 1963)*1895 – Encarnacion Alzona, Filipino historian and educator (d. 2001)* 1895 – Dane Rudhyar, French-American astrologer, author and composer (d. 1985)*1898 – Louis Adamic, Slovenian-American author, translator and politician (d. 1951)* 1898 – Madeleine de Bourbon-Busset, Duchess of Parma (d. 1984)*1899 – Dora Gerson, German actress and singer (d. 1943)*1900 – Erich Fromm, German psychologist and sociologist (d. 1980)===1901–present===*1901 – Bon Maharaja, Indian guru and religious writer (d. 1982)*1903 – Frank Sargeson, New Zealand fiction writer (d. 1982)*1904 – Joan Crawford, American film actress (d. 1977)*1905 – Lale Andersen, German chanson singer-songwriter (d. 1972)*1907 – Daniel Bovet, Swiss-Italian pharmacologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992)*1909 – Charles Werner, American cartoonist (d. 1997)*1910 – Jerry Cornes, English runner, colonial officer and educator (d. 2001)* 1910 – Akira Kurosawa, Japanese director, producer and screenwriter (d. 1998)*1912 – Eleanor Cameron, Canadian-American children's author and critic (d. 1996)* 1912 – Neil McCorkell, English-South African cricketer and coach (d. 2013)* 1912 – Wernher von Braun, German-American physicist and engineer (d. 1977)*1913 – Abidin Dino, Turko-French painter and illustrator (d. 1993)*1914 – Milbourne Christopher, American magician and author (d. 1984)*1915 – Mary Innes-Ker, Duchess of Roxburghe (d. 2014)* 1915 – Vasily Zaytsev, Russian captain (d. 1991)*1917 – Harry Cranbrook Allen, English historian (d. 1998)*1918 – Stanley Armour Dunham, American sergeant (d. 1992)* 1918 – Helene Hale, American politician (d. 2013)* 1918 – Naoki Kazu, Japanese football player (d.1940s)*1919 – Carl Graffunder, American architect and educator (d. 2013)* 1919 – Subhadra Joshi, Indian freedom activist and politician (d. 2003)*1920 – Neal Edward Smith, American pilot, lawyer and politician (d. 2021)* 1920 – Tetsuharu Kawakami, Japanese baseball player and manager (d. 2013)*1921 – Donald Campbell, English race car driver (d. 1967)* 1921 – Peter Lawler, Australian public servant (d. 2017)*1922 – Marty Allen, American comedian and actor (d. 2018)* 1922 – Ugo Tognazzi, Italian actor (d. 1990)*1923 – Angelo Ingrassia, American soldier and judge (d. 2013)*1924 – Rodney Mims Cook, Sr., American lieutenant and politician (d. 2013)* 1924 – Bette Nesmith Graham, American inventor of Liquid Paper (d. 1980)* 1924 – Olga Kennard, English crystallographer and academic (d. 2023)* 1924 – John Madin, English architect (d. 2012)*1925 – David Watkin, English cinematographer (d. 2008)*1928 – Lee Sexton, American banjo player (d. 2021)*1929 – Roger Bannister, English middle-distance runner, neurologist and academic (d. 2018)* 1929 – Michael Manser, English architect and engineer (d. 2016)* 1929 – Mark Rydell, American actor, director and producer*1931 – Yevgeny Grishin, Russian speed skater (d. 2005)* 1931 – Viktor Korchnoi, Russian chess player and author (d. 2016)* 1931 – Yevdokiya Mekshilo, Russian skier (d. 2013)*1932 – Don Marshall, Canadian ice hockey player*1933 – Norman Bailey, English opera singer and educator (d. 2021)*1934 – Alan Baddeley, English psychologist* 1933 – Philip Zimbardo, American psychologist and academic*1934 – Ludvig Faddeev, Russian mathematician and physicist (d. 2017)*1935 – Barry Cryer, English comedian, actor and screenwriter (d. 2022)*1936 – Jannis Kounellis, Greek painter and sculptor (d. 2017)*1937 – Craig Breedlove, American race car driver (d. 2023)* 1937 – Tony Burton, American actor, comedian, boxer and football player (d. 2016)* 1937 – Robert Gallo, American physician and academic*1938 – Jon Finlayson, Australian actor and screenwriter (d. 2012)*1942 – Michael Haneke, Austrian director, producer and screenwriter* 1942 – Jimmy Miller, American record producer and musician (d. 1994) * 1942 – Walter Rodney, Guyanese historian, scholar and activist (d. 1980)*1943 – Andrew Crockett, Scottish-English economist and banker (d. 2012)* 1943 – Nils-Aslak Valkeapää, Finnish singer, author and director (d. 2001)*1944 – B. P. Gavrilov, Russian rugby player (d. 2006)* 1944 – Tony McPhee, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2023) * 1944 – Michael Nyman, English composer of minimalist music and pianist* 1944 – Ric Ocasek, American singer-songwriter, guitarist and producer (d. 2019)*1945 – Franco Battiato, Italian singer-songwriter and director (d. 2021)* 1945 – David Grisman, American mandolin player and composer *1946 – Alan Bleasdale, English screenwriter and producer*1947 – Elizabeth Ann Scarborough, American author*1948 – Wasim Bari, Pakistani cricketer* 1948 – Marie Malavoy, German-Canadian educator and politician*1950 – Corinne Cléry, French actress* 1950 – Phil Lanzon, English keyboard player and songwriter * 1950 – Ahdaf Soueif, Egyptian author and translator*1951 – Ron Jaworski, American football player and sportscaster* 1951 – Adrian Reynard, English businessman, founded Reynard Motorsport*1952 – Francesco Clemente, Italian painter and illustrator* 1952 – Kent Lambert, New Zealand rugby player * 1952 – Kim Stanley Robinson, American author* 1952 – Rex Tillerson, American businessman, engineer and diplomat; 69th United States Secretary of State*1953 – Bo Díaz, Venezuelan baseball player (d. 1990)* 1953 – Chaka Khan, American singer-songwriter * 1953 – Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw, Indian zoologist and businesswoman*1954 – Geno Auriemma, Italian-American basketball player and coach* 1954 – Kenneth Cole, American fashion designer, founded Kenneth Cole Productions* 1954 – Mary Fee, Scottish Labour Party politician* 1954 – Paul Price, English born, Welsh international footballer and manager*1955 – Moses Malone, American basketball player (d. 2015)*1956 – José Manuel Barroso, Portuguese academic and politician, 115th Prime Minister of Portugal*1957 – Lucio Gutiérrez, Ecuadorian politician, 52nd President of Ecuador* 1957 – Robbie James, Welsh footballer and manager (d. 1998)* 1957 – Amanda Plummer, American actress*1958 – Etienne De Wilde, Belgian cyclist* 1958 – Bengt-Åke Gustafsson, Swedish ice hockey player and coach* 1958 – Hugh Grant, Scottish business executive*1959 – Catherine Keener, American actress *1960 – Nicol Stephen, Baron Stephen, Scottish lawyer and politician, 2nd Deputy First Minister of Scotland* 1960 – Haris Romas, Greek actor, screenwriter, and lyricist *1961 – Roger Crisp, English philosopher and academic* 1961 – Craig Green, New Zealand rugby player* 1961 – Helmi Johannes, Indonesian journalist and producer*1962 – Steve Redgrave, English rower*1963 – Míchel, Spanish footballer and manager* 1963 – Juan Ramón López Caro, Spanish footballer and manager* 1963 – Ana Fidelia Quirot, Cuban runner*1964 – Hope Davis, American actress * 1965 – Gary Whitehead, American poet and painter*1966 – Lorenzo Daniel, American sprinter* 1966 – Vasilis Vouzas, Greek footballer and manager*1968 – Damon Albarn, English singer-songwriter, producer and actor* 1968 – Mike Atherton, English cricketer and journalist* 1968 – Fernando Hierro, Spanish footballer and manager* 1968 – Pierre Palmade, French actor and screenwriter*1971 – Yasmeen Ghauri, Canadian model* 1971 – Gail Porter, Scottish model and television host* 1971 – Alexander Selivanov, Russian ice hockey player* 1971 – Hiroyoshi Tenzan, Japanese wrestler*1972 – Jonas Björkman, Swedish-Monégasque tennis player and coach* 1972 – Joe Calzaghe, Welsh boxer* 1972 – Judith Godrèche, French actress and author*1973 – Jerzy Dudek, Polish footballer* 1973 – Wim Eyckmans, Belgian race car driver* 1973 – Jason Kidd, American basketball player and coach*1974 – Mark Hunt, New Zealand mixed martial artist* 1974 – Randall Park, American actor, director and screenwriter*1975 – Burak Gürpınar, Turkish drummer * 1975 – Andy Turner, English footballer and manager*1976 – Chris Hoy, Scottish cyclist* 1976 – Smriti Irani, Indian actress, producer and politician, Indian Minister of Human Resource Development* 1976 – Dougie Lampkin, English motorcycle racer* 1976 – Michelle Monaghan, American actress* 1976 – Joel Peralta, Dominican baseball player* 1976 – Keri Russell, American actress * 1976 – Ricardo Zonta, Brazilian race car driver* 1976 – Sa Beining, Chinese host*1977 – Miklos Perlus, Canadian actor and screenwriter*1978 – Simon Gärdenfors, Swedish illustrator* 1978 – Perez Hilton, American blogger* 1978 – Liu Ye, Chinese actor* 1978 – Walter Samuel, Argentinian footballer*1979 – Mark Buehrle, American baseball player* 1979 – Donncha O'Callaghan, Irish rugby player*1981 – Erin Crocker, American race car driver* 1981 – Tony Peña Jr., Dominican baseball player* 1981 – Shelley Rudman, English bobsledder* 1981 – Giuseppe Sculli, Italian footballer* 1981 – Brett Young, American country music singer*1982 – José Contreras Arrau, Chilean footballer* 1982 – Andrea Musacco, Italian footballer* 1982 – Evgeni Striganov, Estonian ice dancer*1983 – Hakan Balta, Turkish footballer* 1983 – Mo Farah, Somali-English runner* 1983 – Sascha Riether, German international footballer* 1983 – Jerome Thomas, English footballer*1984 – Ryan Araña, Filipino basketball player* 1984 – Brandon Marshall, American football player*1985 – Maurice Jones-Drew, American football player* 1985 – Bethanie Mattek-Sands, American tennis player*1986 – Patrick Bordeleau, Canadian ice hockey player* 1986 – Andrea Dovizioso, Italian motorcycle racer* 1986 – Brett Eldredge, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1986 – Kangana Ranaut, Indian actress*1987 – Alan Toovey, Australian footballer*1988 – Dellin Betances, American baseball player* 1988 – Jason Kenny, English cyclist* 1988 – Michal Neuvirth, Czech ice hockey player*1989 – Ayesha Curry, Canadian-American chef, author and television personality* 1989 – Nikola Gulan, Serbian footballer* 1989 – Sarah McKenna, English rugby player* 1989 – Luis Fernando Silva, Mexican footballer*1990 – Princess Eugenie, British princess* 1990 – Jaime Alguersuari, Spanish race car driver* 1990 – Robert Zickert, German footballer*1991 – Linline Matauatu, Vanuatuan beach volleyball player* 1991 – Gregg Wylde, Scottish footballer*1992 – Tolga Ciğerci, German-Turkish footballer* 1992 – Kyrie Irving, Australian-American basketball player*1993 – Kyle Lovett, Australian rugby league player* 1993 – Aytaç Kara, Turkish footballer*1994 – Nick Powell, English footballer*1994 – Bridger Zadina American actor*1995 – Kevin Kauber, Estonian footballer* 1995 – Jan Lisiecki, Canadian pianist* 1995 – Ozan Tufan, Turkish footballer*1996 – Alexander Albon, Thai-British race car driver* 1996 – Joel Kiviranta, Finnish ice hockey player*1997 – Sirocco, kākāpō and New Zealand's Official Spokesbird for Conservation"
],
[
"Deaths",
"===Pre-1600===*59 – Agrippina the Younger, Roman empress (b.",
"15)*851 – Zhou Chi, Chinese historian and politician (b.",
"793)*1022 – Zhen Zong, Chinese emperor (b.",
"968)*1103 – Eudes I, duke of Burgundy (b.",
"1058)*1361 – Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster, English politician, Lord High Steward of England (b.",
"1310)*1369 – Peter, king of Castile and León (b.",
"1334)*1483 – Yolande, duchess of Lorraine (b.",
"1428)*1548 – Itagaki Nobukata, Japanese samurai (b.",
"1489)*1555 – Julius III, pope of the Catholic Church (b.",
"1487)*1559 – Gelawdewos, Ethiopian emperor (b.",
"1521)*1596 – Henry Unton, English diplomat (b.",
"1557)===1601–1900===*1606 – Justus Lipsius, Flemish philologist and scholar (b.",
"1547)*1618 – James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Abercorn, Scottish police officer and politician (b.",
"1575)*1629 – Francis Fane, 1st Earl of Westmorland, English landowner and politician (b.",
"1580)*1675 – Anthoni van Noordt, Dutch organist and composer (b.",
"1619)*1680 – Nicolas Fouquet, French politician (b.",
"1615)*1712 – Zebi Hirsch Kaidanover, Lithuanian-born rabbi and writer (b. c. 1650)*1742 – Jean-Baptiste Dubos, French historian and author (b.",
"1670)*1747 – Claude Alexandre de Bonneval, French general (b.",
"1675)*1748 – Johann Gottfried Walther, German organist and composer (b.",
"1684)*1754 – Johann Jakob Wettstein, Swiss theologian and critic (b.",
"1693)*1783 – Charles Carroll, English barrister and politician (b.",
"1723)*1792 – Luís António Verney, Portuguese philosopher and pedagogue (b.",
"1713)*1801 – Paul I, Russian emperor (b.",
"1754)*1842 – Stendhal, French novelist (b.",
"1783)*1862 – Manuel Robles Pezuela, Unconstitutional Mexican interim president, 1858–1859 (b.",
"1817) *1883 – Arthur Macalister, Scottish-Australian politician, 2nd Premier of Queensland (b.",
"1818)*1884 – Henry C. Lord, American businessman (b.",
"1824)===1901–present===*1910 – Nadar, French photographer, journalist, and author (b.",
"1820)*1914 – Rafqa Pietra Choboq Ar-Rayès, Lebanese saint (b.",
"1832)*1923 – Hovhannes Tumanyan, Armenian poet and author (b.",
"1869)*1927 – Paul César Helleu, French painter and etcher (b.",
"1859)*1931 – Shivaram Rajguru, Indian activist (b.",
"1908)* 1931 – Bhagat Singh, Indian activist (b.",
"1907)* 1931 – Sukhdev Thapar, Indian activist (b.",
"1907)*1946 – Gilbert N. Lewis, American chemist (b.",
"1875)*1953 – Raoul Dufy, French painter and illustrator (b.",
"1877)* 1953 – Oskar Luts, Estonian author and playwright (b.",
"1887)*1955 – Arthur Bernardes, Brazilian politician, 12th President of Brazil (b.",
"1875)*1960 – Franklin Pierce Adams, American journalist and author (b.",
"1881)* 1960 – Said Nursî, Turkish theologian and scholar (b.",
"1878)*1961 – Albert Bloch, American painter and educator (b.",
"1882)* 1961 – Jack Russell, English cricketer (b.",
"1887)*1963 – Thoralf Skolem, Norwegian mathematician and logician (b.",
"1887)*1964 – Peter Lorre, American actor (b.",
"1904)*1965 – Mae Murray, American actress, dancer, producer, and screenwriter (b.",
"1885)*1968 – Edwin O'Connor, American journalist and author (b.",
"1918)*1972 – Cristóbal Balenciaga, Spanish fashion designer, founded Balenciaga (b.",
"1895)*1978 – Haim Ernst Wertheimer, Israeli biochemist and academic (b.",
"1893)* 1978 – Halyna Kuzmenko, Ukrainian teacher and anarchist revolutionary (b.",
"1897)*1979 – Ted Anderson, English footballer (b.",
"1911)*1980 – Arthur Melvin Okun, American economist and academic (b.",
"1928)*1981 – Beatrice Tinsley, English-New Zealand astronomer and cosmologist (b.",
"1941)*1981 – Mike Hailwood, English motorcyclist (b.",
"1940)*1985 – Richard Beeching, Baron Beeching, English physicist and engineer (b.",
"1913)*1985 – Peter Charanis, Greek-American scholar and educator (b.",
"1908)*1986 – Moshe Feinstein, American Orthodox Rabbi and posek (b.",
"1895)*1987 – Olev Roomet, Estonian singer and violinist (b.",
"1901)*1990 – John Dexter, English director and producer (b.",
"1925)*1991 – Margaret Atwood Judson, American historian and author (b.",
"1899)* 1991 – Parkash Singh, Indian soldier, Victoria Cross recipient (b.",
"1913)*1992 – Friedrich Hayek, Austrian-German economist, philosopher, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1899)* 1992 – Ron Lapointe, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.",
"1949)*1994 – Luis Donaldo Colosio, Mexican economist and politician (b.",
"1950)* 1994 – Giulietta Masina, Italian actress (b.",
"1921)*1995 – Davie Cooper, Scottish footballer and coach (b.",
"1956)*1999 – Luis María Argaña, Paraguayan judge and politician, Vice President of Paraguay (b.",
"1932)* 1999 – Osmond Borradaile, Canadian director and cinematographer (b.",
"1898)*2001 – Rowland Evans, American journalist (b.",
"1921)* 2001 – Margaret Jones''',''' British archaeologist (b.",
"1916)* 2001 – Robert Laxalt, American author (b.",
"1923)* 2001 – David McTaggart, Canadian badminton player and environmentalist (b.",
"1932)*2002 – Eileen Farrell, American soprano (b.",
"1920)* 2002 – Ben Hollioake, Australian-English cricketer (b.",
"1977)*2003 – Fritz Spiegl, Austrian-English flute player and journalist (b.",
"1926)*2004 – Rupert Hamer, Australian soldier, lawyer, and politician, 39th Premier of Victoria (b.",
"1916)*2006 – David B.",
"Bleak, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (b.",
"1932)* 2006 – Desmond Doss, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b.",
"1919)* 2006 – Cindy Walker, American singer-songwriter and dancer (b.",
"1918)*2007 – Paul Cohen, American mathematician and theorist (b.",
"1934)* 2007 – Eric Medlen, American race car driver (b.",
"1973)*2008 – Vaino Vahing, Estonian psychiatrist, author, and playwright (b.",
"1940)*2009 – Ghukas Chubaryan, Armenian sculptor (b.",
"1923)* 2009 – Raúl Macías, Mexican boxer and trainer (b.",
"1934)*2011 – Jean Bartik, American computer scientist and engineer (b.",
"1924)* 2011 – Rosario Morales, Puerto Rican poet and writer (b.1930)* 2011 – Elizabeth Taylor, American-British actress, socialite and humanitarian (b.",
"1932)*2012 – Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, Somalian politician, President of Somalia (b.",
"1934)* 2012 – Jim Duffy, American animator, director, and producer (b.",
"1937)* 2012 – Naji Talib, Iraqi politician, 52nd Prime Minister of Iraq (b.",
"1917)* 2012 – Lonnie Wright, American basketball and football player (b.",
"1945)*2013 – Boris Berezovsky, Russian-born Soviet-British mathematician and businessman (b.",
"1946)* 2013 – Onofre Corpuz, Filipino economist, historian, and academic (b.",
"1926)* 2013 – Virgil Trucks, American baseball player and coach (b.",
"1917)* 2013 – Joe Weider, Canadian-American bodybuilder and publisher, co-founded the International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness (b.",
"1919)*2014 – Dave Brockie, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and bass player (b.",
"1963)* 2014 – Jaroslav Šerých, Czech painter and illustrator (b.",
"1928)* 2014 – Adolfo Suárez, Spanish lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Spain (b.",
"1932)*2015 – Gian Vittorio Baldi, Italian director, producer, and screenwriter (b.",
"1930)* 2015 – Lee Kuan Yew, Singaporean lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Singapore (b.",
"1923)* 2015 – Bobby Lowther, American basketball player and lieutenant (b.",
"1923)* 2015 – Lil' Chris, English singer-songwriter, actor, and television personality (b.",
"1990)*2016 – Joe Garagiola, American baseball player and sportscaster (b.",
"1926)* 2016 – Ken Howard, American actor (b.",
"1944)*2017 – Miroslava Breach, Mexican investigative journalist (b.",
"1962)*2021 – George Segal, American actor (b.",
"1934)*2022 – Madeleine Albright, Czechoslovakian-American diplomat, 64th United States Secretary of State (b.",
"1937)"
],
[
"Holidays and observances",
"* Christian feast day:**Gregory the Illuminator (Episcopal Church)** Gwinear** Joseph Oriol** Ottone Frangipane** Rafqa Pietra Choboq Ar-Rayès (Maronite Church)** Turibius of Mogrovejo** Victorian, Frumentius and Companions** March 23 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Day of Hungarian-Polish Friendship (Hungary and Poland)* Day of the Sea (Bolivia)* Family Day (South Africa)* Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Day (Azerbaijan)* Pakistan Day (Pakistan)* Promised Messiah Day (Ahmadiyya)* World Meteorological Day"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 23"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"March 22"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Events",
"===Pre-1600===*106 – Start of the Bostran era, the calendar of the province of Arabia Petraea.",
"* 235 – Roman emperor Severus Alexander is murdered, marking the start of the Crisis of the Third Century.",
"* 871 – Æthelred of Wessex is defeated by a Danish invasion army at the Battle of Marton.",
"*1185 – Battle of Yashima: the Japanese forces of the Taira clan are defeated by the Minamoto clan.",
"*1312 – ''Vox in excelso'': Pope Clement V dissolves the Order of the Knights Templar.",
"*1508 – Ferdinand II of Aragon commissions Amerigo Vespucci chief navigator of the Spanish Empire.===1601–1900===*1621 – The Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony sign a peace treaty with Massasoit of the Wampanoags.",
"*1622 – Jamestown massacre: Algonquians kill 347 English settlers around Jamestown, Virginia, a third of the colony's population, during the Second Anglo-Powhatan War.",
"*1631 – The Massachusetts Bay Colony outlaws the possession of cards, dice, and gaming tables.",
"*1638 – Anne Hutchinson is expelled from Massachusetts Bay Colony for religious dissent.",
"*1739 – Nader Shah occupies Delhi in India and sacks the city, stealing the jewels of the Peacock Throne.",
"*1765 – The British Parliament passes the Stamp Act that introduces a tax to be levied directly on its American colonies.",
"*1784 – The Emerald Buddha is moved with great ceremony to its current location in Wat Phra Kaew, Thailand.",
"*1792 – Battle of Croix-des-Bouquets: Black slave insurgents gain a victory in the first major battle of the Haitian Revolution.",
"*1794 – The Slave Trade Act of 1794 bans the export of slaves from the United States, and prohibits American citizens from outfitting a ship for the purpose of importing slaves.",
"*1829 – In the London Protocol, the three protecting powers (United Kingdom, France and Russia) establish the borders of Greece.",
"*1849 – The Austrians defeat the Piedmontese at the Battle of Novara.",
"*1871 – In North Carolina, William Woods Holden becomes the first governor of a U.S. state to be removed from office by impeachment.",
"*1873 – The Spanish National Assembly abolishes slavery in Puerto Rico.",
"*1894 – The Stanley Cup ice hockey competition is held for the first time, in Montreal, Canada.",
"*1895 – Before the Société pour L'Encouragement à l'Industrie, brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière demonstrate movie film technology publicly for the first time.",
"*1896 – Charilaos Vasilakos wins the first modern Olympic marathon race with a time of three hours and 18 minutes.===1901–present===*1906 – The first England vs France rugby union match is played at Parc des Princes in Paris.",
"*1913 – Mystic Phan Xích Long, the self-proclaimed Emperor of Vietnam, is arrested for organising a revolt against the colonial rule of French Indochina, which was nevertheless carried out by his supporters the following day.",
"*1916 – Yuan Shikai abdicates as Emperor of China, restoring the Republic and returning to the Presidency.",
"*1920 – Azeri and Turkish army soldiers with participation of Kurdish gangs attack the Armenian inhabitants of Shushi (Nagorno Karabakh).",
"*1933 – Cullen–Harrison Act: President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs an amendment to the Volstead Act, legalizing the manufacture and sale of \"3.2 beer\" (3.2% alcohol by weight, approximately 4% alcohol by volume) and light wines.",
"* 1933 – Nazi Germany opens its first concentration camp, Dachau.",
"*1934 – The first Masters Tournament is held at Augusta National Golf Club in Georgia.",
"*1939 – Germany takes Memel from Lithuania.",
"*1942 – World War II: In the Mediterranean Sea, the Royal Navy confronts Italy's Regia Marina in the Second Battle of Sirte.",
"*1943 – World War II: The entire village of Khatyn (in what is the present-day Republic of Belarus) is burnt alive by Schutzmannschaft Battalion 118.",
"*1945 – World War II: The city of Hildesheim, Germany is heavily damaged in a British air raid, though it had little military significance and Germany was on the verge of final defeat.",
"* 1945 – The Arab League is founded when a charter is adopted in Cairo, Egypt.",
"*1946 – The United Kingdom grants full independence to Transjordan.",
"*1960 – Arthur Leonard Schawlow and Charles Hard Townes receive the first patent for a laser.",
"*1963 – The Beatles release their debut album ''Please Please Me''.",
"*1970 – Chicano residents in San Diego, California occupy a site under the Coronado Bridge, leading to the creation of Chicano Park.",
"*1972 – The United States Congress sends the Equal Rights Amendment to the states for ratification.",
"* 1972 – In ''Eisenstadt v. Baird'', the United States Supreme Court decides that unmarried persons have the right to possess contraceptives.",
"*1975 – A fire at the Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant in Decatur, Alabama causes a dangerous reduction in cooling water levels.",
"*1978 – Karl Wallenda of The Flying Wallendas dies after falling off a tight-rope suspended between two hotels in San Juan, Puerto Rico.",
"*1982 – NASA's Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' is launched from the Kennedy Space Center on its third mission, STS-3.",
"*1988 – The United States Congress votes to override President Ronald Reagan's veto of the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987.",
"*1992 – USAir Flight 405 crashes shortly after takeoff from New York City's LaGuardia Airport, leading to a number of studies into the effect that ice has on aircraft.",
"* 1992 – Fall of communism in Albania: The Democratic Party of Albania wins a decisive majority in the parliamentary election.",
"*1993 – The Intel Corporation ships the first Pentium chips (80586), featuring a 60 MHz clock speed, 100+ MIPS, and a 64 bit data path.",
"*1995 – Cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov returns to earth after setting a record of 438 days in space.",
"*1997 – Tara Lipinski, aged 14 years and nine months, becomes the youngest women's World Figure Skating Champion.",
"* 1997 – Comet Hale–Bopp reaches its closest approach to Earth at 1.315 AU.",
"*2004 – Ahmed Yassin, co-founder and leader of the Palestinian Sunni Islamist group Hamas, two bodyguards, and nine civilian bystanders are killed in the Gaza Strip when hit by Israeli Air Force Hellfire missiles.",
"*2006 – Three Christian Peacemaker Team (CPT) hostages are freed by British forces in Baghdad after 118 days of captivity and the murder of their colleague from the U.S., Tom Fox.",
"*2013 – At least 37 people are killed and 200 are injured after a fire destroys a camp containing Burmese refugees near Ban Mae, Thailand.",
"*2016 – Three suicide bombers kill 32 people and injure 316 in the 2016 Brussels bombings at the airport and at the Maelbeek/Maalbeek metro station.",
"*2017 – A terrorist attack in London near the Houses of Parliament leaves four people dead and at least 20 injured.",
"* 2017 – Syrian civil war: Five hundred members of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) are airlifted south of the Euphrates by United States Air Force helicopters, beginning the Battle of Tabqa.",
"*2019 – The Special Counsel investigation on the 2016 United States presidential election concludes when Robert Mueller submits his report to the United States Attorney General.",
"* 2019 – Two buses crashed in Kitampo, a town north of Ghana's capital Accra, killing at least 50 people.",
"*2020 – Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announces the country's largest ever self-imposed curfew, in an effort to fight the spread of COVID-19.",
"* 2020 – Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis announces a national lockdown and the country's first ever self-imposed curfew, in an effort to fight the spread of COVID-19.",
"*2021 – Ten people are killed in a mass shooting in Boulder, Colorado."
],
[
"Births",
"===Pre-1600===* 841 – Bernard Plantapilosa, Frankish son of Bernard of Septimania (d. 885)* 875 – William I, Duke of Aquitaine (d. 918)*1212 – Emperor Go-Horikawa of Japan (d. 1235)*1367 – Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk, English politician, Earl Marshal of the United Kingdom (probable; d. 1399)*1394 – Ulugh Beg, Persian astronomer and mathematician (d. 1449)*1459 – Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1519)*1499 – Johann Carion, German astrologer and chronicler (d. 1537)*1503 – Antonio Francesco Grazzini, Italian author and educator (d. 1583)*1517 – Gioseffo Zarlino, Italian composer (d. 1590)*1519 – Catherine Brandon, Duchess of Suffolk, English noblewoman (d. 1580)*1582 – John Williams, Archbishop of York (d. 1650)*1599 – Anthony van Dyck, Flemish-English painter and etcher (d. 1641)===1601–1900===*1609 – John II Casimir Vasa, Polish king (d. 1672)*1615 – Katherine Jones, Viscountess Ranelagh, British scientist (d. 1691)*1663 – August Hermann Francke, German clergyman, philanthropist, and scholar (d. 1727)*1684 – William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath, English politician, Secretary at War (d. 1764)*1712 – Edward Moore, English poet and playwright (d. 1757)*1720 – Nicolas-Henri Jardin, French architect, designed the Yellow Palace and Bernstorff Palace (d. 1799)*1723 – Charles Carroll, American lawyer and politician (d. 1783)*1728 – Anton Raphael Mengs, German painter and theorist (d. 1779)*1785 – Adam Sedgwick, English scientist (d. 1873)*1797 – William I, German Emperor (d. 1888)*1808 – Caroline Norton, English feminist, social reformer, and author (d. 1877)* 1808 – David Swinson Maynard, American physician and lawyer (d. 1873)*1812 – Stephen Pearl Andrews, American author and activist (d. 1886)*1814 – Thomas Crawford, American sculptor, designed the Statue of Freedom (d. 1857)*1817 – Braxton Bragg, American general (d. 1876)*1818 – John Ainsworth Horrocks, English-Australian explorer, founded Penwortham (d. 1846)*1822 – Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, Ottoman sociologist, historian, scholar, statesman and jurist (d. 1895)*1841 – Anastassios Christomanos, Greek scientist (d. 1906) *1842 – Mykola Lysenko, Ukrainian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1912)*1846 – Randolph Caldecott, English illustrator and painter (d. 1886)* 1846 – James Timberlake, American lieutenant, police officer, and farmer (d. 1891)*1852 – Otakar Ševčík, Czech violinist and educator (d. 1934)* 1852 – Hector Sévin, French cardinal (d. 1916)*1855 – Dorothy Tennant, British painter (d. 1926)*1857 – Paul Doumer, French mathematician, journalist, and politician, 14th President of France (d. 1932)*1866 – Jack Boyle, American baseball player and umpire (d. 1913)*1868 – Robert Andrews Millikan, American colonel and physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1953)*1869 – Emilio Aguinaldo, Filipino general and politician, 1st President of the Philippines (d. 1964)* 1869 – Tom McInnes, Scottish-English footballer (d. 1939)*1873 – Ernest Lawson, Canadian-American painter (d. 1939)*1880 – Ernest C. Quigley, Canadian-American football player and coach (d. 1960)*1884 – Arthur H. Vandenberg, American journalist and politician (d. 1951)* 1884 – Lyda Borelli, Italian actress (d. 1959)*1885 – Aryeh Levin, Polish-Lithuanian rabbi and educator (d. 1969)*1886 – August Rei, Estonian lawyer and politician, Head of State of Estonia (d. 1963)*1887 – Chico Marx, American actor (d. 1961)*1890 – George Clark, American race car driver (d. 1978)*1892 – Charlie Poole, American country banjo player (d. 1931)* 1892 – Johannes Semper, Estonian poet and scholar (d. 1970)*1896 – He Long, Chinese general and politician, 1st Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 1969)* 1896 – Joseph Schildkraut, Austrian-American actor (d. 1964)*1899 – Ruth Page, American ballerina and choreographer (d. 1991)===1901–present===*1901 – Greta Kempton, Austrian-American painter (d. 1991)*1902 – Johannes Brinkman, Dutch architect, designed the Van Nelle Factory (d. 1949)* 1902 – Madeleine Milhaud, French actress and composer (d. 2008)*1903 – Bill Holman, American cartoonist (d. 1987)*1907 – James M. Gavin, American general and diplomat, United States Ambassador to France (d. 1990)*1908 – Jack Crawford, Australian tennis player (d. 1991)* 1908 – Louis L'Amour, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1988)*1909 – Gabrielle Roy, Canadian author and educator (d. 1983)*1910 – Nicholas Monsarrat, English sailor and author (d. 1979)*1912 – Wilfrid Brambell, Irish actor and performer (d. 1985)* 1912 – Karl Malden, American actor (d. 2009)* 1912 – Agnes Martin, Canadian-American painter and educator (d. 2004)* 1912 – Leslie Johnson, English race car driver (d. 1959)*1913 – Tom McCall, American journalist and politician, 30th Governor of Oregon (d. 1983)* 1913 – Lew Wasserman, American businessman and talent agent (d. 2002)* 1913 – James Westerfield, American actor (d. 1971)*1914 – John Stanley, American author and illustrator (d. 1993)* 1914 – Donald Stokes, Baron Stokes, English businessman (d. 2008)*1917 – Virginia Grey, American actress (d. 2004)* 1917 – Irving Kaplansky, Canadian-American mathematician and academic (d. 2006)* 1917 – Paul Rogers, English actor (d. 2013)*1918 – Cheddi Jagan, Guyanese politician, 4th President of Guyana (d. 1997)*1919 – Bernard Krigstein, American illustrator (d. 1990)*1920 – James Brown, American actor and singer (d. 1992)* 1920 – Werner Klemperer, German-American actor (d. 2000)* 1920 – Lloyd MacPhail, Canadian businessman and politician, 23rd Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island (d. 1995)* 1920 – Fanny Waterman, English pianist and educator, founded the Leeds International Pianoforte Competition (d. 2020)* 1920 – Katsuko Saruhashi, Japanese geochemist (d. 2007)* 1920 – Ross Martin, American actor (d. 1981)*1921 – Nino Manfredi, Italian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2004)*1922 – John J. Gilligan, American politician, 62nd Governor of Ohio (d. 2013)* 1922 – Stewart Stern, American screenwriter (d. 2015)*1923 – Marcel Marceau, French mime and actor (d. 2007)*1924 – Al Neuharth, American journalist and author, founded ''USA Today'' (d. 2013)* 1924 – Yevgeny Ostashev, Russian test pilot, participant in the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite (d. 1960)* 1924 – Osman F. Seden, Turkish director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1998)* 1924 – Bill Wendell, American television announcer (d. 1999)*1927 – Marty Blake, American basketball player and manager (d. 2013)* 1927 – Nicolas Tikhomiroff, Russian photographer (d. 2016)*1928 – Carrie Donovan, American journalist (d. 2001)* 1928 – E. D. Hirsch, American author, critic, and academic* 1928 – Ed Macauley, American basketball player, coach, and priest (d. 2011)*1929 – Yayoi Kusama, Japanese artist* 1929 – P. Ramlee, Malaysian actor, director, singer, songwriter, composer, and producer (d. 1973)*1930 – Derek Bok, American lawyer and academic* 1930 – Pat Robertson, American minister and broadcaster, founded the Christian Broadcasting Network* 1930 – Stephen Sondheim, American composer and songwriter (d. 2021)*1931 – Burton Richter, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2018)* 1931 – William Shatner, Canadian actor* 1931 – Leslie Thomas, Welsh journalist and author (d. 2014)*1932 – Els Borst, Dutch physician and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2014)* 1932 – Larry Evans, American chess player and journalist (d. 2010)*1933 – Abolhassan Banisadr, Iranian economist and politician, 1st President of Iran (d. 2021)*1934 – May Britt, Swedish actress * 1934 – Sheila Cameron, English lawyer and judge* 1934 – Orrin Hatch, American lawyer and politician (d. 2022)*1935 – Galina Gavrilovna Korchuganova, Russian-born Soviet test pilot and aerobatics champion (d. 2004)* 1935 – Lea Pericoli, Italian tennis player and journalist* 1935 – Frank Pulli, American baseball player and umpire (d. 2013)* 1935 – M. Emmet Walsh, American actor*1936 – Ron Carey, American trade union leader (d. 2008)* 1936 – Roger Whittaker, Kenyan-English singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1936 – Erol Büyükburç, Turkish singer-songwriter, pop music composer, and actor (d. 2015)*1937 – Angelo Badalamenti, American pianist and composer* 1937 – Armin Hary, German sprinter* 1937 – Jon Hassell, American trumpet player and composer (d. 2021)* 1937 – Foo Foo Lammar, British drag queen (d. 2003)*1938 – Rein Etruk, Estonian chess player (d. 2012)*1940 – Dave Keon, Canadian ice hockey player* 1940 – Haing S. Ngor, Cambodian-American physician and author (d. 1996)* 1940 – George Edward Alcorn, Jr., American physicist and inventor*1941 – Billy Collins, American poet* 1941 – Jeremy Clyde, English singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1941 – Bruno Ganz, Swiss actor (d. 2019)* 1941 – Cassam Uteem, Mauritian politician, 2nd President of Mauritius*1942 – Jorge Ben Jor, Brazilian singer-songwriter* 1942 – Dick Pound, Canadian lawyer and academic*1943 – George Benson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1943 – Nazem Ganjapour, Iranian footballer and manager (d. 2013)* 1943 – Keith Relf, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1976)*1945 – Eric Roth, American screenwriter and producer*1946 – Don Chaney, American basketball player and coach* 1946 – Rivka Golani, Israeli viola player and composer* 1946 – Rudy Rucker, American mathematician, computer scientist, and author* 1946 – Harry Vanda, Dutch-Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer *1947 – George Ferguson, English architect and politician, 1st Mayor of Bristol* 1947 – James Patterson, American author and producer* 1947 – Maarten van Gent, Dutch basketball player and coach*1948 – Wolf Blitzer, American journalist* 1948 – Andrew Lloyd Webber, English composer and director *1949 – Fanny Ardant, French actress, director, and screenwriter* 1949 – Brian Hanrahan, English journalist (d. 2010)*1952 – Des Browne, Scottish lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland* 1952 – Bob Costas, American sportscaster*1953 – Kenneth Rogoff, American economist and chess grandmaster*1955 – Lena Olin, Swedish actress* 1955 – Valdis Zatlers, Latvian physician and politician, 7th President of Latvia* 1956 – Maria Teresa, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg*1957 – Jürgen Bucher, German footballer* 1957 – Stephanie Mills, American actress and singer*1959 – Matthew Modine, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1960 – Jim Covert, American football player*1961 – Simon Furman, British comic book writer*1962 – Nikos Kourbanas, Greek footballer *1963 – Deborah Bull, English ballerina* 1963 – Susan Ann Sulley, English pop singer* 1963 – Martín Vizcarra, Peruvian engineer and politician, 67th President of Peru*1964 – David Gillespie, Australian rugby league player*1965 – Ice MC, British rapper*1966 – Todd Ewen, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015)* 1966 – Artis Pabriks, Latvian academic and politician, 11th Minister for Defence of Latvia* 1966 – António Pinto, Portuguese runner* 1966 – Brian Shaw, American basketball player and coach*1967 – Mario Cipollini, Italian cyclist* 1967 – Bernie Gallacher, Scottish-English footballer (d. 2011)*1969 – Russell Maryland, American football player*1970 – Andreas Johnson, Swedish singer-songwriter* 1970 – Leontien van Moorsel, Dutch cyclist* 1970 – Hwang Young-cho, South Korean runner*1971 – Keegan-Michael Key, American actor, comedian, and writer*1972 – Shawn Bradley, German-American basketball player, coach, and actor* 1972 – Cory Lidle, American baseball player (d. 2006)* 1972 – Elvis Stojko, Canadian figure skater and sportscaster*1973 – Beverley Knight, English singer-songwriter and producer*1974 – Marcus Camby, American basketball player* 1974 – Philippe Clement, Belgian footballer* 1974 – Grigoria Golia, Greek handball player* 1974 – Geo Meneses, Mexican producer and singer*1975 – Cole Hauser, American actor and producer* 1975 – Jiří Novák, Czech-Monegasque tennis player*1976 – Teun de Nooijer, Dutch field hockey player* 1976 – Asako Toki, Japanese singer-songwriter* 1976 – Reese Witherspoon, American actress and producer*1977 – Anabel Rodríguez Ríos, Venezuelan film director and screenwriter* 1977 – Joey Porter, American football player and coach* 1977 – Tom Poti, American ice hockey player*1979 – Michalis Kouinelis, Greek hip hop singer * 1979 – Aaron North, American guitarist * 1979 – Juan Uribe, Dominican baseball player*1981 – Arne Gabius, German runner* 1981 – Mims, American rapper*1982 – Piá, Brazilian footballer* 1982 – Enrico Gasparotto, Italian cyclist* 1982 – Michael Janyk, Canadian skier* 1982 – Constance Wu, American actress*1983 – Thomas Davis Sr., American football player*1984 – Piotr Trochowski, German footballer*1985 – Mayola Biboko, Belgian footballer* 1985 – Jakob Fuglsang, Danish cyclist* 1985 – Justin Masterson, American baseball player* 1985 – Kelli Waite, Australian swimmer*1986 – Dexter Fowler, American baseball player*1987 – Ike Davis, American baseball player* 1987 – Jairo Mora Sandoval, Costa Rican environmentalist (d. 2013)* 1987 – Liam Doran, British rallycross driver*1989 – Ruben Popa, Romanian footballer* 1989 – J. J. Watt, American football player*1992 – Roston Chase, Barbadian cricketer*1994 – Edwin Díaz, Puerto Rican baseball player* 1994 – Aliaksandra Sasnovich, Belarusian tennis player*1997 – Alex Meret, Italian footballer*2000 – Dimitrios Meliopoulos, Greek footballer"
],
[
"Deaths",
"===Pre-1600===* 235 – Severus Alexander, Roman emperor (b.",
"208) * 880 – Carloman of Bavaria, Frankish king*1144 – William of Norwich, child murder victim*1322 – Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster, English politician, Lord High Steward of England (b.",
"1278)*1418 – Dietrich of Nieheim, German bishop and historian (b.",
"1345)*1421 – Thomas of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Clarence, English soldier and politician, Lord High Steward of England (b.",
"1388)*1454 – John Kemp, Archbishop of Canterbury*1471 – George of Poděbrady (b.",
"1420)===1601–1900===*1544 – Johannes Magnus, Swedish archbishop and theologian (b.",
"1488)*1602 – Agostino Carracci, Italian painter and educator (b.",
"1557)*1685 – Emperor Go-Sai of Japan (b.",
"1638)*1687 – Jean-Baptiste Lully, Italian-French composer and conductor (b.",
"1632)*1758 – Jonathan Edwards, English minister, theologian, and philosopher (b.",
"1703)*1772 – John Canton, English physicist and academic (b.",
"1718)*1820 – Stephen Decatur, American commander (b.",
"1779)*1832 – Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German novelist, poet, playwright, and diplomat (b.",
"1749)*1840 – Étienne Bobillier, French mathematician and academic (b.",
"1798)*1864 – Konstanty Kalinowski, writer, journalist, lawyer and revolutionary (b.",
"1838)*1881 – Samuel Courtauld, English businessman (b.",
"1793)*1896 – Thomas Hughes, English lawyer and politician (b.",
"1822)===1901–present===*1913 – Song Jiaoren, Chinese educator and politician (b.",
"1882)* 1913 – Ruggero Oddi, Italian physiologist and anatomist (b.1864)*1924 – William Macewen, Scottish surgeon and neuroscientist (b.",
"1848)*1931 – James Campbell, 1st Baron Glenavy, Irish lawyer and politician (b.",
"1851)*1942 – Frederick Cuming, English cricketer (b.",
"1875)* 1942 – William Donne, English captain and cricketer (b.",
"1875)*1945 – John Hessin Clarke, American lawyer and judge (b.",
"1857)*1952 – D. S. Senanayake, 1st Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (b.",
"1883)*1955 – Ivan Šubašić, Croatian lawyer and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (b.",
"1892)*1958 – Mike Todd, American film producer (b.",
"1909)*1960 – José Antonio Aguirre, Spanish lawyer and politician, 1st President of the Basque Country (b.",
"1904)*1966 – John Harlin, American mountaineer and pilot (b.",
"1935)*1971 – Johannes Villemson, Estonian-American runner (b.",
"1893)* 1971 – Nella Walker, American actress and vaudevillian (b.",
"1886)*1974 – Peter Revson, American race car driver (b.",
"1939)* 1974 – Orazio Satta Puliga, Italian automobile designer (b.",
"1910)*1976 – John Dwyer McLaughlin, American painter (b.",
"1898)*1977 – A. K. Gopalan, Indian educator and politician (b.",
"1904)*1978 – Karl Wallenda, German-American acrobat and tightrope walker, founded The Flying Wallendas (b.",
"1905)*1979 – Ben Lyon, American actor and studio executive (b.",
"1901)*1981 – James Elliott, American runner and coach (b.",
"1915)* 1981 – Gil Puyat, Filipino businessman and politician, 13th President of the Senate of the Philippines (b.",
"1907)*1985 – Raoul Ubac, French painter, sculptor, photographer, and engraver (b.",
"1910)* 1985 – Spyros Vassiliou, Greek painter, printmaker, illustrator, and stage designer (b.",
"1903) *1986 – Olive Deering, American actress (b.",
"1918)* 1986 – Mark Dinning, American singer (b.",
"1933)*1987 – Odysseas Angelis, Greek general and politician (b.",
"1912)*1989 – Peta Taylor, English cricketer (b.",
"1912)*1990 – Gerald Bull, Canadian engineer and academic (b.",
"1928)*1991 – Léon Balcer, Canadian lawyer and politician, 19th Solicitor General of Canada (b.",
"1917)* 1991 – Paul Engle, American novelist, poet, playwright, and critic (b.",
"1908)* 1991 – Dave Guard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.",
"1934)* 1991 – Gloria Holden, English-American actress (b.",
"1908)*1993 – Steve Olin, American baseball player (b.",
"1965)*1994 – Dan Hartman, American singer-songwriter, and producer (b.",
"1950)* 1994 – Walter Lantz, American animator, director, and producer (b.",
"1899)*1996 – Don Murray, American drummer (b.",
"1945)* 1996 – Robert F. Overmyer, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b.",
"1936)* 1996 – Billy Williamson, American guitarist (b.",
"1925)*1999 – Max Beloff, Baron Beloff, English historian and academic (b.",
"1913)* 1999 – David Strickland, American actor (b.",
"1969)*2000 – Carlo Parola, Italian footballer and manager (b.",
"1921)*2001 – Stepas Butautas, Lithuanian basketball player and coach (b.",
"1925)* 2001 – Sabiha Gökçen, Turkish soldier and pilot (b.",
"1913)* 2001 – William Hanna, American animator, director, producer, and voice actor, co-founded Hanna-Barbera (b.",
"1910)* 2001 – Robert Fletcher Shaw, Canadian businessman, academic, and civil servant (b.",
"1910)*2002 – Rudolf Baumgartner, Swiss violinist and conductor (b.",
"1917)*2003 – Terry Lloyd, English journalist (b.",
"1952)*2004 – Janet Akyüz Mattei, Turkish-American astronomer and academic (b.",
"1943)* 2004 – Ahmed Yassin, Co-founded Hamas (b.",
"1937)*2004 – V. M. Tarkunde, Indian lawyer and civil rights activist (b.",
"1909) *2005 – Rod Price, English guitarist and songwriter (b.",
"1947)* 2005 – Gemini Ganesan, Indian film actor (b.",
"1920)* 2005 – Kenzō Tange, Japanese architect, designed the Yoyogi National Gymnasium and Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum (b.",
"1913)*2006 – Pierre Clostermann, French soldier, pilot, and politician (b.",
"1921)* 2006 – Pío Leyva, Cuban singer and author (b.",
"1917)* 2006 – Kurt von Trojan, Austrian-Australian journalist and author (b.",
"1937)*2007 – U. G. Krishnamurti, Indian-Italian philosopher and educator (b.",
"1918)*2008 – Cachao López, Cuban-American bassist and composer (b.",
"1918)*2010 – James Black, Scottish biologist and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1924)* 2010 – Özhan Canaydın, Turkish basketball player and businessman (b.",
"1943)*2011 – Artur Agostinho, Portuguese journalist (b.",
"1920)* 2011 – Victor Bouchard, Canadian pianist and composer (b.",
"1926)*2012 – Joe Blanchard, American football player and wrestler (b.",
"1928)* 2012 – John Payton, American lawyer and activist (b.",
"1946)* 2012 – Matthew White Ridley, 4th Viscount Ridley, English academic and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Northumberland (b.",
"1925)* 2012 – Mickey Sullivan, American baseball player and coach (b.",
"1932)* 2012 – David Waltz, American computer scientist and academic (b.",
"1943)* 2012 – Neil L. Whitehead, English anthropologist and author (b.",
"1956)*2013 – Vladimír Čech, Czech actor and politician (b.",
"1951)* 2013 – James Nabrit, American lawyer and academic (b.",
"1932)* 2013 – Bebo Valdés, Cuban-Swedish pianist and composer (b.",
"1918)* 2013 – Derek Watkins, English trumpet player and composer (b.",
"1945)* 2013 – Ray Williams, American basketball player and coach (b.",
"1954)*2014 – Yashwant Vithoba Chittal, Indian author (b.",
"1928)* 2014 – Mickey Duff, Polish-English boxer and manager (b.",
"1929)* 2014 – Thor Listau, Norwegian soldier and politician (b.",
"1938)* 2014 – Tasos Mitsopoulos, Cypriot politician, Cypriot Minister of Defence (b.",
"1965)*2015 – Arkady Arkanov, Ukrainian-Russian actor and playwright (b.",
"1933)* 2015 – Horst Buhtz, German footballer and manager (b.",
"1923)* 2015 – Norman Scribner, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b.",
"1936)*2016 – Phife Dawg, American rapper (b.",
"1970)* 2016 – Rob Ford, Canadian businessman and politician, 64th Mayor of Toronto (b.",
"1969)* 2016 – Rita Gam, American actress (b.",
"1927)*2018 – Johan van Hulst, Dutch politician, academic and author, Yad Vashem recipient (b.",
"1911)*2019 – Scott Walker, British-American singer-songwriter (b.",
"1943)"
],
[
"Holidays and observances",
"*Bihar Day (Bihar, India)*Christian feast day:**Basil of Ancyra**Blessed Clemens August Graf von Galen**Darerca of Ireland**Epaphroditus**Jonathan Edwards (Lutheranism)**Lea of Rome**Nicholas Owen**Paul of Narbonne**March 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Earliest day on which Easter Sunday can fall (last in 1818, will not happen again until 2285), while April 25 is the latest.",
"(Christianity)*Emancipation Day or ''Día de la Abolición de la Esclavitud'' (Puerto Rico)*World Water Day (International)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 22"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Aoraki / Mount Cook"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Aoraki / Mount Cook''' is the highest mountain in New Zealand.",
"Its height, , is listed as .",
"It sits in the Southern Alps, the mountain range that runs the length of the South Island.",
"A popular tourist destination, it is also a favourite challenge for mountain climbers.",
"Aoraki / Mount Cook consists of three summits: from south to north, the Low Peak (), the Middle Peak () and the High Peak.",
"The summits lie slightly south and east of the main divide of the Southern Alps, with the Tasman Glacier to the east and the Hooker Glacier to the southwest.",
"Mount Cook is ranked 10th in the world by topographic isolation."
],
[
"Location",
"The mountain is in the Aoraki / Mount Cook National Park, in the Canterbury Region.",
"The park was established in 1953 and along with Westland National Park, Mount Aspiring National Park and Fiordland National Park forms one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.",
"The park contains more than 140 peaks standing over and 72 named glaciers, which cover 40 percent of its .The peak is located at the northern end of the Mount Cook Range, where it meets with the main spine of the Main Divide, forming a massif between the Hooker Valley to the southwest and the Tasman Valley east of the mountain.",
"These two valleys provide the closest easily accessible view points of Aoraki / Mount Cook.",
"A lookout point at the end of the Hooker Valley Track located only 10 km from the peak has views of the entire mountainside.The settlement of Mount Cook Village, also referred to as \"Aoraki / Mount Cook\", is a tourist centre and base camp for the mountain.",
"It is 7 km from the end of the Tasman Glacier and 15 km south of Aoraki / Mount Cook's summit.On clear days, Aoraki / Mount Cook is visible from the West Coast as far north as Greymouth, some away, and from most of State Highway 80 along Lake Pukaki and State Highway 6 south of Lake Pukaki.",
"The near horizontal ridge connecting the mountain's three summits forms a distinctive blocky shape when viewed from an eastern or western direction.Another popular view point is from Lake Matheson on the West Coast, described as the \"view of views\", where on calm days, the peaks of Aoraki / Mount Cook and Mt Tasman are reflected in Lake Matheson."
],
[
"Local climate",
"Aoraki / Mount Cook receives substantial orographic precipitation throughout the year, as breezy, moisture-laden westerly winds dominate all year-round, bringing rainclouds from the Tasman Sea with them.Aoraki / Mount Cook from above Franz Joseph GlacierAnnual precipitation around the mountain ranges varies greatly as the local climate is dominated by the eastward movement of depressions and anticyclones from across the Tasman Sea.",
"The Aoraki / Mount Cook massif is a major obstacle to the prevailing westerly winds as they push depressions and associated cold fronts of moist air from the subtropics in the northwest against the mountain range.",
"As the air rises towards the peaks, it expands and cools, and forms clouds.",
"Rain and snowfall are often heaviest around the level and can last for several days if the front is slow-moving.As a result of the local weather patterns, the western slopes of Aoraki / Mount Cook can receive well over of annual precipitation, whereas the nearby Mount Cook Village, only south of the mountain, receives of rain or snowfall.While the weather on the eastern side of the mountain is generally better, rain or snow can quickly become widespread on that side as well if the wind turns to the south or southeast.",
"This brings with it a rapid drop in temperature and poor visibility, adding to the difficult climbing conditions on Aoraki / Mount Cook.Temperatures at the mountain's base in the Hooker Valley around range from to , and generally fall just over 1 °C for every 200 metres of altitude.From about and higher, semi-permanent snow and ice fields exist during winter.",
"Winter and spring are usually less settled than summer and autumn.",
"Anticyclones often bring days of settled weather in summer, or clear cold conditions in winter with severe frost."
],
[
"Naming and European discovery",
"Aoraki / Mount Cook seen from the south, taken from In the traditions of the Ngāi Tahu iwi an early name for the South Island is '''' ('Aoraki's Canoe').",
"In the past many believed it meant \"Cloud Piercer\", a romantic rendering of the name's components: '''' (world, daytime, cloud, etc.)",
"and '''' or '''' (day, sky, weather, etc.).",
"Historically, the Māori name has been spelt '''', using the northern dialect.Aoraki / Mount Cook became known to Māori after their arrival in New Zealand some time around the 14th century CE.",
"The first Europeans who may have seen Aoraki / Mount Cook were members of Abel Tasman's crew, who saw a \"large land uplifted high\" (probably some part of the Southern Alps) while off the west coast of the South Island, just north of present-day Greymouth on 13 December 1642 during Tasman's first Pacific voyage.",
"The English name of ''Mount Cook'' was given to the mountain in 1851 by Captain John Lort Stokes to honour Captain James Cook who surveyed and circumnavigated the islands of New Zealand in 1770.Captain Cook did not sight the mountain during his exploration.Following the settlement between Ngāi Tahu and the Crown in 1998, a number of South Island place names were amended to incorporate their Māori names by the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998.The name of the mountain was officially changed from Mount Cook to Aoraki/Mount Cook to incorporate its historic Māori name.",
"It is the only one of these names where the Māori name precedes the English.",
"Under the settlement the Crown agreed to return title of Aoraki / Mount Cook to Ngāi Tahu, who would then formally gift it back to the nation.",
"Neither transfer has yet occurred, and Ngāi Tahu can decide when this will happen."
],
[
"Geology",
"Aoraki / Mount Cook from Landsat 7The Southern Alps in the South Island were formed by tectonic uplifting and pressure as the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates collided along the island's western coast.",
"The uplifting continues, raising Aoraki / Mount Cook an average of each year.",
"However, erosive forces are also powerful shapers of the mountains.",
"The severe weather is due to the mountain's jutting into powerful westerly winds of the Roaring Forties which run around approximately 45°S latitude, south of both Africa and Australia.",
"The Southern Alps are the first obstacle the winds encounter after South America, having moved east across the Southern Ocean.The height of Aoraki / Mount Cook was established in 1881 by G. J. Roberts (from the west side) and in 1889 by T. N. Brodrick (from the Canterbury side).",
"Their measurements agreed closely at .",
"The height was reduced by when approximately 12–14 million cubic metres of rock and ice fell off the northern peak on 14 December 1991.Two decades of erosion of the ice cap exposed after this collapse reduced the height by another 30 m to 3724 m, as revealed by new GPS data from a University of Otago climbing expedition in November 2013.Aoraki / Mount Cook lies in the centre of the distinctive Alpine Fault, a 650 km long active fault in the Southern Alps.",
"It is responsible for the uplift of Aoraki / Mt Cook and is believed to move every 100 to 300 years.",
"It last moved in 1717."
],
[
"Surrounding forests and glaciers",
"Aoraki / Mount Cook as seen from the end of the Hooker Valley Track, with the Hooker Glacier's moraine lake in the foreground.The average annual rainfall in the surrounding lowlands, in particular to the west, is around .",
"This very high rainfall leads to temperate rainforests in these coastal lowlands and a reliable source of snow in the mountains to keep the glaciers flowing.",
"These include the Tasman Glacier to the east of the mountain and the smaller Hooker Glacier immediately to its south.The vegetation in the valleys to the east, in particular the Tasman Valley, is noticeably less lush than that on the western slopes of the mountain.",
"Forest would normally grow to about 1,300 m in this area, but a lack of soil due to scree, rock falls and the effects of glaciation prevent this in most localities around the mountain.",
"Snow tussock and other alpine plants cling to as high as 1,900 m.Above the snowline, only lichen can be found amongst the rock, snowfields and ice that dominate the highest parts of Aoraki / Mt Cook."
],
[
"Climbing history",
"View of Aoraki / Mount Cook from the Tasman Lake south of the mountainThe first recorded attempt on the summit was made by the Irishman Rev.",
"William S. Green, the Swiss hotelier Emil Boss and the Swiss mountain guide Ulrich Kaufmann on 2 March 1882 via the Tasman and Linda Glaciers.",
"They came within a few feet of the top, as did the 1890 ascent attempt by Mannering and Dixon.On Mt.",
"Cook, New Zealand.",
"1977The first known ascent was on 25 December 1894, when New Zealanders Tom Fyfe, John Michael (Jack) Clarke and George Graham reached the summit via the Hooker Valley and the north ridge.",
"Despite an earlier failed attempt on 20 December, the local climbers were spurred on by their desire for the first ascent to be made by New Zealand mountaineers amid reports that the American mountaineer Edward FitzGerald had his eye on the summit.",
"The party reached the summit at approximately 1:30pm after bounding up the last leg of the mountain full of excitement at reaching the top.",
"The route they had successfully traversed was not repeated again until the 100th ascent over 60 years later in 1955.Swiss guide Matthias Zurbriggen of FitzGerald's party made the second ascent on 14 March 1895 from the Tasman Glacier side, via the ridge that now bears his name.",
"This is credited as the first solo ascent, although Zurbriggen was accompanied part of the way up the ridge by J Adamson.",
"After Zurbriggen's ascent it was another ten years before the mountain was climbed again.",
"In February 1905 Jack Clarke with four others completed the third ascent following Zurbriggen's route.",
"Clarke therefore became the first person to do a repeat ascent.The first woman to ascend the mountain was Australian Freda Du Faur on 3 December 1910.Local guide George Bannister, a nephew of another guide, Butler Te Koeti of Ngāi Tahu, was the first Māori to successfully scale the peak in 1912.A traverse of the three peaks was first accomplished in 1913 by Freda Du Faur and guides Alec and Peter Graham.",
"This 'grand traverse' was repeated in January 1916 by Conrad Kain, guiding the 57-year-old Jane Thomson, considered at the time \"a marvellous feat unequalled for daring in the annals of the Southern Alps\".Sir Edmund Hillary made his first ascent in January 1948.In February 1948 with Ruth Adams, Harry Ayres and Mick Sullivan, Hillary made the first ascent of the South Ridge to the Low Peak To celebrate the life of Hillary the South Ridge was renamed as Hillary Ridge in August 2011.Aoraki/Mount Cook is a technically challenging mountain with a high level of glaciation.",
"Its level of difficulty is often underestimated and can change dramatically depending on weather, snow and ice conditions.",
"The climb crosses large crevasses, and involves risks of ice and rock falls, avalanches and rapidly changing weather conditions.Since the early 20th century, around 80 people have died attempting to climb the mountain, making it New Zealand's deadliest peak.",
"The climbing season traditionally runs from November to February, and hardly a season goes by without at least one fatality."
],
[
"Māori history, legends and traditions",
"Aoraki / Mount Cook at sunset from Hooker ValleyAccording to Māori legend, Aoraki was a young boy who, along with his three brothers, were the sons of Rakinui, the Sky Father.",
"On their voyage around the Papatūānuku, the Earth Mother, their canoe became stranded on a reef and tilted.",
"Aoraki and his brothers climbed onto the top side of their canoe.",
"However, the south wind froze them and turned them to stone.",
"Their canoe became the Te Waka o Aoraki, the South Island, and their prows, the Marlborough Sounds.",
"Aoraki, the tallest, became the highest peak, and his brothers created the Kā Tiritiri o te Moana, the Southern Alps.Ngāi Tahu, the main iwi (tribe) of New Zealand's southern region, consider Aoraki as the most sacred of the ancestors that they had descended from.",
"Aoraki brings the iwi with its sense of community and purpose, and remains the physical form of Aoraki and the link between the worlds of the supernatural and nature."
],
[
"Timeline",
"* 1642 – Aoraki was possibly sighted by Abel Tasman and crew members.",
"* 1770 – Captain Cook named the Southern Alps.",
"* 1851 – Captain John Lort Stokes of the survey ship HMS ''Acheron'' gave the name Mount Cook to Aoraki.",
"* 1894 – The first ascent of Mount Cook took place on Christmas Day, by Jack Clarke, Tom Fyfe and George Graham.",
"* 1910 – Freda du Faur became the first woman to climb Mount Cook.",
"* 1913 – The first ascents of the footstool and Mt Sefton were made by Freda du Faur's climbing party.",
"* 1914 – The first fatal accident occurred, when three men were caught in avalanche on Linda Glacier.",
"* 1975 – Four Royal New Zealand Air Force personnel were killed during a mountain survival training exercise near the Ball Pass, when they were buried alive by an avalanche.",
"* 1982 – Mark Inglis was trapped in a snow cave.",
"During his rescue an RNZAF 3 Squadron Bell UH-1H crashed on Mt Cook.",
"* 1982 – Geoff Wyatt and John Blennehasset achieved the first ski descent from the summit.",
"* 1991 – An avalanche of 10 million cubic metres of snow and rock caused 10 metres to be lost off the top of Mount Cook.",
"Two decades of erosion of the ice cap exposed after this collapse reduced the height by another 30 m to 3,724 m, as revealed by new GPS data from a University of Otago climbing expedition in November 2013.",
"* 1998 – The Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act officially recognised the original name, renaming the mountain Aoraki / Mount Cook."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Aoraki peak from Mt Tasman summit NZ Mon 21 March 1983 wideangle.jpg|Aoraki peak from Mt Tasman summit NZ Mon 21 March 1983 wideangleFile:Aoraki peak from Mt Tasman summit NZ Mon 21 March 1983 closeup.jpg|Aoraki peak from Mt Tasman summit NZ Mon 21 March 1983 closeup"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of mountains of New Zealand by height"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* ''In Search of Ancient NZ''.",
"Hamish Campbell and Gerard Hutching.",
"GNS/Penguin.",
"2011.."
],
[
"External links",
"* Aoraki / Mount Cook National Park homepage* Women on the Summit of Mt.",
"Cook, N.Z."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Multiple-image Network Graphics"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Multiple-image Network Graphics''' ('''MNG''') is a graphics file format published in 2001 for animated images.",
"Its specification is publicly documented and there are free software reference implementations available.MNG is closely related to the PNG image format.",
"When PNG development started in early 1995, developers decided not to incorporate support for animation, because the majority of the PNG developers felt that overloading a single file type with both still and animation features is a bad design, both for users (who have no simple way of determining to which class a given image file belongs) and for web servers (which should use a MIME type starting with image/ for stills and video/ for animations—GIF notwithstanding), but work soon started on MNG as an animation-supporting version of PNG.",
"Version 1.0 of the MNG specification was released on 31 January 2001."
],
[
"File support",
"===Support===Gwenview has native MNG support.",
"GIMP can export images as MNG files.",
"Imagemagick can create a MNG file from a series of PNG files.",
"With the MNG plugin, Irfanview can read a MNG file.",
"If MPlayer is linked against libmng, it and all its graphical front-ends like Gnome MPlayer can display MNG files.Mozilla browsers and Netscape 6.0, 6.01 and 7.0 included native support for MNG until the code was removed in 2003 due to code size and little actual usage, causing complaints on the Mozilla development site.",
"Mozilla later added support for APNG as a simpler alternative.",
"Similarly, early versions of the Konqueror browser included MNG support but it was later dropped.",
"MNG support was never included in Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Opera, or Safari.",
"Product Support status Image processing Chasys Draw IES GIMP Gnome MPlayer Gwenview ImageMagick Irfanview KMPlayer Konvertor MPlayer XnView ===Server support===Web servers generally don't come pre-configured to support MNG files.The MNG developers had hoped that MNG would replace GIF for animated images on the World Wide Web, just as PNG had done for still images.",
"However, with the expiration of LZW patents and existence of alternative file formats such as APNG, Flash and SVG, combined with lack of MNG-supporting viewers and services, web usage was far less than expected."
],
[
"Technical details",
"The structure of MNG files is essentially the same as that of PNG files, differing only in the slightly different signature (8A 4D 4E 47 0D 0A 1A 0A in hexadecimal, where 4D 4E 47 is ASCII for \"MNG\" – see Portable Network Graphics: File header) and the use of a much greater variety of chunks to support all the animation features that it provides.",
"Images to be used in the animation are stored in the MNG file as encapsulated PNG or JNG images.Two versions of MNG of reduced complexity are also defined: MNG-LC (low complexity) and MNG-VLC (very low complexity).",
"These allow applications to include some level of MNG support without having to implement the entire MNG specification, just as the SVG standard offers the \"SVG Basic\" and \"SVG Tiny\" subsets.MNG does not have a registered MIME media type, but video/x-mng or image/x-mng can be used.MNG animations may be included in HTML pages using the or tag.MNG can either be lossy or lossless, depending whether the frames are encoded in PNG (lossless) or JNG (lossy)."
],
[
"Alternatives",
"The most common alternatives are Animated GIF and – up until its deprecation in 2017 – Adobe Flash, with the relative newcomer video alternative to GIF recently gaining momentum.",
"Animated GIF images are restricted to 256 colors and are used in simple scenarios but are supported in all major web browsers.In web pages, it is possible to create pseudo-animations by writing JavaScript code that loads still PNG or JPEG images of each frame and displays them one by one for a specified time interval.",
"Apart from requiring the user to have JavaScript support and choose not to disable it, this method can be CPU- and bandwidth-intensive for pages with more than one image, large images, or high framerates, and does not allow the animation to be saved in one image file or posted on image-based sites such as flickr or imageboards.Most web browsers support APNG, a non-standard extension to PNG for simple GIF-like animations.",
"Another alternative is SVG images with embedded PNG or JPEG graphics, using SVG animation (if supported) or JavaScript to flip between images.Internet Explorer supports neither APNG nor SVG animation.Another approach uses CSS 3 features, notably CSS Animation, which now has some level of support in most major web browsers.",
"CSS Sprites (providing several images as tiles in a single large image file) can be used as animations by varying which part of the large image is visible using CSS Animation or JavaScript."
],
[
"See also",
"*Animated Portable Network Graphics (APNG)*JPEG Network Graphics (JNG)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* MNG Home Page* List of applications that support MNG images* MNGzilla - A Mozilla variant with MNG support, dormant since 2007* MNG test cases ( archive copy)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mississippi John Hurt"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''John Smith Hurt''' (March 8, 1893 – November 2, 1966), better known as '''Mississippi John Hurt''', was an American country blues singer and guitarist.Raised in Avalon, Mississippi, Hurt taught himself to play the guitar around the age of nine.",
"He worked as a sharecropper and began playing at dances and parties, singing to a melodious fingerpicked accompaniment.",
"His first recordings, made for Okeh Records in 1928, were commercial failures, and he continued to work as a farmer.Dick Spottswood and Tom Hoskins, a blues enthusiast, located Hurt in 1963 and persuaded him to move to Washington, D.C.",
"He was recorded by the Library of Congress in 1964.This helped further the American folk music revival, which led to the rediscovery of many other bluesmen of Hurt's era.",
"Hurt performed on the university and coffeehouse concert circuit with other Delta blues musicians who were brought out of retirement.",
"He also recorded several albums for Vanguard Records.Hurt returned to Grenada, Mississippi in 1966, where he died at the age of 73.Material recorded by him has been re-released by many record labels.",
"His songs have been recorded by Bob Dylan, Dave Van Ronk, Jerry Garcia, Beck, Doc Watson, John McCutcheon, Taj Mahal, Bruce Cockburn, David Johansen, Bill Morrissey, Gillian Welch, The Be Good Tanyas, Josh Ritter, Chris Smither, Guthrie Thomas, Parsonsfield, and Rory Block."
],
[
"Biography",
"===Early years===Hurt was born in Teoc, Carroll County, Mississippi, and raised in Avalon, Mississippi.",
"He taught himself to play guitar at the age of nine, stealthily playing the guitar of William Henry Carson, a friend of his mother Mary Jane's, who often stayed at the Hurt home while courting a woman who lived nearby.",
"As a youth, he played old-time music for friends and at dances.",
"He worked as a farmhand and sharecropper into the 1920s.His fast, highly syncopated style of playing was meant for dancing.",
"On occasion, a medicine show came through the area.",
"Hurt recalled that one wanted to hire him: \"One of them wanted me, but I said no because I just never wanted to get away from home.\"",
"In 1923, he played with the fiddle player Willie Narmour as a substitute for Narmour's regular partner, Shell Smith.===First recordings===When Narmour got a chance to record for Okeh Records as a prize for winning first place in a 1928 fiddle contest, he recommended Hurt to Okeh producer Tommy Rockwell.",
"After auditioning \"Monday Morning Blues\" at his home, Hurt took part in two recording sessions, in Memphis and New York City.",
"While in Memphis, he recalled seeing \"many, many blues singers ... Lonnie Johnson, Blind Lemon Jefferson, Bessie Smith, and lots, lots more.\"",
"Hurt described his first recording session:Hurt attempted further negotiations with Okeh to record again, but his records were commercial failures.",
"Okeh went out of business during the Great Depression, and Hurt returned to Avalon and obscurity, working as a sharecropper and playing at local parties and dances.=== Rediscovery and death ===Hurt's graveHurt's renditions of \"Frankie\" and \"Spike Driver Blues\" were included in ''The Anthology of American Folk Music'' in 1952 which generated considerable interest in locating him.",
"When a copy of \"Avalon Blues\" was discovered in 1963, it led musicologist Dick Spottswood to locate Avalon, Mississippi, in an atlas, and ask Tom Hoskins, who was traveling that way, to enquire after Hurt.Upon locating Hurt, Hoskins persuaded him to perform several songs, to ensure that he was genuine.",
"Hoskins was convinced and, seeing that Hurt's guitar playing skills were still intact, encouraged him to move to Washington, D.C., and perform for a broader audience.",
"Early in 1963 Hurt recorded an album, ''Folk Songs And Blues'', that was released in August 1963 through Piedmont Records.",
"His performance at the 1963 Newport Folk Festival caused his star to rise in the folk revival occurring at that time.",
"Soon after, in 1964, he recorded live for radio in Massachusetts with Skip James.For a few short years, Hurt performed extensively at colleges, concert halls, and coffeehouses and appeared on ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson''.",
"He also recorded three albums for Vanguard Records.",
"Much of his repertoire was also recorded for the Library of Congress.",
"His fans particularly liked the ragtime songs \"Salty Dog\" and \"Candy Man\" and the blues ballads \"Spike Driver Blues\" (a variant of \"John Henry\") and \"Frankie\".Hurt's influence spanned several music genres, including blues, spirituals, country, bluegrass, folk, and contemporary rock and roll.",
"A soft-spoken man, his nature was reflected in the work, which consisted of a mellow mix of country, blues, and old-time music.Hurt died on November 2, 1966, of a heart attack, in hospital at Grenada, Mississippi.",
"His last recordings had been done at a hotel in New York City in February and July of that year, and were not released until 1972 on the Vanguard LP ''Last Sessions''."
],
[
"Style",
"Hurt used a fast, syncopated fingerpicking style of guitar playing that he taught himself.",
"He was influenced by few other musicians, among whom was an elderly, unrecorded blues singer from the area where he lived, Rufus Hanks, who played twelve-string guitar and harmonica.",
"According to the music critic Robert Christgau, \"the school of John Fahey proceeded from his finger-picking, and while he's not the only quietly conversational singer in the modern folk tradition, no one else has talked the blues with such delicacy or restraint.\""
],
[
"Tributes",
"Mississippi John Hurt Museum, in Avalon, MississippiThere is a memorial to Hurt in Avalon, Mississippi.",
"It is parallel to RR2, the rural road on which he grew up.The singer-songwriter Tom Paxton, who met Hurt and played on the same bill with him at the Gaslight in Greenwich Village around 1963, wrote and recorded a song about him in 1977, \"Did You Hear John Hurt?",
"\".The first track of John Fahey's 1968 solo acoustic guitar album ''Requia'' is \"Requiem for John Hurt\".",
"Fahey's posthumous live album, ''The Great Santa Barbara Oil Slick'', also features a version of the piece, entitled \"Requiem for Mississippi John Hurt\".Norman Greenbaum's eclectic minor hit, \"Gondoliers, Shakespeares, Overseers, Playboys And Bums\" refers to Mississippi John Hurt singing the blues.The British folk and blues artist Wizz Jones recorded a tribute song, \"Mississippi John\", for his 1977 album ''Magical Flight''.The Delta blues artist Rory Block recorded the album ''Avalon: A Tribute to Mississippi John Hurt'', released in 2013 as part of her \"Mentor Series\".The New England singer-songwriter Bill Morrissey released the Grammy-nominated album ''Songs of Mississippi John Hurt'' in 1999.In 2017, John Hurt's life story was told in the documentary series ''American Epic''.",
"The film featured footage of Hurt performing and being interviewed, and improved restorations of his 1920s recordings.",
"Director Bernard MacMahon stated that Hurt \"was the inspiration for ''American Epic''\".",
"Hurt's life was profiled in the accompanying book, ''American Epic: The First Time America Heard Itself''.In 2023, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked Hurt at number 159 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time."
],
[
"Discography",
"This section was compiled from three sources.===78-rpm releases===* \"Frankie\" / \"Nobody's Dirty Business\" (Okeh Records, Okeh 8560), 1928* \"Stack O' Lee\" / \"Candy Man Blues\" (Okeh Records, OKeh 8654), 1928* \"Blessed Be the Name\" / \"Praying on the Old Camp Ground\" (Okeh Records, OKeh 8666), 1928* \"Blue Harvest Blues\" / \"Spike Driver Blues\" (Okeh Records, OKeh 8692), 1928* \"Louis Collins\" / \"Got the Blues (Can't Be Satisfied)\" (Okeh Records, OKeh 8724), 1928* \"Ain't No Tellin'\" / \"Avalon Blues\" (Okeh Records, OKeh 8759), 1928=== Albums ===* ''Folk Songs and Blues'' (Piedmont Records, PLP 13157), 1963* ''Worried Blues,'' live recordings (Piedmont Records, PLP 13161), 1964* ''Today!''",
"(Vanguard Records, VSD-79220), 1966* ''The Immortal Mississippi John Hurt'' (Vanguard Records, VSD-79248), 1967* ''The Best of Mississippi John Hurt'', live recording from Oberlin College, April 15, 1965 (Vanguard Records, VSD-19/20), 1970* ''Last Sessions'' (Vanguard Records, VSD-79327), 1972* ''Volume One of a Legacy'', live recordings (Piedmont Records, CLPS 1068), 1975* ''Monday Morning Blues: The Library of Congress Recordings'', vol.",
"1 (Flyright Records, FLYLP 553), 1980* ''Avalon Blues: The Library of Congress Recordings'', vol.",
"2 (Heritage Records, HT-301), 1982* ''Satisfied'', live recordings (Quicksilver Intermedia, QS 5007), 1982* ''The Candy Man'', live recordings (Quicksilver Intermedia, QS 5042), 1982* ''Sacred and Secular: The Library of Congress Recordings'', vol.",
"3 (Heritage Records, HT-320), 1988* ''Avalon Blues'' (Flyright Records, FLYCD 06), 1989* ''Memorial Anthology'', live recordings (Genes Records, GCD 9906/7), 1993===Selected compilation albums===* ''The Original 1928 Recordings'' (Spokane Records, SPL 1001), 1971* ''1928: Stack O' Lee Blues – His First Recordings'' (Biograph Records, BLP C4), 1972* ''1928 Sessions'' (Yazoo Records, L 1065), 1979* ''Satisfying Blues'' (Collectables Records, VCL 5529), 1995* ''Avalon Blues: The Complete 1928 Okeh Recordings'' (Columbia Records, CK64986), 1996* ''Rediscovered'' (Vanguard Records, CD 79519), 1998* ''The Complete Recordings'' (Vanguard Records, CD 70181–2), 1998* ''Candy Man Blues: The Complete 1928 Sessions'' (Snapper Music, SBLUECD 010), 2004* ''American Epic: The Best of Mississippi John Hurt'' (Lo-Max / Sony Legacy / Third Man, TMR-459), 2017"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Ratcliffe, Philip R. (2011).",
"''Mississippi John Hurt: His Life, His Times, His Blues''.",
"Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.",
"*"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Mississippi John Hurt Foundation, official website, includes information about the annual Mississippi John Hurt Music Festival in Avalon, Mississippi.",
"* Mississippi John Hurt Museum, official website.",
"* Mississippi John Hurt News.",
"Website run by Hurt's grandnephew Fred Bolden, with forums and discussions open to the public.",
"* Illustrated Mississippi John Hurt discography* * Allmusic* * * Mississippi John Hurt's \"Stackolee\", Recording, sheet music, and guitar tab."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Moravia"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Moravia''' ( ; ) is a historical region in the east of the Czech Republic and one of three historical Czech lands, with Bohemia and Czech Silesia.The medieval and early modern Margraviate of Moravia was a crown land of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown from 1348 to 1918, an imperial state of the Holy Roman Empire from 1004 to 1806, a crown land of the Austrian Empire from 1804 to 1867, and a part of Austria-Hungary from 1867 to 1918.Moravia was one of the five lands of Czechoslovakia founded in 1918.In 1928 it was merged with Czech Silesia, and then dissolved in 1948 during the abolition of the land system following the communist coup d'état.Its area of 22,623.41 km2 home to about 3.2 million of the Czech Republic's 10.8 million inhabitants.",
"The people are historically named Moravians, a subgroup of Czechs, the other group being called Bohemians.",
"The land takes its name from the Morava river, which runs from its north to south, being its principal watercourse.",
"Moravia's largest city and historical capital is Brno.",
"Before being sacked by the Swedish army during the Thirty Years' War, Olomouc served as the Moravian capital, and it is still the seat of the Archdiocese of Olomouc."
],
[
"Toponymy",
"The region and former margraviate of Moravia, ''Morava'' in Czech, is named after its principal river Morava.",
"It is theorized that the river's name is derived from Proto-Indo-European ''*mori'': \"waters\", or indeed any word denoting ''water'' or a ''marsh''.The German name for Moravia is ''Mähren'', from the river's German name ''March''.",
"This could have a different etymology, as ''march'' is a term used in the Medieval times for an outlying territory, a border or a frontier (cf.",
"English ''march'').",
"In Latin, the name Moravia was used."
],
[
"Geography",
"Moravia occupies most of the eastern part of the Czech Republic.",
"Moravian territory is naturally strongly determined, in fact, as the Morava river basin, with strong effect of mountains in the west (''de facto'' main European continental divide) and partly in the east, where all the rivers rise.Moravia occupies an exceptional position in Central Europe.",
"All the highlands in the west and east of this part of Europe run west–east, and therefore form a kind of filter, making north–south or south–north movement more difficult.",
"Only Moravia with the depression of the westernmost Outer Subcarpathia, wide, between the Bohemian Massif and the Outer Western Carpathians (gripping the meridian at a constant angle of 30°), provides a comfortable connection between the Danubian and Polish regions, and this area is thus of great importance in terms of the possible migration routes of large mammals – both as regards periodically recurring seasonal migrations triggered by climatic oscillations in the prehistory, when permanent settlement started.Rolling hills of the Králický Sněžník massif, Horní Morava, near the border with BohemiaŠance Reservoir on the Ostravice River in the Moravian-Silesian Beskids; the river forms the border with Silesia.Steppe landscape near MohelnoMoravia borders Bohemia in the west, Lower Austria in the southwest, Slovakia in the southeast, Poland very shortly in the north, and Czech Silesia in the northeast.",
"Its natural boundary is formed by the Sudetes mountains in the north, the Carpathians in the east and the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands in the west (the border runs from Králický Sněžník in the north, over Suchý vrch, across Upper Svratka Highlands and Javořice Highlands to tripoint nearby Slavonice in the south).",
"The Thaya river meanders along the border with Austria and the tripoint of Moravia, Austria and Slovakia is at the confluence of the Thaya and Morava rivers.",
"The northeast border with Silesia runs partly along the Moravice, Oder and Ostravice rivers.",
"Between 1782 and 1850, Moravia (also thus known as ''Moravia-Silesia'') also included a small portion of the former province of Silesia – the Austrian Silesia (when Frederick the Great annexed most of ancient Silesia (the land of upper and middle Oder river) to Prussia, Silesia's southernmost part remained with the Habsburgs).Today Moravia includes the South Moravian and Zlín regions, vast majority of the Olomouc Region, southeastern half of the Vysočina Region and parts of the Moravian-Silesian, Pardubice and South Bohemian regions.Geologically, Moravia covers a transitive area between the Bohemian Massif and the Carpathians (from northwest to southeast), and between the Danube basin and the North European Plain (from south to northeast).",
"Its core geomorphological features are three wide valleys, namely the Dyje-Svratka Valley (''Dyjsko-svratecký úval''), the Upper Morava Valley (''Hornomoravský úval'') and the Lower Morava Valley (''Dolnomoravský úval'').",
"The first two form the westernmost part of the Outer Subcarpathia, the last is the northernmost part of the Vienna Basin.",
"The valleys surround the low range of Central Moravian Carpathians.",
"The highest mountains of Moravia are situated on its northern border in Hrubý Jeseník, the highest peak is Praděd (1491 m).",
"Second highest is the massive of Králický Sněžník (1424 m) the third are the Moravian-Silesian Beskids at the very east, with Smrk (1278 m), and then south from here Javorníky (1072).",
"The White Carpathians along the southeastern border rise up to 970 m at Velká Javořina.",
"The spacious, but moderate Bohemian-Moravian Highlands on the west reach 837 m at Javořice.The fluvial system of Moravia is very cohesive, as the region border is similar to the watershed of the Morava river, and thus almost the entire area is drained exclusively by a single stream.",
"Morava's far biggest tributaries are Thaya (Dyje) from the right (or west) and Bečva (east).",
"Morava and Thaya meet at the southernmost and lowest (148 m) point of Moravia.",
"Small peripheral parts of Moravia belong to the catchment area of Elbe, Váh and especially Oder (the northeast).",
"The watershed line running along Moravia's border from west to north and east is part of the European Watershed.",
"For centuries, there have been plans to build a waterway across Moravia to join the Danube and Oder river systems, using the natural route through the Moravian Gate."
],
[
"History",
"=== Pre-history ===Venus of Vestonice, the oldest surviving ceramic figurine in the worldPálava mountains with Věstonice Reservoir, area of palaeolithic settlementEvidence of the presence of members of the human genus, ''Homo'', dates back more than 600,000 years in the paleontological area of Stránská skála.Attracted by suitable living conditions, early modern humans settled in the region by the Paleolithic period.",
"The Předmostí archeological (Cro-magnon) site in Moravia is dated to between 24,000 and 27,000 years old.",
"Caves in Moravský kras were used by mammoth hunters.",
"Venus of Dolní Věstonice, the oldest ceramic figure in the world, was found in the excavation of Dolní Věstonice by Karel Absolon.===Roman era===Around 60 BC, the Celtic Volcae people withdrew from the region and were succeeded by the Germanic Quadi.",
"Some of the events of the Marcomannic Wars took place in Moravia in AD 169–180.After the war exposed the weakness of Rome's northern frontier, half of the Roman legions (16 out of 33) were stationed along the Danube.",
"In response to increasing numbers of Germanic settlers in frontier regions like Pannonia, Dacia, Rome established two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Marcomannia and Sarmatia, including today's Moravia and western Slovakia.In the 2nd century AD, a Roman fortress stood on the vineyards hill known as and (\"hillfort\"), situated above the former village Mušov and above today's beach resort at Pasohlávky.",
"During the reign of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, the 10th Legion was assigned to control the Germanic tribes who had been defeated in the Marcomannic Wars.",
"In 1927, the archeologist Gnirs, with the support of president Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, began research on the site, located 80 km from Vindobona and 22 km to the south of Brno.",
"The researchers found remnants of two masonry buildings, a ''praetorium'' and a ''balneum'' (\"bath\"), including a ''hypocaustum''.",
"The discovery of bricks with the stamp of the Legio X Gemina and coins from the period of the emperors Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Commodus facilitated dating of the locality.===Ancient Moravia===Territory of Great Moravia in the 9th century: area ruled by Rastislav (846–870) map marks the greatest territorial extent during the reign of Svatopluk I (871–894), violet core is origin of Moravia.Saint Wenceslas Cathedral in Olomouc, seat of bishops of Olomouc since the 10th century and the current seat of the Archbishopric of Olomouc, the Metropolitan archdiocese of MoraviaA variety of Germanic and major Slavic tribes crossed through Moravia during the Migration Period before Slavs established themselves in the 6th century AD.",
"At the end of the 8th century, the Moravian Principality came into being in present-day south-eastern Moravia, Záhorie in south-western Slovakia and parts of Lower Austria.",
"In 833 AD, this became the state of Great Moravia with the conquest of the Principality of Nitra (present-day Slovakia).",
"Their first king was Mojmír I (ruled 830–846).",
"Louis the German invaded Moravia and replaced Mojmír I with his nephew Rastiz who became St. Rastislav.",
"St. Rastislav (846–870) tried to emancipate his land from the Carolingian influence, so he sent envoys to Rome to get missionaries to come.",
"When Rome refused he turned to Constantinople to the Byzantine emperor Michael.",
"The result was the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius who translated liturgical books into Slavonic, which had lately been elevated by the Pope to the same level as Latin and Greek.",
"Methodius became the first Moravian archbishop, the first archbishop in Slavic world, but after his death the German influence again prevailed and the disciples of Methodius were forced to flee.",
"Great Moravia reached its greatest territorial extent in the 890s under Svatopluk I.",
"At this time, the empire encompassed the territory of the present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia, the western part of present Hungary (Pannonia), as well as Lusatia in present-day Germany and Silesia and the upper Vistula basin in southern Poland.",
"After Svatopluk's death in 895, the Bohemian princes defected to become vassals of the East Frankish ruler Arnulf of Carinthia, and the Moravian state ceased to exist after being overrun by invading Magyars in 907.===Union with Bohemia===Following the defeat of the Magyars by Emperor Otto I at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, Otto's ally Boleslaus I, the Přemyslid ruler of Bohemia, took control over Moravia.",
"Bolesław I Chrobry of Poland annexed Moravia in 999, and ruled it until 1019, when the Přemyslid prince Bretislaus recaptured it.",
"Upon his father's death in 1034, Bretislaus became the ruler of Bohemia.",
"In 1055, he decreed that Bohemia and Moravia would be inherited together by primogeniture, although he also provided that his younger sons should govern parts (quarters) of Moravia as vassals to his oldest son.Throughout the Přemyslid era, junior princes often ruled all or part of Moravia from Olomouc, Brno or Znojmo, with varying degrees of autonomy from the ruler of Bohemia.",
"Dukes of Olomouc often acted as the \"right hand\" of Prague dukes and kings, while Dukes of Brno and especially those of Znojmo were much more insubordinate.",
"Moravia reached its height of autonomy in 1182, when Emperor Frederick I elevated Conrad II Otto of Znojmo to the status of a margrave, immediately subject to the emperor, independent of Bohemia.",
"This status was short-lived: in 1186, Conrad Otto was forced to obey the supreme rule of Bohemian duke Frederick.",
"Three years later, Conrad Otto succeeded to Frederick as Duke of Bohemia and subsequently canceled his margrave title.",
"Nevertheless, the margrave title was restored in 1197 when Vladislaus III of Bohemia resolved the succession dispute between him and his brother Ottokar by abdicating from the Bohemian throne and accepting Moravia as a vassal land of Bohemian (i.e., Prague) rulers.",
"Vladislaus gradually established this land as Margraviate, slightly administratively different from Bohemia.",
"After the Battle of Legnica, the Mongols carried their raids into Moravia.The main line of the Přemyslid dynasty became extinct in 1306, and in 1310 John of Luxembourg became Margrave of Moravia and King of Bohemia.",
"In 1333, he made his son Charles the next Margrave of Moravia (later in 1346, Charles also became the King of Bohemia).",
"In 1349, Charles gave Moravia to his younger brother John Henry who ruled in the margraviate until his death in 1375, after him Moravia was ruled by his oldest son Jobst of Moravia who was in 1410 elected the Holy Roman King but died in 1411 (he is buried with his father in the Church of St. Thomas in Brno – the Moravian capital from which they both ruled).",
"Moravia and Bohemia remained within the Luxembourg dynasty of Holy Roman kings and emperors (except during the Hussite wars), until inherited by Albert II of Habsburg in 1437.After his death followed the interregnum until 1453; land (as the rest of lands of the Bohemian Crown) was administered by the landfriedens (''landfrýdy'').",
"The rule of young Ladislaus the Posthumous subsisted only less than five years and subsequently (1458) the Hussite George of Poděbrady was elected as the king.",
"He again reunited all Czech lands (then Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper & Lower Lusatia) into one-man ruled state.",
"In 1466, Pope Paul II excommunicated George and forbade all Catholics (i.e.",
"about 15% of population) from continuing to serve him.",
"The Hungarian crusade followed and in 1469 Matthias Corvinus conquered Moravia and proclaimed himself (with assistance of rebelling Bohemian nobility) as the king of Bohemia.The subsequent 21-year period of a divided kingdom was decisive for the rising awareness of a specific Moravian identity, distinct from that of Bohemia.",
"Although Moravia was reunited with Bohemia in 1490 when Vladislaus Jagiellon, king of Bohemia, also became king of Hungary, some attachment to Moravian \"freedoms\" and resistance to government by Prague continued until the end of independence in 1620.In 1526, Vladislaus' son Louis died in battle and the Habsburg Ferdinand I was elected as his successor.Bohemia 1138–1254.jpg|Bohemia and Moravia in the 12th centuryBrno - Kostel sv.",
"Tomáše, místodžitelský palác a alegorická postava spravedlnosti.jpg|Church of St. Thomas in Brno, mausoleum of Moravian branch House of Luxembourg, rulers of Moravia; and the old governor's palace, a former Augustinian abbeyTrebic podklasteri bazilika velka apsida.jpg|12th century Romanesque St. Procopius Basilica in TřebíčMoravská orlice.jpg|The Moravian banner of arms, which first appeared in the medieval era=== Habsburg rule (1526–1918) ===After the death of King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia in 1526, Ferdinand I of Austria was elected King of Bohemia and thus ruler of the Crown of Bohemia (including Moravia).",
"The epoch 1526–1620 was marked by increasing animosity between Catholic Habsburg kings (emperors) and the Protestant Moravian nobility (and other Crowns') estates.",
"Moravia, like Bohemia, was a Habsburg possession until the end of World War I.",
"In 1573 the Jesuit University of Olomouc was established; this was the first university in Moravia.",
"The establishment of a special papal seminary, Collegium Nordicum, made the University a centre of the Catholic Reformation and effort to revive Catholicism in Central and Northern Europe.",
"The second largest group of students were from Scandinavia.Brno and Olomouc served as Moravia's capitals until 1641.As the only city to successfully resist the Swedish invasion, Brno become the sole capital following the capture of Olomouc.",
"The Margraviate of Moravia had, from 1348 in Olomouc and Brno, its own Diet, or parliament, ''zemský sněm'' (''Landtag'' in German), whose deputies from 1905 onward were elected separately from the ethnically separate German and Czech constituencies.The oldest surviving theatre building in Central Europe, the Reduta Theatre, was established in 17th-century Moravia.",
"Ottoman Turks and Tatars invaded the region in 1663, taking 12,000 captives.",
"In 1740, Moravia was invaded by Prussian forces under Frederick the Great, and Olomouc was forced to surrender on 27 December 1741.A few months later the Prussians were repelled, mainly because of their unsuccessful siege of Brno in 1742.In 1758, Olomouc was besieged by Prussians again, but this time its defenders forced the Prussians to withdraw following the Battle of Domstadtl.",
"In 1777, a new Moravian bishopric was established in Brno, and the Olomouc bishopric was elevated to an archbishopric.",
"In 1782, the Margraviate of Moravia was merged with Austrian Silesia into ''Moravia-Silesia'', with Brno as its capital.",
"Moravia became a separate crown land of Austria again in 1849, and then became part of Cisleithanian Austria-Hungary after 1867.According to Austro-Hungarian census of 1910 the proportion of Czechs in the population of Moravia at the time (2.622.000) was 71.8%, while the proportion of Germans was 27.6%.Growth of Habsburg territories.jpg|Habsburg Empire Crown lands: growth of the Habsburg territories and Moravia's statusVerwaltungsgliederung der Markgrafschaft Mähren 1893.svg|Administrative division of Moravia as crown land of Austria in 1893===20th century===Administrative map of Moravia and Silesia, 1906Following the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, Moravia became part of Czechoslovakia.",
"As one of the five lands of Czechoslovakia, it had restricted autonomy.",
"In 1928 Moravia ceased to exist as a territorial unity and was merged with Czech Silesia into the Moravian-Silesian Land (yet with the natural dominance of Moravia).",
"By the Munich Agreement (1938), the southwestern and northern peripheries of Moravia, which had a German-speaking majority, were annexed by Nazi Germany, and during the German occupation of Czechoslovakia (1939–1945), the remnant of Moravia was an administrative unit within the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.",
"During World War II, the Germans operated multiple forced labour camps in the region, including several subcamps of the Stalag VIII-B/344 prisoner-of-war camp for Allied POWs, a subcamp of the Auschwitz concentration camp in Brno for mostly Polish prisoners, and a subcamp of the Gross-Rosen concentration camp in Bílá Voda for Jewish women.",
"The occupiers also established several POW camps, including Heilag VIII-H, Oflag VIII-F and Oflag VIII-H, for French, British, Belgian and other Allied POWs in the region.In 1945 after the Allied defeat of Germany and the end of World War II, the German minority was expelled to Germany and Austria in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement.",
"The Moravian-Silesian Land was restored with Moravia as part of it and towns and villages that were left by the former German inhabitants, were re-settled by Czechs, Slovaks and reemigrants.",
"In 1949 the territorial division of Czechoslovakia was radically changed, as the Moravian-Silesian Land was abolished and Lands were replaced by \"''kraje''\" (regions), whose borders substantially differ from the historical Bohemian-Moravian border, so Moravia politically ceased to exist after more than 1100 years (833–1949) of its history.",
"Although another administrative reform in 1960 implemented (among others) the North Moravian and the South Moravian regions (''Severomoravský'' and ''Jihomoravský kraj''), with capitals in Ostrava and Brno respectively, their joint area was only roughly alike the historical state and, chiefly, there was no land or federal autonomy, unlike Slovakia.After the fall of the Soviet Union and the whole Eastern Bloc, the Czechoslovak Federal Assembly condemned the cancellation of Moravian-Silesian land and expressed \"firm conviction that this injustice will be corrected\" in 1990.However, after the breakup of Czechoslovakia into Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993, Moravian area remained integral to the Czech territory, and the latest administrative division of Czech Republic (introduced in 2000) is similar to the administrative division of 1949.Nevertheless, the federalist or separatist movement in Moravia is completely marginal.The centuries-lasting historical Bohemian-Moravian border has been preserved up to now only by the Czech Roman Catholic Administration, as the Ecclesiastical Province of Moravia corresponds with the former Moravian-Silesian Land.",
"The popular perception of the Bohemian-Moravian border's location is distorted by the memory of the 1960 regions (whose boundaries are still partly in use).JanCerny.jpg|Jan Černý, president of Moravia in 1922–1926, later also Prime Minister of CzechoslovakiaMap of Moravia.jpg|A general map of Moravia in the 1920sFirst Czechoslovak Republic.SVG|In 1928, Moravia was merged into Moravia-Silesia, one of four lands of Czechoslovakia, together with Bohemia, Slovakia and Subcarpathian Rus."
],
[
"Economy",
"An area in South Moravia, around Hodonín and Břeclav, is part of the Viennese Basin.",
"Petroleum and lignite are found there in abundance.",
"The main economic centres of Moravia are Brno, Olomouc and Zlín, plus Ostrava lying directly on the Moravian–Silesian border.",
"As well as agriculture in general, Moravia is noted for its viticulture; it contains 94% of the Czech Republic's vineyards and is at the centre of the country's wine industry.",
"Wallachia have at least a 400-year-old tradition of slivovitz making.The Czech automotive industry also had a large role in the industry of Moravia in the 20th century; the factories of Wikov in Prostějov and Tatra in Kopřivnice produced many automobiles.Moravia is also the centre of the Czech firearm industry, as the vast majority of Czech firearms manufacturers (e.g.",
"CZUB, Zbrojovka Brno, Czech Small Arms, Czech Weapons, ZVI, Great Gun) are found in Moravia.",
"Almost all the well-known Czech sporting, self-defence, military and hunting firearms are made in Moravia.",
"Meopta rifle scopes are of Moravian origin.",
"The original Bren gun was conceived here, as were the assault rifles the CZ-805 BREN and Sa vz.",
"58, and the handguns CZ 75 and ZVI Kevin (also known as the \"Micro Desert Eagle\").The Zlín Region hosts several aircraft manufacturers, namely Let Kunovice (also known as Aircraft Industries, a.s.), ZLIN AIRCRAFT a.s. Otrokovice (formerly known under the name Moravan Otrokovice), Evektor-Aerotechnik and Czech Sport Aircraft.",
"Sport aircraft are also manufactured in Jihlava by Jihlavan Airplanes/Skyleader.Aircraft production in the region started in 1930s; after a period of low production post-1989, there are signs of recovery post-2010, and production is expected to grow from 2013 onwards.Tatra 77.jpg|The Tatra 77 (1934)Sportovní vůz Supersport.gif|WIKOV Supersport (1931)Michael Thonet 14.jpg|Thonet No.",
"14 chairM 290.002 Slovenská strela, Žleby zastávka – Žleby 02.jpg|The speed train Tatra M 290.0 Slovenská strela 1936Zlin XIII OK-TBZ (8190833921).jpg|Zlín XIII aircraft on display at the National Technical Museum in PragueZetor 25A.jpg|Zetor 25A tractorElectron microscope Mamut at the Institute of Scientific Instruments of the Czech Academy of Science in Brno (4).jpg|Electron microscope BrnoFile:LET L-410NG OK-NGA ILA Berlin 2016 09.jpg|Aeroplane L 410 NG by Let KunoviceFile:Rifle scope.jpg|Precise rifle scope by MeOptaFile:CZ BREN 2.jpg|The (modern) BREN gun M 2 11File:Czech Raildays 2012, Evo2 (01).jpg|The modern EVO 2 tramFile:Czech Raildays 2012, ČD Bfhpvee295, 80-30 020-9 (03).jpg|Diesel railway coach class Bfhpvee295=== Machinery industry ===The machinery industry has been the most important industrial sector in the region, especially in South Moravia, for many decades.",
"The main centres of machinery production are Brno (Zbrojovka Brno, Zetor, První brněnská strojírna, Siemens), Blansko (ČKD Blansko, Metra), Kuřim (TOS Kuřim), Boskovice (Minerva, Novibra) and Břeclav (Otis Elevator Company).",
"A number of other, smaller machinery and machine parts factories, companies and workshops are spread over Moravia.=== Electrical industry ===The beginnings of the electrical industry in Moravia date back to 1918.The biggest centres of electrical production are Brno (VUES, ZPA Brno, EM Brno), Drásov, Frenštát pod Radhoštěm and Mohelnice (currently Siemens)."
],
[
"Cities and towns",
"===Cities===*Brno, c. 396,000 inhabitants, former land capital and nowadays capital of South Moravian Region; industrial, judicial, educational and research centre; railway and motorway junction*Ostrava, c. 284,000 inh.",
"(central part, Moravská Ostrava, lies historically in Moravia, most of the outskirts are in Czech Silesia), capital of Moravian-Silesian Region, centre of heavy industry*Olomouc, c. 102,000 inh., capital of Olomouc Region, medieval land capital, seat of Roman Catholic archbishop, cultural centre of Hanakia and Central Moravia*Zlín, c. 74,000 inh., capital of Zlín Region, modern city developed after World War I by the Bata Shoes company*Frýdek-Místek, c. 54,000 inh., twin-city lying directly on the old Moravian-Silesian border (the western part, Místek, is Moravian), in the industrial area around Ostrava*Jihlava, c. 53,000 inh.",
"(mostly in Moravia, northwestern periphery lies in Bohemia), capital of Vysočina Region, centre of the Moravian Highlands*Prostějov, c. 44,000 inh., former centre of clothing and fashion industry, birthplace of Edmund Husserl*Přerov, c. 42,000 inh., important railway hub and archeological site (Předmostí)===Towns===*Třebíč (35,000), another centre in the Highlands, with exceptionally preserved Jewish quarter*Znojmo (34,000), historical and cultural centre of southwestern Moravia*Kroměříž (28,000), historical town in southern Hanakia*Vsetín (25,000), centre of the Moravian Wallachia*Šumperk (25,000), centre of the north of Moravia, at the foot of Hrubý Jeseník*Uherské Hradiště (25,000), cultural centre of the Moravian Slovakia*Břeclav (25,000), important railway hub in the very south of Moravia*Hodonín (24,000), another town in the Moravian Slovakia, the birthplace of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk*Nový Jičín (23,000), historical town with hatting industry*Valašské Meziříčí (23,000), centre of chemical industry in Moravian Wallachia*Kopřivnice (22,000), centre of automotive industry (Tatra), south from Ostrava*Žďár nad Sázavou (21,000), industrial town in the Highlands, near the border with Bohemia*Vyškov (20,000), local centre at a motorway junction halfway between Brno and Olomouc*Blansko (20,000), industrial town north from Brno, at the foot of the Moravian Karst"
],
[
"People",
"Moravian nationality, as declared by people in the 1991 censusMoravian Slovak costumes (worn by men and women) during the ''Jízda králů'' (\"Ride of the Kings\") Festival held annually in the village of Vlčnov (southeastern Moravia)The Moravians are generally a Slavic ethnic group who speak various (generally more archaic) dialects of Czech.",
"Before the expulsion of Germans from Moravia the Moravian German minority also referred to themselves as \"Moravians\" (''Mährer'').",
"Those expelled and their descendants continue to identify as Moravian.",
"Some Moravians assert that Moravian is a language distinct from Czech; however, their position is not widely supported by academics and the public.",
"Some Moravians identify as an ethnically distinct group; the majority consider themselves to be ethnically Czech.",
"In the census of 1991 (the first census in history in which respondents were allowed to claim Moravian nationality), 1,362,000 (13.2%) of the Czech population identified as being of Moravian nationality (or ethnicity).",
"In some parts of Moravia (mostly in the centre and south), majority of the population identified as Moravians, rather than Czechs.",
"In the census of 2001, the number of Moravians had decreased to 380,000 (3.7% of the country's population).",
"In the census of 2011, this number rose to 522,474 (4.9% of the Czech population).Moravia historically had a large minority of ethnic Germans, some of whom had arrived as early as the 13th century at the behest of the Přemyslid dynasty.",
"Germans continued to come to Moravia in waves, culminating in the 18th century.",
"They lived in the main city centres and in the countryside along the border with Austria (stretching up to Brno) and along the border with Silesia at Jeseníky, and also in two language islands, around Jihlava and around Moravská Třebová.",
"After the World War II, the Czechoslovak government almost fully expelled them in retaliation for their support of Nazi Germany's invasion and dismemberment of Czechoslovakia (1938–1939) and subsequent German war crimes (1938–1945) towards the Czech, Moravian, and Jewish populations.===Moravians===Johan_amos_comenius_1592-1671.jpg|ComeniusGregor_Mendel_oval.jpg|Gregor MendelJan Vilímek - František Palacký 2.jpg|František PalackýJasomir Mundy.jpg|Jaromír MundyTomáš_Garrigue_Masaryk_1925.PNG|Tomáš Garrigue MasarykLeoš_Janáček.jpg|Leoš JanáčekSigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt (cropped).jpg|Sigmund FreudEdmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg|Edmund HusserlAlfons_Mucha_LOC_3c05828u.jpg|Alphonse MuchaAdolf Loos (1870–1933) (vor 1920; Franz Löwy).jpg|Adolf LoosTomas_Bata.jpg|Tomáš BaťaKurt_gödel.jpg|Kurt GödelFotothek_df_roe-neg_0006305_003_Emil_Zátopek-2.jpg|Emil ZátopekMilan Kundera redux.jpg|Milan KunderaLendl_CU.jpg|Ivan LendlNotable people from Moravia include (in order of birth):*Anton Pilgram (1450–1516), architect, sculptor and woodcarver*Jan Ámos Komenský (Comenius) (1592–1670), educator and theologian, last bishop of Unity of the Brethren*Georg Joseph Camellus (1661–1706), Jesuit missionary to the Philippines, pharmacist and botanist *David Zeisberger (1717–1807) Moravian missionary to the Leni Lenape, \"Apostle to the Indians\"*Georgius Prochaska (1749–1820), ophthalmologist and physiologist*František Palacký (1798–1876), historian and politician, \"The Father of the Czech nation\"*Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), founder of genetics*Ernst Mach (1838–1916), physicist and philosopher*Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (1850–1937), philosopher and politician, first president of Czechoslovakia*Leoš Janáček (1854–1928), composer*Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), founder of psychoanalysis*Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), philosopher*Alfons Mucha (1860–1939), painter*Zdeňka Wiedermannová-Motyčková (1868–1915), women's rights activist*Adolf Loos (1870–1933), architect, pioneer of functionalism*Karl Renner (1870–1950), Austrian statesman, co-founder of Friends of Nature movement*Tomáš Baťa (1876–1932), entrepreneur, founder of Bata Shoes companyOld ethnic division of Moravians according to an encyclopaedia of 1878*Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950), economist and political scientist*Marie Jeritza (1887–1982), soprano singer *Hans Krebs (1888–1947), Nazi SS ''Brigadeführer'' executed for treason*Ludvík Svoboda (1895–1979), general of I Czechoslovak Army Corps, seventh president of Czechoslovakia*Klement Gottwald (1896–1953), first Czechoslovak communist president*Erich Wolfgang Korngold (1897–1957), composer*George Placzek (1905–1955), physicist, participant in Manhattan Project*Kurt Gödel (1906–1978), theoretical mathematician*Oskar Schindler (1908–1974), Nazi Germany entrepreneur, saviour of almost 1,200 Jews during the WWII*Jan Kubiš (1913–1942), paratrooper who assassinated Nazi despot R. Heydrich*Bohumil Hrabal (1914–1997), writer*Thomas J. Bata (1914–2008), entrepreneur, son of Tomáš Baťa and former head of the Bata shoe company*Emil Zátopek (1922–2000), long-distance runner, multiple Olympic gold medalist*Karel Reisz (1926–2002), filmmaker, pioneer of the British Free Cinema movement*Milan Kundera (1929–2023), writer*Václav Nedomanský (born 1944), ice hockey player*Karel Kryl (1944–1994), poet and protest singer-songwriter*Karel Loprais (1949–2021), truck race driver, multiple winner of the Dakar Rally*Ivana Trump (1949–2022), socialite and business magnate, former wife of Donald Trump*Ivan Lendl (born 1959), tennis player*Petr Nečas (born 1964), politician, Czech Prime Minister 2010–2013*Paulina Porizkova (born 1965), model, actress, writer*Jana Novotná (1968–2017), tennis player*Jiří Šlégr (born 1971), ice hockey player, member of the Triple Gold Club*Bohuslav Sobotka (born 1971), social-democratic politician, Czech Prime Minister 2014–2017*Magdalena Kožená (born 1973), mezzo-soprano*Markéta Irglová (born 1988), Academy awarded singer-songwriter*Petra Kvitová (born 1990), tennis player*Adam Ondra (born 1993), rock climber*Barbora Krejčíková (born 1996), tennis player===Ethnographic regions===Moravia can be divided on dialectal and lore basis into several ethnographic regions of comparable significance.",
"In this sense, it is more heterogenous than Bohemia.",
"Significant parts of Moravia, usually those formerly inhabited by the German speakers, are dialectally indifferent, as they have been resettled by people from various Czech (and Slovak) regions.The principal cultural regions of Moravia are:*Hanakia (''Haná'') in the central and northern part*Lachia (''Lašsko'') in the northeastern tip*Highlands (''Horácko'') in the west*Moravian Slovakia (''Slovácko'') in the southeast*Moravian Wallachia (''Valašsko'') in the east"
],
[
"Places of interest",
"Historic Centre of TelčPunkevní Cave in the Moravian Karst===World Heritage Sites===*Gardens and Castle at Kroměříž*Historic Centre of Telč*Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc*Jewish Quarter and St Procopius' Basilica in Třebíč*Lednice-Valtice Cultural Landscape*Pilgrimage Church of St John of Nepomuk at Zelená Hora*Tugendhat Villa in Brno===Other===*Hranice Abyss, the deepest known underwater cave in the world"
],
[
"See also",
"*Extreme points of Moravia*Flag of Moravia*German South Moravia*Moravian traditional music"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* ''The Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful ...'' (1877), volume 15.London, Charles Knight.",
"Moravia.",
"pp. 397–398.",
"* ''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2003).",
"Chicago, New Delhi, Paris, Seoul, Sydney, Taipei, Tokyo.",
"Volume 8.p. 309.Moravia.",
".",
"* Filip, Jan (1964).",
"''The Great Moravia exhibition''.",
"ČSAV (Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences).",
"* Galuška, Luděk, Mitáček Jiří, Novotná, Lea (eds.)",
"(2010) ''Treausures of Moravia: story of historical land''.",
"Brno, Moravian Museum.",
".",
"* National Geographic Society.",
"Wonders of the Ancient World; National Geographic Atlas of Archaeology, Norman Hammond, consultant, Nat'l Geogr.",
"Soc., (multiple staff authors), (Nat'l Geogr., R. H. Donnelley & Sons, Willard, OH), 1994, 1999, Reg or Deluxe Ed., 304 pp.",
"Deluxe ed.",
"photo (p. 248): \"Venus, Dolni Věstonice, 24,000 B.C.\"",
"In section titled: \"The Potter's Art\", pp. 246–253.",
"* Dekan, Jan (1981).",
"Moravia Magna: The Great Moravian Empire, Its Art and Time, Minneapolis: Control Data Arts.",
".",
"* Hugh, Agnew (2004).",
"''The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown''.Hoower Press, Stanford.",
".",
"* Róna-Tas, András (1999) ''Hungarians & Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History'' translated by Nicholas Bodoczky, Central European University Press, Budapest, .",
"* Wihoda, Martin (2015), ''Vladislaus Henry: The Formation of Moravian Identity''.",
"Brill Publishers .",
"* Kirschbaum, Stanislav J.",
"(1996) ''A History of Slovakia: The Struggle for Survival'' St. Martin's Press, New York, .",
"* Constantine Porphyrogenitus De Administrando Imperio edited by Gy.",
"Moravcsik, translated by R. J. H. Jenkins, Dumbarton Oaks Edition, Washington, D.C. (1993)* Hlobil, Ivo, Daniel, Ladislav (2000), ''The last flowers of the middle ages: from the gothic to the renaissance in Moravia and Silesia''.",
"Olomouc/Brno, Moravian Galery, Muzeum umění Olomouc * David, Jiří (2009).",
"\"Moravian estatism and provincial councils in the second half of the 17th century\".",
"''Folia historica Bohemica.",
"1 2''4: 111–165..* Svoboda, Jiří A.",
"(1999), ''Hunters between East and West: the paleolithic of Moravia''.",
"New York: Plenum Press, .",
"* Absolon, Karel (1949), ''The diluvial anthropomorphic statuettes and drawings, especially the so-called Venus statuettes, discovered in Moravia'' New York, Salmony 1949..* Musil, Rudolf (1971), ''G.",
"Mendel's Discovery and the Development of Agricultural and Natural Sciences in Moravia''.",
"Brno, Moravian Museum.",
"* Šimsa, Martin (2009), ''Open-Air Museum of Rural Architecture in South-East Moravia''.",
"Strážnice, National Institute of Folk Culture.",
".",
"* Miller, Michael R. (2010), ''The Jews of Moravia in the Age of Emancipation'', Cover of Rabbis and Revolution edition.",
"Stanford University Press.",
".",
"* Bata, Thomas J.",
"(1990), ''Bata: Shoemaker to the World''.",
"Stoddart Publishers Canada.",
".",
"* Knox, Brian (1962), ''Bohemia and Moravia: An Architectural Companion''.",
"Faber & Faber."
],
[
"External links",
"* Moravské zemské muzeum official website* Moravian gallery official website* Moravian library official website* Moravian land archive official website * Province of Moravia – Czech Catholic Church – official website * Welcome to the 2nd largest city of the CR * Welcome to Olomouc, city of good cheer... * Znojmo – City of Virtue *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Murray Rothbard"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Murray Newton Rothbard''' (; March 2, 1926 – January 7, 1995) was an American economist of the Austrian School, economic historian, political theorist, and activist.",
"Rothbard was a central figure in the 20th-century American libertarian movement, particularly its right-wing strands, and was a founder and leading theoretician of anarcho-capitalism.",
"He wrote over twenty books on political theory, history, economics, and other subjects.Rothbard argued that all services provided by the \"monopoly system of the corporate state\" could be provided more efficiently by the private sector and wrote that the state is \"the organization of robbery systematized and writ large\".",
"He called fractional-reserve banking a form of fraud and opposed central banking.",
"He categorically opposed all military, political, and economic interventionism in the affairs of other nations.",
"According to his protégé Hans-Hermann Hoppe, \"there would be no anarcho-capitalist movement to speak of without Rothbard\".Hoppe described Rothbard as leading a \"fringe existence\" in academia.",
"Rothbard rejected mainstream economic methodologies and instead embraced the praxeology of Ludwig von Mises.",
"Rothbard taught economics at a Wall Street division of New York University, later at Brooklyn Polytechnic, and after 1986 in an endowed position at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas.",
"Partnering with the oil billionaire Charles Koch, Rothbard was a founder of the Cato Institute and the Center for Libertarian Studies in the 1970s.",
"He broke with Koch and joined Lew Rockwell and Burton Blumert in 1982 to establish the Mises Institute in Alabama.Rothbard opposed egalitarianism and the civil rights movement, and blamed women's voting and activism for the growth of the welfare state.",
"He promoted historical revisionism and befriended the Holocaust denier Harry Elmer Barnes.",
"Later in his career, Rothbard advocated a libertarian alliance with paleoconservatism (which he called paleolibertarianism), favoring right-wing populism and defending David Duke.",
"In the 2010s, he received renewed attention as an influence on the alt-right."
],
[
"Life and work",
"=== Education ===Rothbard's parents were David and Rae Rothbard, Jewish immigrants to the United States from Poland and Russia, respectively.",
"David was a chemist.",
"Murray attended Birch Wathen Lenox School, a private school in New York City.",
"He later said he much preferred Birch Wathen to the \"debasing and egalitarian public school system\" he had attended in the Bronx.Rothbard wrote of having grown up as a \"right-winger\" (adherent of the \"Old Right\") among friends and neighbors who were \"communists or fellow-travelers\".",
"He was a member of the New York Young Republican Club in his youth.",
"Rothbard described his father as an individualist who embraced minimal government, free enterprise, private property and \"a determination to rise by one's own merits… \"All socialism seemed to me monstrously coercive and abhorrent\".",
"In 1952, his father was trapped during a labor strike at the Tide Water Oil Refinery in New Jersey, which he managed, confirming their dislike of organized labor.Rothbard in the mid-1950sRothbard attended Columbia University, where he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in mathematics in 1945 and a PhD in economics in 1956.His first political activism came in 1948, on behalf of the segregationist South Carolinian Strom Thurmond's presidential campaign.",
"In the 1948 presidential election, Rothbard, \"as a Jewish student at Columbia, horrified his peers by organizing a Students for Strom Thurmond chapter, so staunchly did he believe in states' rights\", according to ''The American Conservative''.",
"The delay in receiving his PhD was due in part to conflict with his advisor, Joseph Dorfman, and in part to Arthur Burns's rejecting his dissertation.",
"Burns was a longtime friend of the Rothbards and their neighbor at their Manhattan apartment building.",
"It was only after Burns went on leave from the Columbia faculty to head President Eisenhower's Council of Economic Advisers that Rothbard's thesis was accepted and he received his doctorate.",
"Rothbard later said that all his fellow students were extreme leftists and that he was one of only two Republicans at Columbia at the time.=== Marriage, Volker Fund, and academia ===During the 1940s, Rothbard vetted articles for Leonard Read at the Foundation for Economic Education think tank, became acquainted with Frank Chodorov, and read widely in libertarian-oriented works by Albert Jay Nock, Garet Garrett, Isabel Paterson, H. L. Mencken, and Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises.",
"In the 1950s, when Mises was teaching in the Wall Street division of the New York University Stern School of Business, Rothbard attended his unofficial seminar.",
"Rothbard was greatly influenced by Mises's book ''Human Action''.",
"Rothbard wanted to promote libertarian activism; by the mid-1950s he helped form the Circle Bastiat, a libertarian and anarchist social group in New York City.",
"He also joined the Mont Pelerin Society in the 1950s.Rothbard attracted the attention of the William Volker Fund, a group that provided financial backing to promote right-wing ideologies in the 1950s and early 1960s.",
"The Volker Fund paid Rothbard to write a textbook to explain ''Human Action'' in a form that could be used to introduce college undergraduates to Mises's views; a sample chapter he wrote on money and credit won Mises's approval.",
"For ten years, the Volker Fund paid him a retainer as a \"senior analyst\".",
"As Rothbard continued his work, he enlarged the project.",
"The result was his book ''Man, Economy, and State'', published in 1962.Upon its publication, Mises praised Rothbard's work effusively.",
"In contrast to Mises, who considered security the primary justification for the state, Rothbard in the 1950s began to argue for a privatized market for the military, police and judiciary.",
"Rothbard's 1963 book ''America's Great Depression'' blamed government policy failures for the Great Depression, and challenged the widely-held view that capitalism is unstable.In 1953, Rothbard married JoAnn Beatrice Schumacher (September 17, 1928 – October 29, 1999), whom he called Joey, in New York City.",
"She was a historian, Rothbard's personal editor and a close adviser as well as hostess of his Rothbard Salon.",
"They enjoyed a loving marriage and Rothbard often called her \"the indispensable framework\" of his life and achievements.",
"According to her, the Volker Fund's patronage allowed Rothbard to work from home as a freelance theorist and pundit for the first 15 years of their marriage.The Volker Fund collapsed in 1962, leading Rothbard to seek employment from various New York academic institutions.",
"He was offered a part-time position teaching economics to engineering students at Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute in 1966 at age 40.The institution had no economics department or economics majors and Rothbard derided its social science department as \"Marxist\", but his biographer Justin Raimondo writes that Rothbard liked teaching at Brooklyn Polytechnic because working only two days a week gave him freedom to contribute to developments in libertarian politics.",
"Rothbard continued in this role until 1986.Then 60 years old, Rothbard left Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute for the Lee Business School at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), where he held the title of S.J.",
"Hall Distinguished Professor of Economics, a chair endowed by a libertarian businessman.According to Rothbard's friend, colleague and fellow Misesian economist Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Rothbard led a \"fringe existence\" in academia, but he was able to attract a large number of \"students and disciples\" through his writings, thereby becoming \"the creator and one of the principal agents of the contemporary libertarian movement\".",
"Libertarian economist Jeffrey Herbener, who called Rothbard his friend and \"intellectual mentor\", said in a memoriam that Rothbard received \"only ostracism\" from mainstream academia.",
"Rothbard kept his position at UNLV from 1986 until his death.=== Old Right ===Throughout his life, Rothbard engaged in a number of different political movements to promote Old Right and libertarian political principles.George Hawley writes that \"unfortunately for Rothbard, the Old Right was ending as an intellectual and political force just as he was maturing as an intellectual\", with the militantly anticommunist conservative movement exemplified by William F. Buckley Jr. supplanting the Old Right's isolationism.Rothbard was an admirer of Sen. Joseph McCarthy—not for McCarthy's Cold War views, but his demagoguery, which Rothbard credited for disrupting the establishment consensus of what Rothbard called \"corporate liberalism\".",
"Rothbard contributed many articles to Buckley's ''National Review'', but his relations with Buckley and the magazine soured as he criticized the conservative movement for militarism.",
"Specifically, Rothbard opposed how such militarism could justify and expand the power of the state.Rothbard befriended the Holocaust denier Harry Elmer Barnes in 1959.In a 1966 issue of Robert LeFevre's ''Rampart Journal of Individualist Thought'' devoted to historical revisionism, Rothbard argued that western democracies had been to blame for starting World War I, World War II, and the Cold War.",
"Rothbard published works by Barnes in his journals before and after Barnes' death in 1968, including posthumously in the Cato Institute's journal.=== Conflict with Ayn Rand ===In 1954, Rothbard, along with several other attendees of Mises's seminar, joined the circle of novelist Ayn Rand, the founder of Objectivism.",
"He soon parted from her, writing among other things that her ideas were not as original as she proclaimed, but similar to those of Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas and Herbert Spencer.",
"In 1958, after the publication of Rand's novel ''Atlas Shrugged'', Rothbard wrote her a \"fan letter\", calling the book \"an infinite treasure house\" and \"not merely the greatest novel ever written, but one of the very greatest books ever written, fiction or nonfiction\".",
"He also wrote: \"You introduced me to the whole field of natural rights and natural law philosophy\", prompting him to learn \"the glorious natural rights tradition\".",
"Rothbard rejoined Rand's circle for a few months, but soon broke with Rand again over various differences, including his defense of his interpretation of anarchism.Rothbard later satirized Rand's acolytes in his unpublished one-act farce ''Mozart Was a Red'' and his essay \"The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult\".",
"He characterized Rand's circle as a \"dogmatic, personality cult\".",
"His play parodies Rand (through the character Carson Sand) and her friends and is set during a visit from Keith Hackley, a fan of Sand's novel ''The Brow of Zeus'' (a play on ''Atlas Shrugged'').=== New Left outreach ===By the late 1960s, according to ''The American Conservative'', Rothbard's \"long and winding yet somehow consistent road had taken him from anti-New Deal and anti-interventionist Robert A. Taft supporter into friendship with the quasi-pacifist Nebraska Republican Congressman Howard Buffett (father of Warren Buffett) then over to the League of (Adlai) Stevensonian Democrats and, by 1968, into tentative comradeship with the anarchist factions of the New Left\".",
"Rothbard joined the Peace and Freedom Party and contributed writing to the New Left journal ''Ramparts''.",
"However, Rothbard later criticized the New Left for supporting a \"People's Republic\" style draft.",
"It was during this phase that he associated with Karl Hess (a former Barry Goldwater speechwriter who had rejected conservatism) and founded ''Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought'' with Leonard Liggio and George Resch.",
"Raimondo described Rothbard during this time as \"a man of the Old Culture: he believed that it was possible to be a revolutionary, an anarchist, ''and'' lead a bourgeois life\", and wrote that the \"respectably dressed, if a bit rumpled\" Rothbard was \"immune to the blandishments of sixties youth culture\".During this time, Rothbard proposed that black Americans should embrace racial separatism and secession.",
"He was frustrated that blacks and whites in the New Left instead decided to work together for egalitarian goals.",
"In the 1970s, Rothbard turned sharply against the left, and described equality as an evil concept.=== Libertarianism and Cato Institute ===From 1969 to 1984, Rothbard edited ''The Libertarian Forum'', also initially with Hess (although Hess's involvement ended in 1971).",
"Despite its small readership, it engaged conservatives associated with the ''National Review'' in nationwide debate.",
"Rothbard rejected the view that Ronald Reagan's 1980 election as president was a victory for libertarian principles and he attacked Reagan's economic program in a series of ''Libertarian Forum'' articles.",
"In 1982, Rothbard called Reagan's claims of spending cuts a \"fraud\" and a \"hoax\" and accused Reaganites of doctoring the economic statistics to give the false impression that their policies were successfully reducing inflation and unemployment.",
"He further criticized the \"myths of Reaganomics\" in 1987.Rothbard criticized the \"frenzied nihilism\" of left-wing libertarians, but also criticized right-wing libertarians who were content to rely only on education to bring down the state; he believed that libertarians should adopt any moral tactic available to them to bring about liberty.",
"Imbibing Randolph Bourne's idea that \"war is the health of the state\", Rothbard opposed all wars in his lifetime and engaged in anti-war activism.During the 1970s and 1980s, Rothbard was active in the Libertarian Party.",
"He was frequently involved in the party's internal politics.",
"Rothbard founded the Center for Libertarian Studies in 1976 and the ''Journal of Libertarian Studies'' in 1977.He was one of the founders of the Cato Institute in 1977 (whose funding by Charles Koch was a major infusion of money for libertarianism) and \"came up with the idea of naming this libertarian think tank after ''Cato's Letters'', a powerful series of British newspaper essays by John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon which played a decisive influence upon America's Founding Fathers in fomenting the Revolution\".",
"From 1978 to 1983, he was associated with the Libertarian Party Radical Caucus, allying himself with Justin Raimondo, Eric Garris and Williamson Evers.He opposed the \"low-tax liberalism\" espoused by 1980 Libertarian Party presidential candidate Ed Clark and Cato Institute president Edward H Crane III.",
"According to Charles Burris, \"Rothbard and Crane became bitter rivals after disputes emerging from the 1980 LP presidential campaign of Ed Clark carried over to strategic direction and management of Cato\".=== Mises Institute ===In 1982, following his split with the Cato Institute, Rothbard co-founded the Ludwig von Mises Institute in Auburn, Alabama, (with Lew Rockwell and Burton Blumert) and was vice president of academic affairs until 1995.Rothbard also founded the institute's ''Review of Austrian Economics'', a heterodox economics journal later renamed the ''Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics'', in 1987.Rothbard \"worked closely with Lew Rockwell (joined later by his long-time friend Blumert) in nurturing the Mises Institute, and the publication, ''The Rothbard-Rockwell Report''; which after Rothbard's 1995 death evolved into the website, ''LewRockwell.com''\", according to the website.",
"Rothbard and other Mises Institute scholars criticized libertarian groups funded by the Koch brothers, referring to them as the \"Kochtopus\".",
"In contrast to some other libertarian groups, the Mises Institute \"pushed more politically marginal positions like the virtues of secession, the need for a return to the gold standard, and opposition to racial integration\", according to historian Quinn Slobodian.Rothbard split with the Radical Caucus at the 1983 national convention over cultural issues and aligned himself with what he called the \"right-wing populist\" wing of the party, notably Lew Rockwell and Ron Paul, who ran for president on the Libertarian Party ticket in 1988.Rothbard with his wife Joey=== Paleolibertarianism ===Lew RockwellIn 1989, Rothbard left the Libertarian Party and began building bridges to the post-Cold War anti-interventionist right, calling himself a paleolibertarian, a conservative reaction against the cultural liberalism of mainstream libertarianism.",
"Paleolibertarianism sought to appeal to disaffected working class whites through a synthesis of cultural conservatism and libertarian economics.According to ''Reason'', Rothbard advocated right-wing populism in part because he was frustrated that mainstream thinkers were not adopting the libertarian view and suggested that former Ku Klux Klan Grand Wizard David Duke and Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy were models for an \"Outreach to the Rednecks\" effort that could be used by a broad libertarian/paleoconservative coalition.",
"Working together, the coalition would expose the \"unholy alliance of 'corporate liberal' Big Business and media elites, who, through big government, have privileged and caused to rise up a parasitic Underclass\".",
"Rothbard blamed this \"Underclass\" for \"looting and oppressing the bulk of the middle and working classes in America\".",
"Regarding Duke's political program, Rothbard asserted that there was \"nothing\" in it that \"could not also be embraced by paleoconservatives or paleolibertarians; lower taxes, dismantling the bureaucracy, slashing the welfare system, attacking affirmative action and racial set-asides, calling for equal rights for all Americans, including whites\".",
"He also praised the \"racialist science\" in Charles Murray's controversial book ''The Bell Curve''.",
"Rothbard co-founded and became a key figure in the John Randolph Club, which was an alliance between the Mises Institute and the paleoconservative Rockford Institute.",
"He supported the presidential campaign of Pat Buchanan in 1992, writing that \"with Pat Buchanan as our leader, we shall break the clock of social democracy\".",
"When Buchanan dropped out of the Republican primary race, Rothbard then shifted his interest and support to Ross Perot, who Rothbard wrote had \"brought an excitement, a verve, a sense of dynamics and of open possibilities to what had threatened to be a dreary race\".",
"However, Rothbard eventually withdrew his support from Perot, and endorsed George H. W. Bush in the 1992 election.Like Buchanan, Rothbard opposed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).",
"However, he had become disillusioned with Buchanan by 1995, believing that the latter's \"commitment to protectionism was mutating into an all-round faith in economic planning and the nation state\".=== Personal life ===Joey Rothbard said in a memoriam that her husband had a happy and bright spirit, and that Rothbard, a night owl, managed to make a living for 40 years without having to get up before noon.",
"This was important to him.\"",
"She said Rothbard would begin every day with a phone conversation with his colleague Lew Rockwell: \"Gales of laughter would shake the house or apartment, as they checked in with each other.",
"Murray thought it was the best possible way to start a day\".Rothbard was irreligious and agnostic about God, describing himself as a \"mixture of an agnostic and a Reform Jew\".",
"Despite identifying as an agnostic and an atheist, he was critical of the \"left-libertarian hostility to religion\".",
"In Rothbard's later years, many of his friends anticipated that he would convert to Catholicism, but he never did.=== Death ===Rothbard died of a heart attack on January 7, 1995, in St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center in Manhattan, at the age of 68.",
"''The New York Times'' obituary called Rothbard \"an economist and social philosopher who fiercely defended individual freedom against government intervention\".",
"Lew Rockwell, president of the Mises Institute, told ''The New York Times'' that Rothbard was \"the founder of right-wing anarchism\".William F. Buckley Jr. wrote a critical obituary in the ''National Review'', criticizing Rothbard's \"defective judgment\" and views on the Cold War.",
"Hoppe, Rockwell, and Rothbard's other colleagues at the Mises Institute took a different view, arguing that he was one of the most important philosophers in history."
],
[
"Views",
"=== Austrian economics ===Rothbard was an advocate and practitioner of the Austrian School tradition of his teacher Ludwig von Mises.",
"Like Mises, Rothbard rejected the application of the scientific method to economics and dismissed econometrics, empirical and statistical analysis and other tools of mainstream social science as outside the field (economic history might use those tools, but not Economics proper).",
"He instead embraced praxeology, the strictly ''a priori'' methodology of Mises.",
"Praxeology conceives of economic laws as akin to geometric or mathematical axioms: fixed, unchanging, objective and discernible through logical reasoning.According to Misesian economist Hans-Hermann Hoppe, eschewing the scientific method and empiricism distinguishes the Misesian approach \"from all other current economic schools\", which dismiss the Misesian approach as \"dogmatic and unscientific.\"",
"Mark Skousen of Chapman University and the Foundation for Economic Education, a critic of mainstream economics, praises Rothbard as brilliant, his writing style persuasive, his economic arguments nuanced and logically rigorous and his Misesian methodology sound.",
"But Skousen concedes that Rothbard was effectively \"outside the discipline\" of mainstream economics and that his work \"fell on deaf ears\" outside his ideological circles.Rothbard wrote extensively on Austrian business cycle theory and as part of this approach strongly opposed central banking, fiat money and fractional-reserve banking, advocating a gold standard and a 100% reserve requirement for banks.==== Polemics against mainstream economics ====Rothbard wrote a series of polemics in which he deprecated a number of leading modern economists.",
"He vilified Adam Smith, calling him a \"shameless plagiarist\" who set economics off track, ultimately leading to the rise of Marxism.",
"Rothbard praised Smith's contemporaries, including Richard Cantillon, Anne Robert Jacques Turgot and Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, for developing the subjective theory of value.",
"In response to Rothbard's charge that Smith's ''The Wealth of Nations'' was largely plagiarized, David D. Friedman castigated Rothbard's scholarship and character, saying that he \"was either deliberately dishonest or never really read the book he was criticizing\".",
"Tony Endres called Rothbard's treatment of Smith a \"travesty\".Rothbard was equally scathing in his criticism of John Maynard Keynes, calling him weak on economic theory and a shallow political opportunist.",
"Rothbard also wrote more generally that Keynesian-style governmental regulation of money and credit created a \"dismal monetary and banking situation\".",
"He called John Stuart Mill a \"wooly man of mush\" and speculated that Mill's \"soft\" personality led his economic thought astray.Rothbard was critical of monetarist economist Milton Friedman.",
"In his polemic \"Milton Friedman Unraveled\", he called Friedman a \"statist\", a \"favorite of the establishment\", a friend of and \"apologist\" for Richard Nixon and a \"pernicious influence\" on public policy.",
"Rothbard said that libertarians should scorn rather than celebrate Friedman's academic prestige and political influence.",
"Noting that Rothbard has \"been nasty to me and my work\", Friedman responded to Rothbard's criticism by calling him a \"cult builder and a dogmatist\".In a memorial volume published by the Mises Institute, Rothbard's protégé and libertarian theorist Hans-Hermann Hoppe wrote that ''Man, Economy, and State'' \"presented a blistering refutation of all variants of mathematical economics\" and included it among Rothbard's \"almost mind-boggling achievements\".",
"Hoppe lamented that, like Mises, Rothbard died without winning the Nobel Prize and, while acknowledging that Rothbard and his work were largely ignored by academia, called him an \"intellectual giant\" comparable to Aristotle, John Locke, and Immanuel Kant.====Disputes with other Austrian economists====Although he self-identified as an Austrian economist, Rothbard's methodology was at odds with that of many other Austrians.",
"In 1956, Rothbard deprecated the views of Austrian economist Fritz Machlup, stating that Machlup was no praxeologist and calling him instead a \"positivist\" who failed to represent the views of Ludwig von Mises.",
"Rothbard stated that in fact Machlup shared the opposing positivist view associated with economist Milton Friedman.",
"Mises and Machlup had been colleagues in 1920s Vienna before each relocated to the United States, and Mises later urged his American protege Israel Kirzner to pursue his PhD studies with Machlup at Johns Hopkins University.According to libertarian economists Tyler Cowen and Richard Fink, Rothbard wrote that the term evenly rotating economy (ERE) can be used to analyze complexity in a world of change.",
"The words ERE had been introduced by Mises as an alternative nomenclature for the mainstream economic method of static equilibrium and general equilibrium analysis.",
"Cowen and Fink found \"serious inconsistencies in both the nature of the ERE and its suggested uses\".",
"With the sole exception of Rothbard, no other economist adopted Mises' term, and the concept continued to be called \"equilibrium analysis\".In a 2011 article critical of Rothbard's \"reflexive opposition\" to inflation, ''The Economist'' noted that his views were increasingly gaining influence among politicians and laypeople on the right.",
"The article contrasted Rothbard's categorical rejection of inflationary policies with the monetary views of \"sophisticated Austrian-school monetary economists such as George Selgin and Larry White\", who follow Hayek in treating stability of nominal spending as a monetary ideal—a position \"not all that different from Scott Sumner|Mr Scott Sumner's\".According to economist Peter Boettke, Rothbard is better described as a property rights economist than as an Austrian economist.",
"In 1988, Boettke noted that Rothbard \"vehemently attacked all of the books of the younger Austrians\".=== Ethics ===Ludwig von MisesAlthough Rothbard adopted Ludwig von Mises' deductive methodology for his social theory and economics, he parted with Mises on the question of ethics.",
"Specifically, he rejected Mises' conviction that ethical values remain subjective and opposed utilitarianism in favor of principle-based, natural law reasoning.",
"In defense of his free market views, Mises employed utilitarian economic arguments aimed at demonstrating that interventionist policies made all of society worse off.",
"Rothbard countered that interventionist policies do in fact benefit some people, including certain government employees and beneficiaries of social programs.",
"Therefore, unlike Mises, Rothbard argued for an objective, natural-law basis for the free market.",
"He called this principle \"self-ownership\", loosely basing the idea on the writings of John Locke and also borrowing concepts from classical liberalism and the anti-imperialism of the Old Right.Rothbard accepted the labor theory of property, but rejected the Lockean proviso, arguing that if an individual mixes his labor with unowned land, then he becomes the proper owner eternally and that after that time it is private property which may change hands only by trade or gift.Rothbard was a strong critic of egalitarianism.",
"The title essay of Rothbard's 1974 book ''Egalitarianism as a Revolt Against Nature and Other Essays'' held: \"Equality is not in the natural order of things, and the crusade to make everyone equal in every respect (except before the law) is certain to have disastrous consequences\".",
"In it, Rothbard wrote: \"At the heart of the egalitarian left is the pathological belief that there is no structure of reality; that all the world is a tabula rasa that can be changed at any moment in any desired direction by the mere exercise of human will\".Noam Chomsky critiqued Rothbard's ideal society as \"a world so full of hate that no human being would want to live in it... First of all, it couldn't function for a second—and if it could, all you'd want to do is get out, or commit suicide or something.",
"\"=== Anarcho-capitalism ===According to anarcho-capitalists, various theorists have espoused legal philosophies similar to anarcho-capitalism, yet Rothbard was credited with coining the terms \"anarcho-capitalist\" and \"anarch-capitalism\" in 1971 (though \"anarchocapitalism sic\" had been attested earliest in Karl Hess's 1969 essay ''The Death of Politics'').",
"He synthesized elements from the Austrian School of economics, classical liberalism and 19th-century American individualist anarchists into a right-wing form of anarchism.",
"According to his protégé Hans-Hermann Hoppe, \"there would be no anarcho-capitalist movement to speak of without Rothbard\".",
"Lew Rockwell in a memoriam called Rothbard the \"conscience\" of all the various strains of what he described as \"libertarian anarchism\", and said their advocates had often been personally inspired by his example.During his years at graduate school in the late 1940s, Rothbard considered whether a strict adherence to libertarian and ''laissez-faire'' principles required the abolition of the state altogether.",
"He visited Baldy Harper, a founder of the Foundation for Economic Education, who doubted the need for any government whatsoever.",
"Rothbard said that during this period, he was influenced by 19th-century American individualist anarchists like Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker and the Belgian economist Gustave de Molinari who wrote about how such a system could work.",
"Thus, he \"combined the ''laissez-faire'' economics of Mises with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state\" from individualist anarchists.",
"Edward Stringham opined that: \"In the late 1940s, Murray Rothbard decided that that sic private-property anarchism was the logical conclusion of free-market thinking ....\"Rothbard began to consider himself a \"private property anarchist\" and published works about private property anarchism in 1954; later, in 1971, he began to use \"anarcho-capitalist\" to describe his political ideology.",
"In his anarcho-capitalist model, the system of private property is upheld by private firms, such as hypothesized protection agencies, which compete in a free market and are voluntarily supported by consumers who choose to use their protective and judicial services.",
"Anarcho-capitalists describe this as \"the end of the state monopoly on force\".",
"In this way Rothbard differed from Mises, who favored a state to uphold markets.In an unpublished article he wrote that economically speaking individualist anarchism is different from anarcho-capitalism, and jokingly pondered whether libertarians should adopt the term nonarchist.",
"Rothbard concluded the article by affirming that he is neither an anarchist or an \"archist\" but rather a middle of the roader on the archy question.In ''Man, Economy, and State'', Rothbard divides the various kinds of state intervention in three categories: \"autistic intervention\" (interference with private non-economic activities); \"binary intervention\", (exchange between individuals and the state); and \"triangular intervention\" (state-mandated exchange between individuals).",
"Sanford Ikeda wrote that Rothbard's typology \"eliminates the gaps and inconsistencies that appear in Mises's original formulation\".",
"Rothbard writes in ''Power and Market'' that the role of the economist in a free market is limited, but it is much larger in a government that solicits economic policy recommendations.",
"Rothbard argues that self-interest therefore prejudices the views of many economists in favor of increased government intervention.=== Race, gender, and civil rights ===Michael O'Malley, associate professor of history at George Mason University, describes Rothbard's tone toward the civil rights movement and the women's suffrage movement as \"contemptuous and hostile\".",
"Rothbard criticized women's rights activists, attributing the growth of the welfare state to politically active spinsters \"whose busybody inclinations were not fettered by the responsibilities of health and heart\".",
"Rothbard argued that the progressive movement, which he regarded as a noxious influence on the United States, was spearheaded by a coalition of Yankee Protestants (people from the six New England states and upstate New York who were Protestants of English descent), Jewish women and \"lesbian spinsters\".Rothbard called for the elimination of \"the entire 'civil rights' structure\", which he said \"tramples on the property rights of every American\".",
"He consistently favored repeal of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, including Title VII regarding employment discrimination, and called for overturning the ''Brown v. Board of Education'' decision on the grounds that state-mandated integration of schools violated libertarian principles.",
"In an essay called \"Right-wing Populism\", Rothbard proposed a set of measures to \"reach out\" to the \"middle and working classes\", which included urging the police to crack down on \"street criminals\", writing that \"cops must be unleashed\" and \"allowed to administer instant punishment, subject of course to liability when they are in error\".",
"He also advocated that the police \"clear the streets of bums and vagrants.",
"\"Rothbard held strong opinions about many leaders of the civil rights movement.",
"He considered black separatist Malcolm X to be a \"great black leader\" and integrationist Martin Luther King Jr. to be favored by whites because he \"was the major restraining force on the developing Negro revolution\".",
"Jacob Jensen writes that Rothbard's commentary from the 1960s, approving of both \"black power\" and \"white power\" in separated communities, amounted to support for racial segregation.",
"In 1993, Rothbard rejected the vision of a \"separate black nation\", asking \"does anyone really believe that ... New Africa would be content to strike out on its own, with no massive \"foreign aid\" from the U.S.A.?\".",
"Rothbard also suggested that opposition to Martin Luther King Jr., whom he demeaned as a \"coercive integrationist\", should be a litmus test for members of his \"paleolibertarian\" political movement.Rothbard is described by the historian John P. Jackson Jr. as espousing antisemitism despite Rothbard's own background as a secular Jew.",
"One former student described Rothbard as privately using the anti-Jewish slur \"kikes\" repeatedly.",
"Rothbard also befriended the Holocaust deniers Willis Carto and Harry Elmer Barnes.=== Views on war ===Like Randolph Bourne, Rothbard believed that \"war is the health of the state\".",
"According to David Gordon, this was the reason for Rothbard's opposition to aggressive foreign policy.",
"Rothbard believed that stopping new wars was necessary and that knowledge of how government had led citizens into earlier wars was important.",
"Two essays expanded on these views \"War, Peace, and the State\" and \"Anatomy of the State\".",
"Rothbard used insights of Vilfredo Pareto, Gaetano Mosca and Robert Michels to build a model of state personnel, goals and ideology.",
"Rothbard's colleague Joseph Stromberg notes that Rothbard made two exceptions to his general condemnation of war: \"the American Revolution and the War for Southern Independence, as viewed from the Confederate side\", referring to the American Civil War.",
"Rothbard condemned the \"Northern war against slavery\", saying it was inspired by \"fanatical\" religious faith and characterized by \"a cheerful willingness to uproot institutions, to commit mayhem and mass murder, to plunder and loot and destroy, all in the name of high moral principle\".",
"He celebrated Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee and other prominent Confederates as heroes while denouncing Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant and other Union leaders, who he said had \"opened the Pandora's Box of genocide and the extermination of civilians\".Rothbard saw secession movements as a tool for undermining and disintegrating the state, according to historian Quinn Slobodian, who wrote that \"Rothbard's life was marked by a search for signs of potential secession\" and that \"When he found them, he did his best to deepen them.",
"\"=== Historical revisionism ===Rothbard embraced \"historical revisionism\" as an antidote to what he perceived to be the dominant influence exerted by corrupt \"court intellectuals\" over mainstream historical narratives.",
"His friend Harry Elmer Barnes, the Holocaust-denying historian, used similar language, \"court historians\".",
"Rothbard wrote that these mainstream intellectuals distorted the historical record in favor of \"the state\" in exchange for \"wealth, power, and prestige\" from the state.",
"Rothbard characterized the revisionist task as \"penetrating the fog of lies and deception of the State and its Court Intellectuals, and to present to the public the true history\".",
"Rothbard worked with antisemitic writers in developing an isolationist revisionist history of World War II.",
"He was influenced by and called a champion of Barnes.",
"Rothbard favorably cited Barnes' view that \"the murder of Germans and Japanese was the overriding aim of World War II\".In an obituary for Barnes, Rothbard wrote: \"Our entry into World War II was the crucial act in foisting a permanent militarization upon the economy and society, in bringing to the country a permanent garrison state, an overweening military–industrial complex, a permanent system of conscription.",
"It was the crucial act in creating a mixed economy run by Big Government, a system of state monopoly capitalism run by the central government in collaboration with Big Business and Big Unionism.\"",
"In addition to broadly supporting his historical views, Rothbard promoted Barnes as an influence for future revisionists.",
"Rothbard's endorsing of World War II revisionism and his association with Barnes and other Holocaust deniers have drawn criticism.",
"Kevin D. Williamson wrote an opinion piece published by ''National Review'' which condemned Rothbard for \"making common cause with the 'revisionist' historians of the Third Reich\", a term he used to describe American Holocaust deniers associated with Rothbard, such as James J. Martin of the Institute for Historical Review.",
"The piece also characterized \"Rothbard and his faction\" as being \"culpably indulgent\" of Holocaust denial, the view which \"specifically denies that the Holocaust actually happened or holds that it was in some way exaggerated\".In an article for Rothbard's 50th birthday, Rothbard's friend and Buffalo State College historian Ralph Raico stated that Rothbard \"is the main reason that revisionism has become a crucial part of the whole libertarian position\".=== Middle East conflict ===Rothbard's ''The Libertarian Forum'' blamed the Middle East conflict on Israeli aggression \"fueled by American arms and money\".",
"Rothbard warned that the Middle East conflict would draw the United States into a world war.",
"He was anti-Zionist and opposed United States involvement in the Middle East.",
"Rothbard said the Camp David Accords betrayed Palestinian aspirations and opposed Israel's 1982 invasion of Lebanon.",
"In his essay, \"War Guilt in the Middle East\", Rothbard wrote that Israel refused \"to let these refugees return and reclaim the property taken from them\".",
"He took negative views of a two state solution for the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, saying: \"On the one hand there are the Palestinian Arabs, who have tilled the soil or otherwise used the land of Palestine for centuries; and on the other, there are a group of external fanatics, who come from all over the world, and who claim the entire land area as 'given' to them as a collective religion or tribe at some remote or legendary time in the past.",
"There is no way the two claims can be resolved to the satisfaction of both parties.",
"There can be no genuine settlement, no 'peace' in the face of this irrepressible conflict; there can only be either a war to the death, or an uneasy practical compromise which can satisfy no one.",
"\"=== Children's rights and parental obligations ===In the ''Ethics of Liberty'', Rothbard explores issues regarding children's rights in terms of self-ownership and contract.",
"These include support for a woman's right to abortion, condemnation of parents showing aggression towards children and opposition to the state forcing parents to care for children.",
"He also holds children have the right to run away from parents and seek new guardians as soon as they are able to choose to do so.",
"He argued that parents have the right to put a child out for adoption or sell the rights to the child in a voluntary contract in what Rothbard suggests will be a \"flourishing free market in children\".",
"He believes that selling children as consumer goods in accord with market forces—while \"superficially monstrous\"—will benefit \"everyone\" involved in the market: \"the natural parents, the children, and the foster parents purchasing\".In Rothbard's view of parenthood, \"the parent should not have a legal obligation to feed, clothe, or educate his children, since such obligations would entail positive acts coerced upon the parent and depriving the parent of his rights\".",
"Thus, Rothbard stated that parents should have the legal right to let any infant die by starvation and should be free to engage in other forms of child neglect.",
"However, according to Rothbard, \"the purely free society will have a flourishing free market in children\".",
"In a fully libertarian society, he wrote, \"the existence of a free baby market will bring such 'neglect' down to a minimum\".Economist Gene Callahan of Cardiff University, formerly a scholar at the Rothbard-affiliated Mises Institute, wrote that Rothbard allowed \"the logical elegance of his legal theory\" to \"trump any arguments based on the moral reprehensibility of a parent idly watching her six-month-old child slowly starve to death in its crib\".=== Retributive theory of criminal justice ===In ''The Ethics of Liberty'', Rothbard advocates for a \"frankly retributive theory of punishment\" or a system of \"a tooth (or two teeth) for a tooth\".",
"Rothbard emphasizes that all punishment must be proportional, stating that \"the criminal, or invader, loses his rights to the extent that he deprived another man of his\".",
"Applying his retributive theory, Rothbard states that a thief \"must pay double the extent of theft\".",
"Rothbard gives the example of a thief who stole $15,000 and says he not only would have to return the stolen money, but also provide the victim an additional $15,000, money to which the thief has forfeited his right.",
"The thief would be \"put in a temporary state of enslavement to his victim\" if he is unable to pay him immediately.",
"Rothbard also applies his theory to justify beating and torturing violent criminals, although the beatings are required to be proportional to the crimes for which they are being punished.==== Torture of criminal suspects ====In chapter twelve of ''Ethics'', Rothbard turns his attention to suspects arrested by the police.",
"He argues that police should be able to torture certain types of criminal suspects, including accused murderers, for information related to their alleged crime.",
"Writes Rothbard: \"Suppose ... police beat and torture a suspected murderer to find information (not to wring a confession, since obviously a coerced confession could never be considered valid).",
"If the suspect turns out to be guilty, then the police should be exonerated, for then they have only ladled out to the murderer a parcel of what he deserves in return; his rights had already been forfeited by more than that extent.",
"But if the suspect is not convicted, then that means that the police have beaten and tortured an innocent man, and that they in turn must be put into the dock for criminal assault\".",
"Gene Callahan examines this position and concludes that Rothbard rejects the widely held belief that torture is inherently wrong, no matter who the victim.",
"Callahan goes on to state that Rothbard's scheme gives the police a strong motive to frame the suspect after having tortured him or her.=== Science and scientism ===In an essay condemning \"scientism in the study of man\", Rothbard rejected the application of causal determinism to human beings, arguing that the actions of human beings—as opposed to those of everything else in nature—are not determined by prior causes, but by \"free will\".",
"He argued that \"determinism as applied to man, is a self-contradictory thesis, since the man who employs it relies implicitly on the existence of free will\".",
"Rothbard opposed what he considered the overspecialization of the academy and sought to fuse the disciplines of economics, history, ethics and political science to create a \"science of liberty\".",
"Rothbard described the moral basis for his anarcho-capitalist position in two of his books: ''For a New Liberty'', published in 1973; and ''The Ethics of Liberty'', published in 1982.In his ''Power and Market'' (1970), Rothbard describes how a stateless economy might function."
],
[
"Works",
"=== Articles ===* ''The Individualist'' (Apr., Jul.–Aug.",
"1971); Revised and republished by the Center for Independent Education (1979).",
".",
"* \"Soviet Foreign Policy: A Revisionist Perspective.\"",
"''Libertarian Review'' (Apr.",
"1978), pp. 23–27.",
"* \"His Only Crime Was Against the Old Guard: Milken.\"",
"''Los Angeles Times'' (Mar.",
"3, 1992).",
"* \"Anti-Buchanania: A Mini-Encyclopedia.\"",
"''Rothbard-Rockwell Report'' (May 1992), pp. 1–13.",
"* \"Saint Hillary and the Religious Left.\"",
"(Dec.",
"1994).",
"* \"The Other Side of the Coin: Free Banking in Chile.\"",
"''Austrian Economics Newsletter'', vol.",
"10, no.",
"2.=== Books ===* ''Man, Economy, and State''.",
"D. Van Nostrand (1962).",
"full text.",
":: 2nd ed.",
"(Scholar's Ed.)",
"published in Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2004).",
".",
"Full text.",
"* ''The Panic of 1819: Reactions and Policies''.",
"New York: Columbia University Press (1962).",
"Full text.",
":: Republished, Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2004).",
".",
"* ''America's Great Depression''.",
"D. Van Nostrand (1963).",
"Full text.",
":: 5th ed.",
"published in Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2005).",
".",
"* ''Power and Market: Government and the Economy''.",
"Sheed Andrews and McMeel (1970).",
"full text.",
":: Republished, Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2004).",
".",
"* ''For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto''.",
"Collier Books (1973).",
"Full text; audiobook.",
"Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute.",
".",
"* ''Anatomy of the State''.",
"Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (1974).",
"Full text.",
"; audiobook.",
":: Republished in Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2009).",
".",
"* ''Egalitarianism as a Revolt Against Nature and Other Essays''.",
"Libertarian Review Press (1974).",
"Full text.",
":: 2nd ed., Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2000).",
".",
"* ''Conceived in Liberty'' (4 vol.).",
"New Rochelle, New York: Arlington House (1975–1979).",
"Full text.",
":: Republished, Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2012).",
".",
"* ''The Logic of Action'' (2 vol.).",
"Edward Elgar Publications (1997).",
".",
"Full text.",
":: Reprinted as ''Economic Controversies''.",
"Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2011).",
"* ''The Ethics of Liberty''.",
"Humanities Press (1982).",
"New York University Press (1998).",
"Full text; audiobook.",
"Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute.",
".",
"* ''The Mystery of Banking''.",
"Richardson and Snyder, Dutton (1983).",
"Full text.",
":: Republished in Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2007).",
".",
"* ''The Case Against the Fed''.",
"Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (1994).",
"Full text.",
":: Republished in Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2007).",
".",
"* ''America's Great Depression'' 5th ed.. Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (June 15, 2000).",
"* ''An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought'' (2 vol.).",
"Edward Elgar Publishers (1995).",
".",
"** Vol.",
"1: ''Economic Thought Before Adam Smith''.",
"Republished in Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2009).",
"** Vol.",
"2: ''Classical Economics''.",
"Republished in Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2009).",
"* ''Making Economic Sense''.",
"Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2007).",
".",
"Full text.",
"* ''The Betrayal of the American Right''.",
"Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2007).",
".",
"Full text and audiobook, narrated by Ian Temple.",
":: Despite posthumous publication in 2007, it appears in print virtually unchanged from the manuscript untouched since the 1970s.=== Book contributions ===* Introduction to ''Capital, Interest, and Rent: Essays in the Theory of Distribution'', by Frank A. Fetter.",
"Kansas City: Sheed Andrews and McMeel (1977).",
"* Foreword to ''The Theory of Money and Credit'', by Ludwig von Mises.",
"Liberty Fund (1981).",
"Full text .",
"* \"Bramble Minibook\" (1973).",
"In: ''The Essential von Mises''.",
"Auburn, Alab: Ludwig von Mises Institute (1988).",
"Full text.=== Monographs ===* ''Wall Street, Banks, and American Foreign Policy''.",
"World Market Perspective (1984); Center for Libertarian Studies (1995); Ludwig von Mises Institute (2005).",
"Spanish translation."
],
[
"Interviews",
"* \"Interview with Murray Rothbard on Man, Economy, and State, Mises, and the Future of the Austrian School\" (Summer 1990).",
"''Austrian Economics Newsletter''."
],
[
"See also",
"* American philosophy* Alt-right#Influences* Anarcho-capitalism* Criticism of the Federal Reserve* Libertarianism in the United States* List of American philosophers* List of peace activists"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * Doherty, Brian (2007).",
"''Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement''.",
"PublicAffairs.",
"* * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Murray Rothbard full bibliography at Mises.org*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mel Brooks"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Melvin James Brooks''' (; born June 28, 1926) is an American actor, comedian, filmmaker, songwriter, and playwright.",
"With a career spanning over seven decades, he is known as a writer and director of a variety of successful broad farces and parodies.",
"A recipient of numerous accolades, he is one of 19 entertainers to win the EGOT, which includes an Emmy Award, a Grammy Award, an Academy Award, and a Tony Award.",
"He received a Kennedy Center Honor in 2009, a Hollywood Walk of Fame star in 2010, the AFI Life Achievement Award in 2013, a British Film Institute Fellowship in 2015, a National Medal of Arts in 2016, a BAFTA Fellowship in 2017, and the Honorary Academy Award in 2024.Brooks began his career as a comic and a writer for Sid Caesar's variety show ''Your Show of Shows'' from 1950 to 1954.With Carl Reiner, he created the comedy sketch ''The 2000 Year Old Man'', and together, they released several comedy albums, starting with ''2000 Year Old Man'' in 1960.With Buck Henry, he created the hit television comedy series ''Get Smart'', which starred Don Adams and ran from 1965 to 1970.Brooks rose to prominence becoming one of the most successful film directors of the 1970s.",
"His films include ''The Producers'' (1967), ''The Twelve Chairs'' (1970), ''Blazing Saddles'' (1974), ''Young Frankenstein'' (1974), ''Silent Movie'' (1976), ''High Anxiety'' (1977), ''History of the World, Part I'' (1981), ''Spaceballs'' (1987), and ''Robin Hood: Men in Tights'' (1993).",
"A musical adaptation of his first film, ''The Producers'', ran on Broadway from 2001 to 2007 and was itself remade into a musical film in 2005.He wrote and produced the Hulu series ''History of the World, Part II'' (2023).Brooks was married to actress Anne Bancroft from 1964 until her death in 2005.Their son Max Brooks is an actor and author, known for his novel ''World War Z: An Oral History of the Zombie War'' (2006).",
"In 2021, Mel Brooks published his memoir titled ''All About Me!''.",
"Three of his films are included on the American Film Institute's list of the top 100 comedy films of the past 100 years (1900–2000), all of which were ranked in the top 15: ''Blazing Saddles'' at number 6, ''The Producers'' at number 11, and ''Young Frankenstein'' at number 13."
],
[
"Early life and education",
"Brooks was born on a tenement kitchen table, on June 28, 1926, in Brownsville, Brooklyn, to Kate (''née'' Brookman) and Max Kaminsky, and grew up in Williamsburg.",
"His father's family were German Jews from Danzig (Gdańsk, Poland); his mother was from Kyiv, in the Pale of Settlement of the Russian Empire (present-day Ukraine).",
"He had three older brothers: Irving, Lenny, and Bernie.",
"His father died of tuberculosis of the kidney at 34 when Brooks was two years old.",
"He has said of his father's death, \"There's an outrage there.",
"I may be angry at God, or at the world, for that.",
"And I'm sure a lot of my comedy is based on anger and hostility.",
"Growing up in Williamsburg, I learned to clothe it in comedy to spare myself problems—like a punch in the face.",
"\"Brooks was a small, sickly boy who often was bullied and teased by his classmates because of his size.",
"He grew up in tenement housing.",
"At age nine, Brooks went to a Broadway show with his maternal uncle Joe—a taxi driver who drove the Broadway doormen back to Brooklyn for free and was given the tickets in gratitude—and saw ''Anything Goes'' with William Gaxton, Ethel Merman and Victor Moore at the Alvin Theater.",
"After the show, he told his uncle that he was not going to work in the garment district like everyone else but was absolutely going into show business.When Brooks was 14 he gained employment as a pool-side tummler (entertainer) at the Butler Lodge, a second-rate Borscht Belt hotel, where he met 18-year-old Sid Caesar.",
"Brooks kept his guests amused with his crazy antics.",
"In a ''Playboy'' interview, he explained that one day he stood at the edge of a diving board wearing a derby and a large alpaca overcoat with two suitcases full of rocks, and then announced: \"Business is terrible!",
"I can't go on!\"",
"before jumping, fully clothed into the pool.",
"He was taught by Buddy Rich (who had also grown up in Williamsburg) how to play the drums, and started to earn money as a musician when he was 14.During his time as a drummer, he was given his first opportunity as a comedian at the age of 16, filling in for an ill MC.",
"During his teens, he changed his name to '''Melvin Brooks''', influenced by his mother's maiden name Brookman, after being confused with trumpeter Max Kaminsky.",
"Brooks graduated from Eastern District High School in Williamsburg in January 1944 and intended to follow his older brother and enroll in Brooklyn College to study psychology.===1944–1946: World War II service===In early 1944, in his senior year in high school, Brooks was recruited to take the Army General Classification Test, a Stanford–Binet-type IQ test.After scoring highly, Brooks was sent to the Army Specialized Training Program at the Virginia Military Institute to be taught electrical engineering, horse riding, and saber fighting.",
"In 1944, Brooks was drafted into the Army.",
"Twelve weeks later, when he turned 18, he officially joined the United States Army at the Fort Dix, New Jersey, induction center, and was sent to the Field Artillery Replacement Training Center at Fort Sill, Oklahoma for basic training and radio operator training.",
"Brooks was then sent back to Fort Dix for overseas assignment.",
"Brooks says he boarded the SS ''Sea Owl'' at the Brooklyn Navy Yard around February 15, 1945.A reporter for the United States Department of Defense writes that Brooks arrived in France in November 1944, and later to Belgium, serving with the 78th Infantry Division as a forward artillery observer.",
"In February 1945, a short while later, Brooks was transferred to the 1104th Engineer Combat Battalion as a combat engineer, participating in the Battle of the Bulge.Along the roadside, you'd see bodies wrapped up in mattress covers and stacked in a ditch, and those would be Americans, that could be me.",
"I sang all the time ...",
"I never wanted to think about it ... Death is the enemy of everyone, and even though you hate Nazis, death is more of an enemy than a German soldier.Stationed in Saarbrücken and Baumholder, the battalion was responsible for clearing booby-trapped buildings and defusing land mines as the Allies advanced into Nazi Germany.",
"Brooks was tasked with land mine location; defusing was done by a specialist.",
"Brooks has stated that when he heard Germans singing over loudspeakers, he responded by singing into a bullhorn, Toot, Toot, Tootsie (Goo' Bye!)",
"by Jewish Al Jolson.",
"Brooks spent time in the stockade after taking an anti-Semitic heckler's helmet off and smashing him in the head with his mess kit.",
"His unit constructed the first Bailey bridge over the Roer River, later building bridges over the Rhine River.",
"In April 1945, Brooks's unit conducted its last reconnaissance missions in the Harz Mountains, Germany.With the end of the war in Europe, Brooks joined the Special Services as a comic touring Army bases and he was made acting corporal, put in charge of entertainment at Wiesbaden, and performed at Fort Dix.",
"In June 1946, Brooks was honorably discharged from the Army as a corporal."
],
[
"Career",
"=== 1949–1959: Early work and breakthrough ===Brooks wrote for ''Your Show of Shows'' starring Imogene Coca and Sid CaesarAfter the war, Brooks' mother had secured him a job as a clerk at the Brooklyn Navy Yard, but Brooks \"got into a taxi and ordered the driver to take him to the Catskills\", where he started working in various Borscht Belt resorts and nightclubs in the Catskill Mountains as a drummer and pianist.",
"When a regular comic at one of the clubs was too sick to perform, Brooks started working as a stand-up comic, telling jokes and doing movie-star impressions.",
"He also began acting in summer stock in Red Bank, New Jersey, and did some radio work.",
"He eventually worked his way up to the comically aggressive job of tummler at Grossinger's, one of the Borscht Belt's most famous resorts.In the years after the war, Brooks' hero was comedian Sid Caesar.",
"Back in New York, Brooks would slink around trying to catch Caesar in between meetings to pitch him joke ideas.",
"Eventually Caesar cracked and paid Brooks a little cash to throw him gags....At 24, Brooks got his break as a full-time writer.Brooks found more rewarding work behind the scenes, becoming a comedy writer for television.",
"In 1949, his friend Sid Caesar hired him to write jokes for the DuMont/NBC series ''The Admiral Broadway Revue'', paying him, off-the-books, $50 a week.",
"In 1950, Caesar created the innovative variety comedy series ''Your Show of Shows'' and hired Brooks as a writer along with Carl Reiner, Neil Simon, Danny Simon, and head writer Mel Tolkin.",
"The writing staff proved widely influential.",
"Reiner, as creator of ''The Dick Van Dyke Show'', based Morey Amsterdam's character Buddy Sorell on Brooks.",
"Likewise, the film ''My Favorite Year'' (1982) is loosely based on Brooks' experiences as a writer on the show including an encounter with the actor Errol Flynn.",
"Neil Simon's play ''Laughter on the 23rd Floor'' (1993) is also loosely based on the production of the show, and the character Ira Stone is based on Brooks.",
"''Your Show of Shows'' ended in 1954 when performer Imogene Coca left to host her own show.",
"Caesar then created ''Caesar's Hour'' with most of the same cast and writers (including Brooks and adding Woody Allen and Larry Gelbart).",
"It ran from 1954 until 1957.Brooks told ''The New York Times'', \"When I was a fledgling comedy writer working for Sid Caesar on ''Your Show of Shows'', our head writer was Mel Tolkin...",
"I really looked up to him.",
"(By the way, I was 5-foot-7 and he was six feet tall.)",
"He was a bona fide intellectual, thoroughly steeped in the traditions of great Russian literature.",
"One day he handed me a book.",
"He said to me, 'Mel, you're an animal from Brooklyn, but I think you have the beginnings of something called a mind.'",
"The book was ''Dead Souls'' by the magnificent genius Nikolai Gogol.",
"It was a revelation.",
"I'd never read anything like it.",
"It was hysterically funny and incredibly moving at the same time...",
"It was a life-changing gift, and I still read it once a year to remind myself of what great comic writing can be.",
"\"=== 1958–1969: Rise to prominence ===Brooks famously collaborated with Carl Reiner on \"The 2000 Year Old Man\" albumsBrooks and co-writer Reiner had become close friends and began to casually improvise comedy routines when they were not working.",
"In October 1959, for a Random House book launch of Moss Harts autobiography, ''Act One'', at ''Mamma Leone’s'', Mel Tolkin (standing in for Carl Reiner) and Mel Brooks performed, and it was later recalled by Kenneth Tynan.",
"Reiner played the straight-man interviewer and set Brooks up as anything from a Tibetan monk to an astronaut.",
"As Reiner explained: \"In the evening, we'd go to a party and I'd pick a character for him to play.",
"I never told him what it was going to be.\"",
"On one of these occasions, Reiner's suggestion concerned a 2000-year-old man who had witnessed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ (who \"came in the store but never bought anything\"), had been married several hundred times and had \"over forty-two thousand children, and not one comes to visit me\".",
"At first Brooks and Reiner only performed the routine for friends but, by the late 1950s, it gained a reputation in New York City.",
"Kenneth Tynan saw the comedy duo perform at a party in 1959 and wrote that Brooks \"was the most original comic improvisor I had ever seen\".In 1960, Brooks, without his family, moved from New York to Hollywood, returning in 1961.He and Reiner began performing the \"2000 Year Old Man\" act on ''The Steve Allen Show''.",
"Their performances led to the release of the comedy album ''2000 Years with Carl Reiner and Mel Brooks'' that sold over a million copies in 1961.They eventually expanded their routine with two more albums in 1961 and 1962, a revival in 1973, a 1975 animated TV special, and a reunion album in 1998.At one point, when Brooks had financial and career struggles, the record sales from the 2000 Year Old Man were his chief source of income.",
"Brooks adapted the 2000 Year Old Man character to create the 2500-Year-Old Brewmaster for Ballantine Beer in the 1960s.",
"Interviewed by Dick Cavett in a series of ads, the Brewmaster (in a German accent, as opposed to the 2000 Year Old Man's Yiddish accent) said he was inside the original Trojan horse and \"could've used a six-pack of fresh air\".Brooks was involved in the creation of the Broadway musical ''All American'' which debuted on Broadway in 1962.He wrote the play with lyrics by Lee Adams and music by Charles Strouse.",
"It starred Ray Bolger as a southern science professor at a large university who uses the principles of engineering on the college's football team and the team begins to win games.",
"It was directed by Joshua Logan, who script-doctored the second act and added a gay subtext to the plot.",
"It ran for 80 performances and received two Tony Award nominations.",
"The animated short film ''The Critic'' (1963), a satire of arty, esoteric cinema, was conceived by Brooks and directed by Ernest Pintoff.",
"Brooks supplied running commentary as the baffled moviegoer trying to make sense of the obscure visuals.",
"It won the Academy Award for Animated Short Film.Don Adams with the iconic \"Shoe Phone\" in ''Get Smart''With comedy writer Buck Henry, Brooks created a TV comedy show titled ''Get Smart,'' about a bumbling James Bond–inspired spy.",
"Brooks said, \"I was sick of looking at all those nice sensible situation comedies.",
"They were such distortions of life...",
"I wanted to do a crazy, unreal comic-strip kind of thing about something besides a family.",
"No one had ever done a show about an idiot before.",
"I decided to be the first.\"",
"Starring Don Adams as Maxwell Smart, Agent 86, the series ran from 1965 until 1970, although Brooks had little involvement after the first season.",
"It was highly rated for most of its production and won seven Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Comedy Series in 1968 and 1969.During a press conference for ''All American'', a reporter asked, \"What are you going to do next?\"",
"and Brooks replied, \"Springtime for Hitler,\" perhaps riffing on ''Springtime for Henry''.",
"For several years, Brooks toyed with a bizarre and unconventional idea about a musical comedy of Adolf Hitler.",
"He explored the idea as a novel and a play before finally writing a script.",
"He eventually found two producers to fund it, Joseph E. Levine and Sidney Glazier, and made his first feature film, ''The Producers'' (1968).",
"''The Producers'' was so brazen in its satire that major studios would not touch it, nor would many exhibitors.",
"Brooks finally found an independent distributor who released it as an art film, a specialized attraction.",
"At the 41st Academy Awards, Brooks won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for the film over fellow writers Stanley Kubrick and John Cassavetes.",
"''The Producers'' became a smash underground hit, first on the nationwide college circuit, then in revivals and on home video.",
"It premiered to a limited audience in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on November 22, 1967, before achieving a wide release in 1968.Peter Sellers personally championed the film, paying out of pocket to take out full page ads in ''Variety'' and ''The New York Times''.",
"Brooks later adapted it into a musical along with his collaborator Thomas Meehan, which was hugely successful on Broadway and received an unprecedented 12 Tony awards.",
"In 2000, Roger Ebert included ''The Producers'' in his canon of Great Movies, and remembered being in an elevator with Brooks and Anne Bancroft shortly after the movie was released: \"A woman got on the elevator, recognized him and said, 'I have to tell you, Mr. Brooks, that your movie is vulgar.'",
"Brooks smiled benevolently.",
"'Lady', he said, 'it rose below vulgarity.=== 1970–1979: Career stardom ===With the moderate financial success of the film ''The Producers'', Glazier financed Brooks's next film, ''The Twelve Chairs'' (1970).",
"Loosely based on Ilf and Petrov's 1928 Russian novel of the same name about greedy materialism in post-revolutionary Russia, it stars Ron Moody, Frank Langella and Dom DeLuise as three men individually searching for a fortune in diamonds hidden in a set of 12 antique chairs.",
"Brooks makes a cameo appearance as an alcoholic ex-serf who \"yearns for the regular beatings of yesteryear\".",
"The film was shot in Yugoslavia with a budget of $1.5 million.",
"It received poor reviews and was not financially successful.Brooks collaborated with Gene Wilder on several films including ''Young Frankenstein'' and ''Blazing Saddles'' (both 1974)Brooks then wrote an adaptation of Oliver Goldsmith's ''She Stoops to Conquer'', but was unable to sell the idea to any studio and believed that his career was over.",
"In 1972, he met agent David Begelman, who helped him set up a deal with Warner Bros. to hire Brooks (as well as Richard Pryor, Andrew Bergman, Norman Steinberg, and Alan Uger) as a script doctor for an unproduced script called ''Tex-X''.",
"Eventually, Brooks was hired as director for what became ''Blazing Saddles'' (1974), his third film.",
"''Blazing Saddles'' starred Cleavon Little, Gene Wilder, Harvey Korman, Slim Pickens, Madeline Kahn, Alex Karras, and Brooks himself, with cameos by Dom DeLuise and Count Basie.",
"It had music by Brooks and John Morris, and a modest budget of $2.6 million.",
"A satire on the Western film genre, it references older films such as ''Destry Rides Again'' (1939), ''The Treasure of the Sierra Madre'' (1948), ''High Noon'' (1952) and ''Once Upon a Time in the West'' (1968).",
"In a surreal sequence towards the end, it references the extravagant musicals of Busby Berkeley.",
"Despite mixed reviews, ''Blazing Saddles'' was a success with younger audiences.",
"It became the second-highest US grossing film of 1974, grossing $119.5 million in the United States and Canada.",
"It was nominated for three Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Madeline Kahn, Best Film Editing, and Best Music, Original Song.",
"It won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Comedy Written Directly for the Screen; and in 2006 it was deemed \"culturally, historically or aesthetically significant\" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.",
"Brooks has said that the film \"has to do with love more than anything else.",
"I mean when that black guy rides into that Old Western town and even a little old lady says 'Up yours, nigger!",
"', you know that his heart is broken.",
"So it's really the story of that heart being mended.\"",
"Brooks described the film as \"a Jewish western with a black hero.",
"\"When Gene Wilder replaced Gig Young as the Waco Kid, he did so only when Brooks agreed that his next film would be a script that Wilder had been working on: a spoof of the Universal series of ''Frankenstein'' films from several decades earlier.",
"After the filming of ''Blazing Saddles'' was completed, Wilder and Brooks began writing the script for ''Young Frankenstein'' and shot it in the spring of 1974.It starred Wilder, Marty Feldman, Peter Boyle, Teri Garr, Madeline Kahn, Cloris Leachman and Kenneth Mars, with Gene Hackman in a cameo role.",
"Brooks' voice can be heard three times: as the wolf howl when the characters are on their way to the castle; as the voice of Victor Frankenstein, when the characters discover the laboratory; and as the sound of a cat when Gene Wilder accidentally throws a dart out of the window in a scene with Kenneth Mars.",
"Composer John Morris again provided the score, and Universal monsters special effects veteran Kenneth Strickfaden worked on the film.Brooks in ''High Anxiety'' (1977)''Young Frankenstein'' was the third-highest-grossing film domestically of 1974, just behind ''Blazing Saddles'' with a gross of $86 million.",
"It also received two Academy Award nominations for Adapted Screenplay and Best Sound.",
"It received some of the best reviews of Brooks' career.",
"Even notoriously hard-to-please critic Pauline Kael liked it, saying: \"Brooks makes a leap up as a director because, although the comedy doesn't build, he carries the story through ...",
"He even has a satisfying windup, which makes this just about the only comedy of recent years that doesn't collapse.\"",
"In 1975, at the height of his movie career, Brooks tried TV again with ''When Things Were Rotten'', a Robin Hood parody that lasted only 13 episodes.",
"Nearly 20 years later, in response to the 1991 hit film ''Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves'', Brooks mounted another Robin Hood parody, ''Robin Hood: Men in Tights'' (1993).",
"It resurrected several pieces of dialogue from his TV series, and from earlier Brooks films.Brooks followed up his two hit films with an audacious idea: the first feature-length silent comedy in four decades.",
"''Silent Movie'' (1976) was written by Brooks and Ron Clark, and starred Brooks in his first leading role, with Dom DeLuise, Marty Feldman, Sid Caesar, Bernadette Peters, and in cameo roles playing themselves: Paul Newman, Burt Reynolds, James Caan, Liza Minnelli, Anne Bancroft, and the mime Marcel Marceau, who uttered the film's only word of audible dialogue: \"Non!\"",
"It is an homage to silent comedians Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton, among others.",
"It was not as successful as Brooks' previous two films but did gross $36 million.",
"Later that year, he was named fifth on the Top Ten Money Making Stars Poll.",
"Reviews were generally favorable; Roger Ebert praised it as \"not only funny, but fun.",
"It's clear at almost every moment that the filmmakers had a ball making it.\"",
"Regarding the film's inside jokes, Ebert wrote that \"the thing about Brooks's inside jokes is that their outsides are funny, too.",
"\"''High Anxiety'' (1977), Brooks' parody of Freudian psychoanalysis, as well as the films of Alfred Hitchcock, was written by Brooks, Ron Clark, Rudy De Luca, and Barry Levinson, and was the first movie Brooks produced himself.",
"Starring Brooks, Madeline Kahn, Cloris Leachman, Harvey Korman, Ron Carey, Howard Morris, and Dick Van Patten, it satirizes such Hitchcock films as ''Vertigo'', ''Spellbound'', ''Psycho'', ''The Birds'', ''North by Northwest'', ''Dial M for Murder'' and ''Suspicion''.",
"Brooks plays Professor Richard H. (Harpo) Thorndyke, a Nobel Prize-winning psychologist who suffers from \"high anxiety\".=== 1980–2001: Established career ===Brooks in 1984By 1980, Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert had referred to Mel Brooks and Woody Allen as \"the two most successful comedy directors in the world today ... America's two funniest filmmakers\".",
"Released that year was the dramatic film ''The Elephant Man'' directed by David Lynch and produced by Brooks.",
"Knowing that anyone seeing a poster reading \"Mel Brooks presents ''The Elephant Man''\" would expect a comedy, he set up the company Brooksfilms.",
"It has since produced a number of non-comedy films, including ''Frances'' (1982), ''The Fly'' (1986), and ''84 Charing Cross Road'' (1987) starring Anthony Hopkins and Anne Bancroft—as well as comedies, including Richard Benjamin's ''My Favorite Year'' (1982), partially based on Mel Brooks' real life.",
"Brooks sought to purchase the rights to ''84 Charing Cross Road'' for his wife, Anne Bancroft, for many years.",
"He also produced the comedy ''Fatso'' (1980) that Bancroft directed.In 1981, Brooks joked that the only genres that he hadn't spoofed were historical epics and Biblical spectacles.",
"''History of the World Part I'' was a tongue-in-cheek look at human culture from the Dawn of Man to the French Revolution.",
"Written, produced and directed by Brooks, with narration by Orson Welles, it was another modest financial hit, earning $31 million.",
"It received mixed critical reviews.",
"Critic Pauline Kael, who for years had been critical of Brooks, said, \"Either you get stuck thinking about the bad taste or you let yourself laugh at the obscenity in the humor as you do Buñuel's perverse dirty jokes.",
"\"Brooks produced and starred in (but did not write or direct) a remake of Ernst Lubitsch's 1942 film ''To Be or Not to Be''.",
"His 1983 version was directed by Alan Johnson and starred Brooks, Anne Bancroft, Charles Durning, Tim Matheson, Jose Ferrer and Christopher Lloyd.",
"It generated international publicity by featuring a controversial song on its soundtrack—\"To Be or Not to Be (The Hitler Rap)\"—satirizing German society in the 1940s, with Brooks playing Hitler.The second movie Brooks directed in the 1980s was ''Spaceballs'' (1987), a parody of science fiction, mainly ''Star Wars''.",
"It starred Bill Pullman, John Candy, Rick Moranis, Daphne Zuniga, Dick Van Patten, Joan Rivers, Dom DeLuise, and Brooks.In 1989, Brooks (with co-executive producer Alan Spencer) made another attempt at television success with the sitcom ''The Nutt House'', featuring Brooks regulars Harvey Korman and Cloris Leachman.",
"It was originally broadcast on NBC, but the network aired only five of the eleven produced episodes before canceling the series.",
"During the next decade, Brooks directed ''Life Stinks'' (1991), ''Robin Hood: Men in Tights'' (1993), and ''Dracula: Dead and Loving It'' (1995).",
"''People'' magazine wrote, \"Anyone in a mood for a hearty laugh couldn't do better than ''Robin Hood: Men in Tights'', which gave fans a parody of Robin Hood, especially ''Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves''.\"",
"Like Brooks' other films, it is filled with one-liners and the occasional breaking of the fourth wall.",
"''Robin Hood: Men in Tights'' was Brooks' second time exploring the life of Robin Hood (the first, as mentioned above, being his 1975 TV show ''When Things Were Rotten'').",
"''Life Stinks'' was a financial and critical failure, but is notable as the only film Brooks directed that is neither a parody nor a film about other films or theater.",
"(''The Twelve Chairs'' was a parody of the original novel.",
")=== 2001–present ===''The Producers'' at Theatre Royal, Drury LaneBroadwayBrooks' created the musical adaptation of his film ''The Producers'' on the Broadway in 2001.The production starring Nathan Lane and Matthew Broderick received critical acclaim and was a significant box office success.",
"''The New York Times'' theatre critic Ben Brantley praised the production writing, \"Mr. Brooks has taken what could have been overblown camp into a far warmer realm in which affection always outweighs irony.\"",
"The production broke the Tony Award record with 12 wins, a record previously held for 37 years by ''Hello, Dolly!''",
"with 10 wins including the Tony Award for Best Musical.",
"It led to a 2005 big-screen version of the Broadway adaptation/remake with Lane, Broderick, Gary Beach, and Roger Bart reprising their stage roles, and new cast members Uma Thurman and Will Ferrell.",
"In early April 2006, Brooks began composing the score to a Broadway musical adaptation of ''Young Frankenstein'', which he says is \"perhaps the best movie he ever made\".",
"The world premiere was at Seattle's Paramount Theater, between August 7, 2007, and September 1, 2007, after which it opened on Broadway at the former Lyric Theater (then the Hilton Theatre), New York, on October 11, 2007.It earned mixed reviews from the critics.",
"In the 2000s, Brooks worked on an animated series sequel to ''Spaceballs'' called ''Spaceballs: The Animated Series'', which premiered on September 21, 2008, on G4 TV.Brooks has also supplied vocal roles for animation.",
"He voiced Bigweld, the master inventor, in the animated film ''Robots'' (2005), and in the later animated film ''Mr.",
"Peabody & Sherman'' (2014) he had a cameo appearance as Albert Einstein.",
"He returned, to voice Dracula's father, Vlad, in ''Hotel Transylvania 2'' (2015) and ''Hotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation'' (2018).",
"Brooks joked about the concept of a musical adaptation of ''Blazing Saddles'' in the final number in ''Young Frankenstein'', in which the full company sings, \"next year, ''Blazing Saddles''!\"",
"In 2010, Brooks confirmed this, saying that the musical could be finished within a year; however, no creative team or plan has been announced.In 2021, at age 95, Brooks published a memoir titled ''All About Me!''.",
"On October 18, 2021, it was announced that Brooks would write and produce ''History of the World, Part II'', a follow-up TV series on Hulu to his 1981 movie.",
"He received a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Character Voice-Over Performance for his role as the narrator in the series."
],
[
"Acting credits and accolades",
"Brooks at his Hollywood Walk of Fame ceremony in 2010Brooks is one of the few people who have received an Oscar, an Emmy, a Tony, and a Grammy.",
"He won his first Grammy for Best Spoken Comedy Album in 1999 for his recording of ''The 2000 Year Old Man in the Year 2000'' with Carl Reiner.",
"His two other Grammys came in 2002 for Best Musical Show Album for the cast album of ''The Producers'' and for Best Long Form Music Video for the DVD ''Recording the Producers: A Musical Romp with Mel Brooks''.",
"He won his first of four Emmy awards in 1967 for Outstanding Writing Achievement in Variety for a Sid Caesar special, and won Emmys in 1997, 1998, and 1999 for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his role of Uncle Phil on ''Mad About You''.",
"He won his Academy Award for Original Screenplay (Oscar) in 1968 for ''The Producers''.",
"He won his three Tony awards in 2001 for his work on the musical ''The Producers'', for Best Musical, Best Original Musical Score, and Best Book of a Musical.Brooks also won a Hugo Award and Nebula Award for ''Young Frankenstein''.",
"In a 2005 poll by Channel 4 to find ''The Comedian's Comedian'', he was voted No.",
"50 of the top 50 comedy acts ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders.",
"The American Film Institute (AFI) lists three of Brooks' films on its AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs list: ''Blazing Saddles'' (#6), ''The Producers'' (#11), and ''Young Frankenstein'' (#13).On December 5, 2009, Brooks was one of five recipients of the 2009 Kennedy Center Honors at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, DC.",
"He was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame on April 23, 2010, with a motion pictures star located at 6712 Hollywood Boulevard.",
"American Masters produced a biography on Brooks which premiered May 20, 2013, on PBS.",
"The AFI presented Brooks with its highest tribute, the AFI Life Achievement Award, in June 2013.In 2014 Brooks was honored in a handprint and footprint ceremony at TCL Chinese Theatre.",
"His concrete handprints include a six-fingered left hand as he wore a prosthetic finger when making his prints.",
"On March 20, 2015, he received a British Film Institute Fellowship from the British Film Institute."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Brooks with wife Anne Bancroft at the 1991 Cannes Film FestivalMax in 2010=== Marriages ===Brooks met Florence Baum, a dancer in ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes'', on Broadway.",
"They were married from 1953 until their divorce in 1962.They had three children: Stefanie, Nicholas, and Edward.",
"After earning a salary of $5,000 a week on ''Your Show of Shows'' and ''Caesar's Hour'', his salary dropped to $85 a week as a freelance writer.",
"For five years he had few gigs, and was living in Greenwich Village on Perry Street in a fourth-floor walk-up.",
"In 1960, to escape his situation, Brooks moved in with a friend, in Los Angeles.",
"In 1961, after his return to New York, he found that Baum had begun suing him for legal separation.",
"''Marriage Is a Dirty Rotten Fraud'' was an autobiographical script based on his marriage.",
"By 1966, Brooks was \"living in a fairly old but comfortable New York town house\".Brooks married actress Anne Bancroft in 1964, and they remained together for 41 years until her death in 2005.They met at a rehearsal for the ''Perry Como Variety Show'' in 1961, and were married three years later on August 5, 1964, at the Manhattan Marriage Bureau.",
"Their son, Max Brooks, was born in 1972.In 2010, Brooks credited Bancroft as \"the guiding force\" behind his involvement in developing ''The Producers'' and ''Young Frankenstein'' for the musical theater, saying of an early meeting with her: \"From that day, until her death ... we were glued together.\"",
"He has remained single since she died, stating in 2023 that \"Once you are married to Anne Bancroft, others don't seem to be appealing\".",
"According to David DeLuise on ''Wizards of Waverley Pod'', Mel Brooks is his godfather.",
"DeLuise's father Dom DeLuise was a frequent costar of Brooks in his earlier career.=== Interests ===Brooks is a voracious reader; in a profile for ''The New Yorker'', Kenneth Tynan describes \"Brooks the secret connoisseur, worshiper of good writing, and expert on the Russian classics, with special reference to Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoevski, and Tolstoy.\"",
"In ''The Producers'', Bialystock refers to Bloom as \"Prince Myshkin\", a character from Dostoevsky's ''The Idiot''.",
"And the name Leo Bloom is a reference to Leopold Bloom, hero of Joyce's ''Ulysses''.=== Religious beliefs ===Regarding religion, Brooks stated, \"I'm rather secular.",
"I'm basically Jewish.",
"But I think I'm Jewish not because of the Jewish religion at all.",
"I think it's the relationship with the people and the pride I have.",
"The tribe surviving so many misfortunes, and being so brave and contributing so much knowledge to the world and showing courage\".",
"On Jewish cinema, Brooks said, \"They can be anything and anywhere ... if there's a tribal thing, like, the 'please God, protect us' feeling ... we don't know where and how it's gonna come out.",
"''Avatar'' was a Jewish movie ... these people on the run, chasing—and being pursued\".=== Politics ===Brooks endorsed Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election, in his first-ever public endorsement of a political candidate."
],
[
"Discography",
"===Comedy albums===* ''2000 Years with Carl Reiner and Mel Brooks'' (World Pacific Records, 1960)* ''2001 Years with Carl Reiner and Mel Brooks'' (Capitol Records, 1961)* ''Carl Reiner and Mel Brooks at the Cannes Film Festival'' (Capitol Records, 1962)* ''2000 and Thirteen with Carl Reiner and Mel Brooks'' (Warner Bros. Records, 1973)* ''The Incomplete Works of Carl Reiner & Mel Brooks'' (Warner Bros. Records, 1973)* ''Excerpts from The Complete 2000 Year Old Man'' (Rhino Records, 1994)* ''The 2000 Year Old Man in the Year 2000'' (Rhino Records, 1997)===Soundtracks===* ''The Producers'' (RCA Victor, 1968)* ''High Anxiety – Original Soundtrack'' (Asylum Records, 1978)* ''History of the World Part I'' (Warner Bros. Records, 1981)* ''To Be or Not to Be'' (Island Records, 1984)* ''The Producers: Original Broadway Recording'' (Sony Classical, 2001)"
],
[
"References",
"''' Citations '''''' General and cited references '''* Adler, Bill, and Jeffrey Feinman.",
"''Mel Brooks: The Irreverent Funnyman''.",
"Chicago: Playboy Press, 1976..* * Brooks, Mel.",
"''All About Me: My Remarkable Life in Show Business''.",
"New York: Ballantine, 2021.",
"* Crick, Robert A.",
"''The Big Screen Comedies of Mel Brooks''.",
"Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002..",
".",
"* Holtzman, William.",
"''Seesaw, a Dual Biography of Anne Bancroft and Mel Brooks''.",
"Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1979..* McGilligan, Patrick.",
"''Funny Man: Mel Brooks''.",
"Harper, 2019, .",
"* Parish, James Robert (2007).",
"''It's Good to Be the King: The Seriously Funny Life of Mel Brooks''.",
"Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.",
".",
".",
"* Symons, Alex.",
"''Mel Brooks in the Cultural Industries: Survival and Prolonged Adaptation''.",
"Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012..",
".",
"* Yacowar, Maurice.",
"''Method in Madness: The Comic Art of Mel Brooks''.",
"New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981..",
".'''",
"External links '''* * * * * * * Mel Brooks – Box Office Data Movie Director at The Numbers* Mel Brooks – Box Office Data Movie Star at The Numbers* * Mel Brooks at Virtual-History.com (Photographs and Books)* (''2000 Year Old Man'')* ''' Interviews '''* Mel Brooks interview with Studs Terkel on WFMT, July 2, 1968 * Mel Brooks interview on BBC Radio 4's ''Desert Island Discs'', July 4, 1978* Mel Brooks Interview (2001)—Tony Awards* Mel Brooks interview on NPR's ''Fresh Air'' (January 1, 2004)* Mel Brooks interview on NPR's ''Fresh Air'' (December 7, 2021)* Biographer James Robert Parish interview (2007)—''Alt Film Guide''"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mycoplasma genitalium"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Mycoplasma genitalium''''' (also known as '''''MG''''''','' '''Mgen''', or since 2018, '''''Mycoplasmoides genitalium''''') is a sexually transmitted, small and pathogenic bacterium that lives on the mucous epithelial cells of the urinary and genital tracts in humans.",
"Medical reports published in 2007 and 2015 state that Mgen is becoming increasingly common.",
"Resistance to multiple antibiotics, including the macrolide azithromycin, which until recently was the most reliable treatment, is becoming prevalent.",
"The bacteria was first isolated from the urogenital tract of humans in 1981, and was eventually identified as a new species of ''Mycoplasma'' in 1983.It can cause negative health effects in men and women.",
"It also increases the risk factor for HIV spread with higher occurrences in those previously treated with the azithromycin antibiotics."
],
[
"Symptoms of infection",
"Mgen is a bacterium recognized for causing urethritis in both men and women along with cervicitis and pelvic inflammation in women.",
"It presents clinically similar symptoms to that of ''Chlamydia trachomatis'' infection and has shown higher incidence rates, compared to both ''Chlamydia trachomatis'' and ''Neisseria gonorrhoeae'' infections in some populations.",
"Infection with Mgen can be symptomatic or asymptomatic.",
"Both men and women may experience inflammation in the urethra (urethritis), characterized by mucopurulent discharge in the urinary tract, and burning while urinating.",
"In women, it causes cervicitis and pelvic inflammatory diseases (PID), including endometritis and salpingitis.",
"Women may also experience bleeding after sex and it is also linked with tubal factor infertility.",
"For men, the most common signs are painful urination or a watery discharge from the penis.There is a consistent association of ''M.",
"genitalium'' infection and female reproductive tract syndromes.",
"''M.",
"genitalium'' infection was significantly associated with increased risk of preterm birth, spontaneous abortion, cervicitis, and pelvic inflammatory disease.",
"In addition, this pathogen may latently infect the chorionic villi tissues of pregnant women, thereby impacting pregnancy outcome.",
"Infertility risk is also strongly associated with infection with ''M.",
"genitalium'', although evidence suggests it is not associated with male infertility.",
"When ''M.",
"genitalium'' is a co-infectious agent risk associations are stronger and statistically significant.Polymerase chain reaction analyses indicated that it is a cause of acute non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU) and probably chronic NGU.",
"It is strongly associated with persistent and recurring non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU) responsible for 15 percent to 20 percent of symptomatic NGU cases in men.",
"Unlike other mycoplasmas, the infection is not associated with bacterial vaginosis.",
"It is highly associated with the intensity of HIV infection.",
"Some scientists are performing research to determine if Mgen could play a role in the development of prostate and ovarian cancers and lymphomas in some individuals.",
"These studies have yet to find conclusive evidence to suggest a link."
],
[
"Genome",
"Gene map of ''Mycoplasma genitalium''.",
"Circularly arranged coloured bands are the protein-coding genes and other loci in their position in the DNA.",
"The genome has 580,070 base pairs (580 kb).3D model of the Mycoplasma genitalium cell obtained with CellPACKgpu.",
"The horizontal clipping plane shows the cytoplasmic environment on top and the membrane with associated proteins in the bottom.",
"An additional clipping plane carves out a cubic section of the model, magnified on the right.",
"Proteins colored by biological function.The genome of ''M.",
"genitalium'' strain G37T consists in one circular DNA of 580,070 base pairs.",
"Scott N. Peterson and his team at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill reported the first genetic map using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis in 1991.They performed an initial study of the genome using random sequencing in 1993, by which they found 100,993 nucleotides and 390 protein-coding genes.",
"Collaborating with researchers at The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR; now the J. Craig Venter Institute), which included Craig Venter, they made the complete genome sequence in 1995 using shotgun sequencing.",
"Only 470 predicted coding regions were identified in 1995, including genes required for DNA replication, transcription and translation, DNA repair, cellular transport, and energy metabolism.",
"It was the second complete bacterial genome ever sequenced, after ''Haemophilus influenzae''.",
"Later data from KEGG reports 476 protein-coding genes and 43 RNA genes, totaling 519.It is unclear where the \"525\" gene count for the G37T stems from and what gene calling procedure was used.In 2006, the team at the J. Craig Venter Institute reported that only 382 genes are essential for biological functions.",
"The small genome of ''M.",
"genitalium'' made it the organism of choice in The Minimal Genome Project, a study to find the smallest set of genetic material necessary to sustain life.There is limited divergence among clinical strains of ''M.",
"genitalium''.",
"All strains retain the small genome size."
],
[
"Diagnosis",
"Recent research shows that prevalence of Mgen is currently higher than other commonly occurring sexually transmitted infections (STIs).",
"Mgen is a fastidious organism with prolonged growth durations.",
"This makes detection of the pathogen in clinical specimens and subsequent isolation extremely difficult.",
"Lacking a cell wall, Mycoplasma remains unaffected by commonly used antibiotics.",
"The absence of specific serological assays leaves nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT) as the only viable option for detection of Mgen DNA or RNA.",
"However, samples with positive NAAT for the pathogen should be tested for macrolide resistance mutations, which are strongly correlated to azithromycin treatment failures, owing to rapid rates of mutation of the pathogen.",
"Mutations in the 23S rRNA gene of Mgen have been linked with clinical treatment failure and high level in vitro macrolide resistance.",
"Macrolide resistance mediating mutations have been observed in 20-50% of cases in the UK, Denmark, Sweden, Australia, and Japan.",
"Resistance is also developing towards the second-line antimicrobials like fluoroquinolone.According to the European guidelines, the indication for commencement of diagnosis for Mgen infection are:# Detection of nucleic acid (DNA and/or RNA) specific for Mgen in a clinical specimen# Current partners of individuals who tested positive for Mgen should be treated with the same antimicrobial as the index patient# If current partner does not attend for evaluation and testing, treatment with the same regimen as given to the index patient should be offered on epidemiological grounds# On epidemiological grounds for sexual contacts in the previous 3 months; ideally, specimens for a Mgen NAAT should be collected before treatment and treatment should not be given before the result are availableScreening for Mgen with a combination of detection and macrolide resistance mutations will provide the adequate information required to develop personalised antimicrobial treatments, in order to optimise patient management and control the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR).===Detection of resistance===Owing to the widespread macrolide resistance, samples that are positive for Mgen should ideally be followed up with an assay capable of detecting mutations that mediate antimicrobial resistance.",
"The European Guideline on Mgen infections, in 2016, recommended complementing the molecular detection of Mgen with an assay capable of detecting macrolide resistance-associated mutations."
],
[
"Treatment",
"The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends a step-wise treatment approach for ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' with doxycycline for 7 days followed immediately by a 7-day course of moxifloxacin as the preferred therapy due to high rates of macrolide resistance.",
"If resistance assay testing is available, and the Mgen is sensitive to macrolides, the CDC recommends a 7-day course of doxycycline followed by a 4-day course of azithromycin.",
"Although the majority of ''M.",
"genitalium'' strains are sensitive to moxifloxacin, resistance has been reported, and potential for serious, adverse side effects should be considered with this regimen.",
"Floroquinolones, including Moxifloxacin, have been associated with disabling and potentially irreversible serious adverse reactions that have occurred together including:* Tendinitis and tendon rupture* Peripheral Neuropathy* Central nervous system effectsand other serious side effects detailed in the FDA black box warning.",
"Moxifloxacin/Avelox should be reserved for use when patients have no other treatment options.",
"In settings without access to resistance testing, or if Moxifloxacin cannot be used, the CDC recommends as an alternative regimen: 7 days of doxycycline followed by the 4-day course of azithromycin, with a test of cure 21 days after treatment being required due to the high rate of macrolide resistance.",
"Beta lactam antibiotics are not effective against Mgen as the organism lacks a cell wall.In the UK the British Association for Sexual Health and HIV (BASHH) guidelines for treatment are:* Doxycycline 100mg twice a day for seven days followed by azithromycin 1 gram orally as a single dose then 500mg orally once daily for 2 days where organism is known to be macrolide-sensitive or where resistance status is unknown.",
"* Moxifloxacin 400mg orally once daily for 10 days if organism known to be macrolide-resistant or where treatment with azithromycin has failed.Treatment of ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' infections is becoming increasingly difficult due to rapidly growing antimicrobial resistance.",
"Diagnosis and treatment is further hampered by the fact that ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' infections are not routinely tested.",
"Studies have demonstrated that a 5-day course of azithromycin has a superior cure rate compared to a single, larger dose.",
"Further, a single dose of azithromycin can lead to the bacteria becoming resistant to azithromycin.",
"Among Swedish patients, doxycycline was shown to be relatively ineffective (with a cure rate of 48% for women and 38% for men); and treatment with a single dose of azithromycin is not prescribed due to it inducing antimicrobial resistance.",
"The five-day treatment with azithromycin showed no development of antimicrobial resistance.",
"Based on these findings, UK doctors are moving to the 5-day azithromycin regimen.",
"Doxycycline is also still used, and moxifloxacin is used as a second-line treatment in case doxycyline and azithromycin are not able to eradicate the infection.In patients where doxycycline, azithromycin and moxifloxacin all failed, pristinamycin has been shown to still be able to eradicate the infection."
],
[
"History",
"''Mycoplasma genitalium'' was originally isolated in 1980 from urethral specimens of two male patients with non-gonococcal urethritis in the genitourinary medicine (GUM) clinic at St Mary's Hospital, Paddington, London.",
"It was reported in 1981 by a team led by Joseph G. Tully.",
"Under electron microscopy, it appears as a flask-shaped cell with a narrow terminal portion that is crucial for its attachment to the host cell surfaces.",
"The bacterial cell is slightly elongated somewhat like a vase, and measures 0.6–0.7 μm in length, 0.3–0.4 μm at the broadest region, and 0.06–0.08 μm at the tip.",
"The base is broad while the tip is stretched into a narrow neck, which terminates with a cap.",
"The terminal region has a specialised region called nap, which is absent in other mycoplasmas.",
"Serological tests indicated that the bacterium was not related to known species of ''Mycoplasma''.",
"The comparison of genome sequences with other urinogenital bacteria, such as ''M.",
"hominis'' and ''Ureaplasma parvum'', revealed that ''M.",
"genitalium'' is significantly different, especially in the energy-generating pathways, although it shared a core genome of ~250 protein-encoding genes.In 2018, Gupta et al.",
"proposed to change the name of ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' to ''Mycoplasmoides genitalium'' on phylogenetic grounds, reflecting the existing knowledge that ''M.",
"genitalium'' is not very related to other ''Mycoplasma''.",
"The change became correct name under the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes (ICNP, \"Code\") with Validation List 184, published by the ICSP (\"Committee\").",
"Mycoplasmaologists working in the field generally oppose this renaming.",
"In 2019, they published an opinion paper arguing that even though the phylogenetic methods are valid, Gupta's renaming scheme causes too many changes, which is impractical and confusing.",
"They cite some essential principles of the Code, such as \"no unnecessary new names\", \"aim at stability of names\", and \"avoid or reject the use of names which may cause error or confusion\".",
"However, the 2019 argument for preserving old names was rejected by the Committee in Opinion 122 of 2022, where it was ruled that the argument incorrectly cited the Code.",
"The Opinion emphasizes that use of an older validly published name remains acceptable under the Code."
],
[
"Synthetic genome",
"On 6 October 2007, Craig Venter announced that a team of scientists led by Nobel laureate Hamilton Smith at the J. Craig Venter Institute had successfully constructed synthetic DNA with which they planned to make the first synthetic genome.",
"Reporting in ''The Guardian'', Venter said that they had stitched together a DNA strand containing 381 genes, consisting of 580,000 base pairs, based on the genome of ''M.",
"genitalium''.",
"On 24 January 2008, they announced the successful creation of a synthetic bacterium, which they named ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' JCVI-1.0 (the name of the strain indicating J. Craig Venter Institute with its specimen number).",
"They synthesised and assembled the complete 582,970-base pair genome of the bacterium.",
"The final stages of synthesis involved cloning the DNA into the bacterium ''E.",
"coli'' for nucleotide production and sequencing.",
"This produced large fragments of approximately 144,000 base pairs or 1/4th of the whole genome.",
"Finally, the products were cloned inside the yeast ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' to synthesize the 580,000 base pairs.",
"The molecular size of the synthetic bacterial genome is 360,110 kilodaltons (kDa).",
"Printed in 10-point font, the letters of the genome cover 147 pages.On 20 July 2012, Stanford University and the J. Craig Venter Institute announced successful simulation of the complete life cycle of a ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' cell, in the journal ''Cell''.",
"The entire organism is modeled in terms of its molecular components, integrating all cellular processes into a single model.",
"Using object oriented programming to model the interactions of 28 categories of molecules, including DNA, RNA, proteins, and metabolites, and running on a 128 computer Linux cluster, the simulation takes 10 hours for a single ''M.",
"genitalium'' cell to divide once—about the same time the actual cell takes—and generates half a gigabyte of data."
],
[
"Research",
"The discovery of Protein M, a new protein from ''M.",
"genitalium'', was announced in February 2014.The protein was identified during investigations on the origin of multiple myeloma, a B-cell hematologic neoplasm.",
"To understand the long-term ''Mycoplasma'' infection, it was found that antibodies from multiple myeloma patients' blood were recognised by ''M.",
"genitalium''.",
"The antibody reactivity was due to a protein never known before, and is chemically responsive to all types of human and nonhuman antibodies available.",
"The protein is about 50 kDa in size, and composed of 556 amino acids.",
"Mgen evolved from a gram-positive ancestor that was clostridium-like but has lost the genes to code for the enzymes involved in de novo nucleic acid synthesis, amino acid synthesis, and synthesis of fatty acids.",
"This means that Mgen needs the host's growth factors to keep reproducing.",
"Although Mgen has abilities that help it adhere to cells, it is still unknown how the bacteria can maintain an infection inside the epithelial cells of the ectocervix and vagina when shedding of the apical layer of cells occur.",
"The organism's ability to have adhesion to host cells relies of two proteins, P110 and P140.Adhesion is an important step in beginning an infection in a cell and Mgen can adhere to spermatozoa, erythrocytes, and epithelial cells.",
"The terminal organelle relies on these proteins as well because without them the organelle was not present.",
"The segmented pair plates of Mgen is a core of dense electrons which is anchored to the cell membrane.",
"The end of this core is in contact with the wheel complex and the wheel complex contains the proteins MG219, MG200, MG386, and MG491 which aid in the gliding motility of the bacteria.",
"Although Mgen lacks secreted virulence factors, the protein MG186 degrades host nucleic acids due to it being a calcium-dependent membrane-associated nuclease."
],
[
"See also",
"* Smallest organisms"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' Reference Work at the UK Health Protection Agency* Type strain of ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' at Bac''Dive'' - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mehmet Ali Ağca"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Mehmet Ali Ağca''' (; born 9 January 1958) is a Turkish assassin who murdered left-wing journalist Abdi İpekçi on 1 February 1979 and later shot and wounded Pope John Paul II on 13 May 1981, after escaping from a Turkish prison.After being imprisoned for 19 years in Italy where he was visited by the Pope, he was deported to Turkey, where he served a ten-year sentence.",
"Ağca was released from prison on 18 January 2010.He described himself as a mercenary with no political orientation, although he is known to have been a member of the fascist, Turkish ultra-nationalist Grey Wolves, as well as the state-sponsored Counter-Guerrilla.Thirty-three years after his crime, Ağca visited Vatican City to lay white roses on the tomb of the recently canonized John Paul II, and said he wanted to meet Pope Francis, a request that was denied."
],
[
"Early life",
"Ağca was born in the Hekimhan district, Malatya Province in Turkey.",
"As a youth, he became a petty criminal and a member of numerous street gangs in his hometown.",
"He became a smuggler between Turkey and Bulgaria.",
"He claims to have received two months of training in weaponry and terrorist tactics in Syria as a member of the Marxist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) paid for by the Communist Bulgarian government, although the PFLP has denied this."
],
[
"Grey Wolves involvement",
"After training, Ağca went to work for the ultranationalist Turkish organization Grey Wolves.",
"On 1 February 1979, in Istanbul, under orders from the Grey Wolves, he murdered Abdi İpekçi, editor of the major Turkish newspaper ''Milliyet''.",
"After being denounced by an informant, he was caught and sentenced to life in prison.",
"After serving six months, he escaped with the help of Abdullah Çatlı, second-in-command of the Grey Wolves, and fled to Bulgaria, which was a base of operations for the Turkish mafia.",
"According to investigative journalist Lucy Komisar, Ağca had worked on the 1979 assassination with Çatlı, who then reportedly helped organize Ağca's escape from an Istanbul military prison.",
"According to Komisar, some have suggested Çatlı was even involved in the Pope's assassination attempt.",
"According to Reuters, Ağca had escaped with suspected help from sympathizers in the security services.",
"Komisar added that at the scene of the Mercedes-Benz crash where Çatlı died, he was found with a passport under the name of \"Mehmet Özbay\" — an alias also used by Ağca."
],
[
"Attempted assassination of the Pope",
"The Fiat ''Popemobile'' in which Pope John Paul II was the subject of an assassination attempt.",
"This vehicle is now in the \"Carriage museum\" in Vatican City.In 1979 ''The New York Times'' reported that Ağca, whom it called \"the self-confessed killer of an Istanbul newspaperman\", had described the Pope as \"the masked leader of the Crusades\" and threatened to shoot him if he did not cancel his planned visit to Turkey, which went ahead in late November 1979.The paper also said (on 28 November 1979) that the killing would be in revenge for the then still ongoing attack on the Grand Mosque in Mecca, which had begun on 20 November, and which he blamed on the United States or Israel.Beginning in August 1980, Ağca began criss-crossing the Mediterranean region.",
"According to his later testimony, he met with three accomplices in Rome, one a fellow Turk and the other two Bulgarians.",
"The operation was commanded by Zilo Vassilev, the Bulgarian military attaché in Italy.",
"He said that he was assigned this mission by Turkish mafioso Bekir Çelenk in Bulgaria.",
"''Le Monde diplomatique'', however, has alleged that the assassination attempt was organized by Abdullah Çatlı \"in exchange for the sum of 3 million marks\", paid by Bekir Çelenk to the Grey Wolves.According to Ağca, the plan was for him and the back-up gunman Oral Çelik to open fire in St. Peter's Square and escape to the Bulgarian embassy under the cover of the panic generated by a small explosion.",
"On 13 May they sat in the Square, writing postcards and waiting for the Pope to arrive.",
"When the Pope passed them, Ağca fired several shots and wounded him, but was grabbed by spectators and Vatican security chief Camillo Cibin.",
"This prevented him from finishing the assassination or escaping.",
"Four bullets hit John Paul II, two of them lodging in his lower intestine, the others hitting his left hand and right arm .",
"Two bystanders were also hit.",
"Çelik panicked and fled without setting off his bomb or opening fire.",
"The Pope survived the assassination attempt."
],
[
"Prison time, release, and rearrest",
"Ağca was sentenced in July 1981 to life imprisonment in Italy for the assassination attempt.",
"Following his shooting, Pope John Paul II asked people to \"pray for my brother (Ağca), whom I have sincerely forgiven.\"",
"In 1983, the Pope and Ağca met and spoke privately at the prison where Ağca was being held.",
"The Pope was also in touch with Ağca's family over the years, meeting his mother in 1987 and his brother a decade later.Ağca's release was requested in the summer of 1983 by the alleged kidnappers of Emanuela Orlandi, a young Vatican girl daughter of a Vatican employee, who mysteriously disappeared in Rome in June of that year.",
"On 9 June 1997, Air Malta Flight 830 was hijacked by two men.",
"After landing in Cologne, the hijackers demanded the release of Ağca.",
"He was not released and the hijackers surrendered.",
"After serving almost 20 years of a life sentence in prison in Italy, at the request of Pope John Paul II, Ağca was pardoned by the then Italian president Carlo Azeglio Ciampi in June 2000 and deported to Turkey.Following his extradition, he was imprisoned for the 1979 murder of Abdi İpekçi and for two bank raids carried out in the 1970s.",
"Ağca was arrested on 25 June and incarcerated in the Maltepe Military Prison.",
"He fled to Bulgaria on 25 November and was sentenced to death ''in absentia''.",
"Ağca was extradited to Turkey in 2000 by benefiting from the Conditional Amnesty Law.",
"This consideration granted to Ağca elicited strong reactions.",
"Both cases were merged and tried before the Kadıköy 1st High Criminal Court.",
"The single trial concerned the hijacking of Cengiz Aydos's taxi in 1979, robbing the Yıldırım jewelry store in Kızıltoprak on 22 March 1979 and stealing money from the Fruko soda storage on 4 April 1979.On 18 January 2000, the judges dismissed the charges because of the statute of limitations on the case filed for the jewelry store robbery and for \"breach of the Firearms Act\" (law no.",
"6136).",
"For embezzlement and money theft Ağca was sentenced to 36 years of imprisonment.",
"Ağca's lawyers applied for his release under Law no.",
"4516 on Parole and Deferral of Penalties in December 2000.Their request was denied by the 1st High Criminal Court of Kartal.",
"The lawyers filed an appeal against this decision, but the appeals court upheld the ruling.",
"Ağca's life sentence was reduced to 10 years under a Turkish law that shortened prison sentences if served in a foreign prison.",
"The money-laundering conviction and 36-year sentence were overturned because of the statute of limitations for robbery, which was 7 years under Turkish law.In early February 2005, during the Pope's final illness, Ağca sent a letter to the Pope wishing him well and also warning him that the world would end soon.",
"When the Pope died on 2 April 2005, Ağca's brother Adnan gave an interview in which he said that Ağca and his entire family were grieving, and that the Pope had been a great friend to them.Ağca was released on parole on 12 January 2006.Mustafa Demirbağ, his lawyer, explained his release as a combination of amnesty and penal reform: an amnesty in 2000 deducted 10 years from his time, the court then deducted his 20 years in the Italian prison based on a new article in the penal code, and so he became eligible for parole for good behavior.",
"However, a report from the French AFP news agency stated that \"The Turkish judicial authorities still haven't explained exactly which legal resources he had access to\", and former Minister of Justice Hikmet Sami Türk, in government at the time of Ağca's extradition, claimed that, from a legal viewpoint, his release was a \"serious mistake\" at best, and that he should have not been freed before 2012.However, on 20 January 2006, the Turkish Supreme Court ruled that his time served in Italy could not be deducted from his Turkish sentence and he was again imprisoned."
],
[
"Later developments and release",
"On 2 May 2008, Ağca asked to be awarded Polish citizenship as he wished to spend the final years of his life in Poland, Pope John Paul II's country of birth.",
"Ağca stated that upon his release he wanted to visit Pope John Paul II's tomb and partner with Dan Brown on writing a book.Ağca was released from jail on 18 January 2010.He was transferred to a military hospital in order to assess if, at 52, he was still fit for compulsory military service.",
"The military found him unfit for military service for having \"antisocial personality disorder\".",
"In a statement, he announced: \"I will meet you in the next three days.",
"In the name of God Almighty, I proclaim the end of the world in this century.",
"All the world will be destroyed, every human being will die.",
"I am not God, I am not son of God, I am Christ eternal.",
"\"Ağca visited the tomb of John Paul II on 27 December 2014.He manifested a desire to become a Catholic priest in 2016 and go to Fátima, Portugal to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the Marian apparitions there (Our Lady of Fátima)."
],
[
"{{anchor|Claims of external involvement in the assassination attempt}}Claims of external involvement in the assassination attempt",
"In November 2010, Ağca accused Cardinal Agostino Casaroli of being the mastermind behind the assassination attempt on John Paul II.",
"It has also been alleged that the Soviet Union's KGB ordered the assassination, because of John Paul II's support for the Solidarity labor movement in Poland.",
"Ağca stated this during one of his interrogations before trial.When Ağca published his memoirs in 2013, his story changed completely, writing that the Iranian government and Ayatollah Khomeini ordered the assassination attempt on John Paul II.",
"According to this new version of the events, Ağca received instructions and training in weapons and explosives in Iran, from Mohsen Rezai, under the orders of Ayatollah Jaffar Subhani and Ayatollah Khomeini.",
"In his book, Ağca acknowledges that he lied previously about the Bulgarian and Soviet connection.",
"He stayed in Sofia for about a month, but was not in contact with any Bulgarian or other intelligence officers.",
"In transit from Turkey to Western Europe, he was delayed in Sofia because his fake Indian passport was of such poor quality that on several occasions he had to bribe officials who became suspicious.",
"So, he waited to receive a much better-quality Turkish passport from the Grey Wolves: a genuine passport issued by the Turkish government to another person, Faruk Faruk Özgün, only the photo of Özgün was replaced by a photo of Ağca.When Pope John Paul II visited him in prison in Italy, on 27 December 1983 (two and a half years after the assassination attempt), Ağca recalls in his memoirs he kissed the hand of the Pope, having kissed three years earlier the hand of Khomeini in Iran, and when asked, he told John Paul II that Ruhollah Khomeini ordered the assassination.",
"The claim was subsequently dismissed by the Vatican as a lie."
],
[
"Cultural references",
"Ağca's shooting of the Pope and possible KGB involvement is featured in Tom Clancy's 2002 novel ''Red Rabbit'' and Frederick Forsyth's novel ''The Fourth Protocol''.",
"He has also been mentioned in the book ''The Third Revelation'' by Ralph McInerny, and was portrayed by actors Christopher Bucholz in the RAI production ''Attentato al papa'', Sebastian Knapp in the ABC TV biopic movie ''Have No Fear: The Life of Pope John Paul II'', Massimiliano Ubaldi in CBS's TV miniseries ''Pope John Paul II'' (both 2005) and Alkis Zanis in the 2006 Canadian TV sequel ''Karol: The Pope, The Man''."
],
[
"See also",
"*Bojinka plot, foiled terrorist attack that involved an assassination attempt against Pope John Paul II in 1995 during the World Youth Day celebrations in Manila*Juan María Fernández y Krohn, a former Roman Catholic priest who tried to stab Pope John Paul II in 1982*Rabia Kazan, who interviewed Ali Ağca when he was in prison"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Timeline"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"March 17"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Events",
"===Pre-1600===*45 BC – In his last victory, Julius Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Pompey the Younger in the Battle of Munda.",
"* 180 – Commodus becomes sole emperor of the Roman Empire at the age of eighteen, following the death of his father, Marcus Aurelius.",
"* 455 – Petronius Maximus becomes, with support of the Roman Senate, emperor of the Western Roman Empire; he forces Licinia Eudoxia, the widow of his predecessor, Valentinian III, to marry him.",
"*1337 – Edward, the Black Prince is made Duke of Cornwall, the first Duchy in England.",
"*1400 – Turko-Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus.===1601–1900===*1776 – American Revolution: The British Army evacuates Boston, ending the Siege of Boston, after George Washington and Henry Knox place artillery in positions overlooking the city.",
"*1805 – The Italian Republic, with Napoleon as president, becomes the Kingdom of Italy, with Napoleon as King of Italy.",
"*1824 – The Anglo-Dutch Treaty is signed in London, dividing the Malay archipelago.",
"As a result, the Malay Peninsula is dominated by the British, while Sumatra and Java and surrounding areas are dominated by the Dutch.",
"*1842 – The Female Relief Society of Nauvoo is formally organized with Emma Smith as president.",
"*1860 – The First Taranaki War begins in Taranaki, New Zealand, a major phase of the New Zealand Wars.",
"*1861 – The Kingdom of Italy is proclaimed.",
"*1862 – The first railway line of Finland between cities of Helsinki and Hämeenlinna, called ''Päärata'', is officially opened.",
"*1891 – collides with in the Bay of Gibraltar and sinks, killing 562 of the 880 passengers on board.===1901–present===*1921 – The Second Polish Republic adopts the March Constitution.",
"*1942 – Holocaust: The first Jews from the Lvov Ghetto are gassed at the Belzec death camp in what is today eastern Poland.",
"*1945 – The Ludendorff Bridge in Remagen, Germany, collapses, ten days after its capture.",
"*1948 – Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom sign the Treaty of Brussels, a precursor to the North Atlantic Treaty establishing NATO.",
"*1950 – Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley announce the creation of element 98, which they name \"californium\".",
"*1957 – A plane crash in Cebu, Philippines kills Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay and 24 others.",
"*1958 – The United States launches the first solar-powered satellite, which is also the first satellite to achieve a long-term orbit.",
"*1960 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs the National Security Council directive on the anti-Cuban covert action program that will ultimately lead to the Bay of Pigs Invasion.",
"*1960 – Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 710 crashes in Tobin Township, Perry County, Indiana, killing 63.",
"*1963 – Mount Agung erupts on Bali killing more than 1,100 people.",
"*1966 – Off the coast of Spain in the Mediterranean, the submarine finds a missing American hydrogen bomb.",
"*1968 – As a result of nerve gas testing by the U.S. Army Chemical Corps in Skull Valley, Utah, over 6,000 sheep are found dead.",
"*1969 – Golda Meir becomes the first female Prime Minister of Israel.",
"*1973 – The Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph ''Burst of Joy'' is taken, depicting a former prisoner of war being reunited with his family, which came to symbolize the end of United States involvement in the Vietnam War.",
"*1979 – The Penmanshiel Tunnel collapses during engineering works, killing two workers.",
"*1985 – Serial killer Richard Ramirez, aka the \"Night Stalker\", commits the first two murders in his Los Angeles murder spree.",
"*1988 – A Colombian Boeing 727 jetliner, Avianca Flight 410, crashes into a mountainside near the Venezuelan border killing 143.",
"* 1988 – Eritrean War of Independence: The Nadew Command, an Ethiopian army corps in Eritrea, is attacked on three sides by military units of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front in the opening action of the Battle of Afabet.",
"*1992 – Israeli Embassy attack in Buenos Aires: Car bomb attack kills 29 and injures 242.",
"* 1992 – A referendum to end apartheid in South Africa is passed 68.7% to 31.2%.",
"*2000 – Five hundred and thirty members of the Ugandan cult Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God die in a fire, considered to be a mass murder or suicide orchestrated by leaders of the cult.",
"Elsewhere another 248 members are later found dead.",
"*2003 – Leader of the House of Commons and Lord President of the Council, Robin Cook, resigns from the British Cabinet in disagreement with government plans for the 2003 invasion of Iraq.",
"*2004 – Unrest in Kosovo: More than 22 are killed and 200 wounded.",
"Thirty-five Serbian Orthodox shrines in Kosovo and two mosques in Serbia are destroyed.",
"*2016 – Rojava conflict: At a conference in Rmelan, the Movement for a Democratic Society declares the establishment of the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria."
],
[
"Births",
"===Pre-1600===* 763 – Harun al-Rashid, Abbasid caliph (d. 809)*1231 – Emperor Shijō of Japan (d. 1242)*1473 – James IV of Scotland (d. 1513)*1523 – Giovanni Francesco Commendone, Catholic cardinal (d. 1584)*1537 – Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Japanese daimyō (d. 1598)===1601–1900===*1611 – Robert Douglas, Count of Skenninge, Swedish field marshal (d. 1662)*1665 – Élisabeth Jacquet de La Guerre, French harpsichord player and composer (d. 1729)*1676 – Thomas Boston, Scottish philosopher and theologian (d. 1732)*1686 – Jean-Baptiste Oudry, French painter and engraver (d. 1755)*1725 – Lachlan McIntosh, Scottish-American general and politician (d. 1806)*1777 – Patrick Brontë, Irish-English priest and author (d. 1861)* 1777 – Roger B. Taney, American politician and jurist, 5th Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1864)*1780 – Thomas Chalmers, Scottish minister, economist, and educator (d. 1847)*1781 – Ebenezer Elliott, English poet and educator (d. 1849)*1804 – Jim Bridger, American fur trader and explorer (d. 1881)*1806 – Norbert Rillieux, African American inventor and chemical engineer (d. 1894)*1820 – Jean Ingelow, English poet and author (d. 1897)*1834 – Gottlieb Daimler, German engineer and businessman, co-founded Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (d. 1900)*1839 – Josef Rheinberger, Liechtensteiner-German organist and composer (d. 1901)*1842 – Rosina Heikel, Finnish physician (d. 1929)*1846 – Kate Greenaway, English author and illustrator (d. 1901)*1849 – Charles F. Brush, American businessman and philanthropist, co-invented the Arc lamp (d. 1929)* 1849 – Cornelia Clapp, American marine biologist (d. 1934)*1856 – Mikhail Vrubel, Russian painter (d. 1910)*1862 – Martha P. Falconer, American social reformer (d. 1941)*1862 – Silvio Gesell, Belgian merchant and economist (d. 1930)*1864 – Joseph Baptista, Indian engineer, lawyer, and politician (d. 1930)*1866 – Pierce Butler, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1939)*1867 – Patrice Contamine de Latour, Spanish poet (d. 1926)*1877 – Edith New, English militant suffragette (d. 1951)* 1877 – Otto Gross, Austrian-German psychoanalyst and philosopher (d. 1920)* 1877 – Ville Kiviniemi, Finnish politician (d. 1951)*1880 – Patrick Hastings, English lawyer and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales (d. 1952)* 1880 – Lawrence Oates, English lieutenant and explorer (d. 1912)*1881 – Walter Rudolf Hess, Swiss physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973)*1884 – Alcide Nunez, American clarinet player (d. 1934)*1885 – Ralph Rose, American track and field athlete (d. 1913)*1886 – Princess Patricia of Connaught (d. 1974)*1888 – Paul Ramadier, French lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1961)*1889 – Harry Clarke, Irish stained-glass artist and book illustrator (d. 1931)*1891 – Ross McLarty, Australian politician, 17th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1962)*1892 – Floyd B. Barnum, American college football coach (d. 1965)* 1892 – Sayed Darwish, Egyptian singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1923)*1894 – Paul Green, American playwright and academic (d. 1981)*1895 – Lloyd Rees, Australian painter (d. 1988)*1900 – Alfred Newman, American composer and conductor (d. 1970)===1901–present===*1902 – Bobby Jones, American golfer and lawyer (d. 1971)*1903 – Elli Stenberg, Finnish politician (d. 1987)*1904 – Chaim Gross, Austrian-American sculptor and educator (d. 1991)*1905 – Lillian Yarbo, American comedienne, dancer, and singer (d. 1996)*1908 – Brigitte Helm, German-Swiss actress (d. 1996)*1907 – Jean Van Houtte, Belgian academic and politician, 50th Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 1991)* 1907 – Takeo Miki, Japanese politician, 41st Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1988)*1910 – Sonny Werblin, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1991)*1912 – Bayard Rustin, American activist (d. 1987)*1914 – Sammy Baugh, American football player and coach (d. 2008)*1915 – Robert S. Arbib Jr., American ornithologist, writer and conservationist (d. 1987) * 1915 – Bill Roycroft, Australian equestrian rider (d. 2011)*1916 – Ray Ellington, English drummer and bandleader (d. 1985)*1919 – Nat King Cole, American singer, pianist, and television host (d. 1965)*1920 – Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Bangladeshi politician, 1st President of Bangladesh (d. 1975)*1921 – Meir Amit, Israeli general and politician, 12th Israeli Minister of Communications (d. 2009)*1922 – Patrick Suppes, American psychologist and philosopher (d. 2014)*1924 – Stephen Dodgson, English composer and educator (d. 2013)*1925 – Gabriele Ferzetti, Italian actor (d. 2015)*1926 – Siegfried Lenz, Polish-German author and playwright (d. 2014)*1927 – Betty Allen, American soprano and educator (d. 2009)*1928 – William John McKeag, Canadian businessman and politician, 17th Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba (d. 2007)*1930 – Paul Horn, American-Canadian flute player and saxophonist (d. 2014)* 1930 – James Irwin, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1991)*1931 – Patricia Breslin, American actress (d. 2011)* 1931 – David Peakall, English-American chemist and toxicologist (d. 2001)*1933 – Myrlie Evers-Williams, American journalist and activist* 1933 – Penelope Lively, English author*1935 – Fred T. Mackenzie, American biologist and academic* 1935 – Adam Wade, American singer, drummer, and actor (d. 2022)*1936 – Ida Kleijnen, Dutch chef (d. 2019)* 1936 – Ladislav Kupkovič, Slovakian composer and conductor (d. 2016)* 1936 – Ken Mattingly, American admiral, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2023)*1937 – Galina Samsova, Russian ballerina*1938 – Rudolf Nureyev, Russian-French dancer and choreographer (d. 1993)* 1938 – Keith O'Brien, Northern Ireland-born Scottish cleric, theologian, and cardinal (d. 2018)* 1938 – Zola Taylor, American singer (d. 2007)*1939 – Jim Gary, American sculptor (d. 2006)* 1939 – Bill Graham, Canadian academic and politician, 4th Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs* 1939 – Robin Knox-Johnston, English sailor and first person to perform a single-handed non-stop circumnavigation of the globe * 1939 – Giovanni Trapattoni, Italian footballer and manager*1940 – Mark White, American lawyer and politician, 43rd Governor of Texas (d. 2017)*1941 – Wang Jin-pyng, Taiwanese soldier and politician* 1941 – Paul Kantner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)* 1941 – Max Stafford-Clark, English director and academic*1942 – John Wayne Gacy, American serial killer and rapist (d. 1994)*1943 – Jeff Banks, Welsh fashion designer* 1943 – Andrew Brook, Canadian philosopher, author, and academic*1944 – Pattie Boyd, English model, author, and photographer* 1944 – Cito Gaston, American baseball player and manager* 1944 – John Sebastian, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1945 – Michael Hayden, American general, 20th Director of the Central Intelligence Agency* 1945 – Big Bertha, Irish cattle and twice Guinness World Record holder (oldest cow, cow with most offspring) (d. 1993)*1947 – Dennis Bond, English footballer * 1947 – Yury Chernavsky, Russian-American songwriter and producer*1948 – William Gibson, American-Canadian author and screenwriter* 1948 – Alex MacDonald, Scottish footballer and manager*1949 – Patrick Duffy, American actor, director, and producer* 1949 – Pat Rice, Irish footballer and coach* 1949 – Stuart Rose, English businessman*1951 – Scott Gorham, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1951 – Craig Ramsay, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1951 – Kurt Russell, American actor and producer*1952 – Barry Horne, English activist (d. 2001)*1953 – Filemon Lagman, Filipino activist (d. 2001)* 1953 – Chuck Muncie, American football player (d. 2013)*1954 – Lesley-Anne Down, English actress *1955 – Cynthia McKinney, American activist and politician* 1955 – Paul Overstreet, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1955 – Gary Sinise, American actor, director, and bass player *1956 – Patrick McDonnell, American author and illustrator* 1956 – Rory McGrath, British comedian, television personality, and writer*1957 – Michael Kelly, American journalist and author (d. 2003)*1958 – Christian Clemenson, American actor*1959 – Danny Ainge, American baseball and basketball player* 1959 – Paul Black, American singer-songwriter and drummer *1960 – Arye Gross, American actor* 1960 – Vicki Lewis, American actress and singer*1961 – Sam Bowie, American basketball player* 1961 – Dana Reeve, American actress, singer, and activist (d. 2006)* 1961 – Casey Siemaszko, American actor*1962 – Carsten Almqvist, Swedish business executive * 1962 – Ank Bijleveld, Dutch politician* 1962 – Janet Gardner, American singer and guitarist * 1962 – Clare Grogan, Scottish singer and actress* 1962 – Rob Sitch, Australian actor, director, and producer*1963 – Roger Harper, Guyanese cricketer and coach*1964 – Stefano Borgonovo, Italian footballer (d. 2013)* 1964 – Lee Dixon, English footballer and journalist* 1964 – Rob Lowe, American actor and producer* 1964 – Jacques Songo'o, Cameroonian footballer and coach*1965 – Andrew Hudson, South African cricketer*1966 – Andrew Rosindell, English journalist and politician*1967 – Jason Alchin, Australian rugby league player* 1967 – Billy Corgan, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, pianist, and producer * 1967 – Barry Minkow, American pastor and businessman*1968 – Eri Nitta, Japanese singer-songwriter and actress * 1968 – Mathew St. Patrick, American actor and producer*1969 – Edgar Grospiron, French skier* 1969 – Alexander McQueen, English fashion designer, founded own eponymous brand (d. 2010)*1970 – Patrick Lebeau, Canadian ice hockey player* 1970 – Gene Ween, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1970 – Darren Kenny, British Paralympic cyclist*1971 – Bill Mueller, American baseball player and coach*1972 – Melissa Auf der Maur, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and bass player * 1972 – Torquil Campbell, English-Canadian singer-songwriter and actor* 1972 – Mia Hamm, American soccer player*1973 – Rico Blanco, Filipino singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor * 1973 – Caroline Corr, Irish singer and drummer * 1973 – Vance Wilson, American baseball player and manager*1974 – Mark Dolan, English comedian and television host*1975 – Justin Hawkins, English singer-songwriter * 1975 – Puneeth Rajkumar, Indian actor, singer, and producer* 1975 – Test, Canadian-American wrestler (d. 2009)* 1975 – Natalie Zea, American actress*1976 – Scott Downs, American baseball player* 1976 – Stephen Gately, Irish singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2009)* 1976 – Álvaro Recoba, Uruguayan footballer *1977 – Tamar Braxton, American singer-songwriter and actress *1978 – Zachery Kouwe, American journalist*1979 – Stormy Daniels, American adult film actress* 1979 – Andrew Ference, Canadian ice hockey player* 1979 – Stephen Kramer Glickman, Canadian-American actor, director, producer, and fashion designer* 1979 – Mineko Nomachi, Japanese essayist* 1979 – Samoa Joe, American professional wrestler *1980 – Danny Califf, American soccer player* 1980 – Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi, Pakistani tennis player*1981 – Aaron Baddeley, American-Australian golfer* 1981 – Servet Çetin, Turkish footballer* 1981 – Kyle Korver, American basketball player* 1981 – Nicky Jam, American-Puerto-Rican singer and songwriter*1982 – Steven Pienaar, South African footballer*1983 – James Heath, English golfer* 1983 – Raul Meireles, Portuguese footballer* 1983 – Attila Vajda, Hungarian sprint canoeist*1984 – Ryan Rottman, American actor, producer, and screenwriter*1985 – Tuğba Karademir, Turkish-Canadian figure skater*1986 – Chris Davis, American baseball player* 1986 – Edin Džeko, Bosnian footballer* 1986 – Miles Kane, English singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1986 – Silke Spiegelburg, German pole vaulter*1987 – Federico Fazio, Argentinian international footballer* 1987 – Krisnan Inu, New Zealand rugby league player* 1987 – Ryan Parent, Canadian ice hockey player* 1987 – Bobby Ryan, American ice hockey player* 1987 – Emmanuel Sanders, American football player*1988 – Rasmus Elm, Swedish footballer* 1988 – Fraser Forster, English footballer* 1988 – Grimes, Canadian artist, musician and music video director* 1988 – Ryan White, Canadian ice hockey player*1989 – Shinji Kagawa, Japanese footballer* 1989 – Harry Melling, English actor*1990 – Hozier, Irish singer-songwriter and musician* 1990 – Saina Nehwal, Indian badminton player*1991 – Jack De Belin, Australian rugby league player*1992 – Patrick Cantlay, American golfer* 1992 – John Boyega, English actor*1993 – Matteo Bianchetti, Italian footballer*1994 – Dean Britt, Australian rugby league player*1995 – Ashley Taylor, Australian rugby league player*1997 – Katie Ledecky, American swimmer*1998 – Sam Denby, American YouTuber"
],
[
"Deaths",
"===Pre-1600===*45 BC – Titus Labienus, Roman general (b.",
"100 BC)* 45 BC – Publius Attius Varus, Roman governor of Africa* 180 – Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor (b.",
"121)* 624 – Amr ibn Hishām, Arab polytheist* 659 – Gertrude of Nivelles, Frankish abbess* 836 – Haito, bishop of Basel* 905 – Li Yu, Prince of De, prince and emperor of the Tang Dynasty*1008 – Kazan, emperor of Japan (b.",
"968)*1040 – Harold Harefoot, king of England*1058 – Lulach, king of Scotland*1199 – Jocelin of Glasgow, Scottish monk and bishop (b.",
"1130)*1267 – Pierre de Montreuil, French architect*1270 – Philip of Montfort, French knight and nobleman *1272 – Go-Saga, emperor of Japan (b.",
"1220)*1361 – An-Nasir Hasan, Mamluk sultan of Egypt*1394 – Louis of Enghien, French nobleman*1406 – Ibn Khaldun, Tunisian sociologist, historian, and scholar (b.",
"1332)*1425 – Ashikaga Yoshikazu, Japanese shōgun (b.",
"1407)*1516 – Giuliano de' Medici, Italian nobleman (b.",
"1479)*1527 – Rana Sanga, Indian ruler (b.",
"1482)*1565 – Alexander Ales, Scottish theologian and academic (b.",
"1500)===1601–1900===*1611 – Sophia of Sweden, duchess of Saxe-Lauenburg (b.",
"1547)*1620 – John Sarkander, Polish-Moravian priest and saint (b.",
"1576)*1640 – Philip Massinger, English playwright (b.",
"1583)*1649 – Gabriel Lalemant, French missionary and saint (b.",
"1610)*1663 – Jerome Weston, 2nd Earl of Portland, English diplomat (b.",
"1605)*1680 – François de La Rochefoucauld, French author (b.",
"1613)*1704 – Menno van Coehoorn, Dutch soldier and engineer (b.",
"1641)*1715 – Gilbert Burnet, Scottish bishop and historian (b.",
"1643)*1741 – Jean-Baptiste Rousseau, French poet and playwright (b.",
"1671)*1764 – George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield, English astronomer and politician (b.",
"1695)*1782 – Daniel Bernoulli, Dutch-Swiss mathematician and physicist (b.",
"1700)*1828 – James Edward Smith, English botanist and entomologist (b.",
"1759)*1829 – Sophia Albertina, princess-abbess of Quedlinburg (b.",
"1753)*1830 – Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, French general and politician (b.",
"1764)*1846 – Friedrich Bessel, German astronomer, mathematician, and physicist (b.",
"1784)*1849 – William II, Dutch sovereign prince and king (b.",
"1792)*1853 – Christian Doppler, Austrian physicist and mathematician (b.",
"1803)*1871 – Robert Chambers, Scottish geologist and publisher, co-founded Chambers Harrap (b.",
"1802)*1875 – Ferdinand Laub, Czech violinist and composer (b.",
"1832)*1893 – Jules Ferry, French lawyer and politician, 44th Prime Minister of France (b.",
"1832)===1901–present===*1902 – John Houlding, English businessman, founded Liverpool Football Club (b.",
"1833)*1917 – Franz Brentano, German philosopher and psychologist (b.",
"1838)*1926 – Aleksei Brusilov, Georgian-Russian general (b.",
"1853)*1934 – Bede Jarrett, English Dominican priest (b.",
"1881)*1940 – Philomène Belliveau, Canadian artist (b.",
"1854)*1942 – Nada Dimić, People's Hero of Yugoslavia, victim of Genocide of Serbs*1946 – Dai Li, Chinese general (b.",
"1897)*1947 – Mike, American Wyandotte chicken, lived 18 months following decapitation (h. 1945)*1949 – Aleksandra Ekster, Russian-French painter and set designer (b.",
"1882)*1956 – Fred Allen, American actor, comedian, screenwriter, and author (b.",
"1894)* 1956 – Irène Joliot-Curie, French physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1897)*1957 – Ramon Magsaysay, Filipino captain and politician, 7th President of the Philippines (b.",
"1907)*1958 – John Pius Boland, Irish tennis player and politician (b.",
"1870)* 1958 – Bertha De Vriese, Belgian physician (b.",
"1877)*1961 – Susanna M. Salter, American activist and politician (b.",
"1860)*1965 – Amos Alonzo Stagg, American football player and coach (b.",
"1862)*1974 – Louis Kahn, American architect and academic, designed Jatiyo Sangsad Bhaban (b.",
"1901)*1976 – Luchino Visconti, Italian director and screenwriter (b.",
"1906)*1981 – Paul Dean, American baseball player (b.",
"1913)*1983 – Haldan Keffer Hartline, American physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1903)* 1983 – Louisa E. Rhine, American botanist and parapsychologist (b.",
"1891)*1986 – Clarence D. Lester, African-American fighter pilot (b.1923)*1990 – Capucine, French model and actress (b.",
"1928)* 1990 – Dinkar G. Kelkar, Indian art collector (b.",
"1896)*1992 – Grace Stafford, American actress (b.",
"1903)*1993 – Helen Hayes, American actress (b.",
"1900)*1994 – Charlotte Auerbach, German-Jewish Scottish folklorist, geneticist, and zoologist (b.",
"1899)* 1994 – Mai Zetterling, Swedish-English actress and director (b.",
"1925)*1995 – Sunnyland Slim, American blues pianist (b.",
"1906)*1996 – René Clément, French director and screenwriter (b.",
"1913)* 1996 – Terry Stafford, American singer-songwriter (b.",
"1941)*1997 – Jermaine Stewart, American singer-songwriter and dancer (b.",
"1957)*1999 – Ernest Gold, Austrian-American composer (b.",
"1921)* 1999 – Jean Pierre-Bloch, French activist (b.",
"1905)*2001 – Anthony Storr, English psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and author (b.",
"1920)*2002 – Rosetta LeNoire, American actress and producer (b.",
"1911)* 2002 – Văn Tiến Dũng, Vietnamese general and politician, 6th Minister of Defence for Vietnam (b.",
"1917)* 2002 – Sylvester \"Pat\" Weaver, American television broadcaster and producer (b.",
"1908)*2005 – Royce Frith, Canadian lawyer, politician, and diplomat, Canadian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom (b.",
"1923)* 2005 – George F. Kennan, American historian and diplomat, United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union (b.",
"1904)* 2005 – Andre Norton, American author (b.",
"1912)*2006 – Oleg Cassini, French-American fashion designer (b.",
"1913)* 2006 – Ray Meyer, American basketball player and coach (b.",
"1913)* 2006 – İstemihan Taviloğlu, Turkish composer and educator (b.",
"1945)*2007 – John Backus, American mathematician and computer scientist, designed Fortran (b.",
"1924)*2008 – Roland Arnall, French-American businessman and diplomat, 63rd United States Ambassador to the Netherlands (b.",
"1939)*2009 – Clodovil Hernandes, Brazilian television host and politician (b.",
"1937)*2010 – Alex Chilton, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.",
"1950)* 2010 – Sid Fleischman, American author and screenwriter (b.",
"1920)*2011 – Michael Gough, English actor (b.",
"1916)* 2011 – Ferlin Husky, American country music singer (b.",
"1925)*2012 – Shenouda III, pope of Alexandria (b.",
"1923)* 2012 – Margaret Whitlam, Australian swimmer and author (b.",
"1919) *2013 – William B. Caldwell III, American general (b.",
"1925)* 2013 – Lawrence Fuchs, American scholar and academic (b.",
"1927)* 2013 – A.B.C.",
"Whipple, American journalist and historian (b.",
"1918)*2014 – Marek Galiński, Polish cyclist (b.",
"1974)* 2014 – Joseph Kerman, American musicologist and critic (b.",
"1924)* 2014 – Rachel Lambert Mellon, American gardener, philanthropist, art collector and political patron (b.",
"1910)*2015 – Frank Perris, Canadian motorcycle racer (b.",
"1931) *2016 – Meir Dagan, Israeli general (b.",
"1945)* 2016 – Zoltán Kamondi, Hungarian director, producer, and screenwriter (b.",
"1960)*2018 – Mike MacDonald, Canadian comedian (b.",
"1954)* 2018 – Phan Văn Khải, the fifth Prime Minister of Vietnam (b.",
"1933)*2021 – John Magufuli, the fifth President of Tanzania (b.",
"1959)*2023 – Lance Reddick, American actor (b.",
"1962)"
],
[
"Holidays and observances",
"* Children's Day (Bangladesh)* Christian feast day:** Alexius of Rome (Eastern Church)** Gertrude of Nivelles** John Sarkander** Joseph of Arimathea (Western Church)** Patrick of Ireland** March 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Evacuation Day (Suffolk County, Massachusetts)* Saint Patrick's Day, a public holiday in Ireland, Montserrat and the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, widely celebrated in the English-speaking world and to a lesser degree in other parts of the world."
],
[
"References",
"=== Bibliography ===* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 17"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mummy"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Mummy of Ramesses IA '''mummy''' is a dead human or an animal whose soft tissues and organs have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold, very low humidity, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay further if kept in cool and dry conditions.",
"Some authorities restrict the use of the term to bodies deliberately embalmed with chemicals, but the use of the word to cover accidentally desiccated bodies goes back to at least the early 17th century.Mummies of humans and animals have been found on every continent, both as a result of natural preservation through unusual conditions, and as cultural artifacts.",
"Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats.",
"Many of the Egyptian animal mummies are sacred ibis, and radiocarbon dating suggests the Egyptian ibis mummies that have been analyzed were from a time frame that falls between approximately 450 and 250 BC.In addition to the mummies of ancient Egypt, deliberate mummification was a feature of several ancient cultures in areas of America and Asia with very dry climates.",
"The Spirit Cave mummies of Fallon, Nevada, in North America were accurately dated at more than 9,400 years old.",
"Before this discovery, the oldest known deliberate mummy was a child, one of the Chinchorro mummies found in the Camarones Valley, Chile, which dates around 5050 BC.",
"The oldest known naturally mummified human corpse is a severed head dated as 6,000 years old, found in 1936 AD at the site named Inca Cueva No.",
"4 in South America."
],
[
"Etymology and meaning",
"The English word ''mummy'' is derived from medieval Latin ''Mumia'', a borrowing of the medieval Arabic word ''mūmiya'' (مومياء) which meant an embalmed corpse, as well as the bituminous embalming substance.",
"This word was borrowed from Persian where it meant asphalt, and is derived from the word ''mūm'' meaning wax.",
"The meaning of \"corpse preserved by desiccation\" developed post-medievally.",
"The Medieval English term \"mummy\" was defined as \"medical preparation of the substance of mummies\", rather than the entire corpse, with Richard Hakluyt in 1599 AD complaining that \"these dead bodies are the Mummy which the Phisistians and Apothecaries doe against our willes make us to swallow\".",
"These substances were called mummia.The OED defines a mummy as \"the body of a human being or animal embalmed (according to the ancient Egyptian or some analogous method) as a preparation for burial\", citing sources from 1615 AD onward.",
"However, Chamber's ''Cyclopædia'' and the Victorian zoologist Francis Trevelyan Buckland define a mummy as follows: \"A human or animal body desiccated by exposure to sun or air.",
"Also applied to the frozen carcase of an animal imbedded in prehistoric snow\".Wasps of the genus ''Aleiodes'' are known as \"mummy wasps\" because they wrap their caterpillar prey as \"mummies\"."
],
[
"History of mummy studies",
"Howard Carter examining the innermost coffin of TutankhamunA 550-year-old Peruvian child mummy being prepared for a CT scanWhile interest in the study of mummies dates as far back as Ptolemaic Greece, most structured scientific study began at the beginning of the 20th century.",
"Prior to this, many rediscovered mummies were sold as curiosities or for use in pseudoscientific novelties such as mummia.",
"The first modern scientific examinations of mummies began in 1901, conducted by professors at the English-language Government School of Medicine in Cairo, Egypt.",
"The first X-ray of a mummy came in 1903, when professors Grafton Elliot Smith and Howard Carter used the only X-ray machine in Cairo at the time to examine the mummified body of Thutmose IV.",
"British chemist Alfred Lucas applied chemical analyses to Egyptian mummies during this same period, which returned many results about the types of substances used in embalming.",
"Lucas also made significant contributions to the analysis of Tutankhamun in 1922.Pathological study of mummies saw varying levels of popularity throughout the 20th century.",
"In 1992, the First World Congress on Mummy Studies was held in Puerto de la Cruz on Tenerife in the Canary Islands.",
"More than 300 scientists attended the Congress to share nearly 100 years of collected data on mummies.",
"The information presented at the meeting triggered a new surge of interest in the subject, with one of the major results being the integration of biomedical and bioarchaeological information on mummies with existing databases.",
"This was not possible prior to the Congress due to the unique and highly specialized techniques required to gather such data.In more recent years, CT scanning has become an invaluable tool in the study of mummification by allowing researchers to digitally \"unwrap\" mummies without risking damage to the body.",
"The level of detail in such scans is so intricate that small linens used in tiny areas such as the nostrils can be digitally reconstructed in 3-D.",
"Such modelling has been utilized to perform digital autopsies on mummies to determine the cause of death and lifestyle, such as in the case of Tutankhamun."
],
[
"{{anchor|Anthropogenic|Spontaneous|Natural}}Types",
"Mummies are typically divided into one of two distinct categories: anthropogenic or spontaneous.",
"Anthropogenic mummies were deliberately created by the living for any number of reasons, the most common being for religious purposes.",
"Spontaneous mummies, such as Ötzi and the Maronite mummies, were created unintentionally due to natural conditions such as extremely dry heat or cold, or acidic and anaerobic conditions such as those found in bogs.",
"While most individual mummies exclusively belong to one category or the other, there are examples of both types being connected to a single culture, such as those from the ancient Egyptian culture and the Andean cultures of South America.",
"Some of the later well-preserved corpses of the mummification were found under Christian churches, such as the mummified vicar Nicolaus Rungius found under the St. Michael Church in Keminmaa, Finland.",
"There are also cases that fall outside of these categories."
],
[
"Egyptian mummies",
"Mummy in the British MuseumPainted mummy bandageUntil recently, it was believed that the earliest ancient Egyptian mummies were created naturally due to the environment in which they were buried.",
"In 2014, an 11-year study by the University of York, Macquarie University and the University of Oxford suggested that artificial mummification occurred 1,500 years earlier than first thought.",
"This was confirmed in 2018, when tests on a 5,600-year-old mummy in Turin revealed that it had been deliberately mummified using linen wrappings and embalming oils made from conifer resin and aromatic plant extracts.The preservation of the dead had a profound effect on ancient Egyptian religion.",
"Mummification was an integral part of the rituals for the dead beginning as early as the 2nd dynasty (about 2800 BC).",
"Egyptians saw the preservation of the body after death as an important step to living well in the afterlife.",
"As Egypt gained more prosperity, burial practices became a status symbol for the wealthy as well.",
"This cultural hierarchy led to the creation of elaborate tombs, and more sophisticated methods of embalming.By the 4th dynasty (about 2600 BC) Egyptian embalmers began to achieve \"true mummification\" through a process of evisceration.",
"Much of this early experimentation with mummification in Egypt is unknown.The few documents that directly describe the mummification process date to the Greco-Roman period.",
"The majority of the papyri that have survived only describe the ceremonial rituals involved in embalming, not the actual surgical processes involved.",
"A text known as ''The Ritual of Embalming'' does describe some of the practical logistics of embalming; however, there are only two known copies and each is incomplete.",
"With regards to mummification shown in images, there are apparently also very few.",
"The tomb of Tjay, designated TT23, is one of only two known which show the wrapping of a mummy (Riggs 2014).Another text that describes the processes being used in the latter periods is Herodotus' Histories.",
"Written in Book 2 of the ''Histories'' is one of the most detailed descriptions of the Egyptian mummification process, including the mention of using natron in order to dehydrate corpses for preservation.",
"However, these descriptions are short and fairly vague, leaving scholars to infer the majority of the techniques that were used by studying mummies that have been unearthed.By utilizing current advancements in technology, scientists have been able to uncover a plethora of new information about the techniques used in mummification.",
"A series of CT scans performed on a 2,400-year-old mummy in 2008 revealed a tool that was left inside the cranial cavity of the skull.",
"The tool was a rod, made of an organic material, that was used to break apart the brain to allow it to drain out of the nose.",
"This discovery helped to dispel the claim within Herodotus' works that the rod had been a hook made of iron.",
"Earlier experimentation in 1994 by researchers Bob Brier and Ronald Wade supported these findings.",
"While attempting to replicate Egyptian mummification, Brier and Wade discovered that removal of the brain was much easier when the brain was liquefied and allowed to drain with the help of gravity, as opposed to trying to pull the organ out piece by piece with a hook.The Egyptian human mummy at Indian Museum, Kolkata.Through various methods of study over many decades, modern Egyptologists now have an accurate understanding of how mummification was achieved in ancient Egypt.",
"The first and most important step was to halt the process of decomposition, by removing the internal organs and washing out the body with a mix of spices and palm wine.",
"The only organ left behind was the heart, as tradition held the heart was the seat of thought and feeling and would therefore still be needed in the afterlife.",
"After cleansing, the body was then dried out with natron inside the empty body cavity as well as outside on the skin.",
"The internal organs were also dried and either sealed in individual jars, or wrapped to be replaced within the body.",
"This process typically took forty days.This wooden mummy label was inscribed in black ink.",
"The original cord is still in situ.",
"Roman Period.",
"From Hawara, Fayum, Egypt.",
"The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, LondonAfter dehydration, the mummy was wrapped in many layers of linen cloth.",
"Within the layers, Egyptian priests placed small amulets to guard the decedent from evil.",
"Once the mummy was completely wrapped, it was coated in resin in order to keep the threat of moist air away.",
"The resin was also applied to the coffin in order to seal it.",
"The mummy was then sealed within its tomb, alongside the worldly goods that were believed to help aid it in the afterlife.",
"''Aspergillus niger'', a hardy species of fungus capable of living in a variety of environments, has been found in the mummies of ancient Egyptian tombs and can be inhaled when they are disturbed.=== Mummification and rank === (dynasty XX).",
"Biblioteca Museu Víctor Balaguer.",
"Vilanova i la Geltrú.",
"SpainMummification is one of the defining customs in ancient Egyptian society for people today.",
"The practice of preserving the human body is believed to be a quintessential feature of Egyptian life.",
"Yet even mummification has a history of development and was accessible to different ranks of society in different ways during different periods.",
"There were at least three different processes of mummification according to Herodotus.",
"They range from \"the most perfect\" to the method employed by the \"poorer classes\".==== \"Most perfect\" method ====Simplistic representation of the Ancient Egyptian mummification process.The most expensive process was to preserve the body by dehydration and protect against pests, such as insects.",
"Almost all of the actions Herodotus described served one of these two functions.First, the brain was removed from the cranium through the nose; the gray matter was discarded.",
"Modern mummy excavations have shown that instead of an iron hook inserted through the nose as Herodotus claims, a rod was used to liquefy the brain via the cranium, which then drained out the nose by gravity.",
"The embalmers then rinsed the skull with certain drugs that mostly cleared any residue of brain tissue and also had the effect of killing bacteria.",
"Next, the embalmers made an incision along the flank with a sharp blade fashioned from an Ethiopian stone and removed the contents of the abdomen.",
"Herodotus does not discuss the separate preservation of these organs and their placement either in special jars or back in the cavity, a process that was part of the most expensive embalming, according to archaeological evidence.The abdominal cavity was then rinsed with palm wine and an infusion of crushed, fragrant herbs and spices; the cavity was then filled with spices including myrrh, cassia, and, Herodotus notes, \"every other sort of spice except frankincense\", also to preserve the person.The body was further dehydrated by placing it in natron, a naturally occurring salt, for 70 days.",
"Herodotus insists that the body did not stay in the natron longer than 70 days.",
"Any shorter time and the body would not be completely dehydrated; any longer, and the body would be too stiff to move into position for wrapping.",
"The embalmers then washed the body again and wrapped it with linen bandages.",
"The bandages were covered with a gum that modern research has shown is both a waterproofing agent and an antimicrobial agent.At this point, the body was given back to the family.",
"These \"perfect\" mummies were then placed in human-shaped wooden cases.",
"Wealthy people placed these wooden cases in stone sarcophagi that provided further protection.",
"The family placed the sarcophagus in the tomb upright against the wall, according to Herodotus.==== Avoiding expense ====The second process that Herodotus describes was used by middle-class people or people who \"wish to avoid expense\".",
"In this method, an oil derived from cedar trees was injected with a syringe into the abdomen.",
"A rectal plug prevented the oil from escaping.",
"This oil probably had the dual purpose of liquefying the internal organs but also of disinfecting the abdominal cavity.",
"(By liquefying the organs, the family avoided the expense of canopic jars and separate preservation.)",
"The body was then placed in natron for seventy days.",
"At the end of this time, the body was removed and the cedar oil, now containing the liquefied organs, was drained through the rectum.",
"With the body dehydrated, it could be returned to the family.",
"Herodotus does not describe the process of burial of such mummies, but they were perhaps placed in a shaft tomb.",
"Poorer people used coffins fashioned from terracotta.==== Inexpensive method ====The third and least expensive method the embalmers offered was to clear the intestines with an unnamed liquid, injected as an enema.",
"The body was then placed in natron for seventy days and returned to the family.",
"Herodotus gives no further details."
],
[
"Christian mummies",
"In Christian tradition, some bodies of saints are naturally conserved and venerated."
],
[
"Mummification in other cultures",
"=== Africa ===In addition to the mummies of Egypt, there have been instances of mummies being discovered in other areas of the African continent.",
"The bodies show a mix of anthropogenic and spontaneous mummification, with some being thousands of years old.==== Canary Islands ====Guanche mummy in Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre (Tenerife, Spain).The mummies of the Canary Islands belong to the indigenous Guanche people and date to the time before 14th-century Spanish explorers settled in the area.",
"All deceased people within the Guanche culture were mummified during this time, though the level of care taken with embalming and burial varied depending on individual social status.",
"Embalming was carried out by specialized groups, organized according to gender, who were considered unclean by the rest of the community.",
"The techniques for embalming were similar to those of the ancient Egyptians, involving evisceration, preservation, and stuffing of the evacuated bodily cavities, then wrapping the body in animal skins.",
"Despite the successful techniques utilized by the Guanche, very few mummies remain due to looting and desecration.==== Libya ====The mummified remains of an infant were discovered during an expedition by archaeologist Fabrizio Mori to Libya during the winter of 1958–1959 in the natural cave structure of Uan Muhuggiag.",
"After curious deposits and cave paintings were discovered on the surfaces of the cave, expedition leaders decided to excavate.",
"Uncovered alongside fragmented animal bone tools was the mummified body of an infant, wrapped in animal skin and wearing a necklace made of ostrich egg shell beads.",
"Professor Tongiorgi of the University of Pisa radiocarbon-dated the infant to between 5,000 and 8,000 years old.",
"A long incision located on the right abdominal wall, and the absence of internal organs, indicated that the body had been eviscerated post-mortem, possibly in an effort to preserve the remains.",
"A bundle of herbs found within the body cavity also supported this conclusion.",
"Further research revealed that the child had been around 30 months old at the time of death, though gender could not be determined due to poor preservation of the sex organs.==== South Africa ====The first mummy to be discovered in South Africa was found in the Baviaanskloof Wilderness Area by Dr. Johan Binneman in 1999.Nicknamed Moses, the mummy was estimated to be around 2,000 years old.",
"After being linked to the indigenous Khoi culture of the region, the National Council of Khoi Chiefs of South Africa began to make legal demands that the mummy be returned shortly after the body was moved to the Albany Museum in Grahamstown.=== Asia ===Mummy in the history museum of JingzhouThe mummies of Asia are usually considered to be accidental.",
"The decedents were buried in just the right place where the environment could act as an agent for preservation.",
"This is particularly common in the desert areas of the Tarim Basin and Iran.",
"Mummies have been discovered in more humid Asian climates; however, these are subject to rapid decay after being removed from the grave.==== China ====The mummy of Xin Zhui.Mummies from various dynasties throughout China's history have been discovered in several locations across the country.",
"They are almost exclusively considered to be unintentional mummifications.",
"Many areas in which mummies have been uncovered are difficult for preservation, due to their warm, moist climates.",
"This makes the recovery of mummies a challenge, as exposure to the outside world can cause the bodies to decay in a matter of hours.An example of a Chinese mummy that was preserved despite being buried in an environment not conducive to mummification is Xin Zhui.",
"Also known as Lady Dai, she was discovered in the early 1970s at the Mawangdui archaeological site in Changsha.",
"She was the wife of the Marquis of Dai during the Han dynasty, who was also buried with her alongside another young man often considered to be a very close relative.",
"However, Xin Zhui's body was the only one of the three to be mummified.",
"Her corpse was so well-preserved that surgeons from the Hunan Provincial Medical Institute were able to perform an autopsy.",
"The exact reason why her body was so completely preserved has yet to be determined.Among the mummies discovered in China are those termed Tarim mummies because of their discovery in the Tarim Basin.",
"The dry desert climate of the basin proved to be an excellent agent for desiccation.",
"For this reason, over 200 Tarim mummies, which are over 4,000 years old, were excavated from a cemetery in the present-day Xinjiang region.",
"The mummies were found buried in upside-down boats with hundreds of 13-foot-long wooden poles in the place of tombstones.",
"DNA sequence data shows that the mummies had Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA) characteristic of western Eurasia in the area of East-Central Europe, Central Asia and the Indus Valley.",
"This has created a stir in the Turkic-speaking Uighur population of the region, who claim the area has always belonged to their culture, while it was not until the 10th century that Uighurs are said by scholars to have moved to the region from Central Asia.",
"American Sinologist Victor H. Mair claims that \"''the earliest mummies in the Tarim Basin were exclusively Caucasoid, or Europoid''\" with \"east Asian migrants arriving in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin around 3,000 years ago\", while Mair also notes that it was not until 842 that the Uighur peoples settled in the area.",
"Other mummified remains have been recovered from around the Tarim Basin at sites including Qäwrighul, Yanghai, Shengjindian, Shanpula (Sampul), Zaghunluq, and Qizilchoqa.==== Iran ====As of 2012, at least eight mummified human remains have been recovered from the Douzlakh Salt Mine at Chehr Abad in northwestern Iran.",
"Due to their salt preservation, these bodies are collectively known as Saltmen.",
"Carbon-14 testing conducted in 2008 dated three of the bodies to around 400 BC.",
"Later isotopic research on the other mummies returned similar dates, however, many of these individuals were found to be from a region that is not closely associated with the mine.",
"It was during this time that researchers determined the mine suffered a major collapse, which likely caused the death of the miners.",
"Since there is significant archaeological data that indicates the area was not actively inhabited during this time period, current consensus holds that the accident occurred during a brief period of temporary mining activity.==== Lebanon ====In 1990, a team of speleologists uncovered eight mummies, dating back to around 1283 AD, during a rescue excavation in the e 'Asi al-Hadath cave in the Qadisha Valley of Lebanon.",
"The well-preserved spontaneous mummies, including an infant named dubbed Yasmine, offer insights into Maronite villagers' lives during the Mamluk era.",
"The grotto's high altitude and dry conditions naturally mummified the bodies.",
"The discovery provides historical context, aligning with documented Mamluk raids in the region.",
"Artifacts, including pottery with inscriptions, manuscripts, and clothing, suggest a Maronite community, and the mummies' burial practices parallel present-day Lebanese customs.",
"The remains were called \"Maronite mummies\" because the individuals found in the 'Asi-al Hadath cave were believed to be Maronites, an indigenous Christian community in the region.",
"Some of the mummies have been transferred to the National Museum of Beirut.==== Siberia ====In 1993, a team of Russian archaeologists led by Dr. Natalia Polosmak discovered the Siberian Ice Maiden, a Scytho-Siberian woman, on the Ukok Plateau in the Altai Mountains near the Mongolian border.",
"The mummy was naturally frozen due to the severe climatic conditions of the Siberian steppe.",
"Also known as Princess Ukok, the mummy was dressed in finely detailed clothing and wore an elaborate headdress and jewelry.",
"Alongside her body were buried six decorated horses and a symbolic meal for her last journey.",
"Her left arm and hand were tattooed with animal style figures, including a highly stylized deer.The Ice Maiden has been a source of some recent controversy.",
"The mummy's skin has suffered some slight decay, and the tattoos have faded since the excavation.",
"Some residents of the Altai Republic, formed after the breakup of the Soviet Union, have requested the return of the Ice Maiden, who is currently stored in Novosibirsk in Siberia.Another Siberian mummy, a man, was discovered much earlier in 1929.His skin was also marked with tattoos of two monsters resembling griffins, which decorated his chest, and three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and a mountain goat on his left arm.==== Philippines ====Philippine mummies are called Kabayan Mummies.",
"They are common in Igorot culture and their heritage.",
"The mummies are found in some areas named Kabayan, Sagada and among others.",
"The mummies are dated between the 14th and 19th centuries.=== Europe ===Mummy of Nicolaus Rungius under the floor of St. Michael Church in Keminmaa, FinlandThe European continent is home to a diverse spectrum of spontaneous and anthropogenic mummies.",
"Some of the best-preserved mummies have come from bogs located across the region.",
"The Capuchin monks that inhabited the area left behind hundreds of intentionally-preserved bodies that have provided insight into the customs and cultures of people from various eras.",
"One of the oldest mummies (nicknamed Ötzi) was discovered on this continent.",
"New mummies continue to be uncovered in Europe well into the 21st century.==== Bog bodies ====Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Denmark have produced a number of bog bodies, mummies of people deposited in sphagnum bogs, apparently as a result of murder or ritual sacrifices.",
"In such cases, the acidity of the water, low temperature and lack of oxygen combined to tan the body's skin and soft tissues.",
"The skeleton typically disintegrates over time.",
"Such mummies are remarkably well preserved on emerging from the bog, with skin and internal organs intact; it is even possible to determine the decedent's last meal by examining stomach contents.",
"The Haraldskær Woman was discovered by labourers in a bog in Jutland in 1835.She was erroneously identified as an early medieval Danish queen, and for that reason was placed in a royal sarcophagus at the Saint Nicolai Church, Vejle, where she currently remains.",
"Another bog body, also from Denmark, known as the Tollund Man was discovered in 1950.The corpse was noted for its excellent preservation of the face and feet, which appeared as if the man had recently died.",
"Only the head of Tollund Man remains, due to the decomposition of the rest of his body, which was not preserved along with the head.==== Czech Republic ====Mummies in the Capuchin Crypt in BrnoThe majority of mummies recovered in the Czech Republic come from underground crypts.",
"While there is some evidence of deliberate mummification, most sources state that desiccation occurred naturally due to unique conditions within the crypts.The Capuchin Crypt in Brno contains three hundred years of mummified remains directly below the main altar.",
"Beginning in the 18th century when the crypt was opened, and continuing until the practice was discontinued in 1787, the Capuchin friars of the monastery would lay the deceased on a pillow of bricks on the ground.",
"The unique air quality and topsoil within the crypt naturally preserved the bodies over time.Approximately fifty mummies were discovered in an abandoned crypt beneath the Church of St. Procopius of Sázava in Vamberk in the mid-1980s.",
"Workers digging a trench accidentally broke into the crypt, which began to fill with waste water.",
"The mummies quickly began to deteriorate, though thirty-four were able to be rescued and stored temporarily at the District Museum of the Orlické Mountains until they could be returned to the monastery in 2000.The mummies range in age and social status at time of death, with at least two children and one priest.",
"The majority of the Vamberk mummies date from the 18th century.The Klatovy catacombs currently house an exhibition of Jesuit mummies, alongside some aristocrats, that were originally interred between 1674 and 1783.In the early 1930s, the mummies were accidentally damaged during repairs, resulting in the loss of 140 bodies.",
"The newly updated airing system preserves the thirty-eight bodies that are currently on display.==== Denmark ====The Skrydstrup Woman was unearthed from a grave mound in Denmark.Apart from several bog bodies, Denmark has also yielded several other mummies, such as the three Borum Eshøj mummies, the Skrydstrup Woman and the Egtved Girl, who were all found inside burial mounds, or tumuli.In 1875, the Borum Eshøj grave mound was uncovered, which had been built around three coffins, which belonged to a middle aged man and woman as well as a man in his early twenties.",
"Through examination, the woman was discovered to be around 50–60 years old.",
"She was found with several artifacts made of bronze, consisting of buttons, a belt plate, and rings, showing she was of higher class.",
"All of the hair had been removed from the skull later when farmers had dug through the casket.",
"Her original hairstyle is unknown.",
"The two men wore kilts, and the younger man wore a sheath which contained a bronze dagger.",
"All three mummies were dated to 1351–1345 BC.The Skrydstrup Woman was unearthed from a tumulus in Southern Jutland, in 1935.Carbon-14 dating showed that she had died around 1300 BC; examination also revealed that she was around 18–19 years old at the time of death, and that she had been buried in the summertime.",
"Her hair had been drawn up in an elaborate hairstyle, which was then covered by a horse hair hairnet made by the sprang technique.",
"She was wearing a blouse and a necklace as well as two golden earrings, showing she was of higher class.The Egtved Girl, dated to 1370 BC, was also found inside a sealed coffin within a tumulus, in 1921.She was wearing a bodice and a skirt, including a belt and bronze bracelets.",
"Found with the girl, at her feet, were the cremated remains of a child and, by her head, a box containing some bronze pins, a hairnet, and an awl.==== Hungary ====In 1994, 265 mummified bodies were found in the crypt of a Dominican church in Vác, Hungary from the 1729–1838 period.",
"The discovery proved to be scientifically important, and by 2006 an exhibition was established in the Museum of Natural History in Budapest.",
"Unique to the Hungarian mummies are their elaborately decorated coffins, with no two being exactly alike.==== Italy ====Mummies in the Friars' Corridor of the Catacombe dei Cappuccini.The varied geography and climatology of Italy has led to many cases of spontaneous mummification.",
"Italian mummies display the same diversity, with a conglomeration of natural and intentional mummification spread across many centuries and cultures.The oldest natural mummy in Europe was discovered in 1991 in the Ötztal Alps on the Austrian-Italian border.",
"Nicknamed Ötzi, the mummy is a 5,300-year-old male believed to be a member of the Tamins-Carasso-Isera cultural group of South Tyrol.",
"Despite his age, a recent DNA study conducted by Walther Parson of Innsbruck Medical University revealed Ötzi has 19 living genetic relatives.The Capuchin Catacombs of Palermo were built in the 16th century by the friars of Palermo's Capuchin monastery.",
"Originally intended to hold the deliberately mummified remains of dead friars, interment in the catacombs became a status symbol for the local population in the following centuries.",
"Burials continued until the 1920s, with one of the final burials being that of Rosalia Lombardo.",
"In all, the catacombs host nearly 8000 mummies.The most recent discovery of mummies in Italy came in 2010, when sixty mummified human remains were found in the crypt of the Conversion of St Paul church in Roccapelago di Pievepelago, Italy.",
"Built in the 15th century as a cannon hold and later converted in the 16th century, the crypt had been sealed once it had reached capacity, leaving the bodies to be protected and preserved.",
"The crypt was reopened during restoration work on the church, revealing the diverse array of mummies inside.",
"The bodies were quickly moved to a museum for further study.=== North America ===The mummies of North America are often steeped in controversy, as many of these bodies have been linked to still-existing native cultures.",
"While the mummies provide a wealth of historically significant data, native cultures and tradition often demands the remains be returned to their original resting places.",
"This has led to many legal actions by Native American councils, leading to most museums keeping mummified remains out of the public eye.==== Canada ====Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi (\"Long ago person found\" in the Southern Tutchone language of the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations), was found in August 1999 by three First Nations hunters at the edge of a glacier in Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canada.",
"According to the Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi Project, the remains are the oldest well preserved mummy discovered in North America.",
"(The Spirit Cave mummy although not well preserved, is much older.)",
"Initial radiocarbon tests date the mummy to around 550 years-old.==== Greenland ====The mummy of a six-month-old boy found in QilakitsoqIn 1972, eight remarkably preserved mummies were discovered at an abandoned Inuit settlement called Qilakitsoq, in Greenland.",
"The \"Greenland Mummies\" consisted of a six-month-old baby, a four-year-old boy, and six women of various ages, who died around 500 years ago.",
"Their bodies were naturally mummified by the sub-zero temperatures and dry winds in the cave in which they were found.==== Mexico ====A mummy from GuanajuatoIntentional mummification in pre-Columbian Mexico was practiced by the Aztec culture.",
"These bodies are collectively known as Aztec mummies.",
"Genuine Aztec mummies were \"bundled\" in a woven wrap and often had their faces covered by a ceremonial mask.",
"Public knowledge of Aztec mummies increased due to traveling exhibits and museums in the 19th and 20th centuries, though these bodies were typically naturally desiccated remains and not actually the mummies associated with Aztec culture.Natural mummification has been known to occur in several places in Mexico; this includes the mummies of Guanajuato.",
"A collection of these mummies, most of which date to the late 19th century, have been on display at ''El Museo de las Momias'' in the city of Guanajuato since 1970.The museum claims to have the smallest mummy in the world on display (a mummified fetus).",
"It was thought that minerals in the soil had the preserving effect, however it may rather be due to the warm, arid climate.",
"Mexican mummies are also on display in the small town of Encarnación de Díaz, Jalisco.==== United States ====Spirit Cave Man was discovered in 1940 during salvage work prior to guano mining activity that was scheduled to begin in the area.",
"The mummy is a middle-aged male, found completely dressed and lying on a blanket made of animal skin.",
"Radiocarbon tests in the 1990s dated the mummy to being nearly 9,000 years old.",
"The remains were held at the Nevada State Museum, though the local Native American community began petitioning to have the remains returned and reburied in 1995.When the Bureau of Land Management did not repatriate the mummy in 2000, the Fallon Paiute-Shoshone Tribe sued under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act.",
"After DNA sequencing determined that the remains were in fact related to modern Native Americans, they were repatriated to the tribe in 2016.=== Oceania ===Horatio Gordon Robley with his mokomokai collection.Mummies from the Oceania are not limited only to Australia.",
"Discoveries of mummified remains have also been located in New Zealand, and the Torres Strait, though these mummies have been historically harder to examine and classify.",
"Prior to the 20th century, most literature on mummification in the region was either silent or anecdotal.",
"However, the boom of interest generated by the scientific study of Egyptian mummification lead to more concentrated study of mummies in other cultures, including those of Oceania.==== Australia ====The aboriginal mummification traditions found in Australia are thought be related to those found in the Torres Strait islands, the inhabitants of which achieved a high level of sophisticated mummification techniques.",
"Australian mummies lack some of the technical ability of the Torres Strait mummies, however much of the ritual aspects of the mummification process are similar.",
"Full-body mummification was achieved by these cultures, but not the level of artistic preservation as found on smaller islands.",
"The reason for this seems to be for easier transport of bodies by more nomadic tribes.==== Torres Strait ====The mummies of the Torres Strait have a considerably higher level of preservation technique as well as creativity compared to those found on Australia.",
"The process began with removal of viscera, after which the bodies were set in a seated position on a platform and either left to dry in the sun or smoked over a fire in order to aid in desiccation.",
"In the case of smoking, some tribes would collect the fat that drained from the body to mix with ocher to create red paint that would then be smeared back on the skin of the mummy.",
"The mummies remained on the platforms, decorated with the clothing and jewelry they wore in life, before being buried.==== New Zealand ====Some Māori tribes from New Zealand would keep mummified heads as trophies from tribal warfare.",
"They are also known as Mokomokai.",
"In the 19th century, many of the trophies were acquired by Europeans who found the tattooed skin to be a phenomenal curiosity.",
"Westerners began to offer valuable commodities in exchange for the uniquely tattooed mummified heads.",
"The heads were later put on display in museums, 16 of them in France alone.",
"In 2010, the Rouen City Hall of France returned one of the heads to New Zealand, despite earlier protests by the Culture Ministry of France.There is also evidence that some Māori tribes may have practiced full-body mummification, though the practice is not thought to have been widespread.",
"The discussion of Māori mummification has been historically controversial, with some experts in past decades claiming that such mummies have never existed.The historical significance of full-body mummification within Māori culture is acknowledged by science, although there is still debate as to the nature of their exact mummification processes.",
"Some mummies appear to have been spontaneously created by the natural environment, while others exhibit signs of direct human involvement.",
"Generally, modern consensus tends to agree that there could have been a mixture of both types of mummification, similar to that of the Ancient Egyptian culture.=== South America ===The South American continent contains some of the oldest mummies in the world, both deliberate and accidental.",
"The bodies were preserved by the best agent for mummification: the environment.",
"The Pacific coastal desert in Peru and Chile is one of the driest areas in the world and the dryness facilitated mummification.",
"Rather than developing elaborate processes such as later-dynasty ancient Egyptians, the early South Americans often left their dead in naturally dry or frozen areas, though some did perform surgical preparation when mummification was intentional.",
"Some of the reasons for intentional mummification in South America include memorialization, immortalization, and religious offerings.",
"A large number of mummified bodies have been found in pre-Columbian cemeteries scattered around Peru.",
"The bodies had often been wrapped for burial in finely-woven textiles.==== Chinchorro mummies ====Chinchorro mummies are the oldest artificial mummies on the earth.The Chinchorro mummies are the oldest intentionally prepared mummified bodies ever found.",
"Beginning in 5th millennium BC and continuing for an estimated 3,500 years, all human burials within the Chinchorro culture were prepared for mummification.",
"The bodies were carefully prepared, beginning with removal of the internal organs and skin, before being left in the hot, dry climate of the Atacama Desert, which aided in desiccation.",
"A large number of Chinchorro mummies were also prepared by skilled artisans to be preserved in a more artistic fashion, though the purpose of this practice is widely debated.==== Inca mummies ====Llullaillaco mummy in Salta Province (Argentina).Several naturally-preserved, unintentional mummies dating from the Incan period (1438–1532 AD) have been found in the colder regions of Argentina, Chile, and Peru.",
"These are collectively known as \"ice mummies\".",
"The first Incan ice mummy was discovered in 1954 atop El Plomo Peak in Chile, after an eruption of the nearby volcano Sabancaya melted away ice that covered the body.",
"The Mummy of El Plomo was a male child who was presumed to be wealthy due to his well-fed bodily characteristics.",
"He was considered to be the most well-preserved ice mummy in the world until the discovery of Mummy Juanita in 1995.Mummy Juanita was discovered near the summit of Ampato in the Peruvian section of the Andes mountains by archaeologist Johan Reinhard.",
"Her body had been so thoroughly frozen that it had not been desiccated; much of her skin, muscle tissue, and internal organs retained their original structure.",
"She is believed to be a ritual sacrifice, due to the close proximity of her body to the Incan capital of Cusco, as well as the fact she was wearing highly intricate clothing to indicate her special social status.",
"Several Incan ceremonial artifacts and temporary shelters uncovered in the surrounding area seem to support this theory.More evidence that the Inca left sacrificial victims to die in the elements, and later be unintentionally preserved, came in 1999 with the discovery of the Llullaillaco mummies on the border of Argentina and Chile.",
"The three mummies are children, two girls and one boy, who are thought to be sacrifices associated with the ancient ritual of ''qhapaq hucha''.",
"Recent biochemical analysis of the mummies has revealed that the victims had consumed increasing quantities of alcohol and coca, possibly in the form of chicha, in the months leading up to sacrifice.",
"The dominant theory for the drugging reasons that, alongside ritual uses, the substances probably made the children more docile.",
"Chewed coca leaves found inside the eldest child's mouth upon her discovery in 1999 supports this theory.The bodies of Inca emperors and wives were mummified after death.",
"In 1533, the Spanish conquistadors of the Inca Empire viewed the mummies in the Inca capital of Cuzco.",
"The mummies were displayed, often in lifelike positions, in the palaces of the deceased emperors and had a retinue of servants to care for them.",
"The Spanish were impressed with the quality of the mummification which involved removal of the organs, embalming, and freeze-drying.The population revered the mummies of the Inca emperors.",
"This reverence seemed idolatry to the Roman Catholic Spanish and in 1550 they confiscated the mummies.",
"The mummies were taken to Lima where they were displayed in the San Andres Hospital.",
"The mummies deteriorated in the humid climate of Lima and eventually they were either buried or destroyed by the Spanish.An attempt to find the mummies of the Inca emperors beneath the San Andres hospital in 2001 was unsuccessful.",
"The archaeologists found a crypt, but it was empty.",
"Possibly the mummies had been removed when the building was repaired after an earthquake."
],
[
"Self-mummification",
"Monks whose bodies remain incorrupt without any traces of deliberate mummification are venerated by some Buddhists who believe they successfully were able to mortify their flesh to death.",
"Self-mummification was practiced until the late 1800s in Japan and has been outlawed since the early 1900s.Many Mahayana Buddhist monks were reported to know their time of death and left their last testaments and their students accordingly buried them sitting in lotus position, put into a vessel with drying agents (such as wood, paper, or lime) and surrounded by bricks, to be exhumed later, usually after three years.",
"The preserved bodies would then be decorated with paint and adorned with gold.Bodies purported to be those of self-mummified monks are exhibited in several Japanese shrines, and it has been claimed that the monks, prior to their death, stuck to a sparse diet made up of salt, nuts, seeds, roots, pine bark, and tea."
],
[
"Modern mummies",
"Jeremy Bentham wished to be mummified after he died.=== Jeremy Bentham ===In the 1830s, Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, left instructions to be followed upon his death which led to the creation of a sort of modern-day mummy.",
"He asked that his body be displayed to illustrate how the \"horror at dissection originates in ignorance\"; once so displayed and lectured about, he asked that his body parts be preserved, including his skeleton (minus his skull, which despite being mis-preserved, was displayed beneath his feet until theft required it to be stored elsewhere), which were to be dressed in the clothes he usually wore and \"seated in a Chair usually occupied by me when living in the attitude in which I am sitting when engaged in thought\".",
"His body, outfitted with a wax head created because of problems preparing it as Bentham requested, is on open display in the University College London.=== Vladimir Lenin ===During the early 20th century, the Russian movement of Cosmism, as represented by Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov, envisioned scientific resurrection of dead people.",
"The idea was so popular that, after Vladimir Lenin's death, Leonid Krasin and Alexander Bogdanov suggested to cryonically preserve his body and brain in order to revive him in the future.",
"Necessary equipment was purchased abroad, but for a variety of reasons the plan was not realized.",
"Instead his body was embalmed and placed on permanent exhibition in the Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow, where it is displayed to this day.",
"The mausoleum itself was modeled by Alexey Shchusev on the Pyramid of Djoser and the Tomb of Cyrus.===Gottfried Knoche===In late 19th-century Venezuela, a German-born doctor named Gottfried Knoche conducted experiments in mummification at his laboratory in the forest near La Guaira.",
"He developed an embalming fluid (based on an aluminum chloride compound) that mummified corpses without having to remove the internal organs.",
"The formula for his fluid was never revealed and has not been discovered.",
"Most of the several dozen mummies created with the fluid (including himself and his immediate family) have been lost or were severely damaged by vandals and looters.=== Summum ===In 1975, an esoteric organization by the name of Summum introduced \"Modern Mummification\", a service that utilizes modern techniques along with aspects of ancient methods of mummification.",
"The first person to formally undergo Summum's process of modern mummification was the founder of Summum, Summum Bonum Amen Ra, who died in January 2008.Summum is currently considered to be the only \"commercial mummification business\" in the world.=== Alan Billis ===In 2010, a team led by forensic archaeologist Stephen Buckley mummified Alan Billis using techniques based on 19 years of research of 18th-dynasty Egyptian mummification.",
"The process was filmed for television, for the documentary ''Mummifying Alan: Egypt's Last Secret''.",
"Billis made the decision to allow his body to be mummified after being diagnosed with terminal cancer in 2009.His body currently resides at London's Gordon Museum.=== Amélie of Leuchtenberg===Amélie of Leuchtenberg (1812–1873) was Empress of Brazil as the wife of Emperor Pedro I (also King of Portugal as Pedro IV).",
"Between February and September 2012, researchers at the University of São Paulo in Brazil exhumed her remains, as well as those of her husband and his first wife, Maria Leopoldina.",
"They were surprised to find that the body of Amélie had been mummified.",
"Skin, hair and internal organs were preserved.",
"Examinations at the Hospital das Clínicas found an incision in the empress' jugular vein.",
"Aromatics such as camphor and myrrh were injected into the incision during the embalming process.",
"\"It certainly helped to nullify the decomposition\", said Brazilian forensic archaeologist Valdirene Ambiel, responsible for the research.",
"She added that another contributing factor was the casket, saying it was so hermetically sealed that there were no micro-organisms in it.",
"Before the reburial, scientists reembalmed Amélie's mummified body using a method similar to the first one.The remains of Amélie, Pedro I, and Maria Leopoldina are interred in the Monument to the Independence of Brazil in São Paulo.=== Plastination ===Plastination is a technique used in anatomy to conserve bodies or body parts.",
"The water and fat are replaced by certain plastics, yielding specimens that can be touched, do not smell or decay, and even retain most microscopic properties of the original sample.The technique was invented by Gunther von Hagens when working at the anatomical institute of the Heidelberg University in 1978.Von Hagens has patented the technique in several countries and is heavily involved in its promotion, especially as the creator and director of the Body Worlds traveling exhibitions, exhibiting plastinated human bodies internationally.",
"He also founded and directs the Institute for Plastination in Heidelberg.More than 40 institutions worldwide have facilities for plastination, mainly for medical research and study, and most affiliated to the International Society for Plastination."
],
[
"Treatment of ancient mummies in modern times",
"Egyptian mummy seller in 1875An 18th century albarello used for storing ''mummia''In the Middle Ages, based on a mistranslation from the Arabic term for bitumen, it was thought that mummies possessed healing properties.",
"As a result, it became common practice to grind Egyptian mummies into a powder to be sold and used as medicine.",
"When actual mummies became unavailable, the sun-desiccated corpses of criminals, slaves and suicidal people were substituted by mendacious merchants.",
"Francis Bacon and Robert Boyle recommended them for healing bruises and preventing bleeding.",
"The trade in mummies seems to have been frowned upon by Turkish authorities who ruled Egypt – several Egyptians were imprisoned for boiling mummies to make oil in 1424.However, mummies were in high demand in Europe and it was possible to buy them for the right amount of money.",
"John Snaderson, an English tradesman who visited Egypt in the 16th century shipped six hundred pounds of mummy back to England.The practice developed into a wide-scale business that flourished until the late 16th century.",
"Two centuries ago, mummies were still believed to have medicinal properties to stop bleeding, and were sold as pharmaceuticals in powdered form as in mellified man.",
"Artists also made use of Egyptian mummies; a brownish pigment known as mummy brown, based on ''mummia'' (sometimes called alternatively ''caput mortuum'', Latin for ''death's head''), which was originally obtained by grinding human and animal Egyptian mummies.",
"It was most popular in the 17th century, but was discontinued in the early 19th century when its composition became generally known to artists who replaced the said pigment by a totally different blend -but keeping the original name, mummia or mummy brown-yielding a similar tint and based on ground minerals (oxides and fired earths) and or blends of powdered gums and oleoresins (such as myrrh and frankincense) as well as ground bitumen.",
"These blends appeared on the market as forgeries of powdered mummy pigment but were ultimately considered as acceptable replacements, once antique mummies were no longer permitted to be destroyed.",
"Many thousands of mummified cats were also sent from Egypt to England to be processed for use in fertilizer.During the 19th century, following the discovery of the first tombs and artifacts in Egypt, egyptology was a huge fad in Europe, especially in Victorian England.",
"European aristocrats would occasionally entertain themselves by purchasing mummies, having them unwrapped, and holding observation sessions.",
"The pioneer of this kind of entertainment in Britain was Thomas Pettigrew known as \"Mummy\" Pettigrew due to his work.",
"Such unrolling sessions destroyed hundreds of mummies, because the exposure to the air caused them to disintegrate.The use of mummies as fuel for locomotives was documented by Mark Twain (likely as a joke or humor), but the truth of the story remains debatable.",
"During the American Civil War, mummy-wrapping linens were said to have been used to manufacture paper.",
"Evidence for the reality of these claims is still equivocal.",
"Researcher Ben Radford reports that, in her book ''The Mummy Congress'', Heather Pringle writes: \"No mummy expert has ever been able to authenticate the story ...",
"Twain seems to be the only published source – and a rather suspect one at that\".",
"Pringle also writes that there is no evidence for the \"mummy paper\" either.",
"Radford also says that many journalists have not done a good job with their research, and while it is true that mummies were often not shown respect in the 1800s, there is no evidence for this rumor.While mummies were used in medicine, some researchers have brought into question these other uses such as making paper and paint, fueling locomotives and fertilizing land."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"A 2023 report by ''CNN'' revealed that a number of museums in Britain were rethinking how they described their displays of ancient Egyptian human remains, known as \"mummies,\" in order to emphasize that these individuals were once living people.",
"The museums started using terms such as \"mummified person\" or the individual's name instead of \"mummy.\"",
"The shift in language was also intended to distance the display of mummies from their depiction in popular culture, which often \"undermined their humanity\" by depicting them as supernatural monsters and perpetuating the notion of a \"mummy's curse.\"",
"The change in language is part of a larger effort by museums to address historical bias and reflect on the way they represent the past to audiences.",
"The British Museum, for example, has not banned the use of the term \"mummy\" in its displays, but has started to use alternative terminology such as \"mummified remains\" and including the individual's name when known."
],
[
"See also",
"* Animal mummy* Bodies: The Exhibition* Corpse decomposition* Embalming* Fossil* Incorruptibility* List of mummies* List of Egyptian mummies* List of DNA-tested mummies* Medical cannibalism* Mummia"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Books ===* * Barber, Elizabeth Wayland (1999).",
"''The Mummies of Ürümchi''.",
"London: Pan Books.",
".",
"* Budge, E. A. Wallis (1925).",
"''The Mummy, A Handbook of Egyptian Funerary Archaeology''.",
"Dover Publ.",
"Reprint: New York: Dover Ed., 1989, .",
"* * Davis-Kimball, Jeannine, with Behan, Mona (2003).",
"''Warrior Women: An Archaeologist's Search for History's Hidden Heroines''.",
"Paperback edition.",
"New York: Warner Books.",
".",
"First published 2002.",
"* Mallory, J. P. and Mair, Victor H. (2000).",
"''The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West''.",
"London: Thames & Hudson.",
".",
"* Pringle, Heather (2001).",
"''The Mummy Congress: Science, Obsession, and the Everlasting Dead''.",
"Penguin Books.",
".",
"* Taylor, John H. (2004).",
"''Mummy: The Inside Story''.",
"The British Museum Press.",
".=== TV and video ===* *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Mummies at HowStuffWorks* * U.S. Museum to Return Ramses I Mummy to Egypt (30 April 2003) – ''National Geographic''* * Simon Cleveland, * Mummies Around the World – Dried, Smoked, or Thrown in a Bog (18 January 2016) – ''National Geographic''* Interview with Prof. Ann Rosalie David on Egyptian mummies, \"History of Egypt Podcast\" series by Eyptologist Dominic Perry (2020)* The Virtual Mummy: Unwrapping a Mummy by Mouse Click"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Melilla"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Melilla''' ( , ; ; ; ) is an autonomous city of Spain in North Africa.",
"It lies on the eastern side of the Cape Three Forks, bordering Morocco and facing the Mediterranean Sea.",
"It has an area of .",
"It was part of the Province of Málaga until 14 March 1995, when the Statute of Autonomy of Melilla was passed.Melilla is one of the special member state territories of the European Union.",
"Movements to and from the rest of the EU and Melilla are subject to specific rules, provided for ''inter alia'' in the Accession Agreement of Spain to the Schengen Convention.As of 2019, Melilla had a population of 86,487.The population is chiefly divided between people of Iberian and Riffian extraction.",
"There is also a small number of Sephardic Jews and Sindhi Hindus.",
"Melilla features a diglossia between the official Spanish and Tarifit.Like the autonomous city of Ceuta and Spain's other territories in Africa, Melilla is subject to an irredentist claim by Morocco."
],
[
"Names",
"Melilla's original name (currently rendered as ''Rusadir'') was a Punic language name, coming from the name of the nearby Cape Three Forks.",
"''Addir'' meant \"powerful\".",
"The name creation is similar to that of other names given in Antiquity to outlets along the North African coast, including ''Rusguniae'', ''Rusubbicari'', ''Rusuccuru'', ''Rusippisir'', ''Rusigan'' (Rachgoun), ''Rusicade'', ''Ruspina'', ''Ruspe'' or ''Rsmlqr''.The etymology of (dating back to the 9th century) is uncertain.",
"Since Melilla was an active beekeeping location in the past, the name has been related to honey; this is tentatively backed up by two ancient coins featuring a bee as well as the inscriptions and .",
"Others relate the name to \"discord\" or \"fever\" or to an ancient Arab personality."
],
[
"History",
"=== Antiquity and Middle Ages ===Melilla was a Phoenician and later Punic trade establishment under the name Rusadir (''Rusaddir'' for the Romans and ''Russadeiron'' () for the Greeks).",
"Later, Rome absorbed it as part of the Roman province of Mauretania Tingitana.",
"Ptolemy (IV, 1) and Pliny (V, 18) mention Rusaddir, calling it ''\"oppidum et portus\"'' (a fortified town and port).",
"It was also cited by Mela (I, 33) as ''Rusicada'', and by the ''Itinerarium Antonini''.",
"Rusaddir was said to have once been the seat of a bishop, but there is no record of any bishop of the purported see, which is not included in the Catholic Church's list of titular sees.As centuries passed, it was ruled by Vandal, Byzantine and Visigoth bands.",
"The political history is similar to that of towns in the region of the Moroccan Rif and southern Spain.",
"Local rule passed through a succession of Phoenician, Punic, Roman, Umayyad, Cordobese, Idrisid, Almoravid, Almohad, Marinid, and then Wattasid rulers.=== Early Modern period ===During the 15th century, the city declined, like most Mediterranean cities of the Kingdom of Fez, eclipsed by those on the Atlantic.",
"After the Catholic Monarchs' conquest of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada in 1492, their Secretary Hernando de Zafra gathered intelligence about the sorry state of the north African coast with territorial expansion in mind.",
"He sent agents to investigate, and subsequently reported to the Catholic Monarchs that, as of 1494, locals had expelled the authority of the Sultan of Fez and had offered to pledge loyalty.",
"While the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas put Melilla and Cazaza (until then reserved to the Portuguese) under the sphere of Castile, the conquest of the city had to wait, delayed by Charles VIII of France's occupation of Naples.Map of the Melilla fortress by the late 17th-century.The Duke of Medina Sidonia, Juan Alfonso Pérez de Guzmán, promoted the seizure of the place, to be headed by , while the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, endorsed the initiative, also providing the assistance of their artillery officer Francisco Ramírez de Madrid for the operation.",
"Melilla was occupied on 17 September 1497 virtually without violence as it was on the border between the Kingdom of Tlemcen and the Kingdom of Fez, and as a result had been fought over many times and been left abandoned.",
"No large-scale expansion into the Kingdom of Fez ensued, and, barring the enterprises of the Cardinal Cisneros along the coast in Mers El Kébir and Oran (in the Algerian coast), and the rock of Badis (in the territorial scope of the Kingdom of Fez), the Hispanic monarchy's imperial impetus was eventually directed elsewhere, to the Italian Wars waged against France, and, especially after 1519, to the newly discovered continent across the Atlantic.Melilla was initially jointly administered by the House of Medina Sidonia and the Crown, and a 1498 settlement forced the former to station a 700-men garrison in Melilla and forced the latter to provide the city with a number of maravedíes and wheat ''fanegas''.",
"The Crown's interest in Melilla decreased during the reign of Charles V. During the 16th century, soldiers stationed in Melilla were badly remunerated, leading to many desertions.",
"The Duke of Medina Sidonia relinquished responsibility over the garrison of the place on 7 June 1556.During the late 17th century, Alaouite sultan Ismail Ibn Sharif attempted to conquer the ''presidio'', taking the outer fortifications in the 1680s and further unsuccessfully besieging Melilla in the 1690s.One Spanish officer reflected, \"an hour in Melilla, from the point of view of merit, was worth more than thirty years of service to Spain.",
"\"=== Late Modern period ===The current limits of the Spanish territory around the Melilla fortress were fixed by treaties with Morocco in 1859, 1860, 1861, and 1894.In the late 19th century, as Spanish influence expanded in this area, the Crown authorized Melilla as the only centre of trade on the Rif coast between Tetuan and the Algerian frontier.",
"The value of trade increased, with goat skins, eggs and beeswax being the principal exports, and cotton goods, tea, sugar and candles being the chief imports.Melilla's civil population in 1860 still amounted to only 375 estimated inhabitants.",
"In a 1866 Hispano-Moroccan arrangement signed in Fes, both parts agreed to allow for the installment of a customs office near the border with Melilla, to be operated by Moroccan officials.",
"The Treaty of Peace with Morocco that followed the 1859–60 War entailed the acquisition of a new perimeter for Melilla, bringing its area to the 12 km2 the autonomous city currently stands.",
"Following the declaration of Melilla as free port in 1863, the population began to increase, chiefly by Sephardi Jews fleeing from Tetouan who fostered trade in and out the city.",
"The first Jews from Tetouan probably arrived in 1864, meanwhile the first rabbi arrived in 1867 and began to operate the first synagogue, located in the Calle de San Miguel.",
"Many Jews arrived fleeing from persecution in Morocco, instigated by Roghi Bu Hamara.",
"Following the 1868 lifting of the veto to emigrate to Melilla from Peninsular Spain, the population further increased with Spaniards.",
"The Jewish population, who also progressively acquired Spanish citizenship, increased to 572 in 1893.The economic opportunities created in Melilla henceforth favoured the installment of a Berber population.File:1893-10-30, La Ilustración Española y Americana, Vista general de la plaza de Melilla y de su campo, Venancio Álvarez Cabrera (cropped).jpgFile:1893-10-30, La Ilustración Española y Americana, Vista general de la plaza de Melilla y de su campo, Venancio Álvarez Cabrera (cropped 2).jpgThe first proper body of local government was the ''junta de arbitrios'', created in 1879, and in which the military used to enjoy preponderance.",
"The Polígono excepcional de Tiro, the first neighborhood outside the walled core (Melilla la Vieja), began construction in 1888.Jewish woman in the Jewish quarter (1909)In 1893, Riffian tribesmen launched the First Melillan campaign to take back this area; the Spanish government sent 25,000 soldiers to defend against them.",
"The conflict was also known as the ''Margallo War'', after Spanish General Juan García y Margallo, Governor of Melilla, who was killed in the battle.",
"The new 1894 agreement with Morocco that followed the conflict increased trade with the hinterland, bringing the economic prosperity of the city to a new level.",
"The total population of Melilla amounted to 10,004 inhabitants in 1896.Art Nouveau buildings in the Plaza de España (c. 1917)The turn of the new century saw attempts by France (based in French Algeria) to profit from their newly acquired sphere of influence in Morocco to counter Melilla's trading prowess by fostering trade links with the Algerian cities of Ghazaouet and Oran.",
"Melilla began to suffer from this, to which the instability brought by revolts against Muley Abdel Aziz in the hinterland also added, although after 1905 Sultan pretender El Rogui (Bou Hmara) carried out a defusing policy in the area that favoured Spain.",
"The French occupation of Oujda in 1907 compromised the Melillan trade with that city, and the enduring instability in the Rif still threatened Melilla.",
"Between 1909 and 1945, the ''modernista'' (Art Nouveau) style was prevalent in local architecture, making Melilla's streets a \"true museum of ''modernista''-style architecture\", second only to Barcelona, mainly stemming from the work of architect Enrique Nieto.Mining companies began to enter the hinterland of Melilla by 1908.A Spanish one, the , was constituted in July 1908, shared by Clemente Fernández, Enrique Macpherson, the Count of Romanones, the and , who appointed Miguel Villanueva as chairman.",
"Thus two mining companies under the protection of Bou Hmara, started mining lead and iron 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) from Melilla.",
"They started to construct a railway between the port and the mines.",
"In October of that year, Bou Hmara's vassals revolted against him and raided the mines, which remained closed until June 1909.By July the workmen were again attacked and several were killed.",
"Severe fighting between the Spaniards and the tribesmen followed, in the Second Melillan campaign that took place in the vicinity of Melilla.In 1910, the Spaniards restarted the mines and undertook harbor works at Mar Chica, but hostilities broke out again in 1911.On 22 July 1921, the Berbers under the leadership of Abd el Krim inflicted a grave defeat on the Spanish at the Battle of Annual.",
"The Spanish retreated to Melilla, leaving most of the protectorate under the control of the Republic of Rif.A royal decree pursuing the creation of an ''ayuntamiento'' in Melilla was signed on 13 December 1918 but the regulation did not come into force, and thus the existing government body, the , remained in force.City centre in 1926A \"junta municipal\" with a rather civil composition was created in 1927; on 10 April 1930, an ''ayuntamiento'' featuring the same membership as the junta was created, equalling to the same municipal regime as the rest of Spain on 14 April 1931, with the arrival of the first democratically elected municipal corporation on the wake of the proclamation of the Second Republic.The city was used as one of the staging grounds for the July 1936 military coup d'état that started the Spanish Civil War.In the context of the passing of the Ley de Extranjería in 1986, and following social mobilization from the Berber community, conditions for citizenship acquisition were flexibilised and allowed for the naturalisation of a substantial number of inhabitants, until then born in Melilla but without Spanish citizenship.=== Recent developments ===In 1995, Melilla (until then just another municipality of the Province of Málaga) became an \"autonomous city\", as the Statute of Autonomy of Melilla was passed.On 6 November 2007, King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofia visited Melilla, which caused a demonstration of support.",
"The visit also sparked protests from the Moroccan government.",
"It was the first time a Spanish monarch had visited Melilla in 80 years.Melilla (and Ceuta) declared the Muslim holiday of Eid al-Adha, or Feast of the Sacrifice, an official public holiday from 2010 onward.",
"It is the first time a non-Christian religious festival has been officially celebrated in Spain since the Reconquista.In 2018, Morocco decided to close the customs office near Melilla, in operation since the mid-19th century, without consulting the counterparty.",
"The customs office was expected to reopen in January 2023."
],
[
"Geography",
"=== Location ===Detail of a satellite photograph of Cape Three Forks (centred on Melilla) taken during the 2013 ISS-36 expedition.Melilla is in northwest Africa, on the shores of the Alboran Sea, a marginal sea of the Mediterranean, the latter's westernmost portion.",
"The city is arranged in a wide semicircle around the beach and the Port of Melilla, on the eastern side of the peninsula of Cape Tres Forcas, at the foot of and around the mouth of the Río de Oro intermittent water stream, above sea level.",
"The urban nucleus was originally a fortress, Melilla la Vieja, built on a peninsular mound about in height.The Moroccan settlement of Beni Ansar lies immediately south of Melilla.",
"The nearest Moroccan city is Nador, and the ports of Melilla and Nador are within the same bay; nearby is the Bou Areg Lagoon.=== Climate ===Melilla has a warm Mediterranean climate influenced by its proximity to the sea, rendering much cooler summers and more precipitation than inland areas deeper into Africa.",
"The climate, in general, is similar to the southern coast of peninsular Spain and the northern coast of Morocco, with relatively small temperature differences between seasons."
],
[
"Government and administration",
"=== Self-government institutions ===Palace of the Assembly of MelillaThe government bodies stipulated in the Statute of Autonomy are the Assembly of Melilla, the President of Melilla and the Council of Government.",
"The assembly is a 25-member body whose members are elected through universal suffrage every 4 years in closed party lists following the schedule of local elections at the national level.",
"Its members are called \"local deputies\" but they rather enjoy the status of ''concejales'' (municipal councillors).",
"Unlike regional legislatures (and akin to municipal councils), the assembly does not enjoy right of initiative for primary legislation.The president of Melilla (who, often addressed as Mayor-President, also exerts the roles of Mayor, president of the Assembly, president of the Council of Government and representative of the city) is invested by the Assembly.",
"After local elections, the president is invested through a qualified majority from among the leaders of the election lists, or, failing to achieve the former, the leader of the most voted list at the election is invested to the office.",
"In case of a motion of no confidence the president can only be ousted with a qualified majority voting for an alternative assembly member.The Council of Government is the traditional collegiate executive body for parliamentary systems.",
"Unlike the municipal government boards in the standard ''ayuntamientos'', the members of the Council of Government (including the vice-presidents) do not need to be members of the assembly.Melilla is the city in Spain with the highest proportion of postal voting; vote buying (via mail-in ballots) is widely reported to be a common practice in the poor neighborhoods of Melilla.",
"Court cases in this matter had involved the PP, the CPM and the PSOE.On 15 June 2019, following the May 2019 Melilla Assembly election, the regionalist and left-leaning party of Muslim and Amazigh persuasion Coalition for Melilla (CPM, 8 seats), the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE, 4 seats) and Citizens–Party of the Citizenry (Cs, 1 seat) voted in favour of the Cs' candidate (Eduardo de Castro) as the Presidency of the Autonomous City, ousting Juan José Imbroda, from the People's Party (PP, 10 seats), who had been in office since 2000.Melilla also maintains a local police force known as Policia Local de Melilla (Ciudad Autonoma de Melilla - Policia Local)=== Administrative subdivisions ===Melilla is subdivided into eight districts (''distritos''), which are further subdivided into neighbourhoods (''barrios''):*1st**Barrio de Medina Sidonia.",
"**Barrio del General Larrea.",
"**Barrio de Ataque Seco.",
"*2nd**Barrio Héroes de España.",
"**Barrio del General Gómez Jordana.",
"**Barrio Príncipe de Asturias.",
"*3rd**Barrio del Carmen.",
"*4th**Barrio Polígono Residencial La Paz.",
"**Barrio Hebreo-Tiro Nacional.",
"*5th**Barrio de Cristóbal Colón.",
"**Barrio de Cabrerizas.",
"**Barrio de Batería Jota.",
"**Barrio de Hernán Cortes y Las Palmeras.",
"**Barrio de Reina Regente.",
"*6th**Barrio de Concepción Arenal.",
"**Barrio Isaac Peral (Tesorillo).",
"*7th**Barrio del General Real.",
"**Polígono Industrial SEPES.",
"**Polígono Industrial Las Margaritas.",
"**Parque Empresarial La Frontera.",
"*8th**Barrio de la Libertad.",
"**Barrio del Hipódromo.",
"**Barrio de Alfonso XIII.",
"**Barrio Industrial.",
"**Barrio Virgen de la Victoria.",
"**Barrio de la Constitución.",
"**Barrio de los Pinares.",
"**Barrio de la Cañada de Hidum"
],
[
"Economy",
"The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 1.6 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 0.1% of Spanish economic output.",
"GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 19,900 euros or 66% of the EU27 average in the same year.",
"Melilla was the NUTS2 region with the lowest GDP per capita in Spain.Melilla does not participate in the European Union Customs Union (EUCU).",
"There is no VAT (IVA) tax, but a local reduced-rate tax called IPSI.",
"Preserving the status of free port, imports are free of tariffs and the only tax concerning them is the IPSI.",
"Exports to the Customs Union (including Peninsular Spain) are however subject to the correspondent customs tariff and are taxed with the correspondent VAT.",
"There are some special manufacturing taxes regarding electricity and transport, as well as complementary charges on tobacco and oil and fuel products.The principal industry is fishing.",
"Cross-border commerce (legal or smuggled) and Spanish and European grants and wages are the other income sources.Melilla is regularly connected to the Iberian peninsula by air and sea traffic and is also economically connected to Morocco: most of its fruit and vegetables are imported across the border.",
"Moroccans in the city's hinterland are attracted to it: 36,000 Moroccans cross the border daily to work, shop or trade goods.",
"The port of Melilla offers several daily connections to Almería and Málaga.",
"Melilla Airport offers daily flights to Almería, Málaga and Madrid.",
"Spanish operators Air Europa and Iberia operate in Melilla's airport.Many people travelling between Europe and Morocco use the ferry links to Melilla, both for passengers and for freight.",
"Because of this, the port and related companies form an important economic driver for the city.=== Tourism ===In order to boost growth and as a measure to promote tourism in the Autonomous City of Melilla, the Tourist Board has developed a Regulatory Decree for bonuses for Tourist Packages to Melilla.The Tourist package consists of the application of discounts on return tickets by plane or boat provided that they include accommodation during the stay in Melilla in one of the types of tourist accommodation or at the home of a resident of the city and do not exceed, between the round trip dates, ten days."
],
[
"Water supply",
"View of the Melilla's desalination plantMelilla's water supply primarily came from a network of dug wells (which by the turn of the 21st century suffered from overexploitation and had also experienced a degradation of the water quality and the intrusion of seawater), as well as the capture of the Río de Oro's underflow.",
"Seeking to address the water supply problem, works for the construction of a desalination plant in the Aguadú cliffs, projected to produce a day, started in November 2003.The plant entered operation in March 2007.Its daily operation is partially funded by the central government.",
"Relative to the Spanish average (and similarly to the Canary and Balearic Islands), the city's population spends a comparatively larger amount of money on bottled water.Funded by the European Regional Development Fund and the , works for the expansion of the plant's production capabilities up to a day started by September 2020."
],
[
"Architecture",
"The dome of the Chapel of Santiago, built in the mid-16th century by Miguel de Perea with help from Sancho de Escalante, is a rare instance of Gothic architecture in the African continent.Parallel to the urban development of Melilla in the early 20th century, the new architectural style of ''modernismo'' (irradiated from Barcelona and associated to the bourgeois class) was imported to the city, granting it a ''modernista'' architectural character, primarily through the works of the prolific Catalan architect Enrique Nieto.Accordingly, Melilla has the second most important concentration of ''Modernista'' works in Spain after Barcelona.",
"Nieto was in charge of designing the main Synagogue, the Central Mosque and various Catholic Churches.File:Capilla de Santiago3.jpg|Dome of the File:EDIFICIO DEL ANTIGÜA REDACCIÓN EL TELEGRAMA DEL RIF.jpg|''Modernista'' building, former headquarters of ''El Telegrama del Rif'' newspaper.File:Sinagoga Orr Zoruah, Ruta de los Templos (6) (5446069722).jpg|Local synagogueFile:Mezquita central melilla.jpg|Melilla's central mosque"
],
[
"Demographics",
"Melilla population pyramid in 2022=== Religion ===Holy Week procession in MelillaMelilla has been praised as an example of multiculturalism, being a small city in which one can find Christians, Muslims, Jews, Hindus, and Buddhists represented.",
"There is a small, autonomous, and commercially important Hindu community present in Melilla, which has fallen over the past decades as its members move to the Spanish mainland and numbers about 100 members today.==== Judaism ====Percentagewise, Melilla may be the most Jewish city in Spain with around 1,000 Jews still living in the city, down from 7,000 around the year 1930 which is mainly due to economic reasons resulting in moving to the Spanish mainland, Israel or elsewhere.",
"Melilla plays an important part in the History of Jews in Spain, having been exempt from the expulsion of Jews from Spain.",
"The expelled Spanish Jews were Sephardic Jews and subsequently found new home in neighboring Morocco, including Melilla.",
"Especially during the second half of the 19th century, many of the expelled Sephardic Jews moved from northern Morocco to Melilla.",
"The first ones were traders from the Moroccan cities who came for economic and safety reasons.",
"Later, impoverished Jews from the rural Riffian areas joined, also because of safety reasons.",
"Thus, Melilla's special geographical and political situation has made the city the oldest and one of the most important centers of Sephardic Judaism in today's Spain, traditional home of the Sephards.==== Christianity ====According to the Spanish Center for Sociological Research, Roman Catholicism is the largest religion in Melilla.",
"In 2019, the proportion of Melillans that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 65.0% (31.7% define themselves as not practising, while 33.3% as practising).",
"30% identify as followers of other faiths, 2.7% identify as non-believers, and 2.3% identify as atheists.The Roman Catholic churches in Melilla belong to the Diocese of Málaga.==== Islam ====Muslims may account for roughly half the population in Melilla.=== Language ===Melilla features a diglossia, with Spanish first and official language and Tarifit as the second language, with limited written codification, and usage restricted to family and domestic relations and oral speech.The population can be thus divided into monolingual Spanish speakers of European ethnic origin (without competence in any other language than those formally taught at school); those descended from Tamazight-speaking parents, usually bilingual in Spanish and Tamazight; and Moroccan immigrants and cross-border workers, with a generally dominant Tamazight language (with some also competent in Arabic) and a L2 competence in Spanish.",
"The Spanish spoken in Melilla is similar to the Andalusian variety from Cádiz, whereas the Berber variant spoken in Melilla is the Riffian language common with the neighbouring Nador area.",
"Rather than Berber (), Berber speakers in Melilla use either the glotonym , or, in Spanish, for their language.The first attempt to legislate a degree of recognition for Berber in Melilla was in 1994, in the context of the elaboration of the Statute of Autonomy, by mentioning the promotion of the linguistic and cultural pluralism (without explicitly mentioning the Berber language).",
"The initiative went nowhere, voted down by PP and PSOE.",
"Reasons cited for not recognizing Tamazight are related to the argument that the variety is not standardized."
],
[
"Border security",
"=== Defence and Civil Guard ===The defence of the enclave is the responsibility of the Spanish Armed Forces' General Command of Melilla.",
"The Spanish Army's combat components of the command include:* 52nd ''Regulares'' Infantry Regiment;* 1st Tercio ''Gran Capitán'' Regiment of the Spanish Legion;* 10th 'Alcántara' Cavalry Regiment equipped with Leopard 2 main battle tanks and Pizarro infantry fighting vehicles;* 32nd Mixed Artillery Regiment with ''Grupo de Artillería de Campaña I/32'' equipped with 155/52mm towed howitzers and ''Grupo de Artillería Antiaérea II/32'' equipped with 35/90 SKYDOR/35/90 GDF-007 anti-aircraft guns; and,* 8th Engineer RegimentThe command also includes its headquarters battalion as well as logistics elements.In addition to the defence of Melilla, the garrison is also responsible for the defence of islands and rock formations claimed by Spain off the coast of Morocco.",
"Units of the garrison are deployed to these rock formations to secure them against Moroccan incursions and did so notably during the Perejil Island crisis in 2002.To enhance coastal security, the Spanish Navy based a dedicated patrol boat (''Isla Pinto'') in Melilla from mid-2023.Melilla itself is about distant from the main Spanish naval base at Rota on the Spanish mainland while the Spanish Air Force's Morón Air Base is within proximity.The Civil Guard is responsible for border security and protects both the territory's fortified land border against frequent, and sometimes significant, migrant incursions.=== Trans-border relations ===Melilla forms a sort of trans-border urban conurbation with limited integration together with the neighbouring Moroccan settlements, located at one of the ends of a linear succession of urban sprawl spanning southward in Morocco along the R19 road from Beni Ensar down to Nador and Selouane.",
"The urban system features a high degree of hierarchization, specialization and division of labour, with Melilla as chief provider of services, finance and trade; Nador as an eminently industrial city whereas the rest of Moroccan settlements found themselves in a subordinate role, presenting agro-town features and operating as providers of workforce.The asymmetry, as reflected for example in the provision of healthcare, has fostered situations such as the large-scale use of the Melillan health services by Moroccan citizens, with Melilla attending a number of urgencies more than four times the standard for its population in 2018.In order to satisfy the workforce needs of Melilla (mainly in areas such as domestic service, construction and cross-border bale workers, often under informal contracts), Moroccan inhabitants of the province of Nador were granted exemptions from visa requirements to enter the autonomous city.",
"This development in turn induced a strong flux of internal migration from other Moroccan provinces to Nador, in order to acquire the aforementioned exemption.The 'fluid' trans-border relations between Melilla and its surroundings are however not free from conflict, as they are contingent upon the 'tense' trans-national relations between Morocco and Spain.=== Securing the border ===The Melilla border fence aims to curb illegal immigration into the city.Following the increasing influx of Algerian and sub-Saharan irregular migrants into Ceuta and Melilla in the early 1990s, a process of border fortification in both cities ensued after 1995 to reduce the border's permeability, a target attained to some degree by 1999, although peak level of fortification was reached in 2005.Melilla's border with Morocco is secured by the Melilla border fence, a tall double fence with watch towers; yet migrants (in groups of tens or sometimes hundreds) storm the fence and manage to cross it from time to time.",
"Since 2005, at least 14 migrants have died trying to cross the fence.",
"The Melilla migrant reception centre was built with a capacity of 480.In 2020 works to remove the barbed wire from the top of the fence (meanwhile raising its height up to more than in the stretches most susceptible to breaches) were commissioned to .In June 2022, at least 23 sub-Saharan migrants and two Moroccan security personnel were killed when around 2,000 migrants stormed the border.",
"The death toll has been estimated to be as high as 37 by certain NGOs.",
"Around 200 Spanish and Moroccan law enforcement officers and at least 76 migrants were injured.",
"Hundreds of migrants succeeded in breaching the fence, and 133 made it across the border.",
"Widely circulated footage showed dozens of motionless migrants piled together.",
"It was the worst such incident in Melilla's history.",
"The United Nations, the African Union and a number of human rights groups condemned what they deemed excessive force used by Moroccan and Spanish border guards, although no lethal weapons were employed, and the deaths were later attributed to \"mechanical asphyxiation\".Morocco has been paid tens of million euros by both Spain and the European Union to outsource the EU migration control.",
"Besides the double fence in the Spanish side of the border, there is an additional high fence entirely made of razor wire lying on the Moroccan side as well as a moat in between."
],
[
"Transportation",
"Melilla Airport is serviced by Air Nostrum, flying to the Spanish cities of Málaga, Madrid, Barcelona, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Palma de Mallorca, Granada, Badajoz, Sevilla and Almería.",
"In April 2013, a local enterprise set up Melilla Airlines, flying from the city to Málaga.",
"The city is linked to Málaga, Almería and Motril by ferry.Three roads connect Melilla and Morocco but require clearance through border checkpoints."
],
[
"Sport",
"Melilla is a surfing destination.",
"The city's football club, UD Melilla, plays in the third tier of Spanish football, the Segunda División B.",
"The club was founded in 1943 and since 1945 have played at the 12,000-seater Estadio Municipal Álvarez Claro.",
"Until the other club was dissolved in 2012, UD Melilla played the Ceuta-Melilla derby against AD Ceuta.",
"The clubs travelled to each other via the Spanish mainland to avoid entering Morocco.",
"The second-highest ranked club in the city are Casino del Real CF of the fourth-tier Tercera División.",
"The football's governing institution is the Melilla Football Federation."
],
[
"Dispute with Morocco",
"The government of Morocco has repeatedly called for Spain to transfer the sovereignty of Ceuta and Melilla, along with uninhabited islets such as the Alhucemas Islands, the rock of Vélez de la Gomera and the Perejil island, drawing comparisons with Spain's territorial claim to Gibraltar.",
"In both cases, the national governments and local populations of the disputed territories reject these claims by a large majority.",
"The Spanish position states that both Ceuta and Melilla are integral parts of Spain, and have been since the 16th century, centuries prior to Morocco's independence from France in 1956, whereas Gibraltar, being a British Overseas Territory, is not and never has been part of the United Kingdom.",
"Both cities also have the same semi-autonomous status as the mainland region in Spain.",
"Melilla has been under Spanish rule for longer than cities in northern Spain such as Pamplona or Tudela, and was conquered roughly in the same period as the last Muslim cities of Southern Spain such as Granada, Málaga, Ronda or Almería: Spain claims that the enclaves were established before the creation of the Kingdom of Morocco.",
"Morocco denies these claims and maintains that the Spanish presence on or near its coast is a remnant of the colonial past which should be ended.",
"The United Nations list of non-self-governing territories does not include these Spanish territories and the dispute remains bilaterally debated between Spain and Morocco.In 1986, Spain entered the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.",
"However Ceuta and Melilla are not under NATO protection since Article 6 of the treaty limits the coverage to Europe and North America and islands north of the Tropic of Cancer.",
"This contrasts with French Algeria which was explicitly included in the treaty.",
"Legal experts have interpreted that other articles could cover the Spanish North African cities but this position has not been tested in practice.",
"On the occasion of NATO's Madrid Summit in 2022, the issue of the protection Ceuta and Melilla was a prominent one with NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg stating: \"On which territories NATO protects and Ceuta and Melilla, NATO is there to protect all Allies against any threats.",
"At the end of the day, it will always be a political decision to invoke Article 5, but rest assured NATO is there to protect and defend all Allies\".On 21 December 2020, after Moroccan Prime Minister Saadeddine Othmani said that Ceuta and Melilla \"are Moroccan as the Western Sahara is\", Spain urgently summoned the Moroccan Ambassador to convey that Spain expects respect from all its partners to the sovereignty and territorial integrity of its country and asked for explanation of Othmani's words."
],
[
"Notable people"
],
[
"Twin towns – sister cities",
"Melilla is twinned with:* Caracas (Venezuela).",
"* Cavite City (Philippines).",
"* Ceuta (Spain).",
"* Toledo (Spain).",
"* Málaga (Spain).",
"* Montevideo (Uruguay).",
"* Motril (Spain); since January 2008.",
"* Almería (Spain).",
"* Mantua (Italy); since September 2013.",
"* Vélez-Málaga (Spain); since January 2014.",
"* Antequera (Spain); as of 2016, in process.<!--"
],
[
"Notable people",
"* Joaquín García-Morato y Castaño, 1st Count of Jarama (1904 in Melilla – 1939 in Griñón) was the leading Nationalist fighter ace of the Spanish Civil War.",
"* Luis Prendes (1913 in Melilla – 1998 in Madrid) was a Spanish film actor.",
"He appeared in 75 films between 1936 and 1998.",
"* Anselmo Pardo Alcaide (1913 in Melilla – 1977) was a Spanish entomologist, a world authority on Melyridae Meloidae- Malachiinae.",
"* Mustafa Arruf (born 1958 in Melilla) is a Spanish sculptor.",
"* Mercedes Vecino (1916 in Melilla– 2004 in Alicante) was a Spanish film actress.",
"* Emilio el Moro (1924 in Melilla – 1987) was a Spanish guitarist, singer and comedian.",
"* Lucinda Urrusti (born 1929 in Melilla) is a Mexican artist, born to a Spanish family which came to Mexico in 1939 to escape the Spanish Civil War and has remained in Mexico since* Fernando Arrabal Terán (born 1932 in Melilla) is a Spanish playwright, film director, novelist and poet, settled in France in 1955* Juan José Imbroda Ortiz (born 1944 in Melilla) is a politician who was the mayor-president of the Spanish enclave of Melilla from 2000 to 2019.",
"* Ignacio Velázquez Rivera (born 1953 in Ceuta) is a Spanish politician who served as mayor of Melilla from 1991 and the first Mayor-President in 1995* Paloma McLardy (born 1955 in Melilla), known as ''Palmolive'', is a Spanish-born songwriter and drummer for influential punk groups* Mustafa Aberchán (born 1959 in Melilla) is a Spanish politician from Melilla, leader of ''Coalition for Melilla'' and was the Mayor-President of the city 1999/2000.",
"* Arly Jover (born 1971 in Melilla) is a Spanish actress, now lives in Paris* Farid Bang (born 1986 in Melilla) is a German rapper of Moroccan descent.=== Sport ===* Ramón Martínez Pérez (1929 in Melilla – 2017) also known as ''Ramoní'', was a Spanish footballer.",
"* Enrique González (born 1933 in Melilla) is a Spanish fencer, he competed in the individual foil event at the 1960 Summer Olympics* Al-Lal Mohamed Amar (born 1957 in Melilla) known as Álex, is a Spanish retired footballer who played as a defender.",
"* Chota (born 1975 in Melilla) is a Spanish retired footballer who played as a striker, mostly for UD Melilla* Mohamed Hamed Al-lal (born 1979 in Melilla) known as ''Aloisio'', is a Spanish retired footballer who played as a central defender.",
"* Munir Mohand Mohamedi (born 1989 in Melilla) is a Moroccan professional footballer who plays for CD Numancia as a goalkeeper.",
"* Ezequiel Calvente Criado (born 1991 in Melilla) is a Spanish footballer who plays for Hungarian club Békéscsaba 1912 Előre* David Sánchez (born 1994 in Melilla) is a Spanish weightlifter, competed in the 2016 Summer Olympics* Yusef Abdeselam Kaddur (born 1985 in Melilla).",
"Grappling world champion-->"
],
[
"See also",
"* European enclaves in North Africa before 1830* Melilla (Congress of Deputies constituency)"
],
[
"References",
";Citations;Bibliography* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Postal Codes Melilla"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Macaroni"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Homemade macaroni and cheese, with dried herbs and ground pepper'''Macaroni''' (, Italian: '''maccheroni''') is dry pasta shaped like narrow tubes.",
"Made with durum wheat, macaroni is commonly cut in short lengths; curved macaroni may be referred to as elbow macaroni.",
"Some home machines can make macaroni shapes but, like most pasta, macaroni is usually made commercially by large-scale extrusion.",
"The curved shape is created by different speeds of extrusion on opposite sides of the pasta tube as it comes out of the machine.The word \"macaroni\" is often used synonymously with elbow-shaped macaroni, as it is the variety most often used in macaroni and cheese recipes.",
"In Italy and other countries, the noun ''maccheroni'' can refer to straight, tubular, square-ended ''pasta corta'' (\"short-length pasta\") or to long pasta dishes, as in ''maccheroni alla chitarra'' and ''frittata di maccheroni'', which are prepared with long pasta like spaghetti.In the United States, federal regulations define three different shapes of dried pasta, such as spaghetti, as a \"macaroni product\"."
],
[
"Etymology",
"In Italian, ''maccheroni'' refers to elongated pasta, not necessarily in tubular form.",
"This general meaning is still retained outside Rome and in different languages which borrowed the word.",
"''Maccheroni'' comes from Italian ''maccheroni'' , plural form of ''maccherone''.",
"The academic consensus supports the position that the word is derived from the Greek μακαρία (''makaría''), a kind of barley broth which was served to commemorate the dead.",
"In turn, that comes from μάκαρες (''mákares'') meaning the \"blessed ones, blessed dead\", the plural of μάκαρ (''mákar'') which means \"blessed, happy\"; μακάριος (''makários'', from μάκαρ (mákar) + -ιος (-''ios'', adjective suffix)) and Μακάριος (''Makários'') \"Makarios (Latinized form: Macarius\") are derived terms.",
"The many varieties sometimes differ from each other because of the texture of each pasta: ''rigatoni'' and ''tortiglioni'', for example, have ridges down their lengths, while ''chifferi'', ''lumache'', ''lumaconi'', ''pipe'', ''pipette'', etc.",
"refer to elbow-shaped pasta similar to macaroni in North American culture.However, the Italian linguist G. Alessio argues that the word can have two origins.",
"The first is the Medieval Greek μακαρώνεια (''makarṓneia'') \"dirge\" (stated in sec.",
"XIII by James of Bulgaria), which would mean \"funeral meal\" and then \"food to serve\" during this office (see modern Eastern Thrace's μαχαρωνιά (''makharōniá'') – ''macharōnia'' in the sense of \"rice-based dish served at the funeral\"), in which case, the term would be composed of the double root of μακάριος (''makários'') \"blessed\" and αἰωνίως (''aiōníōs'') \"eternally\".",
"The second is the Greek μακαρία (''makaría'') \"barley broth\", which would have added the suffix ''-one''.In his book ''Delizia!",
"The Epic History of Italians and their Food'' (2007), John Dickie instead says that the word macaroni, and its earlier variants like ''maccheroni'', \"comes from ''maccare'', meaning to pound or crush\".The word first appears in English as ''makerouns'' in the 1390 ''The Forme of Cury'', which records the earliest recipe for macaroni and cheese.",
"The word later came to be applied to overdressed dandies and was associated with foppish Italian fashions of dress and periwigs, as in the eighteenth-century British song \"Yankee Doodle\"."
],
[
"Culinary use outside Italy",
"As is the case with dishes made with other types of pasta, macaroni and cheese is a popular dish and is often made with elbow macaroni.",
"The same dish, known simply as macaroni cheese, is also found in Great Britain, where it originated.",
"In Great Britain, particularly Scotland, macaroni cheese is a popular filling for pies, often consumed as a takeaway food or at football grounds.",
"A sweet macaroni, known as macaroni pudding, containing milk and sugar (and rather similar to a rice pudding) was also popular with the British during the Victorian era.",
"A popular canned variety is still manufactured by Ambrosia and sold in UK supermarkets.In areas with large populations open to Western cultural influence such as Hong Kong, Macao, Malaysia and Singapore, the local Chinese have adopted macaroni as an ingredient for Chinese-style Western cuisine.",
"In Hong Kong's ''cha chaan teng'' (\"tea restaurants\") and Southeast Asia's ''kopi tiam'' (\"coffee shops\"), macaroni is cooked in water and then rinsed to remove starch, and served in clear broth with ham or frankfurter sausages, peas, black mushrooms, and optionally eggs, reminiscent of noodle soup dishes.",
"This is often a course for breakfast or light lunch fare.",
"Macaroni has also been incorporated into Malay Malaysian cuisine, where it is stir-fried akin to mee goreng using Asian seasoning similar to said noodle dish (i.e.",
"shallots, oyster sauce and chili paste).",
"In the Philippines, it is a key ingredient in sopas, a semi-clear chicken broth often with chicken meat, pork, carrots, and other vegetables.",
"A common variant uses milk, specifically ''evaporada''."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of pasta* Kushari – an Egyptian dish made of rice, macaroni and lentils* Macaroni art"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* 21 C.F.R.",
"PART 139—MACARONI AND NOODLE PRODUCTS"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Messenger RNA"
],
[
"Introduction",
"eukaryotic cell.",
"RNA is transcribed in the nucleus; after processing, it is transported to the cytoplasm and translated by the ribosome.",
"Finally, the mRNA is degraded.In molecular biology, '''messenger ribonucleic acid''' ('''mRNA''') is a single-stranded molecule of RNA that corresponds to the genetic sequence of a gene, and is read by a ribosome in the process of synthesizing a protein.mRNA is created during the process of transcription, where an enzyme (RNA polymerase) converts the gene into primary transcript mRNA (also known as pre-mRNA).",
"This pre-mRNA usually still contains introns, regions that will not go on to code for the final amino acid sequence.",
"These are removed in the process of RNA splicing, leaving only exons, regions that will encode the protein.",
"This exon sequence constitutes mature mRNA.",
"Mature mRNA is then read by the ribosome, and the ribosome creates the protein utilizing amino acids carried by transfer RNA (tRNA).",
"This process is known as translation.",
"All of these processes form part of the central dogma of molecular biology, which describes the flow of genetic information in a biological system.As in DNA, genetic information in mRNA is contained in the sequence of nucleotides, which are arranged into codons consisting of three ribonucleotides each.",
"Each codon codes for a specific amino acid, except the stop codons, which terminate protein synthesis.",
"The translation of codons into amino acids requires two other types of RNA: transfer RNA, which recognizes the codon and provides the corresponding amino acid, and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), the central component of the ribosome's protein-manufacturing machinery.The concept of mRNA was developed by Sydney Brenner and Francis Crick in 1960 during a conversation with François Jacob.",
"In 1961, mRNA was identified and described independently by one team consisting of Brenner, Jacob, and Matthew Meselson, and another team led by James Watson.",
"While analyzing the data in preparation for publication, Jacob and Jacques Monod coined the name \"messenger RNA\"."
],
[
"Synthesis",
"RNA polymerase transcribes a DNA strand to form mRNAThe brief existence of an mRNA molecule begins with transcription, and ultimately ends in degradation.",
"During its life, an mRNA molecule may also be processed, edited, and transported prior to translation.",
"Eukaryotic mRNA molecules often require extensive processing and transport, while prokaryotic mRNA molecules do not.",
"A molecule of eukaryotic mRNA and the proteins surrounding it are together called a messenger RNP.===Transcription===Transcription is when RNA is copied from DNA.",
"During transcription, RNA polymerase makes a copy of a gene from the DNA to mRNA as needed.",
"This process differs slightly in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.",
"One notable difference is that prokaryotic RNA polymerase associates with DNA-processing enzymes during transcription so that processing can proceed during transcription.",
"Therefore, this causes the new mRNA strand to become double stranded by producing a complementary strand known as the tRNA strand, which when combined are unable to form structures from base-pairing.",
"Moreover, the template for mRNA is the complementary strand of tRNA, which is identical in sequence to the anticodon sequence that the DNA binds to.",
"The short-lived, unprocessed or partially processed product is termed ''precursor mRNA'', or ''pre-mRNA''; once completely processed, it is termed ''mature mRNA''.=== Eukaryotic pre-mRNA processing ===DNA gene is transcribed to pre-mRNA, which is then processed to form a mature mRNA, and then lastly translated by a ribosome to a proteinProcessing of mRNA differs greatly among eukaryotes, bacteria, and archaea.",
"Non-eukaryotic mRNA is, in essence, mature upon transcription and requires no processing, except in rare cases.",
"Eukaryotic pre-mRNA, however, requires several processing steps before its transport to the cytoplasm and its translation by the ribosome.==== Splicing ====The extensive processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA that leads to the mature mRNA is the RNA splicing, a mechanism by which introns or outrons (non-coding regions) are removed and exons (coding regions) are joined.==== 5' cap addition ====5' cap structureA ''5' cap'' (also termed an RNA cap, an RNA 7-methylguanosine cap, or an RNA m7G cap) is a modified guanine nucleotide that has been added to the \"front\" or 5' end of a eukaryotic messenger RNA shortly after the start of transcription.",
"The 5' cap consists of a terminal 7-methylguanosine residue that is linked through a 5'-5'-triphosphate bond to the first transcribed nucleotide.",
"Its presence is critical for recognition by the ribosome and protection from RNases.Cap addition is coupled to transcription, and occurs co-transcriptionally, such that each influences the other.",
"Shortly after the start of transcription, the 5' end of the mRNA being synthesized is bound by a cap-synthesizing complex associated with RNA polymerase.",
"This enzymatic complex catalyzes the chemical reactions that are required for mRNA capping.",
"Synthesis proceeds as a multi-step biochemical reaction.====Editing====In some instances, an mRNA will be edited, changing the nucleotide composition of that mRNA.",
"An example in humans is the apolipoprotein B mRNA, which is edited in some tissues, but not others.",
"The editing creates an early stop codon, which, upon translation, produces a shorter protein.==== Polyadenylation ====PolyadenylationPolyadenylation is the covalent linkage of a polyadenylyl moiety to a messenger RNA molecule.",
"In eukaryotic organisms most messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules are polyadenylated at the 3' end, but recent studies have shown that short stretches of uridine (oligouridylation) are also common.",
"The poly(A) tail and the protein bound to it aid in protecting mRNA from degradation by exonucleases.",
"Polyadenylation is also important for transcription termination, export of the mRNA from the nucleus, and translation.",
"mRNA can also be polyadenylated in prokaryotic organisms, where poly(A) tails act to facilitate, rather than impede, exonucleolytic degradation.Polyadenylation occurs during and/or immediately after transcription of DNA into RNA.",
"After transcription has been terminated, the mRNA chain is cleaved through the action of an endonuclease complex associated with RNA polymerase.",
"After the mRNA has been cleaved, around 250 adenosine residues are added to the free 3' end at the cleavage site.",
"This reaction is catalyzed by polyadenylate polymerase.",
"Just as in alternative splicing, there can be more than one polyadenylation variant of an mRNA.Polyadenylation site mutations also occur.",
"The primary RNA transcript of a gene is cleaved at the poly-A addition site, and 100–200 A's are added to the 3' end of the RNA.",
"If this site is altered, an abnormally long and unstable mRNA construct will be formed.===Transport===Another difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes is mRNA transport.",
"Because eukaryotic transcription and translation is compartmentally separated, eukaryotic mRNAs must be exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm—a process that may be regulated by different signaling pathways.",
"Mature mRNAs are recognized by their processed modifications and then exported through the nuclear pore by binding to the cap-binding proteins CBP20 and CBP80, as well as the transcription/export complex (TREX).",
"Multiple mRNA export pathways have been identified in eukaryotes.In spatially complex cells, some mRNAs are transported to particular subcellular destinations.",
"In mature neurons, certain mRNA are transported from the soma to dendrites.",
"One site of mRNA translation is at polyribosomes selectively localized beneath synapses.",
"The mRNA for Arc/Arg3.1 is induced by synaptic activity and localizes selectively near active synapses based on signals generated by NMDA receptors.",
"Other mRNAs also move into dendrites in response to external stimuli, such as β-actin mRNA.",
"For export from the nucleus, actin mRNA associates with ZBP1 and later with 40S subunit.",
"The complex is bound by a motor protein and is transported to the target location (neurite extension) along the cytoskeleton.",
"Eventually ZBP1 is phosphorylated by Src in order for translation to be initiated.",
"In developing neurons, mRNAs are also transported into growing axons and especially growth cones.",
"Many mRNAs are marked with so-called \"zip codes,\" which target their transport to a specific location.",
"mRNAs can also transfer between mammalian cells through structures called tunneling nanotubes.===Translation===Translation of mRNA to proteinBecause prokaryotic mRNA does not need to be processed or transported, translation by the ribosome can begin immediately after the end of transcription.",
"Therefore, it can be said that prokaryotic translation is ''coupled'' to transcription and occurs ''co-transcriptionally''.Eukaryotic mRNA that has been processed and transported to the cytoplasm (i.e., mature mRNA) can then be translated by the ribosome.",
"Translation may occur at ribosomes free-floating in the cytoplasm, or directed to the endoplasmic reticulum by the signal recognition particle.",
"Therefore, unlike in prokaryotes, eukaryotic translation ''is not'' directly coupled to transcription.",
"It is even possible in some contexts that reduced mRNA levels are accompanied by increased protein levels, as has been observed for mRNA/protein levels of EEF1A1 in breast cancer."
],
[
"Structure",
"The structure of a mature eukaryotic mRNA.",
"A fully processed mRNA includes a 5' cap, 5' UTR, coding region, 3' UTR, and poly(A) tail.=== Coding regions ===Coding regions are composed of codons, which are decoded and translated into proteins by the ribosome; in eukaryotes usually into one and in prokaryotes usually into several.",
"Coding regions begin with the start codon and end with a stop codon.",
"In general, the start codon is an AUG triplet and the stop codon is UAG (\"amber\"), UAA (\"ochre\"), or UGA (\"opal\").",
"The coding regions tend to be stabilised by internal base pairs; this impedes degradation.",
"In addition to being protein-coding, portions of coding regions may serve as regulatory sequences in the pre-mRNA as exonic splicing enhancers or exonic splicing silencers.=== Untranslated regions ===Universal structure of eukaryotic mRNA, showing the structure of the 5' and 3' UTRs.Untranslated regions (UTRs) are sections of the mRNA before the start codon and after the stop codon that are not translated, termed the five prime untranslated region (5' UTR) and three prime untranslated region (3' UTR), respectively.",
"These regions are transcribed with the coding region and thus are exonic as they are present in the mature mRNA.",
"Several roles in gene expression have been attributed to the untranslated regions, including mRNA stability, mRNA localization, and translational efficiency.",
"The ability of a UTR to perform these functions depends on the sequence of the UTR and can differ between mRNAs.",
"Genetic variants in 3' UTR have also been implicated in disease susceptibility because of the change in RNA structure and protein translation.The stability of mRNAs may be controlled by the 5' UTR and/or 3' UTR due to varying affinity for RNA degrading enzymes called ribonucleases and for ancillary proteins that can promote or inhibit RNA degradation.",
"(See also, C-rich stability element.",
")Translational efficiency, including sometimes the complete inhibition of translation, can be controlled by UTRs.",
"Proteins that bind to either the 3' or 5' UTR may affect translation by influencing the ribosome's ability to bind to the mRNA.",
"MicroRNAs bound to the 3' UTR also may affect translational efficiency or mRNA stability.Cytoplasmic localization of mRNA is thought to be a function of the 3' UTR.",
"Proteins that are needed in a particular region of the cell can also be translated there; in such a case, the 3' UTR may contain sequences that allow the transcript to be localized to this region for translation.Some of the elements contained in untranslated regions form a characteristic secondary structure when transcribed into RNA.",
"These structural mRNA elements are involved in regulating the mRNA.",
"Some, such as the SECIS element, are targets for proteins to bind.",
"One class of mRNA element, the riboswitches, directly bind small molecules, changing their fold to modify levels of transcription or translation.",
"In these cases, the mRNA regulates itself.===Poly(A) tail===The 3' poly(A) tail is a long sequence of adenine nucleotides (often several hundred) added to the 3' end of the pre-mRNA.",
"This tail promotes export from the nucleus and translation, and protects the mRNA from degradation.=== Monocistronic versus polycistronic mRNA ===An mRNA molecule is said to be monocistronic when it contains the genetic information to translate only a single protein chain (polypeptide).",
"This is the case for most of the eukaryotic mRNAs.",
"On the other hand, polycistronic mRNA carries several open reading frames (ORFs), each of which is translated into a polypeptide.",
"These polypeptides usually have a related function (they often are the subunits composing a final complex protein) and their coding sequence is grouped and regulated together in a regulatory region, containing a promoter and an operator.",
"Most of the mRNA found in bacteria and archaea is polycistronic, as is the human mitochondrial genome.",
"Dicistronic or bicistronic mRNA encodes only two proteins.=== mRNA circularization ===mRNA circularisation and regulationIn eukaryotes mRNA molecules form circular structures due to an interaction between the eIF4E and poly(A)-binding protein, which both bind to eIF4G, forming an mRNA-protein-mRNA bridge.",
"Circularization is thought to promote cycling of ribosomes on the mRNA leading to time-efficient translation, and may also function to ensure only intact mRNA are translated (partially degraded mRNA characteristically have no m7G cap, or no poly-A tail).Other mechanisms for circularization exist, particularly in virus mRNA.",
"Poliovirus mRNA uses a cloverleaf section towards its 5' end to bind PCBP2, which binds poly(A)-binding protein, forming the familiar mRNA-protein-mRNA circle.",
"Barley yellow dwarf virus has binding between mRNA segments on its 5' end and 3' end (called kissing stem loops), circularizing the mRNA without any proteins involved.RNA virus genomes (the + strands of which are translated as mRNA) are also commonly circularized.",
"During genome replication the circularization acts to enhance genome replication speeds, cycling viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase much the same as the ribosome is hypothesized to cycle."
],
[
"Degradation",
"Different mRNAs within the same cell have distinct lifetimes (stabilities).",
"In bacterial cells, individual mRNAs can survive from seconds to more than an hour.",
"However, the lifetime averages between 1 and 3 minutes, making bacterial mRNA much less stable than eukaryotic mRNA.",
"In mammalian cells, mRNA lifetimes range from several minutes to days.",
"The greater the stability of an mRNA the more protein may be produced from that mRNA.",
"The limited lifetime of mRNA enables a cell to alter protein synthesis rapidly in response to its changing needs.",
"There are many mechanisms that lead to the destruction of an mRNA, some of which are described below.===Prokaryotic mRNA degradation===Overview of mRNA decay pathways in the different life domains.In general, in prokaryotes the lifetime of mRNA is much shorter than in eukaryotes.",
"Prokaryotes degrade messages by using a combination of ribonucleases, including endonucleases, 3' exonucleases, and 5' exonucleases.",
"In some instances, small RNA molecules (sRNA) tens to hundreds of nucleotides long can stimulate the degradation of specific mRNAs by base-pairing with complementary sequences and facilitating ribonuclease cleavage by RNase III.",
"It was recently shown that bacteria also have a sort of 5' cap consisting of a triphosphate on the 5' end.",
"Removal of two of the phosphates leaves a 5' monophosphate, causing the message to be destroyed by the exonuclease RNase J, which degrades 5' to 3'.===Eukaryotic mRNA turnover===Inside eukaryotic cells, there is a balance between the processes of translation and mRNA decay.",
"Messages that are being actively translated are bound by ribosomes, the eukaryotic initiation factors eIF-4E and eIF-4G, and poly(A)-binding protein.",
"eIF-4E and eIF-4G block the decapping enzyme (DCP2), and poly(A)-binding protein blocks the exosome complex, protecting the ends of the message.",
"The balance between translation and decay is reflected in the size and abundance of cytoplasmic structures known as P-bodies.",
"The poly(A) tail of the mRNA is shortened by specialized exonucleases that are targeted to specific messenger RNAs by a combination of cis-regulatory sequences on the RNA and trans-acting RNA-binding proteins.",
"Poly(A) tail removal is thought to disrupt the circular structure of the message and destabilize the cap binding complex.",
"The message is then subject to degradation by either the exosome complex or the decapping complex.",
"In this way, translationally inactive messages can be destroyed quickly, while active messages remain intact.",
"The mechanism by which translation stops and the message is handed-off to decay complexes is not understood in detail.===AU-rich element decay===The presence of AU-rich elements in some mammalian mRNAs tends to destabilize those transcripts through the action of cellular proteins that bind these sequences and stimulate poly(A) tail removal.",
"Loss of the poly(A) tail is thought to promote mRNA degradation by facilitating attack by both the exosome complex and the decapping complex.",
"Rapid mRNA degradation via AU-rich elements is a critical mechanism for preventing the overproduction of potent cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF).",
"AU-rich elements also regulate the biosynthesis of proto-oncogenic transcription factors like c-Jun and c-Fos.===Nonsense-mediated decay===Eukaryotic messages are subject to surveillance by nonsense-mediated decay (NMD), which checks for the presence of premature stop codons (nonsense codons) in the message.",
"These can arise via incomplete splicing, V(D)J recombination in the adaptive immune system, mutations in DNA, transcription errors, leaky scanning by the ribosome causing a frame shift, and other causes.",
"Detection of a premature stop codon triggers mRNA degradation by 5' decapping, 3' poly(A) tail removal, or endonucleolytic cleavage.===Small interfering RNA (siRNA)===In metazoans, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) processed by Dicer are incorporated into a complex known as the RNA-induced silencing complex or RISC.",
"This complex contains an endonuclease that cleaves perfectly complementary messages to which the siRNA binds.",
"The resulting mRNA fragments are then destroyed by exonucleases.",
"siRNA is commonly used in laboratories to block the function of genes in cell culture.",
"It is thought to be part of the innate immune system as a defense against double-stranded RNA viruses.===MicroRNA (miRNA)===MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small RNAs that typically are partially complementary to sequences in metazoan messenger RNAs.",
"Binding of a miRNA to a message can repress translation of that message and accelerate poly(A) tail removal, thereby hastening mRNA degradation.",
"The mechanism of action of miRNAs is the subject of active research.===Other decay mechanisms===There are other ways by which messages can be degraded, including non-stop decay and silencing by Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA), among others."
],
[
"Applications",
"The administration of a nucleoside-modified messenger RNA sequence can cause a cell to make a protein, which in turn could directly treat a disease or could function as a vaccine; more indirectly the protein could drive an endogenous stem cell to differentiate in a desired way.The primary challenges of RNA therapy center on delivering the RNA to the appropriate cells.",
"Challenges include the fact that naked RNA sequences naturally degrade after preparation; they may trigger the body's immune system to attack them as an invader; and they are impermeable to the cell membrane.",
"Once within the cell, they must then leave the cell's transport mechanism to take action within the cytoplasm, which houses the necessary ribosomes.Overcoming these challenges, mRNA as a therapeutic was first put forward in 1989 \"after the development of a broadly applicable in vitro transfection technique.\"",
"In the 1990s, mRNA vaccines for personalized cancer have been developed, relying on non-nucleoside modified mRNA.",
"mRNA based therapies continue to be investigated as a method of treatment or therapy for both cancer as well as auto-immune, metabolic, and respiratory inflammatory diseases.",
"Gene editing therapies such as CRISPR may also benefit from using mRNA to induce cells to make the desired Cas protein.Since the 2010s, RNA vaccines and other RNA therapeutics have been considered to be \"a new class of drugs.\"",
"The first mRNA-based vaccines received restricted authorization and were rolled out across the world during the COVID-19 pandemic by Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine and Moderna, for example.The 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman for the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19."
],
[
"History",
"Several molecular biology studies during the 1950s indicated that RNA played some kind of role in protein synthesis, but that role was not clearly understood.",
"For instance, in one of the earliest reports, Jacques Monod and his team showed that RNA synthesis was necessary for protein synthesis, specifically during the production of the enzyme β-galactosidase in the bacterium ''E.",
"coli''.",
"Arthur Pardee also found similar RNA accumulation in 1954''.''",
"In 1953, Alfred Hershey, June Dixon, and Martha Chase described a certain cytosine-containing DNA (indicating it was RNA) that disappeared quickly after its synthesis in ''E.",
"coli''.",
"In hindsight, this may have been one of the first observations of the existence of mRNA but it was not recognized at the time as such.The idea of mRNA was first conceived by Sydney Brenner and Francis Crick on 15 April 1960 at King's College, Cambridge, while François Jacob was telling them about a recent experiment conducted by Arthur Pardee, himself, and Monod (the so-called PaJaMo experiment, which did not prove mRNA existed but suggested the possibility of its existence).",
"With Crick's encouragement, Brenner and Jacob immediately set out to test this new hypothesis, and they contacted Matthew Meselson at the California Institute of Technology for assistance.",
"During the summer of 1960, Brenner, Jacob, and Meselson conducted an experiment in Meselson's laboratory at Caltech which was the first to prove the existence of mRNA.",
"That fall, Jacob and Monod coined the name \"messenger RNA\" and developed the first theoretical framework to explain its function.In February 1961, James Watson revealed that his Harvard-based research group had been right behind them with a series of experiments whose results pointed in roughly the same direction.",
"Brenner and the others agreed to Watson's request to delay publication of their research findings.",
"As a result, the Brenner and Watson articles were published simultaneously in the same issue of ''Nature'' in May 1961, while that same month, Jacob and Monod published their theoretical framework for mRNA in the ''Journal of Molecular Biology''."
],
[
"See also",
"* Extension Poly(A) Test* GeneCalling, an mRNA profiling technology* Missense mRNA* mRNA display* mRNA surveillance*Prokaryotic mRNA degradation* Transcriptome, the sum of all RNA in a cell"
],
[
"References",
"=== Further reading ===* * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* RNAi Atlas: a database of RNAi libraries and their target analysis results* miRSearch : Tool for finding microRNAs that target mRNA* How mRNA is coded?",
": YouTube video* What is mRNA?",
": theconversation.com"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mount Saint Vincent University"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Mount Saint Vincent University''', often referred to as '''the Mount''', is a public, primarily undergraduate, university located in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, and was established in 1873.Mount Saint Vincent offers undergraduate programs in Arts, Science, Education, and Professional Studies.",
"The Mount has 13 graduate degrees in areas including Applied Human Nutrition, School Psychology, Child and Youth Study, Education, Family Studies and Gerontology, Public Relations and Women's Studies.",
"The Mount offers a doctorate program, a Ph.D. in Educational Studies, through a joint-initiative with St. Francis Xavier University and Acadia University.",
"The Mount offers more than 190 courses, over 10 full undergraduate degree programs and four graduate degree, programs online.The university attracts many students in part because of its small class sizes, specialty programs, and location.",
"The Mount has Canada Research Chairs in Gender Identity and Social Practices as well as Food Security and Policy Change.",
"This institution is unique nationwide as it has a Chair in learning disabilities, Master of Public Relations program, Bachelor of Science in Communication Studies, and numerous other programs, faculty, and research initiatives."
],
[
"History",
"Mount Saint Vincent University Entrance from the Bedford Highway, HalifaxEstablished by the Sisters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul as a women's college in 1873, the Mount was one of the few institutions of higher education for women in Canada at a time when women could not vote.",
"The original purpose of the academy was to train novices and young sisters as teachers, but the Sisters also recognized a need to educate other young women.",
"Over the ensuing years, the order developed a convent, schools, an orphanage, and health care facilities throughout the Halifax area, as well as across North America.Architect Charles Welsford West designed the Romanesque chapel and annex (1903–05) at Mount St. Vincent Academy (now University).",
"He served as the Architect, Nova Scotia Public Works & Mines 1932-1950.By 1912, the Sisters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul recognized the need to offer greater opportunity through university education and adopted a plan to establish a college for young women.",
"It was two years later in 1914 that the Sisters partnered with Dalhousie University, enabling Mount Saint Vincent to offer the first two years of a bachelor's degree program to be credited toward a Dalhousie degree.In 1925, the Nova Scotia Legislature awarded the Mount the right to grant its own degrees, making it the only independent women's college in the British Commonwealth.",
"By 1951, degrees were offered in Arts, Secretarial Science, Music, Home Economics, Library Science, Nursing and Education.A new charter was granted in 1966 and the College became Mount Saint Vincent University, bringing forth the establishment of a Board of Governors and Senate.",
"This was also a period of tremendous growth – with enrolment increases, new construction and new agreements.",
"In 1967 the Mount began admitting men as students.",
"The University continued to evolve with the expansion of programs during the 1970s and entered into several new fields, including Child Study, Public Relations, Gerontology, Tourism and Hospitality Management, Cooperative Education and Distance Education.",
"In July 1988, the Sisters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul officially transferred ownership of the institution to the Board of Governors.=== Caritas Day===After a fire in 1951 burned down Mount Saint Vincent’s solitary building, the people of Halifax came together to support students by providing alternative accommodations for their classes.",
"In recognition of the generosity of their community, the Sisters of Charity established a memorial holiday in appreciation of their gesture.",
"Caritas Day, named after the Christian virtue of charity, takes place on the last Wednesday of January of each year.",
"No classes are held on this day, and students are encouraged to volunteer their time instead.",
"Caritas Day is an opportunity for students and faculty alike to connect with the Sisters of Charity and come together outside of class time in a setting that is both personally and academically beneficial."
],
[
"Programs",
"Mount Saint Vincent University offers over 40 undergraduate degrees in the Arts, Sciences and Professional Studies.",
"Professional Studies programs include Applied Human Nutrition, Business Administration, Child and Youth Study, Family Studies and Gerontology, Information Technology, Public Relations, Non-profit Leadership and Tourism and Hospitality Management.",
"All undergraduate programs are work-experience eligible, meaning any Mount student can take part in a work placement (practicum, co-op, internship) as part of their program.The Mount also offers diplomas in Business Administration and Tourism & Hospitality Management, and certificates in Accounting, Business Administration, Marketing, Proficiency in French and Non-profit Leadership.Following consolidation of post-secondary programs across Nova Scotia in the 1990s, the Mount became home to the only education program in the Halifax area.",
"The faculty of Education is home to the only school psychology graduate program in Atlantic Canada.",
"Graduates of this program are eligible to become registered psychologists in Nova Scotia and several other provinces in Canada.The Mount houses 16 research centres and institutes.The Department of Applied Human Nutrition has an accredited dietetic program.",
"The University is accredited by a professional organization such as the Dietitians of Canada and the university's graduates may subsequently become registered dietitians.Mount Saint Vincent University is the only university in Canada to offer a Master of Public Relations program (MPR).",
"The MPR program graduated its first class in October 2009.The Canadian Public Relations Society (CPRS) recognizes MSVU's MPR program for excellence in PR education in its Pathways to the Profession guide.=== Support Services ===Academic programs are supported by a wide variety of electronic and print research resources in the MSVU Library.",
"Research services include drop-in reference assistance, research appointments and classroom workshops.January 2019 marked the 40th anniversary of the Mount's co-operative education program.",
"It is the longest-standing nationally accredited co-op program in the Maritime Provinces, offering an optional co-op program in 1979 for students in the Bachelor of Business Administration program.",
"Four decades later, more than 8,000 Business Administration, Public Relations, and Tourism & Hospitality Management students have taken their learning from the classroom to the workplace, completing paid work terms in industries related to their field of study (today co-op is a required part of the Public Relations and Tourism & Hospitality Management degrees).",
"Since 2014, the Mount Co-op Office has also enabled experiential opportunities for Arts and Science students through an Arts & Science Internship Program.Mount Saint Vincent University is home to the Centre for Women in Business, a not-for-profit university business development centre (UBDC), dedicated to assisting with entrepreneurial activities both within the university and throughout Nova Scotia.",
"Founded in 1992 by the University's Department of Business & Tourism, this remains the only UBDC in Canada with a primary focus on women.",
"The Centre has served more than 7500 clients over the past 18 years."
],
[
"Art Gallery",
"alt=The Mount Saint Vincent University Art Gallery is located on the first floor of Seton Academic Centre.",
"The gallery opened in 1971 as a resource to Mount Saint Vincent, communities served by the university, artists, Metro Halifax residents and art publics everywhere.",
"Admission is always free of charge.MSVU Art Gallery reflects the University's educational aims by devoting a significant part of its activities to the representation of women as cultural subjects and producers.",
"Its exhibitions explore various forms of cultural production, highlighting the achievements of Nova Scotian artists and themes relevant to academic programs offered by the university."
],
[
"Wikuom",
"alt=The Mount was the first Nova Scotia university to add a wikuom to its campus facilities.",
"First raised on June 12, 2017, the wikuom is a welcoming traditional Mi'kmaq space where both Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities can gather and learn together.The Mount is also home to the Aboriginal Student Centre (ASC), which is home to ASC staff who provide academic advising, counselling and other support services to students.",
"The ASC hosts a number of events, including the Mount's Mid-Winter Feast, Blanket Exercises, Cultural Workshops, Mini-Mount Camps, and more."
],
[
"Athletics",
"Home to the Mystics, the Mount competes in the Atlantic Colleges Athletic Association (ACAA) in Women's & Men's Basketball, Women's & Men's Soccer, Cross Country and Women's Volleyball.",
"The Mystics hold a championship titles in all sports, making them the most acclaimed team of the ACAA division.",
"* Women's Volleyball claimed the ACAA title for the 8th consecutive year, February 2019"
],
[
"Notable alumni",
"Notable graduates of the Mount include:* Patricia Arab* Joanne Bernard* Carolyn Bertram* Ryan Cochrane* Rafah DiConstanzo* Barrie Dunn * Alice Mary Hagen * Leroy Lowe* Catherine McKinnon * Paul D. McNair * Marianna O'Gallagher * Yvonne Pothier * Iain Rankin * Corrine Sparks"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of current and historical women's universities and colleges* Higher education in Nova Scotia* List of universities in Nova Scotia* Canadian Interuniversity Sport* Canadian government scientific research organizations* Canadian university scientific research organizations* Canadian industrial research and development organizations* List of colleges and universities named after people"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official website"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Minimal pair"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In phonology, '''minimal pairs''' are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, spoken or signed, that differ in only one phonological element, such as a phoneme, toneme or chroneme, and have distinct meanings.",
"They are used to demonstrate that two phones represent two separate phonemes in the language.Many phonologists in the middle part of the 20th century had a strong interest in developing techniques for discovering the phonemes of unknown languages, and in some cases, they set up writing systems for the languages.",
"The major work of Kenneth Pike on the subject is ''Phonemics: a technique for reducing languages to writing''.",
"The minimal pair was an essential tool in the discovery process and was found by '''substitution''' or '''commutation''' tests.As an example for English vowels, the pair \"l'''e'''t\" + \"l'''i'''t\" can be used to demonstrate that the phones (in l'''e'''t) and (in l'''i'''t) actually represent distinct phonemes and .",
"An example for English consonants is the minimal pair of \"'''p'''at\" + \"'''b'''at\".",
"The following table shows other pairs demonstrating the existence of various distinct phonemes in English.",
"All of the possible minimal pairs for any language may be set out in the same way.",
"word 1 word 2 IPA 1 IPA 2 note pin bin initial consonant rot lot thigh thy seal bin bean vowel pen pan cook kook hat had final consonant mean meme Phonemic differentiation may vary between different dialects of a language so a particular minimal pair in one accent may be a pair of homophones in another.",
"That means not that one of the phonemes is absent in the homonym accent but only that it is not contrastive in the same range of contexts."
],
[
"Types",
"In addition to the minimal pairs of vowels and consonants provided above, others may be found:===Quantity===Many languages show contrasts between long and short vowels and consonants.",
"A distinctive difference in length is attributed by some phonologists to a unit called a chroneme.",
"Thus, Italian has the following minimal pair that is based on long and short : spelling IPA meaning shovel ballHowever, in such a case it is not easy to decide whether a long vowel or consonant should be treated as having an added chroneme or simply as a geminate sound with phonemes.Classical Latin, German, some Italian dialects, almost all Uralic languages, Thai, and many other languages also have distinctive length in vowels.",
"An example is the ''cŭ/cū'' minimal pair in the Italian dialect that is spoken near Palmi (Calabria, Italy): Dialect spoken in Palmi IPA Quality Etymology Latin Italian English Cŭ voli?",
"short cŭ < lat.",
"''qu(is)'' (\"who?\")",
"Quis vult?",
"Chi vuole?",
"Who wants?",
"Cū voli?",
"long cū < lat.",
"''qu(o) (ill)ŭ(m)'' (\"for-what him?\")",
"Quō illum/illud vult?",
"Per che cosa lo vuole?",
"For what (reason) does he want him/it?====Syntactic gemination====In some languages like Italian, word-initial consonants are geminated after certain vowel-final words in the same prosodic unit.",
"Sometimes, the phenomenon can create some syntactic-gemination-minimal-pairs: Italian sandhi IPA Meaning Sample sentence Meaning of the sample sentence (he/she) gives (his/her) house '''' Carlo gives us his house.",
"from home '''' Carlo got out from home.In the example, the graphical accent on ''dà'' is just a diacritical mark that does not change the pronunciation of the word itself.",
"However, in some specific areas, like Tuscany, both phrases are pronounced and so can be distinguished only from the context.===Tone===Minimal pairs for tone contrasts in tone languages can be established; some writers refer to that as a contrast involving a toneme.",
"For example, Kono, of Sierra Leone, distinguishes high tone and low tone on syllables: tone word meaning 'to mature' low 'rice'===Stress===Languages in which stress may occur in different positions within the word often have contrasts that can be shown in minimal pairs, as in Greek and Spanish: word language IPA meaning Greek ever Greek when Spanish this (feminine) Spanish (he/she/it) is Tagalog bag Tagalog uncircumcizedIn English stress can determine the part of speech of a word: ''insult'' as a noun is while as a verb it is .",
"In certain cases it can also differentiate two words: ''below'' vs ''billow'' .===Juncture===Anglophones can distinguish between, for example, \"great ape\" and \"grey tape\", but phonemically, the two phrases are identical: .",
"The difference between the two phrases, which constitute a minimal pair, is said to be one of juncture.",
"At the word boundary, a \"plus juncture\" /+/ has been posited and said to be the factor conditioning allophones to allow distinctivity: in this example, the phrase \"great ape\" has an diphthong shortened by pre-fortis clipping and, since it is not syllable-initial, a with little aspiration (variously , , , , etc., depending on dialect); meanwhile in \"grey tape\", the has its full length and the is aspirated .Only languages with allophonic differences associated with grammatical boundaries may have juncture as a phonological element.",
"There is disagreement over whether or not French has phonological juncture: it seems likely that the difference between, for example, \"\" (some little holes) and \"\" (some little wheels), phonemically both , is only perceptible in slow, careful speech."
],
[
"Minimal sets",
"The principle of a simple binary opposition between the two members of a minimal pair may be extended to cover a '''minimal set''' in which a number of words differ from one another in terms of one phone in a particular position in the word.",
"For example, the vowels , , , , of Swahili are shown to be distinct by the following set of words:''pata'' 'hinge', ''peta'' 'bend', ''pita'' 'pass', ''pota'' 'twist', ''puta'' 'thrash'.",
"However, establishing such sets is not always straightforward and may require very complex study of multiple oppositions as expounded by, for example, Nikolai Trubetzkoy."
],
[
"Teaching",
"Minimal pairs were an important part of the theory of pronunciation teaching during its development in the period of structuralist linguistics, particularly in the 1940s and 1950s, and minimal pair drills were widely used to train students to discriminate among the phonemes of the target language.",
"These drills took the form of minimal pair word drills and minimal pair sentence drills.",
"For example, if the focus of a lesson was on the distinction /ɪ/ versus /ɛ/, learners might be asked to signal which sound they heard as the teacher pronounced lists of words with these phonemes such as ''lid/led'', ''tin/ten'', or ''slipped/slept''.",
"Minimal pair sentence drills consisted of paired sentences such as \"He slipped on the floor/He slept on the floor.\"",
"Again, learners would be asked to distinguish which of the sentences they heard as the teacher read them aloud.",
"Another use of minimal pair drills was in pair work.",
"Here, one member of the pair would be responsible for listening to the other member read the minimal pair word or sentence aloud and would be tasked with identifying which phoneme was being produced.",
"In this form of classroom practice, both the skills of perception and production were practiced.",
"Later writers have criticized the approach as being artificial and lacking in relevance to language learners' needs.",
"However, even today minimal pair listening and production drills remain a common tool for the teaching of segmental differences.Some writers have claimed that learners are likely not to hear differences between phones if the difference is not a phonemic one.",
"One of the objectives of contrastive analysis of languages' sound systems was to identify points of likely difficulty for language learners that would arise from differences in phoneme inventories between the native language and the target language.",
"However, experimental evidence for this claim is hard to find, and the claim should be treated with caution."
],
[
"In sign languages",
"In the past, signs were considered holistic forms without internal structure.",
"However, the discovery in the mid-20th century that minimal pairs also exist in sign languages showed that sign languages have sublexical structure.",
"Signs consist of phonemes, which are specifications for location, movement, handshape, orientation, and non-manual elements.",
"When signs differ in only one of these specifications, they form a minimal pair.",
"For instance, the German Sign Language signs shoes and socks are identical in form apart from their handshapes."
],
[
"See also",
"* Phoneme § Minimal pairs"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*Brown, G. (1990) ''Listening to Spoken English'', Longman*Celce-Murcia, M., D. Brinton and J. Goodwin (1996) ''Teaching Pronunciation'', Cambridge University Press*Fromkin, V. and Rodman, R. (1993) ''An Introduction to Language'', Harcourt Brace Jovanovich*Jones, Daniel (1931) ' \"\" ' 'The \"Word\" as a phonetic entity', Le Maître Phonétique, XXXVI, pp. 60–65.",
"*Jones, Daniel (1944) 'Chronemes and Tonemes', ''Acta Linguistica'', IV, Copenhagen, pp. 1–10.",
"*Ladefoged, Peter (2001) ''Vowels and Consonants'', Blackwell*Ladefoged, Peter (2006) ''A Course in Phonetics'', Thomson*Lado, R. (1957) ''Linguistics across Cultures'', University of Michigan Press*Lado, R. (1961) ''Language Testing'', Longman*O'Connor, J.D.",
"(1973) ''Phonetics'', Penguin*O'Connor, J.D and Tooley, O.",
"(1964) 'The perceptibility of certain word-boundaries', in Abercrombie et al.",
"(eds) ''In Honour of Daniel Jones'', Longman, pp. 171–6.",
"*Pennington, M. (1996) ''Phonology in English Language Teaching'', Longman*Pike, Kenneth (1947) ''Phonemics'', University of Michigan Press*Roach, Peter (2009) ''English Phonetics and Phonology'', Cambridge University Press*Swadesh, M. (1934) 'The Phonemic Principle', ''Language'' vol.",
"10, pp.",
"117–29*Trubetzkoy, N., translated by C. Baltaxe(1969) ''Principles of Phonology'', University of California Press"
],
[
"External links",
"* Complete List of Minimal pairs for English RP (Received Pronunciation)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Minestrone"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Minestrone soup'''Minestrone''' (, ) is a thick soup of Italian origin made with meats, vegetables, and pasta.",
"Ingredients include beans, onions, celery, carrots, leaf vegetables, stock, parmesan cheese and tomatoes.There is no set recipe for minestrone, since it can usually be made out of whatever meat and vegetables are at one's disposal.",
"It contains animal bone-based stock (such as chicken stock).",
"Food author Angelo Pellegrini claimed that the base of minestrone is bean broth, and that borlotti beans (also called Roman beans) \"are the beans to use for genuine minestrone\"."
],
[
"History",
"Some of the earliest origins of minestrone soup pre-date the expansion of the Latin tribes of Rome into what became the Roman Kingdom (later Roman Republic and Empire), when the local diet was \"vegetarian by necessity\" and consisted mostly of vegetables, such as onions, lentils, cabbage, garlic, broad beans, mushrooms, carrots, asparagus, and turnips.During this time, the main dish of a meal would have been ''pulte'', a simple but filling porridge of spelt flour cooked in salt water, to which whatever vegetables that were available would have been added.It was not until the 2nd century BCE, when Rome had conquered Italy and monopolized the commercial and road networks, that a huge diversity of products flooded the capital and began to change their diet, and by association, the diet of Italy, most notably with the more frequent inclusion of meats, including as a stock for soups.Spelt flour was also removed from soups, as bread had been introduced into the Roman diet by the Greeks, and ''pulte'' became a meal largely for the poor.The ancient Romans recognized the health benefits of a simple or \"frugal\" diet (from the Latin ''fruges'', the common name given to cereals, vegetables and legumes) and thick vegetable soups and vegetables remained a staple.Marcus Apicius's ancient cookbook ''De Re Coquinaria'' described ''polus'', a Roman soup dating back to 30 CE made of farro, chickpeas, and fava beans, with onions, garlic, lard, and greens thrown in.As eating habits and ingredients changed in Italy, so did minestrone.",
"Apicius updates the ''pultes'' and ''pulticulae'' with fancy trimmings such as cooked brains and wine.The tradition of not losing rural roots continues today, and minestrone is now known in Italy as belonging to the style of cooking called \"cucina povera\" (literally \"poor kitchen\"), meaning dishes that have rustic, rural roots, as opposed to \"cucina nobile\", or the cooking style of the aristocracy and nobles."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The word ''minestrone'', meaning a thick vegetable soup, is attested in English from 1871.It is from Italian ''minestrone'', the augmentative form of ''minestra'', \"soup\", or more literally, \"that which is served\", from ''minestrare'', \"to serve\" and cognate with ''administer'' as in \"to administer a remedy\".Because of its unique origins and the absence of a fixed recipe, minestrone varies widely across Italy depending on traditional cooking times, ingredients, and season.",
"Minestrone ranges from a thick and dense texture with very boiled-down vegetables to a more brothy soup with large quantities of diced and lightly cooked vegetables; it may also include meats.In modern Italian, there are three words corresponding to the English word ''soup'': ''zuppa'', which is used in the sense of tomato soup, or fish soup; ''minestra'', which is used in the sense of a more substantial soup such as a vegetable soup, and also for \"dry\" soups, namely pasta dishes; and ''minestrone'', which means a very substantial or large soup or stew, though the meaning has now come to be associated with this particular dish."
],
[
"Regional variations",
"''Minestrone alla Genovese'' is a variant typical of Liguria which contains greater use of herbs, including pesto.",
"''Minestra'' is a variant from Malta which prominently features ''kunserva'' (a thick tomato paste), potatoes, kohlrabi, cauliflower, and sometimes spaghetti.",
"''Imbakbaka'' or ''Mbakbaka'' is a type of stew in Libya made with pasta, chickpeas, Bzar spice, and meat.",
"It originated through Italian colonization."
],
[
"See also",
"* ''Pasta e fagioli''* List of Italian soups* List of legume dishes* List of soups* List of vegetable soups"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Miranda (moon)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Miranda''', also designated '''Uranus V''', is the smallest and innermost of Uranus's five round satellites.",
"It was discovered by Gerard Kuiper on 16 February 1948 at McDonald Observatory in Texas, and named after Miranda from William Shakespeare's play ''The Tempest''.",
"Like the other large moons of Uranus, Miranda orbits close to its planet's equatorial plane.",
"Because Uranus orbits the Sun on its side, Miranda's orbit is nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic and shares Uranus' extreme seasonal cycle.At just 470 km in diameter, Miranda is one of the smallest closely observed objects in the Solar System that might be in hydrostatic equilibrium (spherical under its own gravity), and happens to have a surface area roughly similar to Texas.",
"The only close-up images of Miranda are from the ''Voyager 2'' probe, which made observations of Miranda during its Uranus flyby in January 1986.During the flyby, Miranda's southern hemisphere pointed towards the Sun, so only that part was studied.Miranda probably formed from an accretion disc that surrounded the planet shortly after its formation, and, like other large moons, it is likely differentiated, with an inner core of rock surrounded by a mantle of ice.",
"Miranda has one of the most extreme and varied topographies of any object in the Solar System, including Verona Rupes, a 20-kilometer-high scarp that is the highest cliff in the Solar System, and chevron-shaped tectonic features called ''coronae''.",
"The origin and evolution of this varied geology, the most of any Uranian satellite, are still not fully understood, and multiple hypotheses exist regarding Miranda's evolution."
],
[
"Discovery and name",
"Gerard P. Kuiper, discoverer of MirandaMiranda was discovered on 16 February 1948 by planetary astronomer Gerard Kuiper using the McDonald Observatory's Otto Struve Telescope.",
"Its motion around Uranus was confirmed on 1 March 1948.It was the first satellite of Uranus discovered in nearly 100 years.",
"Kuiper elected to name the object \"Miranda\" after the character in Shakespeare's ''The Tempest'', because the four previously discovered moons of Uranus, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon, had all been named after characters of Shakespeare or Alexander Pope.",
"However, the previous moons had been named specifically after fairies, whereas Miranda was a human.",
"Subsequently discovered satellites of Uranus were named after characters from Shakespeare and Pope, whether fairies or not.",
"The moon is also designated '''Uranus V'''."
],
[
"Orbit",
"Of Uranus's five round satellites, Miranda orbits closest to it, at roughly 129,000 km from the surface; about a quarter again as far as its most distant ring.",
"Its orbital period is 34 hours, and, like that of the Moon, is synchronous with its rotation period, which means it always shows the same face to Uranus, a condition known as tidal locking.",
"Miranda's orbital inclination (4.34°) is unusually high for a body so close to its planet – roughly ten times that of the other major Uranian satellites, and 73 times that of Oberon.",
"The reason for this is still uncertain; there are no mean-motion resonances between the moons that could explain it, leading to the hypothesis that the moons occasionally pass through secondary resonances, which at some point in the past led to Miranda being locked for a time into a 3:1 resonance with Umbriel, before chaotic behaviour induced by the secondary resonances moved it out of it again.",
"In the Uranian system, due to the planet's lesser degree of oblateness and the larger relative size of its satellites, escape from a mean-motion resonance is much easier than for satellites of Jupiter or Saturn."
],
[
"Observation and exploration",
"Miranda, Uranus, and its other moons photographed by the Cerro Paranal Observatory.Miranda's apparent magnitude is +16.6, making it invisible to many amateur telescopes.",
"Virtually all known information regarding its geology and geography was obtained during the flyby of Uranus made by ''Voyager 2'' on 25 January 1986, The closest approach of ''Voyager 2'' to Miranda was —significantly less than the distances to all other Uranian moons.",
"Of all the Uranian satellites, Miranda had the most visible surface.",
"The discovery team had expected Miranda to resemble Mimas, and found themselves at a loss to explain the moon's unique geography in the 24-hour window before releasing the images to the press.",
"In 2017, as part of its Planetary Science Decadal Survey, NASA evaluated the possibility of an orbiter to return to Uranus some time in the 2020s.",
"Uranus was the preferred destination over Neptune due to favourable planetary alignments meaning shorter flight times."
],
[
"Composition and internal structure",
"Size comparison between Miranda (lower left), the Moon (upper left) and EarthAt 1.2 g/cm3, Miranda is the least dense of Uranus's round satellites.",
"That density suggests a composition of more than 60% water ice.",
"Miranda's surface may be mostly water ice, though it is far rockier than its corresponding satellites in the Saturn system, indicating that heat from radioactive decay may have led to internal differentiation, allowing silicate rock and organic compounds to settle in its interior.",
"Miranda is too small for any internal heat to have been retained over the age of the Solar System.",
"Miranda is the least spherical of Uranus's satellites, with an equatorial diameter 3% wider than its polar diameter.",
"Only water has been detected so far on Miranda's surface, though it has been speculated that methane, ammonia, carbon monoxide or nitrogen may also exist at 3% concentrations.",
"These bulk properties are similar to Saturn's moon Mimas, though Mimas is smaller, less dense, and more oblate.Precisely how a body as small as Miranda could have enough internal energy to produce the myriad geological features seen on its surface is not established with certainty, though the currently favoured hypothesis is that it was driven by tidal heating during a past time when it was in 3:1 orbital resonance with Umbriel.",
"The resonance would have increased Miranda's orbital eccentricity to 0.1, and generated tidal friction due to the varying tidal forces from Uranus.",
"As Miranda approached Uranus, tidal force increased; as it retreated, tidal force decreased, causing flexing that would have warmed Miranda's interior by 20 K, enough to trigger melting.",
"The period of tidal flexing could have lasted for up to 100 million years.",
"Also, if clathrate existed within Miranda, as has been hypothesised for the satellites of Uranus, it may have acted as an insulator, since it has a lower conductivity than water, increasing Miranda's temperature still further.",
"Miranda may have also once been in a 5:3 orbital resonance with Ariel, which would have also contributed to its internal heating.",
"However, the maximum heating attributable to the resonance with Umbriel was likely about three times greater."
],
[
"Geography",
"Miranda has a unique surface.",
"Among the geological structures that cover it are fractures, faults, valleys, craters, ridges, gorges, depressions, cliffs and terraces.",
"This moon is a mosaic of very varied zones.",
"Some areas are old and dull.",
"As such, they bear numerous impact craters, as is expected of a small inert body.",
"Other regions are made of rectangular or ovoid strips.",
"They feature complex sets of parallel ridges and rupes (fault scarps) as well as numerous outcrops of bright and dark materials, suggesting an exotic composition.",
"This moon is most likely composed only of water ice on the surface, as well as silicate rocks and other more or less buried organic compounds.Illustration of the positions of the main geological structures on an image of Miranda.+ Main geological structures visible on the known part of Miranda (all named in reference to works by William Shakespeare) Name Type Length(diameter)(km) Latitude(°) Longitude(°) Origin of the name ''Mantua Regio''Regio 399 −39.6 180.2 Italian region of part of the plot of ''The Two Gentlemen of Verona'' ''Ephesus Regio'' 225 −15 250 The twins' house in Turkey in ''The Comedy of Errors'' ''Sicilia Regio'' 174 −30 317.2 Italian region of the plot of ''The Winter's Tale'' ''Dunsinane Regio'' 244 −31.5 11.9 Hill in Scotland at which Macbeth is defeated ''Arden corona'' Coronae 318 −29.1 73.7 Forest in England where the plot of ''As You Like It'' takes place ''Elsinore corona'' 323 −24.8 257.1 Castle in Denmark that is the setting for ''Hamlet'' ''Inverness corona'' 234 −66.9 325.7 Macbeth's castle in Scotland ''Argier Rupes'' Rupes 141 −43.2 322.8 Region of France where the beginning of the plot of ''The Tempest'' takes place ''Verona Rupes'' 116 −18.3 347.8 Italian city where the plot of ''Romeo and Juliet'' takes place ''Alonso'' Impact crater 25 −44 352.6 King of Naples in ''The Tempest'' ''Ferdinand'' 17 −34.8 202.1 Son of the King of Naples in ''The Tempest'' ''Francisco'' 14 −73.2 236 A lord of Naples in ''The Tempest'' ''Gonzalo'' 11 −11.4 77 An honest old councilor from Naples in ''The Tempest'' ''Prospero'' 21 −32.9 329.9 Legitimate Duke of Milan in ''The Tempest'' ''Stephano'' 16 −41.1 234.1 A drunken butler in ''The Tempest'' ''Trinculo'' 11 −63.7 163.4 A jester in ''The Tempest''=== Regios ===The regios identified on the images taken by the ''Voyager 2'' probe are named \"''Mantua Regio''\", \"''Ephesus Regio''\", \"''Sicilia Regio''\" and \"''Dunsinane Regio''\".",
"They designate regions of Miranda where hilly terrain and plains follow one another, more or less strongly marked by ancient impact craters.",
"''Normal faults'' also mark these ancient regions.",
"Some escarpments are as old as the formation of the regions while others are much more recent and appear to have formed after the coronaes.",
"These faults are accompanied by grabens characteristic of ancient tectonic activity.",
"The surface of these regions is fairly uniformly dark.",
"However, the cliffs bordering certain impact craters reveal, at depth, the presence of much more luminous material.=== The coronae ===The three coronae imaged on Miranda by ''Voyager 2''Miranda is one of the rare objects in the solar system to have crowns (also called coronae).",
"The three coronas observed on Miranda are named \"''Inverness''\" near the south pole, \"''Arden''\" at the apex of the moon's orbital motion and \"''Elsinore''\" at the antapex.",
"The highest albedo contrasts on Miranda's surface occur within the ''Inverness'' and ''Arden'' coronae.==== ''Inverness'' ====The ''Inverness'' coronna is characterized by its white central \"chevron\".",
"The crater ''Alonso'' is visible in the upper right, as well as the cliffs of ''Argier Rupes'' in the upper left.The Inverness corona is a trapezoidal region of approximately on a side which lies near the south pole.",
"This region is characterized by a central geological structure which takes the shape of a luminous chevron, a surface with a relatively high albedo and a series of gorges which extend northwards from a point near the pole.",
"At a latitude of around −55°, north-south oriented gorges tend to intersect with others, which follow an east-west direction.",
"The outer boundary of ''Inverness'', as well as its internal patterns of ridges and bands of contrasting albedos, form numerous salient angles.",
"It is bounded on three sides (south, east and north) by a complex system of faults.",
"The nature of the west coast is less clear, but may also be tectonic.",
"Within the crown, the surface is dominated by parallel gorges spaced a few kilometers apart.",
"The low number of impact craters allows us to establish that ''Inverness'' is the youngest among the three coronae observed on the surface of Miranda.==== ''Arden'' ====The ''Arden'' geological corona, present in the front hemisphere of Miranda, extends over approximately from east to west.",
"The other dimension, however, remains unknown because the terrain extended beyond the terminator (on the hemisphere plunged into night) when ''Voyager 2'' photographed it.",
"The outer margin of this corona forms parallel and dark bands which surround in gentle curves a more clearly rectangular core at least wide.",
"The overall effect has been described as an ovoid of lines.",
"The interior and belt of ''Arden'' show very different morphologies.",
"The interior topography appears regular and soft.",
"It is also characterized by a mottled pattern resulting from large patches of relatively bright material scattered over a generally dark surface.",
"The stratigraphic relationship between the light and dark marks could not be determined from the images provided by ''Voyager 2''.",
"The area at the margin of ''Arden'' is characterized by concentric albedo bands which extend from the western end of the crown where they intersect crateriform terrain (near 40° longitude) and on the side east, where they extend beyond the, in the northern hemisphere (near 110° longitude).",
"The contrasting albedo bands are composed of outer fault scarp faces.",
"This succession of escarpments gradually pushes the land into a deep hollow along the border between ''Arden'' and the crateriform terrain called ''Mantua Regio'''.",
"''Arden'' was formed during a geological episode which preceded the formation of ''Inverness'' but which is contemporary with the formation of ''Elsinore''.==== ''Elsinore'' ====''Elsinore'' refers to the third corona, which was observed in the rear hemisphere of Miranda, along the terminator.",
"It is broadly similar to ''Arden'' in size and internal structure.",
"They both have an outer belt about wide, which wraps around an inner core.",
"The topography of the core of ''Elsinore'' consists of a complex set of intersections of troughs and bumps which are truncated by this outer belt which is marked by roughly concentric linear ridges.",
"The troughs also include small segments of rolling, cratered terrain.",
"''Elsinore'' also presents segments of furrows, called \"''sulcus''\", comparable to those observed on Ganymede.=== Rupes ===Close-up view of ''Verona Rupes'', a cliff high.Miranda also features enormous escarpments that can be traced across the moon.",
"Some of them are older than the coronae, others younger.",
"The most spectacular fault system begins at a deep valley visible at the terminator.This network of faults begins on the northwest side of ''Inverness'' where it forms a deep gorge on the outer edge of the ovoid which surrounds the crown.",
"This geological formation is named \"''Argier Rupes''\".The most impressive fault then extends to the terminator, extending from the top of the central \"chevron\" of ''Inverness''.",
"Near the terminator, a gigantic luminous cliff, named \"''Verona Rupes''\", forms complex grabens.",
"The fault is approximately wide, the graben at the bright edge is 10 to deep.",
"The height of the sheer cliff is 5 to .",
"Although it could not be observed by the ''Voyager 2'' probe on the face immersed in the polar night of Miranda, it is probable that this geological structure extends beyond the terminator in the northern hemisphere.=== Impact craters ===During the close flyby of ''Voyager 2'' in January 1986, only the craters on the southern hemisphere of Miranda could be observed.",
"They generally had diameters of over , representing the limit of resolution of the digital images transmitted by the probe during its flight.",
"These craters have very varied morphologies.",
"Some have well-defined borders and are sometimes surrounded by ejecta deposits characteristic of impact craters.",
"Others are very degraded and sometimes barely recognizable, as their topography has been altered.",
"The age of a crater does not give an indication of the date of formation of the terrain it marked.",
"On the other hand, this date depends on the number of craters present on a site, regardless of their age.",
"The more impact craters a terrain has, the older it is.",
"Scientists use these as \"planetary chronometers\"; they count observed craters to date the formation of the terrain of inert natural satellites devoid of atmospheres, such as Callisto.No multiple ring crater, nor any complex crater with a central peak, has been observed on Miranda.",
"Simple craters, that is to say whose cavity is bowl-shaped, and transitional craters (with a flat bottom) are the norm, with their diameter not correlated to their shape.",
"Thus simple craters of more than are observed while elsewhere transitional craters of have been identified.",
"Ejecta deposits are rare, and are never associated with craters larger than in diameter.",
"The ejecta that sometimes surround craters with a diameter less than appear systematically brighter than the material surrounding them.",
"On the other hand, ejecta associated with craters of size between and are generally darker than what surrounds them (the albedo of the ejecta is lower than that of the matter surrounding them).",
"Finally, some ejecta deposits, associated with diameters of all sizes, have an albedo comparable to that of the material on which they rest.==== In regios ====In some regios, and particularly in those of the visible part of the anti-Uranian hemisphere (which continually turns its back on the planet), craters are very frequent.",
"They are sometimes stuck to each other with very little space between each one.",
"Elsewhere, craters are less frequent and are separated by large, weakly undulated surfaces.",
"The rim of many craters is surrounded by luminous material while streaks of dark material are observed on the walls which surround the bottom of the craters.",
"In the ''Matuna regio'', between the ''Truncilo'' and ''Fransesco'' craters, we observe a gigantic circular geological structure of in diameter which could be a basin impact very significantly degraded.",
"These findings suggest that these regions contain a shiny material at shallow depth, while a layer of dark material (or a material which darkens upon contact with the external environment) is present, at greater depth.==== In coronae ====Craters are statistically up to ten times less numerous in the coronae than in the anti-Uranian regions, which indicates that these formations are younger.The density of impact craters could be established for different areas of ''Inverness'', and made it possible to establish the age of each.",
"Considering these measurements, the entire geological formation was formed in a relative unit of time.",
"However, other observations make it possible to establish that the youngest zone, within this crown, is the one which separates the \"chevron\", from ''Argier Rupes''.The density of impact craters in the core and in the Arden belt is statistically similar.",
"The two distinct parts of this formation must therefore have been part of a common geological episode.",
"Nevertheless, the superposition of craters on bands of the central core of ''Arden'' indicates that its formation preceded that of the scarps which surround it.",
"The data from the impact craters can be interpreted as follows: the interior and marginal zones of the corona, including most of the albedo bands, were formed during the same period of time.",
"Their formation was followed by later tectonic developments which produced the high-relief fault scarps observed along the edge of the crown near longitude 110°.The density of impact craters seems the same in the structure surrounding ''Elsinore'' as in its central core.",
"The two zones of the crown seem to have formed during the same geological period, but other geological elements suggest that the perimeter of ''Elsinore'' is younger than its core.==== Other observations ====The number of craters should be higher in the hemisphere at the apex of the orbital movement than at the antapex.",
"However, it is the anti-Uranian hemisphere which is densest in craters.",
"This situation could be explained by a past event having caused a reorientation of Miranda's axis of rotation by 90° compared to that which is currently known.",
"In this case, the paleoapex hemisphere of the moon would have become the current anti-Uranian hemisphere.",
"However, the count of impact craters being limited to the southern hemisphere only, illuminated during the passage of the Voyager 2 probe, it is possible that Miranda has experienced a more complex reorientation and that its paleoapex is located somewhere in the northern hemisphere, which has not yet been photographed."
],
[
"Origin and formation",
"Several scenarios are proposed to explain its formation and geological evolution.",
"One of them postulates that it would result from the accretion of a disk of gas and dust called a \"subnebula\".",
"This sub-nebula either existed around Uranus for some period of time after its formation, or was created following a cosmic impact which would have given its great obliquity to the axis of rotation of Uranus.",
"However, this relatively small moon has areas that are surprisingly young compared to the geological time scale.",
"It seems that the most recent geological formations only date back a few hundred million years.",
"However, thermal models applicable to moons the size of Miranda predict rapid cooling and the absence of geological evolution following its accretion from a subnebula.",
"Geological activity over such a long period cannot be justified either by the heat resulting from the initial accretion, nor by the heat generated by the fission of radioactive materials involved in the formation.Miranda has the youngest surface among those of the satellites of the Uranian system, which indicates that its geography has undergone the most important evolutions.",
"This geography would be explained by a complex geological history including a still unknown combination of different astronomical phenomena.",
"Among these phenomena would be tidal forces, mechanisms of orbital resonances, processes of partial differentiation or even movements of convection .The geological patchwork could be partly the result of a catastrophic collision with an impactor.",
"This event may have completely dislocated Miranda.",
"The different pieces would then have re-assembled, then gradually reorganized in the spherical form that the ''Voyager 2'' probe photographed.",
"Some scientists even speak of several cycles of collision and re-accretion of the moon.",
"This geological hypothesis was depreciated in 2011 in favor of hypotheses involving Uranian tidal forces.",
"These would have pulled and turned the materials present under ''Inverness'' and ''Arden'' to create fault scarps.",
"The stretching and distortion caused by Uranus' gravity, which alone could have provided the heat source necessary to power these uprisings.The oldest known regions on the surface of Miranda are cratered plains such as ''Sicilia Regio'' and ''Ephesus Regio''.",
"The formation of these terrains follows the accretion of the moon then its cooling.",
"The bottoms of the oldest craters are thus partially covered with material from the depths of the moon referred to as endogenous resurfacing, which was a surprising observation.",
"The geological youth of Miranda demonstrates that a heat source then took over from the initial heat provided by the accretion of the moon.",
"The most satisfactory explanation for the origin of the heat which animated the moon is the one which also explains the volcanism on Io: a situation of orbital resonance now on Miranda and the important phenomenon of tidal forces generated by Uranus.After this first geological epoch, Miranda experienced a period of cooling which generated an overall extension of its core and produced fragments and cracks of its mantle on the surface, in the form of grabens.",
"It is indeed possible that the configuration of the satellites Miranda, Ariel and Umbriel experienced several important resonances of the pairs: Miranda/Ariel, Ariel/Umbriel and Miranda/Umbriel.",
"Unlike those observed on Jupiter's moon Io, these orbital resonance phenomena between Miranda and Ariel could not lead to a stable capture of the small moon.",
"Instead of being captured, Miranda's orbital resonance with Ariel and Umbriel may have led to the increase in its eccentricity and orbital inclination.",
"By successively escaping several orbital resonances, Miranda alternated phases of heating and cooling.",
"Thus all the known grabens of Miranda were not formed during this second geological episode.A third major geological epoch occurs with the orbital reorientation of Miranda and the formation of ''Elsinore'' and ''Arden''.",
"A singular volcanic event, made of flows of solid materials, could then to have taken place, within the coronae in formation.",
"Another explanation proposed for the formation of these two coronae would be the product of a diapir which would have formed in the heart of the moon.",
"On this occasion Miranda would have at least partially differentiated.",
"Considering the size and position of these coronae, it is possible that their formation contributed to changing the moment of inertia of the moon.",
"This could have caused a 90° reorientation of Miranda.",
"Doubt remains as to the concomitant existence of these two formations.",
"It is possible that at this time, the moon was distorted to the point that its asphericity and eccentricity temporarily caused it to undergo a chaotic rotational movement, such as that observed on Hyperion.",
"If Miranda's orbital reorientation occurred before the two coronae formed on the surface, then ''Elsinore'' would be older than ''Arden''.",
"Chaotic movement phenomena generated by the entry into 3:1 resonance between the orbit of Miranda and that of Umbriel could have contributed to an increase in Miranda's orbital inclination greater than 3°.A final geological episode consists of the formation of ''Inverness'' which seems to have induced surface tensions which gave rise to the creation of additional grabens including ''Verona Rupes'' and ''Argier Rupes''.",
"Following this new cooling of Miranda, its total volume could have increased by 4%.",
"It is probable that these different geological episodes followed one another without interruption.Ultimately, Miranda's geological history may have spanned a period of more than 3 billion years.",
"It would have started 3.5 billion years ago with the appearance of heavily cratered regions and ended a few hundred million years ago, with the formation of the coronae.The phenomena of orbital resonances, and mainly that associated with Umbriel, but also, to a lesser extent, that of Ariel, would have had a significant impact on the orbital eccentricity of Miranda, and would also have contributed to the internal heating and geological activity of the moon.",
"The whole would have induced convection movements in its substrate and allowed the start of planetary differentiation.",
"At the same time, these phenomena would have only slightly disturbed the orbits of the other moons involved, which are more massive than Miranda.",
"However, Miranda's surface may appear too tortured to be the sole product of orbital resonance phenomena.After Miranda escaped from this resonance with Umbriel, through a mechanism that likely moved the moon into its current, abnormally high orbital tilt, the eccentricity would have been reduced.",
"The tidal forces would then have erased the eccentricity and the temperature at the heart of the moon.",
"This would have allowed it to regain a spherical shape, without allowing it to erase the impressive geological artifacts such as ''Verona Rupes''.",
"This eccentricity being the source of the tidal forces, its reduction would have deactivated the heat source which fueled the ancient geological activity of Miranda, making Miranda a cold and inert moon."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of geological features on Miranda"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Miranda Profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site* Miranda page at ''The Nine Planets''* Miranda, a Moon of Uranus at ''Views of the Solar System''* Paul Schenk's 3D images and flyover videos of Miranda and other outer solar system satellites* Miranda Nomenclature from the USGS Planetary Nomenclature web site"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mars in fiction"
],
[
"Introduction",
"H. G. Wells's ''The War of the Worlds'', depicting Martians invading Earth, is one of the most influential works of science fiction.Mars, the fourth planet from the Sun, has appeared as a setting in works of fiction since at least the mid-1600s.",
"Trends in the planet's portrayal have largely been influenced by advances in planetary science.",
"It became the most popular celestial object in fiction in the late 1800s, when it became clear that there was no life on the Moon.",
"The predominant genre depicting Mars at the time was utopian fiction.",
"Around the same time, the mistaken belief that there are canals on Mars emerged and made its way into fiction, popularized by Percival Lowell's speculations of an ancient civilization having constructed them.",
"''The War of the Worlds'', H. G. Wells's novel about an alien invasion of Earth by sinister Martians, was published in 1897 and went on to have a major influence on the science fiction genre.Life on Mars appeared frequently in fiction throughout the first half of the 1900s.",
"Apart from enlightened as in the utopian works from the turn of the century, or evil as in the works inspired by Wells, intelligent and human-like Martians began to be depicted as decadent, a portrayal that was popularized by Edgar Rice Burroughs in the ''Barsoom'' series and adopted by Leigh Brackett among others.",
"More exotic lifeforms appeared in stories like Stanley G. Weinbaum's \"A Martian Odyssey\".The theme of colonizing Mars replaced stories about native inhabitants of the planet in the second half of the 1900s following emerging evidence of the planet being inhospitable to life, eventually confirmed by data from Mars exploration probes.",
"A significant minority of works persisted in portraying Mars in a nostalgic way that was by then scientifically outdated, including Ray Bradbury's ''The Martian Chronicles''.Terraforming Mars to enable human habitation has been another major theme, especially in the final quarter of the century, the most prominent example being Kim Stanley Robinson's ''Mars'' trilogy.",
"Stories of the first human mission to Mars appeared throughout the 1990s in response to the Space Exploration Initiative, and near-future exploration and settlement became increasingly common themes following the launches of other Mars exploration probes in the latter half of the decade.",
"In the year 2000, science fiction scholar Gary Westfahl estimated the total number of works of fiction dealing with Mars up to that point to exceed five thousand, and the planet has continued to make frequent appearances across several genres and forms of media since.",
"In contrast, the moons of Mars—Phobos and Deimos—have made only sporadic appearances in fiction."
],
[
"Early depictions",
"File:Solar system.jpg|alt=A photomontage of the eight planets and the Moon|thumb|Early depictions of Mars in fiction were often part of tours of the Solar System.",
"Clicking on a planet leads to the article about its depiction in fiction.circle 1250 4700 650 Neptune in fictioncircle 2150 4505 525 Uranus in fictioncircle 2890 3960 610 Saturn in fictioncircle 3450 2880 790 Jupiter in fictioncircle 3015 1770 460 Mars in fictioncircle 2370 1150 520 Earth in science fictioncircle 3165 590 280 Moon in science fictioncircle 1570 785 475 Venus in fictioncircle 990 530 320 Mercury in fictionBefore the 1800s, Mars did not get much attention in fiction writing as a primary setting, though it did appear in some stories visiting multiple locations in the Solar System.",
"The first fictional tour of the planets, the 1656 work ''Itinerarium exstaticum'' by Athanasius Kircher, portrays Mars as a volcanic wasteland.",
"It also appears briefly in the 1686 work ''Entretiens sur la pluralité des mondes'' (''Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds'') by Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle but is largely dismissed as uninteresting due to its presumed similarity to Earth.",
"Mars is home to spirits in several works of the mid-1700s.",
"In the anonymously published 1755 work ''A Voyage to the World in the Centre of the Earth'', it is a heavenly place where, among others, Alexander the Great enjoys a second life.",
"In the 1758 work ''De Telluribus in Mundo Nostro Solari'' (''Concerning the Earths in Our Solar System'') by Emanuel Swedenborg, the planet is inhabited by beings characterized by honesty and moral virtue.",
"In the 1765 novel '''' (''The Voyages of Lord Seaton to the Seven Planets'') by Marie-Anne de Roumier-Robert, reincarnated soldiers roam a war-torn landscape.",
"It later appeared alongside the other planets throughout the 1800s.",
"In the anonymously published 1839 novel ''A Fantastical Excursion into the Planets'', it is divided between the Roman gods Mars and Vulcan.",
"In the anonymously published 1873 novel ''A Narrative of the Travels and Adventures of Paul Aermont among the Planets'', it is culturally rather similar to Earth—unlike the other planets.",
"In the 1883 novel ''Aleriel, or A Voyage to Other Worlds'' by W. S. Lach-Szyrma, a visitor from Venus relates the details of Martian society to Earthlings.",
"The first work of science fiction set primarily on Mars was the 1880 novel ''Across the Zodiac'' by Percy Greg.Mars became the most popular extraterrestrial location in fiction in the late 1800s as it became clear that the Moon was devoid of life.",
"A recurring theme in this time period was that of reincarnation on Mars, reflecting an upswing in interest in the paranormal in general and in relation to Mars in particular.",
"Humans are reborn on Mars in the 1889 novel ''Uranie'' by Camille Flammarion as a form of afterlife, the 1896 novel ''Daybreak: The Story of an Old World'' by James Cowan depicts Jesus reincarnated there, and the protagonist of the 1903 novel ''The Certainty of a Future Life in Mars'' by receives a message in Morse code from his deceased father on Mars.",
"Other supernatural phenomena include telepathy in Greg's ''Across the Zodiac'' and precognition in the 1886 short story \"The Blindman's World\" by Edward Bellamy.",
"Several recurring tropes were introduced during this time.",
"One of them is Mars having a different local name such as Glintan in the 1889 novel ''Mr.",
"Stranger's Sealed Packet'' by Hugh MacColl, Oron in the 1892 novel ''Messages from Mars, By Aid of the Telescope Plant'' by Robert D. Braine, and Barsoom in the 1912 novel ''A Princess of Mars'' by Edgar Rice Burroughs.",
"This carried on in later works such as the 1938 novel ''Out of the Silent Planet'' by C. S. Lewis, which calls the planet Malacandra.",
"Several stories also depict Martians speaking Earth languages and provide explanations of varying levels of preposterousness.",
"In the 1899 novel ''Pharaoh's Broker'' by , Martians speak Hebrew as Mars goes through the same historical phases as Earth with a delay of a few thousand years, here corresponding to the captivity of the Israelites in Biblical Egypt.",
"In the 1901 novel ''A Honeymoon in Space'' by George Griffith, they speak English because they acknowledge it as the \"most convenient\" language of all.",
"In the 1920 novel ''A Trip to Mars'' by Marcianus Rossi, the Martians speak Latin as a result of having been taught the language by a Roman who was flung into space by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in the year 79.Martians were often portrayed as existing within a racial hierarchy: the 1894 novel ''Journey to Mars'' by Gustavus W. Pope features Martians with different skin colours (red, blue, and yellow) subject to strict anti-miscegenation laws, Rossi's ''A Trip to Mars'' sees one portion of the Martian population described as \"our inferior race, the same as your terrestrian negroes\", and Burroughs's ''Barsoom'' series has red, green, yellow, and black Martians, a white race—responsible for the previous advanced civilization on Mars—having become extinct.=== Means of travel ===The question of how humans would get to Mars was addressed in several ways: when not travelling there via spaceship as in the 1911 novel ''To Mars via the Moon: An Astronomical Story'' by Mark Wicks, they might use a flying carpet as in the 1905 novel ''Lieut.",
"Gullivar Jones: His Vacation'' by Edwin Lester Arnold, a balloon as in ''A Narrative of the Travels and Adventures of Paul Aermont among the Planets'', or an \"aeroplane\" as in the 1893 novel ''Unveiling a Parallel: A Romance'' by Alice Ilgenfritz Jones and (writing jointly as \"Two Women of the West\").",
"They might also visit in a dream as in the 1899 play ''A Message from Mars'' by Richard Ganthony, teleport via astral projection as in Burroughs's ''A Princess of Mars'', or use a long-range communication device while staying on Earth as in Braine's ''Messages from Mars, By Aid of the Telescope Plant'' and the 1895 novel '''' (''To the Unknown Worlds'') by Polish science fiction writer Władysław Umiński.",
"Anti-gravity is employed in several works including Greg's ''Across the Zodiac'', MacColl's ''Mr.",
"Stranger's Sealed Packet'', and the 1890 novel ''A Plunge into Space'' by Robert Cromie.",
"Occasionally, the method of transport is not addressed at all.",
"Some stories take the opposite approach of having Martians come to Earth; examples include the 1891 novel ''The Man from Mars: His Morals, Politics and Religion'' by Thomas Blot (pseudonym of William Simpson) and the 1893 novel ''A Cityless and Countryless World'' by Henry Olerich.=== Canals ===During the opposition of Mars in 1877, Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli announced the discovery of linear structures he dubbed (literally ''channels'', but widely translated as ''canals'') on the Martian surface.",
"These were generally interpreted—by those who accepted their disputed existence—as waterways, and they made their earliest appearance in fiction in the anonymously published 1883 novel ''Politics and Life in Mars'', where the Martians live in the water.",
"Schiaparelli's observations, and perhaps the translation of as \"canals\" rather than \"channels\", inspired Percival Lowell to speculate that these were artificial constructs and write a series of non-fiction books—''Mars'' in 1895, ''Mars and Its Canals'' in 1906, and ''Mars as the Abode of Life'' in 1908—popularizing the idea.",
"Lowell posited that Mars was home to an ancient and advanced but dying or already dead Martian civilization who had constructed these vast canals for irrigation to survive on an increasingly arid planet, and this became an enduring vision of Mars that influenced writers across several decades.",
"Science fiction scholar Gary Westfahl, drawing from the catalogue of early science fiction works compiled by E. F. Bleiler and Richard Bleiler in the reference works ''Science-Fiction: The Early Years'' from 1990 and ''Science-Fiction: The Gernsback Years'' from 1998, concludes that Lowell thus \"effectively set the boundaries for subsequent narratives about an inhabited Mars\".Canals became a feature of romantic portrayals of Mars such as Burroughs's ''Barsoom'' series.",
"Early works that did not depict any waterways on Mars typically explained the appearance of straight lines on the surface in some other way, such as simooms or large tracts of vegetation.",
"Although they quickly fell out of favour as a serious scientific theory, largely as a result of higher-quality telescopic observations by astronomers such as E. M. Antoniadi failing to detect them, canals continued to make sporadic appearances in fiction for a while in works such as the 1936 novel ''Planet Plane'' by John Wyndham, the 1938 novel ''Out of the Silent Planet'' by C. S. Lewis, and the 1949 novel ''Red Planet'' by Robert A. Heinlein.",
"Said Lewis in response to criticism from biologist J.",
"B. S. Haldane, \"The canals in Mars are there not because I believe in them but because they are part of the popular tradition.\"",
"Eventually, the flyby of Mars by Mariner 4 in 1965 conclusively determined that the canals were mere optical illusions.=== Utopias ===''A Plunge into Space'', an 1890 piece of utopian fiction set on MarsBecause early versions of the nebular hypothesis of Solar System formation held that the planets were formed sequentially starting at the outermost planets, some authors envisioned Mars as an older and more mature world than the Earth, and it became the setting for many utopian works of fiction.",
"This genre made up the majority of stories about Mars in the late 1800s and continued to be represented through the early 1900s.",
"The earliest of these works was the 1880 novel ''Across the Zodiac'' by Percy Greg.",
"The 1887 novel ''Bellona's Husband: A Romance'' by William James Roe portrays a Martian society where everyone ages backwards.",
"The 1890 novel ''A Plunge into Space'' by Robert Cromie depicts a society that is so advanced that life there has become dull and, as a result, the humans who visit succumb to boredom and leave ahead of schedule—to the approval of the Martians, who have come to view them as a corrupting influence.",
"The 1892 novel ''Messages from Mars, By Aid of the Telescope Plant'' by Robert D. Braine is unusual in portraying a completely rural Martian utopia without any cities.",
"An early work of feminist science fiction, Jones's and Merchant's 1893 novel ''Unveiling a Parallel: A Romance'', depicts a man from Earth visiting two egalitarian societies on Mars: one where women have adopted male vices and one where equality has brought out everyone's best qualities.",
"The 1897 novel ''Auf zwei Planeten'' (''Two Planets'') by German science fiction pioneer Kurd Lasswitz contrasts a utopian society on Mars with that society's colonialist actions on Earth.",
"The book was translated into several languages and was highly influential in Continental Europe, including inspiring rocket scientist Wernher von Braun, but did not receive a translation into English until the 1970s, which limited its impact in the Anglosphere.",
"The 1910 novel ''The Man from Mars, Or Service for Service's Sake'' by portrays a civilization on Mars based on a variation on Christianity where woman was created first, in contrast to the conventional Genesis creation narrative.",
"Hugo Gernsback depicted a science-based utopia on Mars in the 1915–1917 serial ''Baron Münchhausen's New Scientific Adventures'', but by and large, World War I spelled the end for utopian Martian fiction.In Russian science fiction, Mars became the setting for socialist utopias and revolutions.",
"The 1908 novel ''Red Star'' (''Красная звезда'') by Alexander Bogdanov is the primary example of this, and inspired many others.",
"''Red Star'' portrays a socialist society on Mars from the perspective of a Russian Bolshevik invited there, where the struggle between classes has been replaced with a common struggle against the harshness of nature.",
"The 1913 prequel ''Engineer Menni'' (''Инженер Мэнни''), also by Bogdanov, is set several centuries earlier and serves as an origin story for the Martian society by detailing the events of the revolution that brought it about.",
"Another prominent example is the 1922 novel ''Aelita'' (''Аэлита'') by Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy—along with its 1924 film adaptation, the earliest Soviet science fiction film—which adapts the story of the 1905 Russian Revolution to the Martian surface.",
"''Red Star'' and ''Aelita'' are in some ways opposites.",
"''Red Star'', written between the failed revolution in 1905 and the successful 1917 Russian Revolution, sees Mars as a socialist utopia from which Earth can learn, whereas in ''Aelita'' the socialist revolution is instead exported from the early Soviet Russia to Mars.",
"''Red Star'' depicts a utopia on Mars, in contrast to the dystopia initially found on Mars in ''Aelita''—though both are technocracies.",
"''Red Star'' is a sincere and idealistic work of traditional utopian fiction, whereas ''Aelita'' is a parody.=== ''The War of the Worlds'' ===The 1897 novel ''The War of the Worlds'' by H. G. Wells, which depicts an alien invasion of Earth by Martians in search of resources, represented a turning point in Mars fiction.",
"Rather than being portrayed as essentially human, Wells's Martians have a completely inhuman appearance and cannot be communicated with.",
"Rather than being noble creatures to emulate, the Martians dispassionately kill and exploit the Earthlings like livestock—a critique of contemporary British colonialism in general and its devastating effects on the Aboriginal Tasmanians in particular.",
"The novel set the tone for the majority of the science-fictional depictions of Mars in the decades that followed in portraying the Martians as malevolent and Mars as a dying world.",
"Beyond Martian fiction, the novel had a large influence on the broader science fiction genre, and inspired rocket scientist Robert H. Goddard.",
"According to science fiction essayist Bud Webster, \"It's impossible to overstate the importance of ''The War of the Worlds'' and the influence it's had over the years.\"",
"Orson Welles interviewed by reporters after his 1938 radio adaptation of ''The War of the Worlds'' caused a panic.An unauthorized sequel—''Edison's Conquest of Mars'' by Garrett P. Serviss—was released in 1898, as was a parody by and E. V. Lucas titled ''The War of the Wenuses''.",
"Wells's story gained further notoriety in 1938 when a radio adaptation by Orson Welles in the style of a news broadcast was mistaken for a real newscast by some listeners in the US, leading to panic; less famously, a 1949 broadcast in Quito, Ecuador, also resulted in a riot.",
"Several sequels and adaptations by other authors have been written since, including the 1950 Superman comic book story \"Black Magic on Mars\" by Alvin Schwartz and Wayne Boring where Orson Welles tries to warn Earth of an impending Martian invasion but is dismissed, the 1968 novel ''The Second Invasion from Mars'' (''Второе нашествие марсиан'') by Soviet science fiction writers Arkady and Boris Strugatsky where the Martians forgo military conquest in favour of infiltration, the 1975 novel ''Sherlock Holmes's War of the Worlds'' by Manly Wade Wellman and Wade Wellman and the 1976 novel ''The Second War of the Worlds'' by George H. Smith which both combine Wells's story with Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes characters, the 1976 novel ''The Space Machine'' by Christopher Priest which combines the story of ''The War of the Worlds'' with that of Wells's 1895 novel ''The Time Machine'', the 2002 short story \"Ulla, Ulla\" by Eric Brown which reframes the invasion as a desperate escape by a peaceful race from a dying world, and the 2005 novel ''The Martian War'' by Kevin J. Anderson where Wells himself goes to Mars and instigates a slave uprising.",
"The authorised 2017 sequel novel ''The Massacre of Mankind'' by Stephen Baxter is set in 1920 in an alternate timeline where the events of the original novel caused World War I never to happen by making Britain war-weary and isolationist, and the Martians attack yet again after inoculating themselves against the microbes that were their downfall the first time."
],
[
"Life on Mars",
"The term ''Martians'' typically refers to inhabitants of Mars that are similar to humans in terms of having such things as language and civilization, though it is also occasionally used to refer to extraterrestrials in general.",
"These inhabitants of Mars have variously been depicted as enlightened, evil, and decadent; in keeping with the conception of Mars as an older civilization than Earth, Westfahl refers to these as \"good parents\", \"bad parents\", and \"dependent parents\", respectively.Martians have also been equated with humans in different ways.",
"They are the descendants of humans from Earth in some works such as the 1889 novel ''Mr.",
"Stranger's Sealed Packet'' by Hugh MacColl, where a close approach between Mars and Earth in the past allowed some humans to get to Mars, and Tolstoy's ''Aelita'' where they are descended from inhabitants of the lost civilization of Atlantis.",
"Conversely, humans are revealed to be the descendants of Martians in the 1954 short story \"Survey Team\" by Philip K. Dick.",
"Human settlers take on the new identity of Martians in the 1946 short story \"The Million Year Picnic\" by Ray Bradbury (later included in the 1950 fix-up novel ''The Martian Chronicles''), and this theme of \"becoming Martians\" came to be a recurring motif in Martian fiction toward the end of the century.=== Enlightened ===Klaatu, the Martian who visits Earth in the 1951 film ''The Day the Earth Stood Still''The portrayal of Martians as superior to Earthlings appeared throughout the utopian fiction of the late 1800s.",
"In-depth treatment of the nuances of the concept was pioneered by Kurd Lasswitz with the 1897 novel ''Auf zwei Planeten'', wherein the Martians visit Earth to share their more advanced knowledge with humans and gradually end up acting as an occupying colonial power.",
"Martians sharing wisdom or knowledge with humans is a recurring element in these stories, and some works such as the 1952 novel ''David Starr, Space Ranger'' by Isaac Asimov depict Martians sharing their advanced technology with the inhabitants of Earth.",
"Several depictions of enlightened Martians have a religious dimension: in the 1938 novel ''Out of the Silent Planet'' by C. S. Lewis, Martians are depicted as Christian beings free from original sin, the Martian Klaatu who visits Earth in the 1951 film ''The Day the Earth Stood Still'' is a Christ figure, and the 1961 novel ''Stranger in a Strange Land'' by Robert A. Heinlein revolves around a human raised by Martians who brings a religion based on their ideals to Earth as a prophet.",
"In comic books, the superhero Martian Manhunter first appeared in 1955.In the 1956 novel ''No Man Friday'' by Rex Gordon, an astronaut stranded on Mars encounters pacifist Martians and feels compelled to omit the human history of warfare lest they think of humans as savage creatures akin to cannibals.",
"On television, the 1963–1966 sitcom ''My Favorite Martian''—later adapted to children's animation in 1973 and to film in 1999—portrayed a Martian comedically; the contemporaneous science fiction anthology series ''The Twilight Zone'' and ''The Outer Limits'' also occasionally featured Martian characters,'''' such as in \"Mr. Dingle, the Strong\" where they find disappointment in human lack of altruism and \"Controlled Experiment\" where murder is a foreign concept to them.=== Evil ===There is a long tradition of portraying Martians as warlike, perhaps inspired by the planet's association with the Roman god of war.",
"The seminal depiction of Martians as evil creatures was the 1897 novel ''The War of the Worlds'' by H. G. Wells, wherein the Martians attack Earth.",
"This characterization dominated the pulp era of science fiction, appearing in works such as the 1928 short story \"The Menace of Mars\" by Clare Winger Harris, the 1931 short story \"Monsters of Mars\" by Edmond Hamilton, and the 1935 short story \"Mars Colonizes\" by Miles J. Breuer.",
"It quickly became regarded as a cliché and inspired a kind of countermovement that portrayed Martians as meek in works like the 1933 short story \"The Forgotten Man of Space\" by P. Schuyler Miller and the 1934 short story \"Old Faithful\" by Raymond Z. Gallun.",
"The 1946 novel ''The Man from Mars'' by Polish science fiction writer Stanisław Lem likewise depicts a Martian mistreated by humans.Outside of the pulps, the alien invasion theme pioneered by Wells appeared in Olaf Stapledon's 1930 novel ''Last and First Men''—with the twist that the invading Martians are cloud-borne and microscopic, and neither aliens nor humans recognize the other as a sentient species.",
"In film, this theme gained popularity in 1953 with the releases of ''The War of the Worlds'' and ''Invaders from Mars''; later films about Martian invasions of Earth include the 1954 film ''Devil Girl from Mars'', the 1962 film ''The Day Mars Invaded Earth'', a 1986 remake of ''Invaders from Mars'' and three different adaptations of ''The War of the Worlds'' in 2005.Martians attacking humans who come to Mars appear in the 1948 short story \"Mars Is Heaven!\"",
"by Ray Bradbury (later revised and included in ''The Martian Chronicles'' as \"The Third Expedition\"), where they use telepathic abilities to impersonate the humans' deceased loved ones before killing them.",
"Comical portrayals of evil Martians appear in the 1954 novel ''Martians, Go Home'' by Fredric Brown, where they are little green men who wreak havoc by exposing secrets and lies; in the form of the cartoon character Marvin the Martian introduced in the 1948 short film \"Haredevil Hare\", who seeks to destroy Earth to get a better view of Venus; and in the 1996 film ''Mars Attacks!",
"'', a pastiche of 1950s alien invasion films.=== Decadent ===Decadent portrayals of Martians were popularized by Edgar Rice Burroughs, inspiring many authors such as Leigh Brackett.",
"Seen here is the March 1951 cover of ''Planet Stories'', featuring Brackett's \"Black Amazon of Mars\".The conception of Martians as decadent was largely derived from Percival Lowell's vision of Mars.",
"The first appearance of Martians characterized by decadence in a work of fiction was in the 1905 novel ''Lieut.",
"Gullivar Jones: His Vacation'' by Edwin Lester Arnold, one of the earliest examples of the planetary romance subgenre.",
"The idea was developed further and popularized by Edgar Rice Burroughs in the 1912–1943 ''Barsoom'' series starting with ''A Princess of Mars''.",
"Burroughs presents a Mars in need of human intervention to regain its vitality, a place where violence has replaced sexual desire.",
"Science fiction critic , in the 2011 non-fiction book ''Imagining Mars: A Literary History'', identifies Burroughs's work as the archetypal example of what he dubs \"masculinist fantasies\", where \"male travelers ''expect'' to find princesses on Mars and devote much of their time either to courting or to protecting them\".",
"This version of Mars also functions as a kind of stand-in for the bygone American frontier, where protagonist John Carter—a Confederate veteran of the American Civil War who is made superhumanly strong by the lower gravity of Mars—encounters indigenous Martians representing Native Americans.Burroughs's vision of Mars would go on to have an influence approaching but not quite reaching Wells's, inspiring the works of many other authors—for instance, C. L. Moore's stories about Northwest Smith starting with the 1933 short story \"Shambleau\".",
"Another author who followed Burroughs's lead in the decadent portrayal of Mars and its inhabitants—while updating the politics to reflect shifting attitudes toward colonialism and imperialism in the intervening years—was Leigh Brackett, the \"Queen of the Planetary Romance\".",
"Brackett's works in this vein include the 1940 short story \"Martian Quest\" and the 1944 novel ''Shadow Over Mars'', as well as the stories about Eric John Stark including the 1949 short story \"Queen of the Martian Catacombs\" and the 1951 short story \"Black Amazon of Mars\" (later expanded into the 1964 novels ''The Secret of Sinharat'' and ''People of the Talisman'', respectively).Decadent Martians appeared in many other stories as well.",
"The 1933 novel ''Cat Country'' (''貓城記'') by Chinese science fiction writer Lao She portrays feline Martians overcome by vices such as opium addiction and corruption as a vehicle for satire of contemporary Chinese society.",
"In the 1950 film ''Rocketship X-M'', Martians are depicted as disfigured cavepeople inhabiting a barren wasteland, descendants of the few survivors of a nuclear holocaust; in the 1963 novel ''The Man Who Fell to Earth'' by Walter Tevis a survivor of nuclear holocaust on Mars comes to Earth for refuge but finds it to be similarly corrupt and degenerate.",
"Inverting the premise of Heinlein's ''Stranger in a Strange Land'', the 1963 short story \"A Rose for Ecclesiastes\" by Roger Zelazny sees decadent Martians visited by a preacher from Earth.=== Past and non-humanoid life ===In some stories where Mars is not inhabited by humanoid lifeforms, it was in the past or is inhabited by other types of life.",
"The ruins of extinct Martian civilizations are depicted in the 1943 short story \"Lost Art\" by George O. Smith where their perpetual motion machine is recreated and the 1957 short story \"Omnilingual\" by H. Beam Piper in which scientists attempt to decipher their fifty-thousand-year-old language; the 1933 novel ''The Outlaws of Mars'' by Otis Adelbert Kline and the 1949 novel ''The Sword of Rhiannon'' by Leigh Brackett employ time travel to set stories in the past when Mars was still alive.The 1934 short story \"A Martian Odyssey\" by Stanley G. Weinbaum contains what Webster describes as \"the first really alien aliens\" in science fiction, in contrast to previous depictions of Martians as monsters or essentially human.",
"The story broke new ground in portraying an entire Martian ecosystem wholly unlike that of Earth—inhabited by species that are alien in anatomy and inscrutable in behaviour—and in depicting extraterrestrial life that is non-human and intelligent without being hostile.",
"In particular, one Martian creature called Tweel is found to be intelligent but have thought processes that are utterly inhuman.",
"This creates an impenetrable language barrier between the alien and the human it encounters, and they are limited to communicating through the universal language of mathematics.",
"Asimov would later say that this story met the challenge science fiction editor John W. Campbell made to science fiction writers in the 1940s: to write a creature who thinks at least as well as humans, yet not ''like'' humans.Three different species of intelligent lifeforms appear on Mars in C. S. Lewis's 1938 novel ''Out of the Silent Planet'', only one of which is humanoid.",
"In the 1943 short story \"The Cave\" by P. Schuyler Miller, lifeforms endure on Mars long after the civilization that used to exist there has driven itself to extinction through ecological collapse.",
"The 1951 novel ''The Sands of Mars'' by Arthur C. Clarke features some indigenous life in the form of oxygen-producing plants and Martian creatures resembling Earth marsupials, but otherwise depicts a mostly desolate environment—reflecting then-emerging data about the scarcity of life-sustaining resources on Mars.",
"Other novels of the 1950s likewise limited themselves to rudimentary lifeforms such as lichens and tumbleweed that could conceivably exist in the absence of any appreciable atmosphere or quantities of water.=== Lifeless Mars ===Data returned from Mars exploration missions in the 1960s and 1970s, such as this photograph by the Mariner 4 probe, led to stories of life on Mars becoming unfashionable.In light of the ''Mariner'' and ''Viking'' probes to Mars between 1965 and 1976 revealing the planet's inhospitable conditions, almost all fiction started to portray Mars as a lifeless world.",
"The disappointment of finding Mars to be hostile to life is reflected in the 1970 novel ''Die Erde ist nah'' (''The Earth Is Near'') by Czech science fiction writer Luděk Pešek, which depicts the members of an astrobiological expedition on Mars driven to despair by the realization that their search for life there is futile.",
"A handful of authors still found ways to place life on the red planet: microbial life exists on Mars in the 1977 novel ''The Martian Inca'' by Ian Watson, and intelligent life is found in hibernation there in the 1977 short story \"In the Hall of the Martian Kings\" by John Varley.",
"By the turn of the millennium, the idea of microbial life on Mars gained popularity, appearing in the 1999 novel ''The Martian Race'' by Gregory Benford and the 2001 novel ''The Secret of Life'' by Paul J. McAuley."
],
[
"Human survival",
"As stories about an inhabited Mars fell out of favour in the mid-1900s amid mounting evidence of the planet's inhospitable nature, they were replaced by stories about enduring the harsh conditions of the planet.",
"Themes in this tradition include colonization, terraforming, and pure survival stories.=== Colonization ===The colonization of Mars became a major theme in science fiction in the 1950s.",
"The central piece of Martian fiction in this era was Ray Bradbury's 1950 fix-up novel ''The Martian Chronicles'', which contains a series of loosely connected stories depicting the first few decades of human efforts to colonize Mars.",
"Unlike later works on this theme, ''The Martian Chronicles'' makes no attempt at realism (Mars has a breathable atmosphere, for instance, even though spectrographic analysis had at that time revealed no detectable amounts of oxygen); Bradbury said that \"Mars is a mirror, not a crystal\", writing in the tradition of using the planet for social commentary rather than attempting to predict the future.",
"Contemporary issues touched upon in the book include McCarthyism in \"Usher II\", racial segregation and lynching in the United States in \"Way in the Middle of the Air\", and nuclear anxiety throughout.",
"There are also several allusions to the European colonization of the Americas: the first few missions to Mars in the book encounter Martians, with direct references to both Hernán Cortés and the Trail of Tears, but the indigenous population soon goes extinct due to chickenpox in a parallel to the virgin soil epidemics that devastated Native American populations as a result of the Columbian exchange.The majority of works about colonizing Mars endeavoured to portray the challenges of doing so realistically.",
"The hostile environment of the planet is countered by the colonists bringing life-support systems in works like the 1951 novel ''The Sands of Mars'' by Arthur C. Clarke and the 1966 short story \"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale\" by Philip K. Dick, the early colonists during the centuries-long terraforming process in the 1953 short story \"Crucifixus Etiam\" by Walter M. Miller Jr. are dependent on a machine that oxygenates their blood from the thin atmosphere, and the scarcity of oxygen even after generations of terraforming forces the colonists to live in a domed city in the 1953 novel ''Police Your Planet'' by Lester del Rey.",
"In the 1955 fix-up novel ''Alien Dust'' by Edwin Charles Tubb, colonists are unable to return to a life on Earth because inhaling the Martian dust has given them pneumoconiosis and the lower gravity has atrophied their muscles.",
"The 1952 novel ''Outpost Mars'' by Cyril Judd (joint pseudonym of Cyril M. Kornbluth and Judith Merril) revolves around an attempt at making a Mars colony economically sustainable by way of resource extraction.Mars colonies seeking independence from or outright revolting against Earth is a recurring motif; in del Rey's ''Police Your Planet'' a revolution is precipitated by Earth using unrest against the colony's corrupt mayor as a pretext for bringing Mars under firmer Terran control, and in Tubb's ''Alien Dust'' the colonists threaten Earth with nuclear weapons unless their demands for necessary resources are met.",
"In the 1952 short story \"The Martian Way\" by Isaac Asimov, Martian colonists extract water from the rings of Saturn so as not to depend on importing water from Earth.",
"Besides direct conflicts with Earth, Mars colonies get other kinds of unfavourable treatment in several works.",
"Mars is a dilapidated colony and neglected in favour of locations outside of the Solar System in the 1967 novel ''Born Under Mars'' by John Brunner, a place where political dissidents and criminals are exiled in ''Police Your Planet'', and the site of an outright prison colony in the 1966 novel ''Farewell, Earth's Bliss'' by David G. Compton.",
"The vision of Mars as a prison colony recurs in Japanese science fiction author Moto Hagio's 1978–1979 manga series ''Star Red'' (''スター・レッド''), a homage to Bradbury's ''The Martian Chronicles''.",
"The independence theme was adopted by on-screen portrayals of Mars colonies in the 1990s in works like the 1990 film ''Total Recall'' (a loose adaptation of Dick's \"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale\") and the 1994–1998 television series ''Babylon 5'', now both in terms of Earth-based governments and—likely inspired by the emergence of Reaganomics—especially corporations.=== Terraforming ===terraformed to enable human habitation.Clarke's ''The Sands of Mars'' features one of the earliest depictions of terraforming Mars to make it more hospitable to human life; in the novel, the atmosphere of Mars is made breathable by plants that release oxygen from minerals in the Martian soil, and the climate is improved by creating an artificial sun.",
"The theme appeared occasionally in other 1950s works like the aforementioned \"Crucifixus Etiam\" and ''Police Your Planet'', but largely fell out of favour in the 1960s as the scale of the associated challenges became apparent.",
"By the 1970s, Martian literature as a whole had mostly succumbed to the discouragement of finding the planet's conditions to be so hostile, and stories set on Mars became much less common than they had been in previous decades.A resurgence of popularity of the terraforming theme began to emerge in the late 1970s in light of data from the ''Viking'' probes suggesting that there might be substantial quantities of non-liquid and sub-surface water on Mars; among the earliest such works are the 1977 novel ''The Martian Inca'' by Ian Watson and the 1978 novel ''A Double Shadow'' by Frederick Turner.",
"Works depicting the terraforming of Mars continued to appear throughout the 1980s.",
"The 1984 novel ''The Greening of Mars'' by James Lovelock and Michael Allaby, a study on how Mars might be settled and terraformed presented in the form of a fiction narrative, was influential on science and fiction alike.",
"Kim Stanley Robinson was an early prolific writer on the subject with the 1982 short story \"Exploring Fossil Canyon\", the 1984 novel ''Icehenge'', and the 1985 short story \"Green Mars\".",
"Turner revisited the concept in 1988 with ''Genesis'', a 10,000-line epic poem written in iambic pentameter, and Ian McDonald combined terraforming with magical realism in the 1988 novel ''Desolation Road''.By the 1990s, terraforming had become the predominant theme in Martian fiction.",
"Several methods for accomplishing it were depicted, including ancient alien artefacts in the 1990 film ''Total Recall'' and the 1997 novel ''Mars Underground'' by William Kenneth Hartmann, utilizing indigenous animal lifeforms in the 1991 novel ''The Martian Rainbow'' by Robert L. Forward, and relocating the entire planet to a new solar system in the 1993 novel ''Moving Mars'' by Greg Bear.",
"The 1993 novel ''Red Dust'' by Paul J. McAuley portrays Mars in the process of reverting to its natural state after an abandoned attempt at terraforming it.",
"With a Mars settled primarily by China, ''Red Dust'' also belongs to a tradition of portraying a multicultural Mars that developed parallel to the rise to prominence of the terraforming theme.",
"Other such works include the 1989 novel ''Crescent in the Sky'' by Donald Moffitt, where Arabs apply their experience with surviving in desert conditions to living in their new caliphate on a partially terraformed Mars, and the 1991 novel ''The Martian Viking'' by Tim Sullivan where Mars is terraformed by Geats led by Hygelac.The most prominent work of fiction dealing with the subject of terraforming Mars is the ''Mars'' trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson (consisting of the novels ''Red Mars'' from 1992, ''Green Mars'' from 1993, and ''Blue Mars'' from 1996), a hard science fiction story of a United Nations project wherein 100 carefully selected scientists are sent to Mars to start the first settlement there.",
"The series explores in depth the practical and ideological considerations involved, the principal one being whether to turn Mars \"Green\" by terraforming or keep it in its pristine \"Red\" state.",
"Other major topics include the social and economic organization of the emerging Martian society and its political relationship to Earth and the multinational economic interests that finance the mission, revisiting the earlier themes of Mars as a setting for utopia—albeit in this case one in the making rather than a pre-existing one—and Martian struggle for independence from Earth.",
"Alternatives to terraforming have also been explored.",
"The opposite approach of modifying humans to adapt them to the existing environment, known as pantropy, appears in the 1976 novel ''Man Plus'' by Frederik Pohl but has otherwise been sparsely depicted.",
"The conflict between pantropy and terraforming is explored in the 1994 novel ''Climbing Olympus'' by Kevin J. Anderson, as the humans that have been \"areoformed\" to survive on Mars do not wish the planet to be altered to accommodate unmodified humans at their expense.",
"Other works where terraforming is eschewed in favour of alternatives include the 1996 novel ''River of Dust'' by Alexander Jablokov, where the settlers create a liveable environment by burrowing underground, and the 1999 novel ''White Mars, or, The Mind Set Free: A 21st-Century Utopia'' by Brian Aldiss and Roger Penrose where environmental preservation is prioritized and humans live in domed cities.=== Robinsonades ===Martian robinsonades—stories of astronauts stranded on Mars—emerged in the 1950s with works such as the 1952 novel ''Marooned on Mars'' by Lester del Rey, the 1956 novel ''No Man Friday'' by Rex Gordon, and the 1959 short story \"The Man Who Lost the Sea\" by Theodore Sturgeon.",
"Crossley writes that ''No Man Friday'' is in some respects an \"anti-robinsonade\", inasmuch as it rejects the underlying colonialist attitudes and portrays the Martians as more advanced than humans rather than less.",
"Robinsonades remained popular throughout the 1960s; examples include the 1966 novel ''Welcome to Mars'' by James Blish and the 1964 film ''Robinson Crusoe on Mars'', the latter being significantly if unofficially based on ''No Man Friday''.",
"The subgenre was later revisited with the 2011 novel ''The Martian'' by Andy Weir and its 2015 film adaptation, in which an astronaut accidentally left behind by the third mission to Mars uses the resources available to him to survive until such a time that he can be rescued."
],
[
"Nostalgic depictions",
"Globe of Mars based on drawing by Percival Lowell, featuring the purported Martian canalsAlthough most stories by the middle of the 1900s acknowledged that advances in planetary science had rendered previous notions about the conditions of Mars obsolete and portrayed the planet accordingly, some continued to depict a romantic version of Mars rather than a realistic one.",
"Besides the stories of Ray Bradbury's 1950 fix-up novel ''The Martian Chronicles'', another early example of this was Robert A. Heinlein's 1949 novel ''Red Planet'' where Mars has a breathable (albeit thin) atmosphere, a diverse ecosystem including sentient Martians, and Lowellian canals.",
"Martian canals remained a prominent symbol of this more traditional vision of Mars, appearing both in lighthearted works like the 1954 novel ''Martians, Go Home'' by Fredric Brown and more serious ones like the 1963 novel ''The Man Who Fell to Earth'' by Walter Tevis and the 1964 novel ''Martian Time-Slip'' by Philip K. Dick.",
"Some works attempted to reconcile both visions of Mars, one example being the 1952 novel ''Marooned on Mars'' by Lester del Rey where the presumed canals turn out to be rows of vegetables and the only animal life is primitive.As the Space Age commenced the divide between portraying Mars as it was and as it had previously been imagined deepened, and the discoveries made by Mariner 4 in 1965 solidified it.",
"Some authors simply ignored the scientific findings, such as Lin Carter who included intelligent Martians in the 1973 novel ''The Man Who Loved Mars'', and Leigh Brackett who declared in the foreword to ''The Coming of the Terrans'' (a 1967 collection of earlier short stories) that \"in the affairs of men and Martians, mere fact runs a poor second to Truth, which is mighty and shall prevail\".",
"Others were cognizant of them and used workarounds: Frank Herbert invented the fictional extrasolar Mars-like planet Arrakis for the 1965 novel ''Dune'' rather than setting the story on Mars, Robert F. Young set the 1979 short story \"The First Mars Mission\" in 1957 so as not to have to take the findings of Mariner 4 into account, and Colin Greenland set the 1993 novel ''Harm's Way'' in the 1800s with corresponding scientific concepts like the luminiferous aether.",
"The 1965 novel ''The Alternate Martians'' by A. Bertram Chandler is based on the premise that the depictions of Mars that appear in older stories are not incorrect but reflect alternative universes; the book is dedicated to \"the Mars that used to be, but never was\".",
"The urge to recapture the romantic vision of Mars is reflected as part of the story in the 1968 novel ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?''",
"by Philip K. Dick, where the people living on a desolate Mars enjoy reading old stories about the lifeful Mars that never was, as well as in the 1989 novel ''The Barsoom Project'' by Steven Barnes and Larry Niven, where the fantastical version of Mars is recreated as an amusement park.The so-called \"Face on Mars\", photographed by ''Viking 1'' in 1976 (the black dots are missing data errors).",
"Later higher-quality images (such as this one by ''Mars Global Surveyor'' in 2001) do not resemble a face.Following the arrival of the ''Viking'' probes in 1976, the so-called \"Face on Mars\" superseded the Martian canals as the most central symbol of nostalgic depictions of Mars.",
"The \"Face\" is a rock formation in the Cydonia region of Mars first photographed by the ''Viking 1'' orbiter under conditions that made it resemble a human face; higher-quality photographs taken by subsequent probes under different lighting conditions revealed this to be a case of pareidolia.",
"It was popularized by Richard C. Hoagland, who interpreted it as an artificial construction by intelligent extraterrestrials, and has appeared in works of fiction including the 1992 novel ''Labyrinth of Night'' by Allen Steele, the 1995 short story \"The Great Martian Pyramid Hoax\" by Jerry Oltion, and the 1998 novel ''Semper Mars'' by Ian Douglas.",
"Outside of literature, it has made appearances in the 1993 episode \"Space\" of ''The X-Files'', the 2000 film ''Mission to Mars'', and the 2002 episode \"Where the Buggalo Roam\" of the animated television show ''Futurama''.Deliberately nostalgic homages to older works have continued to appear through the turn of the millennium.",
"In the 1999 novel ''Rainbow Mars'' by Larry Niven, a time traveller goes to visit Mars's past but instead appears in the parallel universe of Mars's fictional past and encounters the creations of science fiction authors such as H. G. Wells and Edgar Rice Burroughs.",
"Stories collected in Peter Crowther's 2002 anthology ''Mars Probes'' pay tribute to the works of Stanley G. Weinbaum and Leigh Brackett, among others.",
"The 2013 anthology ''Old Mars'' edited by George R. R. Martin and Gardner Dozois consists of newly written stories in the planetary romance style of older stories whose visions of Mars are now outdated; Martin compared it to the common practice of setting Westerns in a romanticized version of the Old West rather than a more realistic one."
],
[
"First landings and near-future human presence",
"Stories about the first human mission to Mars became popular after US president George H. W. Bush announced the Space Exploration Initiative in 1989, which proposed to accomplish this feat by 2019, though the concept had earlier appeared indirectly in the 1977 film ''Capricorn One'', wherein NASA fakes the Mars landing.",
"Among these are the 1992 novel ''Beachhead'' by Jack Williamson and the 1992 novel ''Mars'' in Ben Bova's ''Grand Tour'' series, both of which emphasize the barrenness of the Martian landscape upon arrival and contrast it with a desire to find beauty there.",
"The idea was spoofed in the 1990 novel ''Voyage to the Red Planet'' by Terry Bisson, which posits that a mission like that could only get funding by being turned into a movie.",
"Stephen Baxter's 1996 novel ''Voyage'' depicts an alternate history where US president John F. Kennedy was not assassinated in 1963, ultimately leading to the first Mars landing happening in 1986.The 1999 novel ''The Martian Race'' by Gregory Benford adapts the Mars Direct proposal by aerospace engineer Robert Zubrin to fiction by depicting a private sector competition to conduct the first crewed Mars landing with a large monetary reward attached.",
"Zubrin would later write a story of his own along the same lines: the 2001 novel ''First Landing''.",
"In a variation on the theme, Ian McDonald's 2002 short story \"The Old Cosmonaut and the Construction Worker Dream of Mars\" (included in the aforementioned anthology ''Mars Probes'') portrays the lingering yearning for Mars in a future where the intended first Mars landing was cancelled and the era of space exploration has come to an end without the dream of a human mission to Mars ever being realized.Beyond the events of the first crewed landing on Mars, this time period also saw an increase in portrayals of the early stages of exploration and settlement happening in the near future, especially following the 1996 launches of the ''Mars Pathfinder'' and ''Mars Global Surveyor'' probes.",
"In the 1991 novel ''Red Genesis'' by , settlement of Mars begins in 2015, though the bulk of the narrative is set decades later and focuses on the social—rather than technical—challenges of the project.",
"The 1997 novel ''Mars Underground'' by William K. Hartmann also deals with the early efforts of establishing a permanent human presence on the red planet.",
"The members of the third human mission to Mars are forced to trek across the planets surface in the 2000 novel ''Mars Crossing'' by Geoffrey A. Landis to reach a return vehicle from a previous mission after theirs is damaged beyond repair."
],
[
"In the new millennium",
"In the year 2000, Westfahl estimated the total number of works of fiction dealing with Mars up to that point to exceed five thousand.",
"Depictions of Mars have remained common since then, though without a clear overarching trend—rather, says ''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction'', Mars fiction has \"ramified in several directions\".",
"Monster movies set on Mars have appeared throughout this time period including the 2001 film ''Ghosts of Mars'', the 2005 film ''Doom'' (based on the video game franchise), and the 2013 film ''The Last Days on Mars''.",
"In the 2003 novel ''Ilium'' by Dan Simmons and its 2005 sequel ''Olympos'', the Trojan War is reenacted on Mars, and the 2011 animated film ''Mars Needs Moms'' revisits the older theme of evil Martians coming to Earth, though with more modest ambitions than launching an all-out invasion.",
"The 2011–2021 novel series ''The Expanse'' by James S. A. Corey (joint pseudonym of Daniel Abraham and Ty Franck), starting with ''Leviathan Wakes'', is a space opera set in part on Mars that was originally based on a role-playing game and later adapted to a television series starting in 2015.Tom Chmielewski's 2014 novel ''Lunar Dust, Martian Sands'' is a piece of noir fiction set partially on Mars.",
"''The Martian''—book and film—is hard science fiction; the film adaptation was described by the production team as being \"as much science fact as science fiction\".",
"The 100th anniversary of Burroughs's ''A Princess of Mars'' in 2012 saw the release of both the film adaptation ''John Carter'' and an anthology of new ''Barsoom'' fiction: ''Under the Moons of Mars: New Adventures on Barsoom'' edited by John Joseph Adams.",
"In Polish science fiction, Rafał Kosik's 2003 novel '''' depicts people migrating to Mars to escape an Earth ravaged by overpopulation, and an anthology of short stories titled ''Mars: Antologia polskiej fantastyki'' (''Mars: An Anthology of Polish Fantasy'') was published in 2021.Mars has also made frequent appearances in video games; examples include the 2001 game ''Red Faction'' which is set on Mars and the 2014 game ''Destiny'' where Mars is an unlockable setting.",
"In addition, Mars continues to make regular appearances in stories where it is not the main focus, such as Joe Haldeman's 2008 novel ''Marsbound''.",
"Says Crossley, \"Where imagined Mars will go as the twenty-first century unfolds cannot be prophesied, because—undoubtedly—improbable, original, and masterful talents will work new variations on the matter of Mars.\""
],
[
"Moons",
"floating island of Laputa in ''Gulliver's Travels''.",
"The mention that its astronomers have discovered two Martian moons is their earliest appearance in fiction.Mars has two small moons, Phobos and Deimos, which were both discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877.The first appearance of the moons of Mars in fiction predates their discovery by a century and a half; the satirical 1726 novel ''Gulliver's Travels'' by Jonathan Swift includes a mention that the advanced astronomers of Laputa have discovered two Martian moons.",
"The 1752 work ''Micromégas'' by Voltaire likewise mentions two moons of Mars; astronomy historian surmises that Voltaire was inspired by Swift.",
"German astronomer , mistakenly believing that he had discovered a Martian moon, described a fictional voyage to it in the 1744 story \"Die Geschwinde Reise\" (\"The Speedy Journey\").The moons' small sizes have made them unpopular settings in science fiction, with some exceptions such as the 1955 novel ''Phobos, the Robot Planet'' by Paul Capon and the 2001 short story \"Romance with Phobic Variations\" by Tom Purdom in the case of Phobos, and the 1936 short story \"Crystals of Madness\" by D. L. James in the case of Deimos.",
"Phobos is turned into a small star to provide heat and light to Mars in the 1951 novel ''The Sands of Mars'' by Arthur C. Clarke.",
"The moons are revealed to be alien spacecraft in the 1955 juvenile novel ''The Secret of the Martian Moons'' by Donald A. Wollheim."
],
[
"See also",
"* Mars in culture* List of films set on Mars*"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
";Books* * * * * * * * * * * ;Encyclopedia entries* * * * ;Essays, articles, and book chapters* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** (updated version of the above)*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"McIntosh (apple)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''McIntosh''' ( ), '''McIntosh Red''', or colloquially the '''Mac''', is an apple cultivar, the national apple of Canada.",
"The fruit has red and green skin, a tart flavour, and tender white flesh, which ripens in late September.",
"In the 20th century, it was the most popular cultivar in Eastern Canada and New England, and is considered an all-purpose apple, suitable both for cooking and eating raw.John McIntosh discovered the original McIntosh sapling on his Dundela farm in Upper Canada in 1811.He and his wife cultivated it, and the family started grafting the tree and selling the fruit in 1835.In 1870, it entered commercial production, and became common in northeastern North America after 1900.While still important in production, the fruit's popularity fell in the early 21st century in the face of competition from varieties such as the Gala.",
"According to the US Apple Association website, it is one of the fifteen most popular apple cultivars in the United States.Apple Computer employee Jef Raskin named the Macintosh computer line after the cultivar."
],
[
"Description",
"The McIntosh, or McIntosh Red (nicknamed the \"Mac\"), is the most popular apple cultivar in eastern Canada and the northeastern United States.",
"It also sells well in Eastern Europe.A spreading tree that is moderately vigorous, the McIntosh bears annually or in alternate years.",
"The tree is hardy to at least USDA Hardiness zone 4a, or .",
"50% or more of its flowers die at or below.A McIntosh illustrated in 1901The McIntosh apple is a small to medium-sized round fruit with a short stem.",
"It has a red and green skin that is thick, tender, and easy to peel.",
"Its white flesh is sometime tinged with green or pink and is juicy, tender, and firm, soon becoming soft.",
"The flesh is easily bruised.The fruit is considered \"all-purpose\", suitable both for eating raw and for cooking.",
"It is used primarily for dessert, and requires less time to cook than most cultivars.",
"It is usually blended when used for juice.The fruit grows best in cool areas where nights are cold and autumn days are clear; otherwise, it suffers from poor colour and soft flesh, and tends to fall from the tree before harvest.",
"It stores for two to three months in air, but is prone to scald, flesh softening, chilling sensitivity, and coprinus rot.",
"It can become mealy when stored at temperatures below .",
"The fruit is optimally stored in a controlled atmosphere in which temperatures are between , and air content is 1.5–4.5% oxygen and 1–5% carbon dioxide; under such conditions, the McIntosh will keep for five to eight months."
],
[
"Cultivation",
"The McIntosh is most commonly cultivated in Canada, the United States, and Eastern Europe.",
"It is one of the top five apple cultivars used in cloning, and research indicates the McIntosh combines well for winter hardiness.If unsprayed, the McIntosh succumbs easily to apple scab, which may lead to entire crops being unmarketable.",
"It has generally low susceptibility to fire blight, powdery mildew, cedar-apple rust, quince rust, and hawthorn rust.",
"It is susceptible to fungal diseases such as ''Nectria'' canker, brown rot, black rot, race 1 of apple rust (but resists race 2).",
"Furthermore, it is moderately resistant to ''Pezicula'' bark rot and ''Alternaria'' leaf blotch, and resists brown leaf spots well.The McIntosh is one of the most common cultivars used in apple breeding; a 1996 study found that the McIntosh was a parent in 101 of 439 cultivars selected, more than any other founding clone.",
"It was used in over half of the Canadian cultivars selected, and was used extensively in the United States and Eastern Europe as well; rarely was it used elsewhere.",
"Offspring of the McIntosh include: the Jersey Black hybrid the Macoun, the Newtown Pippin hybrid the Spartan, the Cortland; the Empire; the Jonamac, the Jersey Mac, the Lobo, the Melba, the Summered, the Tydeman's Red, and possibly the Paula Red."
],
[
"History",
"Apple trees were introduced to Canada at the Habitation at Port-Royal as early as 1606 by French settlers.",
"Following its introduction, apple cultivation spread inland.The McIntosh's discoverer, John McIntosh (1777 – ), left his native Mohawk Valley home in New York State in 1796 to follow his love, Dolly Irwin, who had been taken to Upper Canada by her Loyalist parents.",
"She had died by the time he found her, but he settled as a farmer in Upper Canada.",
"He married Hannah Doran in 1801, and they farmed along the Saint Lawrence River until 1811, when McIntosh exchanged the land he had with his brother-in-law Edward Doran for a plot in Dundela.While clearing the overgrown plot, McIntosh discovered some apple seedlings on his farm.",
"Since the crabapple was the only native apple in North America before European settlement, it must have had European origins.",
"The Snow Apple (or Fameuse) had been popular in Lower Canada before that time; the seedlings may have sprouted from discarded fruit.",
"Fall St Lawrence and Alexander have also been proposed, but the parentage remains unknown.",
"He transplanted the seedlings next to his house.",
"One of the seedlings bore particularly good fruit.",
"The McIntosh grandchildren dubbed the fruit it produced \"Granny's apple\", as they often saw their grandmother taking care of the tree in the orchard.",
"McIntosh was selling seedlings from the tree by 1820, but they did not produce fruit of the quality of the original.John McIntosh's son Allan (1815–1899) learned grafting about 1835; with this cloning, the McIntoshes could maintain the distinctive properties of the fruit of the original tree.",
"Allan and brother Sandy (1825–1906), nicknamed \"Sandy the Grafter\", increased production and promotion of the cultivar.",
"Earliest sales were in 1835, and in 1836 the cultivar was renamed the \"McIntosh Red\"; it entered commercial production in 1870.The apple became popular after 1900, when the first sprays for apple scab were developed.",
"A house fire damaged the original McIntosh tree in 1894; it last produced fruit in 1908, and died and fell over in 1910.Horticulturist William Tyrrell Macoun of the Central Experimental Farm in Ottawa is credited with popularizing the McIntosh in Canada.",
"He stated the McIntosh needed \"no words of praise\", that it was \"one of the finest appearing and best dessert apples grown\".",
"The Macoun, a hybrid of the McIntosh and Jersey Black grown by the Agricultural Experiment Station in Geneva, NY, was named for him in 1923.In the northeastern United States, the McIntosh replaced many Baldwins that were killed in a severe winter in 1933–34.In the late 1940s, Canadian ambassador to the United Nations Andrew McNaughton told the Soviet Minister for Foreign Affairs Andrei Gromyko that the McIntosh Red was Canada's best apple.The McIntosh made up 40% of the Canadian apple market by the 1960s; and at least thirty varieties of McIntosh hybrid were known by 1970.An apple in a marketIts popularity later waned in the face of competition from imports; in the first decade of the 21st century, the Gala accounted for 33% of the apple market in Ontario to the McIntosh's 12%, and the Northern Spy had become the preferred apple for pies.",
"Production remained important to Ontario, however, as of McIntoshes were produced in 2010.The original tree discovered by John McIntosh bore fruit for more than ninety years, and died in 1910.Horticulturalists from the Upper Canada Village heritage park saved cuttings from the last known first-generation McIntosh graft before it died in 2011 for producing clones.=== Descendant Cultivars ===+ Descandant cultivars from McIntosh Name Parentage Selected year Introduced year Edgar McIntosh x Forest 1929 Toshfor McIntosh x Forest 1926 Maud McIntosh x Longfield 1921 Sharon McIntosh x Longfield 1920 1922 Blair McIntosh x Fameuse 1944 1973 Jubilee McIntosh x Grimes Golden 1936 1939 Macoun McIntosh x Jersey Black 1918 1923 Toshlaw McIntosh x Lawver 1925 Fantazja McIntosh x Linda 1954 1960 South Dakota Macata McIntosh x Malus Baccata 1938 Toshkee McIntosh x Milwaukee 1923 Spartan McIntosh x Newtown 1936 Maga McIntosh x Virginia Crab 1919 1933Michaelmas Red McIntosh x Worcester Pearmain 1945Tydemans Early Worcester McIntosh x Worcester Pearmain 1945 Newtosh McIntosh x Yellow Newtown 1922 1923 Killand McIntosh x Dolgo 1951 1957 Northland McIntosh x Dolgo 1938 1957 Stonetosh Stone x McIntosh 1922 Rosilda Prince x McIntosh 1916 1921 Cortland Ben Davis x McIntosh 1915 Toshprince Prince x McIntosh 1923McPrince Prince x McIntosh 1922Niagara Carlton x McIntosh 1950 1962 George McIntosh O.P.",
"1948 Glendale McIntosh O.P.",
"1948 1956 Glenelm McIntosh O.P.",
"1945 1952 Glenmary McIntosh O.P.",
"1940 1948 Glenwale McIntosh O.P.",
"1940 1958 Kress McIntosh McIntosh O.P.",
"1920 1934Lobo McIntosh O.P.",
"1906 1930 Melba McIntosh O.P.",
"1909 1924Patricia McIntosh O.P.",
"1920 Reta McIntosh O.P.",
"1953O.P.",
"= Open Pollinated"
],
[
"Cultural significance",
"Apple Inc.'s Macintosh line of personal computers was named after the fruit.The McIntosh has been designated the national apple of Canada.",
"A popular subscription funded a plaque placed from the original McIntosh tree in 1912.The Ontario Archaeological and Historic Sites Board replaced the plaque with a more descriptive one in 1962, and the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada put up another in a park nearby in 2001, by a painted mural commemorating the fruit.Apple Inc. employee Jef Raskin named the Macintosh line of personal computers after the McIntosh.",
"He deliberately misspelled the name to avoid conflict with the hi-fi equipment manufacturer McIntosh Laboratory.",
"Apple's attempt in 1982 to trademark the name Macintosh was nevertheless denied due to the phonetic similarity between Apple's product and the name of the hi-fi manufacturer.",
"Apple licensed the rights to the name in 1983, and bought the trademark in 1986.In 1995, the Royal Canadian Mint commissioned Toronto artist Roger Hill to design a commemorative silver dollar for release in 1996.Mint engraver Sheldon Beveridge engraved the image of a group of three McIntoshes and a McIntosh blossom, which adorn one side with a ribbon naming the variety.",
"An inscription on the edge reads \"1796 Canada Dollar 1996\".",
"Issued sheathed in a silver cardboard sleeve in a black leatherette case, 133,779 pieces of the proof were sold, as well as 58,834 pieces of the uncirculated version in a plastic capsule and silver sleeve."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Canadian inventions and discoveries* Ambrosia (apple)* Jubilee apple* Spartan (apple)* Wijcik McIntosh"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Works cited",
"** * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Macintosh Apples, Archives of Ontario YouTube channel* Ontario Plaques: John McIntosh***"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Machete"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Machete/saw comboMexican artisan Agustín Cruz Tinoco using a machete to carve woodMexican machete, from Guerrero, 1970.bull horn handle, hand forged blade (hammer marks visible)Campos Hermanos mexican machete with blade 75 centimeters long and 93 total.A '''machete''' (; ) is a broad blade used either as an agricultural implement similar to an axe, or in combat like a long-bladed knife.",
"The blade is typically long and usually under thick.",
"In the Spanish language, the word is possibly a diminutive form of the word ''macho'', which was used to refer to sledgehammers.",
"Alternatively, its origin may be ''machaera'', the name given by the Greeks and Romans to the falcata.",
"It is the origin of the English language equivalent term ''matchet'', though this is rarely used.",
"In much of the English-speaking Caribbean, such as Jamaica, Barbados, Guyana, Grenada, and Trinidad and Tobago, the term ''cutlass'' is used for these agricultural tools."
],
[
"Uses",
"=== Agriculture===In various tropical and subtropical countries, the machete is frequently used to cut through rainforest undergrowth and for agricultural purposes (e.g.",
"cutting sugar cane).",
"Besides this, in Latin America a common use is for such household tasks as cutting large foodstuffs into pieces—much as a cleaver is used—or to perform crude cutting tasks, such as making simple wooden handles for other tools.",
"It is common to see people using machetes for other jobs, such as splitting open coconuts, yard work, removing small branches and plants, chopping animals' food, and clearing bushes.Machetes are often considered tools and used by adults.",
"However, many hunter–gatherer societies and cultures surviving through subsistence agriculture begin teaching babies to use sharp tools, including machetes, before their first birthdays.=== Warfare ===People in uprisings sometimes use these weapons.",
"For example, the Boricua Popular Army are unofficially called ''macheteros'' because of the machete-wielding laborers of sugar cane fields of past Puerto Rico.Many of the killings in the 1994 Rwandan genocide were performed with machetes, and they were the primary weapon used by the Interahamwe militias there.",
"Machetes were also a distinctive tool and weapon of the Haitian ''Tonton Macoute''.In 1762, the British captured Havana in a lengthy siege during the Seven Years' War.",
"Volunteer militiamen led by Pepe Antonio, a Guanabacoa councilman, were issued with machetes during the unsuccessful defense of the city.",
"The machete was also the most iconic weapon during the independence wars in Cuba, although it saw limited battlefield use.",
"Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, owner of the sugar refinery ''La Demajagua'' near Manzanillo, freed his slaves on 10 October 1868.He proceeded to lead them, armed with machetes, in revolt against the Spanish government.",
"The first cavalry charge using machetes as the primary weapon was carried out on 4 November 1868 by Máximo Gómez, a sergeant born in the Dominican Republic, who later became the general in chief of the Cuban Army.The machete is a common side arm and tool for many ethnic groups in West Africa.",
"Machetes in this role are referenced in Chinua Achebe's ''Things Fall Apart''.Some countries have a name for the blow of a machete; the Spanish ''machetazo'' is sometimes used in English.",
"In the British Virgin Islands, Grenada, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Barbados, Saint Lucia, and Trinidad and Tobago, the word ''planass'' means to hit someone with the flat of the blade of a machete or cutlass.",
"To strike with the sharpened edge is to \"chop\".",
"Throughout the English-speaking islands of the Caribbean, the term 'cutlass' refers to a laborers' cutting tool.The Brazilian Army's Instruction Center on Jungle Warfare developed a machete-style knife with a blade in length and a very pronounced clip point.",
"This machete is issued with a Bowie knife and a sharpening stone in the scabbard; collectively called a \"jungle kit\" (''Conjunto de Selva'' in Portuguese); it is manufactured by Indústria de Material Bélico do Brasil (IMBEL).The machete was used as a weapon during the Mau Mau rebellion, in the Rwandan Genocide, and in South Africa, particularly in the 1980s and early 1990s when the former province of Natal was wracked by conflict between the African National Congress and the Zulu-nationalist Inkatha Freedom Party."
],
[
"Manufacture",
"Good machetes rely on the materials used and the shape.",
"In the past, the most famous manufacturer of machetes in Latin America and the Spanish-speaking Caribbean was Collins Company of Collinsville, Connecticut.",
"The company was founded as Collins & Company in 1826 by Samuel W. Collins to make axes.",
"Its first machetes were sold in 1845 and became so famous that a machete was called .",
"In the English-speaking Caribbean, Robert Mole & Sons of Birmingham, England, was long considered the manufacturer of agricultural cutlasses of the best quality.",
"Some Robert Mole blades survive as souvenirs of travellers to Trinidad, Jamaica, and, less commonly, St. Lucia.Colombia is the largest exporter of machetes worldwide."
],
[
"Cultural influence",
"The Flag of AngolaThe flag of Angola features a machete, along with a cog-wheel.The southern Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul has a dance called the ''dança dos facões'' (machetes' dance) in which the dancers, who are usually men, bang their machetes against various surfaces while dancing, simulating a battle.",
"''Maculelê'', an Afro-Brazilian dance and martial art, can also be performed with ''facões''.",
"This practice began in the city of Santo Amaro, Bahia, in the northeastern part of the country.In the Philippines, the ''bolo'' is used in training in ''eskrima'', the indigenous martial art of the Philippines."
],
[
"Similar tools",
"The '''''panga''''' or ''tapanga'' is a variant used in East and Southern Africa.",
"This name may be of Swahili etymology; not to be confused with the panga fish.",
"The ''panga'' blade broadens on the backside and has a length of .",
"The upper inclined portion of the blade may be sharpened.Other similar tools include the ''parang'' and the ''golok'' (from Malaysia and Indonesia); however, these tend to have shorter, thicker blades with a primary grind, and are more effective on woody vegetation.The tsakat is a similar tool used in Armenia for clearing land of vegetation.Other similar tools include:* Billhook* Dusack* Golok* Kopis* Kukri* Seax* Sorocaban Knife"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mushroom"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Culinary mushrooms in a diversity of shapes and colorsoyster mushrooms (''Pleurotus ostreatus'') growing on a Petri dishA '''mushroom''' or '''toadstool''' is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source.",
"''Toadstool'' generally denotes one poisonous to humans.The standard for the name \"mushroom\" is the cultivated white button mushroom, ''Agaricus bisporus''; hence the word \"mushroom\" is most often applied to those fungi (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes) that have a stem (stipe), a cap (pileus), and gills (lamellae, sing.",
"lamella) on the underside of the cap.",
"\"Mushroom\" also describes a variety of other gilled fungi, with or without stems, therefore the term is used to describe the fleshy fruiting bodies of some Ascomycota.",
"The gills produce microscopic spores which help the fungus spread across the ground or its occupant surface.Forms deviating from the standard morphology usually have more specific names, such as \"bolete\", \"puffball\", \"stinkhorn\", and \"morel\", and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called \"agarics\" in reference to their similarity to ''Agaricus'' or their order Agaricales.",
"By extension, the term \"mushroom\" can also refer to either the entire fungus when in culture, the thallus (called mycelium) of species forming the fruiting bodies called mushrooms, or the species itself."
],
[
"Etymology",
"''Amanita muscaria'', the most easily recognised \"toadstool\", is frequently depicted in fairy stories and on greeting cards.",
"It is often associated with gnomes.The terms \"mushroom\" and \"toadstool\" go back centuries and were never precisely defined, nor was there consensus on application.",
"During the 15th and 16th centuries, the terms ''mushrom, mushrum, muscheron, mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns'' were used.The term \"mushroom\" and its variations may have been derived from the French word ''mousseron'' in reference to moss (''mousse'').",
"Delineation between edible and poisonous fungi is not clear-cut, so a \"mushroom\" may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable.",
"The word ''toadstool'' appeared first in 14th century England as a reference for a \"stool\" for toads, possibly implying an inedible poisonous fungus."
],
[
"Identification",
"Morphological characteristics of the caps of mushroomsMaitake, a polypore mushroomIdentifying what is and is not a mushroom requires a basic understanding of their macroscopic structure.",
"Most are basidiomycetes and gilled.",
"Their spores, called basidiospores, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result.",
"At the microscopic level, the basidiospores are shot off basidia and then fall between the gills in the dead air space.",
"As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.)",
"is formed (when the fruit body is sporulating).",
"The color of the powdery print, called a spore print, is useful in both classifying and identifying mushrooms.",
"Spore print colors include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and creamy, but almost never blue, green, or red.While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era, combined with microscopic examination.",
"The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising-reactions, odors, tastes, shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all considered by both amateur and professional mycologists.",
"Tasting and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards because of poisons and allergens.",
"Chemical tests are also used for some genera.In general, identification to genus can often be accomplished in the field using a local field guide.",
"Identification to species, however, requires more effort.",
"A mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for the identification of the species.",
"However, over-mature specimens lose features and cease producing spores.",
"Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on lamella edges for colored spored prints."
],
[
"Classification",
"A mushroom (probably ''Russula brevipes'') parasitized by ''Hypomyces lactifluorum'' resulting in a \"lobster mushroom\"Typical mushrooms are the fruit bodies of members of the order Agaricales, whose type genus is ''Agaricus'' and type species is the field mushroom, ''Agaricus campestris''.",
"However in modern molecularly defined classifications, not all members of the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruit bodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of the class Agaricomycetes.",
"For example, chanterelles are in the Cantharellales, false chanterelles such as ''Gomphus'' are in the Gomphales, milk-cap mushrooms (''Lactarius'', ''Lactifluus'') and russulas (''Russula''), as well as ''Lentinellus'', are in the Russulales, while the tough, leathery genera ''Lentinus'' and ''Panus'' are among the Polyporales, but ''Neolentinus'' is in the Gloeophyllales, and the little pin-mushroom genus, ''Rickenella'', along with similar genera, are in the Hymenochaetales.Within the main body of mushrooms, in the Agaricales, are common fungi like the common fairy-ring mushroom, shiitake, enoki, oyster mushrooms, fly agarics and other Amanitas, magic mushrooms like species of ''Psilocybe'', paddy straw mushrooms, shaggy manes, etc.An atypical mushroom is the lobster mushroom, which is a fruitbody of a ''Russula'' or ''Lactarius'' mushroom that has been deformed by the parasitic fungus ''Hypomyces lactifluorum''.",
"This gives the affected mushroom an unusual shape and red color that resembles that of a boiled lobster.thumbOther mushrooms are not gilled, so the term \"mushroom\" is loosely used, and giving a full account of their classifications is difficult.",
"Some have pores underneath (and are usually called boletes), others have spines, such as the hedgehog mushroom and other tooth fungi, and so on.",
"\"Mushroom\" has been used for polypores, puffballs, jelly fungi, coral fungi, bracket fungi, stinkhorns, and cup fungi.",
"Thus, the term is more one of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning.",
"Approximately 14,000 species of mushrooms are described."
],
[
"Morphology",
"''Amanita jacksonii'' buttons emerging from their universal veilsgills of ''Lactarius indigo'', a milk-cap mushroomA mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium, which is typically found on or near the surface of the substrate.",
"It is formed within the mycelium, the mass of threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus.",
"The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a \"button\".",
"The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universal veil, that surrounds the developing fruit body.",
"As the egg expands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain as a cup, or volva, at the base of the stalk, or as warts or volval patches on the cap.",
"Many mushrooms lack a universal veil, therefore they do not have either a volva or volval patches.",
"Often, a second layer of tissue, the partial veil, covers the bladelike gills that bear spores.",
"As the cap expands the veil breaks, and remnants of the partial veil may remain as a ring, or annulus, around the middle of the stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin of the cap.",
"The ring may be skirt-like as in some species of ''Amanita'', collar-like as in many species of ''Lepiota'', or merely the faint remnants of a cortina (a partial veil composed of filaments resembling a spiderweb), which is typical of the genus ''Cortinarius''.",
"Mushrooms lacking partial veils do not form an annulus.The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be central and support the cap in the middle, or it may be off-center or lateral, as in species of ''Pleurotus'' and ''Panus''.",
"In other mushrooms, a stalk may be absent, as in the polypores that form shelf-like brackets.",
"Puffballs lack a stalk, but may have a supporting base.",
"Other mushrooms including truffles, jellies, earthstars, and bird's nests usually do not have stalks, and a specialized mycological vocabulary exists to describe their parts.The way the gills attach to the top of the stalk is an important feature of mushroom morphology.",
"Mushrooms in the genera ''Agaricus'', ''Amanita'', ''Lepiota'' and ''Pluteus'', among others, have free gills that do not extend to the top of the stalk.",
"Others have decurrent gills that extend down the stalk, as in the genera ''Omphalotus'' and ''Pleurotus''.",
"There are a great number of variations between the extremes of free and decurrent, collectively called attached gills.",
"Finer distinctions are often made to distinguish the types of attached gills: adnate gills, which adjoin squarely to the stalk; notched gills, which are notched where they join the top of the stalk; adnexed gills, which curve upward to meet the stalk, and so on.",
"These distinctions between attached gills are sometimes difficult to interpret, since gill attachment may change as the mushroom matures, or with different environmental conditions.===Microscopic features===''Morchella elata'' asci viewed with phase contrast microscopyA hymenium is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells that covers the surface of gills.",
"In the nongilled mushrooms, the hymenium lines the inner surfaces of the tubes of boletes and polypores, or covers the teeth of spine fungi and the branches of corals.",
"In the Ascomycota, spores develop within microscopic elongated, sac-like cells called asci, which typically contain eight spores in each ascus.",
"The Discomycetes, which contain the cup, sponge, brain, and some club-like fungi, develop an exposed layer of asci, as on the inner surfaces of cup fungi or within the pits of morels.",
"The Pyrenomycetes, tiny dark-colored fungi that live on a wide range of substrates including soil, dung, leaf litter, and decaying wood, as well as other fungi, produce minute, flask-shaped structures called perithecia, within which the asci develop.In the basidiomycetes, usually four spores develop on the tips of thin projections called sterigmata, which extend from club-shaped cells called a basidia.",
"The fertile portion of the Gasteromycetes, called a gleba, may become powdery as in the puffballs or slimy as in the stinkhorns.",
"Interspersed among the asci are threadlike sterile cells called paraphyses.",
"Similar structures called cystidia often occur within the hymenium of the Basidiomycota.",
"Many types of cystidia exist, and assessing their presence, shape, and size is often used to verify the identification of a mushroom.The most important microscopic feature for identification of mushrooms is the spores.",
"Their color, shape, size, attachment, ornamentation, and reaction to chemical tests often can be the crux of an identification.",
"A spore often has a protrusion at one end, called an apiculus, which is the point of attachment to the basidium, termed the apical germ pore, from which the hypha emerges when the spore germinates."
],
[
"Growth",
"''Agaricus bitorquis'' mushroom emerging through asphalt concrete in summerMany species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly.",
"This phenomenon is the source of several common expressions in the English language including \"to mushroom\" or \"mushrooming\" (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and \"to pop up like a mushroom\" (to appear unexpectedly and quickly).",
"In reality, all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand rapidly by the absorption of fluids.The cultivated mushroom, as well as the common field mushroom, initially form a minute fruiting body, referred to as the pin stage because of their small size.",
"Slightly expanded, they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape.",
"Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its mycelium and expand, mainly by inflating preformed cells that took several days to form in the primordia.Similarly, there are other mushrooms, like ''Parasola plicatilis'' (formerly ''Coprinus plicatlis''), that grow rapidly overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall.",
"The primordia form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the thatch and after heavy rainfall or in dewy conditions balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse.",
"They \"mushroom\" to full size.Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very slowly and add tissue to their fruiting bodies by growing from the edges of the colony or by inserting hyphae.",
"For example, ''Pleurotus nebrodensis'' grows slowly, and because of this combined with human collection, it is now critically endangered.Yellow flower pot mushrooms (''Leucocoprinus birnbaumii'') at various states of developmentThough mushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the underlying mycelium can itself be long-lived and massive.",
"A colony of ''Armillaria solidipes'' (formerly known as ''Armillaria ostoyae'') in Malheur National Forest in the United States is estimated to be 2,400 years old, possibly older, and spans an estimated .",
"Most of the fungus is underground and in decaying wood or dying tree roots in the form of white mycelia combined with black shoelace-like rhizomorphs that bridge colonized separated woody substrates."
],
[
"Nutrition",
"Raw brown mushrooms are 92% water, 4% carbohydrates, 2% protein and less than 1% fat.",
"In a amount, raw mushrooms provide 22 calories and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of B vitamins, such as riboflavin, niacin and pantothenic acid, selenium (37% DV) and copper (25% DV), and a moderate source (10-19% DV) of phosphorus, zinc and potassium (table).",
"They have minimal or no vitamin C and sodium content.===Vitamin D===The vitamin D content of a mushroom depends on postharvest handling, in particular the unintended exposure to sunlight.",
"The US Department of Agriculture provided evidence that UV-exposed mushrooms contain substantial amounts of vitamin D. When exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light, even after harvesting, ergosterol in mushrooms is converted to vitamin D2, a process now used intentionally to supply fresh vitamin D mushrooms for the functional food grocery market.",
"In a comprehensive safety assessment of producing vitamin D in fresh mushrooms, researchers showed that artificial UV light technologies were equally effective for vitamin D production as in mushrooms exposed to natural sunlight, and that UV light has a long record of safe use for production of vitamin D in food."
],
[
"Human use",
"===Edible mushrooms===''Agaricus bisporus'', one of the most widely cultivated and consumed mushrooms ''Ferula mushroom'' in Bingöl, Turkey .",
"This is an edible type of mushroom.Mushrooms are used extensively in cooking, in many cuisines (notably Chinese, Korean, European, and Japanese).",
"Humans have valued them as food since antiquity.Most mushrooms sold in supermarkets have been commercially grown on mushroom farms.",
"The most common of these, ''Agaricus bisporus'', is considered safe for most people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized environments.",
"Several varieties of ''A.",
"bisporus'' are grown commercially, including whites, crimini, and portobello.",
"Other cultivated species available at many grocers include ''Hericium erinaceus'', shiitake, maitake (hen-of-the-woods), ''Pleurotus'', and enoki.",
"In recent years, increasing affluence in developing countries has led to a considerable growth in interest in mushroom cultivation, which is now seen as a potentially important economic activity for small farmers.China is a major edible mushroom producer.",
"The country produces about half of all cultivated mushrooms, and around of mushrooms are consumed per person per year by 1.4 billion people.",
"In 2014, Poland was the world's largest mushroom exporter, reporting an estimated annually.Close-up cross section of mushroom.Separating edible from poisonous species requires meticulous attention to detail; there is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms can be identified, nor one by which all edible mushrooms can be identified.",
"People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists, and the act of collecting them for such is known as mushroom hunting, or simply \"mushrooming\".",
"Even edible mushrooms may produce allergic reactions in susceptible individuals, from a mild asthmatic response to severe anaphylactic shock.",
"Even the cultivated ''A.",
"bisporus'' contains small amounts of hydrazines, the most abundant of which is agaritine (a mycotoxin and carcinogen).",
"However, the hydrazines are destroyed by moderate heat when cooking.A number of species of mushrooms are poisonous; although some resemble certain edible species, consuming them could be fatal.",
"Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild is risky and should only be undertaken by individuals knowledgeable in mushroom identification.",
"Common best practice is for wild mushroom pickers to focus on collecting a small number of visually distinctive, edible mushroom species that cannot be easily confused with poisonous varieties.",
"Common mushroom hunting advice is that if a mushroom cannot be positively identified, it should be considered poisonous and not eaten.===Toxic mushrooms===Young ''Amanita phalloides'' \"death cap\" mushrooms, with a matchbox for size comparisonMany mushroom species produce secondary metabolites that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or bioluminescent.",
"Although there are only a small number of deadly species, several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms.",
"Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores.",
"One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit the meal (see emetics), or to learn to avoid consumption altogether.",
"In addition, due to the propensity of mushrooms to absorb heavy metals, including those that are radioactive, as late as 2008, European mushrooms may have included toxicity from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and continued to be studied.===Psychoactive mushrooms===''Psilocybe zapotecorum'', a hallucinogenic mushroomMushrooms with psychoactive properties have long played a role in various native medicine traditions in cultures all around the world.",
"They have been used as sacrament in rituals aimed at mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states.",
"One such ritual is the ''velada'' ceremony.",
"A practitioner of traditional mushroom use is the ''shaman'' or ''curandera'' (priest-healer).Psilocybin mushrooms, also referred to as psychedelic mushrooms, possess psychedelic properties.",
"Commonly known as \"magic mushrooms\" or shrooms\", they are openly available in smart shops in many parts of the world, or on the black market in those countries which have outlawed their sale.",
"Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported to facilitate profound and life-changing insights often described as mystical experiences.",
"Recent scientific work has supported these claims, as well as the long-lasting effects of such induced spiritual experiences.There are over 100 psychoactive mushroom species of genus ''Psilocybe'' native to regions all around the world.Psilocybin, a naturally occurring chemical in certain psychedelic mushrooms such as ''Psilocybe cubensis'', is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from psychological disorders, such as obsessive–compulsive disorder.",
"Minute amounts have been reported to stop cluster and migraine headaches.",
"A double-blind study, done by Johns Hopkins Hospital, showed psychedelic mushrooms could provide people an experience with substantial personal meaning and spiritual significance.",
"In the study, one third of the subjects reported ingestion of psychedelic mushrooms was the single most spiritually significant event of their lives.",
"Over two-thirds reported it among their five most meaningful and spiritually significant events.",
"On the other hand, one-third of the subjects reported extreme anxiety.",
"However the anxiety went away after a short period of time.",
"Psilocybin mushrooms have also shown to be successful in treating addiction, specifically with alcohol and cigarettes.A few species in the genus ''Amanita'', most recognizably ''A.",
"muscaria'', but also ''A.",
"pantherina'', among others, contain the psychoactive compound muscimol.",
"The muscimol-containing chemotaxonomic group of ''Amanitas'' contains no amatoxins or phallotoxins, and as such are not hepatoxic, though if not properly cured will be non-lethally neurotoxic due to the presence of ibotenic acid.",
"The ''Amanita'' intoxication is similar to Z-drugs in that it includes CNS depressant and sedative-hypnotic effects, but also dissociation and delirium in high doses.===Folk medicine===''Ganoderma lingzhi''Some mushrooms are used in folk medicine.",
"In a few countries, extracts, such as polysaccharide-K, schizophyllan, polysaccharide peptide, or lentinan, are government-registered adjuvant cancer therapies, but clinical evidence for efficacy and safety of these extracts in humans has not been confirmed.",
"Although some mushroom species or their extracts may be consumed for therapeutic effects, some regulatory agencies, such as the US Food and Drug Administration, regard such use as a dietary supplement, which does not have government approval or common clinical use as a prescription drug.===Other uses===A tinder fungus, ''Fomes fomentarius''Mushrooms can be used for dyeing wool and other natural fibers.",
"The chromophores of mushroom dyes are organic compounds and produce strong and vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom dyes.",
"Before the invention of synthetic dyes, mushrooms were the source of many textile dyes.Some fungi, types of polypores loosely called mushrooms, have been used as fire starters (known as tinder fungi).Mushrooms and other fungi play a role in the development of new biological remediation techniques (e.g., using mycorrhizae to spur plant growth) and filtration technologies (e.g.",
"using fungi to lower bacterial levels in contaminated water).There is an ongoing research in the field of genetic engineering aimed towards creation of the enhanced qualities of mushrooms for such domains as nutritional value enhancement, as well as medical use."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Amanita muscaria (fly agaric).JPG|Psychotropic mushroom ''Amanita muscaria'', commonly known as \"fly agaric\"File:2016-01_Agaricus_bisporus_01.jpg|''Agaricus bisporus'' mushroom is a cultivated edible mushroom for foods and has many names such as \"champignon\", \" button mushroom\", \"white mushroom\", and \" portobello\"File:Boletus_edulis_02a(js)_Lodz_(Poland).jpg|''Boletus edulis'', also known as \"cep\", is an edible wild bolete found in EuropeFile:Lycoperdon_perlatum,_Common_Puffball,_UK_,_2.jpg|Common puffball (''Lycoperdon perlatum'') has a glebal hymenium; the interior is white when it is young, but as it matures, the interior becomes brown containing spores"
],
[
"See also",
"* Fungiculture* List of psilocybin mushroom species* Largest fungal fruit bodies* Lists of fungal species* Mushroom poisoning* Mushrooms in art"
],
[
"References",
"===Literature cited===***"
],
[
"External links",
"* * ===Identification===* Mushroom Observer, a collaborative mushroom recording and identification project* An Aid to Mushroom Identification, Simon's Rock College* Online Edible Wild Mushroom Field Guide"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mainframe computer"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A single-frame IBM z15 mainframe.",
"Larger capacity models can have up to four total frames.",
"This model has blue accents, as compared with the LinuxONE III model with orange highlights.A pair of IBM mainframes.",
"On the left is the IBM z Systems z13.On the right is the IBM LinuxONE Rockhopper.An IBM System z9 mainframeA '''mainframe computer''', informally called a '''mainframe''' or '''big iron''', is a computer used primarily by large organizations for critical applications like bulk data processing for tasks such as censuses, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and large-scale transaction processing.",
"A mainframe computer is large but not as large as a supercomputer and has more processing power than some other classes of computers, such as minicomputers, servers, workstations, and personal computers.",
"Most large-scale computer-system architectures were established in the 1960s, but they continue to evolve.",
"Mainframe computers are often used as servers.The term ''mainframe'' was derived from the large cabinet, called a ''main frame'', that housed the central processing unit and main memory of early computers.",
"Later, the term ''mainframe'' was used to distinguish high-end commercial computers from less powerful machines."
],
[
"Design",
"Modern mainframe design is characterized less by raw computational speed and more by:* Redundant internal engineering resulting in high reliability and security* Extensive input-output (\"I/O\") facilities with the ability to offload to separate engines* Strict backward compatibility with older software* High hardware and computational utilization rates through virtualization to support massive throughput* Hot swapping of hardware, such as processors and memoryThe high stability and reliability of mainframes enable these machines to run uninterrupted for very long periods of time, with mean time between failures (MTBF) measured in decades.Mainframes have high availability, one of the primary reasons for their longevity, since they are typically used in applications where downtime would be costly or catastrophic.",
"The term reliability, availability and serviceability (RAS) is a defining characteristic of mainframe computers.",
"Proper planning and implementation are required to realize these features.",
"In addition, mainframes are more secure than other computer types: the NIST vulnerabilities database, US-CERT, rates traditional mainframes such as IBM Z (previously called z Systems, System z, and zSeries), Unisys Dorado, and Unisys Libra as among the most secure, with vulnerabilities in the low single digits, as compared to thousands for Windows, UNIX, and Linux.",
"Software upgrades usually require setting up the operating system or portions thereof, and are non disruptive only when using virtualizing facilities such as IBM z/OS and Parallel Sysplex, or Unisys XPCL, which support workload sharing so that one system can take over another's application while it is being refreshed.In the late 1950s, mainframes had only a rudimentary interactive interface (the console) and used sets of punched cards, paper tape, or magnetic tape to transfer data and programs.",
"They operated in batch mode to support back office functions such as payroll and customer billing, most of which were based on repeated tape-based sorting and merging operations followed by line printing to preprinted continuous stationery.",
"When interactive user terminals were introduced, they were used almost exclusively for applications (e.g.",
"airline booking) rather than program development.",
"However, in 1961 the first academic, general-purpose timesharing system that supported software development, CTSS, was released at MIT on an IBM 709, later 7090 and 7094.Typewriter and Teletype devices were common control consoles for system operators through the early 1970s, although ultimately supplanted by keyboard/display devices.By the early 1970s, many mainframes acquired interactive user terminals operating as timesharing computers, supporting hundreds of users simultaneously along with batch processing.",
"Users gained access through keyboard/typewriter terminals and later character-mode text terminal CRT displays with integral keyboards, or finally from personal computers equipped with terminal emulation software.",
"By the 1980s, many mainframes supported general purpose graphic display terminals, and terminal emulation, but not graphical user interfaces.",
"This form of end-user computing became obsolete in the 1990s due to the advent of personal computers provided with GUIs.",
"After 2000, modern mainframes partially or entirely phased out classic \"green screen\" and color display terminal access for end-users in favour of Web-style user interfaces.The infrastructure requirements were drastically reduced during the mid-1990s, when CMOS mainframe designs replaced the older bipolar technology.",
"IBM claimed that its newer mainframes reduced data center energy costs for power and cooling, and reduced physical space requirements compared to server farms."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"Inside an IBM System z9 mainframeModern mainframes can run multiple different instances of operating systems at the same time.",
"This technique of virtual machines allows applications to run as if they were on physically distinct computers.",
"In this role, a single mainframe can replace higher-functioning hardware services available to conventional servers.",
"While mainframes pioneered this capability, virtualization is now available on most families of computer systems, though not always to the same degree or level of sophistication.Mainframes can add or hot swap system capacity without disrupting system function, with specificity and granularity to a level of sophistication not usually available with most server solutions.",
"Modern mainframes, notably the IBM Z servers, offer two levels of virtualization: logical partitions (LPARs, via the PR/SM facility) and virtual machines (via the z/VM operating system).",
"Many mainframe customers run two machines: one in their primary data center and one in their backup data center—fully active, partially active, or on standby—in case there is a catastrophe affecting the first building.",
"Test, development, training, and production workload for applications and databases can run on a single machine, except for extremely large demands where the capacity of one machine might be limiting.",
"Such a two-mainframe installation can support continuous business service, avoiding both planned and unplanned outages.",
"In practice, many customers use multiple mainframes linked either by Parallel Sysplex and shared DASD (in IBM's case), or with shared, geographically dispersed storage provided by EMC or Hitachi.Mainframes are designed to handle very high volume input and output (I/O) and emphasize throughput computing.",
"Since the late 1950s, mainframe designs have included subsidiary hardware (called ''channels'' or ''peripheral processors'') which manage the I/O devices, leaving the CPU free to deal only with high-speed memory.",
"It is common in mainframe shops to deal with massive databases and files.",
"Gigabyte to terabyte-size record files are not unusual.",
"Compared to a typical PC, mainframes commonly have hundreds to thousands of times as much data storage online, and can access it reasonably quickly.",
"Other server families also offload I/O processing and emphasize throughput computing.Mainframe return on investment (ROI), like any other computing platform, is dependent on its ability to scale, support mixed workloads, reduce labor costs, deliver uninterrupted service for critical business applications, and several other risk-adjusted cost factors.Mainframes also have execution integrity characteristics for fault tolerant computing.",
"For example, z900, z990, System z9, and System z10 servers effectively execute result-oriented instructions twice, compare results, arbitrate between any differences (through instruction retry and failure isolation), then shift workloads \"in flight\" to functioning processors, including spares, without any impact to operating systems, applications, or users.",
"This hardware-level feature, also found in HP's NonStop systems, is known as lock-stepping, because both processors take their \"steps\" (i.e.",
"instructions) together.",
"Not all applications absolutely need the assured integrity that these systems provide, but many do, such as financial transaction processing."
],
[
"Current market",
"IBM, with the IBM Z series, continues to be a major manufacturer in the mainframe market.",
"In 2000, Hitachi co-developed the zSeries z900 with IBM to share expenses, and the latest Hitachi AP10000 models are made by IBM.",
"Unisys manufactures ClearPath Libra mainframes, based on earlier Burroughs MCP products and ClearPath Dorado mainframes based on Sperry Univac OS 1100 product lines.",
"Hewlett Packard Enterprise sells its unique NonStop systems, which it acquired with Tandem Computers and which some analysts classify as mainframes.",
"Groupe Bull's GCOS, Stratus OpenVOS, Fujitsu (formerly Siemens) BS2000, and Fujitsu-ICL VME mainframes are still available in Europe, and Fujitsu (formerly Amdahl) GS21 mainframes globally.",
"NEC with ACOS and Hitachi with AP10000-VOS3 still maintain mainframe businesses in the Japanese market.The amount of vendor investment in mainframe development varies with market share.",
"Fujitsu and Hitachi both continue to use custom S/390-compatible processors, as well as other CPUs (including POWER and Xeon) for lower-end systems.",
"Bull uses a mixture of Itanium and Xeon processors.",
"NEC uses Xeon processors for its low-end ACOS-2 line, but develops the custom NOAH-6 processor for its high-end ACOS-4 series.",
"IBM also develops custom processors in-house, such as the Telum.",
"Unisys produces code compatible mainframe systems that range from laptops to cabinet-sized mainframes that use homegrown CPUs as well as Xeon processors.",
"Furthermore, there exists a market for software applications to manage the performance of mainframe implementations.",
"In addition to IBM, significant market competitors include BMC, Precisely, Compuware, and CA Technologies.",
"Starting in the 2010s, cloud computing is now a less expensive, more scalable alternative."
],
[
"History",
"Operator's console for an IBM 701Several manufacturers and their successors produced mainframe computers from the 1950s until the early 21st century, with gradually decreasing numbers and a gradual transition to simulation on Intel chips rather than proprietary hardware.",
"The US group of manufacturers was first known as \"IBM and the Seven Dwarfs\": usually Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR, Control Data, Honeywell, General Electric and RCA, although some lists varied.",
"Later, with the departure of General Electric and RCA, it was referred to as IBM and the BUNCH.",
"IBM's dominance grew out of their 700/7000 series and, later, the development of the 360 series mainframes.",
"The latter architecture has continued to evolve into their current zSeries mainframes which, along with the then Burroughs and Sperry (now Unisys) MCP-based and OS1100 mainframes, are among the few mainframe architectures still extant that can trace their roots to this early period.",
"While IBM's zSeries can still run 24-bit System/360 code, the 64-bit IBM Z CMOS servers have nothing physically in common with the older systems.",
"Notable manufacturers outside the US were Siemens and Telefunken in Germany, ICL in the United Kingdom, Olivetti in Italy, and Fujitsu, Hitachi, Oki, and NEC in Japan.",
"The Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact countries manufactured close copies of IBM mainframes during the Cold War; the BESM series and Strela are examples of independently designed Soviet computers.",
"Elwro in Poland was another Eastern Bloc manufacturer, producing the ODRA, R-32 and R-34 mainframes.Shrinking demand and tough competition started a shakeout in the market in the early 1970s—RCA sold out to UNIVAC and GE sold its business to Honeywell; between 1986 and 1990 Honeywell was bought out by Bull; UNIVAC became a division of Sperry, which later merged with Burroughs to form Unisys Corporation in 1986.In 1984 estimated sales of desktop computers ($11.6 billion) exceeded mainframe computers ($11.4 billion) for the first time.",
"IBM received the vast majority of mainframe revenue.",
"During the 1980s, minicomputer-based systems grew more sophisticated and were able to displace the lower end of the mainframes.",
"These computers, sometimes called ''departmental computers'', were typified by the Digital Equipment Corporation VAX series.In 1991, AT&T Corporation briefly owned NCR.",
"During the same period, companies found that servers based on microcomputer designs could be deployed at a fraction of the acquisition price and offer local users much greater control over their own systems given the IT policies and practices at that time.",
"Terminals used for interacting with mainframe systems were gradually replaced by personal computers.",
"Consequently, demand plummeted and new mainframe installations were restricted mainly to financial services and government.",
"In the early 1990s, there was a rough consensus among industry analysts that the mainframe was a dying market as mainframe platforms were increasingly replaced by personal computer networks.",
"InfoWorld's Stewart Alsop infamously predicted that the last mainframe would be unplugged in 1996; in 1993, he cited Cheryl Currid, a computer industry analyst as saying that the last mainframe \"will stop working on December 31, 1999\", a reference to the anticipated Year 2000 problem (Y2K).That trend started to turn around in the late 1990s as corporations found new uses for their existing mainframes and as the price of data networking collapsed in most parts of the world, encouraging trends toward more centralized computing.",
"The growth of e-business also dramatically increased the number of back-end transactions processed by mainframe software as well as the size and throughput of databases.",
"Batch processing, such as billing, became even more important (and larger) with the growth of e-business, and mainframes are particularly adept at large-scale batch computing.",
"Another factor currently increasing mainframe use is the development of the Linux operating system, which arrived on IBM mainframe systems in 1999.Linux allows users to take advantage of open source software combined with mainframe hardware RAS.",
"Rapid expansion and development in emerging markets, particularly People's Republic of China, is also spurring major mainframe investments to solve exceptionally difficult computing problems, e.g.",
"providing unified, extremely high volume online transaction processing databases for 1 billion consumers across multiple industries (banking, insurance, credit reporting, government services, etc.)",
"In late 2000, IBM introduced 64-bit z/Architecture, acquired numerous software companies such as Cognos and introduced those software products to the mainframe.",
"IBM's quarterly and annual reports in the 2000s usually reported increasing mainframe revenues and capacity shipments.",
"However, IBM's mainframe hardware business has not been immune to the recent overall downturn in the server hardware market or to model cycle effects.",
"For example, in the 4th quarter of 2009, IBM's System z hardware revenues decreased by 27% year over year.",
"But MIPS (millions of instructions per second) shipments increased 4% per year over the past two years.",
"Alsop had himself photographed in 2000, symbolically eating his own words (\"death to the mainframe\").In 2012, NASA powered down its last mainframe, an IBM System z9.However, IBM's successor to the z9, the z10, led a New York Times reporter to state four years earlier that \"mainframe technology—hardware, software and services—remains a large and lucrative business for I.B.M., and mainframes are still the back-office engines behind the world's financial markets and much of global commerce\".",
", while mainframe technology represented less than 3% of IBM's revenues, it \"continued to play an outsized role in Big Blue's results\".IBM has continued to launch new generations of mainframes: the IBM z13 in 2015, the z14 in 2017, the z15 in 2019 and the z16 in 2022, the latter featuring among other things an \"integrated on-chip AI accelerator\" and the new Telum microprocessor."
],
[
"Differences from supercomputers",
"A supercomputer is a computer at the leading edge of data processing capability, with respect to calculation speed.",
"Supercomputers are used for scientific and engineering problems (high-performance computing) which crunch numbers and data, while mainframes focus on transaction processing.",
"The differences are:* Mainframes are built to be reliable for transaction processing (measured by TPC-metrics; not used or helpful for most supercomputing applications) as it is commonly understood in the business world: the commercial exchange of goods, services, or money.",
"A typical transaction, as defined by the Transaction Processing Performance Council, updates a database system for inventory control (goods), airline reservations (services), or banking (money) by adding a record.",
"A transaction may refer to a set of operations including disk read/writes, operating system calls, or some form of data transfer from one subsystem to another which is not measured by the processing speed of the CPU.",
"Transaction processing is not exclusive to mainframes but is also used by microprocessor-based servers and online networks.",
"* Supercomputer performance is measured in floating point operations per second (FLOPS) or in traversed edges per second or TEPS, metrics that are not very meaningful for mainframe applications, while mainframes are sometimes measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS), although the definition depends on the instruction mix measured.",
"Examples of integer operations measured by MIPS include adding numbers together, checking values or moving data around in memory (while moving information to and from storage, so-called I/O is most helpful for mainframes; and within memory, only helping indirectly).",
"Floating point operations are mostly addition, subtraction, and multiplication (of ''binary'' floating point in supercomputers; measured by FLOPS) with enough digits of precision to model continuous phenomena such as weather prediction and nuclear simulations (only recently standardized ''decimal'' floating point, not used in supercomputers, are appropriate for monetary values such as those useful for mainframe applications).",
"In terms of computational speed, supercomputers are more powerful.Mainframes and supercomputers cannot always be clearly distinguished; up until the early 1990s, many supercomputers were based on a mainframe architecture with supercomputing extensions.",
"An example of such a system is the HITAC S-3800, which was instruction-set compatible with IBM System/370 mainframes, and could run the Hitachi VOS3 operating system (a fork of IBM MVS).",
"The S-3800 therefore can be seen as being both simultaneously a supercomputer and also an IBM-compatible mainframe.In 2007, an amalgamation of the different technologies and architectures for supercomputers and mainframes has led to a so-called gameframe."
],
[
"See also",
"* Channel I/O* Cloud computing* Commodity computing* Computer types* Failover* Gameframe* List of transistorized computers* Master the Mainframe Contest"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* IBM Systems Mainframe Magazine* IBM z Systems mainframes* IBM Mainframe Computer Support Forum since 2003* Univac 9400, a mainframe from the 1960s, still in use in a German computer museum* Lectures in the History of Computing: Mainframes (archived copy from the Internet Archive)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Microsoft Excel"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Microsoft Excel''' is a spreadsheet editor developed by Microsoft for Windows, macOS, Android, iOS and iPadOS.",
"It features calculation or computation capabilities, graphing tools, pivot tables, and a macro programming language called Visual Basic for Applications (VBA).",
"Excel forms part of the Microsoft 365 suite of software."
],
[
"Features",
"=== Basic operation ===Microsoft Excel has the basic features of all spreadsheets, using a grid of ''cells'' arranged in numbered ''rows'' and letter-named ''columns'' to organize data manipulations like arithmetic operations.",
"It has a battery of supplied functions to answer statistical, engineering, and financial needs.",
"In addition, it can display data as line graphs, histograms and charts, and with a very limited three-dimensional graphical display.",
"It allows sectioning of data to view its dependencies on various factors for different perspectives (using ''pivot tables'' and the ''scenario manager'').",
"A PivotTable is a tool for data analysis.",
"It does this by simplifying large data sets via PivotTable fields.",
"It has a programming aspect, ''Visual Basic for Applications'', allowing the user to employ a wide variety of numerical methods, for example, for solving differential equations of mathematical physics, and then reporting the results back to the spreadsheet.",
"It also has a variety of interactive features allowing user interfaces that can completely hide the spreadsheet from the user, so the spreadsheet presents itself as a so-called ''application'', or ''decision support system'' (DSS), via a custom-designed user interface, for example, a stock analyzer, or in general, as a design tool that asks the user questions and provides answers and reports.",
"In a more elaborate realization, an Excel application can automatically poll external databases and measuring instruments using an update schedule, analyze the results, make a Word report or PowerPoint slide show, and e-mail these presentations on a regular basis to a list of participants.",
"Excel was not designed to be used as a database.Microsoft allows for a number of optional command-line switches to control the manner in which Excel starts.=== Functions ===Excel 2016 has 484 functions.",
"Of these, 360 existed prior to Excel 2010.Microsoft classifies these functions into 14 categories.",
"Of the 484 current functions, 386 may be called from VBA as methods of the object \"WorksheetFunction\" and 44 have the same names as VBA functions.With the introduction of LAMBDA, Excel became Turing complete.=== Macro programming ======= VBA programming ====Use of a user-defined function ''sq(x)'' in Microsoft Excel.",
"The named variables ''x'' & ''y'' are identified in the ''Name Manager''.",
"The function ''sq'' is introduced using the ''Visual Basic'' editor supplied with Excel.Subroutine in Excel calculates the square of named column variable ''x'' read from the spreadsheet, and writes it into the named column variable ''y''.The Windows version of Excel supports programming through Microsoft's Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), which is a dialect of Visual Basic.",
"Programming with VBA allows spreadsheet manipulation that is awkward or impossible with standard spreadsheet techniques.",
"Programmers may write code directly using the Visual Basic Editor (VBE), which includes a window for writing code, debugging code, and code module organization environment.",
"The user can implement numerical methods as well as automating tasks such as formatting or data organization in VBA and guide the calculation using any desired intermediate results reported back to the spreadsheet.VBA was removed from Mac Excel 2008, as the developers did not believe that a timely release would allow porting the VBA engine natively to Mac OS X. VBA was restored in the next version, Mac Excel 2011, although the build lacks support for ActiveX objects, impacting some high level developer tools.A common and easy way to generate VBA code is by using the Macro Recorder.",
"The Macro Recorder records actions of the user and generates VBA code in the form of a macro.",
"These actions can then be repeated automatically by running the macro.",
"The macros can also be linked to different trigger types like keyboard shortcuts, a command button or a graphic.",
"The actions in the macro can be executed from these trigger types or from the generic toolbar options.",
"The VBA code of the macro can also be edited in the VBE.",
"Certain features such as loop functions and screen prompt by their own properties, and some graphical display items, cannot be recorded but must be entered into the VBA module directly by the programmer.",
"Advanced users can employ user prompts to create an interactive program, or react to events such as sheets being loaded or changed.Macro Recorded code may not be compatible with Excel versions.",
"Some code that is used in Excel 2010 cannot be used in Excel 2003.Making a Macro that changes the cell colors and making changes to other aspects of cells may not be backward compatible.VBA code interacts with the spreadsheet through the Excel ''Object Model'', a vocabulary identifying spreadsheet objects, and a set of supplied functions or ''methods'' that enable reading and writing to the spreadsheet and interaction with its users (for example, through custom toolbars or ''command bars'' and ''message boxes'').",
"User-created VBA subroutines execute these actions and operate like macros generated using the macro recorder, but are more flexible and efficient.==== History ====From its first version Excel supported end-user programming of macros (automation of repetitive tasks) and user-defined functions (extension of Excel's built-in function library).",
"In early versions of Excel, these programs were written in a macro language whose statements had formula syntax and resided in the cells of special-purpose macro sheets (stored with file extension .XLM in Windows.)",
"XLM was the default macro language for Excel through Excel 4.0.Beginning with version 5.0 Excel recorded macros in VBA by default but with version 5.0 XLM recording was still allowed as an option.",
"After version 5.0 that option was discontinued.",
"All versions of Excel, including Excel 2021, are capable of running an XLM macro, though Microsoft discourages their use.=== Python programming ===In 2023 Microsoft announced Excel would support the Python programming language directly.",
"As of January 2024, Python in Excel is available in the Microsoft 365 Insider Program.=== Charts ===Graph made using Microsoft ExcelExcel supports charts, graphs, or histograms generated from specified groups of cells.",
"It also supports Pivot Charts that allow for a chart to be linked directly to a Pivot table.",
"This allows the chart to be refreshed with the Pivot Table.",
"The generated graphic component can either be embedded within the current sheet or added as a separate object.These displays are dynamically updated if the content of cells changes.",
"For example, suppose that the important design requirements are displayed visually; then, in response to a user's change in trial values for parameters, the curves describing the design change shape, and their points of intersection shift, assisting the selection of the best design.=== Add-ins ===Additional features are available using add-ins.",
"Several are provided with Excel, including:* Analysis ToolPak: Provides data analysis tools for statistical and engineering analysis (includes analysis of variance and regression analysis)* Analysis ToolPak VBA: VBA functions for Analysis ToolPak* Euro Currency Tools: Conversion and formatting for euro currency* Solver Add-In: Tools for optimization and equation solving"
],
[
"Data storage and communication",
"=== Number of rows and columns ===Versions of Excel up to 7.0 had a limitation in the size of their data sets of 16K (214 = ) rows.",
"Versions 8.0 through 11.0 could handle 64K (216 = ) rows and 256 columns (28 as label 'IV').",
"Version 12.0 onwards, including the current Version 16.x, can handle over 1M (220 = ) rows, and (214, labeled as column 'XFD') columns.=== File formats ===Up until the 2007 version, Microsoft Excel used a proprietary binary file format called Excel Binary File Format (.XLS) as its primary format.",
"Excel 2007 uses Office Open XML as its primary file format, an XML-based format that followed after a previous XML-based format called \"XML Spreadsheet\" (\"XMLSS\"), first introduced in Excel 2002.Although supporting and encouraging the use of new XML-based formats as replacements, Excel 2007 remained backwards-compatible with the traditional, binary formats.",
"In addition, most versions of Microsoft Excel can read CSV, DBF, SYLK, DIF, and other legacy formats.",
"Support for some older file formats was removed in Excel 2007.The file formats were mainly from DOS-based programs.==== Binary ====OpenOffice.org has created documentation of the Excel format.",
"Two epochs of the format exist: the 97-2003 OLE format, and the older stream format.",
"Microsoft has made the Excel binary format specification available to freely download.==== XML Spreadsheet ====The ''XML Spreadsheet'' format introduced in Excel 2002 is a simple, XML based format missing some more advanced features like storage of VBA macros.",
"Though the intended file extension for this format is ''.xml'', the program also correctly handles XML files with ''.xls'' extension.",
"This feature is widely used by third-party applications (e.g.",
"''MySQL Query Browser'') to offer \"export to Excel\" capabilities without implementing binary file format.",
"The following example will be correctly opened by Excel if saved either as ''Book1.xml'' or ''Book1.xls'': Name Example Value 123 ==== Current file extensions ====Microsoft Excel 2007, along with the other products in the Microsoft Office 2007 suite, introduced new file formats.",
"The first of these (.xlsx) is defined in the Office Open XML (OOXML) specification.+Excel 2007 formatsFormatExtensionDescriptionExcel WorkbookThe default Excel 2007 and later workbook format.",
"In reality, a ZIP compressed archive with a directory structure of XML text documents.",
"Functions as the primary replacement for the former binary .xls format, although it does not support Excel macros for security reasons.",
"Saving as .xlsx offers file size reduction over .xlsExcel Macro-enabled WorkbookAs Excel Workbook, but with macro support.Excel Binary WorkbookAs Excel Macro-enabled Workbook, but storing information in binary form rather than XML documents for opening and saving documents more quickly and efficiently.",
"Intended especially for very large documents with tens of thousands of rows, and/or several hundreds of columns.",
"This format is very useful for shrinking large Excel files as is often the case when doing data analysis.Excel Macro-enabled TemplateA template document that forms a basis for actual workbooks, with macro support.",
"The replacement for the old .xlt format.Excel Add-inExcel add-in to add extra functionality and tools.",
"Inherent macro support because of the file purpose.==== Old file extensions ====FormatExtensionDescriptionSpreadsheetMain spreadsheet format which holds data in worksheets, charts, and macrosAdd-in (VBA)Adds custom functionality; written in VBAToolbarThe file extension where Microsoft Excel custom toolbar settings are stored.ChartA chart created with data from a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet that only saves the chart.",
"To save the chart and spreadsheet save as .XLS.",
"XLC is not supported in Excel 2007 or in any newer versions of Excel.DialogUsed in older versions of Excel.ArchiveA backup of an Excel SpreadsheetAdd-in (DLL)Adds custom functionality; written in C++/C, Fortran, etc.",
"and compiled into a special dynamic-link libraryMacroA macro is created by the user or pre-installed with Excel.Template.xlt A pre-formatted spreadsheet created by the user or by Microsoft Excel.ModuleA module is written in VBA (Visual Basic for Applications) for Microsoft ExcelLibraryCode written in VBA may access functions in a DLL, typically this is used to access the Windows APIWorkspaceArrangement of the windows of multiple Workbooks=== Using other Windows applications ===Windows applications such as Microsoft Access and Microsoft Word, as well as Excel can communicate with each other and use each other's capabilities.",
"The most common is Dynamic Data Exchange: although strongly deprecated by Microsoft, this is a common method to send data between applications running on Windows, with official MS publications referring to it as \"the protocol from hell\".",
"As the name suggests, it allows applications to supply data to others for calculation and display.",
"It is very common in financial markets, being used to connect to important financial data services such as Bloomberg and Reuters.OLE Object Linking and Embedding allows a Windows application to control another to enable it to format or calculate data.",
"This may take on the form of \"embedding\" where an application uses another to handle a task that it is more suited to, for example a PowerPoint presentation may be embedded in an Excel spreadsheet or vice versa.=== Using external data ===Excel users can access external data sources via Microsoft Office features such as (for example) connections built with the Office Data Connection file format.",
"Excel files themselves may be updated using a Microsoft supplied ODBC driver.Excel can accept data in real-time through several programming interfaces, which allow it to communicate with many data sources such as Bloomberg and Reuters (through addins such as Power Plus Pro).",
"* DDE: \"Dynamic Data Exchange\" uses the message passing mechanism in Windows to allow data to flow between Excel and other applications.",
"Although it is easy for users to create such links, programming such links reliably is so difficult that Microsoft, the creators of the system, officially refer to it as \"the protocol from hell\".",
"In spite of its many issues DDE remains the most common way for data to reach traders in financial markets.",
"* Network DDE Extended the protocol to allow spreadsheets on different computers to exchange data.",
"Starting with Windows Vista, Microsoft no longer supports the facility.",
"* Real Time Data: RTD although in many ways technically superior to DDE, has been slow to gain acceptance, since it requires non-trivial programming skills, and when first released was neither adequately documented nor supported by the major data vendors.Alternatively, Microsoft Query provides ODBC-based browsing within Microsoft Excel.=== Export and migration of spreadsheets ===Programmers have produced APIs to open Excel spreadsheets in a variety of applications and environments other than Microsoft Excel.",
"These include opening Excel documents on the web using either ActiveX controls, or plugins like the Adobe Flash Player.",
"The Apache POI opensource project provides Java libraries for reading and writing Excel spreadsheet files.=== Password protection ===Microsoft Excel protection offers several types of passwords:* Password to open a document* Password to modify a document* Password to unprotect the worksheet* Password to protect workbook* Password to protect the sharing workbookAll passwords except ''password to open a document'' can be removed instantly regardless of the Microsoft Excel version used to create the document.",
"These types of passwords are used primarily for shared work on a document.",
"Such password-protected documents are not encrypted, and a data sources from a set password are saved in a document's header.",
"''Password to protect workbook'' is an exception – when it is set, a document is encrypted with the standard password \"VelvetSweatshop\", but since it is known to the public, it actually does not add any extra protection to the document.",
"The only type of password that can prevent a trespasser from gaining access to a document is the ''password to open a document''.",
"The cryptographic strength of this kind of protection depends strongly on the Microsoft Excel version that was used to create the document.In ''Microsoft Excel 95'' and earlier versions, the password to open is converted to a 16-bit key that can be instantly cracked.",
"In ''Excel 97/2000'' the password is converted to a 40-bit key, which can also be cracked very quickly using modern equipment.",
"As regards services that use rainbow tables (e.g.",
"Password-Find), it takes up to several seconds to remove protection.",
"In addition, password-cracking programs can brute-force attack passwords at a rate of hundreds of thousands of passwords a second, which not only lets them decrypt a document but also find the original password.In ''Excel 2003/XP'' the encryption is slightly better – a user can choose any encryption algorithm that is available in the system (see Cryptographic Service Provider).",
"Due to the CSP, an ''Excel'' file cannot be decrypted, and thus the ''password to open'' cannot be removed, though the brute-force attack speed remains quite high.",
"Nevertheless, the older ''Excel 97/2000'' algorithm is set by the default.",
"Therefore, users who do not change the default settings lack reliable protection of their documents.The situation changed fundamentally in ''Excel 2007'', where the modern AES algorithm with a key of 128 bits started being used for decryption, and a 50,000-fold use of the hash function SHA1 reduced the speed of brute-force attacks down to hundreds of passwords per second.",
"In ''Excel 2010'', the strength of the protection by the default was increased two times due to the use of a 100,000-fold SHA1 to convert a password to a key."
],
[
"Other platforms",
"===Excel for mobile===Excel Mobile is a spreadsheet program that can edit XLSX files.",
"It can edit and format text in cells, calculate formulas, search within the spreadsheet, sort rows and columns, freeze panes, filter the columns, add comments, and create charts.",
"It cannot add columns or rows except at the edge of the document, rearrange columns or rows, delete rows or columns, or add spreadsheet tabs.",
"The 2007 version has the ability to use a full-screen mode to deal with limited screen resolution, as well as split panes to view different parts of a worksheet at one time.",
"Protection settings, zoom settings, autofilter settings, certain chart formatting, hidden sheets, and other features are not supported on Excel Mobile, and will be modified upon opening and saving a workbook.",
"In 2015, Excel Mobile became available for Windows 10 and Windows 10 Mobile on Windows Store.===Excel for the web===Excel for the web is a free lightweight version of Microsoft Excel available as part of Office on the web, which also includes web versions of Microsoft Word and Microsoft PowerPoint.Excel for the web can display most of the features available in the desktop versions of Excel, although it may not be able to insert or edit them.",
"Certain data connections are not accessible on Excel for the web, including with charts that may use these external connections.",
"Excel for the web also cannot display legacy features, such as Excel 4.0 macros or Excel 5.0 dialog sheets.",
"There are also small differences between how some of the Excel functions work.== Microsoft Excel Viewer == Microsoft Excel Viewer was a freeware program for Microsoft Windows for viewing and printing spreadsheet documents created by Excel.",
"Microsoft retired the viewer in April 2018 with the last security update released in February 2019 for Excel Viewer 2007 (SP3).The first version released by Microsoft was Excel 97 Viewer.",
"Excel 97 Viewer was supported in Windows CE for Handheld PCs.",
"In October 2004, Microsoft released Excel Viewer 2003.In September 2007, Microsoft released Excel Viewer 2003 Service Pack 3 (SP3).",
"In January 2008, Microsoft released Excel Viewer 2007 (featuring a non-collapsible Ribbon interface).",
"In April 2009, Microsoft released Excel Viewer 2007 Service Pack 2 (SP2).",
"In October 2011, Microsoft released Excel Viewer 2007 Service Pack 3 (SP3).Microsoft advises to view and print Excel files for free to use the Excel Mobile application for Windows 10 and for Windows 7 and Windows 8 to upload the file to OneDrive and use Excel for the web with a Microsoft account to open them in a browser."
],
[
"Quirks",
"In addition to issues with spreadsheets in general, other problems specific to Excel include numeric precision, misleading statistics functions, mod function errors, date limitations and more.=== Numeric precision ===Excel maintains 15 figures in its numbers, but they are not always accurate: the bottom line should be the same as the top line.Despite the use of 15-figure precision, Excel can display many more figures (up to thirty) upon user request.",
"But the displayed figures are ''not'' those actually used in its computations, and so, for example, the difference of two numbers may differ from the difference of their displayed values.",
"Although such departures are usually beyond the 15th decimal, exceptions do occur, especially for very large or very small numbers.",
"Serious errors can occur if decisions are made based upon automated comparisons of numbers (for example, using the Excel ''If'' function), as equality of two numbers can be unpredictable.In the figure, the fraction 1/9000 is displayed in Excel.",
"Although this number has a decimal representation that is an infinite string of ones, Excel displays only the leading 15 figures.",
"In the second line, the number one is added to the fraction, and again Excel displays only 15 figures.",
"In the third line, one is subtracted from the sum using Excel.",
"Because the sum in the second line has only eleven 1's after the decimal, the difference when 1 is subtracted from this displayed value is three 0's followed by a string of eleven 1's.",
"However, the difference reported by Excel in the third line is three 0's followed by a string of ''thirteen'' 1's and two extra erroneous digits.",
"This is because Excel calculates with about half a digit more than it displays.Excel works with a modified 1985 version of the IEEE 754 specification.",
"Excel's implementation involves conversions between binary and decimal representations, leading to accuracy that is on average better than one would expect from simple fifteen digit precision, but that can be worse.",
"See the main article for details.Besides accuracy in user computations, the question of accuracy in Excel-provided functions may be raised.",
"Particularly in the arena of statistical functions, Excel has been criticized for sacrificing accuracy for speed of calculation.As many calculations in Excel are executed using VBA, an additional issue is the accuracy of VBA, which varies with variable type and user-requested precision.=== Statistical functions ===The accuracy and convenience of statistical tools in Excel has been criticized, as mishandling missing data, as returning incorrect values due to inept handling of round-off and large numbers, as only selectively updating calculations on a spreadsheet when some cell values are changed, and as having a limited set of statistical tools.",
"Microsoft has announced some of these issues are addressed in Excel 2010.=== Excel MOD function error ===Excel has issues with modulo operations.",
"In the case of excessively large results, Excel will return the error warning instead of an answer.=== Fictional leap day in the year 1900 ===Excel includes February 29, 1900, incorrectly treating 1900 as a leap year, even though e.g.",
"2100 is correctly treated as a non-leap year.",
"The bug originated from Lotus 1-2-3 (deliberately implemented to save computer memory), and was also purposely implemented in Excel, for the purpose of bug compatibility.",
"This legacy has later been carried over into Office Open XML file format.Thus a (not necessarily whole) number greater than or equal to 61 interpreted as a date and time are the (real) number of days after December 30, 1899, 0:00, a non-negative number less than 60 is the number of days after December 31, 1899, 0:00, and numbers with whole part 60 represent the fictional day.=== Date range ===Excel supports dates with years in the range 1900–9999, except that December 31, 1899, can be entered as 0 and is displayed as 0-jan-1900.Converting a fraction of a day into hours, minutes and days by treating it as a moment on the day January 1, 1900, does not work for a negative fraction.=== Conversion problems ===Entering text that happens to be in a form that is interpreted as a date, the text can be unintentionally changed to a standard date format.",
"A similar problem occurs when a text happens to be in the form of a floating-point notation of a number.",
"In these cases the original exact text cannot be recovered from the result.",
"Formatting the cell as TEXT before entering ambiguous text prevents Excel from converting to a date.This issue has caused a well known problem in the analysis of DNA, for example in bioinformatics.",
"As first reported in 2004, genetic scientists found that Excel automatically and incorrectly converts certain gene names into dates.",
"A follow-up study in 2016 found many peer reviewed scientific journal papers had been affected and that \"Of the selected journals, the proportion of published articles with Excel files containing gene lists that are affected by gene name errors is 19.6 %.\"",
"Excel parses the copied and pasted data and sometimes changes them depending on what it thinks they are.",
"For example, MARCH1 (Membrane Associated Ring-CH-type finger 1) gets converted to the date March 1 (1-Mar) and SEPT2 (Septin 2) is converted into September 2 (2-Sep) etc.",
"While some secondary news sources reported this as a fault with Excel, the original authors of the 2016 paper placed the blame with the researchers misusing Excel.In August 2020 the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) published new guidelines in the journal Nature regarding gene naming in order to avoid issues with \"symbols that affect data handling and retrieval.\"",
"So far 27 genes have been renamed, including changing MARCH1 to MARCHF1 and SEPT1 to SEPTIN1 in order to avoid accidental conversion of the gene names into dates.In October 2023, Microsoft fixed the long-standing issue.=== Errors with large strings ===The following functions return incorrect results when passed a string longer than 255 characters:* incorrectly returns 16, meaning \"Error value\"* , when called as a method of the VBA object (i.e., in VBA), incorrectly returns \"false\".=== Filenames ===Microsoft Excel will not open two documents with the same name and instead will display the following error:: A document with the name '%s' is already open.",
"You cannot open two documents with the same name, even if the documents are in different folders.",
"To open the second document, either close the document that is currently open, or rename one of the documents.The reason is for calculation ambiguity with linked cells.",
"If there is a cell , and there are two books named \"Book1\" open, there is no way to tell which one the user means."
],
[
"Versions",
"=== Early history ===Microsoft originally marketed a spreadsheet program called Multiplan in 1982.Multiplan became very popular on CP/M systems, but on MS-DOS systems it lost popularity to Lotus 1-2-3.Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Macintosh on September 30, 1985, and the first Windows version was 2.05 (to synchronize with the Macintosh version 2.2) on November 19, 1987.Lotus was slow to bring 1-2-3 to Windows and by the early 1990s, Excel had started to outsell 1-2-3 and helped Microsoft achieve its position as a leading PC software developer.",
"This accomplishment solidified Microsoft as a valid competitor and showed its future in developing GUI software.",
"Microsoft maintained its advantage with regular new releases, every two years or so.=== Microsoft Windows ===Excel 2.0 is the first version of Excel for the Intel platform.",
"Versions prior to 2.0 were only available on the Apple Macintosh.==== Excel 2.0 (1987) ====The first Windows version was labeled \"2\" to correspond to the Mac version.",
"It was announced on October 6, 1987, and released on November 19.This included a run-time version of Windows.",
"''BYTE'' in 1989 listed Excel for Windows as among the \"Distinction\" winners of the BYTE Awards.",
"The magazine stated that the port of the \"extraordinary\" Macintosh version \"shines\", with a user interface as good as or better than the original.==== Excel 3.0 (1990) ====Included toolbars, drawing capabilities, outlining, add-in support, 3D charts, and many more new features.==== Excel 4.0 (1992) ====Introduced auto-fill.Also, an easter egg in Excel 4.0 reveals a hidden animation of a dancing set of numbers 1 through 3, representing Lotus 1-2-3, which is then crushed by an Excel logo.==== Excel 5.0 (1993) ====With version 5.0, Excel has included Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), a programming language based on Visual Basic which adds the ability to automate tasks in Excel and to provide user-defined functions (UDF) for use in worksheets.",
"VBA includes a fully featured integrated development environment (IDE).",
"Macro recording can produce VBA code replicating user actions, thus allowing simple automation of regular tasks.",
"VBA allows the creation of forms and in‑worksheet controls to communicate with the user.",
"The language supports use (but not creation) of ActiveX (COM) DLL's; later versions add support for class modules allowing the use of basic object-oriented programming techniques.The automation functionality provided by VBA made Excel a target for macro viruses.",
"This caused serious problems until antivirus products began to detect these viruses.",
"Microsoft belatedly took steps to prevent the misuse by adding the ability to disable macros completely, to enable macros when opening a workbook or to trust all macros signed using a trusted certificate.Versions 5.0 to 9.0 of Excel contain various Easter eggs, including a \"Hall of Tortured Souls\", a Doom-like minigame, although since version 10 Microsoft has taken measures to eliminate such undocumented features from their products.5.0 was released in a 16-bit x86 version for Windows 3.1 and later in a 32-bit version for NT 3.51 (x86/Alpha/PowerPC)==== Excel 95 (v7.0) ====Microsoft Excel 95Released in 1995 with Microsoft Office for Windows 95, this is the first major version after Excel 5.0, as there is no Excel 6.0 with all of the Office applications standardizing on the same major version number.Internal rewrite to 32-bits.",
"Almost no external changes, but faster and more stable.Excel 95 contained a hidden ''Doom''-like mini-game called \"The Hall of Tortured Souls\", a series of rooms featuring the names and faces of the developers as an easter egg.==== Excel 97 (v8.0) ====Included in Office 97 (for x86 and Alpha).",
"This was a major upgrade that introduced the paper clip office assistant and featured standard VBA used instead of internal Excel Basic.",
"It introduced the now-removed Natural Language labels.This version of Excel includes a flight simulator as an Easter Egg.==== Excel 2000 (v9.0) ====Microsoft Excel 2000Included in Office 2000.This was a minor upgrade but introduced an upgrade to the clipboard where it can hold multiple objects at once.",
"The Office Assistant, whose frequent unsolicited appearance in Excel 97 had annoyed many users, became less intrusive.A small 3-D game called \"Dev Hunter\" (inspired by Spy Hunter) was included as an easter egg.==== Excel 2002 (v10.0) ====Included in Office XP.",
"Very minor enhancements.==== Excel 2003 (v11.0) ====Included in Office 2003.Minor enhancements.==== Excel 2007 (v12.0) ====Microsoft Excel 2007Included in Office 2007.This release was a major upgrade from the previous version.",
"Similar to other updated Office products, Excel in 2007 used the new Ribbon menu system.",
"This was different from what users were used to, and was met with mixed reactions.",
"One study reported fairly good acceptance by users except for highly experienced users and users of word processing applications with a classical WIMP interface, but was less convinced in terms of efficiency and organization.",
"However, an online survey reported that a majority of respondents had a negative opinion of the change, with advanced users being \"somewhat more negative\" than intermediate users, and users reporting a self-estimated reduction in productivity.Added functionality included Tables, and the SmartArt set of editable business diagrams.",
"Also added was an improved management of named variables through the ''Name Manager'', and much-improved flexibility in formatting graphs, which allow (''x, y'') coordinate labeling and lines of arbitrary weight.",
"Several improvements to pivot tables were introduced.Also like other office products, the Office Open XML file formats were introduced, including ''.xlsm'' for a workbook with macros and ''.xlsx'' for a workbook without macros.Specifically, many of the size limitations of previous versions were greatly increased.",
"To illustrate, the number of rows was now 1,048,576 (220) and the columns was 16,384 (214; the far-right column is XFD).",
"This changes what is a valid ''A1'' reference versus a named range.",
"This version made more extensive use of multiple cores for the calculation of spreadsheets; however, VBA macros are not handled in parallel and XLL add‑ins were only executed in parallel if they were thread-safe and this was indicated at registration.==== Excel 2010 (v14.0) ====Microsoft Excel 2010 running on Windows 7Included in Office 2010, this is the next major version after v12.0, as version number 13 was skipped.Minor enhancements and 64-bit support, including the following:* Multi-threading recalculation (MTR) for commonly used functions* Improved pivot tables* More conditional formatting options* Additional image editing capabilities* In-cell charts called ''sparklines''* Ability to preview before pasting* Office 2010 ''backstage'' feature for document-related tasks* Ability to customize the Ribbon* Many new formulas, most highly specialized to improve accuracy==== Excel 2013 (v15.0) ====Included in Office 2013, along with a lot of new tools included in this release:* Improved Multi-threading and Memory Contention* FlashFill* Power View* Power Pivot* Timeline Slicer* Windows App* Inquire * 50 new functions==== Excel 2016 (v16.0) ====Included in Office 2016, along with a lot of new tools included in this release:* Power Query integration * Read-only mode for Excel* Keyboard access for Pivot Tables and Slicers in Excel* New Chart Types* Quick data linking in Visio*Excel forecasting functions*Support for multiselection of Slicer items using touch*Time grouping and Pivot Chart Drill Down*Excel data cards==== Excel 2019, Excel 2021, Office 365 and subsequent (v16.0) ====Microsoft no longer releases Office or Excel in discrete versions.",
"Instead, features are introduced automatically over time using Windows Update.",
"The version number remains 16.0.Thereafter only the approximate dates when features appear can now be given.",
"* Dynamic Arrays.",
"These are essentially Array Formulas but they \"Spill\" automatically into neighboring cells and do not need the ctrl-shift-enter to create them.",
"Further, dynamic arrays are the default format, with new \"@\" and \"#\" operators to provide compatibility with previous versions.",
"This is perhaps the biggest structural change since 2007, and is in response to a similar feature in Google Sheets.",
"Dynamic arrays started appearing in pre-releases about 2018, and as of March 2020 are available in published versions of Office 365 provided a user selected \"Office Insiders\".=== Apple Macintosh ===Microsoft Excel for Mac 2011* 1985 Excel 1.0* 1988 Excel 1.5* 1989 Excel 2.2* 1990 Excel 3.0* 1992 Excel 4.0* 1993 Excel 5.0 (part of Office 4.x—Final Motorola 680x0 version and first PowerPC version)* 1998 Excel 8.0 (part of Office 98)* 2000 Excel 9.0 (part of Office 2001)* 2001 Excel 10.0 (part of Office v. X)* 2004 Excel 11.0 (part of Office 2004)* 2008 Excel 12.0 (part of Office 2008)* 2010 Excel 14.0 (part of Office 2011)* 2015 Excel 15.0 (part of Office 2016—Office 2016 for Mac brings the Mac version much closer to parity with its Windows cousin, harmonizing many of the reporting and high-level developer functions, while bringing the ribbon and styling into line with its PC counterpart.",
")=== OS/2 ===* 1989 Excel 2.2* 1990 Excel 2.3* 1991 Excel 3.0===Summary===+ Microsoft Excel for Windows release history Year Name VersionComments1987Excel 2Renumbered to 2 to correspond with contemporary Macintosh version.",
"Supported macros (later known as Excel 4 macros).1990Excel 3Added 3D graphing capabilities1992Excel 4Introduced auto-fill feature1993Excel 5Included Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) and various object-oriented options1995Excel 95Renumbered for contemporary Word version.",
"Both programs were packaged in Microsoft Office by this time.",
"1997Excel 972000Excel 2000Part of Microsoft Office 20002002Excel 20022003Excel 2003Released only 1 year later to correspond better with the rest of Microsoft Office (Word, PowerPoint, etc.",
").2007Excel 20072010Excel 2010Due to superstitions surrounding the number 13, Excel 13 was skipped in version counting.2013Excel 2013Introduced 50 more mathematical functions (available as pre-packaged commands, rather than typing the formula manually).",
"2016Excel 2016Part of Microsoft Office 2016+ Microsoft Excel for Macintosh release history Year Name VersionComments1985Excel 1Initial version of Excel.",
"Supported macros (later known as Excel 4 macros).1988Excel 1.51989Excel 21990Excel 31992Excel 41993Excel 5Only available on PowerPC-based Macs.",
"First PowerPC version.",
"1998Excel 98Excel 6 and Excel 7 were skipped to correspond with the rest of Microsoft Office at the time.",
"2000Excel 20002001Excel 20012004Excel 20042008Excel 20082011Excel 2011As with the Windows version, version 13 was skipped for superstitious reasons.2016Excel 2016As with the rest of Microsoft Office, so it is for Excel: Future release dates for the Macintosh version are intended to correspond better to those for the Windows version, from 2016 onward.",
"+ Microsoft Excel for OS/2 release history Year Name VersionComments1989Excel 2.2Numbered in between Windows versions at the time1990Excel 2.31991Excel 3Last OS/2 version.",
"Discontinued subseries of Microsoft Excel, which is otherwise still an actively developed program."
],
[
"Impact",
"Excel offers many user interface tweaks over the earliest electronic spreadsheets; however, the essence remains the same as in the original spreadsheet software, VisiCalc: the program displays cells organized in rows and columns, and each cell may contain data or a formula, with relative or absolute references to other cells.Excel 2.0 for Windows, which was modeled after its Mac GUI-based counterpart, indirectly expanded the installed base of the then-nascent Windows environment.",
"Excel 2.0 was released a month before Windows 2.0, and the installed base of Windows was so low at that point in 1987 that Microsoft had to bundle a runtime version of Windows 1.0 with Excel 2.0.Unlike Microsoft Word, there never was a DOS version of Excel.Excel became the first spreadsheet to allow the user to define the appearance of spreadsheets (fonts, character attributes, and cell appearance).",
"It also introduced intelligent cell re-computation, where only cells dependent on the cell being modified are updated (previous spreadsheet programs recomputed everything all the time or waited for a specific user command).",
"Excel introduced auto-fill, the ability to drag and expand the selection box to automatically copy a cell or row contents to adjacent cells or rows, adjusting the copies intelligently by automatically incrementing cell references or contents.",
"Excel also introduced extensive graphing capabilities."
],
[
"Security",
"Because Excel is widely used, it has been attacked by hackers.",
"While Excel is not directly exposed to the Internet, if an attacker can get a victim to open a file in Excel, and there is an appropriate security bug in Excel, then the attacker can gain control of the victim's computer.",
"UK's GCHQ has a tool named TORNADO ALLEY with this purpose."
],
[
"Games",
"Besides the easter eggs, numerous games have been created or recreated in Excel, such as ''Tetris'', ''2048'', ''Scrabble'', ''Yahtzee'', ''Angry Birds'', ''Pac-Man'', ''Civilization'', ''Monopoly'', ''Battleship'', Blackjack, ''Space Invaders'', and others.In 2020, Excel became an esport with the advent of the Financial Modeling World Cup."
],
[
"See also",
"* Comparison of spreadsheet software* Spreadmart* Financial Modeling World Cup, online esport financial modelling competition using Excel"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"References",
"* * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* – official site"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Michael Hutchence"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Michael Kelland John Hutchence''' (22 January 1960 – 22 November 1997) was an Australian singer, songwriter, and actor.",
"He was the co-founder, lead singer, and lyricist of the rock band INXS from 1977 until his death in 1997.The band sold over 50 million records worldwide and was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame in 2001.Hutchence was also a member of the short-lived band Max Q and recorded some solo material, alongside acting in films such as ''Dogs in Space'' (1986) and ''Frankenstein Unbound'' (1990).",
"He was known for his string of love affairs with actresses, models, and singers, and his private life was often covered in the international press.",
"He had a daughter with English television presenter Paula Yates.Hutchence was found dead in his Sydney hotel room on 22 November 1997.Although his cause of death is widely accepted to have been suicide by hanging, some people (including Yates) have stated a belief in the rumour that his death was the accidental result of autoerotic asphyxiation."
],
[
"Early life",
"Michael Kelland John Hutchence was born in the Crows Nest suburb of Sydney on 22 January 1960, the son of make-up artist Patricia Glassop and businessman Kelland Frank \"Kell\" Hutchence.",
"He had an elder half-sister named Tina.",
"His paternal grandparents were an English couple who had relocated to Sydney in 1922, while his maternal grandfather was an Irish man from County Cork.Following Kell's business interests, the Hutchence family moved to Brisbane, where Hutchence's younger brother Rhett was born.",
"They later left Australia for Hong Kong.",
"During the early years in Hong Kong, both boys attended Glenealy Junior School and Beacon Hill School.",
"Hutchence showed promise as a swimmer before badly breaking his arm.",
"He then began to show interest in poetry and performed his first song in a local toy store commercial.",
"He later attended King George V School during his early teens.",
"The family returned to Sydney in 1972, buying a house in Belrose.Hutchence attended Davidson High School, where he met and befriended Andrew Farriss.",
"Around this time, the two spent a lot of time jamming with Farriss' brothers Tim and Jon in the garage.",
"Farriss convinced Hutchence to join his band, Doctor Dolphin, alongside their classmates Kent Kerny and Neil Sanders.",
"Bassist Garry Beers and drummer Geoff Kennelly from nearby Forest High School completed the line-up.",
"Hutchence's parents separated when he was 15, and he lived with his mother and half-sister in California for a short time in 1976.He later returned to Sydney with them.",
"In 1977, a new band called the Farriss Brothers was formed with Andrew on keyboards, Tim on lead guitar, and Jon on drums.",
"Hutchence joined on vocals and Beers on bass, while Kirk Pengilly joined on guitar and saxophone.",
"The band made their debut on 16 August 1977 at a venue in Whale Beach."
],
[
"Career",
"===Early career===Hutchence, the Farriss brothers, Kerny, Sanders, Beers and Kennelly briefly performed as The Vegetables, singing \"We Are the Vegetables\".",
"Ten months later, they returned to Sydney and recorded a set of demos.",
"The Farriss Brothers regularly supported hard rockers Midnight Oil on the pub rock circuit, and were renamed as INXS in 1979.Their first performance under the new name was on 1 September at the Oceanview Hotel in Toukley.",
"In May 1980, the group released their first single, \"Simple Simon\"/\"We Are the Vegetables\" which was followed by the debut album ''INXS'' in October.",
"Their first Top 40 Australian hit on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart, \"Just Keep Walking\", was released in September 1980.Hutchence became the main spokesman for the band, and co-wrote almost all of the band's songs with Andrew Farriss.According to Hutchence, most of the songs on the band's second album, ''Underneath the Colours'', were written within a fairly short space of time: \"Most bands shudder at the prospect of having 20 years to write their first album and four days to write their second.",
"For us, though, it was good.",
"It left less room for us to go off on all sorts of tangents\".",
"Soon after recording sessions for ''Underneath the Colours'' – produced by Richard Clapton – had finished, band members started work on outside projects.",
"Hutchence recorded \"Speed Kills\", written by Don Walker of hard rockers Cold Chisel, for the soundtrack to the 1982 film ''Freedom'', directed by Scott Hicks.",
"It was Hutchence's first solo single and was released by WEA in April 1982.===Stardom and acting career===In March 1985, after Hutchence and INXS recorded their album ''The Swing'' (1984), WEA released the Australian version of ''Dekadance'', as a limited edition cassette only EP of six tracks including remixes from the album.",
"The cassette also included a cover version of Nancy Sinatra and Lee Hazlewood's hit \"Jackson\", which Hutchence sang as a duet with Jenny Morris, a backing singer for ''The Swing'' sessions.",
"The EP reached No 2 on the Kent Music Report Albums Chart.",
"Hutchence provided vocals for new wave band Beargarden's 1985 single release.On 19 May, INXS won seven awards at the 1984 ''Countdown'' Music and Video Awards ceremony, including 'Best Songwriter' for Hutchence and Andrew, and 'Most Popular Male' for Hutchence.",
"They performed \"Burn for You\", dressed in Akubras (a brand of hats) and Drizabones (a brand of outdoor coats/oilskin jackets) followed by Hutchence and Morris singing \"Jackson\" to close.In 1986, Hutchence played Sam, the lead male role, in the Australian film ''Dogs in Space'', directed by long-time INXS music video collaborator Richard Lowenstein.",
"Sam's girlfriend, Anna, was portrayed by Saskia Post as a \"fragile peroxide blonde in op-shop clothes\".",
"Hutchence provided four songs on the film's soundtrack.",
"Also working on the film and its soundtrack, as music director, was Ollie Olsen (ex-Whirlywirld).Late in 1986, before commencing work on a new INXS album and while supposedly taking an eight-month break, the band's management decided to stage the Australian Made tour as a series of major outdoor concerts across the country.",
"The roster featured INXS, Jimmy Barnes (Cold Chisel), Models, Divinyls, Mental as Anything, The Triffids and I'm Talking.",
"To promote the tour, Hutchence and Barnes shared vocals on The Easybeats cover \"Good Times\" and \"Laying Down the Law\", which Barnes cowrote with Beers, Andrew Farriss, Jon Farriss, Hutchence and Pengilly.",
"\"Good Times\" was used as the theme for the concert series of 1986–1987.It peaked at No.",
"2 on the Australian charts, and months later was featured in the Joel Schumacher film ''The Lost Boys'' and its soundtrack, allowing it to peak at No.",
"47 in the U.S. on 1 August 1987.Divinyls' lead singer Chrissy Amphlett enjoyed the tour and reconnected with Hutchence, stating that \"he was a sweet man, who said in one interview that he wanted me to have his baby.",
"\"In 1987, Hutchence provided vocals for Richard Clapton's album ''Glory Road'', which was produced by Jon Farriss.INXS released ''Kick'' in October 1987, and the album provided the band with worldwide popularity.",
"''Kick'' peaked at No.",
"1 in Australia, No.",
"3 on the US ''Billboard'' 200, No.",
"9 in UK, and No.",
"15 in Austria.",
"The band's most successful studio album, ''Kick'' has been certified six times platinum by the RIAA and spawned four US top 10 singles (\"New Sensation\", \"Never Tear Us Apart\", \"Devil Inside\" and \"Need You Tonight\", the last of which reached the top of the US ''Billboard'' singles charts).",
"According to ''1001 Songs: The Great Songs of All Time and the Artists, Stories and Secrets Behind Them'', the single \"Need You Tonight\" is not lyrically complex; it is Hutchence's performance where \"he sings in kittenish whisper, gently drawing back with the incredible lust of a tiger hunting in the night\" that makes the song \"as sexy and funky as any white rock group has ever been\".",
"In September 1988, the band swept the MTV Video Music Awards with the video for \"Need You Tonight/Mediate\" winning in five categories.In 1989, Hutchence collaborated further with Olsen for the Max Q project, and was joined by members of Olsen's previous groups including Whirlywirld, No and Orchestra of Skin and Bone.",
"They released a self-titled album and three singles, \"Way of the World\", \"Sometimes\" and \"Monday Night by Satellite\".",
"Max Q disbanded in 1990.",
"''Max Q'' showed Hutchence exploring the darker side of his music and, with Olsen, he created \"one of the most innovative dance music albums of the decade\".",
"Hutchence wrote most of the music and provided \"an extraordinary performance ... it was one of the most significant statements Hutchence was to make\".",
"In 1990, Hutchence portrayed nineteenth-century Romantic poet Percy Shelley in Roger Corman's film version of ''Frankenstein Unbound'', which was based on a science fiction time travel story of the same name written by Brian Aldiss.In 1990, INXS released ''X'', which spawned more international hits such as \"Suicide Blonde\" and \"Disappear\" (both Top 10 in the US).",
"\"Suicide Blonde\" peaked at No.",
"2 in Australia and No.",
"11 in the UK.",
"Hutchence, with Andrew Farriss, wrote the song after Hutchence's then-girlfriend, Kylie Minogue, used the phrase \"suicide blonde\" to describe her look during her 1989 film, ''The Delinquents''; the film depicted Minogue in a platinum blonde wig.",
"Hutchence won the 'Best International Artist' at the 1991 BRIT Awards with INXS winning the related group award.",
"Hutchence provided vocals for pub rockers Noiseworks' album, ''Love Versus Money'' (1991).January 1994, on stage during the Dirty Honeymoon world tour''Welcome to Wherever You Are'' was released by INXS in August 1992.It received good critical reviews and went to No.",
"1 in the UK.===Later career===Hutchence and INXS faced reduced commercial success with ''Full Moon, Dirty Hearts'', especially in the U.S.",
"The band took time off to rest and be with their families, while Hutchence remained in the public eye through his romances.",
"He commenced work on a self-titled solo album in the mid-1990s.After a period of inactivity and releases that received lukewarm reviews, INXS recorded the band's 10th official album, ''Elegantly Wasted'', in 1996.===Artistry===Hutchence was a baritone.",
"His vocal range spanned from the bass B1 to the high tenor F#5.In 2013, News.com.au ranked Hutchence fourth in a list of the 15 greatest Australian singers of all time.",
"Billboard described Hutchence as \"charismatic\", with a \"seductive purr and a lithe, magnetic stage presence.\"",
"Paul Donoughue of ABC.net.au wrote that Hutchence had \"a phenomenal voice — moody, sexual, and dynamic, able to shift effortlessly from fragile to cocksure.\"",
"Reviewing an INXS concert, Dave Simpson of ''The Guardian'' wrote, \"Watching Hutchence, hair flailing, crotch thrusting, a mischievous smile forever creeping across his leathery face, I realised that here was a man born to be onstage, living and loving every minute, an explosion of sexual energy\".",
"Hutchence biographer Toby Creswell asserted that \"Hutchence was, without question, one of the truly great frontmen — he expressed the music in a dynamic way that few others could.\""
],
[
"Personal life",
"According to ''People'', Hutchence's \"public brawls and onetime open drug use\" led London tabloids to dub him the \"wild man of rock\".",
"He was romantically linked to Australian singer and actress Kylie Minogue, American singer Belinda Carlisle, Danish model Helena Christensen, and Australian actress Kym Wilson.In August 1992, Hutchence and Christensen were riding their bicycles at night in Copenhagen when he refused to move for a taxi.",
"They were eating pizza when, unbeknownst to him, the taxi tried to get through the narrow street but \"didn't beep its horn or anything\".",
"The taxi driver assaulted Hutchence, causing him to fall backwards and hit his head on the pavement; he suffered a fractured skull.",
"Hutchence did not immediately seek medical assistance for the injury, and instead waited several days before seeing a doctor.",
"He was left with brain damage and almost completely lost his sense of smell, as well as losing a significant amount of his sense of taste.",
"The injury led to periods of depression and increased levels of aggression, and he had still not fully recovered after two weeks in a Copenhagen hospital.",
"According to INXS bandmate Beers, Hutchence brandished a knife and threatened to kill him during the 1993 recording of ''Full Moon, Dirty Hearts''.",
"Beers recalled, \"Over those six weeks, Michael threatened or physically confronted nearly every member of the band.",
"\"In the mid-1990s, Hutchence became romantically involved with English television presenter Paula Yates.",
"They met in 1985, during an interview for the British TV program ''The Tube''.",
"Yates interviewed him again in 1994 for her ''Big Breakfast'' show, and their affair was soon uncovered by the British press.",
"At the time, Yates was married to the Boomtown Rats singer and Live Aid organiser Bob Geldof.",
"Media scrutiny was intense, and Hutchence assaulted a photographer who had followed them.",
"Yates' separation from Geldof in February 1995 sparked a public and at times bitter custody battle over their daughters.",
"Yates and Geldof divorced in May 1996.On 22 July 1996, Yates gave birth to her daughter with Hutchence, Heavenly Hiraani Tiger Lily.In September 1996, Yates and Hutchence made headlines when they were arrested for suspicion of drug possession after the family nanny reportedly found a small amount of opium in a shoebox underneath their bed.",
"The case was dropped due to lack of evidence."
],
[
"Death",
"Hutchence memorial at Northern Suburbs Crematorium, North Ryde, New South Wales.On 22 November 1997, at the age of 37, Hutchence was found dead in his room at the Ritz-Carlton hotel in the Double Bay suburb of Sydney.",
"His cause of death was recorded as suicide by hanging.",
"Actress Kym Wilson, who visited Hutchence in his hotel room the previous evening, was the last person to see him alive.",
"Earlier that year, Hutchence and INXS had started a world tour to support the April 1997 release of ''Elegantly Wasted''.",
"The final 20th anniversary tour was to occur in Australia in November and December.",
"During the tour, Paula Yates planned to visit Hutchence with their daughter and Yates' three other children, but Bob Geldof had taken legal action to prevent the visit.Geldof and Yates each gave police statements concerning the phone calls they exchanged with Hutchence on the morning of his death, but did not volunteer their phone records.",
"Yates' statement on 26 November indicated that she had informed Hutchence of the Geldof girls' custody hearing being adjourned until 17 December, which meant that Yates would not be able to bring their daughter and the Geldof girls to Australia for a visit as previously intended.",
"According to Yates, Hutchence \"was frightened and couldn't stand a minute more without his baby... he was terribly upset and he said 'I don't know how I'll live without seeing Tiger'.\"",
"She indicated that Hutchence said he was going to call Geldof \"to let the girls come to Australia\".Geldof's police statements and evidence to the coroner indicated he did receive a call from Hutchence, who was \"hectoring and abusive and threatening\" during their phone conversation.",
"The occupant in the room next to Hutchence's heard a loud male voice and swearing at about 5:00 am; the coroner was satisfied that this was Hutchence arguing with Geldof.At 9:54 am on 22 November, Hutchence spoke with a former girlfriend, Michèle Bennett.",
"According to Bennett, Hutchence was crying, sounded upset, and told her he needed to see her.",
"Bennett arrived at his hotel room door at about 10:40 am, but there was no response.",
"Hutchence's body was discovered by a hotel maid at 11:50 am.",
"Police reported that Hutchence was found \"in a kneeling position facing the door.",
"He had used his snakeskin belt to tie a knot on the automatic door closure at the top of the door, and had strained his head forward into the loop so hard that the buckle had broken.",
"\"On 6 February 1998, after an autopsy and coronial inquest, New South Wales State Coroner, Derrick Hand, presented his report.",
"The report ruled that Hutchence's death was suicide while depressed and under the influence of alcohol and other drugs.",
"\"An analysis report of Hutchence's blood indicated the presence of alcohol, cocaine, Prozac and prescription drugs.\"",
"In producing his coroner's report, Hand had specifically considered the suggestions of accidental death (coupled with the fact that Hutchence left no suicide note), but had discounted them based on substantial evidence presented to the contrary.",
"In a 1999 interview on ''60 Minutes'' (and in a documentary film on Channel 4), Yates claimed that Hutchence's death might have resulted from autoerotic asphyxiation; this claim contradicted her previous statements to police investigators and the coroner.On 27 November 1997, Hutchence's funeral was held at St Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney.",
"His casket was carried out of the cathedral by members of INXS and by his younger brother, Rhett; \"Never Tear Us Apart\" was played in the background.",
"Nick Cave, a friend of Hutchence's, performed his 1997 song \"Into My Arms\" during the funeral and requested that television cameras be switched off.",
"Rhett claimed in his 2004 book ''Total XS'' that on the previous day at the funeral home, Yates had put a gram of heroin into Hutchence's pocket."
],
[
"Later developments",
"After Hutchence's death, INXS continued recording and performing until 2012.According to the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), INXS has sold 15 million units in the United States alone, making them the second-highest-selling Australian music act in the United States, behind AC/DC.",
"As of 2018, INXS has sold over 50 million records worldwide.",
"INXS was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame in 2001.Hutchence's solo album, ''Michael Hutchence'', was released in October 1999.He had started on the album in 1995, recording songs in between INXS sessions; he had last worked on it three days before his death.",
"The last song he recorded was \"Possibilities\".",
"The album includes \"Slide Away\", a duet with U2's Bono; Bono's vocals were recorded after Hutchence's death.The 1999 movie ''Limp'' includes a cameo by Hutchence.On 18 June 2000, Patricia Glassop and Tina Schorr released their book, ''Just a Man: The Real Michael Hutchence'', which has been described as \"an odd biography ... that combines the basic facts of Hutchence's early life ... with an almost too-intimate view of the authors' feelings\".Paula Yates died on 17 September 2000 of an accidental heroin overdose; she was discovered in the presence of her and Hutchence's then four-year-old daughter.",
"Soon after Yates' death, Geldof assumed foster custody of their daughter so that she could be brought up with her three older half-sisters, Fifi, Peaches and Pixie.",
"In 2007, their daughter was adopted by Geldof.On 20 August 2005, Melbourne's ''The Age'' reported on the disposition of Hutchence's estate and assets, which, although estimated at between $10 million and $20 million, amounted to virtually nothing.",
"The remainder of his estate had reportedly been sold off or swallowed in legal fees.A documentary about Hutchence, ''Michael Hutchence: The Last Rockstar'', aired in 2017.In 2019, ''Mystify: Michael Hutchence''—another documentary about Hutchence's life—was released."
],
[
"Discography",
"===Posthumous albums=== Title Details Peak chart positions Certifications AUS UK ''Michael Hutchence''*Released: 14 December 1999*Label: V2 3 90* ARIA: Gold ''Mystify: A Musical Journey with Michael Hutchence''*Released: 5 July 2019*Label: Petrol 28 —===Singles=== Title ReleasePeak chart positionsAlbum AUS \"Speed Kills\"1982—Freedom \"Rooms for the Memory\"198711''Dogs in Space'' soundtrack \"A Straight Line\"199944''Michael Hutchence'' \"Friction\"2015— \"Spill the Wine\"2019—''Mystify: A Musical Journey with Michael Hutchence''===Other appearances===+ List of other non-single song appearances Title Year Album \"Forest Theme\" (with Don Walker) 1982 ''Freedom (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)'' \"Dogs in Space\", \"Golf Course\" and \"The Green Dragon\" 1987 ''Dogs in Space (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)'' \"Under My Thumb\" (with the London Symphony Orchestra) 1994 ''Symphonic Music of the Rolling Stones'' \"Baby Let's Play House\" (with NRBQ) 1994 ''It's Now Or Never: The Tribute To Elvis'' \"The Passenger\" 1995 ''Batman Forever Original Motion Picture Soundtrack '' \"Spill the Wine\" 1996 ''Barb Wire Original Motion Picture Soundtrack'' \"Red Hill\" 1996 ''One Voice: The Songs of Chage & Aska'' \"The King Is Gone\" (with the Heads) 1996 ''No Talking, Just Head''"
],
[
"Tributes and dedications",
"* In 1997, Duran Duran wrote the song \"Michael You've Got a Lot to Answer For\".",
"The song appeared on their album ''Medazzaland''.",
"Lead singer Simon Le Bon told Q magazine that the song, released shortly before Hutchence's death, was about \"Michael being a naughty boy ... when he was living with Paula Yates.",
"He did like his substances.",
"\"* Nick Cave sang \"Into My Arms\" at Hutchence's funeral on 27 November 1997.The funeral was broadcast live on Australian TV.",
"Out of respect, Cave requested the song not be televised.",
"* Terri Nunn of Berlin and Billy Corgan collaborated on \"Sacred and Profane\" for Berlin's 2000 album ''Live: Sacred & Profane''.",
"Nunn said, \"The song is about my first experience seeing Hutchence because that changed my life.",
"He influenced me probably more than anyone else as a performer.",
"I became 12 years old in five minutes wanting to have sex with him.",
"That's all I wanted!",
"Oh my God.",
"Everybody did!",
"You just wanted him.",
"He was the epitome of a rock star.",
"\"* Bono, a close friend of Hutchence, wrote \"Stuck in a Moment You Can't Get Out Of\" on the 2000 U2 album ''All That You Can't Leave Behind''.",
"The song is written in the form of an argument about suicide in which he tries to convince Hutchence of its foolishness.",
"Bono characterised the song as a good old row between friends, adding that he felt guilty for never having had it with Hutchence in real life.",
"In a 2005 interview, Bono regretted that he had not spent more time with Hutchence.",
"Bono's wife, Alison Hewson, had seen Hutchence before his death and noted \"he looked a bit shaky to her\".",
"*On 23 November 2019, U2 paid tribute to Hutchence in Sydney, Australia, on their Joshua Tree Tour."
],
[
"Awards and nominations",
"===APRA Awards===The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), \"honouring composers and songwriters\".",
"They commenced in 1982.2021 \"Break My Heart\" by Dua Lipa (Andrew Farriss, Michael Hutchence, Dua Lipa, Jordan Johnson, Stefan Johnson, Ali Tamposi, Andrew Watt) Song of the Year Most Performed Pop Work Most Performed Australian Work ===Countdown Australian Music Awards===''Countdown'' was an Australian pop music TV series on national broadcaster ABC-TV from 1974 to 1987, it presented music awards from 1979 to 1987, initially in conjunction with magazine ''TV Week''.",
"The TV Week / Countdown Awards were a combination of popular-voted and peer-voted awards.",
"1984 himself (with Andrew Farriss) Best Songwriter himself Most Popular Male Performer himself (\"Burn for You\" by INXS) Best Male Performance in a Video 1986 himself Most Popular Male Performer"
],
[
"References",
"=== Specific ====== General ===* Note: Archived on-line copy has limited functionality.",
"* Note: On-line version established at White Room Electronic Publishing Pty Ltd in 2007 and was expanded from the 2002 edition.",
"As from September 2010, the on-line version appears to have an Internal Service Error."
],
[
"External links",
"* Official Michael Hutchence Website* Michael Hutchence Official Site – created by his mother, Patricia Glassop, and his half-sister Tina Schorr.",
"* Official Michael Hutchence Memorial Website – created by his father, Kelland Hutchence* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Motorola 68000"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Motorola 68000''' (sometimes shortened to '''Motorola 68k''' or '''m68k''' and usually pronounced \"sixty-eight-thousand\") is a 16/32-bit complex instruction set computer (CISC) microprocessor, introduced in 1979 by Motorola Semiconductor Products Sector.The design implements a 32-bit instruction set, with 32-bit registers and a 16-bit internal data bus.",
"The address bus is 24 bits and does not use memory segmentation, which made it easier to program for.",
"Internally, it uses a 16-bit data arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and two more 16-bit ALUs used mostly for addresses, and has a 16-bit external data bus.",
"For this reason, Motorola termed it a 16/32-bit processor.As one of the first widely available processors with a 32-bit instruction set, large unsegmented address space, and relatively high speed for the era, the 68k was a popular design through the 1980s.",
"It was widely used in a new generation of personal computers with graphical user interfaces, including the Macintosh 128K, Commodore Amiga, Atari ST, and Sharp X68000.The 1988 Sega Genesis/Mega Drive console is powered by a 68000.Later processors in the Motorola 68000 series, beginning with the Motorola 68020, use full 32-bit ALUs and have full 32-bit address and data buses, speeding up 32-bit operations and allowing full 32-bit addressing rather than the 24-bit addressing of the 68000 and Motorola 68010 or the 31-bit addressing of the Motorola 68012.The original 68k is generally software forward-compatible with the rest of the line despite being limited to a 16-bit wide external bus.Pre-release XC68000 chip made in 1979Die of Motorola 68000After in production, the 68000 architecture is still in use."
],
[
"Development",
"Motorola MC68000 (leadless chip carrier (CLCC) package)Motorola MC68000 (plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC) package)===6800===Motorola's first widely produced microprocessor was the 6800, introduced in early 1974 and available in quantity late that year.",
"The company set itself the goal of selling 25,000 units by September 1976, a goal they did meet.",
"Although a capable design, it was eclipsed by more powerful designs, such as the Zilog Z80, and less expensive designs, such as the MOS Technology 6502.By late 1976, the sales book was flat and the division was only saved by a project for General Motors that turned into a huge product line for engine control and other tasks.===Moving to 16-bit===By the time the 6800 was introduced a small number of 16-bit designs had come to market.",
"These were generally modeled on minicomputer platforms like the Data General Nova or PDP-8.Based on the semiconductor manufacturing processes of the era, these were often multi-chip solutions like the National Semiconductor IMP-16, or the single-chip PACE that had issues with speed.With the sales prospects for the 6800 dimming, but still cash-flush from the engine control sales, in late 1976 Colin Crook, Operations Manager, began considering how to successfully win future sales.",
"They were aware that Intel was working on a 16-bit extension of their 8080 series, which would emerge as the Intel 8086, and had heard rumors of a 16-bit Zilog Z80, which became the Z8000.These would use new design techniques that would eliminate the problems seen in earlier 16-bit systems.Motorola knew that if they launched a product similar to the 8086, within 10% of its capabilities, Intel would kill them in the market.",
"In order to compete, they set themselves the goal of being two times as powerful at the same cost, or one-half the cost with the same performance.",
"Crook decided that they would attack the high-end of the market with the most powerful processor on the market.",
"Another 16-bit would not do, their design would have to be bigger, and that meant having some 32-bit features.",
"Crook had decided on this approach by the end of 1976.===MACSS===Crook formed the Motorola Advanced Computer System on Silicon (MACSS) project to build the design and hired Tom Gunter to be its principal architect.",
"Gunter began forming his team in January 1977.The performance goal was set at 1 million instructions per second (MIPS).",
"They wanted the design to not only win back microcomputer vendors like Apple Computer and Tandy, but also minicomputer companies like NCR and AT&T.The team decided to abandon an attempt at backward compatibility with the 6800, as they felt the 8-bit designs were too limited to be the basis for new designs.",
"The new system was influenced by the PDP-11, the most popular minicomputer design of the era.",
"At the time, a key concept in minis was the concept of an orthogonal instruction set, in which every operation was allowed to work on any sort of data.",
"To feed the correct data into the internal units, MACSS made extensive use of microcode, essentially small programs in read only memory that gathered up the required data, performed the operations and wrote out the results.",
"MACSS was among the first to use this technique in a microprocessor.There was a large amount of support hardware for the 6800 that would remain useful, things like UARTs and similar interfacing systems.",
"For this reason, the new design retained a bus protocol compatibility mode for existing 6800 peripheral devices.A chip with 32 data and 32 addressing pins would require 64 pins, plus more for power and other features.",
"At the time, 64-pin dual inline package (DIP)s were \"large, heavy-cost\" systems and \"just terrible\", making that the largest they could consider.",
"To make it fit, Crook selected a hybrid design, with a 32-bit instruction set architecture (ISA) but 16-bit components implementing it, like the arithmetic logic unit (ALU).",
"The external interface was reduced to 16 data pins and 24 for addresses, allowing it all to fit in a 64-pin package.",
"This became known as the \"Texas Cockroach\".By the mid-1970s, Motorola's MOS design techniques had become less advanced than their competition, and their fabrication lines at times struggled with low yields.",
"By the late-1970s, the company had entered a technology exchange program with Hitachi, dramatically improving their production capabilities.",
"As part of this, a new fab, MOS-8, was built using the latest 5-inch wafer sizes and Intel's HMOS process with a 3.5 µm feature size.",
"This was an investment aimed at catching the competition: even upstart semiconductor companies such as Zilog and MOS Technology had introduced CPUs fabricated on depletion-mode NMOS logic before Motorola did.",
"In fact, Motorola may have substantially lagged contemporaries in phasing out enhancement mode and metal gate, with the director of 68k-series products Tom Gunter recollecting that the 68000 itself had to succeed despite initially adopting a metal-gate design.",
"Though the point about playing catch-up is clear, this could not have been an entirely accurate summary because Motorola's 1976 datasheets, predating the inception of the MACCS project, denote the majority of its 6800 family in silicon-gate.",
"Indeed, Gunter's own 1979 article introducing the 68000 highlighted it as a silicon-gate depletion-mode HMOS design.",
"Whatever the degree of Motorola's process and manufacturing deficits in the early days, the team was undeterred and would not compromise in its pursuit of a microprocessor with industry-leading performance.===Sampling and production===Formally introduced in September 1979, initial samples were released in February 1980, with production chips available over the counter in November.",
"Initial speed grades are 4, 6, and 8 MHz.",
"10 MHz chips became available during 1981, and 12.5 MHz chips by June 1982.The 16.67 MHz \"12F\" version of the MC68000, the fastest version of the original HMOS chip, was not produced until the late 1980s.By the start of 1981, the 68k was making multiple design wins on the high end, and Gunter began to approach Apple to win their business.",
"At that time, the 68k sold for about $125 in quantity.",
"In meetings with Steve Jobs, Jobs talked about using the 68k in the Apple Lisa, but stated \"the real future is in this product that I'm personally doing.",
"If you want this business, you got to commit that you'll sell it for $15.\"",
"Motorola countered by offering to sell it at $55 at first, then step down to $35, and so on.",
"Jobs agreed, and the Macintosh moved from the 6809 to the 68k.",
"The average price eventually reached $14.76."
],
[
"Variants",
"In 1982, the 68000 received a minor update to its instruction set architecture (ISA) to support virtual memory and to conform to the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements.",
"The updated chip is called the 68010.It also adds a new \"loop mode\" which speeds up small loops, and increases overall performance by about 10% at the same clock speeds.",
"A further extended version, which exposes 31 bits of the address bus, was also produced in small quantities as the 68012.To support lower-cost systems and control applications with smaller memory sizes, Motorola introduced the 8-bit compatible MC68008, also in 1982.This is a 68000 with an 8-bit data bus and a smaller (20-bit) address bus.",
"After 1982, Motorola devoted more attention to the 68020 and 88000 projects.===Second-sourcing===Hitachi HD68000Thomson TS68000Several other companies were second-source manufacturers of the HMOS 68000.These included Hitachi (HD68000), who shrank the feature size to 2.7 µm for their 12.5 MHz version, Mostek (MK68000), Rockwell (R68000), Signetics (SCN68000), Thomson/SGS-Thomson (originally EF68000 and later TS68000), and Toshiba (TMP68000).",
"Toshiba was also a second-source maker of the CMOS 68HC000 (TMP68HC000).Encrypted variants of the 68000, being the Hitachi FD1089 and FD1094, store decryption keys for opcodes and opcode data in battery-backed memory and were used in certain Sega arcade systems including System 16 to prevent piracy and illegal bootleg games.===CMOS versions===Motorola MC68HC000LC8The 68HC000, the first CMOS version of the 68000, was designed by Hitachi and jointly introduced in 1985.Motorola's version is called the MC68HC000, while Hitachi's is the HD68HC000.The 68HC000 offers speeds of 8–20 MHz.",
"Except for using CMOS circuitry, it behaved identically to the HMOS MC68000, but the change to CMOS greatly reduced its power consumption.",
"The original HMOS MC68000 consumed around 1.35 watts at an ambient temperature of 25 °C, regardless of clock speed, while the MC68HC000 consumed only 0.13 watts at 8 MHz and 0.38 watts at 20 MHz.",
"(Unlike CMOS circuits, HMOS still draws power when idle, so power consumption varies little with clock rate.)",
"Apple selected the 68HC000 for use in the Macintosh Portable.Motorola replaced the MC68008 with the MC68HC001 in 1990.This chip resembles the 68HC000 in most respects, but its data bus can operate in either 16-bit or 8-bit mode, depending on the value of an input pin at reset.",
"Thus, like the 68008, it can be used in systems with cheaper 8-bit memories.The later evolution of the 68000 focused on more modern embedded control applications and on-chip peripherals.",
"The '''68EC000''' chip and SCM68000 core remove the M6800 peripheral bus, and exclude the MOVE from SR instruction from user mode programs, making the 68EC000 and 68SEC000 the only 68000 CPUs not 100% object code compatible with previous 68000 CPUs when run in User Mode.",
"When run in Supervisor Mode, there is no difference.",
"In 1996, Motorola updated the standalone core with fully static circuitry, drawing only 2 µW in low-power mode, calling it the MC68SEC000.Motorola ceased production of the HMOS MC68000, as well as the MC68008, MC68010, MC68330, and MC68340 in on June 1, 1996, but its spin-off company Freescale Semiconductor was still producing the MC68HC000, MC68HC001, MC68EC000, and MC68SEC000, as well as the MC68302 and MC68306 microcontrollers and later versions of the DragonBall family.",
"The 68000's architectural descendants, the 680x0, CPU32, and Coldfire families, were also still in production.",
"More recently, with the Sendai fab closure, all 68HC000, 68020, 68030, and 68882 parts have been discontinued, leaving only the 68SEC000 in production.===As a microcontroller core===Since being succeeded by \"true\" 32-bit microprocessors, the 68000 is used as the core of many microcontrollers.",
"In 1989, Motorola introduced the MC68302 communications processor."
],
[
"Applications",
"Two Hitachi 68HC000 CPUs being used on an arcade-game PCBIBM considered the 68000 for the IBM PC but chose the Intel 8088; however, IBM Instruments briefly sold the 68000-based IBM System 9000 laboratory computer systems.",
"The 68k instruction set is particularly well suited to implement Unix, and the 68000 and its successors became the dominant CPUs for Unix-based workstations including Sun workstations and Apollo/Domain workstations.In 1981, Motorola introduced the Motorola 68000 Educational Computer Board, a single-board computer for educational and training purposes which in addition to the 68000 itself contained memory, I/O devices, programmable timer and wire-wrap area for custom circuitry.",
"The board remained in use in US colleges as a tool for learning assembly programming until the early 1990s.At its introduction, the 68000 was first used in high-priced systems, including multiuser microcomputers like the WICAT 150, early Alpha Microsystems computers, Sage II / IV, Tandy 6000 / TRS-80 Model 16, and Fortune 32:16; single-user workstations such as Hewlett-Packard's HP 9000 Series 200 systems, the first Apollo/Domain systems, Sun Microsystems' Sun-1, and the Corvus Concept; and graphics terminals like Digital Equipment Corporation's VAXstation 100 and Silicon Graphics' IRIS 1000 and 1200.Unix systems rapidly moved to the more capable later generations of the 68k line, which remained popular in that market throughout the 1980s.By the mid-1980s, falling production cost made the 68000 viable for use in personal computers starting with the Apple Lisa and Macintosh, and followed by the Amiga, Atari ST, and X68000.The Sinclair QL microcomputer, along with its derivatives, such as the ICL One Per Desk business terminal, was the most commercially important utilisation of the 68008.Helix Systems (in Missouri, United States) designed an extension to the SWTPC SS-50 bus, the SS-64, and produced systems built around the 68008 processor.While the adoption of RISC and x86 displaced the 68000 series as desktop/workstation CPU, the processor found substantial use in embedded applications.",
"By the early 1990s, quantities of 68000 CPUs could be purchased for less than 30 USD per part.The 68000 also saw great success as an embedded controller.",
"As early as 1981, laser printers such as the Imagen Imprint-10 were controlled by external boards equipped with the 68000.The first HP LaserJet, introduced in 1984, came with a built-in 8 MHz 68000.Other printer manufacturers adopted the 68000, including Apple with its introduction of the LaserWriter in 1985, the first PostScript laser printer.",
"The 68000 continued to be widely used in printers throughout the rest of the 1980s, persisting well into the 1990s in low-end printers.The 68000 was successful in the field of industrial control systems.",
"Among the systems benefited from having a 68000 or derivative as their microprocessor were families of programmable logic controllers (PLCs) manufactured by Allen-Bradley, Texas Instruments and subsequently, following the acquisition of that division of TI, by Siemens.",
"Users of such systems do not accept product obsolescence at the same rate as domestic users, and it is entirely likely that despite having been installed over 20 years ago, many 68000-based controllers will continue in reliable service well into the 21st century.In a number of digital oscilloscopes from the 80s, the 68000 has been used as a waveform display processor; some models including the LeCroy 9400/9400A also use the 68000 as a waveform math processor (including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of two waveforms/references/waveform memories), and some digital oscilloscopes using the 68000 (including the 9400/9400A) can also perform fast Fourier transform functions on a waveform.The 683XX microcontrollers, based on the 68000 architecture, are used in networking and telecom equipment, television set-top boxes, laboratory and medical instruments, and even handheld calculators.",
"The MC68302 and its derivatives have been used in many telecom products from Cisco, 3com, Ascend, Marconi, Cyclades and others.",
"Past models of the Palm PDAs and the Handspring Visor used the DragonBall, a derivative of the 68000.AlphaSmart used the DragonBall family in later versions of its portable word processors.",
"Texas Instruments used the 68000 in its high-end graphing calculators, the TI-89 and TI-92 series and Voyage 200.A modified version of the 68000 formed the basis of the IBM XT/370 hardware emulator of the System 370 processor.===Video games===Video game manufacturers used the 68000 as the backbone of many arcade games and home game consoles: Atari's ''Food Fight'', from 1982, was one of the first 68000-based arcade games.",
"Others included Sega's System 16, Capcom's CP System and CPS-2, and SNK's Neo Geo.",
"By the late 1980s, the 68000 was inexpensive enough to power home game consoles, such as Sega's Sega Genesis console and also the Sega CD attachment for it (A Sega CD system has three CPUs, two of them 68000s).",
"The multi-processor Atari Jaguar console from 1993 used a 68000 as a support chip, although some developers used it as the primary processor due to familiarity.",
"The Sega Saturn console used the 68000 as a sound co-processor.",
"In October 1995, the 68000 made it into a handheld game console, Sega's Genesis Nomad, as its CPU.Certain arcade games (such as ''Steel Gunner'' and others based on Namco System 2) use a dual 68000 CPU configuration, and systems with a triple 68000 CPU configuration also exist (such as ''Galaxy Force'' and others based on the Sega Y Board), along with a quad 68000 CPU configuration, which has been used by Jaleco (one 68000 for sound has a lower clock rate compared to the other 68000 CPUs) for games such as ''Big Run'' and ''Cisco Heat''; another, fifth 68000 (at a different clock rate than the other 68000 CPUs) was used in the Jaleco arcade game ''Wild Pilot'' for input/output (I/O) processing."
],
[
"Architecture",
"+ Motorola 68000 registers 31 ... 23 ... 15 ... 07 ... 00 ''(bit position)'' '''Data registers''' D0 Data 0 D1 Data 1 D2 Data 2 D3 Data 3 D4 Data 4 D5 Data 5 D6 Data 6 D7 Data 7 '''Address registers''' A0 Address 0 A1 Address 1 A2 Address 2 A3 Address 3 A4 Address 4 A5 Address 5 A6 Address 6 '''Stack pointers''' A7 / USP Stack Pointer (user) A7' / SSP Stack Pointer (supervisor) '''Program counter''' PC Program Counter '''Condition Code Register''' 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 ''(bit position)'' T S M 0 I 0 0 0 X N Z V C '''CCR'''===Address bus===The 68000 has a 24-bit external address bus and two byte-select signals \"replaced\" A0.These 24 lines can therefore address 16 MB of physical memory with byte resolution.",
"Address storage and computation uses 32 bits internally; however, the 8 high-order address bits are ignored due to the physical lack of device pins.",
"This allows it to run software written for a logically flat 32-bit address space, while accessing only a 24-bit physical address space.",
"Motorola's intent with the internal 32-bit address space was forward compatibility, making it feasible to write 68000 software that would take full advantage of later 32-bit implementations of the 68000 instruction set.However, this did not prevent programmers from writing forward incompatible software.",
"\"24-bit\" software that discarded the upper address byte, or used it for purposes other than addressing, could fail on 32-bit 68000 implementations.",
"For example, early (pre-7.0) versions of Apple's Mac OS used the high byte of memory-block master pointers to hold flags such as ''locked'' and ''purgeable''.",
"Later versions of the OS moved the flags to a nearby location, and Apple began shipping computers which had \"32-bit clean\" ROMs beginning with the release of the 1989 Mac IIci.The 68000 family stores multi-byte integers in memory in big-endian order.===Internal registers===The CPU has eight 32-bit general-purpose data registers (D0-D7), and eight address registers (A0-A7).",
"The last address register is the stack pointer, and assemblers accept the label SP as equivalent to A7.This was a good number of registers at the time in many ways.",
"It was small enough to allow the 68000 to respond quickly to interrupts (even in the worst case where all 8 data registers D0–D7 and 7 address registers A0–A6 needed to be saved, 15 registers in total), and yet large enough to make most calculations fast, because they could be done entirely within the processor without keeping any partial results in memory.",
"(Note that an exception routine in supervisor mode can also save the user stack pointer A7, which would total 8 address registers.",
"However, the dual stack pointer (A7 and supervisor-mode A7') design of the 68000 makes this normally unnecessary, except when a task switch is performed in a multitasking system.",
")Having the two types of registers allows one 32-bit address and one 16-bit data calculation to take place at the same time.",
"This results in reduced instruction execution time as addresses and data can be processed in parallel.===Status register===The 68000 has a 16-bit status register.",
"The upper 8 bits is the system byte, and modification of it is privileged.",
"The lower 8 bits is the user byte, also known as the condition code register (CCR), and modification of it is not privileged.",
"The 68000 comparison, arithmetic, and logic operations modify condition codes to record their results for use by later conditional jumps.",
"The condition code bits are \"carry\" (C), \"overflow\" (V), \"zero\" (Z), \"negative\" (N) and \"extend\" (X).",
"The \"extend\" (X) flag deserves special mention, because it is separate from the carry flag.",
"This permits the extra bit from arithmetic, logic, and shift operations to be separated from the carry multiprecision arithmetic.===Instruction set===The designers attempted to make the assembly language orthogonal.",
"That is, instructions are divided into operations and address modes, and almost all address modes are available for almost all instructions.",
"There are 56 instructions and a minimum instruction size of 16 bits.",
"Many instructions and addressing modes are longer to include more address or mode bits.===Privilege levels===The CPU, and later the whole family, implements two levels of privilege.",
"User mode gives access to everything except privileged instructions such as interrupt level controls.",
"Supervisor privilege gives access to everything.",
"An interrupt always becomes supervisory.",
"The supervisor bit is stored in the status register, and is visible to user programs.An advantage of this system is that the supervisor level has a separate stack pointer.",
"This permits a multitasking system to use very small stacks for tasks, because the designers do not have to allocate the memory required to hold the stack frames of a maximum stack-up of interrupts.===Interrupts===The CPU recognizes seven interrupt levels.",
"Levels 1 through 5 are strictly prioritized.",
"That is, a higher-numbered interrupt can always interrupt a lower-numbered interrupt.",
"In the status register, a privileged instruction allows setting the current minimum interrupt level, blocking lower or equal priority interrupts.",
"For example, if the interrupt level in the status register is set to 3, higher levels from 4 to 7 can cause an exception.",
"Level 7 is a level triggered non-maskable interrupt (NMI).",
"Level 1 can be interrupted by any higher level.",
"Level 0 means no interrupt.",
"The level is stored in the status register, and is visible to user-level programs.Hardware interrupts are signalled to the CPU using three inputs that encode the highest pending interrupt priority.",
"A separate encoder is usually required to encode the interrupts, though for systems that do not require more than three hardware interrupts it is possible to connect the interrupt signals directly to the encoded inputs at the cost of more software complexity.",
"The interrupt controller can be as simple as a 74LS148 priority encoder, or may be part of a very large-scale integration (VLSI) peripheral chip such as the MC68901 Multi-Function Peripheral (used in the Atari ST range of computers and Sharp X68000), which also provides a UART, timer, and parallel I/O.The \"exception table\" (interrupt vector table interrupt vector addresses) is fixed at addresses 0 through 1023, permitting 256 32-bit vectors.",
"The first vector (RESET) consists of two vectors, namely the starting stack address, and the starting code address.",
"Vectors 3 through 15 are used to report various errors: bus error, address error, illegal instruction, zero division, CHK and CHK2 vector, privilege violation (to block privilege escalation), and some reserved vectors that became line 1010 emulator, line 1111 emulator, and hardware breakpoint.",
"Vector 24 starts the '''real''' interrupts: spurious interrupt (no hardware acknowledgement), and level 1 through level 7 autovectors, then the 16 TRAP vectors, then some more reserved vectors, then the user defined vectors.Since the starting code address vector must always be valid on reset, systems commonly included some nonvolatile memory (e.g.",
"ROM) starting at address zero to contain the vectors and bootstrap code.",
"However, for a general purpose system it is desirable for the operating system to be able to change the vectors at runtime.",
"This was often accomplished by either pointing the vectors in ROM to a jump table in RAM, or through use of bank switching to allow the ROM to be replaced by RAM at runtime.The 68000 does not meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements for full processor virtualization because it has a single unprivileged instruction, \"MOVE from SR\", which allows user-mode software read-only access to a small amount of privileged state.",
"The 68EC000 and 68SEC000, which are later derivatives of the 68000, do meet the requirements as the \"MOVE from SR\" instruction is privileged.",
"The same change was introduced on the 68010 and later CPUs.The 68000 is also unable to easily support virtual memory, which requires the ability to trap and recover from a failed memory access.",
"The 68000 does provide a bus error exception which can be used to trap, but it does not save enough processor state to resume the faulted instruction once the operating system has handled the exception.",
"Several companies did succeed in making 68000-based Unix workstations with virtual memory that worked by using two 68000 chips running in parallel on different phased clocks.",
"When the \"leading\" 68000 encountered a bad memory access, extra hardware would interrupt the \"main\" 68000 to prevent it from also encountering the bad memory access.",
"This interrupt routine would handle the virtual memory functions and restart the \"leading\" 68000 in the correct state to continue properly synchronized operation when the \"main\" 68000 returned from the interrupt.These problems were fixed in the next major revision of the 68k architecture with the release of the MC68010.The Bus Error and Address Error exceptions push a large amount of internal state onto the supervisor stack in order to facilitate recovery, and the \"MOVE from SR\" instruction was made privileged.",
"A new unprivileged \"MOVE from CCR\" instruction is provided for use in its place by user mode software; an operating system can trap and emulate user mode \"MOVE from SR\" instructions if desired."
],
[
"Instruction set details",
"The standard addressing modes are:*Register direct**data register, e.g.",
"\"D0\"**address register, e.g.",
"\"A0\"*Register indirect**Simple address, e.g.",
"(A0)**Address with post-increment, e.g.",
"(A0)+**Address with pre-decrement, e.g.",
"−(A0)**Address with a 16-bit signed offset, e.g.",
"16(A0)**Register indirect with index register & 8-bit signed offset e.g.",
"8(A0,D0) or 8(A0,A1)*:Note that for (A0)+ and −(A0), the actual increment or decrement value is dependent on the operand size: a byte access adjusts the address register by 1, a word by 2, and a long by 4.",
"*PC (program counter) relative with displacement**Relative 16-bit signed offset, e.g.",
"16(PC).",
"This mode was very useful for position-independent code.",
"**Relative with 8-bit signed offset with index, e.g.",
"8(PC,D2)*Absolute memory location**Either a number, e.g.",
"\"$4000\", or a symbolic name translated by the assembler**Most 68000 assemblers used the \"$\" symbol for hexadecimal, instead of \"0x\" or a trailing H.**There are 16 and 32-bit versions of this addressing mode*Immediate mode**Data stored in the instruction, e.g.",
"\"#400\"*Quick immediate mode**3-bit unsigned (or 8-bit signed with moveq) with value stored in opcode**In addq and subq, 0 is the equivalent to 8**e.g.",
"moveq #0,d0 was quicker than clr.l d0 (though both made D0 equal to 0)Plus: access to the status register, and, in later models, other special registers.Most instructions have variants that operate on 8-bit bytes, 16-bit words, and 32-bit longs; assembler languages use dot-letter suffixes \".b\", \".w\", and \".l\" after the instruction mnemonic to indicate the variant.Like many CPUs of its era the cycle timing of some instructions varied depending on the source operand(s).",
"For example, the unsigned multiply instruction takes (38+2n) clock cycles to complete where 'n' is equal to the number of bits set in the operand.",
"To create a function that took a fixed cycle count required the addition of extra code after the multiply instruction.",
"This would typically consume extra cycles for each bit that wasn't set in the original multiplication operand.Most instructions are '''dyadic''', that is, the operation has a source, and a destination, and the destination is changed.",
"Notable instructions are:*Arithmetic: ADD, SUB, MULU (unsigned multiply), MULS (signed multiply), DIVU (unsigned divide), DIVS (signed divide), NEG (additive negation), and CMP (comparison, done by subtracting the arguments and setting the status bits without storing the result)*Binary-coded decimal arithmetic: ABCD, NBCD, and SBCD*Logic: EOR (exclusive or), AND, NOT (logical not), OR (inclusive or)*Shifting: (logical, i.e.",
"right shifts put zero in the most-significant bit) LSL, LSR, (arithmetic shifts, i.e.",
"sign-extend the most-significant bit) ASR, ASL, (rotates through eXtend and not) ROXL, ROXR, ROL, ROR*Bit test and manipulation in memory or data register: BSET (set to 1), BCLR (clear to 0), BCHG (invert) and BTST (no change).",
"All of these instructions first test the destination bit and set (clear) the CCR Z bit if the destination bit is 0 (1), respectively.",
"*Multiprocessing control: TAS, test-and-set, performed an indivisible bus operation, permitting semaphores to be used to synchronize several processors sharing a single memory*Flow of control: JMP (jump), JSR (jump to subroutine), BSR (relative address jump to subroutine), RTS (return from subroutine), RTE (return from exception, i.e.",
"an interrupt), TRAP (trigger a software exception similar to software interrupt), CHK (a conditional software exception)*Branch: Bcc (where the \"cc\" specified one of 14 tests of the condition codes in the status register: equal, greater than, less-than, carry, and most combinations and logical inversions, available from the status register).",
"The remaining two possible conditions (always true and always false) have separate instruction mnemonics, BRA (branch always), and BSR (branch to subroutine).",
"*Decrement-and-branch: DBcc (where \"cc\" was as for the branch instructions), which, provided the condition was '''false''', decremented the low word of a D-register and, if the result was not -1 ($FFFF), branched to a destination.",
"This use of −1 instead of 0 as the terminating value allowed the easy coding of loops that had to do nothing if the count was 0 to start with, with no need for another check before entering the loop.",
"This also facilitated nesting of DBcc."
],
[
"68EC000",
"Motorola 68EC000 controllerThe 68EC000 is a low-cost version of the 68000 with a slightly different pinout, designed for embedded controller applications.",
"The 68EC000 can have either a 8-bit or 16-bit data bus, switchable at reset.The processors are available in a variety of speeds including 8 and 16 MHz configurations, producing 2,100 and 4,376 Dhrystones each.",
"These processors have no floating-point unit, and it is difficult to implement an FPU coprocessor (MC68881/2) with one because the EC series lacks necessary coprocessor instructions.The 68EC000 was used as a controller in many audio applications, including Ensoniq musical instruments and sound cards, where it was part of the MIDI synthesizer.",
"On Ensoniq sound boards, the controller provided several advantages compared to competitors without a CPU on board.",
"The processor allowed the board to be configured to perform various audio tasks, such as MPU-401 MIDI synthesis or MT-32 emulation, without the use of a terminate-and-stay-resident program.",
"This improved software compatibility, lowered CPU usage, and eliminated host system memory usage.The Motorola 68EC000 core was later used in the m68k-based DragonBall processors from Motorola/Freescale.It also was used as a sound controller in the Sega Saturn game console and as a controller for the HP JetDirect Ethernet controller boards for the mid-1990s HP LaserJet printers."
],
[
"Example code",
"The 68000 assembly code below is for a subroutine named , which copies a null-terminated string of 8-bit characters to a destination string, converting all alphabetic characters to lower case.",
"00100000 00100000 4E56 000000100004 306E 000800100008 326E 000C0010000C 10180010000E 0C40 004100100012 6500 000E00100016 0C40 005A0010001A 6200 00060010001E 0640 002000100022 12C000100024 66E600100026 4E5E00100028 4E750010002A; strtolower:; Copy a null-terminated ASCII string, converting; all alphabetic characters to lower case.",
";; Entry parameters:; (SP+0): Source string address; (SP+4): Target string address org $00100000 ;Start at 00100000strtolower public link a6,#0 ;Set up stack frame movea 8(a6),a0 ;A0 = src, from stack movea 12(a6),a1 ;A1 = dst, from stackloop move.b (a0)+,d0 ;Load D0 from (src), incr src cmpi #'A',d0 ;If D0 'Z', bhi copy ;skip addi #'a'-'A',d0 ;D0 = lowercase(D0)copy move.b d0,(a1)+ ;Store D0 to (dst), incr dst bne loop ;Repeat while D0 NUL unlk a6 ;Restore stack frame rts ;Return endThe subroutine establishes a call frame using register A6 as the frame pointer.",
"This kind of calling convention supports reentrant and recursive code and is typically used by languages like C and C++.",
"The subroutine then retrieves the parameters passed to it ( and ) from the stack.",
"It then loops, reading an ASCII character (one byte) from the string, checking whether it is a capital alphabetic character, and if so, converting it into a lower-case character, otherwise leaving it as it is, then writing the character into the string.",
"Finally, it checks whether the character was a null character; if not, it repeats the loop, otherwise it restores the previous stack frame (and A6 register) and returns.",
"Note that the string pointers (registers A0 and A1) are auto-incremented in each iteration of the loop.",
"In contrast, the code below is for a stand-alone function, even on the most restrictive version of AMS for the TI-89 series of calculators, being kernel-independent, with no values looked up in tables, files or libraries when executing, no system calls, no exception processing, minimal registers to be used, nor the need to save any.",
"It is valid for historical Julian dates from 1 March 1 AD, or for Gregorian ones.",
"In less than two dozen operations it calculates a day number compatible with ISO 8601 when called with three inputs stored at their corresponding LOCATIONS: ; ; WDN, an address - for storing result d0 ; FLAG, 0 or 2 - to choose between Julian or Gregorian, respectively ; DATE, year0mda - date stamp as binary word&byte&byte in basic ISO-format ;(YEAR, year ~ YEAR=DATE due to big-endianness) ; ; ; Apply step 1 - Lachman's congruence ; ; Apply step 2 - Finding spqr as the year of the Julian leap day preceding DATE ; ; (Apply step 0 - Gregorian adjustment) ; ; ; ; Days of the week correspond to day numbers of the week as: ; Sun=0 Mon=1 Tue=2 Wed=3 Thu=4 Fri=5 Sat=6 ;"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"See also",
"* Motorola 6800 – an 8-bit predecessor* ''DTACK Grounded'' – an early 68000 newsletter"
],
[
"References",
"===Bibliography===*"
],
[
"Further reading",
";Datasheets and manuals* Microprocessor Users Manual (Rev 8)''; Motorola (Freescale); 224 pages; 1994.",
"* ''M68000 Microprocessors User's Manual (9th Edition)''; NXP; 189 pages; 1993.",
"* ''Addendum to M68000 User Manual (Rev 0)''; Motorola (Freescale); 26 pages; 1997.",
"* ''M68000 Family Programmer's Reference Manual''; Motorola (Freescale); 646 pages; 1991; .",
";Books* ''68000, 68010, 68020 Primer''; 1st Ed; Stan Kelly-Bootle and Bob Fowler; Howard Sams & Co; 370 pages; 1985; .",
"(archive)* ''Mastering The 68000 Microprocessor''; 1st Ed; Phillip Robinson; Tab Books; 244 pages; 1985; .",
"(archive)* ''Pocket Guide Assembly Language for the 68000 Series''; 1st Ed; Robert Erskine; Pitman Publishing; 70 pages; 1984; .",
"(archive)* ''Motorola M68000 die schematics'' *''68000 Machine Code Programming (68000, 68008, 68010, & 68020 Processors);'' 1st Ed; David Barrow; Collins Professional and Technical Books; 234 pages; 1985; ."
],
[
"External links",
"* comp.sys.m68k FAQ* Descriptions of assembler instructions* 68000 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de* EASy68K, an open-source 68k assembler for Windows* the 68k and m88k resource – with information on Motorola's VME based 68k boards"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Minicomputer"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Six different minicomputers (out of many more models) produced by the ''Digital Equipment Corporation'' (DEC) with the year of introduction in brackets: First row: PDP-1 (1959), PDP-7 (1964), PDP-8 (1965); second row: PDP-8/E (1970), PDP-11/70 (1975), PDP-15 (1970).Data General Nova, on display at the Computer History MuseumA '''minicomputer''', or colloquially '''mini''', is a type of smaller general-purpose computer developed in the mid-1960s and sold at a much lower price than mainframe and mid-size computers from IBM and its direct competitors.",
"In a 1970 survey, ''The New York Times'' suggested a consensus definition of a minicomputer as a machine costing less than (), with an input-output device such as a teleprinter and at least four thousand words of memory, that is capable of running programs in a higher level language, such as Fortran or BASIC.The class formed a distinct group with its own software architectures and operating systems.",
"Minis were designed for control, instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from calculation and record keeping.",
"Many were sold indirectly to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) for final end-use application.",
"During the two-decade lifetime of the minicomputer class (1965–1985), almost 100 companies formed and only a half dozen remained.When single-chip CPU microprocessors appeared, beginning with the Intel 4004 in 1971, the term \"minicomputer\" came to mean a machine that lies in the middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the smallest mainframe computers and the microcomputers.",
"The term \"minicomputer\" is seldom used today; the contemporary term for this class of system is \"midrange computer\", such as the higher-end SPARC from Oracle, Power ISA from IBM, and Itanium-based systems from Hewlett-Packard."
],
[
"History",
"===Definition===The term \"minicomputer\" developed in the 1960s to describe the smaller computers that became possible with the use of transistors and core memory technologies, minimal instructions sets and less expensive peripherals such as the ubiquitous Teletype Model 33 ASR.",
"They usually took up one or a few 19-inch rack cabinets, compared with the large mainframes that could fill a room.In terms of relative computing power compared to contemporary mainframes, small systems that were similar to minicomputers had been available from the 1950s.",
"In particular, there was an entire class of drum machines, like the UNIVAC 1101 and LGP-30, that share some features of the minicomputer class.",
"Similar models using magnetic delay-line memory followed in the early 1960s.",
"These machines, however, were essentially designed as small mainframes, using a custom chassis and often supporting only peripherals from the same company.",
"In contrast, the machines that became known as minicomputers were often designed to fit into a standard chassis and deliberately designed to use common devices like the ASR 33.Another common difference was that most earlier small machines were not \"general purpose\", in that they were designed for a specific role like process control or accounting.",
"On these machines, programming was generally carried out in their custom machine language, or even hard-coded into a plugboard, although some used a form of ''BASIC''.",
"DEC wrote, regarding their PDP-5, that it was \"the world’s first commercially produced minicomputer\".",
"It meets most definitions of \"mini\" in terms of power and size, but was designed and built to be used as an instrumentation system in labs, not as a general-purpose computer.",
"Many similar examples of small special-purpose machines exist from the early 1960s, including the UK Ferranti Argus and Soviet UM-1NKh.The CDC 160, circa 1960, is sometimes pointed to as an early example of a minicomputer, as it was small, transistorized and (relatively) inexpensive.",
"However, its basic price of $100,000 () and custom desk-like chassis places it within the \"small system\" or \"midrange computer\" category as opposed to the more modern use of the term minicomputer.",
"Nevertheless, it retains a strong contender for the term \"first minicomputer\".=== 1960s and 1970s success ===Most computing histories point to the 1964 introduction of Digital Equipment Corporation's (DEC) 12-bit PDP-8 as the first minicomputer.",
"Some of this is no doubt due to DEC's widespread use of the term starting in the mid-1960s.",
"Smaller systems, including those from DEC like the PDP-5 and LINC, had existed prior to this point, but it was the PDP-8 combination of small size, general purpose orientation and low price that puts it firmly within the modern definition.",
"Its introductory price of $18,500 () places it in an entirely different market segment than earlier examples like the CDC 160.In contemporary terms, the PDP-8 was a runaway success, ultimately selling 50,000 examples.",
"Follow-on versions using small scale integrated circuits further lowered the cost and size of the system.",
"Its success led to widespread imitation, and the creation of an entire industry of minicomputer companies along Massachusetts Route 128, including Data General, Wang Laboratories and Prime Computer.",
"Other popular minis from the era were the HP 2100, Honeywell 316 and TI-990.Raytheon RDS 500 seismic processing system in Benghazi in 1978Varian Data Machines system connected to analogue tape playback system in 1984Early minis had a variety of word sizes, with DEC's 12 and 18-bit systems being typical examples.",
"The introduction and standardization of the 7-bit ASCII character set led to the move to 16-bit systems, with the late-1969 Data General Nova being a notable entry in this space.",
"By the early 1970s, most minis were 16-bit, including DEC's PDP-11.For a time, \"minicomputer\" was almost synonymous with \"16-bit\", as the larger mainframe machines almost always used 32-bit or larger word sizes.Raytheon RDS 704 onsite seismic processing system in Mogadishu in 1974As integrated circuit design improved, especially with the introduction of the 7400-series integrated circuits, minicomputers became smaller, easier to manufacture, and as a result, less expensive.",
"They were used in manufacturing process control, telephone switching and to control laboratory equipment.",
"In the 1970s, they were the hardware that was used to launch the computer-aided design (CAD) industry and other similar industries where a small dedicated system was needed.The boom in worldwide seismic exploration for oil and gas in the early 1970s saw the widespread use of minicomputers in dedicated processing centres close to the data collection crews.",
"Raytheon Data Systems RDS 704 and later RDS 500 were predominantly the systems of choice for nearly all the geophysical exploration as well as oil companies.At the launch of the MITS Altair 8800 in 1975, ''Radio Electronics'' magazine referred to the system as a \"minicomputer\", although the term microcomputer soon became usual for personal computers based on single-chip microprocessors.",
"At the time, microcomputers were 8-bit single-user, relatively simple machines running simple program-launcher operating systems like CP/M or MS-DOS, while minis were much more powerful systems that ran full multi-user, multitasking operating systems, such as VMS and Unix.The Tandem Computers NonStop product line shipped its first fully fault-tolerant cluster computer in 1976.Around the same time, minis began to move upward in size.",
"Although several 24 and 32-bit minis had entered the market earlier, it was DEC's 1977 VAX, which they referred to as a superminicomputer, or supermini, that caused the mini market to move en-masse to 32-bit architectures.",
"This provided ample headroom even as single-chip 16-bit microprocessors like the TMS 9900 and Zilog Z8000 appeared in the later 1970s.",
"Most mini vendors introduced their own single-chip processors based on their own architecture and used these mostly in low-cost offerings while concentrating on their 32-bit systems.",
"Examples include the Intersil 6100 single-chip PDP-8, DEC T-11 PDP-11, microNOVA and Fairchild 9440 Nova, and TMS9900 TI-990.===Mid-1980s and 1990s decline===By the early 1980s, the 16-bit market had all but disappeared as newer 32-bit microprocessors began to improve in performance.",
"Those customers who required more performance than these offered had generally already moved to 32-bit systems by this time.",
"But it was not long before this market also began to come under threat; the Motorola 68000 offered a significant percentage of the performance of a typical mini in a desktop platform.",
"True 32-bit processors like the National Semiconductor NS32016, Motorola 68020 and Intel 80386 soon followed.",
"By the mid-1980s, high-end microcomputers offered compute performance equal to low-end and mid-range minis, and the new RISC approach promised performance levels well beyond the fastest minis, and even high-end mainframes.All that really separated micros from the mini market was storage and memory capacity.",
"Both of these began to be addressed through the later 1980s; 1 MB of RAM became typical by around 1987, desktop hard drives rapidly pushed past the 100 MB range by 1990, and the introduction of inexpensive and easily deployable local area network (LAN) systems provide solutions for those looking for multi-user systems.",
"The introduction of the workstation machines opened new markets for graphics-based systems that the terminal-oriented minis could not even address.",
"Minis retained a force for those using existing software products or those who required high-performance multitasking, but the introduction of newer operating systems based on Unix began to become highly practical replacements for these roles as well.Mini vendors began to rapidly disappear through this period.",
"Data General responded to the changing market by focussing entirely on the high-performance file server market, embracing a role within large LANs that appeared resilient.",
"This did not last; Novell NetWare rapidly pushed such solutions into niche roles, and later versions of Microsoft Windows did the same to Novell.",
"DEC decided to move into the large-computer space instead, introducing the VAX 9000 mainframe in 1989, but it was a flop in the market and disappeared after almost no sales.",
"The company then attempted to enter the workstation and server markets with the DEC Alpha, but was too late to save the company and they eventually sold their remains to Compaq in 1998.By the end of the decade all of the classic vendors were gone; Data General, Prime, Computervision, Honeywell, and Wang, failed, merged, or were bought out.Today, only a few proprietary minicomputer architectures survive.",
"The IBM System/38 operating system, which introduced many advanced concepts, lives on with IBM's AS/400.Great efforts were made by IBM to enable programs originally written for the IBM System/34 and System/36 to be moved to the AS/400.After being rebranded multiple times, the AS/400 platform was replaced by IBM Power Systems running IBM i.",
"In contrast, competing proprietary computing architectures from the early 1980s, such as DEC's VAX, Wang VS, and Hewlett-Packard's HP 3000 have long been discontinued without a compatible upgrade path.",
"OpenVMS runs on HP Alpha and Intel IA-64 (Itanium) CPU architectures.Tandem Computers, which specialized in reliable large-scale computing, was acquired by Compaq in 1997, and in 2001 the combined entity merged with Hewlett-Packard.",
"The NonStop Kernel-based NonStop product line was re-ported from MIPS processors to Itanium-based processors branded as 'HP Integrity NonStop Servers'.",
"As in the earlier migration from stack machines to MIPS microprocessors, all customer software was carried forward without source changes.",
"Integrity NonStop continues to be HP's answer for the extreme scaling needs of its very largest customers.",
"The NSK operating system, now termed NonStop OS, continues as the base software environment for the NonStop Servers, and has been extended to include support for Java and integration with popular development tools like Visual Studio and Eclipse.",
"Later, Hewlett-Packard would split into HP and Hewlett-Packard Enterprise.",
"The NonStop products and the DEC products would then be sold by HPE.===Industrial impact and heritage===A variety of companies emerged that built turnkey systems around minicomputers with specialized software and, in many cases, custom peripherals that addressed specialized problems such as computer-aided design, computer-aided manufacturing, process control, manufacturing resource planning, and so on.",
"Many if not most minicomputers were sold through these original equipment manufacturers and value-added resellers.Several pioneering computer companies first built minicomputers, such as DEC, Data General, and Hewlett-Packard (HP) (who now refers to its HP3000 minicomputers as \"servers\" rather than \"minicomputers\").",
"And although today's PCs and servers are clearly microcomputers physically, architecturally their CPUs and operating systems have developed largely by integrating features from minicomputers.In the software context, the relatively simple OSs for early microcomputers were usually inspired by minicomputer OSs (such as CP/M's similarity to Digital's single user OS/8 and RT-11 and multi-user RSTS time-sharing system).",
"Also, the multiuser OSs of today are often either inspired by, or directly descended from, minicomputer OSs.",
"UNIX was originally a minicomputer OS, while the Windows NT kernel, the foundation for all current versions of Microsoft Windows, borrowed design ideas liberally from VMS.",
"Many of the first generation of PC programmers were educated on minicomputer systems."
],
[
"Examples",
"*CII Mitra 15*Control Data's CDC 160A and CDC 1700*DEC PDP and VAX series*Data General Nova*Hewlett-Packard HP 3000 series and HP 2100 series*Honeywell-Bull DPS 6/DPS 6000 series*IBM midrange computers*Interdata 7/32 and 8/32*Norsk Data Nord-1, Nord-10, and Nord-100*Ridge Computers Ridge 32 and Ridge 3200 series*Texas Instruments TI-990*CTL Modular One, from the UK*K-202, first Polish minicomputer"
],
[
"See also",
"* ''The Soul of a New Machine'' – about the development of Data General's Eclipse/MV minicomputers in the early 1980s* Charles Babbage Institute*History of computing hardware (1960s–present)* Superminicomputer* Maxicomputer"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* A list of Minicomputers"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"March 18"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Events",
"===Pre-1600===*37 – Roman Senate annuls Tiberius' will and proclaims Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ''(aka Caligula = Little Boots)'' emperor.",
"*1068 – An earthquake in the Levant and the Arabian Peninsula leaves up to 20,000 dead.",
"*1229 – Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, declares himself King of Jerusalem in the Sixth Crusade.",
"*1241 – First Mongol invasion of Poland: Mongols overwhelm Polish armies in Kraków in the Battle of Chmielnik and plunder the city.",
"*1314 – Jacques de Molay, the 23rd and final Grand Master of the Knights Templar, is burned at the stake.",
"*1438 – Albert II of Habsburg becomes King of the Romans.",
"*1571 – Valletta is made the capital city of Malta.===1601–1900===*1608 – Susenyos is formally crowned Emperor of Ethiopia.",
"*1644 – The Third Anglo-Powhatan War begins in the Colony of Virginia.",
"*1673 – English lord John Berkeley sold his half of New Jersey to the Quakers*1741 – New York governor George Clarke's complex at Fort George is burned in an arson attack, starting the New York Conspiracy of 1741.",
"*1766 – American Revolution: The British Parliament repeals the Stamp Act.",
"*1793 – The first modern republic in Germany, the Republic of Mainz, is declared by Andreas Joseph Hofmann.",
"*1793 – Flanders Campaign of the French Revolution, Battle of Neerwinden.",
"*1834 – Six farm labourers from Tolpuddle, Dorset, England are sentenced to be transported to Australia for forming a trade union.",
"*1848 – The premiere of Fry's ''Leonora'' in Philadelphia is the first known performance of an grand opera by an American composer.",
"* 1848 – Revolutions of 1848: A rebellion arose in Milan which in five days of street fighting drove Marshal Radetzky and his Austrian soldiers from the city.",
"*1865 – American Civil War: The Congress of the Confederate States adjourns for the last time.",
"*1871 – Declaration of the Paris Commune; President of the French Republic, Adolphe Thiers, orders the evacuation of Paris.",
"*1874 – The Hawaiian Kingdom signs a treaty with the United States granting exclusive trade rights.",
"*1899 – Phoebe, a satellite of Saturn, becomes the first to be discovered with photographs, taken in August 1898, by William Henry Pickering.===1901–present===*1901 – The Kumasi Mutiny of 1901 begins.",
"*1902 – Macario Sakay issues Presidential Order No.",
"1 of his Tagalog Republic.",
"*1913 – King George I of Greece is assassinated in the recently liberated city of Thessaloniki.",
"*1915 – World War I: During the Battle of Gallipoli, three battleships are sunk during a failed British and French naval attack on the Dardanelles.",
"*1921 – The second Peace of Riga is signed between Poland and the Soviet Union.",
"* 1921 – The Kronstadt rebellion is suppressed by the Red Army.",
"* 1921 – Mongolian Revolution of 1921: The Mongolian People's Army defeated local Chinese forces at Altanbulag, Selenge (then known as Maimachen).",
"This battle was seen as the birthday of the People's Army and completed the expulsion of Chinese militants in Mongolia.",
"*1922 – In India, Mohandas Gandhi is sentenced to six years in prison for civil disobedience, of which he serves only two.",
"*1925 – The Tri-State Tornado hits the Midwestern states of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, killing 695 people.",
"*1937 – The New London School explosion in New London, Texas, kills 300 people, mostly children.",
"* 1937 – Spanish Civil War: Spanish Republican forces defeat the Italians at the Battle of Guadalajara.",
"*1938 – Mexico creates Pemex by expropriating all foreign-owned oil reserves and facilities.",
"*1940 – World War II: Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini meet at the Brenner Pass in the Alps and agree to form an alliance against France and the United Kingdom.",
"*1942 – The War Relocation Authority is established in the United States to take Japanese Americans into custody.",
"*1944 – Mount Vesuvius in Italy erupts, killing 26 people, causing thousands to flee their homes, and destroying dozens of Allied bombers.",
"*1948 – Soviet consultants leave Yugoslavia in the first sign of the Tito–Stalin Split.",
"*1953 – An earthquake hits western Turkey, killing at least 1,070 people.",
"*1959 – The Hawaii Admission Act is signed into law.",
"*1962 – The Évian Accords end the Algerian War of Independence, which had begun in 1954.",
"*1965 – Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, leaving his spacecraft Voskhod 2 for 12 minutes, becomes the first person to walk in space.",
"*1966 – United Arab Airlines Flight 749 crashes on approach to Cairo International Airport in Cairo, Egypt, killing 30 people.",
"*1967 – The supertanker runs aground off the Cornish coast.",
"*1968 – Gold standard: The U.S. Congress repeals the requirement for a gold reserve to back US currency.",
"*1969 – The United States begins secretly bombing the Sihanouk Trail in Cambodia, used by communist forces to infiltrate South Vietnam.",
"*1970 – Lon Nol ousts Prince Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia.",
"*1971 – Peru: A landslide crashes into Yanawayin Lake, killing 200 people at the mining camp of Chungar.",
"*1974 – Güzel İstanbul, a nude sculpture by Gürdal Duyar in Istanbul is torn down in the middle of the night*1980 – A Vostok-2M rocket at Plesetsk Cosmodrome Site 43 explodes during a fueling operation, killing 48 people.",
"*1990 – Germans in the German Democratic Republic vote in the first democratic elections in the former communist dictatorship.",
"* 1990 – In the largest art theft in US history, 12 paintings, collectively worth around $500 million, are stolen from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston.",
"*1994 – Bosnia's Bosniaks and Croats sign the Washington Agreement, ending war between the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia and the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and establishing the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.",
"*1996 – A nightclub fire in Quezon City, Philippines kills 162 people.",
"*1997 – The tail of a Russian Antonov An-24 charter plane breaks off while en route to Turkey, causing the plane to crash and killing all 50 people on board.",
"*2014 – The parliaments of Russia and Crimea sign an accession treaty.",
"*2015 – The Bardo National Museum in Tunisia is attacked by gunmen.",
"Twenty-three people, almost all tourists, are killed, and at least 50 other people are wounded."
],
[
"Births",
"===Pre-1600===*1075 – Al-Zamakhshari, Persian scholar and theologian (d. 1144)*1395 – John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter, English military commander (d. 1447)*1495 – Mary Tudor, Queen of France (d. 1533)*1548 – Cornelis Ketel, Dutch painter (d. 1616)*1552 – Polykarp Leyser the Elder, German theologian (d. 1610)*1554 – Josias I, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg (d. 1588)*1555 – Francis, Duke of Anjou (d. 1584)*1578 – Adam Elsheimer, German painter (d. 1610)*1590 – Manuel de Faria e Sousa, Portuguese historian and poet (d. 1649)*1597 – Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière, French religious leader, founded the Société Notre-Dame de Montréal (d. 1659)===1601–1900===*1603 – Simon Bradstreet, English colonial magistrate (d. 1697)*1609 – Frederick III of Denmark (d. 1670)*1634 – Madame de La Fayette, French author (d. 1693)*1640 – Philippe de La Hire, French mathematician and astronomer (d. 1719)*1657 – Giuseppe Ottavio Pitoni, Italian organist and composer (d. 1743)*1690 – Christian Goldbach, Prussian-German mathematician and academic (d. 1764)*1701 – Niclas Sahlgren, Swedish businessman and philanthropist, co-founded the Swedish East India Company (d. 1776)*1733 – Christoph Friedrich Nicolai, German author and bookseller (d. 1811)*1780 – Miloš Obrenović, Serbian prince (d. 1860)*1782 – John C. Calhoun, American lawyer and politician, 7th Vice President of the United States (d. 1850)*1789 – Charlotte Elliott, English poet, hymn writer, editor (d. 1871)*1798 – Francis Lieber, German-American jurist and philosopher (d. 1872)*1800 – Harriet Smithson, Irish actress, the first wife and muse of Hector Berlioz (d. 1854)*1813 – Christian Friedrich Hebbel, German poet and playwright (d. 1864)*1814 – Jacob Bunn, American businessman (d. 1897)*1819 – James McCulloch, Scottish-Australian politician, 5th Premier of Victoria (d. 1893)*1820 – John Plankinton, American businessman, industrialist, and philanthropist (d. 1891)*1823 – Antoine Chanzy, French general (d. 1883)*1828 – Randal Cremer, English activist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1908)*1837 – Grover Cleveland, American lawyer and politician, 22nd and 24th President of the United States (d. 1908)*1840 – William Cosmo Monkhouse, English poet and critic (d. 1901)*1842 – Stéphane Mallarmé, French poet and critic (d. 1898)*1844 – Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Russian composer and academic (d. 1908)*1845 – Kicking Bear, Native American tribal leader (d. 1904)*1848 – Nathanael Greene Herreshoff, American architect and engineer (d. 1938)*1858 – Rudolf Diesel, German engineer, invented the Diesel engine (d. 1913)*1862 – Eugène Jansson, Swedish painter (d. 1915)*1863 – William Sulzer, American lawyer and politician, 39th Governor of New York (d. 1941)*1869 – Neville Chamberlain, English businessman and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1940)*1870 – Agnes Sime Baxter, Canadian mathematician (d. 1917)*1874 – Nikolai Berdyaev, Russian-French philosopher and theologian (d. 1948)*1877 – Edgar Cayce, American mystic and psychic (d. 1945)* 1877 – Clem Hill, Australian cricketer and engineer (d. 1945)*1878 – Percival Perry, 1st Baron Perry, English businessman (d. 1956)*1880 – Kalle Hakala, Finnish politician (d. 1947)*1882 – Gian Francesco Malipiero, Italian composer and educator (d. 1973)*1884 – Bernard Cronin, English-Australian journalist and author (d. 1968)*1886 – Edward Everett Horton, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1970)*1890 – Henri Decoin, French director and screenwriter (d. 1969)*1893 – Costante Girardengo, Italian cyclist (d. 1978)* 1893 – Wilfred Owen, English soldier and poet (d. 1918)*1899 – Marjorie Abbatt, English toy-maker and businesswoman (d. 1991)===1901–present===*1901 – Manly Palmer Hall, Canadian mystic, author and philosopher (d. 1990)* 1901 – William Johnson, American painter (d. 1970)*1903 – Galeazzo Ciano, Italian journalist and politician, Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1944)* 1903 – E. O. Plauen, German cartoonist (d. 1944)*1904 – Srečko Kosovel, Slovenian poet and author (d. 1926)*1905 – Thomas Townsend Brown, American physicist and engineer (d. 1985)* 1905 – Robert Donat, English actor (d. 1958)*1907 – John Zachary Young, English zoologist and neurophysiologist (d. 1997)*1908 – Loulou Gasté, French composer (d. 1995)*1909 – Ernest Gallo, American businessman, co-founded the E & J Gallo Winery (d. 2007)* 1909 – C. Walter Hodges, English author and illustrator (d. 2004)*1911 – Smiley Burnette, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1967)*1912 – Art Gilmore, American voice actor and announcer (d. 2010)*1913 – René Clément, French director and screenwriter (d. 1996)* 1913 – Werner Mölders, German colonel and pilot (d. 1941)*1915 – Richard Condon, American author and screenwriter (d. 1996)*1922 – Egon Bahr, German journalist and politician, Federal Minister for Special Affairs of Germany (d. 2015)* 1922 – Seymour Martin Lipset, American sociologist and academic (d. 2006)* 1922 – Suzanne Perlman, Hungarian-Dutch visual artist (d. 2020)* 1922 – Fred Shuttlesworth, American activist, co-founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (d. 2011)*1923 – Andy Granatelli, American race car driver and businessman (d. 2013)*1925 – Alessandro Alessandroni, Italian musician (d. 2017)* 1925 – James Pickles, English journalist, lawyer, and judge (d. 2010)*1926 – Peter Graves, American actor and director (d. 2010)*1927 – John Kander, American pianist and composer* 1927 – George Plimpton, American journalist and actor (d. 2003)* 1927 – Lillian Vernon, German-American businesswoman and philanthropist, founded the Lillian Vernon Company (d. 2015)*1928 – Miguel Poblet, Spanish cyclist (d. 2013)* 1928 – Fidel V. Ramos, Filipino general and politician, 12th President of the Philippines (d. 2022)*1929 – Samuel Pisar, Polish-American lawyer and author (d. 2015)*1930 – James J. Andrews, American mathematician and academic (d. 1998)*1931 – John Fraser, Scottish actor (d. 2020)*1932 – John Updike, American novelist, short story writer, and critic (d. 2009)*1933 – Unita Blackwell, American civil rights activist and politician (d. 2019)*1934 – Roy Chapman, English footballer and manager (d. 1983)* 1934 – Charley Pride, American country music singer and musician (d. 2020)*1935 – Ole Barndorff-Nielsen, Danish mathematician and statistician* 1935 – Frances Cress Welsing, American psychiatrist and author (d. 2016)*1936 – F. W. de Klerk, South African lawyer and politician, former State President of South Africa, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021)*1937 – Rudi Altig, German cyclist and sportscaster (d. 2016)* 1937 – Mark Donohue, American race car driver (d. 1975)*1938 – Carl Gottlieb, American actor and screenwriter* 1938 – Shashi Kapoor, Indian actor and producer (d. 2017)* 1938 – Kenny Lynch, English singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2019)* 1938 – Timo Mäkinen, Finnish race car driver (d. 2017)* 1938 – Machiko Soga, Japanese actress (d. 2006)*1939 – Ron Atkinson, English footballer and manager* 1939 – Jean-Pierre Wallez, French violinist and conductor*1941 – Wilson Pickett, American singer-songwriter (d. 2006)*1942 – Kathleen Collins, African-American filmmaker and playwright (d. 1988)*1943 – Dennis Linde, American singer-songwriter (d. 2006)*1944 – Amnon Lipkin-Shahak, Israeli general and politician, 22nd Transportation Minister of Israel (d. 2012)* 1944 – Frank McRae, American football player and actor (d. 2021)* 1944 – Dick Smith, Australian publisher and businessman, founded Dick Smith Electronics and ''Australian Geographic''*1945 – Hiroh Kikai, Japanese photographer (d. 2020)* 1945 – Michael Reagan, American journalist and radio host* 1945 – Susan Tyrrell, American actress (d. 2012)* 1945 – Eric Woolfson, Scottish singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (d. 2009)*1946 – Michel Leclère, French race car driver*1947 – Patrick Barlow, English actor and playwright* 1947 – Patrick Chesnais, French actor, director, and screenwriter* 1947 – David Lloyd, English cricketer, journalist, and sportscaster* 1947 – B. J. Wilson, English rock drummer (d. 1990)*1948 – Guy Lapointe, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1948 – Brian Lloyd, Welsh footballer* 1948 – Eknath Solkar, Indian cricketer (d. 2005)*1949 – Åse Kleveland, Norwegian singer and politician, Norwegian Minister of Culture*1950 – James Conlon, American conductor and educator* 1950 – Brad Dourif, American actor* 1950 – Linda Partridge, English geneticist and academic* 1950 – Larry Perkins, Australian race car driver*1951 – Paul Barber, English actor* 1951 – Ben Cohen, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Ben and Jerry's* 1951 – Bill Frisell, American guitarist and composer* 1951 – Timothy N. Philpot, American lawyer, author, and judge*1952 – Will Durst, American journalist and actor* 1952 – Pat Eddery, Irish jockey and trainer (d. 2015)* 1952 – Bernie Tormé, Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2019)* 1952 – Mike Webster, American football player (d. 2002)*1953 – Franz Wright, Austrian-American poet and translator (d. 2015)* 1953 – Takashi Yoshimatsu, Japanese composer*1955 – Francis G. Slay, American lawyer and politician, 45th Mayor of St. Louis* 1955 – Jeff Stelling, English journalist and game show host*1956 – Rick Martel, Canadian wrestler* 1956 – Deborah Jeane Palfrey, American madam (d. 2008)* 1956 – Ingemar Stenmark, Swedish skier*1957 – Christer Fuglesang, Swedish physicist and astronaut*1958 – Richard de Zoysa, Sri Lankan journalist and author (d. 1990)*1959 – Luc Besson, French director, producer, and screenwriter, founded EuropaCorp* 1959 – Irene Cara, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2022)*1960 – Richard Biggs, American actor (d. 2004)* 1960 – Guy Carbonneau, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1960 – James Plaskett, Cypriot-English chess player*1961 – Grant Hart, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017)*1962 – Michael Andrews, Australian rugby league player* 1962 – Brian Fisher, American baseball player* 1962 – Thomas Ian Griffith, American actor and martial artist * 1962 – James McMurtry, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor* 1962 – Etsushi Toyokawa, Japanese actor and director* 1962 – Volker Weidler, German race car driver and engineer*1963 – Jeff LaBar, American guitarist (d. 2021)* 1963 – Vanessa L. Williams, American model, actress, and singer*1964 – Bonnie Blair, American speed skater* 1964 – Alex Caffi, Italian race car driver* 1964 – Jo Churchill, British politician* 1964 – Courtney Pine, English saxophonist and clarinet player* 1964 – Isabel Noronha, Mozambican film director*1966 – Jerry Cantrell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1966 – Peter Jones, English businessman* 1966 – Brian Watts, Canadian golfer*1967 – Miki Berenyi, English singer-songwriter and guitarist *1968 – Miguel Herrera, Mexican footballer and manager* 1968 – Temur Ketsbaia, Georgian footballer and manager* 1968 – Paul Marsden, English businessman and politician*1969 – Andy Cutting, English accordion player and composer * 1969 – Vassily Ivanchuk, Ukrainian chess player* 1969 – Shaun Udal, English cricketer*1970 – Katy Gallagher, Australian politician * 1970 – Queen Latifah, American rapper, producer, and actress*1971 – Wayne Arthurs, Australian tennis player* 1971 – Mike Bell, American wrestler (d. 2008)* 1971 – Mariaan de Swardt, South African-American tennis player, coach, and sportscaster* 1971 – Kitty Ussher, English economist and politician*1972 – Dane Cook, American comedian, actor, director, and producer* 1972 – Reince Priebus, American lawyer and politician*1973 – Luci Christian, American voice actress and screenwriter*1974 – Laure Savasta, French basketball player, coach, and sportscaster* 1974 – Stuart Zender, English bass player, songwriter, and producer *1975 – Sutton Foster, American actress, singer, and dancer* 1975 – Brian Griese, American football player and sportscaster* 1975 – Kimmo Timonen, Finnish ice hockey player* 1975 – Tomas Žvirgždauskas, Lithuanian footballer*1976 – Giovanna Antonelli, Brazilian actress and producer* 1976 – Tomo Ohka, Japanese baseball player* 1976 – Scott Podsednik, American baseball player* 1976 – Mike Quackenbush, American wrestler, trainer, and author, founded Chikara wrestling promotion*1977 – Zdeno Chára, Slovak ice hockey player* 1977 – Danny Murphy, English international footballer and sportscaster * 1977 – Fernando Rodney, Dominican-American baseball player* 1977 – Willy Sagnol, French footballer and manager* 1977 – Terrmel Sledge, American baseball player and coach*1978 – Fernandão, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 2014)* 1978 – Brooke Hanson, Australian swimmer* 1978 – Hu Jun, Chinese actor* 1978 – Brian Scalabrine, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster* 1978 – Jonas Wallerstedt, Swedish footballer, coach, and manager*1979 – Adam Levine, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and television personality*1980 – Sébastien Frey, French footballer* 1980 – Sophia Myles, English actress* 1980 – Alexei Yagudin, Russian figure skater*1981 – Tora Berger, Norwegian biathlete* 1981 – Fabian Cancellara, Swiss cyclist* 1981 – Leslie Djhone, French sprinter* 1981 – Jang Na-ra, South Korean singer and actress* 1981 – Kasib Powell, American basketball player* 1981 – Tom Starke, German footballer* 1981 – Doug Warren, American soccer player* 1981 – Lovro Zovko, Croatian tennis player*1982 – Mantorras, Angolan footballer* 1982 – Chad Cordero, American baseball player* 1982 – Timo Glock, German race car driver* 1982 – Adam Pally, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1983 – Ethan Carter III, American wrestler* 1983 – Stéphanie Cohen-Aloro, French tennis player* 1983 – Andy Sonnanstine, American baseball player* 1983 – Tomasz Stolpa, Polish footballer*1984 – Simone Padoin, Italian footballer* 1984 – Rajeev Ram, American tennis player* 1984 – Vonzell Solomon, American singer and actress*1985 – Ana Beatriz, Brazilian race car driver* 1985 – Marvin Humes, English singer * 1985 – Vince Lia, Australian footballer*1986 – Lykke Li, Swedish singer-songwriter* 1986 – Abdennour Chérif El-Ouazzani, Algerian footballer*1987 – Rebecca Soni, American swimmer*1989 – Francesco Checcucci, Italian footballer* 1989 – Lily Collins, English-American actress* 1989 – Shreevats Goswami, Indian cricketer* 1989 – Kana Nishino, Japanese singer-songwriter* 1989 – Paul Marc Rousseau, Canadian guitarist and producer * 1989 – Ming Xi, Chinese model*1991 – Dylan Mattingly, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1991 – J. T. Realmuto, American baseball player* 1991 – Sam Williams, Australian rugby league player*1992 – Ryan Truex, American race car driver* 1992 – Takuya Terada, Japanese singer, actor, and model*1993 – Solo Sikoa, American wrestler*1995 – Irina Bara, Romanian tennis player*1997 – Ciara Bravo, American actress* 1997 – Rieko Ioane, New Zealand rugby union player"
],
[
"Deaths",
"===Pre-1600===* 978 – Edward the Martyr, English king (b.",
"962)*1076 – Ermengarde of Anjou, Duchess of Burgundy (b.",
"1018)*1086 – Anselm of Lucca, Italian bishop (b.",
"1036)*1227 – Pope Honorius III (b.",
"1148)*1272 – John FitzAlan, 7th Earl of Arundel (b.",
"1246)*1308 – Yuri I of Galicia*1314 – Jacques de Molay, Frankish knight (b.",
"1244)* 1314 – Geoffroy de Charney, Preceptor of Normandy for the Knights Templar*1321 – Matthew III Csák, Hungarian oligarch (b. c.1260/5)*1582 – Juan Jauregui, attempted assassin of William I of Orange (b.",
"1562)===1601–1900===*1675 – Arthur Chichester, 1st Earl of Donegall, Irish soldier (b.",
"1606)*1689 – John Dixwell, English soldier and politician (b.",
"1607)*1703 – Maria de Dominici, Maltese sculptor and painter (b.",
"1645)*1745 – Robert Walpole, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.",
"1676)*1768 – Laurence Sterne, Irish novelist and clergyman (b.",
"1713)*1781 – Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, French economist and politician, Controller-General of Finances (b.",
"1727)*1793 – Karl Abraham Zedlitz, Prussian minister of education (b.",
"1731)*1823 – Jean-Baptiste Bréval, French cellist and composer (b.",
"1753)*1835 – Christian Günther von Bernstorff, Danish-Prussian politician and diplomat (b.",
"1769)*1845 – Johnny Appleseed, American gardener and missionary (b.",
"1774)*1871 – Augustus De Morgan, Indian-English mathematician and academic (b.",
"1806)*1898 – Matilda Joslyn Gage, American author and activist (b.",
"1826)*1900 – Hjalmar Kiærskou, Danish botanist (b.",
"1835)===1901–present===*1907 – Marcellin Berthelot, French chemist and politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.",
"1827)*1913 – George I of Greece (b.",
"1845)*1918 – Henry Janeway Hardenbergh, American architect, designed the Plaza Hotel (b.",
"1847)*1930 – Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, American painter (b.",
"1863)*1936 – Eleftherios Venizelos, Greek journalist, lawyer, and politician, 93rd Prime Minister of Greece (b.",
"1864)*1939 – Henry Simpson Lunn, English businessman, founded Lunn Poly (b.",
"1859)*1941 – Henri Cornet, French cyclist (b.",
"1884)*1947 – William C. Durant, American businessman, co-founded General Motors and Chevrolet (b.",
"1861)* 1954 – Walter Mead, English cricketer (b.",
"1868)*1956 – Louis Bromfield, American environmentalist and author (b.",
"1896)*1962 – Walter W. Bacon, American accountant and politician, 60th Governor of Delaware (b.",
"1880)*1963 – C. C. Martindale, English Jesuit priest (b.",
"1879)*1964 – Sigfrid Edström, Swedish businessman, 4th President of the International Olympic Committee (b.",
"1870)*1965 – Farouk of Egypt (b.",
"1920)*1973 – Johannes Aavik, Estonian philologist and poet (b.",
"1880)*1977 – Marien Ngouabi, Congolese politician, President of the Republic of the Congo (b.",
"1938)* 1977 – Carlos Pace, Brazilian race car driver (b.",
"1944)*1978 – Leigh Brackett, American author and screenwriter (b.",
"1915)* 1978 – Peggy Wood, American actress (b.",
"1892)*1980 – Erich Fromm, German psychologist and philosopher (b.",
"1900)*1982 – Patrick Smith, Irish farmer and politician, Minister for Agriculture, Food and the Marine (b.",
"1901)*1983 – Umberto II of Italy (b.",
"1904)*1984 – Charley Lau, American baseball player and coach (b.",
"1933)*1986 – Bernard Malamud, American novelist and short story writer (b.",
"1914)*1988 – Billy Butterfield, American trumpet player and cornet player (b.",
"1917)*1990 – Robin Harris, American comedian (b.",
"1953)*1993 – Kenneth E. Boulding, English-American economist and activist (b.",
"1910)*1996 – Odysseas Elytis, Greek poet and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1911)*2000 – Eberhard Bethge, German theologian and academic (b.",
"1909)*2001 – John Phillips, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.",
"1935)*2002 – R. A. Lafferty, American soldier and author (b.",
"1914)*2003 – Karl Kling, German race car driver (b.",
"1910)* 2003 – Adam Osborne, Thai-English engineer and businessman, founded the Osborne Computer Corporation (b.",
"1939)*2004 – Harrison McCain, Canadian businessman, co-founded McCain Foods (b.",
"1927)*2006 – Dan Gibson, Canadian photographer and cinematographer (b.",
"1922)*2007 – Bob Woolmer, Indian-English cricketer, coach, and sportscaster (b.",
"1948)*2008 – Anthony Minghella, English director and screenwriter (b.",
"1954)*2009 – Omid Reza Mir Sayafi, Iranian journalist and blogger (b.",
"1980)* 2009 – Natasha Richardson, English-American actress (b.",
"1963)*2010 – Fess Parker, American actor and businessman (b.",
"1924)*2011 – Warren Christopher, American lawyer and politician, 63rd United States Secretary of State (b.",
"1925)*2012 – Furman Bisher, American journalist and author (b.",
"1918)* 2012 – William R. Charette, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b.",
"1932)* 2012 – William G. Moore Jr., American general (b.",
"1920)* 2012 – George Tupou V of Tonga (b.",
"1948)*2013 – Muhammad Mahmood Alam, Pakistani general and pilot (b.",
"1935)* 2013 – Henry Bromell, American novelist, screenwriter, and director (b.",
"1947)* 2013 – Clay Ford, American lawyer and politician (b.",
"1938)*2014 – Catherine Obianuju Acholonu, Nigerian author, playwright, and academic (b.",
"1951)* 2014 – Kaiser Kalambo, Zambian footballer, coach, and manager (b.",
"1953)* 2014 – Lucius Shepard, American author and critic (b.",
"1943)*2015 – Zhao Dayu, Chinese footballer and manager (b.",
"1961)* 2015 – Thomas Hopko, American priest and theologian (b.",
"1939)* 2015 – Grace Ogot, Kenyan nurse, journalist, and politician (b.",
"1930)*2016 – Barry Hines, English author and screenwriter (b.",
"1939)* 2016 – Jan Němec, Czech director and screenwriter (b.",
"1936)* 2016 – Tray Walker, American football player (b.",
"1992)* 2016 – Guido Westerwelle, German lawyer and politician, 15th Vice-Chancellor of Germany (b.",
"1961)*2017 – Chuck Berry, American guitarist, singer and songwriter (b.",
"1926)*2020 – Alfred Worden, American test pilot, engineer and astronaut (b.",
"1932)"
],
[
"Holidays and observances",
"* Anniversary of the Oil Expropriation (Mexico)* Christian feast day:** Alexander of Jerusalem** Anselm of Lucca** Cyril of Jerusalem** Edward the Martyr** Fridianus** Salvator** March 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Flag Day (Aruba)* Gallipoli Memorial Day (Turkey)* Men's and Soldiers' Day (Mongolia)* Ordnance Factories' Day (India)* Sheelah's Day (Ireland, Canada, Australia)* Teacher's Day (Syria)"
],
[
"References",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 18"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mechanized infantry"
],
[
"Introduction",
"U.S. Army mechanized infantry dismount from an M113 armored personnel carrier during training in 1985.",
"'''Mechanized infantry''' are infantry units equipped with armored personnel carriers (APCs) or infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) for transport and combat (see also armoured corps).As defined by the United States Army, mechanized infantry is distinguished from motorized infantry in that its vehicles provide a degree of armor protection and armament for use in combat, whereas motorized infantry are provided with \"soft-skinned\" wheeled vehicles for transportation only.",
"Most APCs and IFVs are fully tracked or are all-wheel drive vehicles (6×6 or 8×8), for mobility across rough ground.",
"Some militaries distinguish between mechanized and '''armored''' (or '''armoured''') '''infantry''', designating troops carried by APCs as mechanized and those in IFVs as armored.The support weapons for mechanized infantry are also provided with motorized transport, or they are built directly into combat vehicles to keep pace with the mechanized infantry in combat.",
"For units equipped with most types of APC or any type of IFV, fire support weapons, such as machine guns, autocannons, small-bore direct-fire howitzers, and anti-tank guided missiles are often mounted directly on the infantry's own transport vehicles.Compared with \"light\" truck-mobile infantry, mechanized infantry can maintain rapid tactical movement and, if mounted in IFVs, have more integral firepower.",
"They require more combat supplies (ammunition and especially fuel) and ordnance supplies (spare vehicle components), and a comparatively larger proportion of manpower is required to crew and maintain the vehicles.",
"For example, most APCs mount a section of seven or eight infantrymen but have a crew of two.",
"Most IFVs carry only six or seven infantry but require a crew of three.",
"To be effective in the field, mechanized units also require many mechanics, with specialized maintenance and recovery vehicles and equipment."
],
[
"History",
"German A7V tanks in Roye, Somme during Operation Michael of World War I in 1918As early as 1915 the British instigated a tracked vehicle that could carry 50 equipped troops under armour but the project got no further than trials before cancellation.",
"Some of the first mechanized infantry were German assault teams mounted on A7V tanks during World War I.",
"The vehicles were extra-large to let them carry sizeable assault teams and would regularly carry infantry on board in addition to their already large crews that were trained as stormtroopers.",
"All machine-gun-armed A7V tanks carried two small flame throwers for their dismounts to use.",
"A7V tank would often carry a second officer to lead the assault team.During the Battle of St. Quentin in late March 1918, A7Vs were accompanied by twenty stormtroopers from Rohr Assault Battalion, but it is unspecified if they were acting as dismounts or were accompanying the tanks on foot.",
"During the battle, tank crews were reported to have dismounted and attacked enemy positions with grenades and flamethrowers on numerous occasions.Another example of the use of such a method of fighting is the capture of Villers-Bretonneux, in which A7Vs would suppress the defenders with machine gun fire and assault teams would dismount and attack them with grenades.The British heavy tank design was given an extended hull to cross wide German trenches.",
"This Mark V** had space for fourteen troops.",
"The Mark IX tank based on the Mark V was designed solely for carrying troops with space for 30 but the war ended before the order was complete and they could be used.Towards the end of World War I, all the armies involved were faced with the problem of maintaining the momentum of an attack.",
"Tanks, artillery, or infiltration tactics could all be used to break through an enemy defense, but almost all offensives launched in 1918 ground to a halt after a few days.",
"The following infantry quickly became exhausted, and artillery, supplies and fresh formations could not be brought forward over the battlefields quickly enough to maintain the pressure on the regrouping enemy forces.It was widely acknowledged that cavalry was too vulnerable to be used on most European battlefields, but many armies continued to deploy them.",
"Motorized infantry could maintain rapid movement, but their trucks required either a good road network or firm open terrain, such as desert.",
"They were unable to traverse a battlefield obstructed by craters, barbed wire, and trenches.",
"Tracked or all-wheel drive vehicles were to be the solution.Following the war, development of mechanized forces was largely theoretical for some time, but many nations began rearming in the 1930s.",
"The British Army had established an Experimental Mechanized Force in 1927, but it failed to pursue that line because of budget constraints and the prior need to garrison the frontiers of the British Empire.Although some proponents of mobile warfare, such as J. F. C. Fuller, advocated building \"tank fleets\", other, such as Heinz Guderian in Germany, Adna R. Chaffee Jr. in the United States, and Mikhail Tukhachevsky in the Soviet Union, recognized that tank units required close support from infantry and other arms and that such supporting arms needed to maintain the same pace as the tanks.As the Germans rearmed in the 1930s, they equipped some infantry units in their new Panzer divisions with the half-track Sd.Kfz.",
"251, which could keep up with tanks on most terrain.",
"The French Army also created \"light mechanized\" (''légère mécanisée'') divisions in which some of the infantry units possessed small tracked carriers.",
"Together with the motorization of the other infantry and support units, this gave both armies highly mobile combined-arms formations.",
"The German doctrine was to use them to exploit breakthroughs in ''Blitzkrieg'' offensives, whereas the French envisaged them being used to shift reserves rapidly in a defensive battle.===World War II===U.S.",
"M3 half-tracks and infantry on exercises, Fort Knox, June 1942As World War II progressed, most major armies integrated tanks or assault guns with mechanized infantry, as well as other supporting arms, such as artillery and engineers, as combined arms units.Allied armored formations included a mechanized infantry element for combined arms teamwork.",
"For example, US armored divisions had a balance of three battalions each of tanks, armored infantry, and self-propelled artillery.",
"The US armored infantry was fully equipped with M2 and M3 halftracks.",
"In the British and Commonwealth armies, \"Type A armoured brigades,\" intended for independent operations or to form part of armored divisions, had a \"motor infantry\" battalion mounted in Universal Carriers or later in lend-lease halftracks.",
"\"Type B\" brigades lacked a motor infantry component and were subordinated to infantry formations.The Canadian Army and, subsequently the British Army, used expedients such as the Kangaroo APC, usually for specific operations rather than to create permanent mechanized infantry formations.",
"The first such operation was Operation Totalize in the Battle of Normandy, which failed to achieve its ultimate objectives but showed that mechanized infantry could incur far fewer casualties than dismounted troops in set-piece operations.The German Army, having introduced mechanized infantry in its ''Panzer'' divisions, later named them units.",
"In the middle of the war, it created entire mechanized infantry divisions and named divisions.Because the German economy could not produce adequate numbers of its half-track APC, barely a quarter or a third of the infantry in Panzer or divisions were mechanized, except in a few favored formations.",
"The rest were moved by truck.",
"However, most German reconnaissance units in such formations were also primarily mechanized infantry and could undertake infantry missions when it was needed.",
"The Allies generally used jeeps, armored cars, or light tanks for reconnaissance.The Red Army began the war while still in the process of reorganizing its armored and mechanized formations, most of which were destroyed during the first months of the German Invasion of the Soviet Union.",
"About a year later, the Soviets recreated division-sized mechanized infantry units, termed mechanized corps, usually with one tank brigade and three mechanized infantry brigades, with motorized supporting arms.",
"They were generally used in the exploitation phase of offensives, as part of the prewar Soviet concept of deep operations.The Soviet Army also created several cavalry mechanized groups in which tanks, mechanized infantry and horsed cavalry were mixed.",
"They were also used in the exploitation and pursuit phases of offensives.",
"Red Army mechanized infantry were generally carried on tanks or trucks, with only a few dedicated lend-lease half-track APCs.The New Zealand Army ultimately fielded a division of a roughly similar composition to a Soviet mechanized corps, which fought in the Italian Campaign, but it had little scope for mobile operations until near the end of the war.The Romanian Army fielded a mixed assortment of vehicles.",
"These amounted to 126 French-designed Renault UE Chenillettes which were licence-built locally, 34 captured and refurbished Soviet armored tractors, 27 German-made armored half-tracks of the Sd.Kfz.",
"250 and Sd.Kfz.",
"251 types, over 200 Czechoslovak Tatra, Praga and Skoda trucks (the Tatra trucks were a model which was specifically built for the Romanian Army) as well as 300 German Horch 901 4x4 field cars.",
"Sd.Kfz.",
"8 and Sd.Kfz.",
"9 half-tracks were also acquired, as well as nine vehicles of the Sd.Kfz.",
"10 type and 100 RSO/01 fully tracked tractors.",
"The Romanians also produced five prototypes of an indigenous artillery tractor.===Cold War===Swiss Armed Forces Panzer 61 and SPz 63/73 armored vehicles deploying mounted infantry in 1979On July 9, 1945, Decree of the State Defence Committee No.",
"GKO-9488ss, \"On the Resupply of Armored and Mechanized Forces of the Red Army\" was issued.",
"It ordered the creation of mechanised divisions from many rifle divisions, included in the Armored and Mechanised Troops.",
"In some cases, cavalry divisions and airborne divisions also became mechanised divisions The Soviet ''motorised rifle troops'' officially appeared in accordance with the Directive of the Minister of Defense of the USSR No.",
"org.",
"/ 3/62540 of February 27, 1957.This directive ordered part of the mechanized divisions and all rifle units and formations reorganized into 'motorised rifle' in the period 1957 to 1964.Creation of the motorised rifle troops was facilitated by large-scale mechanisation of the whole Soviet Ground Forces.This became possible due to the increase in the production of armored personnel carriers, self-propelled guns and so on.",
"For example, in the period before the formation and in the initial period of the formation of the ''motorized rifle troops'':* BTR-40 – in the period from 1950 to 1960s, 8,500 units were produced* BTR-50 — 1954 to 1970s – 6,500 pieces* BTR-152 — 1947 to 1962s – 12,421 pieces* BRDM-1 — 1957 to 1966s – 10,000 unitsOne or two motorised rifle regiments were also present in each tank division, and many tank regiments included one motorised rifle battalion.After 1945, the Soviet Armed Forces and NATO further developed the equipment and doctrine for mechanized infantry.",
"With the exception of airborne formations, the Red Army mechanized all its infantry formations.",
"Initially, wheeled APCs, like the BTR-152, were used, some of which lacked overhead protection and were therefore vulnerable to artillery fire.",
"It still gave the Soviet Army greater strategic flexibility because of the large land area and the long borders of the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact.",
"Armored vehicles meant infantry were capable of overcoming water barriers and having means of protection against Weapons of Mass Destruction.The US Army established the basic configuration of the tracked APC with the M75 and M59 before it adopted the lighter M113, which could be carried by Lockheed C-130 Hercules and other transport aircraft.",
"The vehicle gave infantry the same mobility as tanks but with much less effective armor protection (it still had nuclear, biological, and chemical protection).In the Vietnam War, the M113 was often fitted with extra armament and used as an ''ad hoc'' infantry fighting vehicle.",
"Early operations by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam using the vehicle showed that troops were far more effective while they were mounted in the vehicles than when they dismounted.",
"American doctrine subsequently emphasized mounted tactics.",
"The Americans ultimately deployed a mechanized brigade and ten mechanized battalions to Vietnam.The ''motorized rifle troops'' of the Soviet Armed Forces were the world's first infantry units that adopted a new class of combat vehicles in 1966 – Infantry fighting vehicles.",
"BMP-1 began entering service in 1966.In the Federal Republic of Germany, an approximate analogue, the Marder, appeared only in 1970.Unlike the APC, which was intended merely to transport the infantry from place to place under armor, the IFV had heavy firepower that could support infantry.",
"The Infantry fighting vehicle concept was subsequently copied by almost all countries of the world.The introduction of the BMP-1 prompted the development of similar vehicles in Western armies, such as the West German Marder and American M2 Bradley.",
"Many IFVs were also equipped with firing ports from which their infantry could fire their weapons from inside, but they were generally not successful and have been dropped from modern IFVs.Soviet organization led to different tactics between the \"light\" and the \"heavy\" varieties of mechanized infantry.",
"In the Soviet Army, a first-line \"motor rifle\" division from the 1970s onward usually had two regiments equipped with wheeled BTR-60 APCs and one with the tracked BMP-1 IFV.",
"The \"light\" regiments were intended to make dismounted attacks on the division's flanks, while the BMP-equipped \"heavy\" regiment remained mounted and supported the division's tank regiment on the main axis of advance.",
"Both types of infantry regiment still were officially titled \"motor rifle\" units.A line of development in the Soviet Armed Forces from the 1980s was the provision of specialized IFVs for use by the Russian Airborne Troops.",
"The first of them was the BMD-1, which had the same firepower as the BMP-1 but could be carried in or even parachuted from the standard Soviet transport aircraft.",
"That made airborne formations into mechanized infantry at the cost of reducing their \"bayonet\" strength, as the BMD could carry only three or at most four paratroopers in addition to its three-man crew.",
"They were used in that role in the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979."
],
[
"Present day",
"Stryker vehicle and dismounted infantry of the US Army's 1st Brigade Combat Team in Mosul, Iraq, 2004.At present, almost all infantry units from industrialized nations are provided with some type of motor transport.",
"Infantry units equipped with IFVs rather than lighter vehicles are commonly designated as \"heavy\", indicating more combat power but also more costly long-range transportation requirements.",
"In Operation Desert Shield, during the buildup phase of the First Gulf War, the U.S. Army was concerned about the lack of mobility, protection and firepower offered by existing rapid deployment (i.e., airborne) formations; and also about the slowness of deploying regular armored units.",
"The experience led the U.S. Army to form combat brigades based on the Stryker wheeled IFV.In the British Army, \"heavy\" units equipped with the Warrior IFV are described as \"armoured infantry\", and units with the Bulldog APC as \"mechanised infantry\".",
"This convention is becoming widespread; for example the French Army has \"''motorisées''\" units equipped with the wheeled VAB and \"''mécanisées''\" units with the tracked AMX-10P.The transport and other logistic requirements have led many armies to adopt wheeled APCs when their existing stocks of tracked APCs require replacement.",
"An example is the Canadian Army, which has used the LAV III wheeled IFV in fighting in Afghanistan.",
"The Italian, Spanish and Swedish armies are adopting (and exporting) new indigenous-produced tracked IFVs.",
"The Swedish CV90 IFV in particular has been adopted by several armies.30th ABCT's M2A2 Bradley, on patrol in eastern Syria, 2019.A recent trend seen in the Israel Defense Forces and the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation is the development and introduction of exceptionally well-armored APCs (HAPC), such as the IDF Achzarit, that are converted from obsolete main battle tanks (such as the Soviet T-55).",
"Such vehicles are usually expedients, and lack of space prevents the armament of an IFV being carried in addition to an infantry section or squad.",
"In the Russian Army, such vehicles were introduced for fighting in urban areas, where the risk from short range infantry anti-tank weapons, such as the RPG-7, is highest, after Russian tank and motor infantry units suffered heavy losses fighting Chechen troops in Grozny during the First Chechen War in 1995.Many APCs and IFVs currently under development are intended for rapid deployment by aircraft.",
"New technologies that promise reduction in weight, such as electric drive, may be incorporated.",
"However, facing a similar threat in post-invasion Iraq to that which prompted the Russians to convert tanks to APCs, the occupying armies have found it necessary to apply extra armor to existing APCs and IFVs, which adds to the overall size and weight.",
"Some of the latest designs (such as the German Puma) are intended to allow a light, basic model vehicle, which is air-transportable, to be fitted in the field with additional protection, thereby ensuring both strategic flexibility and survivability.===Medium mechanized forces===In the late Cold War and early 21st century, various countries developed medium infantry forces armed with armored vehicles, which typically consisted of wheeled armored personnel carriers, infantry fighting vehicles, and assault guns.",
"Medium mechanized forces are characterized by having more strategic air and road mobility than heavier, tank-based armored forces while offering better armor protection for the formation than the lighter motorized infantry formation, in which vehicles were considered \"battle taxis\" due to poor protection.",
"The earliest experiment was the short-lived Soviet Light Motor Rifle Division in 1987, which consisted of wheeled BTR platforms for its primary armament.",
"In the 1990s, the United States explored Stryker Brigade Combat Team (SBCT) formation and doctrines, which was a medium mechanized infantry formation with all-wheeled platforms centered around Stryker armored personnel carrier.",
"In the early 21st century, China reformed its ground forces with the concept called Medium Combined Arms Brigade (CA-BDE), armed with Type 08 universal wheeled platform.",
"A similar trend of adopting the medium mechanized forces was observed in European countries, including the Italian, Polish, and French armed forces."
],
[
"Combined arms operations",
"It is generally accepted that single weapons system types are much less effective without the support of the full combined arms team; the pre-World War II notion of \"tank fleets\" has proven to be as unsound as the World War I idea of unsupported infantry attacks.",
"Though many nations' armored formations included an organic mechanized infantry component at the start of World War II, the proportion of mechanized infantry in such combined arms formations was increased by most armies as the war progressed.The lesson was re-learned, first by the Pakistani Army in the 1965 war with India, where the nation fielded two different types of armored divisions: one which was almost exclusively armor (the 1st), while another was more balanced (the 6th).",
"The latter division showed itself to be far more combat-capable than the former.Having achieved spectacular successes in the offensive with tank-heavy formations during the Six-Day War, the Israel Defense Forces found in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 that a doctrine that relied primarily on tanks and aircraft had proven inadequate.",
"As a makeshift remedy, paratroopers were provided with motorized transport and used as mechanized infantry in coordination with the armor."
],
[
"See also",
"*Armoured warfare"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Sources",
"*Dunstan, Simon.",
"''Vietnam Tracks: Armor In Battle 1945–1975''.",
"1982 edition, Osprey Publishing; .",
"*Starry, Donn A., General.",
"''Armored Combat in Vietnam''.",
"1980, Arno Press Inc. ."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Micah"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Micah''' (; ) is a given name.Micah is the name of several people in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), and means \"Who is like God?\"",
"The name is sometimes found with theophoric extensions.",
"Suffix theophory in ''Yah'' and in ''Yahweh'' results in '''Michaiah''' or '''Michaihu''' (), meaning ''who is like Yahweh?''",
"Suffix theophory in ''El'' results in ''Michael'' (), meaning \"who is like god\".In German and Dutch, Micah is spelled and the ''ch'' in the name is pronounced either or ; the first is more common in female names, the latter in male names.",
"The name is not as common as Michael or Michiel."
],
[
"Bible",
"*Micah son of Mephibosheth son of Jonathan son of Saul, the first king of Israel ()*Micah (prophet), eponymous prophet of the Book of Micah in the Old Testament*Micaiah, a prophet and the son of Imlah, who gave a negative prophecy to Ahab on his request"
],
[
"Notable people with the given name \"Micah\"",
"===A===*Micah Abernathy (born 1997), American football player*Micah Aiu, American politician*Micah Aivazoff (born 1969), Canadian ice hockey player*Micah Albert (born 1979), American photojournalist*Micah Alberti (born 1984), American actor*Micah Altman (born 1967), American social scientist*Micah Armstrong, American evangelist*Micah Lakin Avni (born 1969), Israeli businessman*Micah Awe (born 1994), Nigerian Canadian football player===B===*Micah Balfour (born 1978), English actor*Micah Ballard (born 1975), American poet*Micah Barlow (1873–1936), English cricketer*Micah Barnes (born 1960), Canadian singer-songwriter*Micah Baskerville (born 1999), American football player*Micah Blunt, American basketball player*Micah Bowie (born 1974), American baseball player*Micah Boyd (born 1982), American rower *Micah Brooks (1775–1857), American politician*Micah Brown (born 1986), Canadian football player===C===*Micah Caskey (born 1981), American politician*Micah Cheserem, Kenyan banker*Micah Christenson (born 1993), American volleyball player*Micah Cooks (born 1981), American soccer player===D===*Micah Downs (born 1986), American basketball player===E===*Micah Evans (born 1993), English footballer===F===*Micah Fitzerman-Blue, American screenwriter*Micah Fowler (born 1998), American actor*Micah Franklin (disambiguation), multiple people===G===*Micah Garen (born 1968), American filmmaker*Micah Gravley (born 1974), American politician*Micah Gunnell (born 1980), American comic book artist===H===*Micah Hannemann (born 1994), American football player*Micah Hart (born 1997), Canadian ice hockey player*Micah Hauptman (born 1973), American actor*Micah Hawkins (1777–1825), American poet*Micah Hilton (born 1985), Montserratian footballer*Micah P. Hinson (born 1981), American musician*Micah Hoffpauir (born 1980), American baseball player*Micah Hyde (disambiguation), multiple people===J===*Micah Jenkins (1835–1864), American general*Micah Jesse (born 1986), American blogger*Micah Johnson (disambiguation), multiple people===K===*Micha Kaufman (born 1946), Israeli sport shooter*Micah Kellner (born 1979), American politician*Micah Kiser (born 1995), American football player*Micah Knorr (born 1975), American football player*Micah Kogo (born 1986), Kenyan long-distance runner===L===*Micah Lancaster (born 1984), American basketball player*Micah Lawrence (born 1990), American swimmer*Micah Lea'alafa (born 1991), Solomon Islands footballer*Micah Joseph Lebensohn (1828–1852), Russian poet*Micah Lewensohn (1952–2017), Israeli theater director*Micah Lexier (born 1960), Canadian artist*Micah Kai Lynette (born 2001), Thai figure skater===M===*Micah Maʻa (born 1997), American volleyball player*Micha Marah (born 1953), Belgian singer and actress*Micah Masei (born 1999), Samoan swimmer*Micah Massey (born 1987), American musician*Micah McFadden (born 2000), American football player*Micah McLaurin (born 1994), American pianist===N===*Micah Naftalin (1933–2009), American activist*Micah Nathan, American novelist*Micah Neal (born 1974), American politician===O===*Micah Obiero (born 2001), English footballer*Micah Ohlman (born 1972), American journalist*Micah Ortega (born 1976), American guitarist*Micah Owings (born 1982), American baseball player===P===*Micah Parsons (born 1999), American football player*Micah Paulino (born 1992), Guamanian footballer*Micah Pellerin (born 1988), American football player*Micah Perks (born 1963), American writer*Micah Potter (born 1998), American basketball player===R===*Micah Richards (born 1988), English football player*Micah Ross (born 1976), American football player*Micah Rucker (born 1985), American football player===S===*Micah Salt (1847–1915), English tailor*Micah C. Saufley (1842–1910), American judge*Micah Schwartzman (born 1976), American law professor*Micah Shrewsberry (born 1976), American basketball coach*Micah Sloat (born 1981), American actor*Micah Smaldone (born 1978), American musician*Micah Solusod (born 1990), American voice actor*Micah Stampley (born 1971), American singer-songwriter*Micah Sterling (1784–1844), American politician===T===*Micah Taul (1785–1850), American politician*Micah Taul (Alabama politician) (1832–1873), American politician*Micah Teitz (born 1996), Canadian football player*Micah Townshend (1749–1832), American political leader*Micah True (1953–2012), American runner*Micah Tyler (born 1983), American singer===W===*Micha Wertheim (born 1972), Dutch comedian*Micah M. White (born 1982), American activist*Micah Wilkinson (born 1996), New Zealand sailor*Micah Williams (disambiguation), multiple people*Micah Wright (born 1974), American author===Z===*Micah Zenko, American political scientist"
],
[
"Fictional characters",
"*Micah Clarke, a character in the novel ''Micah Clarke''*Micah Rains, a character in the comic series ''Wonder Woman''*Micah Sanders, a character in the television series ''Heroes''*Micah Bell lll, the main antagonist of the video game ''Red Dead Redemption 2''*King Micah, a character in the television series ''She-Ra: Princess of Power''"
],
[
"Surname",
"*Ben Micah (died 2022), Papua New Guinean politician*Duke Micah (born 1991), Ghanaian boxer*Teagan Micah (born 1997), Australian footballer"
],
[
"See also",
"*Michael (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for \"Michael\"*Micah (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for \"Micah\"*Myka (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for \"Myka\""
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Malachi"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Malachi''' (; ), also known as '''Malachias''', is the name used by the author of the Book of Malachi, the last book of the Nevi'im (Prophets) section of the Tanakh.",
"According to the 1897 ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'', it is possible that Malachi is not a proper name; because it simply means \"messenger\", many assume it to be a pseudonym.",
"Jewish tradition claims that the real identity of Malachi is Ezra the scribe."
],
[
"Identity",
"The editors of the 1906 ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' implied that Malachi prophesied after Haggai and Zechariah and speculated that he delivered his prophecies about 420 BC, after the second return of Nehemiah from Persia, or possibly before his return.",
"The Talmud and the Aramaic Targum of Yonathan ben Uzziel identify Ezra as the same person as Malachi.",
"This is the traditional view held by most Jews and some Christians, including Jerome.",
"This identification is plausible, because \"Malachi\" reprimands the people for the same things Ezra did, such as marrying foreign pagan women.",
"Malachi also focuses extensively on corrupt priests; which Ezra, a priest himself who exhorted the people to follow the law, despised.",
"According to Josephus, Ezra died and was buried \"in a magnificent manner in Jerusalem.\"",
"If the tradition that Ezra wrote under the name \"Malachi\" is correct, then Josephus meant that buried in the Tomb of the Prophets, the traditional resting place of Malachi.",
"This would also explain why Ezra does not refer to a prophet named Malachi, while he did refer to other prophets such as Haggai and Zechariah.",
"Others ascribe the book to Zerubbabel and Nehemiah; others suggest that Malachi was a separate person altogether, possibly a Levite and a member of the Great Assembly."
],
[
"Name",
"Because the name ''Malachi'' does not occur elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible, some scholars doubt whether it is intended to be the personal name of the prophet.",
"The form ''mal'akhi'' (literally \"my ''malakh''\") signifies \"my messenger\"; it occurs in Malachi 3:1 (compare to Malachi 2:7, but this form would hardly be appropriate as a proper name without some additional syllable such as Yah, whence ''mal'akhiah'', i.e.",
"\"messenger of Yah\".",
"In the Book of Haggai, Haggai is designated the \"messenger of the .\"",
"The non-canonical superscriptions prefixed to the book, in both the Septuagint and the Vulgate, warrant the supposition that Malachi's full name ended with the syllable -yah.",
"The Septuagint translates the last clause of Malachi 1:1, \"by the hand of his messenger\", and the Targum reads, \"by the hand of my angel, whose name is called Ezra the scribe\".",
"G.G.",
"Cameron suggests that the termination of the word \"Malachi\" is adjectival, and equivalent to the Latin ''angelicus'', signifying \"one charged with a message or mission\" (a missionary)."
],
[
"Date",
"Imaginative image of Malachi (watercolor c. 1896–1902 by James Tissot)Opinions vary as to the prophet's exact date, but nearly all scholars agree that Malachi prophesied during the Persian period, and after the reconstruction and dedication of the Second Temple in 516 BC.",
"More specifically, Malachi probably lived and labored during the times of Ezra and Nehemiah.",
"The abuses which Malachi mentions in his writings correspond so exactly with those which Nehemiah found on his second visit to Jerusalem in 432 BC that it seems reasonably certain that he prophesied concurrently with Nehemiah or shortly after.According to W. Gunther Plaut:"
],
[
"References",
"* * * * L. Vianès: Malachie.",
"''La Bible d'Alexandrie'', vol.",
"xxiii/12, Éditions du Cerf, Paris, 2011."
],
[
"External links",
"* * * Prophet Malachi Orthodox icon and synaxarion"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Martin Fowler (software engineer)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Martin Fowler''' (18 December 1963) is a British software developer, author and international public speaker on software development, specialising in object-oriented analysis and design, UML, patterns, and agile software development methodologies, including extreme programming.His 1999 book ''Refactoring'' popularised the practice of code refactoring.",
"In 2004 he introduced a new architectural pattern, called Presentation Model (PM)."
],
[
"Biography",
"Fowler was born and grew up in Walsall, England, where he went to Queen Mary's Grammar School for his secondary education.",
"He graduated at University College London in 1986.In 1994 he moved to the United States, where he lives near Boston, Massachusetts in the suburb of Melrose.Fowler started working with software in the early 1980s.",
"Out of university in 1986 he started working in software development for Coopers & Lybrand until 1991.In 2000 he joined ThoughtWorks, a systems integration and consulting company, where he serves as Chief Scientist.Fowler has written nine books on the topic of software development.",
"He is a member of the ''Agile Alliance'' and helped create the Manifesto for Agile Software Development in 2001, along with 16 fellow signatories.",
"He maintains a ''bliki'', a mix of blog and wiki.",
"He popularised the term Dependency Injection as a form of Inversion of Control."
],
[
"Publications",
"* 1996.",
"''Analysis Patterns: Reusable Object Models''.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
".",
"* 1997.",
"''UML Distilled: A Brief Guide to the Standard Object Modeling Language''.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
".",
"* 1999.",
"''Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code'', With Kent Beck, John Brant, William Opdyke, and Don Roberts (June 1999).",
"Addison-Wesley.",
".",
"* 2000.",
"''Planning Extreme Programming''.",
"With Kent Beck.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
".",
"* 2002.",
"''Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture''.",
"With David Rice, Matthew Foemmel, Edward Hieatt, Robert Mee, and Randy Stafford.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
".",
"* 2010.",
"''Domain-Specific Languages''.",
"With Rebecca Parsons.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
".",
"* 2012.",
"''NoSQL Distilled: A Brief Guide to the Emerging World of Polyglot Persistence''.",
"With Pramod Sadalage.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
".",
"* 2013.",
"''Refactoring: Ruby Edition''.",
"With Kent Beck, Shane Harvie, and Jay Fields.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
".",
"* 2018.",
"''Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code, Second Edition''.",
"Kent Beck, and Martin Fowler.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
"."
],
[
"Domain-specific languages",
"In his book, ''Domain-specific languages'', Fowler discusses Domain-specific languages, DSL.",
"DSLs are said to be defined by being composable programming languages, with their focus on an individual domain and having limited expressiveness.",
"It is argued that DSLs can increase productivity by removing the requirement of the programmer to understand a full programming language, providing a means of communication with domain experts, and separate the manner of execution of a task from the definition of a task itself.",
"These benefits are set against the cost of learning a new language and building the tools for this language, siloing that results for different languages and the abstractions used in DSLs not being suitable for a task.Fowler introduces the concept of '''internal''' (or '''embedded''') and '''external''' DSL, an internal DSL being a DSL that is a subset of another language and can be executed by the tools for this outer language.",
"Ruby and Lisp are given as an example of languages where internal DSLs are common.",
"He also introduces the idea of '''Semantic Model''' which defines the execution of a DSL.",
"Various examples of DSLs are presented including graphviz, a language for specifying graphs to be rendered; JMock, a java mocking framework; CSS, a language to specify stylistic elements of a website; HQL, an object relational mapper in Java; XAML, a language used to specify and change graphical user interfaces; FIT, a language to express testing scenarios; and make, a tool to build softwareThe book discusses implementing an external DSL using tools like parsers, lexers, abstract syntax trees and code generation referred to as \"syntax-driven translation\" This is contrasted with \"delimiter-driven translation\" which is said to be simpler but less powerful.",
"Here the language is simple enough to be interpreted by splitting on delimiters and switching logic based on individual entries.Ways of implementing internal DSLs is discussed, with attention paid to nested function calls, sequences of function calls, or method chaining amongst other methods."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Microsoft Word"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Microsoft Word''' is a word processor developed by Microsoft.",
"It was first released on October 25, 1983, under the name ''Multi-Tool Word'' for Xenix systems.",
"Subsequent versions were later written for several other platforms including: IBM PCs running DOS (1983), Apple Macintosh running the Classic Mac OS (1985), AT&T UNIX PC (1985), Atari ST (1988), OS/2 (1989), Microsoft Windows (1989), SCO Unix (1990), macOS (2001), Web browsers (2010), iOS (2014) and Android (2015).",
"Using Wine, versions of Microsoft Word before 2013 can be run on Linux.Commercial versions of Word are licensed as a standalone product or as a component of Microsoft 365 suite of software, which can be purchased either with a perpetual license or as part of a Microsoft 365 subscription, respectively."
],
[
"History",
"===Origins===In 1981, Microsoft hired Charles Simonyi, the primary developer of Bravo, the first GUI word processor, which was developed at Xerox PARC.",
"Simonyi started work on a word processor called ''Multi-Tool Word'' and soon hired Richard Brodie, a former Xerox intern, who became the primary software engineer.Microsoft announced Multi-Tool Word for Xenix and MS-DOS in 1983.Its name was soon simplified to ''Microsoft Word''.",
"Free demonstration copies of the application were bundled with the November 1983 issue of ''PC World'', making it the first to be distributed on-disk with a magazine.",
"That year Microsoft demonstrated Word running on Windows.Unlike most MS-DOS programs at the time, Microsoft Word was designed to be used with a mouse.",
"Advertisements depicted the Microsoft Mouse and described Word as a WYSIWYG, windowed word processor with the ability to undo and display bold, italic, and underlined text, although it could not render fonts.",
"It was not initially popular, since its user interface was different from the leading word processor at the time, WordStar.",
"However, Microsoft steadily improved the product, releasing versions 2.0 through 5.0 over the next six years.",
"In 1985, Microsoft ported Word to the classic Mac OS (known as Macintosh System Software at the time).",
"This was made easier by Word for DOS having been designed for use with high-resolution displays and laser printers, even though none were yet available to the general public.",
"It was also notable for its very fast cut-and-paste function and unlimited number of undo operations, which are due to its usage of the piece table data structure.Following the precedents of LisaWrite and MacWrite, Word for Mac OS added true WYSIWYG features.",
"It fulfilled a need for a word processor that was more capable than MacWrite.",
"After its release, Word for Mac OS's sales were higher than its MS-DOS counterpart for at least four years.The second release of Word for Mac OS, shipped in 1987, was named Word 3.0 to synchronize its version number with Word for DOS; this was Microsoft's first attempt to synchronize version numbers across platforms.",
"Word 3.0 included numerous internal enhancements and new features, including the first implementation of the Rich Text Format (RTF) specification, but was plagued with bugs.",
"Within a few months, Word 3.0 was superseded by a more stable Word 3.01, which was mailed free to all registered users of 3.0.After MacWrite Pro was discontinued in the mid-1990s, Word for Mac OS never had any serious rivals.",
"Word 5.1 for Mac OS, released in 1992, was a very popular word processor owing to its elegance, relative ease of use, and feature set.",
"Many users say it is the best version of Word for Mac OS ever created.In 1986, an agreement between Atari and Microsoft brought Word to the Atari ST under the name ''Microsoft Write''.",
"The Atari ST version was a port of Word 1.05 for the Mac OS and was never updated.The first version of Word for Windows was released in 1989.With the release of Windows 3.0 the following year, sales began to pick up and Microsoft soon became the market leader for word processors for IBM PC-compatible computers.",
"In 1991, Microsoft capitalized on Word for Windows' increasing popularity by releasing a version of Word for DOS, version 5.5, that replaced its unique user interface with an interface similar to a Windows application.",
"When Microsoft became aware of the Year 2000 problem, it made Microsoft Word 5.5 for DOS available for free downloads.",
", it is still available for download from Microsoft's website.In 1991, Microsoft embarked on a project code-named Pyramid to completely rewrite Microsoft Word from the ground up.",
"Both the Windows and Mac OS versions would start from the same code base.",
"It was abandoned when it was determined that it would take the development team too long to rewrite and then catch up with all the new capabilities that could have been added at the same time without a rewrite.",
"Instead, the next versions of Word for Windows and Mac OS, dubbed version 6.0, both started from the code base of Word for Windows 2.0.With the release of Word 6.0 in 1993, Microsoft again attempted to synchronize the version numbers and coordinate product naming across platforms, this time across DOS, Mac OS, and Windows (this was the last version of Word for DOS).",
"It introduced AutoCorrect, which automatically fixed certain typing errors, and AutoFormat, which could reformat many parts of a document at once.",
"While the Windows version received favorable reviews (e.g., from ''InfoWorld''), the Mac OS version was widely derided.",
"Many accused it of being slow, clumsy, and memory intensive, and its user interface differed significantly from Word 5.1.In response to user requests, Microsoft offered Word 5 again, after it had been discontinued.",
"Subsequent versions of Word for macOS are no longer direct ports of Word for Windows, instead featuring a mixture of ported code and native code.===Word for Windows===Microsoft Word (2007)Word for Windows is available stand-alone or as part of the Microsoft Office suite.",
"Word contains rudimentary desktop publishing capabilities and is the most widely used word processing program on the market.",
"Word files are commonly used as the format for sending text documents via e-mail because almost every user with a computer can read a Word document by using the Word application, a Word viewer or a word processor that imports the Word format (see Microsoft Word Viewer).Word 6 for Windows NT was the first 32-bit version of the product, released with Microsoft Office for Windows NT around the same time as Windows 95.It was a straightforward port of Word 6.0.Starting with Word 95, each release of Word was named after the year of its release, instead of its version number.Word 2007 introduced a redesigned user interface that emphasized the most common controls, dividing them into tabs, and adding specific options depending on the context, such as selecting an image or editing a table.",
"This user interface, called Ribbon, was included in Excel, PowerPoint and Access 2007, and would be later introduced to other Office applications with Office 2010 and Windows applications such as Paint and WordPad with Windows 7, respectively.The redesigned interface also includes a toolbar that appears when selecting text, with options for formatting included.Word 2007 also included the option to save documents as Adobe Acrobat or XPS files, and upload Word documents like blog posts on services such as WordPress.Word 2010 allows the customization of the Ribbon, adds a Backstage view for file management, has improved document navigation, allows creation and embedding of screenshots, and integrates with online services such as Microsoft OneDrive.Word 2019 added a dictation function.Word 2021 added co-authoring, a visual refresh on the start experience and tabs, automatic cloud saving, dark mode, line focus, an updated draw tab, and support for ODF 1.3.===Word for Mac===The Mac was introduced on January 24, 1984, and Microsoft introduced Word 1.0 for Mac a year later, on January 18, 1985.The DOS, Mac, and Windows versions are quite different from each other.",
"Only the Mac version was WYSIWYG and used a graphical user interface, far ahead of the other platforms.",
"Each platform restarted its version numbering at \"1.0\".",
"There was no version 2 on the Mac, but version 3 came out on January 31, 1987, as described above.",
"Word 4.0 came out on November 6, 1990, and added automatic linking with Excel, the ability to flow text around graphics, and a WYSIWYG page view editing mode.",
"Word 5.1 for Mac, released in 1992 ran on the original 68000 CPU and was the last to be specifically designed as a Macintosh application.",
"The later Word 6 was a Windows port and poorly received.",
"Word 5.1 continued to run well until the last classic Mac OS.",
"Many people continue to run Word 5.1 to this day under an emulated Mac classic system for some of its excellent features, such as document generation and renumbering, or to access their old files.Microsoft Word 2011 running on OS XIn 1997, Microsoft formed the Macintosh Business Unit as an independent group within Microsoft focused on writing software for the classic Mac OS.",
"Its first version of Word, Word 98, was released with Office 98 Macintosh Edition.",
"Document compatibility reached parity with Word 97, and it included features from Word 97 for Windows, including spell and grammar checking with squiggles.",
"Users could choose the menus and keyboard shortcuts to be similar to either Word 97 for Windows or Word 5 for Mac.Word 2001, released in 2000, added a few new features, including the Office Clipboard, which allowed users to copy and paste multiple items.",
"It was the last version to run on the classic Mac OS and, on Mac OS X, it could only run within the Classic Environment.",
"Word X, released in 2001, was the first version to run natively on, and to require, Mac OS X, and introduced non-contiguous text selection.Word 2004 was released in May 2004.It included a new Notebook Layout view for taking notes either by typing or by voice.",
"Other features, such as tracking changes, were made more similar with Office for Windows.Word 2008, released on January 15, 2008, included a Ribbon-like feature, called the Elements Gallery, that can be used to select page layouts and insert custom diagrams and images.",
"It also included a new view focused on publishing layout, integrated bibliography management, and native support for the new Office Open XML format.",
"It was the first version to run natively on Intel-based Macs.Word 2011, released in October 2010, replaced the Elements Gallery in favor of a Ribbon user interface that is much more similar to Office for Windows, and includes a full-screen mode that allows users to focus on reading and writing documents, and support for Office Web Apps.Word 2021 added real-time co-authoring, automatic cloud saving, dark mode, immersive reader enhancements, line focus, a visual refresh, the ability to save pictures in SVG format, and a new Sketched style outline."
],
[
"File formats",
"===Filename extensions===Microsoft Word's native file formats are denoted either by a .doc or .docx filename extension.Although the .doc extension has been used in many different versions of Word, it actually encompasses four distinct file formats:# Word for DOS# Word for Windows 1 and 2; Word 3 and 4 for Mac OS# Word 6 and Word 95 for Windows; Word 6 for Mac OS# Word 97 and later for Windows; Word 98 and later for Mac OS(The classic Mac OS of the era did not use filename extensions.",
")The newer .docx extension signifies the Office Open XML international standard for Office documents and is used by default by Word 2007 and later for Windows as well as Word 2008 and later for macOS.===Binary formats (Word 97–2007)===During the late 1990s and early 2000s, the default Word document format (.DOC) became a ''de facto'' standard of document file formats for Microsoft Office users.",
"There are different versions of \"Word Document Format\" used by default in Word 97–2007.Each binary word file is a Compound File, a hierarchical file system within a file.",
"According to Joel Spolsky, Word Binary File Format is extremely complex mainly because its developers had to accommodate an overwhelming number of features and prioritize performance over anything else.As with all OLE Compound Files, Word Binary Format consists of \"storages\", which are analogous to computer folders and \"streams\", which are similar to computer files.",
"Each storage may contain streams or other storage.",
"Each Word Binary File must contain a stream called the \"WordDocument\" stream and this stream must start with a File Information Block (FIB).",
"FIB serves as the first point of reference for locating everything else, such as where the text in a Word document starts, ends, what version of Word created the document and other attributes.Word 2007 and later continue to support the DOC file format, although it is no longer the default.===XML Document (Word 2003)===The .docx XML format introduced in Word 2003 was a simple, XML-based format called WordProcessingML or WordML.The '''Microsoft Office XML formats''' are XML-based document formats (or XML schemas) introduced in versions of Microsoft Office prior to Office 2007.Microsoft Office XP introduced a new XML format for storing Excel spreadsheets and Office 2003 added an XML-based format for Word documents.These formats were succeeded by Office Open XML (ECMA-376) in Microsoft Office 2007.===Cross-version compatibility===Opening a Word Document file in a version of Word other than the one with which it was created can cause an incorrect display of the document.",
"The document formats of the various versions change in subtle and not-so-subtle ways (such as changing the font or the handling of more complex tasks like footnotes).",
"Formatting created in newer versions does not always survive when viewed in older versions of the program, nearly always because that capability does not exist in the previous version.",
"Rich Text Format (RTF), an early effort to create a format for interchanging formatted text between applications, is an optional format for Word that retains most formatting and all content of the original document.===Third-party formats===Plugins permitting the Windows versions of Word to read and write formats it does not natively support, such as international standard OpenDocument format (ODF) (ISO/IEC 26300:2006), are available.",
"Up until the release of Service Pack 2 (SP2) for Office 2007, Word did not natively support reading or writing ODF documents without a plugin, namely the SUN ODF Plugin or the OpenXML/ODF Translator.",
"With SP2 installed, ODF format 1.1 documents can be read and saved like any other supported format in addition to those already available in Word 2007.The implementation faces substantial criticism, and the ODF Alliance and others have claimed that the third-party plugins provide better support.",
"Microsoft later declared that the ODF support has some limitations.In October 2005, one year before the Microsoft Office 2007 suite was released, Microsoft declared that there was insufficient demand from Microsoft customers for the international standard OpenDocument format support and that therefore it would not be included in Microsoft Office 2007.This statement was repeated in the following months.",
"As an answer, on October 20, 2005, an online petition was created to demand ODF support from Microsoft.In May 2006, the ODF plugin for Microsoft Office was released by the OpenDocument Foundation.",
"Microsoft declared that it had no relationship with the developers of the plugin.In July 2006, Microsoft announced the creation of the Open XML Translator project – tools to build a technical bridge between the Microsoft Office Open XML Formats and the OpenDocument Format (ODF).",
"This work was started in response to government requests for interoperability with ODF.",
"The goal of the project was not to add ODF support to Microsoft Office, but only to create a plugin and an external toolset.",
"In February 2007, this project released a first version of the ODF plugin for Microsoft Word.In February 2007, Sun released an initial version of its ODF plugin for Microsoft Office.",
"Version 1.0 was released in July 2007.Microsoft Word 2007 (Service Pack 1) supports (for output only) PDF and XPS formats, but only after manual installation of the Microsoft \"Save as PDF or XPS\" add-on.",
"On later releases, this was offered by default."
],
[
"Features and flaws",
"Among its features, Word includes a built-in spell checker, a thesaurus, a dictionary, and utilities for manipulating and editing text.",
"It supports creating tables.",
"Depending on the version, it can perform simple calculations, and supports formatting formulas and equations.The following are some aspects of its feature set.=== Templates ===Several later versions of Word include the ability for users to create their own formatting templates, allowing them to define a file in which: the title, heading, paragraph, and other element designs differ from the standard Word templates.",
"Users can find how to do this under the Help section located near the top right corner (Word 2013 on Windows 8).For example, '''Normal.dotm''' is the master template from which all Word documents are created.",
"It determines the margin defaults as well as the layout of the text and font defaults.",
"Although Normal.dotm is already set with certain defaults, the user can change it to new defaults.",
"This will change other documents which were created using the template.",
"It was previously Normal.dot.===Image formats===Word can import and display images in common bitmap formats such as JPG and GIF.",
"It can also be used to create and display simple line art.",
"Microsoft Word added support for the common SVG vector image format in 2017 for Office 365 ProPlus subscribers and this functionality was also included in the Office 2019 release.===WordArt===An example image created with WordArtWordArt enables drawing text in a Microsoft Word document such as a title, watermark, or other text, with graphical effects such as skewing, shadowing, rotating, stretching in a variety of shapes and colors, and even including three-dimensional effects.",
"Users can apply formatting effects such as shadow, bevel, glow, and reflection to their document text as easily as applying bold or underline.",
"Users can also spell-check text that uses visual effects and add text effects to paragraph styles.===Macros===A macro is a rule of pattern that specifies how a certain input sequence (often a sequence of characters) should be mapped to an output sequence according to a defined process.",
"Frequently used or repetitive sequences of keystrokes and mouse movements can be automated.",
"Like other Microsoft Office documents, Word files can include advanced macros and even embedded programs.",
"The language was originally WordBasic, but changed to Visual Basic for Applications as of Word 97.This extensive functionality can also be used to run and propagate viruses in documents.",
"The tendency for people to exchange Word documents via email, USB flash drives, and floppy disks made this an especially attractive vector in 1999.A prominent example was the Melissa virus, but countless others have existed.These macro viruses were the only known cross-platform threats between Windows and Macintosh computers and they were the only infection vectors to affect any macOS system up until the advent of video codec trojans in 2007.Microsoft released patches for Word X and Word 2004 that effectively eliminated the macro problem on the Mac by 2006.Word's macro security setting, which regulates when macros may execute, can be adjusted by the user, but in the most recent versions of Word, it is set to HIGH by default, generally reducing the risk from macro-based viruses, which have become uncommon.===Layout issues===Before Word 2010 (Word 14) for Windows, the program was unable to correctly handle ligatures defined in OpenType fonts.",
"Those ligature glyphs with Unicode codepoints may be inserted manually, but are not recognized by Word for what they are, breaking spell checking, while custom ligatures present in the font are not accessible at all.",
"Since Word 2010, the program now has advanced typesetting features which can be enabled, OpenType ligatures, kerning and hyphenation (previous versions already had the latter two features).",
"Other layout deficiencies of Word include the inability to set crop marks or thin spaces.",
"Various third-party workaround utilities have been developed.In Word 2004 for Mac OS X, support of complex scripts was inferior even to Word 97 and Word 2004 did not support Apple Advanced Typography features like ligatures or glyph variants.===Issues with technical documents===Microsoft Word is only awkwardly suitable for some kinds of technical writing, specifically, that which requires mathematical equations, figure placement, table placement and cross-references to any of these items.",
"The usual workaround for equations is to use a third-party equation typesetter.",
"Figures and tables must be placed manually; there is an anchor mechanism but it is not designed for fully automatic figure placement and editing text after placing figures and tables often requires re-placing those items by moving the anchor point and even then the placement options are limited.",
"This problem is deeply baked into Word's structure since 1985 as it does not know where page breaks will occur until the document is printed.===Bullets and numbering===Microsoft Word supports bullet lists and numbered lists.",
"It also features a numbering system that helps add correct numbers to pages, chapters, headers, footnotes, and entries of tables of content; these numbers automatically change to correct ones as new items are added or existing items are deleted.",
"Bullets and numbering can be applied directly to paragraphs and converted to lists.",
"Word 97 through 2003, however, had problems adding correct numbers to numbered lists.",
"In particular, a second irrelevant numbered list might have not started with number one but instead resumed numbering after the last numbered list.",
"Although Word 97 supported a hidden marker that said the list numbering must restart afterward, the command to insert this marker (Restart Numbering command) was only added in Word 2003.However, if one were to cut the first item of the listed and paste it as another item (e.g.",
"fifth), then the restart marker would have moved with it and the list would have restarted in the middle instead of at the top.Word continues to default to non-Unicode characters and non-hierarchical bulleting, despite user preference for Powerpoint-style symbol hierarchies (e.g., filled circle/emdash/filled square/endash/emptied circle) and universal compatibility.===AutoSummarize===Available in certain versions of Word (e.g., Word 2007), AutoSummarize highlights passages or phrases that it considers valuable and can be a quick way of generating a crude abstract or an executive summary.",
"The amount of text to be retained can be specified by the user as a percentage of the current amount of text.According to Ron Fein of the Word 97 team, AutoSummarize cuts wordy copy to the bone by counting words and ranking sentences.",
"First, AutoSummarize identifies the most common words in the document (barring \"a\" and \"the\" and the like) and assigns a \"score\" to each word – the more frequently a word is used, the higher the score.",
"Then, it \"averages\" each sentence by adding the scores of its words and dividing the sum by the number of words in the sentence – the higher the average, the higher the rank of the sentence.",
"\"It's like the ratio of wheat to chaff,\" explains Fein.AutoSummarize was removed from Microsoft Word for Mac OS X 2011, although it was present in Word for Mac 2008.AutoSummarize was removed from the Office 2010 release version (14) as well.===Spike==='''Spike''' is a specialized cut command in Microsoft Word.",
"It is named after an implement in restaurants on which receipts are impaled, and similarly sequentially stores data to be pasted and adds them together to the document when the second function step, or paste, is performed.",
"Please note that spiking (CONTROL–F3) performs a cut function, which can be immediately undone to simulate a \"copy\" command, while the pasting function (SHIFT–CONTROL–F3) will also clear the data from the spike, although this can be avoided by using alternatives to the three-key shortcut.",
"===Hidden text===Word supports marking selected text as \"hidden\".",
"Hidden text is text that is stored in the document but is not displayed.",
"For example, pages containing large amounts of markup language text can be made visually more readable during the editing process."
],
[
"Other platforms",
"=== Word for mobile ===Word Mobile is a word processor that allows creating and editing documents.",
"It supports basic formatting, such as bolding, changing font size, and changing colors (from red, yellow, or green).",
"It can add comments, but can't edit documents with tracked changes.",
"It can't open password-protected documents; change the typeface, text alignment, or style (normal, heading 1); insert responsive checkboxes; insert pictures; or undo.",
"Word Mobile is neither able to display nor insert footnotes, endnotes, page footers, page breaks, certain indentation of lists, and certain fonts while working on a document, but retains them if the original document has them.",
"Word Mobile can insert lists, but doesn't allow to set custom bullet symbols and customize list numbering.",
"In addition to the features of the 2013 version, the 2007 version on Windows Mobile also has the ability to save documents in the Rich Text Format and open legacy PSW (Pocket Word).",
"Furthermore, it includes a spell checker, word count tool, and a \"Find and Replace\" command.",
"In 2015, Word Mobile became available for Windows 10 and Windows 10 Mobile on Windows Store.Support for the Windows 10 Mobile version ended on January 12, 2021.===Word for the web===Word for the web is a free lightweight version of Microsoft Word available as part of Office on the web, which also includes web versions of Microsoft Excel and Microsoft PowerPoint.Word for the web lacks some Ribbon tabs, such as Design and Mailings.",
"Mailings allows users to print envelopes and labels and manage mail merge printing of Word documents.",
"Word for the web is not able to edit certain objects, such as: equations, shapes, text boxes or drawings, but a placeholder may be present in the document.",
"Certain advanced features like table sorting or columns will not be displayed but are preserved as they were in the document.",
"Other views available in the Word desktop app (Outline, Draft, Web Layout, and Full-Screen Reading) are not available, nor are side-by-side viewing, split windows, and the ruler."
],
[
"Password protection",
"Three password types can be set in Microsoft Word:* Password to open a document * Password to modify a document* Password restricting formatting and editingThe second and third password types were developed by Microsoft for convenient shared use of documents rather than for their protection.",
"There is no encryption of documents that are protected by such passwords and the Microsoft Office protection system saves a hash sum of a password in a document's header where it can be easily accessed and removed by the specialized software.",
"''Password to open a document'' offers much tougher protection that had been steadily enhanced in the subsequent editions of Microsoft Office.",
"''Word 95'' and all the preceding editions had the weakest protection that utilized a conversion of a password to a 16-bit key.Key length in ''Word 97'' and ''2000'' was strengthened up to 40 bit.",
"However, modern cracking software allows removing such a password very quickly – a persistent cracking process takes one week at most.",
"Use of rainbow tables reduces password removal time to several seconds.",
"Some password recovery software can not only remove a password but also find an actual password that was used by a user to encrypt the document using the brute-force attack approach.",
"Statistically, the possibility of recovering the password depends on the password strength.Word's 2003/XP version default protection remained the same but an option that allowed advanced users to choose a Cryptographic Service Provider was added.",
"If a strong CSP is chosen, guaranteed document decryption becomes unavailable and, therefore, a password can't be removed from the document.",
"Nonetheless, a password can be fairly quickly picked with a brute-force attack, because its speed is still high regardless of the CSP selected.",
"Moreover, since the CSPs are not active by default, their use is limited to advanced users only.Word 2007 offers significantly more secure document protection which utilizes the modern Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) that converts a password to a 128-bit key using a SHA-1 hash function 50,000 times.",
"It makes password removal impossible (as of today, no computer that can pick the key in a reasonable amount of time exists) and drastically slows the brute-force attack speed down to several hundreds of passwords per second.Word's 2010 protection algorithm was not changed apart from the increasing number of SHA-1 conversions up to 100,000 times and consequently, the brute-force attack speed decreased two times more."
],
[
"Reception",
"Initial releases of Word were met with criticism.",
"Byte in 1984 criticized the documentation for Word 1.1 and 2.0 for DOS, calling it \"a complete farce\".",
"It called the software \"clever, put together well and performs some extraordinary feats\", but concluded that \"especially when operated with the mouse, has many more limitations than benefits ... extremely frustrating to learn and operate efficiently\".",
"''PC Magazine'' review was very mixed, stating: \"I've run into weird word processors before, but this is the first time one's nearly knocked me down for the count\" but acknowledging that Word's innovations were the first that caused the reviewer to consider abandoning WordStar.",
"While the review cited an excellent WYSIWYG display, sophisticated print formatting, windows, and footnoting as merits, it criticized many small flaws, very slow performance, and \"documentation produced by Madame Sadie's Pain Palace\".",
"It concluded that Word was \"two releases away from potential greatness\".''Compute!",
"'s Apple Applications'' in 1987 stated that \"despite a certain awkwardness\", Word 3.01 \"will likely become the major Macintosh word processor\" with \"far too many features to list here\".",
"While criticizing the lack of true WYSIWYG, the magazine concluded that \"''Word'' is marvelous.",
"It's like a Mozart or Edison, whose occasional gaucherie we excuse because of his great gifts\".''Compute!''",
"in 1989 stated that Word 5.0's integration of text and graphics made it \"a solid engine for basic desktop publishing\".",
"The magazine approved of improvements to text mode, described the $75 price for upgrading from an earlier version as \"the deal of the decade\" and concluded that \"as a high-octane word processor, ''Word'' is worth a look\".During the first quarter of 1996, Microsoft Word accounted for 80% of the worldwide word processing market."
],
[
"Release history",
"Microsoft Word 2010 running on Windows 7+ Microsoft Word for Windows release history Year released Name VersionComments 1989 Word for Windows 1.0 Code-named Opus 1990 Word for Windows 1.1 For Windows 3.0.Code-named Bill the Cat 1990 Word for Windows 1.1a On March 25, 2014, Microsoft made the source code to Word for Windows 1.1a available to the public via the Computer History Museum.",
"1991 Word for Windows 2.0 Included in Office 3.0.1993 Word for Windows 6.0 Version numbers 3, 4, and 5 were skipped, to bring Windows version numbering in line with that of DOS, Mac OS, and WordPerfect (the main competing word processor at the time).",
"Also, a 32-bit version for Windows NT only.",
"Included in Office 4.0, 4.2, and 4.3.1995 Word for Windows 95 Included in Office 95 1997 Word 97 Included in Office 97 1998 Word 98 Included in Office 97 1999 Word 2000 Included in Office 2000 2001 Word 2002 Included in Office XP 2003 Office Word 2003 Included in Office 2003 2006 Office Word 2007 Included in Office 2007; released to businesses on November 30, 2006, released worldwide to consumers on January 30, 2007.Extended support until October 10, 2017.2010 Word 2010 Included in Office 2010; skipped 13.0 due to triskaidekaphobia.",
"2013 Word 2013 Included in Office 2013 2016 Word 2016 Included in Office 2016 2019 Word 2019 Included in Office 2019 2021 Word 2021 Included in Office 2021+ Microsoft Word for classic Mac OS and macOS release history Year released Name VersionComments 1985 Word 1 1987 Word 3 1989 Word 4 Part of Office 1.0 and 1.5 1991 Word 5* Part of Office 3.0* Requires System 6.0.2, 512 KB of RAM (1 MB for 5.1, 2 MB to use spell check and thesaurus), 6.5 MB available hard drive space 1992 Word 5.1 * Part of Office 3.0* Last version to support 68000-based Macs 1993 Word 6 * Part of Office 4.2* Shares code and user interface with Word for Windows 6* Requires System 7.0, 4 MB of RAM (8 MB recommended), at least 10 MB available hard drive space, 68020 CPU 1998 Word 98 * Part of Office 98 Macintosh Edition* Requires PowerPC-based Macintosh* Renumbered alongside contemporary Windows version 2000 Word 2001 * Part of Microsoft Office 2001* Word 2001 is the last version that is compatible with Classic Mac OS (Mac OS 9 or earlier) 2001 Word v. X * Part of Office v. X* First version for Mac OS X only 2004 Word 2004 Part of Office 2004 2008 Word 2008 Part of Office 2008 2010 Word 2011 Part of Office 2011; skipped 13.0 due to triskaidekaphobia.",
"2015 Word 2016 Part of Office 2016; skipped 15.0 2019Word 2019Part of Office 2019 2021 Word 2021 Included in Office 2021+ Word for MS-DOS release history Year released Name VersionComments 1983 Word 1 Initial version of Word 1985 Word 2 1986 Word 3 Removed copy protection 1987 Word 4 1989 Word 5 1991 Word 5.1 1991 Word 5.5 First DOS version to use a Windows-like user interface 1993 Word 6 Last DOS version.+ Word release history on other platforms Platform Year released NameComments Atari ST 1988 Microsoft Write Based on Microsoft Word 1.05 for Mac OS OS/2 1989 Microsoft Word 5.0 Word 5.0 for DOS is a \"family mode\" application capable of running as a native app on either MS-DOS or 16-bit OS/2.OS/2 1991 Microsoft Word 5.5 Word 5.5 for DOS is a \"family mode\" application capable of running as a native app on either MS-DOS or 16-bit OS/2.OS/2 1990 Microsoft Word for OS/2 Presentation Manager version 1.1 OS/2 1991 Microsoft Word for OS/2 Presentation Manager version 1.2 SCO Unix 1990 Microsoft Word for Unix version 5.0 SCO Unix 1991 Microsoft Word for Unix version 5.1"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Tsang, Cheryl.",
"''Microsoft: First Generation''.",
"New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.",
".",
"* Liebowitz, Stan J.",
"& Margolis, Stephen E. ''Winners, Losers & Microsoft: Competition and Antitrust in High Technology'' Oakland: Independent Institute.",
"."
],
[
"External links",
"* – official site* Find and replace text by using regular expressions (Advanced) - archived official support website"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Microsoft Office"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Microsoft Office''', or simply '''Office''', is a family of client software, server software, and services developed by Microsoft.",
"It was first announced by Bill Gates on August 1, 1988, at COMDEX in Las Vegas.",
"Initially a marketing term for an office suite (bundled set of productivity applications), the first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint.",
"Over the years, Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared features such as a common spell checker, Object Linking and Embedding data integration and Visual Basic for Applications scripting language.",
"Microsoft also positions Office as a development platform for line-of-business software under the Office Business Applications brand.It contains a word processor (Word), a spreadsheet program (Excel) and a presentation program (PowerPoint), an email client (Outlook), a database management system (Access), and a desktop publishing app (Publisher).Office is produced in several versions targeted towards different end-users and computing environments.",
"The original, and most widely used version, is the desktop version, available for PCs running the Windows and macOS operating systems.",
"Microsoft also maintains mobile apps for Android and iOS.",
"Office on the web is a version of the software that runs within a web browser.Since Office 2013, Microsoft has promoted Office 365 as the primary means of obtaining Microsoft Office: it allows the use of the software and other services on a subscription business model, and users receive feature updates to the software for the lifetime of the subscription, including new features and cloud computing integration that are not necessarily included in the \"on-premises\" releases of Office sold under conventional license terms.",
"In 2017, revenue from Office 365 overtook conventional license sales.",
"Microsoft also rebranded most of their standard Office 365 editions as \"Microsoft 365\" to reflect their inclusion of features and services beyond the core Microsoft Office suite.In October 2022, Microsoft announced that it was to phase out the Microsoft Office brand in favor of \"Microsoft 365\" by January 2023, the name continuing to be used for legacy product offerings.",
"However, Microsoft reversed this stance with the release of an Office 2024 preview build in November 2023."
],
[
"Components",
"===Core apps and services===* '''Microsoft Word''' is a word processor included in Microsoft Office and some editions of the now-discontinued Microsoft Works.",
"The first version of Word, released in the autumn of 1983, was for the MS-DOS operating system and introduced the computer mouse to more users.",
"Word 1.0 could be purchased with a bundled mouse, though none was required.",
"Following the precedents of LisaWrite and MacWrite, Word for Macintosh attempted to add closer WYSIWYG features into its package.",
"Word for Mac was released in 1985.Word for Mac was the first graphical version of Microsoft Word.",
"Initially, it implemented the proprietary .doc format as its primary format.",
"Word 2007, however, deprecated this format in favor of Office Open XML, which was later standardized by Ecma International as an open format.",
"Support for Portable Document Format (PDF) and OpenDocument (ODF) was first introduced in Word for Windows with Service Pack 2 for Word 2007.",
"* '''Microsoft Excel''' is a spreadsheet editor that originally competed with the dominant Lotus 1-2-3 and eventually outsold it.",
"Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Mac OS in 1985 and the first Windows version (numbered 2.05 to line up with the Mac) in November 1987.",
"* '''Microsoft PowerPoint''' is a presentation program used to create slideshows composed of text, graphics, and other objects, which can be displayed on-screen and shown by the presenter or printed out on transparencies or slides.",
"* '''Microsoft OneNote''' is a notetaking program that gathers handwritten or typed notes, drawings, screen clippings and audio commentaries.",
"Notes can be shared with other OneNote users over the Internet or a network.",
"OneNote was initially introduced as a standalone app that was not included in any Microsoft Office 2003 edition.",
"However, OneNote eventually became a core component of Microsoft Office; with the release of Microsoft Office 2013, OneNote was included in all Microsoft Office offerings.",
"OneNote is also available as a web app on Office on the web, a freemium (and later freeware) Windows desktop app, a mobile app for Windows Phone, iOS, Android, and Symbian, and a Metro-style app for Windows 8 or later.",
"* '''Microsoft Outlook''' (not to be confused with Outlook Express, Outlook.com or Outlook on the web) is a personal information manager that replaces Windows Messaging, Microsoft Mail, and Schedule+ starting in Office 97; it includes an e-mail client, calendar, task manager and address book.",
"On the Mac OS, Microsoft offered several versions of Outlook in the late 1990s, but only for use with Microsoft Exchange Server.",
"In Office 2001, it introduced an alternative application with a slightly different feature set called Microsoft Entourage.",
"It reintroduced Outlook in Office 2011, replacing Entourage.",
"* '''Microsoft OneDrive''' is a file hosting service that allows users to sync files and later access them from a web browser or mobile device.",
"* '''Microsoft Teams''' is a platform that combines workplace chat, meetings, notes, and attachments.===Windows-only apps===* '''Microsoft Publisher''' is a desktop publishing app for Windows mostly used for designing brochures, labels, calendars, greeting cards, business cards, newsletters, web sites, and postcards.",
"* '''Microsoft Access''' is a database management system for Windows that combines the relational Access Database Engine (formerly Jet Database Engine) with a graphical user interface and software development tools.",
"Microsoft Access stores data in its own format based on the Access Database Engine.",
"It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications and databases.",
"* '''Microsoft Project''' is a project management app for Windows to keep track of events and to create network charts and Gantt charts, not bundled in any Office suite.",
"* '''Microsoft Visio''' is a diagram and flowcharting app for Windows not bundled in any Office suite.===Mobile-only apps===* '''Office Lens''' is an image scanner optimized for mobile devices.",
"It captures the document (e.g.",
"business card, paper, whiteboard) via the camera and then straightens the document portion of the image.",
"The result can be exported to Word, OneNote, PowerPoint or Outlook, or saved in OneDrive, sent via Mail or placed in Photo Library.",
"* '''Office Mobile''' is a unified Office mobile app for Android and iOS, which combines Word, Excel, and PowerPoint into a single app and introduces new capabilities as making quick notes, signing PDFs, scanning QR codes, and transferring files.",
"* '''Office Remote''' is an application that turns the mobile device into a remote control for desktop versions of Word, Excel and PowerPoint.===Server applications===* '''Microsoft SharePoint''' is a web-based collaborative platform that integrates with Microsoft Office.",
"Launched in 2001, SharePoint is primarily sold as a document management and storage system, but the product is highly configurable and usage varies substantially among organizations.",
"SharePoint services include:** Excel Services is a spreadsheet editing server similar to Microsoft Excel.",
"** InfoPath Forms Services is a form distribution server similar to Microsoft InfoPath.",
"** Microsoft Project Server is a project management server similar to Microsoft Project.",
"** Microsoft Search Server* '''Skype for Business Server''' is a real-time communications server for instant messaging and video-conferencing.",
"* '''Microsoft Exchange Server''' is a mail server and calendaring server.===Web services===* '''Microsoft Sway''' is a presentation web app released in October 2014.It also has a native app for iOS and Windows 10.",
"* '''Delve''' is a service that allows Office 365 users to search and manage their emails, meetings, contacts, social networks and documents stored on OneDrive or Sites in Office 365.",
"* '''Microsoft Forms''' is an online survey creator, available for Office 365 Education subscribers.",
"* '''Microsoft To Do''' is a task management service.",
"* '''Outlook.com''' is a free webmail with a user interface similar to Microsoft Outlook.",
"* '''Outlook on the web''' is a webmail client similar to Outlook.com but more comprehensive and available only through Office 365 and Microsoft Exchange Server offerings.",
"* '''Microsoft Planner''' is a planning application available on the Microsoft Office 365 platform.",
"* '''Microsoft Stream''' is a corporate video sharing service for enterprise users with an Office 365 Academic or Enterprise license.",
"* '''Microsoft Bookings''' is an appointment booking application on the Microsoft Office 365 platform."
],
[
"Office on the web",
"Office on the web is a free lightweight web version of Microsoft Office and primarily includes three web applications: Word, Excel and PowerPoint.",
"The offering also includes Outlook.com, OneNote and OneDrive which are accessible through a unified app switcher.",
"Users can install the on-premises version of this service, called Office Online Server, in private clouds in conjunction with SharePoint, Microsoft Exchange Server and Microsoft Lync Server.Word, Excel, and PowerPoint on the web can all natively open, edit, and save Office Open XML files (docx, xlsx, pptx) as well as OpenDocument files (odt, ods, odp).",
"They can also open the older Office file formats (doc, xls, ppt), but will be converted to the newer Open XML formats if the user wishes to edit them online.",
"Other formats cannot be opened in the browser apps, such as CSV in Excel or HTML in Word, nor can Office files that are encrypted with a password be opened.",
"Files with macros can be opened in the browser apps, but the macros cannot be accessed or executed.",
"Starting in July 2013, Word can render PDF documents or convert them to Microsoft Word documents, although the formatting of the document may deviate from the original.",
"Since November 2013, the apps have supported real-time co-authoring and autosaving files.Office on the web lacks a number of the advanced features present in the full desktop versions of Office, including lacking the programs Access and Publisher entirely.",
"However, users are able to select the command \"Open in Desktop App\" that brings up the document in the desktop version of Office on their computer or device to utilize the advanced features there.Supported web browsers include Microsoft Edge, Internet Explorer 11, the latest versions of Firefox or Google Chrome, as well as Safari for OS X 10.8 or later.The Personal edition of Office on the web is available to the general public free of charge with a Microsoft account through the Office.com website, which superseded SkyDrive (now OneDrive) and Office Live Workspace.",
"Enterprise-managed versions are available through Office 365.In February 2013, the ability to view and edit files on SkyDrive without signing in was added.",
"The service can also be installed privately in enterprise environments as a SharePoint app, or through Office Web Apps Server.",
"Microsoft also offers other web apps in the Office suite, such as the Outlook Web App (formerly Outlook Web Access), Lync Web App (formerly Office Communicator Web Access), Project Web App (formerly Project Web Access).",
"Additionally, Microsoft offers a service under the name of Online Doc Viewer to view Office documents on a website via Office on the web."
],
[
"Common features",
"Most versions of Microsoft Office (including Office 97 and later) use their own widget set and do not exactly match the native operating system.",
"This is most apparent in Microsoft Office XP and 2003, where the standard menus were replaced with a colored, flat-looking, shadowed menu style.The user interface of a particular version of Microsoft Office often heavily influences a subsequent version of Microsoft Windows.",
"E.g.",
":-* The toolbar, colored buttons and the gray-colored 3D look of Office 4.3 were added to Windows 95.",
"* The ribbon, introduced in Office 2007, has been incorporated into several programs bundled with Windows 7 and later.",
"* The flat, box-like design of Office 2013 (released in 2012) was replicated in Windows 8's new UI revamp.Users of Microsoft Office may access external data via connection-specifications saved in Office Data Connection (.odc) files.Office, on all platforms, supports editing both server files (in real time) and offline files (manually saved) in recent years.",
"The support for editing server files (in real time) was originally introduced (in its current form) after the introduction of OneDrive (formerly SkyDrive).",
"But, older versions of Office also have the ability to edit server files (notably Office 2007).Both Windows and Office used service packs to update software.",
"Office had non-cumulative service releases, which were discontinued after Office 2000 Service Release 1.Now, Windows and Office have shifted to predictable (monthly, semi-annual and annual) release schemes to update software.Past versions of Office often contained Easter eggs.",
"For example, Excel 97 contained a reasonably functional flight-simulator."
],
[
"File formats and metadata",
"Microsoft Office prior to Office 2007 used proprietary file formats based on the OLE Compound File Binary Format.",
"This forced users who share data to adopt the same software platform.",
"In 2008, Microsoft made the entire documentation for the binary Office formats freely available for download and granted any possible patents rights for use or implementations of those binary format for free under the Open Specification Promise.",
"Previously, Microsoft had supplied such documentation freely but only on request.Starting with Office 2007, the default file format has been a version of Office Open XML, though different from the one standardized and published by Ecma International and by ISO/IEC.",
"Microsoft has granted patent rights to the formats technology under the Open Specification Promise and has made available free downloadable converters for previous versions of Microsoft Office including Office 2003, Office XP, Office 2000 and Office 2004 for Mac OS X.",
"Third-party implementations of Office Open XML exist on the Windows platform (LibreOffice, all platforms), macOS platform (iWork '08, NeoOffice, LibreOffice) and Linux (LibreOffice and OpenOffice.org 3.0).",
"In addition, Office 2010, Service Pack 2 for Office 2007, and Office 2016 for Mac supports the OpenDocument Format (ODF) for opening and saving documents – only the old ODF 1.0 (2006 ISO/IEC standard) is supported, not the 1.2 version (2015 ISO/IEC standard).Microsoft provides the ability to remove metadata from Office documents.",
"This was in response to highly publicized incidents where sensitive data about a document was leaked via its metadata.",
"Metadata removal was first available in 2004, when Microsoft released a tool called ''Remove Hidden Data Add-in for Office 2003/XP'' for this purpose.",
"It was directly integrated into Office 2007 in a feature called the ''Document Inspector''."
],
[
"Extensibility",
"A major feature of the Office suite is the ability for users and third-party companies to write add-ins (plug-ins) that extend the capabilities of an application by adding custom commands and specialized features.",
"One of the new features is the Office Store.",
"Plugins and other tools can be downloaded by users.",
"Developers can make money by selling their applications in the Office Store.",
"The revenue is divided between the developer and Microsoft where the developer gets 80% of the money.",
"Developers are able to share applications with all Office users.The app travels with the document, and it is for the developer to decide what the recipient will see when they open it.",
"The recipient will either have the option to download the app from the Office Store for free, start a free trial or be directed to payment.With Office's cloud abilities, IT departments can create a set of apps for their business employees in order to increase their productivity.",
"When employees go to the Office Store, they'll see their company's apps under ''My Organization''.",
"The apps that employees have personally downloaded will appear under ''My Apps''.",
"Developers can use web technologies like HTML5, XML, CSS3, JavaScript, and APIs for building the apps.An application for Office is a webpage that is hosted inside an Office client application.",
"Users can use apps to amplify the functionality of a document, email message, meeting request, or appointment.",
"Apps can run in multiple environments and by multiple clients, including rich Office desktop clients, Office Web Apps, mobile browsers, and also on-premises and in the cloud.",
"The type of add-ins supported differ by Office versions:* Office 97 onwards (standard Windows DLLs i.e.",
"Word WLLs and Excel XLLs)* Office 2000 onwards (COM add-ins)* Office XP onwards (COM/OLE Automation add-ins)* Office 2003 onwards (Managed code add-ins – VSTO solutions)"
],
[
"Password protection",
"Microsoft Office has a security feature that allows users to encrypt Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access, Skype Business) documents with a user-provided password.",
"The password can contain up to 255 characters and uses AES 128-bit advanced encryption by default.",
"Passwords can also be used to restrict modification of the entire document, worksheet or presentation.",
"Due to lack of document encryption, though, these passwords can be removed using a third-party cracking software."
],
[
"Support policies",
"=== Approach ===All versions of Microsoft Office products from Office 2000 to Office 2016 are eligible for ten years of support following their release, during which Microsoft releases security updates for the product version and provides paid technical support.",
"The ten-year period is divided into two five-year phases: The mainstream phase and the extended phase.",
"During the mainstream phase, Microsoft may provide limited complimentary technical support and release non-security updates or change the design of the product.",
"During the extended phase, said services stop.",
"Office 2019 only receives 5 years of mainstream and 2 years of extended support and Office 2021 only gets 5 years of mainstream support.=== Timelines of support ==="
],
[
"Platforms",
"Microsoft supports Office for the Windows and macOS platforms, as well as mobile versions for Windows Phone, Android and iOS platforms.",
"Beginning with Mac Office 4.2, the macOS and Windows versions of Office share the same file format, and are interoperable.",
"Visual Basic for Applications support was dropped in Microsoft Office 2008 for Mac, then reintroduced in Office for Mac 2011.Microsoft tried in the mid-1990s to port Office to RISC processors such as NEC/MIPS and IBM/PowerPC, but they met problems such as memory access being hampered by data structure alignment requirements.",
"Microsoft Word 97 and Excel 97, however, did ship for the DEC Alpha platform.",
"Difficulties in porting Office may have been a factor in discontinuing Windows NT on non-Intel platforms."
],
[
"Pricing model and editions",
"The Microsoft Office applications and suites are sold via retail channels, and volume licensing for larger organizations (also including the \"Home Use Program\".",
"allowing users at participating organizations to buy low-cost licenses for use on their personal devices as part of their employer's volume license agreement).In 2010, Microsoft introduced a software as a service platform known as Office 365, to provide cloud-hosted versions of Office's server software, including Exchange e-mail and SharePoint, on a subscription basis (competing in particular with Google Apps).",
"Following the release of Office 2013, Microsoft began to offer Office 365 plans for the consumer market, with access to Microsoft Office software on multiple devices with free feature updates over the life of the subscription, as well as other services such as OneDrive storage.Microsoft has since promoted Office 365 as the primary means of purchasing Microsoft Office.",
"Although there are still \"on-premises\" releases roughly every three years, Microsoft marketing emphasizes that they do not receive new features or access to new cloud-based services as they are released unlike Office 365, as well as other benefits for consumer and business markets.",
"Office 365 revenue overtook traditional license sales for Office in 2017.=== Editions ===Microsoft Office is available in several editions, which regroup a given number of applications for a specific price.",
"Primarily, Microsoft sells Office as Microsoft 365.The editions are as follows:* Microsoft 365 Personal* Microsoft 365 Family* Microsoft 365 Business Basic* Microsoft 365 Business Standard* Microsoft 365 Business Premium* Microsoft 365 apps for business* Microsoft 365 apps for enterprise* Office 365 E1, E3, E5* Office 365 A1, A3, A5 (for education)* Office 365 G1, G3, G5 (for government)* Microsoft 365 F1, F3, Office 365 F3 (for frontline)Microsoft sells Office for a one-time purchase as Home & Student and Home & Business, however, these editions do not receive major updates.=== Education pricing ===Post-secondary students may obtain the university edition of Microsoft Office 365 subscription.",
"It is limited to one user and two devices, plus the subscription price is valid for four years instead of just one.",
"Apart from this, the university edition is identical in features to the Home Premium version.",
"This marks the first time Microsoft does not offer physical or permanent software at academic pricing, in contrast to the university versions of Office 2010 and Office 2011.In addition, students eligible for DreamSpark program may receive select standalone Microsoft Office apps free of charge."
],
[
"Discontinued applications and features",
"* Binder was an application that can incorporate several documents into one file and was originally designed as a container system for storing related documents in a single file.",
"The complexity of use and learning curve led to little usage, and it was discontinued after Office XP.",
"* Bookshelf was a reference collection introduced in 1987 as part of Microsoft's extensive work in promoting CD-ROM technology as a distribution medium for electronic publishing.",
"* Data Analyzer was a business intelligence program for graphical visualization of data and its analysis.",
"* Docs.com was a public document sharing service where Office users can upload and share Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Sway and PDF files for the whole world to discover and use.",
"* Entourage was an Outlook counterpart on macOS, Microsoft discontinued it in favor of extending the Outlook brand name.",
"* FrontPage was a WYSIWYG HTML editor and website administration tool for Windows.",
"It was branded as part of the Microsoft Office suite from 1997 to 2003.FrontPage was discontinued in December 2006 and replaced by Microsoft SharePoint Designer and Microsoft Expression Web.",
"* InfoPath was a Windows application for designing and distributing rich XML-based forms.",
"The last version was included in Office 2013.",
"* InterConnect was a business-relationship database available only in Japan.",
"* Internet Explorer was a graphical web browser and one of the main participants of the first browser war.",
"It was included in Office until Office XP when it was removed.",
"* Mail was a mail client (in old versions of Office, later replaced by Microsoft Schedule Plus and subsequently Microsoft Outlook).",
"* Office Accounting (formerly Small Business Accounting) was an accounting software application from Microsoft targeted towards small businesses that had between 1 and 25 employees.",
"* Office Assistant (included since Office 97 on Windows and Office 98 on Mac as a part of Microsoft Agent technology) was a system that uses animated characters to offer context-sensitive suggestions to users and access to the help system.",
"The Assistant is often dubbed \"Clippy\" or \"Clippit\", due to its default to a paper clip character, coded as CLIPPIT.ACS.",
"The latest versions that include the Office Assistant were Office 2003 (Windows) and Office 2004 (Mac).",
"* Office Document Image Writer was a virtual printer that takes documents from Microsoft Office or any other application and prints them, or stores them in an image file as TIFF or Microsoft Document Imaging Format format.",
"It was discontinued with Office 2010.",
"* Office Document Imaging was an application that supports editing scanned documents.",
"Discontinued Office 2010.",
"* Office Document Scanning was a scanning and OCR application.",
"Discontinued Office 2010.",
"* Office Picture Manager was a basic photo management software (similar to Google's Picasa or Adobe's Photoshop Elements), that replaced Microsoft Photo Editor.",
"* PhotoDraw was a graphics program that was first released as part of the Office 2000 Premium Edition.",
"A later version for Windows XP compatibility was released, known as PhotoDraw 2000 Version 2.Microsoft discontinued the program in 2001.",
"* Photo Editor was photo-editing or raster-graphics software in older Office versions up to Office XP.",
"It was supplemented by Microsoft PhotoDraw in Office 2000 Premium edition.",
"* Schedule Plus (also shown as Schedule+) was released with Office 95.It featured a planner, to-do list, and contact information.",
"Its functions were incorporated into Microsoft Outlook.",
"* SharePoint Designer was a WYSIWYG HTML editor and website administration tool.",
"Microsoft attempted to turn it into a specialized HTML editor for SharePoint sites, but failed on this project and wanted to discontinue it.",
"* SharePoint Workspace (formerly Groove) was a proprietary peer-to-peer document collaboration software designed for teams with members who are regularly offline or who do not share the same network security clearance.",
"* Skype for Business was an integrated communications client for conferences and meetings in real-time; it is the only Microsoft Office desktop app that is neither useful without a proper network infrastructure nor has the \"Microsoft\" prefix in its name.",
"* Streets & Trips (known in other countries as Microsoft AutoRoute) is a discontinued mapping program developed and distributed by Microsoft.",
"* Unbind is a program that can extract the contents of a Binder file.",
"Unbind can be installed from the Office XP CD-ROM.",
"* Virtual PC was included with Microsoft Office Professional Edition 2004 for Mac.",
"Microsoft discontinued support for Virtual PC on the Mac in 2006 owing to new Macs possessing the same Intel architecture as Windows PCs.",
"It emulated a standard PC and its hardware.",
"* Vizact was a program that \"activated\" documents using HTML, adding effects such as animation.",
"It allows users to create dynamic documents for the Web.",
"The development has ended due to unpopularity.===Discontinued server applications===* Microsoft Office Forms Server lets users use any browser to access and fill InfoPath forms.",
"Office Forms Server is a standalone server installation of InfoPath Forms Services.",
"* Microsoft Office Groove Server was centrally managing all deployments of Microsoft Office Groove in the enterprise.",
"* Microsoft Office Project Portfolio Server allows creation of a project portfolio, including workflows, which is hosted centrally.",
"* Microsoft Office PerformancePoint Server allows customers to monitor, analyze, and plan their business.===Discontinued web services===* Office Live** Office Live Small Business had web hosting services and online collaboration tools for small businesses.",
"** Office Live Workspace had online storage and collaboration service for documents, which was superseded by Office on the web.",
"* Office Live Meeting was a web conferencing service."
],
[
"Criticism",
"=== Data formats ===Microsoft Office has been criticized in the past for using proprietary file formats rather than open standards, which forces users who share data into adopting the same software platform.",
"However, on February 15, 2008, Microsoft made the entire documentation for the binary Office formats freely available under the Open Specification Promise.",
"Also, Office Open XML, the document format for the latest versions of Office for Windows and Mac, has been standardized under both Ecma International and ISO.",
"Ecma International has published the Office Open XML specification free of copyrights and Microsoft has granted patent rights to the formats technology under the Open Specification Promise and has made available free downloadable converters for previous versions of Microsoft Office including Office 2003, Office XP, Office 2000 and Office 2004 for the Mac.",
"Third-party implementations of Office Open XML exist on the Mac platform (iWork 08) and Linux (OpenOffice.org 2.3 – Novell Edition only).=== Unicode and bi-directional texts ===Another point of criticism Microsoft Office has faced was the lack of support in its Mac versions for Unicode and Bidirectional text languages, notably Arabic and Hebrew.",
"This issue, which had existed since the first release in 1989, was addressed in the 2016 version.=== Privacy ===On November 13, 2018, a report initiated by the Government of the Netherlands concluded that Microsoft Office 2016 and Office 365 do not comply with GDPR, the European law which regulates data protection and privacy for all citizens in and outside the EU and EFTA region.",
"The investigation was initiated by the observation that Microsoft does not reveal or share publicly any data collected about users of its software.",
"In addition, the company does not provide users of its (Office) software an option to turn off diagnostic and telemetry data sent back to the company.",
"Researchers found that most of the data that the Microsoft software collects and \"sends home\" is diagnostics.",
"Researchers also observed that Microsoft \"seemingly tried to make the system GDPR compliant by storing Office documents on servers based in the EU\".",
"However, they discovered the software packages collected additional data that contained private user information, some of which was stored on servers located in the US.",
"The Netherlands Ministry of Justice hired Privacy Company to probe and evaluate the use of Microsoft Office products in the public sector.",
"\"Microsoft systematically collects data on a large scale about the individual use of Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Outlook.",
"Covertly, without informing people\", researchers of the Privacy Company stated in their blog post.",
"\"Microsoft does not offer any choice with regard to the amount of data, or possibility to switch off the collection, or ability to see what data are collected, because the data stream is encoded.",
"\"The researchers commented that there is no need for Microsoft to store information such as IPs and email addresses, which are collected automatically by the software.",
"\"Microsoft should not store these transient, functional data, unless the retention is strictly necessary, for example, for security purposes\", the researchers conclude in the final report by the Netherlands Ministry of Justice.As a result of this in-depth study and its conclusions, the Netherlands regulatory body concluded that Microsoft has violated GDPR \"on many counts\" including \"lack of transparency and purpose limitation, and the lack of a legal ground for the processing.\"",
"Microsoft has provided the Dutch authorities with an \"improvement plan\" that should satisfy Dutch regulators that it \"would end all violations\".",
"The Dutch regulatory body is monitoring the situation and states that \"If progress is deemed insufficient or if the improvements offered are unsatisfactory, SLM Microsoft Rijk will reconsider its position and may ask the Dutch Data Protection Authority to carry out a prior consultation and to impose enforcement measures.\"",
"When asked for a response by an IT professional publication, a Microsoft spokesperson stated: \"We are committed to our customers’ privacy, putting them in control of their data and ensuring that Office ProPlus and other Microsoft products and services comply with GDPR and other applicable laws.",
"We appreciate the opportunity to discuss our diagnostic data handling practices in Office ProPlus with the Dutch Ministry of Justice and look forward to a successful resolution of any concerns.\"",
"The user privacy data issue affects ProPlus subscriptions of Microsoft Office 2016 and Microsoft Office 365, including the online version of Microsoft Office 365."
],
[
"History of releases",
"+Windows Office version Version number Minimum operating system version Office support end date Mainstream Extended 3.x Windows 3.0 4.x 6.0 3.1 95 7.0 NT 3.51 or 95 97 8.0 NT 3.51 SP5 or 95 2000 9.0 95 or NT 4 SP3 XP 10.0 98 or NT 4 SP6a 2003 11.0 2000 SP3 2007 12.0 XP SP2 2010 14.0 XP SP3 2013 15.0 7 2016 16.0 7 SP1 2019 10 2021 2024 TBA +Mac Office version Version number Minimum operating system Office support end date 3.0 6.0 ClassicMac OS 4.2 7.0 7.0 (68K) 98 Macintosh Edition 8.0 7.5 (PPC) 2001 9.0 8.1 (PPC) v. X 10.0 macOS 10.1 – 10.6 2004 for Mac 11.0 10.2 – 10.6 2008 for Mac 12.0 10.4 (PPC) – 10.12 2011 for Mac 14.0 10.5 (Intel) – 10.12 2016 15.0 – 16.16.x 10.10 – 10.13 2019 16.17 – 16.52 10.12 – 11 2021 16.53+ 10.15 – 11 2024 TBA 12 – 14 + iOS & Android Office version Version number Minimum operating system Androidfor Word, Excel, PowerPoint 16.0 Android Pie (9.0) iOSfor Word, Excel, PowerPoint 2.80 iOS 16 iOS (Beta Channel)for Word, Excel, PowerPoint and Office Mobile 2.80 iOS 16 with TestFlight installed.",
"OneNote for iOS 16.80 iOS 16 OneNote (Beta Channel)for iOS 16.80 iOS 16 with TestFlight installed."
],
[
"Version history",
"===Windows versions===Microsoft Office 4.0, inside 240x240px====Microsoft Office for Windows====Microsoft Office for Windows started in October 1990 as a bundle of three applications designed for Microsoft Windows 3.0: Microsoft Word for Windows 1.1, Microsoft Excel for Windows 2.0, and Microsoft PowerPoint for Windows 2.0.Microsoft Office for Windows 1.5 updated the suite with Microsoft Excel 3.0.Version 1.6 added Microsoft Mail for PC Networks 2.1 to the bundle.====Microsoft Office 3.0====Microsoft Office 3.0, also called Microsoft Office 92, was released on August 30, 1992, and contained Word 2.0, Excel 4.0, PowerPoint 3.0 and Mail 3.0.It was the first version of Office also released on CD-ROM.",
"In 1993, '''Microsoft Office Professional''' was released, which added Microsoft Access 1.1.====Microsoft Office 4.x====Microsoft Office 4.0 was released containing Word 6.0, Excel 4.0a, PowerPoint 3.0 and Mail in 1993.Word's version number jumped from 2.0 to 6.0 so that it would have the same version number as the MS-DOS and Macintosh versions (Excel and PowerPoint were already numbered the same as the Macintosh versions).Microsoft Office 4.2 for Windows NT was released in 1994 for i386, Alpha, MIPS and PowerPC architectures, containing Word 6.0 and Excel 5.0 (both 32-bit, PowerPoint 4.0 (16-bit), and Microsoft Office Manager 4.2 (the precursor to the Office Shortcut Bar)).====Microsoft Office 95===='''Microsoft Office 95''' was released on August 24, 1995.Software version numbers were altered again to create parity across the suiteevery program was called version 7.0 meaning all but Word missed out versions.",
"Office 95 included new components to the suite such as Schedule+ and Binder.",
"Office for Windows 95 was designed as a fully 32-bit version to match Windows 95 although some apps not bundled as part of the suite at that time - Publisher for Windows 95 and Project 95 had some 16-bit components even though their main program executable was 32-bit.Office 95 was available in two versions, Office 95 Standard and Office 95 Professional.",
"The standard version consisted of Word 7.0, Excel 7.0, PowerPoint 7.0, and Schedule+ 7.0.The professional edition contained all of the items in the standard version plus Access 7.0.If the professional version was purchased in CD-ROM form, it also included Bookshelf.The logo used in Office 95 returns in Office 97, 2000 and XP.",
"Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition also uses a similar logo.==== Microsoft Office 97 ===='''Microsoft Office 97''' (Office 8.0) included hundreds of new features and improvements, such as introducing command bars, a paradigm in which menus and toolbars were made more similar in capability and visual design.",
"Office 97 also featured Natural Language Systems and grammar checking.",
"Office 97 featured new components to the suite including FrontPage 97, Expedia Streets 98 (in Small Business Edition), and Internet Explorer 3.0 & 4.0.Office 97 was the first version of Office to include the Office Assistant.",
"In Brazil, it was also the first version to introduce the Registration Wizard, a precursor to Microsoft Product Activation.",
"With this release, the accompanying apps, Project 98 and Publisher 98 also transitioned to fully 32-bit versions.",
"Exchange Server, a mail server and calendaring server developed by Microsoft, is the server for Outlook after discontinuing Exchange Client.====Microsoft Office 2000===='''Microsoft Office 2000''' (Office 9.0) introduced adaptive menus, where little-used options were hidden from the user.",
"It also introduced a new security feature, built around digital signatures, to diminish the threat of macro viruses.",
"The Microsoft Script Editor, an optional tool that can edit script code, was also introduced in Office 2000.Office 2000 automatically trusts macros (written in VBA 6) that were digitally signed from authors who have been previously designated as trusted.",
"Office 2000 also introduces PhotoDraw, a raster and vector imaging program, as well as Web Components, Visio, and Vizact.The Registration Wizard, a precursor to Microsoft Product Activation, remained in Brazil and was also extended to Australia and New Zealand, though not for volume-licensed editions.",
"Academic software in the United States and Canada also featured the Registration Wizard.==== Microsoft Office XP ===='''Microsoft Office XP''' (Office 10.0 or Office 2002) was released in conjunction with Windows XP, and was a major upgrade with numerous enhancements and changes over Office 2000.Office XP introduced the Safe Mode feature, which allows applications such as Outlook to boot when it might otherwise fail by bypassing a corrupted registry or a faulty add-in.",
"Smart tag is a technology introduced with Office XP in Word and Excel and discontinued in Office 2010.Office XP also introduces new components including Document Imaging, Document Scanning, Clip Organizer, MapPoint, and Data Analyzer.",
"Binder was replaced by Unbind, a program that can extract the contents of a Binder file.",
"Unbind can be installed from the Office XP CD-ROM.Office XP includes integrated voice command and text dictation capabilities, as well as handwriting recognition.",
"It was the first version to require Microsoft Product Activation worldwide and in all editions as an anti-piracy measure, which attracted widespread controversy.",
"Product Activation remained absent from Office for Mac releases until it was introduced in Office 2011 for Mac.==== Microsoft Office 2003 ===='''Microsoft Office 2003''' (Office 11.0) was released in 2003.It featured a new logo.",
"Two new applications made their debut in Office 2003: Microsoft InfoPath and OneNote.",
"It is the first version to use new, more colorful icons.",
"Outlook 2003 provides improved functionality in many areas, including Kerberos authentication, RPC over HTTP, Cached Exchange Mode, and an improved junk mail filter.Office 2003 introduces three new programs to the Office product lineup: InfoPath, a program for designing, filling, and submitting electronic structured data forms; OneNote, a note-taking program for creating and organizing diagrams, graphics, handwritten notes, recorded audio, and text; and the Picture Manager graphics software which can open, manage, and share digital images.SharePoint, a web collaboration platform codenamed as Office Server, has integration and compatibility with Office 2003 and so on.====Microsoft Office 2007===='''Microsoft Office 2007''' (Office 12.0) was released in 2007.Office 2007's new features include a new graphical user interface called the Fluent User Interface, replacing the menus and toolbars that have been the cornerstone of Office since its inception with a tabbed toolbar, known as the Ribbon; new XML-based file formats called Office Open XML; and the inclusion of Groove, a collaborative software application.While Microsoft removed Data Analyzer, FrontPage, Vizact, and Schedule+ from Office 2007; they also added Communicator, Groove, SharePoint Designer, and Office Customization Tool (OCT) to the suite.====Microsoft Office 2010===='''Microsoft Office 2010''' (Office 14.0, Microsoft skipped 13.0 due to fear of 13) was finalized on April 15, 2010, and made available to consumers on June 15, 2010.The main features of Office 2010 include the backstage file menu, new collaboration tools, a customizable ribbon, protected view and a navigation panel.",
"Office Communicator, an instant messaging and videotelephony application, was renamed into Lync 2010.This is the first version to ship in 32-bit and 64-bit variants.",
"Microsoft Office 2010 featured a new logo, which resembled the 2007 logo, except in gold, and with a modification in shape.",
"Microsoft released Service Pack 1 for Office 2010 on June 28, 2011 and Service Pack 2 on July 16, 2013.Office Online was first released online along with SkyDrive, an online storing service.====Microsoft Office 2013====A technical preview of Microsoft Office 2013 (Build 15.0.3612.1010) was released on January 30, 2012, and a Customer Preview version was made available to consumers on July 16, 2012.It sports a revamped application interface; the interface is based on Metro, the interface of Windows Phone and Windows 8.Microsoft Outlook has received the most pronounced changes so far; for example, the Metro interface provides a new visualization for scheduled tasks.",
"PowerPoint includes more templates and transition effects, and OneNote includes a new splash screen.On May 16, 2011, new images of Office 15 were revealed, showing Excel with a tool for filtering data in a timeline, the ability to convert Roman numerals to Arabic numerals, and the integration of advanced trigonometric functions.",
"In Word, the capability of inserting video and audio online as well as the broadcasting of documents on the Web were implemented.",
"Microsoft has promised support for Office Open XML Strict starting with version 15, a format Microsoft has submitted to the ISO for interoperability with other office suites, and to aid adoption in the public sector.",
"This version can read and write ODF 1.2 (Windows only).On October 24, 2012, Office 2013 Professional Plus was released to manufacturing and was made available to TechNet and MSDN subscribers for download.",
"On November 15, 2012, the 60-day trial version was released for public download.",
"Office 2013 was released to general availability on January 29, 2013.Service Pack 1 for Office 2013 was released on February 25, 2014.Some applications were completely removed from the entire suite including SharePoint Workspace, Clip Organizer, and Office Picture Manager.==== Microsoft Office 2016 ====On January 22, 2015, the Microsoft Office blog announced that the next version of the suite for Windows desktop, Office 2016, was in development.",
"On May 4, 2015, a public preview of Microsoft Office 2016 was released.",
"Office 2016 was released for Mac OS X on July 9, 2015 and for Windows on September 22, 2015.Users who had the Professional Plus 2016 subscription have the new Skype for Business app.",
"Microsoft Teams, a team collaboration program meant to rival Slack, was released as a separate product for business and enterprise users.==== Microsoft Office 2019 ====On September 26, 2017, Microsoft announced that the next version of the suite for Windows desktop, Office 2019, was in development.",
"On April 27, 2018, Microsoft released Office 2019 Commercial Preview for Windows 10.It was released to general availability for Windows 10 and for macOS on September 24, 2018.==== Microsoft Office 2021 ====On February 18, 2021, Microsoft announced that the next version of the suite for Windows desktop, Office 2021, was in development.",
"This new version will be supported for five years and was released on October 5, 2021.==== Microsoft Office 2024 ====On November 14, 2023, Microsoft announced Office 2024, expected to be rolled out in the second half of 2024.The announcement was a reversal of their decision to discontinue the Office brand in January 2023.Like its predecessors, Office 2024 will be able to be purchased under a perpetual license for the desktop.===Mac versions===Prior to packaging its various office-type Mac OS software applications into Office, Microsoft released Mac versions of Word 1.0 in 1984, the first year of the Macintosh computer; Excel 1.0 in 1985; and PowerPoint 1.0 in 1987.Microsoft does not include its Access database application in Office for Mac.Microsoft has noted that some features are added to Office for Mac before they appear in Windows versions, such as Office for Mac 2001's Office Project Gallery and PowerPoint Movie feature, which allows users to save presentations as QuickTime movies.",
"However, Microsoft Office for Mac has been long criticized for its lack of support of Unicode and for its lack of support for right-to-left languages, notably Arabic, Hebrew and Persian.====Early Office for Mac releases (1989–1994)====Microsoft Office for Mac was introduced for Mac OS in 1989, before Office was released for Windows.",
"It included Word 4.0, Excel 2.2, PowerPoint 2.01, and Mail 1.37.It was originally a limited-time promotion but later became a regular product.",
"With the release of Office on CD-ROM later that year, Microsoft became the first major Mac publisher to put its applications on CD-ROM.Microsoft Office 1.5 for Mac was released in 1991 and included the updated Excel 3.0, the first application to support Apple's System 7 operating system.Microsoft Office 3.0 for Mac was released in 1992 and included Word 5.0, Excel 4.0, PowerPoint 3.0 and Mail Client.",
"Excel 4.0 was the first application to support new AppleScript.Microsoft Office 4.2 for Mac was released in 1994.",
"(Version 4.0 was skipped to synchronize version numbers with Office for Windows) Version 4.2 included Word 6.0, Excel 5.0, PowerPoint 4.0 and Mail 3.2.It was the first Office suite for Power Macintosh.",
"Its user interface was identical to Office 4.2 for Windows leading many customers to comment that it wasn't Mac-like enough.",
"The final release for Mac 68K was Office 4.2.1, which updated Word to version 6.0.1, somewhat improving performance.====Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition====Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition was unveiled at MacWorld Expo/San Francisco in 1998.It introduced the Internet Explorer 4.0 web browser and Outlook Express, an Internet e-mail client and usenet newsgroup reader.",
"Office 98 was re-engineered by Microsoft's Macintosh Business Unit to satisfy customers' desire for software they felt was more Mac-like.",
"It included drag–and-drop installation, self-repairing applications and Quick Thesaurus, before such features were available in Office for Windows.",
"It also was the first version to support QuickTime movies.====Microsoft Office 2001 and v. X====Microsoft Office v. X box artMicrosoft Office 2001 was launched in 2000 as the last Office suite for the classic Mac OS.",
"It required a PowerPC processor.",
"This version introduced Entourage, an e-mail client that included information management tools such as a calendar, an address book, task lists and notes.Microsoft Office v. X was released in 2001 and was the first version of Microsoft Office for Mac OS X.",
"Support for Office v. X ended on January 9, 2007, after the release of the final update, 10.1.9 Office v.X includes Word X, Excel X, PowerPoint X, Entourage X, MSN Messenger for Mac and Windows Media Player 9 for Mac; it was the last version of Office for Mac to include Internet Explorer for Mac.====Office 2004====Microsoft Office 2004 for Mac was released on May 11, 2004.It includes Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Entourage and Virtual PC.",
"It is the final version of Office to be built exclusively for PowerPC and to officially support G3 processors, as its sequel lists a G4, G5, or Intel processor as a requirement.",
"It was notable for supporting Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), which is unavailable in Office 2008.This led Microsoft to extend support for Office 2004 from October 13, 2009, to January 10, 2012.VBA functionality was reintroduced in Office 2011, which is only compatible with Intel processors.====Office 2008====Microsoft Office 2008 for Mac was released on January 15, 2008.It was the only Office for Mac suite to be compiled as a universal binary, being the first to feature native Intel support and the last to feature PowerPC support for G4 and G5 processors, although the suite is unofficially compatible with G3 processors.",
"New features include native Office Open XML file format support, which debuted in Office 2007 for Windows, and stronger Microsoft Office password protection employing AES-128 and SHA-1.Benchmarks suggested that compared to its predecessor, Office 2008 ran at similar speeds on Intel machines and slower speeds on PowerPC machines.",
"Office 2008 also lacked Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) support, leaving it with only 15 months of additional mainstream support compared to its predecessor.",
"Nevertheless, five months after it was released, Microsoft said that Office 2008 was \"selling faster than any previous version of Office for Mac in the past 19 years\" and affirmed \"its commitment to future products for the Mac.",
"\"====Office 2011====Microsoft Office for Mac 2011 was released on October 26, 2010,.",
"It is the first version of Office for Mac to be compiled exclusively for Intel processors, dropping support for the PowerPC architecture.",
"It features an OS X version of Outlook to replace the Entourage email client.",
"This version of Outlook is intended to make the OS X version of Office work better with Microsoft's Exchange server and with those using Office for Windows.",
"Office 2011 includes a Mac-based Ribbon similar to Office for Windows.====OneNote and Outlook release (2014)====Microsoft OneNote for Mac was released on March 17, 2014.It marks the company's first release of the note-taking software on the Mac.",
"It is available as a free download to all users of the Mac App Store in OS X Mavericks.Microsoft Outlook 2016 for Mac debuted on October 31, 2014.It requires a paid Office 365 subscription, meaning that traditional Office 2011 retail or volume licenses cannot activate this version of Outlook.",
"On that day, Microsoft confirmed that it would release the next version of Office for Mac in late 2015.Despite dropping support for older versions of OS X and only keeping support for 64-bit-only versions of OS X, these versions of OneNote and Outlook are 32-bit applications like their predecessors.====Office 2016====The first Preview version of Microsoft Office 2016 for Mac was released on March 5, 2015.On July 9, 2015, Microsoft released the final version of Microsoft Office 2016 for Mac which includes Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook and OneNote.",
"It was immediately made available for Office 365 subscribers with either a Home, Personal, Business, Business Premium, E3 or ProPlus subscription.",
"A non–Office 365 edition of Office 2016 was made available as a one-time purchase option on September 22, 2015.====Office 2019=======Mobile versions===Office Hub on Windows Phone 8 and 8.1 Office Mobile for iPhone was released on June 14, 2013, in the United States.",
"Support for 135 markets and 27 languages was rolled out over a few days.",
"It requires iOS 8 or later.",
"Although the app also works on iPad devices, excluding the first generation, it is designed for a small screen.",
"Office Mobile was released for Android phones on July 31, 2013, in the United States.",
"Support for 117 markets and 33 languages was added gradually over several weeks.",
"It is supported on Android 4.0 and later.Office Mobile is or was also available, though no longer supported, on Windows Mobile, Windows Phone and Symbian.",
"Windows RT devices (such as Microsoft Surface) were bundled with \"Office RT\", a port of the PC version of Office 2013 to ARM architecture.",
"The applications contain most of the functionality available in their versions for Intel-compatible PCs, but some features have been removed.====Early Office Mobile releases====Originally called Office Mobile which was shipped initially as \"Pocket Office\", was released by Microsoft with the Windows CE 1.0 operating system in 1996.This release was specifically for the Handheld PC hardware platform, as Windows Mobile Smartphone and Pocket PC hardware specifications had not yet been released.",
"It consisted of Pocket Word and Pocket Excel; PowerPoint, Access, and Outlook were added later.",
"With steady updates throughout subsequent releases of Windows Mobile, Office Mobile was rebranded as its current name after the release of the Windows Mobile 5.0 operating system.",
"This release of Office Mobile also included PowerPoint Mobile for the first time.",
"Accompanying the release of Microsoft OneNote 2007, a new optional addition to the Office Mobile line of programs was released as OneNote Mobile.",
"With the release of Windows Mobile 6 Standard, Office Mobile became available for the Smartphone hardware platform, but unlike Office Mobile for the Professional and Classic versions of Windows Mobile, creation of new documents is not an added feature.A popular workaround is to create a new blank document in a desktop version of Office, synchronize it to the device, and then edit and save on the Windows Mobile device.In June 2007, Microsoft announced a new version of the office suite, Office Mobile 2007.It became available as \"Office Mobile 6.1\" on September 26, 2007, as a free upgrade download to current Windows Mobile 5.0 and 6 users.",
"However, \"Office Mobile 6.1 Upgrade\" is not compatible with Windows Mobile 5.0 powered devices running builds earlier than 14847.It is a pre-installed feature in subsequent releases of Windows Mobile 6 devices.",
"Office Mobile 6.1 is compatible with the Office Open XML specification like its desktop counterpart.On August 12, 2009, it was announced that Office Mobile would also be released for the Symbian platform as a joint agreement between Microsoft and Nokia.",
"It was the first time Microsoft would develop Office mobile applications for another smartphone platform.",
"The first application to appear on Nokia Eseries smartphones was Microsoft Office Communicator.",
"In February 2012, Microsoft released OneNote, Lync 2010, Document Connection and PowerPoint Broadcast for Symbian.",
"In April, Word Mobile, PowerPoint Mobile and Excel Mobile joined the Office Suite.On October 21, 2010, Microsoft debuted Office Mobile 2010 with the release of Windows Phone 7.In Windows Phone, users can access and edit documents directly off of their SkyDrive or Office 365 accounts in a dedicated Office hub.",
"The Office Hub, which is preinstalled into the operating system, contains Word, PowerPoint and Excel.",
"The operating system also includes OneNote, although not as a part of the Office Hub.",
"Lync is not included, but can be downloaded as standalone app from the Windows Phone Store free of charge.In October 2012, Microsoft released a new version of Microsoft Office Mobile for Windows Phone 8 and Windows Phone 7.8.====Office for Android, iOS and Windows 10 Mobile====Office Mobile was released for iPhone on June 14, 2013, and for Android phones on July 31, 2013.In March 2014, Microsoft released Office Lens, a scanner app that enhances photos.",
"Photos are then attached to an Office document.",
"Office Lens is an app in the Windows Phone store, as well as built into the camera functionality in the OneNote apps for iOS and Windows 8.Word on the iPhoneOn March 27, 2014, Microsoft launched Office for iPad, the first dedicated version of Office for tablet computers.",
"In addition, Microsoft made the Android and iOS versions of Office Mobile free for 'home use' on phones, although the company still requires an Office 365 subscription for using Office Mobile for business use.",
"On November 6, 2014, Office was subsequently made free for personal use on the iPad in addition to phones.",
"As part of this announcement, Microsoft also split up its single \"Office suite\" app on iPhones into separate, standalone apps for Word, Excel and PowerPoint, released a revamped version of Office Mobile for iPhone, added direct integration with Dropbox, and previewed future versions of Office for other platforms.Office for Android tablets was released on January 29, 2015, following a successful two-month preview period.",
"These apps allow users to edit and create documents for free on devices with screen sizes of 10.1 inches or less, though as with the iPad versions, an Office 365 subscription is required to unlock premium features and for commercial use of the apps.",
"Tablets with screen sizes larger than 10.1 inches are also supported, but, as was originally the case with the iPad version, are restricted to viewing documents only unless a valid Office 365 subscription is used to enable editing and document creation.On January 21, 2015, during the \"Windows 10: The Next Chapter\" press event, Microsoft unveiled Office for Windows 10, Windows Runtime ports of the Android and iOS versions of the Office Mobile suite.",
"Optimized for smartphones and tablets, they are universal apps that can run on both Windows and Windows for phones, and share similar underlying code.",
"A simplified version of Outlook was also added to the suite.",
"They will be bundled with Windows 10 mobile devices, and available from the Windows Store for the PC version of Windows 10.Although the preview versions were free for most editing, the release versions will require an Office 365 subscription on larger tablets (screen size larger than 10.1 inches) and desktops for editing, as with large Android tablets.",
"Smaller tablets and phones will have most editing features for free.On June 24, 2015, Microsoft released Word, Excel and PowerPoint as standalone apps on Google Play for Android phones, following a one-month preview.",
"These apps have also been bundled with Android devices from major OEMs, as a result of Microsoft tying distribution of them and Skype to patent-licensing agreements related to the Android platform.",
"The Android version is also supported on certain ChromeOS machines.On February 19, 2020, Microsoft announced a new unified Office mobile app for Android and iOS.",
"This app combines Word, Excel, and PowerPoint into a single app and introduces new capabilities as making quick notes, signing PDFs, scanning QR codes, and transferring files.===Online versions===Office Web Apps was first revealed in October 2008 at PDC 2008 in Los Angeles.",
"Chris Capossela, senior vice president of Microsoft business division, introduced Office Web Apps as lightweight versions of Word, Excel, PowerPoint and OneNote that allow people to create, edit and collaborate on Office documents through a web browser.",
"According to Capossela, Office Web Apps was to become available as a part of Office Live Workspace.",
"Office Web Apps was announced to be powered by AJAX as well as Silverlight; however, the latter is optional and its availability will only \"enhance the user experience, resulting in sharper images and improved rendering.\"",
"Microsoft's Business Division President Stephen Elop stated during PDC 2008 that \"a technology preview of Office Web Apps would become available later in 2008\".",
"However, the Technical Preview of Office Web Apps was not released until 2009.On July 13, 2009, Microsoft announced at its Worldwide Partners Conference 2009 in New Orleans that Microsoft Office 2010 reached its \"Technical Preview\" development milestone and features of Office Web Apps were demonstrated to the public for the first time.",
"Additionally, Microsoft announced that Office Web Apps would be made available to consumers online and free of charge, while Microsoft Software Assurance customers will have the option of running them on premises.",
"Office 2010 beta testers were not given access to Office Web Apps at this date, and it was announced that it would be available for testers during August 2009.However, in August 2009, a Microsoft spokesperson stated that there had been a delay in the release of Office Web Apps Technical Preview and it would not be available by the end of August.Microsoft officially released the Technical Preview of Office Web Apps on September 17, 2009.Office Web Apps was made available to selected testers via its OneDrive (at the time Skydrive) service.",
"The final version of Office Web Apps was made available to the public via Windows Live Office on June 7, 2010.On October 22, 2012, Microsoft announced the release of new features including co-authoring, performance improvements and touch support.On November 6, 2013, Microsoft announced further new features including ''real-time'' co-authoring and an Auto-Save feature in Word (replacing the save button).In February 2014, Office Web Apps were re-branded Office Online and incorporated into other Microsoft web services, including Calendar, OneDrive, Outlook.com, and People.",
"Microsoft had previously attempted to unify its online services suite (including Microsoft Passport, Hotmail, MSN Messenger, and later SkyDrive) under a brand known as Windows Live, first launched in 2005.However, with the impending launch of Windows 8 and its increased use of cloud services, Microsoft dropped the Windows Live brand to emphasize that these services would now be built directly into Windows and not merely be a \"bolted on\" add-on.",
"Critics had criticized the Windows Live brand for having no clear vision, as it was being applied to an increasingly broad array of unrelated services.",
"At the same time, Windows Live Hotmail was re-launched as Outlook.com (sharing its name with the Microsoft Outlook personal information manager).In July 2019, Microsoft announced that they were retiring the \"Online\" branding for Office Online.",
"The product is now Office, and may be referred to as \"Office for the web\" or \"Office in a browser\"."
],
[
"See also",
"* Comparison of office suites* List of office suites* Microsoft Azure* Microsoft Dynamics 365* Microsoft Power Platform* Microsoft Works* List of Microsoft software* Google Workspace * LibreOffice"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"MultiMate"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''MultiMate''' was a word processor developed by Multimate International for IBM PC MS-DOS computers in the early 1980s."
],
[
"History",
"With 1,000 computers, Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance was one of the first large-volume customers for the IBM PC.",
"It hired W. H. Jones & Associates to write word-processing software for the computer that would not require retraining its employees, already familiar with Wang Laboratories word processing systems.",
"W. H. Jones' head Will Jones and five other developers created the software.",
"W. H. Jones retained the right to sell the program elsewhere, and WordMate appeared in December 1982.The company renamed itself to SoftWord Systems, then Multimate International, while renaming WordMate to MultiMate.",
"Advertisements stated that MultiMate \"mimicked the features and functions of a dedicated system\", and that it was \"modeled after the Wang word processor\".",
"Like Connecticut Mutual, many customers purchased it because of the similarity with the Wang.MultiMate was not marketed heavily to end-users, but was quickly popular with insurance companies, law firms, other business computer users and US government agencies and the military.",
"While the Wang WP keyboard was different from the original PC keyboard, MultiMate compensated by providing a large plastic template that clipped on the PC keyboard, and stick-on labels for the fronts of the PC keys.",
"The template and labels color-coded the combination keystrokes using the SHIFT, ALT and CTRL keys with all 10 of the PC's function keys and many of the character keys.",
"Like Wang systems, MultiMate controlled most editing operations with function keys, assigning four functions to each of the 10 function keys, which IBM initially located at the left side of the keyboard in two vertical rows.",
"It also included a \"document summary\" screen for each document, another Wang feature, which allowed more sophisticated document-management than the brief file names allowed by MS-DOS and PC DOS.",
"As function selection through key-controlled screen-top drop-down menus was popularized by other programs, MultiMate added menus.MultiMate's popularity rapidly grew.",
"In January 1983 some employees were paid late because of slow sales, but two months later revenue grew 25-fold after good reviews appeared in magazines.",
"The company's fiscal 1984 sales were $15 million or more, and by early 1985 MultiMate's installed base in companies was as large as former market leader WordStar's.",
"Jones sold the company to Ashton-Tate in December 1985 for about $20 million.",
"An Ashton-Tate press release called the acquisition \"the largest ever in the microcomputer software industry\".Other MultiMate products included foreign language versions of the software (i.e., \"MultiTexto\" in Spanish), a hardware interface card for file-transfer with Wang systems, a keyboard with extra function keys, versions of MultiMate for different PC clone MS-DOS computers, and for use on PC networks from Novell, 3COM and IBM (Token Ring).",
"Early attempts to create a MultiMate Data Manager and List Manager in-house never reached the market.Multimate International developed the core word processing software and utilities (file conversion, printer drivers), but purchased and adapted sub-programs for spelling and grammar checking, list management, outlining and print-time incorporation of graphics in word processing documents (MultiMate GraphLink).",
"In addition to rebranding such externally developed programs, Multimate rewrote the documentation for each program and adapted the program interfaces to more closely resemble the word processor.",
"The last version of MultiMate was packaged with many of these add-on programs under the product name \"MultiMate Advantage\" to compete with other word processor software of the day, especially IBM DisplayWrite for DOS, which Multimate International developers saw as their main competition in the business market, and to a lesser extent WordPerfect, the DOS incarnation of Microsoft Word and the Samna word processor, which had its roots in another office word processing computer.One of the first \"clone\" versions of MultiMate was bundled with an early portable PC made by Corona.",
"Other versions were written to match PCs by Radio Shack, Texas Instruments, Toshiba, the early Grid laptop and the IBM PC Junior.The detailed MultiMate word processor documentation, which quickly grew to three volumes, gave the product a solid \"office product\" feel, using high-quality paper with its main reference section presented in a padded binder with fold-out easel.",
"(A company legend was that the MultiMate user manual was written first, by an experienced Wang WP manager, then the programmers were told to write software to match it, which is how the Wang WP was created.",
")Early versions of the program came with both color-coded key stickers and a plastic full-keyboard template to make Wang operators more comfortable with the smaller IBM PC keyboard.",
"MultiMate eventually sold a hardware keyboard with dedicated function keys and issued versions of its software for networked PCs.",
"It adapted list-management, graphics and outlining software from other vendors to the look-and-feel of MultiMate, shipping the expanded version as MultiMate Advantage, with additional volumes of MultiMate-style documentation for the add-on programs.Early releases of MultiMate also gave users unlimited access to a toll-free support number and a promise of low-cost upgrades, which contributed to its dedicated user population.",
"Support policies later were brought in line with Ashton-Tate's standard practices.MultiMate was especially good at supporting a variety of PC clones and hundreds of computer printers, each of which required its own printer driver.",
"The company's printer support was very strong with daisy-wheel and dot-matrix printers, but did not take much advantage of the development of PostScript fonts and laser printers.Ashton-Tate never released a Windows version.",
"It discontinued MultiMate's development efforts on VMS and Unix platforms and closed a development group in Dublin, Ireland.",
"The product was dropped after the Ashton-Tate itself was purchased by Borland."
],
[
"Reception",
"''PC Magazine'' in February 1983 stated that MultiMate \"virtually remakes your computer into a Wang-like dedicated word processor\", and that it was \"very fast, easy to learn, and capable\" with many features.",
"The review noted the application's inability to use more than 128K of RAM, but praised the documentation and built-in help, and stated that many commands required half the keystrokes of the WordStar equivalent.",
"The review concluded \"MultiMate stands head and shoulders above many if not most IBM PC word processors ... an impressive entrant\".",
"''BYTE'' in 1984 was less positive.",
"It described version 3.20 as being \"very safe\" because of many backups and safeguards and praised the formatting features, customization ability, and quality of the (very busy) toll-free help line.",
"The review, however, called MultiMate \"the klunkiest package\" of five tested word processors because of the overemphasis on safety, criticized the built-in help and slow performance, and reported being unable to use the spell checker because of its poor quality.",
"However, the reviewer mentioned that MultiMate version 3.30 was already shipping when the article went to press."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of word processors"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mohammad Najibullah"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Mohammad Najibullah Ahmadzai''' (Pashto/, ; 6 August 1947 – 27 September 1996), commonly known as '''Dr.",
"Najib''', was an Afghan politician who served as the General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan, the leader of the one-party ruling Republic of Afghanistan from 1986 to 1992 and as well as the President of Afghanistan from 1987 until his resignation in April 1992, shortly after which the mujahideen took over Kabul.",
"After a failed attempt to flee to India, Najibullah remained in Kabul.",
"He lived in the United Nations headquarters until his assassination during the Taliban's capture of Kabul.A graduate of Kabul University, Najibullah held different careers under the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA).",
"Following the Saur Revolution and the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Najibullah was a low profile bureaucrat.",
"He was sent into exile as Ambassador to Iran during Hafizullah Amin's rise to power.",
"He returned to Afghanistan following the Soviet intervention which toppled Amin's rule and placed Babrak Karmal as head of the state, the party and the government.",
"During Karmal's rule, Najibullah became head of the KHAD, the Afghan equivalent of the Soviet KGB.",
"He was a member of the Parcham faction led by Karmal.",
"During Najibullah's tenure as KHAD head, it became one of the most brutally efficient governmental organs.",
"Because of this, he gained the attention of several leading Soviet officials, such as Yuri Andropov, Dmitriy Ustinov and Boris Ponomarev.",
"In 1981, Najibullah was appointed to the PDPA Politburo.",
"In 1985, Najibullah stepped down as the state security minister to focus on PDPA politics; he had been appointed to the PDPA Secretariat.",
"Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, also the last Soviet leader, was able to get Karmal to step down as PDPA General Secretary in 1986, and replace him with Najibullah.",
"For a number of months, Najibullah was locked in a power struggle against Karmal, who still retained his post of Chairman of the Revolutionary Council.",
"Najibullah accused Karmal of trying to wreck his policy of National Reconciliation, a series of efforts by Najibullah to end the conflict.During his tenure as leader of Afghanistan, the Soviets began their withdrawal, and from 1989 until 1992, his government tried to solve the ongoing civil war without Soviet troops on the ground.",
"While direct Soviet assistance ended with the withdrawal, the Soviet Union still supported Najibullah with economic and military aid, while Pakistan and the United States continued their support for the mujahideen.",
"Throughout his tenure, he tried to build support for his government via the National Reconciliation reforms by distancing from socialism in favor of Afghan nationalism, abolishing the one-party state and letting non-communists join the government.",
"He remained open to dialogue with the mujahideen and other groups, made Islam an official religion, and invited exiled businessmen back to re-take their properties.",
"In the 1990 constitution, all references to communism were removed and Islam became the state religion.",
"For various reasons, such changes did not win Najibullah any significant support.",
"Following the August Coup in Moscow and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, Najibullah was left without foreign aid.",
"This, coupled with the internal collapse of his government (following the defection of general Abdul Rashid Dostum), led to his resignation in April 1992.In 1996, he was tortured and killed by the Taliban.In 2017, the pro-Najibullah ''Watan Party'' was created as a continuation of Najibullah's party."
],
[
"Early life and career",
"Najibullah was born on 6 August 1947 in the city of Gardez, Paktia Province, in the Kingdom of Afghanistan.",
"His ancestral village of Najibqilla is located between the towns of Gardez and Said Karam in an area known as Mehlan.",
"He belonged to the Ahmadzai Ghilji tribe of Pashtuns.Najibullah (second from right) among other communist PDPA members Nur Ahmed Nur, Nur Muhammad Taraki and Babrak Karmal at the funeral of former Parcham leader Mir Akbar Khyber in Kabul on 19th April 1978.He was educated at Habibia High School in Kabul, at St. Joseph's Higher Secondary School in Baramulla, Jammu and Kashmir, India, and at Kabul University where he began studying in 1964 and completed his Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) in 1975.However, he never practiced medicine.",
"In 1965, during his study in Kabul, Najibullah joined the Parcham (Banner) faction of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) and was twice imprisoned for political activities.",
"He served as Babrak Karmal's close associate and bodyguard during the latter's tenure in the lower house of parliament (1965–1973).",
"In 1977, he was elected to the Central Committee.",
"On 27th April 1978, the PDPA took power in Afghanistan (Saur Revolution), with Najibullah a member of the ruling Revolutionary Council.",
"However, the Khalq (People's) faction of the PDPA gained supremacy over his own Parcham (Banner) faction, and after a brief stint as Ambassador to Iran, he was dismissed from government and went into exile in Europe, until the Soviet Union intervened in 1979 and supported a Parcham-dominated government."
],
[
"Under Karmal: 1979–1986",
"===Minister of State Security: 1980–1985===In 1980, Najibullah was appointed the head of KHAD, the Afghan equivalent to the Soviet KGB, and was promoted to the rank of Major General.",
"He was appointed following lobbying from the Soviets, including Yuri Andropov, then KGB Chairman.",
"During his six years as head of KHAD he had two to four deputies under his command, who in turn were responsible for an estimated 12 departments.",
"According to evidence, Najibullah was dependent on his family and his professional network, and more often than not appointed people he knew to top positions within the KHAD.",
"In June 1981, Najibullah, along with Mohammad Aslam Watanjar, a former tank commander and the then Minister of Communications and Major General Mohammad Rafi, the Minister of Defence were appointed to the PDPA Politburo.",
"Under Najibullah, KHAD's personnel increased from 120 to 25,000 to 30,000.KHAD employees were amongst the best-paid government bureaucrats in communist Afghanistan, and because of it, the political indoctrination of KHAD officials was a top priority.",
"During a PDPA conference, Najibullah, talking about the indoctrination programme of KHAD officials, said \"a weapon in one hand, a book in the other.\"",
"Counter-insurgency activities launched by KHAD reached its peak under Najibullah.",
"He reported directly to the Soviet KGB, and a big part of KHAD's budget came from the Soviet Union itself.As the head of KHAD, Najibullah was also involved in the planning of the hijacking of Pakistan International Airlines Flight 326 with Murtaza Bhutto.As time would show, Najibullah was very efficient, and during his tenure as leader of KHAD, thousands were arrested, tortured, and executed.",
"KHAD targeted anti-communist citizens, political opponents, and educated members of society.",
"It was this efficiency which made him interesting to the Soviets.",
"Because of this, KHAD became known for its ruthlessness.",
"During his ascension to power, several Afghan politicians did not want Najibullah to succeed Babrak Karmal because Najibullah was known for exploiting his powers for his own benefit.",
"Additionally, during his period as KHAD chief, the Pul-i Charki had become the home of several Khalqist politicians.",
"Another problem was that Najibullah allowed graft, theft, bribery and corruption on a scale not seen previously.",
"As would later be proven by the power struggle he had with Karmal after becoming PDPA General Secretary, despite Najibullah heading the KHAD for five years, Karmal still had sizeable support in the organisation.===Rise to power: 1985–1986===He was appointed to the PDPA Secretariat in November 1985.Najibullah's ascent to power was proven by turning KHAD from a government organ to a ministry in January 1986.With the situation in Afghanistan deteriorating, and the Soviet leadership looking for ways to withdraw, Mikhail Gorbachev wanted Karmal to resign as PDPA General Secretary.",
"The question of who was to succeed Karmal was hotly debated, but Gorbachev supported Najibullah.",
"Yuri Andropov, Boris Ponomarev and Dmitriy Ustinov all thought highly of Najibullah, and negotiations of who would succeed Karmal might have begun as early as 1983.Despite this, Najibullah was not the only choice the Soviets had.",
"A GRU report argued that he was a Pashtun nationalist, a stance which could decrease the regime's popularity even more.",
"The GRU preferred Assadullah Sarwari, earlier head of ASGA, the pre-KHAD secret police, who they believed would be better able to balance between the Pashtuns, Tajiks and Uzbeks.",
"Another viable candidate was Abdul Qadir, who had been a participant in the Saur Revolution.",
"Najibullah succeeded Karmal as PDPA General Secretary on 4 May 1986 at the 18th PDPA meeting, but Karmal still retained his post as Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council.On 15 May, Najibullah announced that a collective leadership had been established, which was led by himself consisted of himself as head of party, Karmal as head of state and Sultan Ali Keshtmand as Chairman of the Council of Ministers.",
"When Najibullah took the office of PDPA General Secretary, Karmal still had enough support in the party to disgrace Najibullah.",
"Karmal went as far as to spread rumours that Najibullah's rule was little more than an interregnum, and that he would soon be reappointed to the general secretaryship.",
"As it turned out, Karmal's power base during this period was KHAD.",
"The Soviet leadership wanted to ease Karmal out of politics, but when Najibullah began to complain that he was hampering his plans of National Reconciliation, the Soviet Politburo decided to remove Karmal; this motion was supported by Andrei Gromyko, Yuli Vorontsov, Eduard Shevardnadze, Anatoly Dobrynin and Viktor Chebrikov.",
"A meeting in the PDPA in November relieved Karmal of his Revolutionary Council chairmanship, and he was exiled to Moscow where he was given a state-owned apartment and a dacha.",
"In his position as Revolutionary Council chairman Karmal was succeeded by Haji Mohammad Chamkani, who was not a member of the PDPA.In 1986, there were more than 100,000 political prisoners and there had been more than 16,500 extrajudicial executions.",
"Its main objectives were the opponents of communism and the most educated classes in society."
],
[
"Leader: 1986–1992",
"===National Reconciliation===Najibullah at the Belgrade Conference in 1989In September 1986, the National Compromise Commission (NCC) was established on the orders of Najibullah.",
"The NCC's goal was to contact counter-revolutionaries \"in order to complete the Saur Revolution in its new phase.\"",
"Allegedly, an estimated 40,000 rebels were contacted by the government.",
"At the end of 1986, Najibullah called for a six-months ceasefire and talks between the various opposition forces, this was part of his policy of National Reconciliation.",
"The discussions, if fruitful, would lead to the establishment of a coalition government and be the end of the PDPA's monopoly of power.",
"The programme failed, but the government was able to recruit disillusioned mujahideen fighters as government militias.",
"In many ways, the National Reconciliation led to an increasing number of urban dwellers to support his rule, and the stabilisation of the Afghan defence forces.In September 1986, a new constitution was written, which was adopted on 29 November 1987.The constitution weakened the powers of the head of state by cancelling his absolute veto.",
"The reason for this move, according to Najibullah, was the need for real-power sharing.",
"On 13 July 1987, the official name of Afghanistan was changed from the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan to Republic of Afghanistan, and in June 1988 the Revolutionary Council, whose members were elected by the party leadership, was replaced by a National Assembly, an organ in which members were to be elected by the people.",
"The PDPA's socialist stance was denied even more than previously, in 1989 the Minister of Higher Education began to work on the \"de-Sovietisation\" of universities, and in 1990 it was even announced by a party member that all PDPA members were Muslims and that the party had abandoned Marxism.",
"Many parts of the Afghan government's economic monopoly was also broken, this had more to do with the tight situation than any ideological conviction.",
"Abdul Hakim Misaq, the Mayor of Kabul, even stated that traffickers of stolen goods would not be prosecuted by law as long as their goods were given to the market.",
"Yuli Vorontsov, on Gorbachev's orders, was able to get an agreement with the PDPA leadership to offer the posts of Gossoviet chairman (the state planning organ), the Council of Ministers chairmanship (head of government), ministries of defence, state security, communications, finance, presidencies of banks and the Supreme Court.",
"The PDPA still demanded it held on to all deputy ministers, retained its majority in the state bureaucracy and that it retained all its provincial governors.",
"The government was not willing to concede all of these positions, and when the offer was broadcast, the ministries of defence and state security.====Elections: 1987 and 1988====Local elections were held in 1987.It began when the government introduced a law permitting the formation of other political parties, announced that it would be prepared to share power with representatives of opposition groups in the event of a coalition government, and issued a new constitution providing for a new bicameral National Assembly (Meli Shura), consisting of a Senate (Sena) and a House of Representatives (Wolesi Jirga), and a president to be indirectly elected to a 7-year term.",
"The new political parties had to oppose colonialism, imperialism, neo-colonialism, Zionism, racial discrimination, apartheid and fascism.",
"Najibullah stated that only the extremist part of the opposition could not join the planned coalition government.",
"No parties had to share the PDPA's policy or ideology, but they could not oppose the bond between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union.",
"A parliamentary election was held in 1988.The PDPA won 46 seats in the House of Representatives and controlled the government with support from the National Front, which won 45 seats, and from various newly recognized left-wing parties, which had won a total of 24 seats.",
"Although the election was boycotted by the Mujahideen, the government left 50 of the 234 seats in the House of Representatives, as well as a small number of seats in the Senate, vacant in the hope that the guerrillas would end their armed struggle and participate in the government.",
"The only armed opposition party to make peace with the government was Hizbollah, a small Shi'a party not to be confused with the bigger party in Iran or the Lebanese organization.===Emergency===Several figures of the intelligentsia took Najibullah's offer seriously, even if they sympathised or were against the regime.",
"Their hopes were dampened when the Najibullah government introduced the state of emergency on 18 February 1989, four days after the Soviet withdrawal.",
"1,700 intellectuals were arrested in February alone, and until November 1991 the government still supervised and restricted freedom of speech.",
"Another problem was that party members took his policy seriously too, Najibullah recanted that most party members felt \"panic and pessimism.\"",
"At the Second Conference of the party, the majority of members, maybe up to 60 percent, were radical socialists.",
"According to Soviet advisors (in 1987), a bitter debate within the party had broken out between those who advocated the Islamisation of the party and those who wanted to defend the gains of the Saur Revolution.",
"Opposition to his policy of National Reconciliation was met party-wide, but especially from Karmalists.",
"Many people did not support the handing out of the already small state resources the Afghan state had at its disposal.",
"On the other side, several members were proclaiming anti-Soviet slogans as they accused the National Reconciliation programme to be supported and developed by the Soviet Union.",
"Najibullah reassured the inter-party opposition that he would not give up the gains of the Saur Revolution, but to the contrary, preserve them, not give up the PDPA's monopoly on power, or to collaborate with reactionary Mullahs.====An Islamic state====During Babrak Karmal's later years, and during Najibullah's tenure, the PDPA tried to improve their standing with Muslims by moving, or appearing to move, to the political centre.",
"They wanted to create a new image for the party and state.",
"Communist symbols were either replaced or removed.",
"These measures did not contribute to any notable increase in support for the government, because the mujahideen had a stronger legitimacy to protect Islam than the government; they had rebelled against what they saw as an anti-Islamic government, that government was the PDPA.",
"Islamic principles were embedded in the 1987 constitution, for instance, Article 2 of the constitution stated that Islam was the state religion, and Article 73 stated that the head of state had to be born into a Muslim Afghan family.",
"The 1990 constitution stated that Afghanistan was an Islamic state, and the last references to communism were removed.",
"Article 1 of the 1990 Constitution said that Afghanistan was an \"independent, unitary and Islamic state.",
"\"===Economic policies===Najibullah continued Karmal's economic policies.",
"The augmenting of links with the Eastern Bloc and the Soviet Union continued, and so did bilateral trade.",
"He encouraged the development of the private sector in industry.",
"The Five-Year Economic and Social Development Plan which was introduced in January 1986 continued until March 1992, one month before the government's fall.",
"According to the plan, the economy, which had grown less than 2 percent annually until 1985, would grow 25 percent in the plan.",
"Industry would grow 28 percent, agriculture 14–16 percent, domestic trade by 150 percent and foreign trade with 15 percent.",
"As expected, none of these targets were met, and 2 percent growth annually which had been the norm before the plan continued under Najibullah.",
"The 1990 constitution gave due attention to the private sector.",
"Article 20 was about the establishment of private firms, and Article 25 encouraged foreign investments in the private sector.===Afghan–Soviet relations=======Soviet withdrawal====While he may have been the ''de jure'' leader of Afghanistan, Soviet advisers still did the majority of work when Najibullah took power.",
"As Gorbachev remarked \"We're still doing everything ourselves .... That's all our people know how to do.",
"They've tied Najibullah hand and foot.\"",
"Fikryat Tabeev, the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan, was accused of acting like a governor general by Gorbachev.",
"Tabeev was recalled from Afghanistan in July 1986, but while Gorbachev called for the end of Soviet management of Afghanistan, he could not help but to do some managing himself.",
"At a Soviet Politburo meeting, Gorbachev said \"It's difficult to build a new building out of old material ...",
"I hope to God that we haven't made a mistake with Najibullah.\"",
"As time would prove, the problem was that Najibullah's aims were the opposite of the Soviet Union's; Najibullah was opposed to a Soviet withdrawal, the Soviet Union wanted a Soviet withdrawal.",
"This was logical, considering the fact that the Afghan military was on the brink of dissolution.",
"The only means of survival seemed to Najibullah was to retain the Soviet presence.",
"In July 1986 six regiments, which consisted up to 15,000 troops, were withdrawn from Afghanistan.",
"The aim of this early withdrawal was, according to Gorbachev, to show the world that the Soviet leadership was serious about leaving Afghanistan.",
"The Soviets told the United States Government that they were planning to withdraw, but the United States Government did not believe them.",
"When Gorbachev met with Ronald Reagan during his visit the United States, Reagan called for the dissolution of the Afghan army.Najibullah giving a decoration to a Soviet serviceman in 1986On 14 April 1988, the Afghan and Pakistani governments signed the Geneva Accords, and the Soviet Union and the United States signed as guarantors; the treaty specifically stated that the Soviet military had to withdraw from Afghanistan by 15 February 1989.Gorbachev later confided to Anatoly Chernyaev, a personal advisor to Gorbachev, that the Soviet withdrawal would be criticised for creating a bloodbath which could have been averted if the Soviets stayed.",
"During a Politburo meeting Eduard Shevardnadze said \"We will leave the country in a deplorable situation\", and further talked about the economic collapse, and the need to keep at least 10 to 15,000 troops in Afghanistan.",
"In this Vladimir Kryuchkov, the KGB Chairman, supported him.",
"This stance, if implemented, would be a betrayal of the Geneva Accords just signed.",
"During the second phase of the Soviet withdrawal, in 1989, Najibullah told Valentin Varennikov openly that he would do everything to slow down the Soviet departure.",
"Varennikov in turn replied that such a move would not help, and would only lead to an international outcry against the war.",
"Najibullah would repeat his position later that year, to a group of senior Soviet representatives in Kabul.",
"This time Najibullah stated that Ahmad Shah Massoud was the main problem, and that he needed to be killed.",
"In this, the Soviets agreed, but repeated that such a move would be a breach of the Geneva Accords; to hunt for Ahmad Shah Massoud so early on would disrupt the withdrawal, and would mean that the Soviet Union would fail to meet its deadline for withdrawal.During his January 1989 visit to Shevardnadze, Najibullah wanted to retain a small presence of Soviet troops in Afghanistan, and called for moving Soviet bombers to military bases close to the Afghan–Soviet border and place them on permanent alert.",
"Najibullah also repeated his claims that his government could not survive if Ahmad Shah Massoud remained alive.",
"Shevardnadze again repeated that troops could not stay, since it would lead to international outcry, but said he would look into the matter.",
"Shevardnadze demanded that the Soviet embassy created a plan in which at least 12,000 Soviet troops would remain in Afghanistan either under direct control of the United Nations or remain as \"volunteers\".",
"The Soviet military leadership, when hearing of Shevardnadze's plan, became furious.",
"But they followed orders, and named the operation ''Typhoon'', maybe ironic considering that Operation Typhoon was the German military operation against the city of Moscow during World War II.",
"Shevardnadze contacted the Soviet leadership about moving a unit to break the siege of Kandahar, and to protect convoys from and to the city.",
"The Soviet leadership were against Shevardnadze's plan, and Chernyaev even believed it was part of Najibullah's plan to keep Soviet troops in the country.",
"To which Shevardnadze replied angrily \"You've not been there, ... You've no idea all the things we have done there in the past ten years.\"",
"At a Politburo meeting on 24 January, Shevardnadze argued that the Soviet leadership could not be indifferent to Najibullah and his government; again, Shevardnadze received support from Kryuchkov.",
"In the end Shevardnadze lost the debate, and the Politburo reaffirmed their commitment to withdraw from Afghanistan.",
"There was still a small presence of Soviet troops after the Soviet withdrawal; for instance, parachutists who protected the Soviet embassy staff, military advisors and special forces and reconnaissance troops still operated in the \"outlying provinces\", especially along the Afghan–Soviet border.====Aid====Soviet military aid continued after their withdrawal, and massive quantities of food, fuel, ammunition and military equipment was given to the government.",
"Varennikov visited Afghanistan in May 1989 to discuss ways and means to deliver the aid to the government.",
"In 1990, Soviet aid amounted to an estimated 3 billion United States dollars.",
"As it turned out, the Afghan military was entirely dependent on Soviet aid to function.",
"When the Soviet Union was dissolved on 26 December 1991, Najibullah turned to former Soviet Central Asia for aid.",
"These newly independent states had no wish to see Afghanistan being taken over by religious fundamentalists, and supplied Afghanistan with 6 million barrels of oil and 500,000 tons of wheat to survive the winter.===After the Soviets===With the Soviets' withdrawal in 1989, the Afghan army was left on its own to battle the insurgents.",
"The most effective, and largest, assaults on the mujahideen were undertaken during the 1985–86 period.",
"These offensives had forced the mujahideen on the defensive near Herat and Kandahar.",
"The Soviets ensued a bomb and negotiate during 1986, and a major offensive that year included 10,000 Soviet troops and 8,000 Afghan troops.The Pakistani people and establishment continued to support the Afghan mujahideen even if it was in contravention of the Geneva Accords.",
"At the beginning, most observers expected the Najibullah government to collapse immediately, and to be replaced with an Islamic fundamentalist government.",
"The Central Intelligence Agency stated in a report that the new government would be ambivalent, or even hostile towards the United States.",
"Almost immediately after the Soviet withdrawal, the Battle of Jalalabad broke out between Afghan government forces and the mujahideen, in cooperation with Pakistan's Inter-Service Intelligence (ISI).",
"The offensive against the city began when the mujahideen bribed several government military officers, from there, they tried to take the airport, but were repulsed with heavy casualties.",
"The willingness of the common Afghan government soldier to fight increased when the mujahideen began to execute people during the battle.",
"Hamid Gul, leader of the ISI, hoped that the battle would topple Najibullah's government and create a mujahideen government seated in Jalalabad.",
"During the battle, Najibullah called for Soviet assistance.",
"Gorbachev called an emergency session of the Politburo to discuss his proposal, but Najibullah's request was rejected.",
"Other attacks against the city failed, and by April the government forces were on the offensive.",
"During the battle over four hundred Scud missiles were shot, which were fired by a Soviet crew which had stayed behind.",
"When the battle ended in July, the mujahideen had lost an estimated 3,000 troops.",
"One mujahideen commander lamented \"the battle of Jalalabad lost us credit won in ten years of fighting.\"",
"After the mujahideen's defeat in Jalalabad, Gul blamed the administration of Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto for the defeat.",
"Bhutto eventually sacked Gul.PDPA Members and members of Daoud Khan's National Revolutionary Party of AfghanistanHardline Khalqist Shahnawaz Tanai attempted to overthrow Najibullah in a failed coup attempt in March 1990.Although Tanai and his forces failed and fled to Pakistan, the coup attempt still managed to show weaknesses in Najibullah's government.From 1989 to 1990, the Najibullah government was partially successful in building up the Afghan defence forces.",
"The Ministry of State Security had established a local militia force which stood at an estimated 100,000 men.",
"The 17th Division in Herat, which had begun the 1979 Herat uprising against PDPA-rule, stood at 3,400 regular troops and 14,000 tribal men.",
"In 1988, the total number of security forces available to the government stood at 300,000.This trend did not continue, and by the summer of 1990, the Afghan government forces were on the defensive again.",
"By the beginning of 1991, the government controlled only 10 percent of Afghanistan, the eleven-year Siege of Khost had ended in a mujahideen victory and the morale of the Afghan military finally collapsed.",
"In the Soviet Union, Kryuchkov and Shevardnadze had both supported continuing aid to the Najibullah government, but Kryuchkov had been arrested following the failed 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt and Shevardnadze had resigned from his posts in the Soviet government in December 1990 – there were no longer any pro-Najibullah people in the Soviet leadership and the Soviet Union was in the middle of an economic and political crisis, which would lead directly to the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991.At the same time, Boris Yeltsin became Russia's new leader, and he had no wish to continue to aid Najibullah's government, which he considered a relic of the past.",
"In the autumn of 1991, Najibullah wrote to Shevardnadze \"I didn't want to be president, you talked me into it, insisted on it, and promised support.",
"Now you are throwing me and the Republic of Afghanistan to its fate.",
"\"====Fall from power====By January 1992, Najibullah had become internationally isolated, with the loss of his biggest supporter he decided to consolidate his power over the non Pashtuns who were considered less loyal to the regime.",
"This came after complaints from his fellow Pashtun Kochis of harassment from an ethnic Tajik general, Abdul Momin.",
"Momin had developed secret ties with the Tajik warlord Ahmad Shah Massoud and was passing on secret information to Massoud which led to Najibullah ordering the sacking of Momin which was carried out by Juma Atsak an Achakzai Pashtun who served as Commander of the Northern Zone and was known to hold Pashtun chauvinist views.",
"General Momin was replaced with General Rasul, an ethnic Pashtun Khalqist known for his brutal reputation of commander of Pul-e Charkhi Prison.",
"This move offended many of the non Pashtun militias in the North and led to the defection of most Uzbek, Tajiks, Turkmen, Hazara and Ismaili Shias militias including ethnic Uzbek, General Abdul Rashid Dostum and his 40,000 Uzbek soldiers.",
"The defectors would form an Anti Pashtun coalition known as the Movement of the North (Harakat-e Shamal) and ally with the Tajik Jamiat-e Islami and Hazara Hezbe Wahdat in taking on the mostly Pashtun, Afghan Military.",
"Many Tajik Parchamites loyal to Babrak Karmal would defect en masse during the capture of Mazar-i-Sharif including General Mohammad Nabi Azimi with the Pashtun Khalqist and Pro-Najibullah army and paramilitaries defending the city.",
"On March 18, 1992 Najibullah offered to resign leading to many Pashtuns Khalqist and Najibullah loyalists to ally with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin in order to prevent non Pashtuns from seizing Kabul.",
"The Peshawar Accord would be signed on 26 April 1992 between various Mujahadeen factions, leading to the creation of the new Islamic State of Afghanistan however Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin and their Communist allies would continue to fight this new government in the Third Afghan Civil War."
],
[
"Final years and death",
"Not long before Kabul's fall, Najibullah appealed to the UN for protection after his guards fled, which was rejected.",
"However, his attempt to flee to the airport was thwarted by troops of Abdul Rashid Dostum – once loyal to him, but now allied with Ahmad Shah Massoud – who controlled the airport.",
"At the UN compound in Kabul, while waiting for the UN to negotiate his safe passage to India, he occupied himself by translating Peter Hopkirk's book ''The Great Game'' into his mother tongue Pashto.",
"India was placed in a difficult position by deciding to allow Najibullah political asylum and safely escorting him out of the country.",
"Supporters claimed he had always been close to India and should not be denied asylum, but others said doing so would risk antagonizing India's relationship with the new mujahideen government formed under the Peshawar Accord.India also refused to let him take refuge at the Indian embassy as it risked creating \"subcontinental rivalries\" and reprisals against Kabul's Indian community, arguing that Najibullah would be far safer at the UN compound.",
"All attempts failed and he eventually sought refuge in the local UN headquarters, where he would stay until 1996.In 1994, India sent senior diplomat M. K. Bhadrakumar to Kabul to hold talks with Ahmad Shah Massoud, the defence minister, to consolidate relations with the Afghan authorities, reopen the embassy, and allow Najibullah to fly to India, but Massoud refused.",
"Bhadrakumar wrote in 2016 that he believed Massoud did not want Najibullah to leave as Massoud could strategically make use of him, and that Massoud \"probably harboured hopes of a co-habitation with Najib somewhere in the womb of time because that extraordinary Afghan politician was a strategic asset to have by his side\".",
"At the time, Massoud was commanding the government's forces fighting the militias of Dostum and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar during the Battle of Kabul.",
"A few months before his death, he quoted, \"Afghans keep making the same mistake,\" reflecting upon his translation to a visitor.In September 1996, when the Taliban were about to enter Kabul, Massoud claimed to have offered Najibullah an opportunity to flee the capital.",
"Najibullah refused.",
"The reasons as to why he refused may be because unlike other members of the former regime, Najibullah was not granted amnesty by the Islamic State of Afghanistan.",
"The UN Secertary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali had pleaded with the government of Burhanuddin Rabbani to allow Najibullah to leave the country as he felt that Najibullah was not safe as his presence was well known, Rabbani however refused to grant Najibullah amnesty.",
"Massoud (a member of Rabbani's Jamiat-e Islami Party) himself claimed that Najibullah feared that \"if he fled with the Tajiks, he would be for ever damned in the eyes of his fellow Pashtuns.\"",
"Others, like General Tokhi, who was with Najibullah until the day before his torture and murder, stated that Najibullah mistrusted Massoud after his militia had repeatedly fired rockets at the UN compound and had effectively barred Najibullah from leaving Kabul.",
"\"If they wanted Najibullah to flee Kabul in safety,\" Tokhi said, \"they could have provided him the opportunity as they did with other high-ranking officials from the communist party from 1992 to 1996.\"",
"Dr Najibullah was the only member of the old regime (besides Assadullah Sawari) to not be granted amnesty by the Islamic State of Afghanistan.",
"Whatever his true motivations were, when Massoud's militia went to both Najibullah and General Tokhi and asked them to flee Kabul, they rejected the offer.Najibullah was at the UN compound when unknown soldiers came for him on the evening of 26 September 1996.He was abducted from UN custody, and shot in the head.",
"It is alleged that members of the Taliban after finding his corpse dragged his corpse behind a truck through the streets of Kabul.",
"His brother, General Shahpur Ahmadzai, was given the same treatment.",
"Najibullah and Shahpur's bodies were hanged from a traffic light pole outside the Arg presidential palace the next day in order to show the public that a new era had begun.",
"The Taliban prevented Islamic funeral prayers for Najibullah and Shahpur in Kabul, but the bodies were later handed over to the International Committee of the Red Cross who in turn sent their bodies to Gardez in Paktia Province, where both of them were buried after the Islamic funeral prayers for them by their fellow Ahmadzai tribesmen.",
"The Preparators of the murder has been debated, some including Soviet Journalists Plastun and Andrianov who knew Najibullah personally, US Special Envoy to Afghanistan Peter Tomsen, the former National Directorate of Security, Afghanistan's Strategic and Scientific Research Center, and many Pashtun Nationalist including a former senator in Pakistan, Afrasiab Khattak have claimed that Najibullah was assassinated by the ISI (alongside members of the Taliban working for them) allegedly over his Pashtun nationalist stance Durand Line as well as revenge for the botched Battle of Jalalabad in 1989.In his book \"The Wars of Afghanistan\" Tomsen wrote “Najib's entrapment and execution carried the hallmarks of a classic intelligence operation.",
"The Taliban, on their own, would not have taken such elaborate precautions to avoid violating the UN's diplomatic premises (where Dr Najibullah had taken sanctuary since stepping down in 1992).”===Reactions===News of Najibullah's murder was greeted with widespread international condemnation, particularly from the Muslim world.",
"The United Nations issued a statement which condemned the killing of Najibullah, and claimed that it would further destabilise Afghanistan.",
"The Taliban responded by issuing death sentences on Dostum, Massoud and Burhanuddin Rabbani.",
"India, which had been supporting Najibullah, strongly condemned his killing and began to support Massoud's United Front/Northern Alliance in an attempt to contain the rise of the Taliban.On the 20th anniversary of his death, in 2016, Afghanistan's Research Center blamed the ISI for his death, claiming that the plan to kill Najibullah was implemented by Pakistan.On 1 June 2020, following a visit to his grave in Gardez by the Afghan National Security Advisor Hamdullah Mohib, Najibullah's widow Fatana Najib said that before constructing a mausoleum for him, the government should first investigate his assassination."
],
[
"Legacy",
"After Najibullah's death, the brutal civil war between mujahideen factions, the Taliban regime, continued fighting, and enduring problems with corruption and poverty, his image among the Afghan people dramatically improved, and Najibullah came to be seen as a strong and patriotic leader.",
"Since the 2010s, posters and pictures of him have become a common sight in many Afghan cities.",
"Najibullah is a very popular figure amongst Pashtun Nationalists many of whom view his fall as the biggest blow to the Pashtun Nationalist Movement.",
"Ever since the creation of Pakistan the various governments of Afghanistan whatever Monarchy, Republican or Communist had all backed Pashtun Nationalist parties such as ANP.",
"The fall of Najibullah was considered by Afghan Mellat Wakman faction leader Anwar ul-Haq Ahady as \"the end of Pashtun dominance in Afghan politics\".",
"Many Pashtuns remember under Najibullah, Pashto became the 4th language spoken in space when Abdul Ahad Momand called Najibullah in 1988 from space as well as the fact Najibullah chose to speak Pashto at the UN General assembly rather than Dari.In 1997, the Watan Party of Afghanistan was formed and in 2003, the National United Party of Afghanistan was registered – who seek to unite former PDPA members formerly led by Mohammad Najibullah."
],
[
"Views",
"Najibullah is often referred to as a communist by some however his rule from 1987 to 1992 was marked with a shift away from Communism towards Islamic Socialism and a more Mixed economy.",
"In Terms of Policy, Najibullah can be best compared to Daoud Khan who ruled the Republic of Afghanistan before the PDPA took power in 1978.Najibullah's government also featured many former ministers of the Daoud Khan government.",
"Najibullah was in support of restoration of the monarchy to some capacity, he restored Zahir Shah's citizenship and actively encouraged Zahir Shah to take part in negotiations, Najibullah's wife Fatana Najib is also related to former Afghan King Amanaullah.",
"Najibullah was a strong Pashtun Nationalist being hailed as the first Afghan leader to speak Pashto at the UN General Assembly and having Afghan Cosmonaut Abdul Ahad Momand (also an Ethnic Pashtun) making Pashto the 4th language spoken in space under his leadership.",
"He often questioning the legitimacy of Pakistan's existence claiming it was \"born out of British colonialism\".",
"Najibullah whose father was also a Pashtun Nationalist, had strong ties to the Pashtun Nationalist community in the Pashtun majority North West Frontier province.",
"Najibullah was present during the funeral for Pashtun Nationalist leader Abdul Ghaffar who was granted military honors.",
"Najibullah also attempted to Pashtunize the control of non Pashtun ethnic militias with Pashtun leaders as he had grown to distrust many northern militias such as Abdul Rashid Dostum's Uzbek militia which had committed atrocities and started to open channels with Ahmad Shah Massoud."
],
[
"Family",
"Najibullah was married on 1 September 1974 to Fatana Najib, principal of the Peace School whom he met when she was an eighth-grade student and he was her science tutor.",
"The couple had three daughters, who were forced to leave Afghanistan after the Taliban seizure and the start of the civil war.",
"The daughters grew up with their mother in New Delhi, India, after moving there in 1992.Najibullah's oldest daughter, Heela Najibullah, was born in Kabul in 1977, studied in Switzerland and was living there as of 2017.She has worked in the International Red Cross.",
"In 2006 she spoke at the summit of young UN leaders representing Afghanistan.",
"She is currently an employee of the Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research in Sweden, she maintains her Twitter account.",
"The middle daughter, called Onai (born 1978), is a Master of Architecture, and the youngest daughter, Muska (born 1984), is an Indian citizen and works as a photographer for the international company Weber Shandwick in Singapore."
],
[
"See also",
"* Watan Party of Afghanistan* Sulaiman Layeq"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Biography of President Najibullah"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Multiplan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Multiplan floppy disk for Macintosh'''Multiplan''' is a spreadsheet program developed by Microsoft and introduced in 1982 as a competitor to VisiCalc.Multiplan was released first for computers running CP/M; it was developed using a Microsoft proprietary p-code C compiler as part of a portability strategy that facilitated ports to systems such as MS-DOS, Xenix, Commodore 64 and 128, TI-99/4A (on four 6K GROMs and a single 8K ROM), Radio Shack TRS-80 Model II, TRS-80 Model 4, TRS-80 Model 100 (on ROM), Apple II, AT&T UNIX PC, and Burroughs B20 series.",
"The CP/M version also ran on the TRS-80 Model II and 4, Commodore 128, and Apple II with a CP/M card.",
"In France, Multiplan was also released for the Thomson computers in 1986 and same year on Japan for MSX compatible computers with name MSX-Plan.Despite the release of Microsoft Chart, a graphics companion program, Multiplan continued to be outsold by Lotus 1-2-3.Multiplan was replaced by Microsoft Excel, which followed some years later on both the Apple Macintosh (1985) and Microsoft Windows (1987).Although over a million copies were sold, Multiplan was not able to mount an effective challenge to Lotus 1-2-3.According to Bill Gates, this was due to the excessive number of ports (there were approximately 100 different versions of Multiplan).",
"He also believed that it was a mistake to release 8-bit versions instead of focusing on the newer 16-bit machines and as a result, \"We decided to let Lotus have the character-based DOS market while we would instead focus on the next generation–graphical software on the Macintosh and Windows.\"",
"Around 1983, during the development of the first release of Windows, Microsoft had plans to make a Windows version.",
"However the plans changed a year later.A version was available for the Apple Lisa 2 running Microsoft/SCO Xenix 3.It fit on one 400K microfloppy diskette."
],
[
"Cell addressing differences",
"A fundamental difference between Multiplan and its competitors was Microsoft's decision to use R1C1 addressing instead of the A1 addressing introduced by VisiCalc.",
"Although R1C1-style formulae are more straightforward than A1-style formulae for instance, \"RC-1\" (meaning \"current row, previous column\") is expressed as \"A1\" in cell B1, then \"A2\" in cell B2, etc.",
"most spreadsheet users prefer the A1 addressing style introduced by VisiCalc.Microsoft carried Multiplan's R1C1 legacy forward into Microsoft Excel, which offers both addressing modes, although A1 is Excel's default addressing mode."
],
[
"Reception",
"''Ahoy!''",
"called the Commodore 64 version of Multiplan, distributed by Human Engineered Software, a \"professional quality spreadsheet ...",
"There is not enough room in this article to mention all the mathematical operations performed ...",
"Documentation is lengthy but well written\".",
"A second review in the magazine noted the limitation of the computer's 40-column screen, but praised the ability to stop any ongoing action.",
"It also praised the documentation, and concluded that \"its ease of use and foolproof design make ''Multiplan'' an outstanding value\".",
"''BYTE'' said that \"Multiplan for the Macintosh is a winner\", stating that combining other versions' power and features with the Macintosh's graphics and user interface \"rivals, and in many ways exceeds, anything else available in the spreadsheet genre\"."
],
[
"See also",
"* Symbolic Link (SYLK)"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"MOS Technology 6502"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''MOS Technology 6502''' (typically pronounced \"sixty-five-oh-two\") is an 8-bit microprocessor that was designed by a small team led by Chuck Peddle for MOS Technology.",
"The design team had formerly worked at Motorola on the Motorola 6800 project; the 6502 is essentially a simplified, less expensive and faster version of that design.When it was introduced in 1975, the 6502 was the least expensive microprocessor on the market by a considerable margin.",
"It initially sold for less than one-sixth the cost of competing designs from larger companies, such as the 6800 or Intel 8080.Its introduction caused rapid decreases in pricing across the entire processor market.",
"Along with the Zilog Z80, it sparked a series of projects that resulted in the home computer revolution of the early 1980s.Popular video game consoles and home computers of the 1980s and early 1990s, such as the Atari 2600, Atari 8-bit family, Apple II, Nintendo Entertainment System, Commodore 64, Atari Lynx, BBC Micro and others, use the 6502 or variations of the basic design.",
"Soon after the 6502's introduction, MOS Technology was purchased outright by Commodore International, who continued to sell the microprocessor and licenses to other manufacturers.",
"In the early days of the 6502, it was second-sourced by Rockwell and Synertek, and later licensed to other companies.In 1981, the Western Design Center started development of a CMOS version, the 65C02.This continues to be widely used in embedded systems, with estimated production volumes in the hundreds of millions."
],
[
"History and use",
"===Origins at Motorola===Motorola 6800 demonstration board built by Chuck Peddle and John Buchanan in 1974The 6502 was designed by many of the same engineers that had designed the Motorola 6800 microprocessor family.",
"Motorola started the 6800 microprocessor project in 1971 with Tom Bennett as the main architect.",
"The chip layout began in late 1972, the first 6800 chips were fabricated in February 1974 and the full family was officially released in November 1974.John Buchanan was the designer of the 6800 chip and Rod Orgill, who later did the 6501, assisted Buchanan with circuit analyses and chip layout.",
"Bill Mensch joined Motorola in June 1971 after graduating from the University of Arizona (at age 26).",
"His first assignment was helping define the peripheral ICs for the 6800 family and later he was the principal designer of the 6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA).",
"Motorola's engineers could run analog and digital simulations on an IBM 370-165 mainframe computer.",
"Bennett hired Chuck Peddle in 1973 to do architectural support work on the 6800 family products already in progress.",
"He contributed in many areas, including the design of the 6850 ACIA (serial interface).Motorola's target customers were established electronics companies such as Hewlett-Packard, Tektronix, TRW, and Chrysler.",
"In May 1972, Motorola's engineers began visiting select customers and sharing the details of their proposed 8-bit microprocessor system with ROM, RAM, parallel and serial interfaces.",
"In early 1974, they provided engineering samples of the chips so that customers could prototype their designs.",
"Motorola's \"total product family\" strategy did not focus on the price of the microprocessor, but on reducing the customer's total design cost.",
"They offered development software on a timeshare computer, the \"EXORciser\" debugging system, onsite training and field application engineer support.",
"Both Intel and Motorola had initially announced a $360 price for a single microprocessor.",
"The actual price for production quantities was much less.",
"Motorola offered a design kit containing the 6800 with six support chips for $300.Peddle, who would accompany the salespeople on customer visits, found that customers were put off by the high cost of the microprocessor chips.",
"At the same time, these visits invariably resulted in the engineers he presented to producing lists of required instructions that were much smaller than \"all these fancy instructions\" that had been included in the 6800.Peddle and other team members started outlining the design of an improved feature, reduced size microprocessor.",
"At that time, Motorola's new semiconductor fabrication facility in Austin, Texas, was having difficulty producing MOS chips, and mid-1974 was the beginning of a year-long recession in the semiconductor industry.",
"Also, many of the Mesa, Arizona employees were displeased with the upcoming relocation to Austin, Texas.Motorola's Semiconductor Products Division management was overwhelmed with problems and showed no interest in Peddle's low-cost microprocessor proposal.",
"Eventually Peddle was given an official letter telling him to stop working on the system.",
"Peddle responded to the order by informing Motorola that the letter represented an official declaration of \"project abandonment\", and as such, the intellectual property he had developed to that point was now his.",
"In a November 1975 interview, Motorola's Chairman, Robert Galvin, ultimately agreed that Peddle's concept was a good one and that the division missed an opportunity, \"We did not choose the right leaders in the Semiconductor Products division.\"",
"The division was reorganized and the management replaced.",
"The new group vice-president John Welty said, \"The semiconductor sales organization lost its sensitivity to customer needs and couldn't make speedy decisions.",
"\"===MOS Technology===A 1973 MOS Technology advertisement highlighting their custom integrated circuit capabilitiesMOS Technology MCS6501, in white ceramic package, made in late August 1975Peddle began looking outside Motorola for a source of funding for this new project.",
"He initially approached Mostek CEO L. J. Sevin, but he declined.",
"Sevin later admitted this was because he was afraid Motorola would sue them.While Peddle was visiting Ford Motor Company on one of his sales trips, Bob Johnson, later head of Ford's engine automation division, mentioned that their former colleague John Paivinen had moved to General Instrument and taught himself semiconductor design.",
"Paivinen then formed MOS Technology in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania in 1969 with two other executives from General Instrument, Mort Jaffe and Don McLaughlin.",
"Allen-Bradley, a supplier of electronic components and industrial controls, acquired a majority interest in 1970.The company designed and fabricated custom ICs for customers and had developed a line of calculator chips.After the Mostek efforts fell through, Peddle approached Paivinen, who \"immediately got it\".",
"On 19 August 1974, Chuck Peddle, Bill Mensch, Rod Orgill, Harry Bawcom, Ray Hirt, Terry Holdt, and Wil Mathys left Motorola to join MOS.",
"Mike Janes joined later.",
"Of the seventeen chip designers and layout people on the 6800 team, eight left.",
"The goal of the team was to design and produce a low-cost microprocessor for embedded applications and to target as wide as possible a customer base.",
"This would be possible only if the microprocessor was low cost, and the team set the price goal at in volume.",
"Mensch later stated the goal was not the processor price itself, but to create a set of chips that could sell at to compete with the recently introduced Intel 4040 that sold for in a similar complete chipset.Chips are produced by printing multiple copies of the chip design on the surface of a \"wafer\", a thin disk of highly pure silicon.",
"Smaller chips can be printed in greater numbers on the same wafer, decreasing their relative price.",
"Additionally, wafers always include some number of tiny physical defects that are scattered across the surface.",
"Any chip printed in that location will fail and has to be discarded.",
"Smaller chips mean any single copy is less likely to be printed on a defect.",
"For both of these reasons, the cost of the final product is strongly dependent on the size of the chip design.The original 6800 chips were intended to be , but layout was completed at , or an area of 29.0 mm2.For the new design, the cost goal demanded a size goal of , or an area of .",
"Several new techniques would be needed to hit this goal.===Moving to NMOS===There were two significant advances that arrived in the market just as the 6502 was being designed that provided significant cost reductions.",
"The first was the move to depletion-load NMOS.",
"The 6800 used an early NMOS process that required three supply voltages, but one of the chip's features was an onboard voltage doubler that allowed a single +5 V supply be used for +5, −5 and +12 V internally, as opposed to other chips of the era like the Intel 8080 that required three separate supply pins.",
"While this feature reduced the complexity of the power supply and pin layout, it still required separate power rails to the various gates on the chip, driving up complexity and size.",
"By moving to the new depletion-load design, a single +5 V supply was all that was needed, eliminating all of this complexity.A further practical advantage was that the clock signal for earlier CPUs had to be strong enough to survive all the dissipation as it traveled through the circuits, which almost always required a separate external chip that could supply a powerful signal.",
"With the reduced power requirements of NMOS, the clock could be moved onto the chip, simplifying the overall computer design.",
"These changes greatly reduced complexity and the cost of implementing a complete system.Another change that was taking place was the introduction of projection masking.",
"Previously, chips were patterned onto the surface of the wafer by placing a mask on the surface of the wafer and then shining a bright light on it.",
"The masks often picked up tiny bits of dirt or photoresist as they were lifted off the chip, causing flaws in those locations on any subsequent masking.",
"With complex designs like CPUs, 5 or 6 such masking steps would be used, and the chance that at least one of these steps would introduce a flaw was very high.",
"In most cases, 90% of such designs were flawed, resulting in a 10% yield.",
"The price of the working examples had to cover the production cost of the 90% that were thrown away.In 1973, Perkin-Elmer introduced the Micralign system, which projected an image of the mask on the wafer instead of requiring direct contact.",
"Masks no longer picked up dirt from the wafers and lasted on the order of 100,000 uses rather than 10.This eliminated step-to-step failures and the high flaw rates formerly seen on complex designs.",
"Yields on CPUs immediately jumped from 10% to 60 or 70%.",
"This meant the price of the CPU declined roughly the same amount and the microprocessor suddenly became a commodity device.MOS Technology's existing fabrication lines were based on the older PMOS technology, they had not yet begun to work with NMOS when the team arrived.",
"Paivinen promised to have an NMOS line up and running in time to begin the production of the new CPU.",
"He delivered on the promise, the new line was ready by June 1975.===Design notes===Chuck Peddle, Rod Orgill, and Wil Mathys designed the initial architecture of the new processors.",
"A September 1975 article in ''EDN'' magazine gives this summary of the design:The MOS Technology 650X family represents a conscious attempt of eight former Motorola employees who worked on the development of the 6800 system to put out a part that would replace and outperform the 6800, yet undersell it.",
"With the benefit of hindsight gained on the 6800 project, the MOS Technology team headed by Chuck Peddle, made the following architectural changes in the Motorola CPU…The main change in terms of chip size was the elimination of the tri-state drivers from the address bus outputs.",
"A three-state bus has states for \"1\", \"0\" and \"high impedance\".",
"The last state is used to allow other devices to access the bus, and is typically used for multiprocessing, or more commonly in these roles, for direct memory access (DMA).",
"While useful, this feature is very expensive in terms of on-chip circuitry.",
"The 6502 simply removed this feature, in keeping with its design as an inexpensive controller being used for specific tasks and communicating with simple devices.",
"Peddle suggested that anyone that actually required this style of access could implement it with a single 74158.The next major difference was to simplify the registers.",
"To start with, one of the two accumulators was removed.",
"General-purpose registers like accumulators have to be accessed by many parts of the instruction decoder, and thus require significant amounts of wiring to move data to and from their storage.",
"Two accumulators makes many coding tasks easier, but costs the chip design itself significant complexity.",
"Further savings were made by reducing the stack register from 16 to 8 bits, meaning that the stack could only be 256 bytes long, which was enough for its intended role as a microcontroller.The 16-bit IX index register was split in two, becoming X and Y.",
"More importantly, the style of access changed; in the 6800, IX held a 16-bit address, which was offset by an 8-bit number supplied with the instruction, the two were added to produce the final address.",
"In the 6502 (and most other contemporary designs), the 16-bit base address was stored in the instruction, and the X or Y was added to it.Finally, the instruction set was simplified, freeing up room in the decoder and control logic.",
"Of the original 72 instructions in the 6800, 56 were implemented.",
"Among those removed were instructions that operated between the 6800's two accumulators, and several branch instructions inspired by the PDP-11.The chip's high-level design had to be turned into drawings of transistors and interconnects.",
"At MOS Technology, the \"layout\" was a very manual process done with color pencils and vellum paper.",
"The layout consisted of thousands of polygon shapes on six different drawings; one for each layer of the fabrication process.",
"Given the size limits, the entire chip design had to be constantly considered.",
"Mensch and Paivinen worked on the instruction decoder while Mensch, Peddle and Orgill worked on the ALU and registers.",
"A further advance, developed at a party, was a way to share some of the internal wiring to allow the ALU to be reduced in size.In spite of their best efforts, the final design ended up being 5 mils too wide.",
"The first 6502 chips were 183 mils , for an area of 19.8 mm2.The original version of the processor had no rotate right (ROR) capability, so the instruction was omitted from the original documentation.",
"The next iteration of the design shrank the chip and added the rotate right capability, and ROR was included in revised documentation.===Introducing the 6501 and 6502===Introductory advertisement for the MOS Technology MCS6501 and MCS6502 microprocessorsMOS would introduce two microprocessors based on the same underlying design: the 6501 would plug into the same socket as the Motorola 6800, while the 6502 re-arranged the pinout to support an on-chip clock oscillator.",
"Both would work with other support chips designed for the 6800.They would not run 6800 software because they had a different instruction set, different registers, and mostly different addressing modes.",
"Rod Orgill was responsible for the 6501 design; he had assisted John Buchanan at Motorola on the 6800.Bill Mensch did the 6502; he was the designer of the 6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA) at Motorola.",
"Harry Bawcom, Mike Janes and Sydney-Anne Holt helped with the layout.MOS Technology's microprocessor introduction was different from the traditional months-long product launch.",
"The first run of a new integrated circuit is normally used for internal testing and shared with select customers as \"engineering samples\".",
"These chips often have a minor design defect or two that will be corrected before production begins.",
"Chuck Peddle's goal was to sell the first run 6501 and 6502 chips to the attendees at the WESCON trade show in San Francisco beginning on September 16, 1975.Peddle was a very effective spokesman and the MOS Technology microprocessors were extensively covered in the trade press.",
"One of the earliest was a full-page story on the MCS6501 and MCS6502 microprocessors in the July 24, 1975 issue of ''Electronics'' magazine.",
"Stories also ran in ''EE Times'' (August 24, 1975), ''EDN'' (September 20, 1975), ''Electronic News'' (November 3, 1975), ''Byte'' (November 1975) and ''Microcomputer Digest'' (November 1975).",
"Advertisements for the 6501 appeared in several publications the first week of August 1975.The 6501 would be for sale at Wescon for each.",
"In September 1975, the advertisements included both the 6501 and the 6502 microprocessors.",
"The 6502 would cost only ().When MOS Technology arrived at Wescon, they found that exhibitors were not permitted to sell anything on the show floor.",
"They rented the MacArthur Suite at the St. Francis Hotel and directed customers there to purchase the processors.",
"At the suite, the processors were stored in large jars to imply that the chips were in production and readily available.",
"The customers did not know the bottom half of each jar contained non-functional chips.",
"The chips were and while the documentation package was an additional .",
"Users were encouraged to make photocopies of the documents, an inexpensive way for MOS Technology to distribute product information.",
"The preliminary data sheets listed just 55 instructions excluding the Rotate Right (ROR) instruction which was not supported on these early chips.",
"The reviews in ''Byte'' and ''EDN'' noted the lack of the ROR instruction.",
"The next revision of the layout fixed this problem and the May 1976 datasheet listed 56 instructions.",
"Peddle wanted every interested engineer and hobbyist to have access to the chips and documentation; other semiconductor companies only wanted to deal with \"serious\" customers.",
"For example, Signetics was introducing the 2650 microprocessor and its advertisements asked readers to write for information on their company letterhead.MOS Technology MCS6502, in white ceramic package, manufactured in late 1975+ Pinout differences Pin 6800 6501 6502 2 Halt Ready Ready 3 ∅1 (in) ∅1 (in) ∅1 (out) 5 Valid memory address Valid memory address N.C. 7 Bus available Bus available SYNC 36 Data bus enable Data bus enable N.C. 37 ∅2 (in) ∅2 (in) ∅0 (in) 38 N.C. N.C. Set overflow flag 39 Three-state control N.C. ∅2 (out)===Motorola lawsuit===August 1975 version.The 6501/6502 introduction in print and at Wescon was an enormous success.",
"The downside was that the extensive press coverage got Motorola's attention.",
"In October 1975, Motorola reduced the price of a single 6800 microprocessor from to .",
"The system design kit was reduced to and it now came with a printed circuit board.",
"On November 3, 1975, Motorola sought an injunction in Federal Court to stop MOS Technology from making and selling microprocessor products.",
"They also filed a lawsuit claiming patent infringement and misappropriation of trade secrets.",
"Motorola claimed that seven former employees joined MOS Technology to create that company's microprocessor products.Motorola was a billion-dollar company with a plausible case and expensive lawyers.",
"On October 30, 1974, Motorola had filed numerous patent applications on the microprocessor family and was granted twenty-five patents.",
"The first was in June 1976 and the second was to Bill Mensch on July 6, 1976, for the 6820 PIA chip layout.",
"These patents covered the 6800 bus and how the peripheral chips interfaced with the microprocessor.",
"Motorola began making transistors in 1950 and had a portfolio of semiconductor patents.",
"Allen-Bradley decided not to fight this case and sold their interest in MOS Technology back to the founders.",
"Four of the former Motorola engineers were named in the suit: Chuck Peddle, Will Mathys, Bill Mensch and Rod Orgill.",
"All were named inventors in the 6800 patent applications.",
"During the discovery process, Motorola found that one engineer, Mike Janes, had ignored Peddle's instructions and brought his 6800 design documents to MOS Technology.",
"In March 1976, the now independent MOS Technology was running out of money and had to settle the case.",
"They agreed to drop the 6501 processor, pay Motorola ,000 and return the documents that Motorola contended were confidential.",
"Both companies agreed to cross-license microprocessor patents.",
"That May, Motorola dropped the price of a single 6800 microprocessor to .",
"By November, Commodore had acquired MOS Technology.===Computers and games===With legal troubles behind them, MOS was still left with the problem of getting developers to try their processor, prompting Chuck Peddle to design the MDT-650 (\"microcomputer development terminal\") single-board computer.",
"Another group inside the company designed the KIM-1, which was sold semi-complete and could be turned into a usable system with the addition of a 3rd party computer terminal and compact cassette drive.",
"While it sold well to its intended market, the company found the KIM-1 also sold well to hobbyists and tinkerers.",
"The related Rockwell AIM-65 control, training, and development system also did well.",
"The software in the AIM 65 was based on that in the MDT.",
"Another roughly similar product was the Synertek SYM-1.One of the first \"public\" uses for the design was the Apple I microcomputer, introduced in 1976.The 6502 was next used in the Commodore PET and the Apple II, both released in 1977.It was later used in the Atari 8-bit family and Acorn Atom home computers, the BBC Micro, VIC-20 and other designs both for home computers and business, such as Ohio Scientific and Oric.",
"The 6510, a direct successor of the 6502 with a digital I/O port and a tri-state address bus, was the CPU utilized in the best-selling Commodore 64 home computer.Another important use of the 6500 family was in video games.",
"The first to make use of the processor design was the 1977 Atari VCS, later renamed the Atari 2600.The VCS used a 6502 variant named the 6507, which had fewer pins, so it could address only 8 KB of memory.",
"Millions of the Atari consoles would be sold, each with a MOS processor.",
"Another significant use was by the Nintendo Entertainment System and Famicom.",
"The 6502 used in the NES was a second source version by Ricoh, a partial system on a chip, that lacked the binary-coded decimal mode but added 22 memory-mapped registers and on-die hardware for sound generation, joypad reading, and sprite list DMA.",
"Called 2A03 in NTSC consoles and 2A07 in PAL consoles (the difference being the clock frequency divider ratio and a lookup table for audio sample rates), this processor was produced exclusively for Nintendo.6502 or variants were used in all of Commodore's floppy disk drives for all of their 8-bit computers, from the PET line through the Commodore 128D, including the Commodore 64.8-inch PET drives had two 6502 processors.",
"Atari used the same 6507 used in the Atari VCS for its 810 and 1050 disk drives used for all of their 8-bit computer line, from the 400/800 through the XEGS.In the 1980s, a popular electronics magazine Elektor/Elektuur used the processor in its microprocessor development board Junior Computer.The CMOS successor to the 6502, the WDC 65C02, also saw use in home computers and video game consoles.",
"Apple used it in the Apple II line starting with the Apple IIc and later variants of the Apple IIe and also offered a kit to upgrade older IIe systems with the new processor.",
"The Hudson Soft HuC6280 chip used in the TurboGrafx-16 was based on a 65C02 core.",
"The Atari Lynx used a custom chip named \"Mikey\" designed by Epyx which included a VLSI VL65NC02 licensed cell.",
"The G65SC12 by GTE Microcircuits (renamed California Micro Devices) variant was used in the BBC Master.",
"Some models of the BBC Master also included an additional G65SC102 co-processor.File:Acorn atom zx1.jpg|Acorn AtomFile:Acorn Electron 4x3.jpg|Acorn ElectronFile:Apple 1 Woz 1976 at CHM.agr.jpg|Apple IFile:Apple II tranparent 800.png|Apple IIFile:Apple iieb.jpg|Apple IIeFile:Atari-2600-Console.jpg|Atari 2600File:Atari-5200-4-Port-wController-L.jpg|Atari 5200File:Atari-7800-Console-Set.jpg|Atari 7800File:Atari-800-Computer-FL.jpg|Atari 800File:Atari-Lynx-I-Handheld.jpg|Atari LynxFile:Acorn BBC Master Series.jpg|BBC MasterFile:STM Systems Baby!",
"1 computer.jpg|Baby!",
"1File:BBC Micro Front Restored.jpg|BBC MicroFile:Commodore 2001 Series-IMG 0448b.jpg|Commodore PETFile:Commodore-VIC-20-FL.jpg|Commodore VIC-20File:Commodore-64-Computer-FL.jpg|Commodore 64File:Commodore-128.jpg|Commodore 128File:Nintendo-Famicom-Console-Set-FL.jpg|Family Computer (Famicom)File:NES-Console-Set.jpg|Nintendo Entertainment SystemFile:OSI Challenger 4P.jpg|Ohio Scientific Challenger 4PFile:Orao-IMG 7278.jpg|OraoFile:Oric1.jpg|Oric-1File:Oric Atmos 01a.jpg|Oric AtmosFile:TurboGrafx16-Console-Set.jpg|TurboGrafx-16"
],
[
"Technical description",
"6502 processor die.",
"The regular section at the top is the instruction decoding ROM, the seemingly random section in the center is the control logic, and at the bottom are the registers (right) and the ALU (left).",
"The data bus connections are along the lower right, and the address bus along the bottom and lower left.DIP) 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 ''(bit position)'' '''Main registers''' A '''A'''ccumulator '''Index registers''' X '''X''' index Y '''Y''' index 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 SP '''S'''tack '''P'''ointer '''Program counter''' PC '''P'''rogram '''C'''ounter '''Status register''' N V - B D I Z C'''P'''rocessor '''F'''lagsThe 6502 is a little-endian 8-bit processor with a 16-bit address bus.",
"The original versions were fabricated using an process technology chip with a die size of (advertised as 153 mils × 168 mils), for a total area of 16.6 mm2.The internal logic runs at the same speed as the external clock rate, but despite the low clock speeds (typically in the neighborhood of 1 to ), the 6502's performance was competitive with other contemporary CPUs using significantly faster clocks.",
"This is partly due to a simple state machine implemented by combinational (clockless) logic to a greater extent than in many other designs; the two-phase clock (supplying two synchronizations per cycle) could thereby control the machine cycle directly.",
"Typical instructions might take half as many cycles to complete on the 6502 as on contemporary designs.",
"Like most simple CPUs of the era, the dynamic NMOS 6502 chip is not sequenced by a microcode ROM but uses a PLA (which occupied about 15% of the chip area) for instruction decoding and sequencing.",
"As in most 8-bit microprocessors, the chip does some limited overlapping of fetching and execution.The low clock frequency moderated the speed requirement of memory and peripherals attached to the CPU, as only about 50% of the clock cycle was available for memory access (due to the asynchronous design, this fraction varied strongly among chip versions).",
"This was critical at a time when affordable memory had access times in the range .Because the chip only accessed memory during certain parts of the clock cycle, and those cycles were indicated by the PHI2-low clock-out pin, other chips in a system could access memory during those times when the 6502 was off the bus.",
"This was sometimes known as \"hidden access\".",
"This technique was widely used by computer systems; they would use memory capable of access at 2 MHz, and then run the CPU at 1 MHz.",
"This guaranteed that the CPU and video hardware could interleave their accesses, with a total performance matching that of the memory device.",
"When faster memories became available in the 1980s, newer machines could run at higher clock rates, like the 2 MHz CPU in the BBC Micro, and still use the bus sharing techniques.===Registers===Like its precursor, the 6800, the 6502 has very few registers.",
"The 6502's registers include one 8-bit accumulator register (A), two 8-bit index registers (X and Y), 7 processor status flag bits (P; from bit 7 to bit 0 these are the negative (N), overflow (V), ''reserved'', break (B), decimal (D), interrupt disable (I), zero (Z) and carry (C) flag), an 8-bit stack pointer (S), and a 16-bit program counter (PC).",
"This compares to a typical design of the same era, the Z80, which has eight general-purpose 8-bit registers, which can be combined into four 16-bit ones.",
"The Z80 also had a complete set of alternate registers, which made a total of sixteen general-purpose registers.In order to make up somewhat for the lack of registers, the 6502 includes a ''zero page'' addressing mode that uses one address byte in the instruction instead of the two needed to address the full of memory.",
"This provides fast access to the first of RAM by using shorter instructions.",
"Chuck Peddle has said in interviews that the specific intention was to allow these first of RAM to be used like registers.The stack address space is hardwired to memory page $01, i.e.",
"the address range $0100–$01FF (256–511).",
"Software access to the stack is done via four implied addressing mode instructions, whose functions are to push or pop (pull) the accumulator or the processor status register.",
"The same stack is also used for subroutine calls via the JSR (jump to subroutine) and RTS (return from subroutine) instructions and for interrupt handling.===Addressing===The chip uses the index and stack registers effectively with several addressing modes, including a fast \"direct page\" or \"zero page\" mode, similar to that found on the PDP-8, that accesses memory locations from addresses 0 to 255 with a single 8-bit address (saving the cycle normally required to fetch the high-order byte of the address)code for the 6502 uses the zero page much as code for other processors would use registers.",
"On some 6502-based microcomputers with an operating system, the operating system uses most of zero page, leaving only a handful of locations for the user.Addressing modes also include ''implied'' (1-byte instructions); ''absolute'' (3 bytes); ''indexed absolute'' (3 bytes); ''indexed zero-page'' (2 bytes); ''relative'' (2 bytes); ''accumulator'' (1); ''indirect,x'' and ''indirect,y'' (2); and ''immediate'' (2).",
"Absolute mode is a general-purpose mode.",
"Branch instructions use a signed 8-bit offset relative to the instruction after the branch; the numerical range −128..127 therefore translates to 128 bytes backward and 127 bytes forward from the instruction following the branch (which is 126 bytes backward and 129 bytes forward from the start of the branch instruction).",
"Accumulator mode uses the accumulator as an effective address and does not need any operand data.",
"Immediate mode uses an 8-bit literal operand.===Indirect addressing===The indirect modes are useful for array processing and other looping.",
"With the 5/6 cycle \"(indirect),y\" mode, the 8-bit Y register is added to a 16-bit base address read from zero page, which is located by a single byte following the opcode.",
"The Y register is therefore an ''index'' register in the sense that it is used to hold an actual ''index'' (as opposed to the X register in the 6800, where a base address was directly stored and to which an immediate offset could be added).",
"Incrementing the index register to walk the array byte-wise takes only two additional cycles.",
"With the less frequently used \"(indirect,x)\" mode the effective address for the operation is found at the zero page address formed by adding the second byte of the instruction to the contents of the X register.",
"Using the indexed modes, the zero page effectively acts as a set of up to 128 additional (though very slow) address registers.The 6502 is capable of performing addition and subtraction in binary or binary-coded decimal.",
"Placing the CPU into BCD mode with the SED (set D flag) instruction results in decimal arithmetic, in which $99 + $01 would result in $00 and the carry (C) flag being set.",
"In binary mode (CLD, clear D flag), the same operation would result in $9A and the carry flag being cleared.",
"Other than Atari BASIC, BCD mode was seldom used in home-computer applications.See the Hello world!",
"article for a simple but characteristic example of 6502 assembly language.===Instructions and opcodes===6502 instruction operation codes (''opcodes'') are 8 bits long and have the general form AAABBBCC, where AAA and CC define the opcode, and BBB defines the addressing mode.For instance, consider the ORA instruction, which performs a bitwise OR on the bits in the accumulator with another value.",
"The instruction opcode is of the form 000bbb01, where bbb may be 010 for an immediate mode value (constant), 001 for zero-page fixed address, 011 for an absolute address, and so on.This pattern is not absolute, and there are a number of exceptions.",
"However, where it does apply, it allows one to easily deconstruct opcode values back to assembly mnemonics for the majority of instructions, handling the edge cases with special-purpose code.Of the 256 possible opcodes available using an 8-bit pattern, the original 6502 uses 151 of them, organized into 56 instructions with (possibly) multiple addressing modes.",
"Depending on the instruction and addressing mode, the opcode may require zero, one or two additional bytes for operands.",
"Hence 6502 machine instructions vary in length from one to three bytes.",
"The operand is stored in the 6502's customary little-endian format.The 65C816, the 16-bit CMOS descendant of the 6502, also supports 24-bit addressing, which results in instructions being assembled with three-byte operands, also arranged in little-endian format.The remaining 105 opcodes are undefined.",
"In the original design, instructions where the low-order 4 bits (''nibble'') were 3, 7, B or F were not used, providing room for future expansion.",
"Likewise, the $2x column had only a single entry, LDX #''constant''.",
"The remaining 25 empty slots were distributed.",
"Some of the empty slots were used in the 65C02 to provide both new instructions and variations on existing ones with new addressing modes.",
"The $Fx instructions were initially left free to allow 3rd-party vendors to add their own instructions, but later versions of the 65C02 standardized a set of bit manipulation instructions developed by Rockwell Semiconductor.===Assembly language===A 6502 assembly language statement consists of a three-character instruction mnemonic, followed by any operands.",
"Instructions that do not take a separate operand but target a single register based on the addressing mode combine the target register in the instruction mnemonic, so the assembler uses INX as opposed to INC X to increment the X register.===Instruction table=== Opcode matrix for the 6502 instruction set Addressing modes: – accumulator, – immediate, – zero page, – absolute, – indirect, '''''X''''' – indexed by X register, '''''Y''''' – indexed by Y register, – relative High nibble Low nibble 0 1 2 4 5 6 8 9 A C D E 0BRKORA (''ind'',X) ORA ''zpg''ASL ''zpg''PHPORA #ASL A ORA ''abs''ASL ''abs'' 1BPL ''rel''ORA (''ind''),Y ORA ''zpg'',XASL ''zpg'',XCLCORA ''abs'',Y ORA ''abs'',XASL ''abs'',X 2JSR ''abs''AND (''ind'',X) BIT ''zpg''AND ''zpg''ROL ''zpg''PLPAND #ROL ABIT ''abs''AND ''abs''ROL ''abs'' 3BMI ''rel''AND (''ind''),Y AND ''zpg'',XROL ''zpg'',XSECAND ''abs'',Y AND ''abs'',XROL ''abs'',X 4RTIEOR (''ind'',X) EOR ''zpg''LSR ''zpg''PHAEOR #LSR AJMP ''abs''EOR ''abs''LSR ''abs'' 5BVC ''rel''EOR (''ind''),Y EOR ''zpg'',XLSR ''zpg'',XCLIEOR ''abs'',Y EOR ''abs'',XLSR ''abs'',X 6RTSADC (''ind'',X) ADC ''zpg''ROR ''zpg''PLAADC #ROR AJMP (''ind'')ADC ''abs''ROR ''abs'' 7BVS ''rel''ADC (''ind''),Y ADC ''zpg'',XROR ''zpg'',XSEIADC ''abs'',Y ADC ''abs'',XROR ''abs'',X 8 STA (''ind'',X) STY ''zpg''STA ''zpg''STX ''zpg''DEY TXASTY ''abs''STA ''abs''STX ''abs'' 9BCC ''rel''STA (''ind''),Y STY ''zpg'',XSTA ''zpg'',XSTX ''zpg'',YTYASTA ''abs'',YTXS STA ''abs'',X ALDY #LDA (''ind'',X)LDX #LDY ''zpg''LDA ''zpg''LDX ''zpg''TAYLDA #TAXLDY ''abs''LDA ''abs''LDX ''abs'' BBCS ''rel''LDA (''ind''),Y LDY ''zpg'',XLDA ''zpg'',XLDX ''zpg'',YCLVLDA ''abs'',YTSXLDY ''abs'',XLDA ''abs'',XLDX ''abs'',Y CCPY #CMP (''ind'',X) CPY ''zpg''CMP ''zpg''DEC ''zpg''INYCMP #DEXCPY ''abs''CMP ''abs''DEC ''abs'' DBNE ''rel''CMP (''ind''),Y CMP ''zpg'',XDEC ''zpg'',X CLDCMP ''abs'',Y CMP ''abs'',XDEC ''abs'',X ECPX #SBC (''ind'',X) CPX ''zpg''SBC ''zpg''INC ''zpg''INXSBC #NOPCPX ''abs''SBC ''abs''INC ''abs'' FBEQ ''rel''SBC (''ind''),Y SBC ''zpg'',XINC ''zpg'',XSEDSBC ''abs'',Y SBC ''abs'',XINC ''abs'',XBlank opcodes (e.g., '''F2''') and all opcodes whose low nibbles are '''3''', '''7''', '''B''' and '''F''' are undefined in the 6502 instruction set.===Example code===The following 6502 assembly language source code is for a subroutine named TOLOWER, which copies a null-terminated character string from one location to another, converting upper-case letter characters to lower-case letters.",
"The string being copied is the \"source\", and the string into which the converted source is stored is the \"destination\".0080 0080 00 040082 00 05 0600 0600 A0 00 0602 B1 800604 F0 11 0606 C9 410608 90 06 060A C9 5B060C B0 02 060E 09 20 0610 91 820612 C8 0613 D0 ED 0615 38 0616 60 0617 91 820619 18 061A 60 061B ; TOLOWER:;; Convert a null-terminated character string to all lower case.",
"; Maximum string length is 255 characters, plus the null term-; inator.",
";; Parameters:;; SRC – Source string address; DST – Destination string address; ORG $0080;SRC .WORD $0400 ;source string pointerDST .WORD $0500 ;destination string pointer; ORG $0600 ;execution start address;TOLOWER LDY #$00 ;starting index;LOOP LDA (SRC),Y ;get from source string BEQ DONE ;end of string; CMP #'A' ;if lower than UC alphabet... BCC SKIP ;copy unchanged; CMP #'Z'+1 ;if greater than UC alphabet... BCS SKIP ;copy unchanged; ORA #%00100000 ;convert to lower case;SKIP STA (DST),Y ;store to destination string INY ;bump index BNE LOOP ;next character;; NOTE: If Y wraps the destination string will be left in an undefined; state.",
"We set carry to indicate this to the calling function.",
"; SEC ;report string too long error &... RTS ;return to caller;DONE STA (DST),Y ;terminate destination string CLC ;report conversion completed &... RTS ;return to caller; .END"
],
[
"Detailed behavior",
"6502 processor die with drawn-in NMOS transistors and labels hinting at the functionality of the 6502's componentsThe processor's non-maskable interrupt (NMI) input is edge sensitive, which means that the interrupt is triggered by the falling edge of the signal rather than its level.",
"The implication of this feature is that a wired-OR interrupt circuit is not readily supported.",
"However, this also prevents nested NMI interrupts from occurring until the hardware makes the NMI input inactive again, often under control of the NMI interrupt handler.The simultaneous assertion of the NMI and IRQ (maskable) hardware interrupt lines causes IRQ to be ignored.",
"However, if the IRQ line remains asserted after the servicing of the NMI, the processor will immediately respond to IRQ, as IRQ is level sensitive.",
"Thus a sort of built-in interrupt priority was established in the 6502 design.The B flag is set by the 6502's periodically sampling its NMI edge detector's output and its IRQ input.",
"The IRQ signal being driven low is only recognized though if IRQs are allowed by the I flag.",
"If in this way a NMI request or (maskable) IRQ is detected the B flag is set to zero and causes the processor to execute the BRK instruction next instead of executing the next instruction based on the program counter.The BRK instruction then pushes the processor status onto the stack, with the B flag bit set to zero.",
"At the end of its execution the BRK instruction resets the B flag's value to one.",
"This is the only way the B flag can be modified.",
"If an instruction other than the BRK instruction pushes the B flag onto the stack as part of the processor status the B flag always has the value one.A high-to-low transition on the SO input pin will set the processor's overflow status bit.",
"This can be used for fast response to external hardware.",
"For example, a high-speed polling device driver can poll the hardware once in only three cycles using a Branch-on-oVerflow-Clear (BVC) instruction that branches to itself until overflow is set by an SO falling transition.",
"The Commodore 1541 and other Commodore floppy disk drives use this technique to detect when the serializer is ready to transfer another byte of disk data.",
"The system hardware and software design must ensure that an SO will not occur during arithmetic processing and disrupt calculations."
],
[
"Variations and derivatives {{anchor|variants|Variants}}",
"The 6502 was the most prolific variant of the 65xx series family from MOS Technology.The 6501 and 6502 have 40-pin DIP packages; the 6503, 6504, 6505, and 6507 are 28-pin DIP versions, for reduced chip and circuit board cost.",
"In all of the 28-pin versions, the pin count is reduced by leaving off some of the high-order address pins and various combinations of function pins, making those functions unavailable.Typically, the 12 pins omitted to reduce the pin count from 40 to 28 are the three not connected (NC) pins, one of the two Vss pins, one of the clock pins, the SYNC pin, the set overflow (SO) pin, either the maskable interrupt or the non-maskable interrupt (NMI), and the four most-significant address lines (A12–A15).",
"The omission of four address pins reduces the external addressability to 4 KB (from the 64 KB of the 6502), though the internal PC register and all effective address calculations remain 16-bit.The 6507 omits both interrupt pins in order to include address line A12, providing 8 KB of external addressability but no interrupt capability.",
"The 6507 was used in the popular Atari 2600 video game console, the design of which divides the 8 KB memory space in half, allocating the lower half to the console's internal RAM and peripherals, and the upper half to the Game Cartridge, so Atari 2600 cartridges have a 4 KB address limit (and the same capacity limit unless the cartridge contains bank switching circuitry).One popular 6502-based computer, the Commodore 64, used a modified 6502 CPU, the 6510.Unlike the 6503–6505 and 6507, the 6510 is a 40-pin chip that adds internal hardware: a 6-bit parallel I/O port mapped to addresses 0000 and 0001.The 6508 is another chip that, like the 6510, adds internal hardware: 256 bytes of SRAM and an 8-bit I/O port similar to those featured by the 6510.Though these chips do not have reduced pin counts compared to the 6502, they need new pins for the added parallel I/O port.",
"In this case, no address lines are among the removed pins.+ Variations Company Model Description 6502 A 1 MHz chip used in ''KIM-1'' and other single board computers in the mid-1970s.",
"6502A A 1.5 MHz chip used in ''Asteroids Deluxe'' and at 2 MHz, in the BBC Micro 6502B Version of the 6502 capable of running at a maximum speed of 3 MHz instead of 2 MHz.",
"The B was used in the Apple III and, clocked at 1.79 MHz, early Atari 8-bit computers.",
"6502C The “official” 6502C was a version of the original 6502 able to run at up to 4 MHz.Not to be confused with SALLY, a custom 6502 designed for Atari (and sometimes referred to by them as \"6502C\") nor with the similarly named 65C02.SALLY, C014806, \"6502C\" Custom 6502 variant designed for Atari, used in later Atari 8-bit computers and Atari 5200 and Atari 7800 consoles.Has a HALT signal on pin 35 and the R/W signal on pin 36 (these pins are not connected (N/C) on a standard 6502).",
"Pulling HALT low latches the clock, pausing the processor.",
"This was used to allow the video circuitry direct memory access (DMA).Although sometimes referred to as \"6502C\" in Atari documentation, this is not the same as the \"official\" 6502C and the chip itself is never marked as such.",
"MOS6503 Reduced memory addressing capability (4 KB) and no RDY input, in a 28-pin DIP package (with the phase 1 (OUT), SYNC, redundant Vss, and SO pins of the 6502 also omitted).",
"MOS6504 Reduced memory addressing capability (8 KB), no NMI, and no RDY input, in a 28-pin DIP package (with the phase 1 (OUT), SYNC, redundant Vss, and SO pins of the 6502 also omitted).",
"MOS6505 Reduced memory addressing capability (4 KB) and no NMI, in a 28-pin DIP package (with the phase 1 (OUT), SYNC, redundant Vss, and SO pins of the 6502 also omitted).",
"MOS6506 Reduced memory addressing capability (4 KB), no NMI, and no RDY input, but all 3 clock pins of the 6502 (i.e.",
"a 2-phase output clock), in a 28-pin DIP package (with the SYNC, redundant Vss, and SO pins of the 6502 also omitted).",
"MOS6507 Reduced memory addressing capability (8 KB) and no interrupts, in a 28-pin DIP package (with the phase 1 (OUT), SYNC, redundant Vss, and SO pins of the 6502 also omitted).",
"This chip was used in the Atari 2600 video game system.",
"MOS6508 Has a built-in 8-bit input/output port and 256 bytes of internal static RAM.",
"MOS6509 Can address up to 1 MB of RAM as 16 banks of 64 KB and was used in the Commodore CBM-II series.",
"MOS6510 Has a built-in 6-bit programmable input/output port and was used in the Commodore 64.The 8500 is effectively an HMOS version of the 6510, and replaced it in later versions of the C64.MOS6512651365146515 The MOS Technology 6512, 6513, 6514, and 6515 each rely on an external clock, instead of using an internal clock generator like the 650x (e.g.",
"6502).",
"This was used to advantage in some designs where the clocks could be run asymmetrically, increasing overall CPU performance.The 6512 is a 6502 with a 2-phase clock input for an external clock oscillator, instead of an on-board clock oscillator.",
"The 6513, 6514 and 6515 are similarly equivalent to (respectively) a 6503, 6504 and 6505 with the same 2-phase clock input.The 6512 was used in the BBC Micro B+64.Ricoh2A03 Unlicenced 6502 variant including an audio processing unit but lacking the BCD mode, used in the Nintendo Entertainment System.",
"MOS65916592 System on a chip designs that utilize a complete Atari 2600 in a 48-pin DIP package.",
"WDC65C02 CMOS version of the NMOS 6502 that was designed by Bill Mensch of the Western Design Center (WDC), featuring reduced power consumption, support for much higher clock speeds, new instructions, new addressing modes for some existing instructions, and correction of NMOS errata, such as the JMP ($xxFF) bug.CSG, MOS65CE02 CMOS variant developed by the Commodore Semiconductor Group (CSG), formerly MOS Technology.",
"The 65CE02 provides a further enhanced instruction set from the 65C02, featuring a third indexing register (Z), base page register, 16 bit stack and faster program execution with the minimal instruction timing reduced from 2 to 1 clock cycles.",
"RockwellR6511QR6500/11, R6500/12, R6500/15 \"''One-Chip Microcomputers''\" Enhanced versions of the 6502-based processor, also including individual bit manipulation operations (RMB, SMB, BBR and BBS), on-chip 192 byte zero-page RAM, UART, etc.",
"Rockwell R65F11R65F12 The Rockwell R65F11 (introduced in 1983) and the later R65F12 are enhanced versions of the 6502-based processor, also including individual bit manipulation operations (RMB, SMB, BBR and BBS), on-chip zero-page RAM, on-chip Forth kernel ROM, a UART, etc.",
"GTEG65SC12 Drop in 6502 CMOS variant without individual bit manipulation operations (RMB, SMB, BBR and BBS).",
"This was used in the BBC Master.",
"GTEG65SC102 Software compatible with the 6502, but has a slightly different pinout and oscillator circuit.",
"The BBC Master Turbo included the 4 MHz version of this CPU on a coprocessor card, which could also be bought separately and added to the Master 128.Rockwell R65C00R65C21R65C29 The R65C00, R65C21, and R65C29 have two enhanced CMOS 6502s in a single chip, and the R65C00 and R65C21 additionally contained 2 KB of mask-programmable ROM.",
"CM630 A 1 MHz Eastern Bloc clone of the 6502 and was used in the Pravetz 8A and 8C, Bulgarian clones of the Apple II series.",
"MOS75018501 6510 (an enhanced 6502) variants, introduced in 1984.They extended the number of I/O port pins from 6 to 7, but omitted pins for non-maskable interrupt and clock output.",
"Used in Commodore's C-16, C-116 and Plus/4 computers.",
"The main difference between 7501 and 8501 CPUs is that the 7501 was manufactured with the HMOS-1 process and the 8501 with HMOS-2.MOS8500 Introduced in 1985 as an HMOS version of the 6510 (which is in turn based on the 6502).",
"Other than the process modification, the 8500 is virtually identical to the NMOS version of the 6510.It replaced the 6510 in later versions of the Commodore 64.MOS8502 Designed by MOS Technology and used in the Commodore 128.Based on the MOS 6510 used in the Commodore 64, the 8502 was able run at double clock rate of the 6510.The 8502 family also includes the MOS 7501, 8500 and 8501.Hudson SoftHuC6280 Japanese video game company Hudson Soft's improved version of the WDC 65C02.Manufactured for them by Seiko Epson and NEC for the SuperGrafx.",
"The most notable product using the HuC6280 is NEC's TurboGrafx-16 video game console.",
"VLSIVL65NC02 VLSI licensed 65C02 variant was included in the Atari Lynx's main system IC named Mikey.===16-bit derivatives===The Western Design Center designed and currently produces the WDC 65C816S processor, a 16-bit, static-core successor to the 65C02.The W65C816S is a newer variant of the 65C816, which is the core of the Apple IIGS computer and is the basis of the Ricoh 5A22 processor that powers the Super Nintendo Entertainment System.",
"The W65C816S incorporates minor improvements over the 65C816 that make the newer chip not an exact hardware-compatible replacement for the earlier one.",
"Among these improvements was conversion to a static core, which makes it possible to stop the clock in either phase without the registers losing data.",
"Available through electronics distributors, as of March 2020, the W65C816S is officially rated for 14 MHz operation.The Western Design Center also designed and produced the 65C802, which was a 65C816 core with a 64-kilobyte address space in a 65(C)02 pin-compatible package.",
"The 65C802 could be retrofitted to a 6502 board and would function as a 65C02 on power-up, operating in \"emulation mode.\"",
"As with the 65C816, a two-instruction sequence would switch the 65C802 to \"native mode\" operation, exposing its 16-bit accumulator and index registers, and other 65C816 features.",
"The 65C802 was not widely used and production ended."
],
[
"Bugs and quirks",
"The 6502 had several bugs and quirks, which had to be accounted for when programming it:* The earliest revisions of the 6502, such as those shipped with some KIM-1 computers, did not have a ROR (rotate right memory or accumulator) instruction.",
"The operation of ROR in these chips is effectively an ASL (arithmetic shift left) instruction that does not affect the carry bit in the status register.",
"MOS left the instruction out of chip documentation entirely, promising that ROR would appear on 6502 chips starting in 1976.The vast majority of 6502 chips in existence today do not exhibit this quirk.",
"* The NMOS 6502 family has a variety of undocumented instructions, which vary from one chip manufacturer to another.",
"The 6502 instruction decoding is implemented in a hardwired logic array (similar to a programmable logic array) that is only defined for 151 of the 256 available opcodes.",
"The remaining 105 trigger strange and occasionally hard-to-predict actions, such as crashing the processor, performing two valid instructions consecutively, performing strange mixtures of two instructions, or simply doing nothing at all.",
"Eastern House Software developed the \"Trap65\", a device that plugged between the processor and its socket to convert (trap) unimplemented opcodes into BRK (software interrupt) instructions.",
"Some programmers utilized this feature to extend the 6502 instruction set by providing functionality for the unimplemented opcodes with specially written software intercepted at the BRK instruction's 0xFFFE vector.",
"All of the undefined opcodes have been replaced with NOP instructions in the 65C02, an enhanced CMOS version of the 6502, although with varying byte sizes and execution times.",
"In the 65C802/65C816, all 256 opcodes perform defined operations.",
"* The 6502's memory indirect jump instruction, JMP (), is partly broken.",
"If is hex xxFF (i.e., any word ending in FF), the processor will not jump to the address stored in xxFF and xxFF+1 as expected, but rather the one defined by xxFF and xx00 (for example, JMP ($10FF) would jump to the address stored in 10FF and 1000, instead of the one stored in 10FF and 1100).",
"This defect continued through the entire NMOS line, but was corrected in the CMOS derivatives.",
"* The NMOS 6502 indexed addressing across page boundaries will do an extra read of an invalid address.",
"This characteristic may cause random issues by accessing hardware that acts on a read, such as clearing timer or IRQ flags, sending an I/O handshake, etc.",
"This defect continued through the entire NMOS line, but was corrected in the CMOS derivatives, in which the processor does an extra read of the last instruction byte.",
"* The 6502 read–modify–write instructions perform one read and two write cycles.",
"First, the unmodified data that was read is written back, and then the modified data is written.",
"This characteristic may cause issues by twice accessing hardware that acts on a write.",
"This anomaly continued through the full NMOS line, but was fixed in the CMOS derivatives, in which the processor does two reads and one write cycle.",
"Defensive programming practice will generally avoid this problem by not executing read/modify/write instructions on hardware registers.",
"* The N (result negative), V (sign bit overflow) and Z (result zero) status flags are generally meaningless when performing arithmetic operations while the processor is in BCD mode, as these flags reflect the binary, not BCD, result.",
"This limitation was removed in the CMOS derivatives.",
"Therefore, this feature may be used to distinguish a CMOS processor from an NMOS version.",
"* If the 6502 happens to be in BCD mode when a hardware interrupt occurs, it will not revert to binary mode.",
"This characteristic could result in obscure bugs in the interrupt service routine if it fails to clear BCD mode before performing any arithmetic operations.",
"For example, the Commodore 64's KERNAL did not correctly handle this processor characteristic, requiring that IRQs be disabled or re-vectored during BCD math operations.",
"This issue was addressed in the CMOS derivatives also.",
"* The 6502 instruction set includes BRK (opcode $00), which is technically a software interrupt (similar in spirit to the SWI mnemonic of the Motorola 6800 and ARM processors).",
"BRK is most often used to interrupt program execution and start a machine language monitor for testing and debugging during software development.",
"BRK could also be used to route program execution using a simple jump table (analogous to the manner in which the Intel 8086 and derivatives handle software interrupts by number).",
"However, if a hardware interrupt occurs when the processor is fetching a BRK instruction, the NMOS version of the processor will fail to execute BRK and instead proceed as if only a hardware interrupt had occurred.",
"This fault was corrected in the CMOS implementation of the processor.",
"* When executing JSR (jump to subroutine) and RTS (return from subroutine) instructions, the return address pushed to the stack by JSR is that of the last byte of the JSR operand (that is, the most significant byte of the subroutine address), rather than the address of the following instruction.",
"This is because the actual copy (from program counter to stack and then conversely) takes place before the automatic increment of the program counter that occurs at the end of every instruction.",
"This characteristic would go unnoticed unless the code examined the return address in order to retrieve parameters in the code stream (a 6502 programming idiom documented in the ''ProDOS 8 Technical Reference Manual'').",
"It remains a characteristic of 6502 derivatives to this day.",
"* The read access of the CPU can be delayed by setting the RDY pin to low temporarily.",
"However, during write access, which can take up to three clock cycles for a BRK instruction, the CPU will stop only in the next read cycle.",
"This quirk was corrected in the CMOS derivatives and also in the 6510 and its variants."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of 6502 assemblers* MOS Technology 6502-based home computers* Transistor count* Apple II accelerators* cc65 – 6502 macro assembler and C compiler"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * Interview with William Mensch Stanford and the Silicon Valley Project, October 9, 1995.Transcript"
],
[
"Further reading",
";Datasheets and manuals* '' 6500 Series Datasheet''; MOS Technology; 12 pages; 1976.",
"* '' 6500 Series Hardware Manual''; 2nd Ed; MOS Technology; 182 pages; 1976.",
"* '' 6500 Series Programming Manual''; 2nd Ed; MOS Technology; 262 pages; 1976.;Books* ''6502 Applications Book''; 1st Ed; Rodnay Zaks; Sybex; 281 pages; 1979; .",
"(archive)* ''6502 Assembly Language Programming''; 2nd Ed; Lance Leventhal; Osborne/McGraw-Hill; 650 pages; 1986; .",
"(archive)* ''6502 Assembly Language Subroutines''; 1st Ed; Lance Leventhal and Winthrop Saville; Osborne/McGraw-Hill; 550 pages; 1982; .",
"(archive)* ''6502 Games''; 1st Ed; Rodnay Zaks; Sybex; 292 pages; 1980; .",
"(archive)* ''6502 User's Manual''; 1st Ed; Joseph Carr; Reston; 288 pages; 1984; .",
"(archive)* ''Advanced 6502 Programming''; 1st Ed; Rodnay Zaks; John Wiley & Sons; 292 pages; 1982; .",
"(archive)* ''Machine Language For Beginners – Personal Computer Machine Language Programming For Atari, VIC, Apple, C64, and PET Computers''; 1st Ed; Richard Mansfield; Compute!",
"Publications; 350 pages; 1983; .",
"(archive)* ''Programming the 6502''; 4th Ed; Rodnay Zaks; Sybex; 408 pages; 1983; .",
"(archive)* ''Programming the 65816 – including the 6502, 65C02, 65802''; 1st Ed; David Eyes and Ron Lichty; Prentice Hall; 636 pages; 1986; .",
"(archive)* ''Microprocessors and Assembly Language''; Turkish; 7th Ed; Nurettin Topaloglu; Seckin Yayinevi; 328 pages; 2021; .",
";Reference cards* ''6502 Microprocessor Instant Reference Card''; James Lewis; Micro Logic; 2 pages; 1980.",
"(archive)"
],
[
"External links",
"* 6502.org – the 6502 microprocessor resource – repository * The Rise of MOS Technology & The 6502 – Commodore archive* 650x information – Concise description, photos of MOS and second source chips; at cpu-collection.de* mdfs.net – 6502 instruction set* * ;Simulators, emulators* Online 6502 compatible assembler and emulator, written in JavaScript * List of 6502 software emulators – Zophar's Domain* 6502 simulator for Windows – Atari Gaming Headquarters* Visual Transistor-level Simulation of 6502 CPU* – MicroCore Labs;Boards* Grant's 7/8-chip 6502 board* 6502 microprocessor training board * Build your own KIM-1 training board – see KIM-1* * PE6502 single board computer * – based on Ben Eater videos;FPGA* cpu6502_tc 6502 CPU core – VHDL source code – OpenCores* ag_6502 6502 CPU core – Verilog source code – OpenCores* M65C02 65C02 CPU core – Verilog source code – OpenCores* – Verilog – MicroCore Labs"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"MOS Technology 6510"
],
[
"Introduction",
"6581 SID.",
"The production week/year (WWYY) of each chip is given below its name.The '''MOS Technology 6510''' is an 8-bit microprocessor designed by MOS Technology.",
"It is a modified form of the very successful 6502.The 6510 is widely used in the Commodore 64 (C64) home computer and its variants.The primary change from the 6502 is the addition of an 8-bit general purpose I/O port, although 6 I/O pins are available in the most common version of the 6510.In addition, the address bus can be made tristate and the CPU can be halted cleanly."
],
[
"Use",
"In the C64, the extra I/O pins of the processor are used to control the computer's memory map by bank switching, and for controlling three of the four signal lines of the Datasette tape recorder (the electric motor control, key-press sensing and write data lines; the read data line went to another I/O chip).",
"It is possible, by writing the correct bit pattern to the processor at address $01, to completely expose almost the full 64 KB of RAM in the C64, leaving no ROM or I/O hardware exposed except for the processor I/O port itself and its data directional register at address $00."
],
[
"Variants",
"Pin configuration of the most common variation of the 6510 CPU (/HALT in this image refers to the RDY pin)=== MOS 8500 ===In 1985, MOS produced the '''8500''', an HMOS version of the 6510.Other than the process modification, it is virtually identical to the NMOS version of the 6510.The 8500 was originally designed for use in the modernised C64, the C64C.",
"However, in 1985, limited quantities of 8500s were found on older NMOS-based C64s.",
"It finally made its official debut in 1987, appearing in a motherboard using the new 85xx HMOS chipset.=== MOS 7501/8501 ===MOS 8501 CPUThe '''7501/8501''' variant of the 6510 was introduced in 1984.Compared to the 6510, this variant extends the number of I/O port pins from 6 to 8, but omits the pins for non-maskable interrupt and clock output.",
"It is used in Commodore's C16, C116 and Plus/4 home computers, where its I/O port controls not only the Datasette but also the CBM Bus interface.",
"The main difference between 7501 and 8501 CPUs is that they were manufactured with slightly different processes: 7501 was manufactured with HMOS-1 and 8501 with HMOS-2.=== MOS 8502 ===The 2 MHz-capable 8502 variant is used in the Commodore 128.All these CPUs are opcode compatible (including undocumented opcodes).=== MOS 6510T ===The Commodore 1551 disk drive (for the Commodore Plus/4) uses the '''6510T''', a version of the 6510 with eight I/O lines.",
"The NMI and RDY signals are not available."
],
[
"See also",
"* Interrupts in 65xx processors"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading"
],
[
"External links",
"* MOS 6510 datasheet (GIF format, zipped)* MOS 6510 datasheet (PDF format)* MOS 6510 datasheet (preliminary, Nov. 1982, PDF format)* * komkon.org - Computer Emulation Resources (includes downloadable source code for 6502)*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Motorola 6800"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''6800''' (\"''sixty-eight hundred''\") is an 8-bit microprocessor designed and first manufactured by Motorola in 1974.The MC6800 microprocessor was part of the M6800 Microcomputer System (latter dubbed ''68xx'') that also included serial and parallel interface ICs, RAM, ROM and other support chips.",
"A significant design feature was that the M6800 family of ICs required only a single five-volt power supply at a time when most other microprocessors required three voltages.",
"The M6800 Microcomputer System was announced in March 1974 and was in full production by the end of that year.The 6800 has a 16-bit address bus that can directly access of memory and an 8-bit bi-directional data bus.",
"It has 72 instructions with seven addressing modes for a total of 197 opcodes.",
"The original MC6800 could have a clock frequency of up to .",
"Later versions had a maximum clock frequency of .In addition to the ICs, Motorola also provided a complete assembly language development system.",
"The customer could use the software on a remote timeshare computer or on an in-house minicomputer system.",
"The Motorola EXORciser was a desktop computer built with the M6800 ICs that could be used for prototyping and debugging new designs.",
"An expansive documentation package included datasheets on all ICs, two assembly language programming manuals, and a 700-page application manual that showed how to design a point-of-sale terminal (a computerized cash register) around the 6800.The 6800 was popular in computer peripherals, test equipment applications and point-of-sale terminals.",
"It also found use in arcade games and pinball machines.",
"The MC6802, introduced in 1977, included 128 bytes of RAM and an internal clock oscillator on chip.",
"The MC6801 and MC6805 included RAM, ROM and I/O on a single chip and were popular in automotive applications.",
"Some MC6805 models integrated a Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI).",
"The Motorola 6809 was an updated compatible design."
],
[
"History",
"=== Motorola's history in semiconductors === Motorola began making semiconductors in the 1950s.Galvin Manufacturing Corporation was founded in 1928; the company name was changed to Motorola in 1947.They began commercial production of transistors at a new US$1.5 million facility in Phoenix, Arizona in 1955.By the mid-1960s, Motorola had expanded their semiconductor division under the direction of Lester Hogan.",
"Motorola's transistors and integrated circuits were used in-house for their communication, military, automotive and consumer products and they were also sold to other companies.",
"In 1968, Robert Noyce left Fairchild Semiconductor to found Intel, and Fairchild responded by hiring Hogan as the new CEO.",
"Eight other Motorola employees moved with him, they became known as \"Hogan's heroes\".",
"The resulting chaos was nevertheless short lived, and the company continued to grow through this period.By 1973 the Semiconductor Products Division (SPD) had sales of $419 million and was the second largest semiconductor company after Texas Instruments.===5065===By the early 1970s it was clear that most of the large companies in the semiconductor space, including Fairchild and the still-new Intel, were planning to introduce microprocessors.",
"Intel began shopping around the initial concept of what would become the Intel 4004, and on their sales trips they visited Victor Comptometer in Chicago looking for potential customers.",
"Victor had introduced the world's first electronic calculator, using early integrated circuits.",
"There, Tom Bennett saw the design.In 1971, Motorola decided to enter the calculator business.",
"Looking for someone to lead the effort, the hired Bennett away from Victor.",
"Shortly after joining, Olivetti visited Motorola with a outline of a design for a microprocessor they were planning to use in a series of programmable calculators.",
"Motorola agreed to complete the design and produce it on their PMOS lines in Phoenix.While the design was eventually completed successfully, their fab proved unable to produce the chips.",
"To save the contract, Motorola licensed the design to their competitor, Mostek, with the requirement that Mostek could only sell outside the calculator market.",
"Mostek then put the design on the market as the Mostek 5065.=== Development team ===Block diagram of a M6800 microcomputer systemThe 5065 debacle illustrated a problem with Motorola's fabrication line that had become obvious with a number of similar failures, the line also proved unable to make competitive memory devices and other designs.",
"Customers continued to approach the company with new ideas, and it became increasingly obvious that these concepts could be implemented using a single flexible microprocessor design.",
"A new effort began in late 1971, but in early 1972, the marketing department returned a report stating they could only sell 18,000 over a five year period.",
"Unconvinced, Bennett hired Link Young to try again.",
"Young returned with a potential order for 200,000 from National Data Corporation, more than enough to start design work.The team was composed of designer Tom Bennett, engineering director Jeff LaVell, product marketer Link Young and systems designers Mike Wiles, Gene Schriber and Doug Powell.",
"They were all located in Mesa, Arizona, in greater Phoenix.",
"By the time the project was finished, Bennett had 17 chip designers and layout people working on five chips.",
"LaVell had 15 to 20 system engineers and there was another applications engineering group of similar size.Tom Bennett had a background in industrial controls and had worked for Victor Comptometer in the 1960s designing the first electronic calculator to use MOS ICs, the Victor 3900.In May 1969 Ted Hoff showed Bennett early diagrams of the Intel 4004 to see if it would meet their calculator needs.",
"Bennett joined Motorola in 1971 to design calculator ICs.",
"He was soon assigned as the chief architect of the microprocessor project that produced the 6800.Others have taken credit for designing the 6800.In September 1975 Robert H. Cushman, ''EDN'' magazine's microprocessor editor, interviewed Chuck Peddle about MOS Technology's new 6502 microprocessor.",
"Cushman then asked \"Tom Bennett, master architect of the 6800\", to comment about this new competitor.",
"After the 6800 project Bennett worked on automotive applications and Motorola became a major supplier of microprocessors used in automobiles.Jeff LaVell joined Motorola in 1966 and worked in the computer industry marketing organization.",
"LaVell had previously worked for Collins Radio on their C8500 computer that was built with small scale ECL ICs.",
"In 1971, he led a group that examined the needs of their existing customers such as Hewlett-Packard, National Cash Register, Control Data Corporation (CDC), and Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).",
"They would study the customer's products and try to identify functions that could be implemented in larger integrated circuits at a lower cost.",
"The result of the survey was a family of 15 building blocks; each could be implemented in an integrated circuit.",
"Some of these blocks were implemented in the initial M6800 release and more were added over the next few years.",
"To evaluate the 6800 architecture while the chip was being designed, LaVell's team built an equivalent circuit using 451 small scale TTL ICs on five 10 by 10 inch (25 by 25 cm) circuit boards.",
"Later they reduced this to 114 ICs on one board by using ROMs and MSI (medium scale integration) logic devices.Motorola 6800 DIP chip pinoutJohn Buchanan was a memory designer at Motorola when Bennett asked him to design a voltage doubler for the 6800.Typical n-channel MOS IC's required three power supplies: −5 volts, +5 volts and +12 volts.",
"The M6800 family was to use only one, +5 volts.",
"It was easy to eliminate the −5 volt supply by using an internal voltage inverter, but the enhancement-mode logic also needed a supply of 10 to 12 volts.",
"To address this, the design added an on-chip voltage doubler.",
"Buchanan did the circuit design, analysis and layout for the 6800 microprocessor.",
"He received patents on the voltage doubler and the 6800 chip layout.",
"Rod Orgill assisted Buchanan with analyses and 6800 chip layout.",
"Later Orgill would design the MOS Technology 6501 microprocessor that was socket compatible with the 6800.Bill Lattin joined Motorola in 1969 and his group provided the computer simulation tools for characterizing the new MOS circuits in the 6800.Lattin and Frank Jenkins had both attended UC Berkeley and studied computer circuit simulators under Donald Pederson, the designer of the SPICE circuit simulator.",
"Motorola's simulator, MTIME, was an advanced version of the TIME circuit simulator that Jenkins had developed at Berkeley.",
"The group published a technical paper, \"MOS-device modeling for computer implementation\" in 1973 describing a \"5-V single-supply n-channel technology\" operating at 1 MHz.",
"They could simulate a 50 MOSFET circuit on an IBM 370/165 mainframe computer.",
"In November 1975, Lattin joined Intel to work on their next generation microprocessor.Bill Mensch joined Motorola in 1971 after graduating from the University of Arizona.",
"He had worked several years as an electronics technician before earning his BSEE degree.",
"The first year at Motorola was a series of three-month rotations through four different areas.",
"Mensch did a flowchart for a modem that would become the 6860.He also worked the application group that was defining the M6800 system.",
"After this training year, he was assigned to the 6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA) development team.",
"Mensch was a major contributor to the design of this chip and received a patent on the IC layout and was named as a co-inventor of seven other M6800 system patents.",
"Later Mensch would design the MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor.MIKBUG was part of the extensive M6800 microcomputer support developed by Motorola's Application Engineering Group.Mike Wiles was a design engineer in Jeff LaVell's group and made numerous customer visits with Tom Bennett during 6800 product definition phase.",
"He is listed as an inventor on eighteen 6800 patents but is best known for a computer program, MIKBUG.",
"This was a monitor for a 6800 computer system that allowed the user to examine the contents of RAM and to save or load programs to tape.",
"This 512 byte program occupied half of an MCM6830 ROM.",
"This ROM was used in the Motorola MEK6800 design evaluation kit and early hobby computer kits.",
"Wiles stayed with Motorola, moved to Austin and helped design the MC6801 microcontroller that was released in 1978.Chuck Peddle joined the design team in 1973 after the 6800 processor design was done but he contributed to overall system design and to several peripheral chips, particularly the 6820 (PIA) parallel interface.",
"Peddle is listed as an inventor on sixteen Motorola patents, most have six or more co-inventors.",
"Like the other engineers on the team, Peddle visited potential customers and solicited their feedback.",
"Peddle and John Buchanan built one of the earliest 6800 demonstration boards.",
"In August 1974 Chuck Peddle left Motorola and joined a small semiconductor company in Pennsylvania, MOS Technology.",
"There he led the team that designed the 6500 microprocessor family.=== MC6800 microprocessor design === A Motorola MC6800 microprocessor registers and I/O lines+ Motorola 6800 registers 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 ''(bit position)'' '''Main registers''' A '''A''' accumulator B '''B''' accumulator '''Index registers''' IX '''I'''ndex register SP '''S'''tack '''P'''ointer '''Program counter''' PC '''P'''rogram '''C'''ounter '''Status register''' 1 1 H I N Z V C FlagsThe Motorola 6800 and the Intel 8080 were designed at the same time and were similar in function.",
"The 8080 was an extension and enhancement of the Intel 8008, which in turn was an LSI implementation of the TTL-based CPU design used in the Datapoint 2200.The 6800 architecture was a TTL-compatible LSI design modeled after the DEC PDP-11 processor.The 6800 had an 8-bit bidirectional data bus, a 16-bit address bus that could address 64 KB of memory, and came in a 40-pin DIP package.",
"The 6800 had two 8-bit accumulators, a 16-bit index register, and a 16-bit stack pointer.",
"The direct addressing mode, often known as the zero page in other processors, allowed fast access to the first 256 bytes of memory.",
"I/O devices were addressed as memory so there were no special I/O instructions.",
"When the 6800 was reset, it loaded the program counter from the highest address and started execution at the memory location stored there.The 6800 had a three-state control that would disable the address bus to allow another device direct memory access.",
"For instance, a floppy disk controller could load data into memory without requiring any support from the CPU.",
"It was even possible to have two 6800 processors access the same memory.",
"However, in practice systems of such complexity usually required the use of external bus transceivers to drive the system bus; in such circuits, the on-processor bus control was disabled entirely in favor of using the similar capabilities of the bus transceiver.",
"In contrast, the 6802 dispensed with this on-chip control entirely in order to free up pins for other functions in the same 40-pin package as the 6800, but this functionality could still be achieved using an external bus transceiver.MOS ICs typically used dual clock signals (a two-phase clock) in the 1970s.",
"These were generated externally for the 6800, The 6800 had a minimum clock rate of 100 kHz, and initially ran at a maximum rate of 1 MHz.",
"Higher-speed versions of the 6800 were released in 1976.Other divisions in Motorola developed components for the M6800 family.",
"The Components Products Department designed the MC6870 two-phase clock IC, and the Memory Products group provided a full line of ROMs and RAMs.",
"The CMOS group's MC14411 Bit Rate Generator provided a 75 to 9600 baud clock for the MC6850 serial interface.",
"The buffers for address and data buses were standard Motorola products.",
"Motorola could supply every IC, transistor, and diode necessary to build an MC6800-based computer.=== MOS ICs === A silicon wafer holding many integrated circuit chipsThe first-generation metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) chips used p-channel field-effect transistors, known as p-channel MOSFETs (p-channel describes the configuration of the transistor).",
"These ICs were used in calculators and in the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004.They were easy to produce but were slow and difficult to interface to the popular TTL digital logic ICs.",
"An n-channel MOS integrated circuit could operate two or three times faster and was compatible with TTL.",
"They were much more difficult to produce because of an increased sensitivity to contamination that required an ultra clean production line and meticulous process control.",
"Motorola did not have an n-channel MOS production capability and had to develop one for the 6800 family.Motorola's n-channel MOS test integrated circuits were complete in late 1971 and these indicated the clock rate would be limited to 1 MHz.",
"These used \"enhancement-mode\" MOS transistors.",
"There was a newer fabrication technology that used \"depletion-mode\" MOS transistors as loads, which would allow smaller and faster circuits (this was also known as depletion-load nMOS).",
"The \"depletion-mode\" processing required extra steps so Motorola decided to stay with \"enhancement-mode\" for the new single-supply-voltage design.",
"The 1 MHz clock rate meant the chip designers would have to come up with several architectural innovations to speed up the microprocessor throughput.",
"These resulting circuits were faster but required more area on the chip.In the 1970s, semiconductors were fabricated on 3 inch (75 mm) diameter silicon wafers.",
"Each wafer could produce 100 to 200 integrated circuit chips or dies.",
"The technical literature would state the length and width of each chip in \"mils\" (0.001 inch).",
"The current industry practice is to state the chip area.",
"Processing wafers required multiple steps and flaws would appear at various locations on the wafer during each step.",
"The larger the chip the more likely it would encounter a defect.",
"The percentage of working chips, or yield, declined steeply for chips larger than 160 mils (4 mm) on a side.The target size for the 6800 was 180 mils (4.6 mm) on each side but the final size was 212 mils (5.4 mm) with an area of 29.0 mm2.At 180 mils, a wafer will hold about 190 chips, 212 mils reduces that to 140 chips.",
"At this size the yield may be 20% or 28 chips per wafer.",
"The Motorola 1975 annual report highlights the new MC6800 microprocessor but has several paragraphs on the \"MOS yield problems.\"",
"The yield problem was solved with a design revision started in 1975 to use depletion mode in the M6800 family devices.",
"The 6800 die size was reduced to 160 mils (4 mm) per side with an area of 16.5 mm2.This also allowed faster clock speeds, the MC68A00 would operate at 1.5 MHz and the MC68B00 at 2.0 MHz.",
"The new parts were available in July 1976.=== M6800 family introduction === An early advertisement for the Motorola's M6800 family microcomputer systemThe March 7, 1974 issue of ''Electronics'' had a two-page story on the Motorola MC6800 microprocessor along with the MC6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter, the MC6850 Asynchronous Communications Interface Adapter, the MCM6810 128 byte RAM and the MCM6830 1024 byte ROM.",
"This was followed by an eight-page article in the April 18, 1974 issue, written by the Motorola design team.",
"This issue also had an article introducing the Intel 8080.Both the Intel 8080 and the Motorola MC6800 processors began layout around December 1972.The first working 8080 chips were produced January 1974 and the first public announcement was in February 1974.The 8080 used same three voltage N-channel MOS process as Intel's existing memory chips allowing full production to begin that April.The first working MC6800 chips were produced in February 1974 and engineering samples were given to select customers.",
"Hewlett-Packard in Loveland, Colorado wanted the MC6800 for a new desktop calculator and had a prototype system working by June.",
"The MC6800 used a new single-voltage N-channel MOS process that proved to be very difficult to implement.",
"The M6800 microcomputer system was finally in production by November 1974.Motorola matched Intel's price for single microprocessor, $360.",
"(The IBM System/360 was a well-known computer at this time.)",
"In April 1975 the MEK6800D1 microcomputer design kit was offered for $300.The kit included all six chips in the M6800 family plus application and programming manuals.",
"The price of a single MC6800 microprocessor was $175.Link Young was the product marketer that developed the total system approach for the M6800 family release.",
"In addition to releasing a full set of support chips with the 6800 microprocessor, Motorola offered a software and hardware development system.",
"The software development tools were available on remote time-sharing computers or the source code was available so the customer could use an in-house computer system.",
"The software that would run on a microprocessor system was typically written in assembly language.",
"The development system consisted of a text editor, assembler and a simulator.",
"This allowed the developer to test the software before the target system was complete.",
"The hardware development was a desktop computer built with M6800 family CPU and peripherals known as the EXORcisor.",
"Motorola offered a three- to five-day microprocessor design course for the 6800 hardware and software.",
"This systems-oriented approach became the standard way new microprocessor were introduced.=== Design team breakup ===The principal design effort on the M6800 family was complete in mid-1974, and many engineers left the group or the company.",
"Several factors led to the break-up of the design group.Motorola had opened a new MOS semiconductor facility in Austin, Texas.",
"The entire engineering team was scheduled to relocate there in 1975.Many of the employees liked living in the Phoenix suburb of Mesa and were very wary about moving to Austin.",
"The team leaders were unsuccessful with their pleas to senior management on deferring the move.A recession hit the semiconductor industry in mid-1974 resulting in thousands of layoffs.",
"A November 1974 issue of ''Electronics'' magazine reports that Motorola had laid off 4,500 employees, Texas Instruments 7,000 and Signetics 4,000.Motorola's Semiconductor Products Division would lose thirty million dollars in the next 12 months and there were rumors that the IC group would be sold off.",
"Motorola did not sell the division but they did change the management and organization.",
"By the end of 1974 Intel fired almost a third of its 3,500 employees.",
"The MOS IC business rebounded but job security was not taken for granted in 1974 and 1975.Chuck Peddle (and other Motorola engineers) had been visiting customers to explain the benefits of microprocessors.",
"Both Intel and Motorola had initially set the price of a single microprocessor at .",
"Many customers were hesitant to adopt this new microprocessor technology with such a high price tag.",
"(The actual price for production quantities was much lower.)",
"In mid-1974 Peddle proposed a simplified microprocessor that could be sold at a much lower price.",
"Motorola's \"total product family\" strategy did not focus on the price of MPU but on reducing the customer's total design cost.",
"Their immediate goal was to get their completed system into production and they would work on improvements in 1975.Introductory advertisement for the MOS Technology MCS6501 microprocessor in August 1975Peddle continued working for Motorola while looking for investors for his new microprocessor concept.",
"In August 1974 Chuck Peddle left Motorola and joined a small semiconductor company in Pennsylvania, MOS Technology.",
"He was followed by seven other Motorola engineers: Harry Bawcom, Ray Hirt, Terry Holdt, Mike James, Will Mathis, Bill Mensch and Rod Orgill.",
"Peddle's group at MOS Technology developed two new microprocessors that were compatible with the Motorola peripheral chips like the 6820 PIA.",
"Rod Orgill designed the MCS6501 processor that would plug into a MC6800 socket and Bill Mensch did the MCS6502 that had the clock generation circuit on chip.",
"These microprocessors would not run 6800 programs because they had a different architecture and instruction set.",
"The major goal was a microprocessor that would sell for under .",
"This would be done by removing non-essential features to reduce the chip size.",
"An 8-bit stack pointer was used instead of a 16-bit one.",
"The second accumulator was omitted.",
"The address buffers did not have a three-state mode for Direct Memory Access (DMA) data transfers.",
"The goal was to get the chip size down to 153 mils x 168 mils ().Chuck Peddle was a very effective spokesman and the MOS Technology microprocessors were extensively covered in the trade press.",
"One of the earliest was a full-page story on the MCS6501 and MCS6502 microprocessors in the July 24, 1975 issue of ''Electronics'' magazine.",
"Stories also ran in ''EE Times'' (August 24, 1975), ''EDN'' (September 20, 1975), ''Electronic News'' (November 3, 1975) and ''Byte'' (November 1975).",
"Advertisements for the 6501 appeared in several publications the first week of August 1975.The 6501 would be for sale at the WESCON trade show in San Francisco, September 16–19, 1975, for each.",
"In September 1975 the advertisements included both the 6501 and the 6502 microprocessors.",
"The 6502 would only cost .Motorola responded to MOS Technology's microprocessor by immediately reducing the single-unit price of the 6800 microprocessor from to and then suing MOS Technology in November 1975.Motorola claimed that the eight former Motorola engineers used technical information developed at Motorola in the design of the 6501 and 6502 microprocessors.",
"MOS Technology's other business, calculator chips, was declining due to a price war with Texas Instruments so their financial backer, Allen-Bradley, decided to limit the possible losses and sold the assets of MOS Technology back to the founders.",
"The lawsuit was settled in April 1976 with MOS Technology dropping the 6501 chip that would plug into a Motorola 6800 socket and licensing Motorola's peripheral chips.",
"Motorola reduced the single-unit price of the 6800 to .The MOS Technology vs. Motorola lawsuit has developed a David and Goliath narrative over the years.",
"One point was that Motorola did not have patents on the technology.",
"This was technically true when the lawsuit was filed in late 1975 On October 30, 1974, before the 6800 was released, Motorola filed numerous patents applications on the microprocessor family, and over twenty patents were subsequently granted.",
"The first was to Tom Bennett on June 8, 1976, for the 6800 internal address bus.",
"The second was to Bill Mensch on July 6, 1976, for the 6820 chip layout.",
"Many of these patents named several of the departing engineers as co-inventors.",
"These patents covered the 6800 bus and how the peripheral chips interfaced with the microprocessor.=== Move to Austin ===The M6800 family chips were redesigned to use depletion-mode technology.",
"The MC6820 PIA became the MC6821.Three typical applications for the MC6800, as shown in a Motorola advertisement from August 1976: a point-of-sale terminal, an electronic signal tester, and a security card entry system.Gary Daniels was designing ICs for electronic wristwatches when Motorola shut down their Timepiece Electronics Unit.",
"Tom Bennett offered him a job in the microprocessor group in November 1974.Bennett did not want to leave the Phoenix area so Gary Daniels managed the microprocessor development in Austin.",
"(Daniels was the microprocessor design manager for the next ten years before he was promoted to a vice president.",
")The first task was to redesign the 6800 MPU to improve the manufacturing yield and to operate at a faster clock.",
"This design used depletion-mode technology and was known internally as the MC6800D.",
"The transistor count went from 4000 to 5000 but the die area was reduced from 29.0 mm2 to 16.5 mm2 (allowing the price of the CPU to be lowered to $35).",
"The maximum clock rate for selected parts doubled to 2 MHz.",
"The other chips in the M6800 family were also redesigned to use depletion-mode technology.",
"The Peripheral Interface Adapter had a slight change in the electrical characteristics of the I/O pins so the MC6820 became the MC6821.These new IC were completed in July 1976.A new low-cost clock generator chip, the MC6875, was released in 1977.It replaced the $35 MC6870 hybrid IC.",
"The MC6875 came in a 16-pin dip package and could use quartz crystal or a resistor capacitor network.Another project was incorporating 128 bytes of RAM and the clock generator on a single 11,000-transistor chip.",
"The MC6802 microprocessor was released in March 1977.The companion MC6846 chip had 2048 byte ROM, an 8-bit bidirectional port and a programmable timer.",
"This was a two-chip microcomputer.",
"The 6802 has an on-chip oscillator that uses an external 4 MHz quartz crystal to produce the two-phase 1 MHz clock.",
"The internal 128 byte RAM could be disabled by grounding a pin and devices with defective RAM were sold as a MC6808.The 6808 was rarely used as the main microprocessor on general-purpose computers, being more popular in embedded systems (the 1979 ACFA-8 microcomputer proved an exception).A series of peripheral chip were introduced by 1978.The MC6840 programmable counter had three 16-bit binary counters that could be used for frequency measurement, event counting, or interval measurement.",
"The MC6844 Direct Memory Access Controller could transfer data from an I/O controller to RAM without loading down the MC6800 microprocessor.",
"The MC6845 CRT Controller (CRTC) provided the control logic for a character based computer terminal.",
"The 6845 had support for a light pen, an alternative to a computer mouse.The MC6845 was a very popular chip: it was even used in the original IBM Monochrome Display Adapter and the original IBM Color Graphics Adapter for the IBM PC and successors, where the 6845 was used with an Intel 8088 CPU.",
"During the time of cold war technology embargoes, a 6845 clone named CM607 was produced in Bulgaria.",
"The later IBM Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) card contained a custom IBM chip (the EGA CRTC) that replaced the Motorola 6845, adding many enhancements, in a mostly-compatible way.",
"The IBM Video Graphics Array (VGA), which became ubiquitous (to the point that it is still emulated as the baseline functionality of most modern PC video adapter chips) incorporates a compatible near-superset of the EGA CRTC, still mostly-compatible with the MC6845 (but by this point without the light pen support, which the EGA CRTC retained).The MC6801 was a single-chip microcomputer (that today would also be called a microcontroller) incorporating a 6802 CPU with 128 bytes of RAM, a 2 KB ROM, a 16-bit timer, 31 programmable parallel I/O lines, and a serial port.",
"(The MC6803 was the same except without the ROM and with fewer different bus configurations.)",
"It could also use the I/O lines as data and address buses to connect to standard M6800 peripherals.",
"The 6801 would execute 6800 code, but it had ten additional instructions, and the execution time of key instructions was reduced.",
"The two 8-bit accumulators could act as a single 16-bit accumulator for double precision addition, subtraction and multiplication.",
"It was initially designed for automotive use, with General Motors as the lead customer.",
"The first application was a trip computer for the 1978 Cadillac Seville.",
"This 35,000 transistor chip was too expensive for wide-scale adoption in automobiles, so a reduced function MC6805 single-chip microcomputer was designed.The MC6801 was one of the first microprocessors with a multiply instruction.The Hitachi HD6303 (not to be confused with the Hitachi 6309) is a second-source reimplementation of the Motorola MC6803, with a few additional instructions, and a slightly faster implementation of the 8x8 multiply instruction.",
"The Hitachi HD6303 is used in the first PDA, the 1984 Psion Organiser.The Hitachi HD6303 was also used in the 1983 \"Pocket Telex\".The Motorola MC6803 was also used in the TRS-80 MC-10 and the closely related Matra Alice.The MC6809 was the most advanced 8-bit microprocessor Motorola produced.",
"It had a new instruction set that was similar to the 6800 but abandoned op-code compatibility for improved performance and high-level language support; the 6809 and 6800 were software compatible in that assemblers could (and generally did) generate code which was equivalent to 6800 opcodes that the 6809 did not directly emulate.",
"In that sense, the 6809 was upward compatible with the 6800.The 6809 had two 16-bit index registers, two 16-bit stack pointers, and many instructions to perform 16-bit operations, including the first 8-bit multiply instruction (generating a 16-bit product) in a microprocessor.",
"Other key points of the 6809 design were full support for both position-independent code (object code that can run wherever it is loaded in memory) and reentrant code (object code that can be re-invoked when interrupted or by calling itself recursively), features previously seen only in much larger machines such as IBM 360 mainframes."
],
[
"Use in personal computers",
"The SWTPC 6800 computer system, introduced in November 1975, was based on the MEK6800 design evaluation kit chip set.MITS Altair 680The MITS Altair 8800, the first successful personal computer, used the Intel 8080 microprocessor and was featured on the January 1975 cover of ''Popular Electronics''.",
"The first personal computers using the Motorola 6800 were introduced in late 1975.Sphere Corporation of Bountiful, Utah ran a quarter-page advertisement in the July 1975 issue of ''Radio-Electronics'' for a computer kit with a 6800 microprocessor, of RAM, a video board and a keyboard.",
"This would display 16 lines of 32 characters on a TV or monitor.",
"The Sphere computer kits began shipping in November 1975.Southwest Technical Products Corporation of San Antonio, Texas, officially announced their SWTPC 6800 Computer System in November 1975.Wayne Green visited SWTPC in August 1975 and described the SWTPC computer kit complete with photos of a working system in the October 1975 issue of ''73''.",
"The SWTPC 6800 was based on the Motorola MEK6800 design evaluation kit chip set and used the MIKBUG ROM Software.",
"The MITS Altair 680 was on the cover of the November 1975 issue of ''Popular Electronics''.",
"The Altair 680 used a 6800 microprocessor and, unlike the SWTPC machine, also had a front panel with toggle switches and LEDs.",
"The initial design had to be revised and first deliveries of the Altair 680B were in April 1976.Sphere was a small startup company and had difficulties delivering all of the products they announced.",
"They filed for a Chapter 11 bankruptcy in April 1977.The Altair 680B was popular but MITS focused most of the resources on their Altair 8800 computer system and they exited the hobby market in 1978.The Southwest Technical Products computer was the most successful 6800 based personal computer.",
"Other companies, for instance, Smoke Signal Broadcasting (California), Gimix (Chicago), Midwest Scientific (Olathe, Kansas), and Helix Systems (Hazelwood, Missouri), started producing SWTPC 6800 bus compatible boards and complete systems.",
"Technical Systems Consultants of West Lafayette, Indiana, supplied tape based software for the 6800 (and later 6809) based computers and, after disk systems became available, operating systems and disk software as well.",
"The 8080 systems were far more popular than the 6800 ones.The Tektronix 4051 graphics computing system used a 6800 microprocessor.The Tektronix 4051 Graphics Computing System was introduced in October 1975.This was a professional desktop computer that had a 6800 microprocessor with up to 32 KB of user RAM, 300 KB magnetic tape storage, BASIC in ROM and a 1024 by 780 graphics display.",
"The Tektronix 4051 sold for (), rather higher than the personal computers using the 6800.The 6800 processor was also used in the APF MP1000 game console.",
"The Matsushita JR series used a Panasonic MN1800A NMOS microprocessor, compatible with the MC6802.HP introduced the 9815A desktop calculator based on the 6800 in 1975.All HP's other machines at the time used their own processor designs.",
"It was fitted with 16k of ROM and 2k of RAM with optional IO expansion and RAM expansion to 4k.",
"A later 9815S included both options as standard.The architecture and instruction set of the 6800 were easy for beginners to understand and Heathkit developed a microprocessor course and the ET3400 6800 trainer.",
"The course and trainer proved popular with individuals and schools.Motorola's next generation 8-bit microprocessor architecture, the MC6809 (1979), was not binary code compatible with the 6800, but nearly all assembly code would assemble and run on the 6809; 6800 family peripheral chips worked as a matter of course."
],
[
"Example code",
"The following 6800 assembly language source code is for a subroutine named memcpy that copies a block of data bytes of a given size from one location to another.",
"The data block is copied one byte at a time, from lowest address to highest.",
"; memcpy --; Copy a block of memory from one location to another.",
"; Called as a subroutine, note return to saved PC addr on exit; Entry parameters; cnt - Number of bytes to copy; src - Address of source data block; dst - Address of target data blockcnt dw $0000 ; sets aside space for memory addrsrc dw $0000 ; sets aside space for memory addrdst dw $0000 ; sets aside space for memory addrmemcpy public ldab cnt+1 ;Set B = cnt.L beq check ;If cnt.L=0, goto checkloop ldx src ;Set IX = src lda ix ;Load A from (src) inx ;Set src = src+1 stx src ldx dst ;Set IX = dst sta ix ;Store A to (dst) inx ;Set dst = dst+1 stx dst decb ;Decr B bne loop ;Repeat the loopcheck tst cnt+0 ;If cnt.H=0, beq done ;Then quit dec cnt+0 ;Decr cnt.H ; loop back and do 256*(cnt.H+1) more copies (B=0) bra loop ;Repeat the loopdone rts ;Return"
],
[
"Peripherals",
"List from \"Motorola Microcomputer Components\", November 1978.Memory-mapped I/O is used, and I/O ports are mapped to part of the main memory address space.",
"Part Description Image MCM6810 128 byte static RAM Brochure MC6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA) Brochure MC6821 Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA) Brochure MC6828 Priority Interrupt Controller (PIC) Brochure MCM6830 1024 byte ROM Brochure MC6840 Programmable Timer Module (PTM) Brochure MC6843 Floppy Disk Controller (FDC) Brochure MC6844 Direct Memory Access Controller (DMAC) Brochure MC6845 CRT Controller (CRTC) Brochure MC6846 ROM-I/O-Timer Brochure MC6847 Video Display Generator (VDG) MC68488 General Purpose Interface Adapter (GPIB) IEEE488 Brochure MC6850 Asynchronous Communication Interface Adapter (ACIA) Brochure MC6852 Synchronous Serial Data Adapter (SDAA) Brochure MC6854 Advanced Data Link Controller (ADLC) Brochure MC6859 Data Security Device (DSD) MC6860 0–600 bit/s Digital Modem Brochure MC6862 2400 bit/s Modulator Brochure MC6870 Two-Phase Microprocessor Clock Advertisement MC6875 Clock Generator Brochure MC6883 Synchronous Address Multiplexer (SAM)"
],
[
"Second sources",
"A common requirement for manufacturing companies was to require two or more sources for every part in the products they made.",
"This ensured they could get parts if a supplier had financial problems or a disaster.",
"Initially Motorola selected American Microsystems Inc (AMI) as a second source for the M6800 family.",
"Hitachi, Fujitsu, Fairchild, Rockwell and Thomson Semiconductors were added later.",
"Rochester Electronics was authorized by Freescale/Motorola in 2014 to continue manufacturing any of the 8-bit peripherals and 8-bit processors of this era.",
"Rochester specializes in fully authorized device duplication.",
"Freescale has provided all the source design archives to enable Rochester Electronics for this product and others.",
"At the end of 2016, Rochester was fully qualified and shipping the MC6802 processor, the MC6840 PTM, and the MC6809 processor (including the MC68A09, and MC68B09 versions) and can still be bought today.File:KL AMI S6800 Black Background.jpg | AMI S6800 MPUFile:Atari 90 6001 1.jpg|Atari 90-6001File:Fairchild 6802 AMI 6820.jpg | Fairchild F6802P and an AMI S6820 PIAFile:Hitach HD46800 1.jpg | Hitachi HD46800"
],
[
"Oral histories",
"* \"Intel 8080 Microprocessor Oral History Panel\" Steve Bisset, Federico Faggin, Hal Feeney, Edward Gelbach, Ted Hoff, Stan Mazor, Masatoshi Shima, Computer History Museum, April 26, 2007, moderator: David House.",
"* \"Zilog Z80 Microprocessor Oral History Panel\" Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima, Ralph Ungermann.",
"Computer History Museum, April 27, 2007, moderator: Michael Slater.",
"* \"Motorola 6800 Oral History Panel\" Thomas H. Bennett, John Ekiss, William (Bill) Lattin, Jeff Lavell.",
"Computer History Museum, March 28, 2008, moderator: David Laws.",
"* Interview with William Mensch Stanford and the Silicon Valley Project, October 9, 1995.Transcript"
],
[
"See also",
"* EXORmacs, a follow-up system for M68000 processors* Motorola 68000 16/32-bit successor* MEK6800D2 a development kit for the 6800"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* ''6800 Assembly Language Programming''; 1st Ed; Lance Leventhal; Osborne/McGraw-Hill; 484 pages; 1978; .",
"(archive)* ''Microprocessor Interfacing Techniques''; 3rd Ed; Rodnay Zaks and Austin Lesea; Sybex; 466 pages; 1979; .",
"(archive)"
],
[
"External links",
"*** Motorola Exorciser Emulator for Windows* Open source Motorola Exorciser and SWTPC emulator for Linux/Cygwin** 680x images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de* Instruction set summary** Visual 6800 in JavaScript – transistor level graphical simulator* Instruction set summary"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Motorola 68020"
],
[
"Introduction",
"XC68020, a prototype of the 68020The '''Motorola 68020''' (\"''sixty-eight-oh-twenty''\", \"''sixty-eight-oh-two-oh''\" or \"''six-eight-oh-two-oh''\") is a 32-bit microprocessor from Motorola, released in 1984.A lower-cost version was also made available, known as the '''68EC020'''.",
"In keeping with naming practices common to Motorola designs, the 68020 is usually referred to as the \"020\", pronounced \"oh-two-oh\" or \"oh-twenty\".The 020 was in the market for a relatively short time.",
"The Motorola 68030 was announced in September 1986 and began deliveries in the summer of 1987.Priced about the same as the 020 of the time, the 030 was significantly faster and quickly replaced in 020 in almost every use."
],
[
"History",
"===68000 and 68010===At the time the Motorola 68000 was designed, Motorola's design and fabrication services were outdated.",
"Although even small companies like MOS Technology and Zilog had moved on to silicon gate depletion mode NMOS logic on ever-larger wafers, Motorola was still using metal gates and enhancement mode and their largest fab worked on 4-inch wafers long after most lines had moved to 5-inch.",
"Although the 68000 met the goal of being the fastest CPU available when it was introduced, it was not nearly as powerful as it could be if it had been designed with more modern techniques.During the period of the 68000 design, the company was working with Hitachi on their process technology and as part of this they opened a new fab, MOS-8, using 5-inch wafers and the latest HMOS process licensed from Intel.",
"This line was capable of building all of the new techniques, but the 68000 went ahead with the older design as they were sure it would work.",
"Moving to new design techniques would wait until the design was in the market.",
"The conversion to the new design techniques took place during the Motorola 68010 effort, a relatively minor upgrade to the original design that added basic virtual memory support for the emerging Unix workstation market.===020 concept emerges===As this effort was ongoing, Motorola was canvassing their customers for their desires for future developments in the line.",
"These all pointed to a fully 32-bit implementation.",
"Those using the 68k in Unix systems also stated they would purchase a floating point unit for every one of the machines if one was available.The original 68000 had been designed as a hybrid 16/32-bit system largely because the maximum number of pins available on dual inline packages (DIPs) was 64, and even at that size, packaging of this size was highly problematic.",
"By reducing the number of address pins to 24, and the data pins to only 16, there were enough free pins to implement all the other needed lines, like interrupts and power supplies.",
"The 24-pin address bus meant that the memory could only be 16 MB in total, which was at this point becoming a limitation.",
"The 16-bit data bus meant reading a 32-bit word from that memory required two bus cycles.A design that had 32 pins for both the address and data busses would access data twice as fast, making the machine that much faster even with no other changes.",
"Moving to 32 bit addressing would also make the implementation of virtual memory easier, and allow for more than 16 MB of random access memory.",
"But doing so would also demand a much higher total pin count.",
"By the early 1980s, similar limitations on all modern CPU designs led to the introduction of the pin grid array that replaced the DIP.",
"For the new project, Motorola selected a 169-pin layout, giving them plenty of room to work with.",
"The design ultimately used only 114 of them.A great debate broke out about how to refer to the underlying design of the new chip in marketing materials.",
"Technically, the 020 was moving from the long-established NMOS logic design to a CMOS layout, which requires two transistors per gate.",
"Common knowledge of the era suggested that CMOS cost four times as much as NMOS, and there was a significant amount of the market that believed \"CMOS equals bad.",
"\"===Launch, fabrication problems===The design was completed in the summer of 1983 and announced in June 1984.This \"super chip\" was significant news at the time, with the New York Times making it a lead story in their business section.",
"The launch price was quoted at $487 each, about the same as the 68000 when it was launched in 1980, but the 68000 was now available for about $15.However, it was understood that it would be some time before computers using the new chip would be available, as existing designs would have to be heavily modified to take advantage of its performance.The announcement led to Motorola's customers clamouring for supply.",
"At this point, serious supply problems became evident.",
"The design had been laid out to be built in the same MOS-8 factory as the 68000, although several new pieces of equipment were introduced to support it.",
"By the time of the public release, the yield for the new chip was zero.",
"That is, for every wafer sent through the multi-step process, zero working chips would be produced.Gary Johnson concluded the problem was the floor manager of MOS-8, Tom Felesi, and decided to replace him with Bill Walker, who was at that time running the older MOS-2 factory.",
"Walker arrived at the plant on 5 July 1985 to find Johnson had not bothered to tell Felesi of the change, and arguments followed.",
"Johnson eventually told Felesi this was indeed happening.",
"Walker then toured the plant and found it had been turned into what was essentially a research and development lab, not a production line, with numerous bits of machinery in use nowhere else.One significant issue was a new piece of equipment from a new vendor, Genius, which produced silicide.",
"The machine simply didn't work.",
"Walker flew to California to meet with the CEO of Genius, who offered up nothing but excuses.",
"Walker eventually slammed his hand down on the desk, breaking his watch band, and stated \"No more excuses!",
"I want this thing fixed now, today!\"",
"Genius took the demand seriously and fixed the machine.",
"The CEO later sent Walker a new watch band to commemorate the event.Meanwhile, Walker instituted a new policy at MOS-8 to improve the plant itself.",
"He normally called meetings at 6:30 AM.",
"If things were not going well, he would move that up to 5:30, and even 4:30.This provided a strong incentive to get the plant running.",
"The production problems were soon ironed out, and volume deliveries began late that year.",
"By this point, their workstation customers had already developed complete systems ready to use the 020 and the new floating point unit, the Motorola 68881.Systems were in the market only five or six months after the 020 had been announced.===Replacement===Design of the 020's follow-on began almost immediately.",
"As part of their ongoing work with Hitachi, Motorola's fabrication system was finally catching up to the competition, as was their internal design workflow.",
"This gave them considerably more room to work with, allowing the addition of larger processor caches, a built-in memory management unit (MMU) and other features.",
"The Motorola 68030 was announced in September 1986, with deliveries to begin the next summer.",
"Due to the changes in the production lines, the new 030 would have a lower launch price than the 020.There were significant differences between the 68000 and 020, especially due to the 32-bit memory interface.",
"This required computer designs using it to be considerably different from earlier models.",
"In contrast, there were few changes between the 020 and 030, the latter of which could be used as a drop-in replacement in many roles.",
"For this reason, designs using the 030 appeared much more quickly after its release than the 020.The first Macintosh with the 020 was the Macintosh II, released in March 1987, two years after the 020 had become widely available.",
"with low-volume initial shipments starting two months later.",
"Only eighteen months later, the Macintosh IIx replaced it, using the 030.Although it ran at the same 16 MHz clock speed, the IIx offered 3.9 MIPS compared to the II's 2.6."
],
[
"Description",
"Motorola 68020The 68020 has 32-bit internal and external data and address buses, compared to the early 680x0 models with 16-bit data and 24-bit address buses.",
"The 68020's ALU is also natively 32-bit, so can perform 32-bit operations in one clock cycle, whereas the 68000 took a minimum of two clock cycles due to its 16-bit ALU.",
"Newer packaging methods allowed the '020 to feature more external pins without the large size that the earlier dual in-line package method required.",
"The 68EC020 lowered cost through a 24-bit address bus.",
"The 68020 was produced at speeds ranging from 12 MHz to 33 MHz.Motorola 68020 die shotbottom view of a Motorola XC68020=== Improvements over the 68010 ===The 68020 has a 32-bit arithmetic logic unit (ALU), 32-bit external data and address buses.",
"It adds extra instructions and additional addressing modes.",
"The 68020 (and 68030) has a proper three-stage pipeline.",
"Though the 68010 had a \"loop mode\", which sped loops through what was effectively a tiny instruction cache, it held only two short instructions and was thus little used.",
"The 68020 replaced this with a proper instruction cache of 256 bytes, the first 68k series processor to feature true on-chip cache memory.",
"The previous 68000 and 68010 processors could only access word (16-bit) and long word (32-bit) data in memory if it were word-aligned (located at an even address).",
"The 68020 has no alignment restrictions on data access.",
"Naturally, unaligned accesses are slower than aligned accesses because they required an extra memory access.The 68020 has a small 256-byte direct-mapped instruction cache, arranged as 64 four-byte entries.",
"Although small, it still made a significant difference in the performance of many applications.",
"The resulting decrease in bus traffic was particularly important in systems relying heavily on DMA.=== Coprocessor support ===The 68020 has a coprocessor interface supporting up to eight coprocessors.",
"The main CPU recognizes \"F-line\" instructions (with the four most significant opcode bits all one), and uses special bus cycles to interact with a coprocessor to execute these instructions.",
"Two types of coprocessors were defined: floating point units (MC68881 or MC68882 FPUs) and the paged memory management unit (MC68851 PMMU).",
"Only one PMMU can be used with a CPU.",
"In principle, multiple FPUs could be used with a CPU, but it was not commonly done.",
"The coprocessor interface is asynchronous, so it is possible to run the coprocessors at a different clock rate than the CPU.=== Multiprocessing features ===Multiprocessing support is implemented externally by the use of an RMC pin to indicate an indivisible read-modify-write cycle in progress.",
"All other processors have to hold off memory accesses until the cycle is complete.",
"Software support for multiprocessing includes the TAS, CAS and CAS2 instructions.In a multiprocessor system, coprocessors could not be shared between CPUs.",
"To avoid problems with returns from coprocessor, bus error, and address error exceptions, it was generally necessary in a multiprocessor system for all CPUs to be the same model, and for all FPUs to be the same model as well.=== Instruction set ===The new instructions include some minor improvements and extensions to the supervisor state, several instructions for software management of a multiprocessing system (which were removed in the 68060), some support for high-level languages which did not get used much (and was removed from future 680x0 processors), bigger multiply (32×32→64 bits) and divide (64÷32→32 bits quotient and 32 bits remainder) instructions, and bit field manipulations.The new addressing modes add scaled indexing and another level of indirection to many of the pre-existing modes."
],
[
"Architecture",
"+ Motorola 68020 registers 31 ... 23 ... 15 ... 07 ... 00 ''(bit position)'' '''Data registers''' D0 Data 0 D1 Data 1 D2 Data 2 D3 Data 3 D4 Data 4 D5 Data 5 D6 Data 6 D7 Data 7 '''Address registers''' A0 Address 0 A1 Address 1 A2 Address 2 A3 Address 3 A4 Address 4 A5 Address 5 A6 Address 6 '''Stack pointers''' A7 / USP Stack Pointer (user) A7' / SSP Stack Pointer (supervisor) '''Program counter''' PC Program Counter '''Condition Code Register''' 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 ''(bit position)'' T S M 0 I 0 0 0 X N Z V C '''CCR'''With full 32-bit internal and external address buses, the address registers (A0 through A7) could utilize their full 32-bit width, and were capable of addressing the entire 4 GB address space.The larger effective widths of the address registers presented some problem for earlier software that was not considered \"32-bit clean\".",
"Some programs used the high 8 bits (bits 24-31) of addresses to contain various flag bits, with the understanding that the earlier 680x0 CPUs would safely ignore these high bits.",
"Such software had to be rewritten to adjust to the larger physical address space available to the 68020 and later CPUs."
],
[
"Usage",
"The 68020 was used in the Apple Macintosh II and Macintosh LC personal computers, Sun-3 workstations, Amiga 1200 (68EC020 variant), the Hewlett-Packard 8711 Series Network Analyzers, HP 9000/320, HP 9000/330, Apollo Computer's DN3000 and DN4000 workstations, and the Alpha Microsystems AM-2000.The 68020 was an alternative upgrade to the Sinclair QL's 68008 in the Super Gold Card interface by Miracle Systems.The Amiga 2500 and A2500UX optionally shipped with the A2620 Accelerator using a 68020, 68881 FPU and 68851 MMU.",
"The 2500UX shipped with Amiga Unix, requiring an '020 or '030 processor.A number of digital oscilloscopes from the mid-80s to the late-90s used the 68020, including the LeCroy 9300 Series (higher end models including \"C\" suffix models used the more powerful 68EC030; the 9300 models with a 68020 processor can be upgraded to the 68EC030 with a change of the CPU board) and the earlier LeCroy 9400 series (all models excluding the 9400/9400A which used the 68000), along with certain Tektronix TDS Series models.",
"The HP 54520, 54522, 54540 and 54542 also use the 68020, together with a 68882 FPU.It is also the processor used on TGV trains to decode signalling information sent to the trains through the rails.",
"It is used in the flight control and radar systems of the Eurofighter Typhoon combat aircraft.The Nortel Networks DMS-100 telephone central office switch also used the 68020 as the first microprocessor of the SuperNode computing core."
],
[
"Variant",
"Motorola MC68EC020MC68EC020 in 20mm × 14mm QFP packageThe '''68EC020''' is a lower cost version of the Motorola 68020.The main difference is that the 68EC020 only has a 24-bit address bus, rather than the 32-bit address bus of the full 68020, and thus is only able to address 16 MB of memory.The Amiga 1200 computer and the Amiga CD32 game console use the cost-reduced 68EC020; the Namco System 22, Taito F3 and Konami GX arcade boards also used this processor.",
"The Atari Jaguar II prototype featured this to replace the 68000 of the original Atari Jaguar console.",
"It also found use in laser printers.",
"Apple used it in the LaserWriter IIɴᴛx.",
"Kodak used it in the Ektaplus 7016PS, and Dataproducts used it in the LZR 1260.In 2014, Rochester Electronics re-established manufacturing capability for the 68020 microprocessor and it is still available today."
],
[
"Technical data",
" Formal name MC68020 CPU clock rate (minimum 8 MHz, no on-chip clock generation) Voltage supply Maximum power Production process HCMOS, 3/8\" silicon piece Chip carrier PGA 169 (114 pins used) (53 °C/W without heatsink) Address bus 32-bit (4 GB directly linear addressable)68EC020 24-bit (16 MB addressable) Data bus 32-bit Instruction set 101 CISC instructions Cache instruction cache Register * 7 for Address operations (32-bit)* 8 for Data operations (32-bit) Branch handling Branch prediction:* Fixed branch prediction, branch-never-taken approach Transistors Performance"
],
[
"References",
"===Bibliography===*"
],
[
"External links",
"* 68020 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"The Muppets"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''The Muppets''' are an American ensemble cast of puppet characters known for an absurdist, burlesque, and self-referential style of variety-sketch comedy.",
"Created by Jim Henson in 1955, they are the focus of a media franchise that encompasses television, film, music, and other media associated with the characters.",
"Originally owned by the Jim Henson Company for nearly five decades, the franchise was purchased by the Walt Disney Company in 2004.The Muppets originated in the short-form television series ''Sam and Friends'', which aired on WRC-TV and in syndication from 1955 to 1961.Following appearances on late-night talk shows and in advertising during the 1960s, the Muppets began appearing on the PBS children's television program ''Sesame Street'' (1969–present) during their formative years and attained celebrity status and international recognition through ''The Muppet Show'' (1976–1981), their flagship sketch comedy television series that received four Primetime Emmy Award wins and 21 nominations during its five-year run.During the 1970s and 1980s, the Muppets diversified into theatrical films, including ''The Muppet Movie'' (1979); ''The Great Muppet Caper'' (1981); and ''The Muppets Take Manhattan'' (1984).",
"Additionally, new Muppet characters were created for ''Fraggle Rock'' (1983–1987).",
"Disney began involvement with the Muppets in the late 1980s, during which Henson entered negotiations to sell The Jim Henson Company.The Muppets continued their media presence on television with series such as ''The Jim Henson Hour'' (1989) and ''Muppets Tonight'' (1996–98), both of which were similar in format to ''The Muppet Show'', as well as the animated spinoff ''Muppet Babies'' (1984–91); three theatrical films: ''The Muppet Christmas Carol'' (1992), ''Muppet Treasure Island'' (1996) and ''Muppets from Space'' (1999), and the television film ''It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie'' (2002).Disney acquired the Muppets from the Henson family in February 2004.The acquisition did not include the ''Sesame Street'' or ''Fraggle Rock'' characters.",
"Under Disney, subsequent projects have included the television film ''The Muppets' Wizard of Oz'' (2005), two theatrical films: ''The Muppets'' (2011) and ''Muppets Most Wanted'' (2014), a primetime series (2015–2016), and most recently, the Halloween special ''Muppets Haunted Mansion'' (2021) and the streaming television series ''The Muppets Mayhem'' (2023).Throughout their nearly seven-decade existence, the Muppets have been regarded as a staple of the entertainment industry and popular culture in the United States and English-speaking areas around the world.",
"They have been recognized by various cultural institutions and organizations, including the American Film Institute, the Hollywood Walk of Fame, the Library of Congress, and both Academies of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and Television Arts and Sciences."
],
[
"History",
"===1950s–1960s: Beginnings===Jim Henson in 1989The Muppets were created by puppeteer Jim Henson in the 1950s; Henson claimed, but later recanted, that he coined the term ''Muppet'' as a portmanteau of the words ''marionette'' and ''puppet''.",
"Among Henson's earliest creations was Kermit the Frog, who became his most recognizable character.",
"Originally conceived for an adult audience, the Muppets were introduced in 1955 in ''Sam and Friends'', a short-form television series produced for WRC-TV in Washington, D.C.",
"Developed by Henson and his future wife, Jane Nebel, the series was the first form of puppet media not to incorporate a physical proscenium arch typical of such works, relying instead on the natural framing of the television set through which it was viewed.During the 1960s, the characters—in particular, Kermit and Rowlf the Dog—appeared in skits on several late-night talk shows and on television commercials, including ''The Ed Sullivan Show''.",
"Rowlf became the first Muppet character to appear regularly on network television when he began appearing with Jimmy Dean on ''The Jimmy Dean Show''.",
"In 1966, Joan Ganz Cooney and Lloyd Morrisett began developing a children's educational television program and approached Henson to design a cast of Muppet characters during this stage.",
"Produced by the Children's Television Workshop, the program debuted as ''Sesame Street'' in 1969 on NET, and later PBS.Henson and his creative team became closely involved with ''Sesame Street'' during the years that followed; Henson waived his performance fee in exchange for retaining ownership rights to the Muppet characters created for the program.",
"''Sesame Street'' garnered a positive response, and the Muppets' involvement in the series was said to be a vital component of its increasing popularity, providing an \"effective and pleasurable viewing\" method of presentation for its educational curriculum.===1970s: ''The Muppet Show'' and foray into film===In the early 1970s, the Muppets continued their presence in television, primarily appearing in ''The Land of Gorch'' segments during the first season of ''Saturday Night Live''.",
"As his involvement with ''Sesame Street'' continued, Henson began developing a network television series focusing on the Muppets; as opposed to ''Sesame Street'', however, this series would be aimed at a more adult audience and focus largely on sketch comedy.",
"Two television pilots, ''The Muppets Valentine Show'' and ''The Muppet Show: Sex and Violence'', aired on ABC in 1974 and 1975, respectively.After ABC passed on the pilots and other networks in the United States expressed little interest in the project, British producer Lew Grade approached Henson and agreed to co-produce the series for Associated Television.",
"Debuting in 1976, ''The Muppet Show'' introduced new characters such as Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, and Gonzo, alongside existing characters such as Kermit and Rowlf.",
"Aired in first-run syndication in the United States, ''The Muppet Show'' became increasingly popular due to its sketch-variety format, unique form of vaudeville-style humor, and prolific roster of guest stars.",
"It was nominated for twenty-one Primetime Emmy Awards during its run, winning four, including Outstanding Variety Series in 1978.The success of ''The Muppet Show'' allowed Henson Associates to diversify into theatrical films, the first of which, ''The Muppet Movie'', was released in 1979.=== 1980s–1990s: Subsequent projects ===Following ''The Muppet Movie'' were ''The Great Muppet Caper'' and ''The Muppets Take Manhattan'', released in 1981 and 1984, respectively.",
"Collectively, the three films received four Academy Award nominations.",
"''The Muppet Show'' ended its five-season run in 1981.In 1983, Henson debuted ''Fraggle Rock'', which aired on HBO in the United States until 1987.In 1989, Henson entered negotiations with Michael Eisner and The Walt Disney Company, in which the latter would acquire Jim Henson Productions and, in turn, the Muppets.",
"Disney expressed interest in purchasing the company for $150 million.",
"Eisner was also interested in acquiring the ''Sesame Street'' Muppet characters, but Henson declined that proposal, considering it a \"non-starter\" for the deal.",
"An \"agreement in principle\" for the acquisition was publicly announced by Disney and Henson at the Disney-MGM Studios theme park in Walt Disney World Resort on August 28, 1989, along with plans for Muppets-themed attractions to debut at that park and Disneyland the following year.",
"In anticipation of the acquisition, the television special ''The Muppets at Walt Disney World'' premiered on May 6, 1990.However, the proposed merger was cancelled following Henson's death on May 16, 1990.Nevertheless, Disney initiated a licensing agreement with Jim Henson Productions to continue developing Muppets attractions and the use of the characters within the Disney theme parks.",
"The following year, Muppet*Vision 3D debuted at Disney–MGM Studios, the only attraction successfully developed from the original plans.",
"Disney also co-produced the fourth and fifth Muppets films, ''The Muppet Christmas Carol'' (1992), which featured Michael Caine as Ebenezer Scrooge, and ''Muppet Treasure Island'' (1996), with Jim Henson Productions.",
"The characters subsequently starred in ''Muppets Tonight'', which aired on ABC from 1996 to 1998; and a sixth film, ''Muppets from Space'', released by Columbia Pictures in 1999.In 2000, Henson was sold to EM.TV & Merchandising AG for $680 million.",
"However, EM.TV's stock collapsed and the Henson family re-acquired the company in 2003, with the exception of the ''Sesame Street'' characters, which were in the interim sold to Sesame Workshop.===2000s: Disney acquisition===Fourteen years after initial negotiations began, Disney acquired the Muppets intellectual property from the Henson company for $75 million on February 17, 2004.The acquisition consisted of a majority of the Muppet film and television library, as well as the ''Bear in the Big Blue House'' television series.",
"Exceptions included the ''Sesame Street'' characters; the ''Fraggle Rock'' characters, which were retained by Henson; the distribution rights to four films: ''The Muppets Take Manhattan'', ''Muppets from Space'', and ''Kermit's Swamp Years'', which were retained by Sony Pictures Entertainment; and ''It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie'', retained by NBCUniversal Television Distribution.",
"Following the acquisition, Disney formed The Muppets Studio (originally The Muppets Holding Company), a wholly owned subsidiary responsible for managing the characters and franchise.",
"As a result, the term \"Muppet\" became a legal trademark of Disney; under license from Disney, Sesame Workshop continues to use the term for their characters, as well as archival footage of Kermit the Frog.Henson retained the rights to several productions featuring the Disney-owned Muppet characters, including ''Emmet Otter's Jug-Band Christmas''; ''The Christmas Toy''; ''Sesame Street: 20 and Still Counting''; ''Henson's Place''; ''Billy Bunny's Animal Songs''; the original ''Dog City'' special; and ''Donna's Day''.",
"While some of these have since been released uncut, most current releases of ''Emmet Otter's Jug-Band Christmas'' and ''The Christmas Toy'' omit the appearances by Kermit the Frog.",
"The 2015 ABC Family airing, the 2017 DVD and the 2018 Blu-ray releases of Emmet Otter's Jugband Christmas and the Amazon Prime Video release of The Christmas Toy reinstate Kermit's scenes.After the acquisition was complete, Disney gradually began reintroducing the franchise to the mainstream, synergistically promoting the Muppets across different parts of the company.",
"The Muppets made appearances on Disney Channel and starred in the ABC television film, ''The Muppets' Wizard of Oz'' (2005).",
"A television special, ''A Muppets Christmas: Letters to Santa'', premiered on NBC on December 17, 2008.As a method of regaining a wider audience, Disney produced a series of vignettes for YouTube and Disney.com.",
"A cover version of Queen's \"Bohemian Rhapsody\" was among these projects and immediately went viral, ultimately amassing 90 million views and winning two Webby Awards.",
"In 2010, the Muppets starred in ''The Muppets Kitchen with Cat Cora'', which co-starred Cat Cora and showcased cooking demonstrations.",
"That same year, Disney used the Muppets to promote their volunteerism program at the company's theme parks.",
"A Halloween special featuring the Muppets was developed during that time and expected to air on ABC that October, but was canceled.=== 2010s–present: Renewed success; current projects ===In 2011, the Muppets were featured in an eponymous seventh film ''The Muppets'', intended to serve as a \"creative reboot\" for the characters.",
"Walt Disney Pictures had been furthering development on a Muppets film since 2008, when it considered adapting an unused screenplay by Jerry Juhl.",
"Directed by James Bobin, written by Jason Segel and Nicholas Stoller, and starring Segel, Amy Adams, Chris Cooper, and Rashida Jones, ''The Muppets'' was a critical and commercial success, becoming the highest-grossing puppet film of all time and winning the Academy Award for Best Original Song.",
"During the film's publicity campaign, the Muppets appeared in promotional advertisements and effusive marketing efforts by Disney and were also featured in a promotional video for Google+.",
"In March 2012, the Muppets received a collective star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.",
"That year, the Muppets hosted a ''Just for Laughs'' comedy gala in Montreal.Following the release of ''The Muppets'', Disney announced an eighth film in 2012, with Bobin and Stoller returning to direct and write, respectively.",
"''Muppets Most Wanted'' was released in 2014 and starred Ricky Gervais, Tina Fey, and Ty Burrell.",
"The film received positive reviews but was a commercial disappointment at the box office.Disney Theatrical Productions announced in 2013 that a live show based on the Muppets was in active development and that a 15-minute show had been conducted by Thomas Schumacher to see how the technical components would work.",
"''Muppet Moments'', an interstitial television series, premiered on Disney Junior in April 2015.The short-form series features conversations between the Muppets and young children.After the release of ''Muppets Most Wanted'', Disney was interested in expanding the Muppets' presence across other media platforms, particularly in television.",
"Discussions for a new primetime series began internally within The Muppets Studio.",
"By April 2015, Bill Prady was commissioned to write a script for a pilot with the working title ''Muppets 2015''.",
"In May 2015, ABC commissioned an eponymous series, co-developed by Prady and Bob Kushell and directed by Randall Einhorn.",
"Developed as a parody of other mockumentary-style series such as ''The Office'', ''Modern Family'', and ''Parks and Recreation'', ''The Muppets'' portrayed the everyday personal and professional lives of the Muppets in Los Angeles as they produced a late-night talk show hosted by Miss Piggy.",
"The series premiered on September 22, 2015, in the United States, and received mixed reviews, with critics praising the show's adult humor but criticizing the writing and characterization.",
"''The Muppets'' was canceled after one season, which concluded on March 1, 2016.In September 2017, the Muppets performed a live concert series at the Hollywood Bowl, hosted by Bobby Moynihan.",
"This performance was followed by a second event in July 2018 at London's O2 Arena, their first outside of the United States.In February 2018, Disney announced that a streaming television reboot series was in development for Disney+.",
"The project, known as ''Muppets Live Another Day'', was intended as a limited-run series set in the 1980s after the events of ''The Muppets Take Manhattan'' and depicted Kermit recruiting the Muppets to locate Rowlf the Dog after his disappearance.",
"The series was intended to be directed by Jason Moore; written by Josh Gad, Adam Horowitz and Eddy Kitsis; produced by ABC Signature Studios and The Muppets Studio, and feature original music by Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson-Lopez.",
"After an executive change at The Muppets Studio that prompted a different creative direction for the Muppets, Disney canceled development on the project in September 2019.A second Disney+ series, ''Muppets Now'', a short-form improvisational comedy series, was announced in August 2019 and was released on July 31, 2020.",
"''Muppets Haunted Mansion'', a Halloween special based on the Disney attraction of the same name, was released on October 8, 2021.A third Disney+ series ''The Muppets Mayhem'', was ordered in March 2022.The series was developed and written by Adam F. Goldberg, Bill Barretta and Jeff Yorkes and starring the Dr. Teeth and the Electric Mayhem, alongside Lilly Singh and Tahj Mowry."
],
[
"Characters",
"Kermit the Frog is Henson's most famous Muppet creation.The principal characters of ''The Muppet Show'' and subsequent media include Kermit the Frog, Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Gonzo, Rowlf the Dog, Scooter, Rizzo the Rat, Pepe the King Prawn, Dr. Bunsen Honeydew, Beaker, Statler and Waldorf, The Swedish Chef, Sam Eagle, Walter, and The Electric Mayhem, consisting of Dr. Teeth (vocals, keyboards), Animal (drums), Floyd Pepper (bass, vocals), Janice (guitar, vocals), Zoot (saxophone), and Lips (trumpet).As well as ''The Muppet Show'', the characters are popular for their appearances on ''Sesame Street'' and ''Fraggle Rock''; and also feature in ''The Jimmy Dean Show'', ''The Jim Henson Hour'', ''Muppets Tonight'', ''Bear in the Big Blue House'', ''Statler and Waldorf: From the Balcony'', ''The Muppets'', and ''The Muppets Mayhem''.",
"An adult-oriented segment, ''The Land of Gorch'', was a regular feature in the first season of ''Saturday Night Live''.",
"Guest stars on ''Saturday Night Live'' occasionally include both the Muppets and ''Sesame Street'' characters, as well as Muppet likenesses of real people; these likenesses appear recurrently in early episodes of ''The Muppet Show'' and on ''Sesame Street'', and appear occasionally on other series such as ''30 Rock''.Following Disney's acquisition of the Muppets, puppets created by The Jim Henson Company are no longer referred to as Muppets.",
"Puppets created by Jim Henson's Creature Shop, including those in ''Labyrinth'' and ''The Dark Crystal'', have never been considered Muppets, as they are generally more complex in design and performance than regular Muppets.",
"At Henson's suggestion, the ''Star Wars'' character Yoda was originally performed by Frank Oz, and has been loosely described as a Muppet in media and reference works; he is not, however, and Henson otherwise had no involvement in the character's conception.=== Cast performers === Performer Principal characters Kermit the Frog, Uncle Deadly and Floyd Pepper Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Animal and Sam Eagle Gonzo, Dr. Bunsen Honeydew, Zoot, Beauregard and Waldorf Pepe the King Prawn, Bobo the Bear, Johnny Fiama, Rowlf the Dog, The Swedish Chef and Dr. Teeth Scooter, Janice and Beaker Walter, Statler, Link Hogthrob, Lips, Robin the Frog and Joe the Legal Weasel Beverly Plume and Yolanda Rat Sal Minella, Seymour, Nigel and Dr. Phil van Neuter At the start of the Muppets' formation, Jim and Jane Henson were the group's only performers.",
"In 1961, Jane retired to focus on raising their children.",
"Seeking additional performers, Jim came into contact with Frank Oz that year.",
"Although interested, Oz initially declined due to his youth and commitment to high school, and instead suggested Jerry Juhl, who worked with Oz at the Vagabond Puppet Theater in Oakland, California.",
"Upon graduating, Oz subsequently joined in August 1963.By the time ''The Muppet Show'' began, the primary cast of performers grew to consist of Henson; Oz; Dave Goelz; Jerry Nelson; Richard Hunt; and later, Steve Whitmire, while Juhl became head writer for the series.",
"From ''The Muppet Show'' onward, Kevin Clash; Kathryn Mullen; Louise Gold; Karen Prell; Fran Brill, Caroll Spinney; and Brian Henson performed several minor characters and assisted the main performers with puppeteering.",
"Many of these puppeteers performed characters across ''The Muppet Show'', ''Sesame Street'', ''Fraggle Rock'', and other Henson-related projects.Henson, Hunt, and Nelson continued performing until their deaths in 1990, 1992, and 2012, respectively.",
"Goelz, Whitmire, and Bill Barretta, who joined the main cast of performers in the mid-1990s, assumed Henson's characters, with Whitmire cast in the role of Beaker and Nelson cast in the role of Statler, both previously performed by Hunt.",
"The remainder of Hunt's characters were left without a stable performer until David Rudman was cast in those roles in the 2000s.",
"Oz continued performing until his retirement from puppeteering in 2000; Eric Jacobson was cast as his characters beginning in 2002.At Nelson's behest, Matt Vogel gradually began performing his characters in 2008.Peter Linz joined the main cast in 2011, debuting the role of Walter in ''The Muppets'', before inheriting four characters then-currently performed by Whitmire (Statler, Link Hogthrob, Lips, Foo-Foo), and Robin the Frog from Vogel, in 2017.Whitmire was dismissed from the cast in 2016, with Vogel cast as Kermit the Frog in 2017, and most of Whitmire's other characters were assumed by the remainder of the cast.",
"The Muppets are currently performed by a core cast of seven principal puppeteers: Vogel, Jacobson, Goelz, Barretta, Rudman, Linz, and Brian Henson with the occasional ensemble of \"additional\" Muppet performers that includes Julianne Buescher, Tyler Bunch, Alice Dinnean, Bruce Lanoil, Leslie Carrara-Rudolph, and Mike Quinn and others."
],
[
"Design and performance",
"Reproductions of the Wilkins and Wontkins Muppets originally created by Jim Henson in 1957.These early characters feature the basic design features that would become typical of Muppet characters.The majority of the Muppets are designed as hand puppets, with several characters utilizing rods.",
"Common design elements of the Muppets include wide mouths and large protruding eyes.",
"Most of the Muppets are molded or carved out of various types of foam and covered with any felt-like material.",
"The characters may represent humans; anthropomorphic characters; realistic animals; animate inanimate objects; robots; extraterrestrial or mythical creatures; or other forms of abstract characters.The Muppets are distinguished from ventriloquist dummies, which are usually animated only in the head and face, in that their arms or other features are also animated.",
"They are also generally made of softer material.",
"They are presented as being independent of the puppeteer, officially known as a \"Muppet performer\", who is usually hidden behind a set or outside of the camera frame.",
"Using the camera frame to this advantage was an innovation of the Muppets.",
"Prior to this, a stage was used to mask the performers, as would be the case in a live performance.",
"Sometimes, they are seen full-bodied; in most cases, invisible strings are used to manipulate these puppets, with vocals added at a later point.",
"Performers often use dollies to mimic walking.Since 2006, Disney has contracted Puppet Heap to produce and maintain newer models of the Muppets.",
"During most performances, the performer holds the character above their head or in front of their body, with one hand operating the head and mouth and the other manipulating the hands and arms, either with two separate control rods or – in the case of \"live-hand\" Muppets – wearing the hands similarly to gloves.",
"One consequence of this design is that most of the Muppets are left-handed, with the performer using their right hand to operate the head while operating the arm with their left hand.For more complex Muppets, several performers may operate a single character, with the performer controlling the mouth usually voicing the character.",
"As technology has advanced, the Jim Henson team and other performers have developed several means to operate the Muppets for film and television; these include the use of suspended rigs, internal motors, remote manipulators, and computer enhanced and superimposed images.",
"Creative use of different technologies has allowed for scenes in which the Muppets appear to exhibit complex movements wholly independently of the performer.In his book, ''Street Gang'', author Michael Davis wrote that the characters tend to develop \"organically\", alluding to the performers taking up to a year to develop their characters and voices.",
"They are also \"test-driven, passed around from one Henson troupe member to another in the hope of finding the perfect human-Muppet match\".",
"When interacting with them, children believed that Muppets were living beings, even when the performers were present."
],
[
"Media",
"=== Filmography and television ======Discography===On September 17, 2002, Rhino Records released ''The Muppet Show: Music, Mayhem, and More'', a compilation album of music from ''The Muppet Show'' and subsequent film releases.",
"With John Denver, ''John Denver and the Muppets: A Christmas Together'' was produced and released in 1979.Under Disney ownership, The Muppets album releases have been released by Walt Disney Records; including new album releases and album reissues, such as ''The Muppet Christmas Carol'' in 2005 and ''The Muppet Movie'' in 2013.Legal music publishing rights to Muppet songs are administered by Fuzzy Muppet Songs and Mad Muppet Melodies, imprints of Disney Music Publishing.===Theme parks===Muppet*Vision 3D has operated at Disney's Hollywood Studios since 1991.The Stage 1 Company Store is adjacent to Muppet*Vision 3D at Disney's Hollywood Studios.Similar to other Disney characters, the Muppets appear at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, having first appeared at Walt Disney World in 1990.Their first featured attraction, ''Here Come the Muppets'', was a live stage show that opened shortly after Jim Henson's death and ran at Disney's Hollywood Studios (known at that time as Disney-MGM Studios) for a year.",
"Muppet*Vision 3D, a 4D film attraction that also uses audio-animatronic characters, opened at Disney's Hollywood Studios on May 16, 1991, exactly one year after Henson's death.",
"It is notable as Henson's final directorial effort.",
"Muppet*Vision 3D subsequently opened at Disney California Adventure, on February 8, 2001; this version closed in 2014.The Muppets also were featured in ''The Muppets Present...Great Moments in American History'' at the Magic Kingdom from 2016 to 2020; and the Muppet Mobile Lab at Epcot since 2007.The latter attraction is a free-roving vehicle with audio-animatronics of Bunsen Honeydew and Beaker.",
"As part of Disney's Living Character Initiative, it premiered at Epcot and was later previewed at Disney California Adventure and Hong Kong Disneyland.In 2010, the Muppets were the face of the \"Give a Day, Get a Disney Day\" charity campaign.",
"Kermit, Miss Piggy, and Sweetums appeared in daily parades at Disneyland and Magic Kingdom.",
"The Muppets appeared in television and print ads for the campaign and were featured prominently on the campaign's Web site.Disney has released numerous collector pins featuring the Muppets since 2004.These include Limited Edition pins, Hidden Mickey pin collections, mystery pin sets, 2008 pin sets promoting ''The Muppets'', cast lanyard pins, and assorted individual rack pins.",
"Over 100 pins displaying the characters have been released overall.===Publishing===''Jim Henson's Muppets'' comic strip title logo, that appears in the Sunday strips.Among other print media, the Muppets have featured in comics since the 1970s.",
"An eponymous comic strip by Guy and Brad Gilchrist first ran on September 21, 1981, in over 500 daily newspapers, six months after ''The Muppet Show'' ended its five-year run.",
"By the end of its run in 1986, the comic strip was seen in over 660 newspapers worldwide.",
"Many of the strips were compiled in various book collections.",
"Special strips were also created in color, exclusively for issues of ''Muppet Magazine''.",
"''Muppet Magazine'' was published from 1983 to 1989.The magazine was presented as being run by the Muppets themselves and included such features as celebrity interviews and comic stories.The only Muppets film adapted as a comic book was ''The Muppets Take Manhattan''.",
"The comic book series was adapted by Marvel Comics in 1984, as the 68-page story in ''Marvel Super Special'' issue #32.The adaptation was later re-printed into three limited series issues, released under Marvel's Star Comics imprint (November 1984 – January 1985).In the wake of ''Muppet Babies''' success, Star Comics adapted the series into a bi-monthly title, of which 26 issues were produced.The final issue of ''Disney Adventures'', released in 2007, included a one-page strip by Roger Langridge.",
"In 2009, Boom!",
"Studios began publishing a series of comic books based on ''The Muppet Show'', written and illustrated by Langridge.",
"Following two mini-series, an ongoing series, ''The Muppet Show Comic Book'', was published for eleven issues.",
"Additionally, Boom!",
"Studios published fairy tale adaptations centered on the Muppets.",
"In 2012, the Langridge series was transferred to Marvel Comics, which released an omnibus edition in 2013.=== Video games ===The first video game in the franchise was ''Muppet Adventure: Chaos at the Carnival'', which was released in 1989 by Hi Tech Expressions for the Apple II, Commodore 64 and MS-DOS, the following year it was ported by the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in 1990.In 1996, Activision and in association with Jim Henson Interactive released the CD-ROM game, ''Muppet Treasure Island'' (on which the film of the same name was based) for Windows 95.Later in 1996, Starwave released ''The Muppet CD-ROM: Muppets Inside'', the second CD-ROM game was advertised for a January release, and available in stores beginning in March.",
"In April 2000, Take-Two Interactive released the platform game under the title ''Jim Henson's Muppets'' for the Game Boy Color.",
"In October 2000, Midway Games released the two ''Muppet'' video games, ''Muppet RaceMania'' and ''Muppet Monster Adventure'' for the PlayStation console.",
"On April 18, 2002, TDK Mediactive acquired the rights to ''The Muppets'' games, and released two video games, ''The Muppets: On with the Show!''",
"(2002) and ''Spy Muppets: License to Croak'' (2003) for the Game Boy Advance and ''Muppets Party Cruise'' (2003) for the PlayStation 2 and GameCube consoles.",
"In 2014, Virtual Toys released ''The Muppets Movie Adventures'' for PS Vita.",
"The mobile game ''Disney Magic Kingdoms'', developed by Gameloft, includes characters and attractions based on ''The Muppets'' franchise during limited time contents.",
"The Muppets are in Disney Heroes Battle Mode which is a mobile Role-playing game where Disney characters are trapped in a virtual city.",
"Miss Piggy and Animal were the first Muppets to join the game.",
"The next Muppet to join the game was Gonzo who was released in an update with Yzma and Madam Mim.",
"The next Muppets to be added was Dr. Bunsen Honeydew and Beaker as a duo character.",
"The next Muppets to get added were Kermit the Frog and Swedish Chef who were released in the same update.",
"The next Muppet to get added was Statler and Waldorf as a duo.",
"The last Muppet to get released so far is Sweetums.",
"Disney Mirrorverse is a Disney mobile game that has Kermit the Frog as a playable guardian."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"The Muppets performing with CeeLo Green at Rockefeller Center in 2012.The Muppets' prevalence in popular culture is such that the characters have become regarded as celebrities in their own right.",
"The Muppets have a collective star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, with Kermit having been previously individually inducted in 2002.The characters have appeared at the Academy Awards and Emmy Awards; made cameo appearances in films including ''Rocky III'', ''An American Werewolf in London'', and ''Mr.",
"Magorium's Wonder Emporium''; and have been interviewed on the news magazine ''60 Minutes''.Kermit was interviewed by Jon Stewart on ''The Daily Show''; guest hosted ''The Tonight Show'', ''Jimmy Kimmel Live!",
"'', ''Extreme Makeover: Home Edition'', ''America's Funniest Home Videos'', and an April Fools' Day edition of ''Larry King Live''; and has served as Grand Marshal of the Tournament of Roses Parade.",
"The characters also appeared on ''The Cosby Show'' and ''The Torkelsons'', among other sitcoms.",
"The music video for Weezer's \"Keep Fishin'\" is aesthetically based on ''The Muppet Show'' and consists of the band interacting with the characters.On September 28, 2005, the United States Postal Service released a ''Jim Henson and the Muppets'' postage stamp series.",
"The Muppets also appeared on ''Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve'' on December 31, 2007, in which Kermit and other characters presented segments following advertising breaks.",
"After one such segment, with Kermit in Times Square, co-host Ryan Seacrest thanked \"Kerms\" for his assistance.",
"Miss Piggy has appeared as a guest on ''The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson'', and Kermit appeared on ''Hollywood Squares'' and as one of the celebrity commentators on VH1's ''I Love'' documentary series.",
"The Muppets, as well as the title character of ''Bear in the Big Blue House'', have made frequent appearances on ''The Jerry Lewis MDA Labor Day Telethon''.On July 25, 2007, the Center for Puppetry Arts in Atlanta announced the opening of the Jim Henson Wing, which would house up to 700 retired Muppet characters.",
"The wing, first set to open in 2012 with films, sketches, and other materials from the Jim Henson Company archives, eventually opened as a gallery within the ''Worlds of Puppetry'' exhibition at the Center in November 2015.Muppet-like characters star in the Broadway musical ''Avenue Q'', the concept of which is a parody of ''Sesame Street''.",
"The Peter Jackson film ''Meet the Feebles'', a satire on the television industry, is largely reminiscent of ''The Muppet Show''.",
"A Kermit the Frog stuffed toy rigged to spray fake vomit recurred on ''Late Night with Conan O'Brien'', and the Muppets were frequently preempted at the beginning of episodes of ''You Can't Do That on Television.''",
"The sitcom series ''Greg the Bunny'' centered on sentient hand puppets working on a Muppet-like children's show.",
"Among other examples, series such as ''The Simpsons'', ''Family Guy'', ''The West Wing'', and ''Robot Chicken'' have referenced the Muppets.The term \"muppet\" is commonly used in Ireland, Britain, and Australasia to refer to a stupid or ineffectual person."
],
[
"References",
"===Works cited===* Davis, Michael (2008).",
"''Street Gang: The Complete History of Sesame Street''.",
"New York: Viking Penguin.",
"* Finch, Christopher (1981).",
"''Of Muppets and Men''.",
"New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. *Jones, Brian J.",
"(2013).",
"''Jim Henson: The Biography''.",
"New York: Ballantine Books.",
"* Morrow, Robert W. (2006).",
"''Sesame Street and the Reform of Children's Television''.",
"Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press."
],
[
"External links",
"* **Sesame Street"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mole fraction"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In chemistry, the '''mole fraction''' or '''molar fraction''', also called '''mole proportion''' or '''molar proportion''', is a quantity defined as the ratio between the amount of a constituent substance, ''ni'' (expressed in unit of moles, symbol mol), and the total amount of all constituents in a mixture, ''n''tot (also expressed in moles)::It is denoted '''''xi''''' (lowercase Roman letter ''x''), sometimes '''''' (lowercase Greek letter chi).",
"(For mixtures of gases, the letter ''y'' is recommended.",
")It is a dimensionless quantity with dimension of and dimensionless unit of '''moles per mole''' ('''mol/mol''' or '''molmol-1''') or simply 1; metric prefixes may also be used (e.g., nmol/mol for 10-9).When expressed in percent, it is known as the '''mole percent''' or '''molar percentage''' (unit symbol %, sometimes \"mol%\", equivalent to cmol/mol for 10-2).The mole fraction is called '''amount fraction''' by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and '''amount-of-substance fraction''' by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).",
"This nomenclature is part of the International System of Quantities (ISQ), as standardized in ISO 80000-9, which deprecates \"mole fraction\" based on the unacceptability of mixing information with units when expressing the values of quantities.The sum of all the mole fractions in a mixture is equal to 1::Mole fraction is numerically identical to the '''number fraction''', which is defined as the number of particles (molecules) of a constituent ''Ni'' divided by the total number of all molecules ''N''tot.",
"Whereas mole fraction is a ratio of amounts to amounts (in units of moles per moles), molar concentration is a quotient of amount to volume (in units of moles per litre).Other ways of expressing the composition of a mixture as a dimensionless quantity are mass fraction and volume fraction are others."
],
[
"Properties",
"Mole fraction is used very frequently in the construction of phase diagrams.",
"It has a number of advantages:* it is not temperature dependent (as is molar concentration) and does not require knowledge of the densities of the phase(s) involved* a mixture of known mole fraction can be prepared by weighing off the appropriate masses of the constituents* the measure is ''symmetric'': in the mole fractions ''x'' = 0.1 and ''x'' = 0.9, the roles of 'solvent' and 'solute' are reversed.",
"* In a mixture of ideal gases, the mole fraction can be expressed as the ratio of partial pressure to total pressure of the mixture* In a ternary mixture one can express mole fractions of a component as functions of other components mole fraction and binary mole ratios:*: Differential quotients can be formed at constant ratios like those above:: or : The ratios ''X'', ''Y'', and ''Z'' of mole fractions can be written for ternary and multicomponent systems:: These can be used for solving PDEs like:: or : This equality can be rearranged to have differential quotient of mole amounts or fractions on one side.",
": or : Mole amounts can be eliminated by forming ratios:: Thus the ratio of chemical potentials becomes:: Similarly the ratio for the multicomponents system becomes:"
],
[
"Related quantities",
"===Mass fraction===The mass fraction ''wi'' can be calculated using the formula:where ''Mi'' is the molar mass of the component ''i'' and ''M̄'' is the average molar mass of the mixture.=== Molar mixing ratio ===The mixing of two pure components can be expressed introducing the amount or molar mixing ratio of them .",
"Then the mole fractions of the components will be::The amount ratio equals the ratio of mole fractions of components::due to division of both numerator and denominator by the sum of molar amounts of components.",
"This property has consequences for representations of phase diagrams using, for instance, ternary plots.====Mixing binary mixtures with a common component to form ternary mixtures====Mixing binary mixtures with a common component gives a ternary mixture with certain mixing ratios between the three components.",
"These mixing ratios from the ternary and the corresponding mole fractions of the ternary mixture x1(123), x2(123), x3(123) can be expressed as a function of several mixing ratios involved, the mixing ratios between the components of the binary mixtures and the mixing ratio of the binary mixtures to form the ternary one.",
":===Mole percentage===Multiplying mole fraction by 100 gives the mole percentage, also referred as amount/amount percent abbreviated as (n/n)% or mol %.===Mass concentration===The conversion to and from mass concentration ''ρi'' is given by::where ''M̄'' is the average molar mass of the mixture.===Molar concentration===The conversion to molar concentration ''ci'' is given by::where ''M̄'' is the average molar mass of the solution, ''c'' is the total molar concentration and ''ρ'' is the density of the solution.===Mass and molar mass===The mole fraction can be calculated from the masses ''mi'' and molar masses ''Mi'' of the components::"
],
[
"Spatial variation and gradient",
"In a spatially non-uniform mixture, the mole fraction gradient triggers the phenomenon of diffusion."
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mary Cassatt"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Mary Stevenson Cassatt''' (; May 22, 1844June 14, 1926) was an American painter and printmaker.",
"She was born in Allegheny, Pennsylvania (now part of Pittsburgh's North Side), and lived much of her adult life in France, where she befriended Edgar Degas and exhibited with the Impressionists.",
"Cassatt often created images of the social and private lives of women, with particular emphasis on the intimate bonds between mothers and children.She was described by Gustave Geffroy as one of \"les trois grandes dames\" (the three great ladies) of Impressionism alongside Marie Bracquemond and Berthe Morisot.",
"In 1879, Diego Martelli compared her to Degas, as they both sought to depict movement, light, and design in the most modern sense."
],
[
"Early life",
"''Young Woman in a Black and Green Bonnet'', , Princeton University Art MuseumCassatt was born in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, which is now part of Pittsburgh.",
"She was born into an upper-middle-class family: Her father, Robert Simpson Cassat (later Cassatt), was a successful stockbroker and land speculator.",
"The ancestral name had been Cossart, with the family descended from French Huguenot Jacques Cossart, who came to New Amsterdam in 1662.Her mother, Katherine Kelso Johnston, came from a banking family.",
"Katherine Cassatt, educated and well-read, had a profound influence on her daughter.",
"To that effect, Cassatt's lifelong friend Louisine Havemeyer wrote in her memoirs: \"Anyone who had the privilege of knowing Mary Cassatt's mother would know at once that it was from her and her alone that Mary inherited her ability.\"",
"A distant cousin of artist Robert Henri, Cassatt was one of seven children, of whom two died in infancy.",
"One brother, Alexander Johnston Cassatt, later became president of the Pennsylvania Railroad.",
"The family moved eastward, first to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, then to the Philadelphia area, where she started her schooling at the age of six.Cassatt grew up in an environment that viewed travel as integral to education; she spent five years in Europe and visited many of the capitals, including London, Paris, and Berlin.",
"While abroad she learned German and French and had her first lessons in drawing and music.",
"It is likely that her first exposure to French artists Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, Camille Corot, and Gustave Courbet was at the Paris World's Fair of 1855.Also in the exhibition were Edgar Degas and Camille Pissarro, both of whom were later her colleagues and mentors.Though her family objected to her becoming a professional artist, Cassatt began studying painting at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia at the early age of 15.Part of her parents' concern may have been Cassatt's exposure to feminist ideas and the bohemian behavior of some of the male students.",
"As such, Cassatt and her network of friends were lifelong advocates of equal rights for the sexes.",
"Although about 20% of the students were female, most viewed art as a socially valuable skill; few of them were determined, as Cassatt was, to make art their career.",
"She continued her studies from 1861 through 1865, the duration of the American Civil War.",
"Thomas Eakins was among her fellow students; later Eakins was forced to resign as director of the academy.Impatient with the slow pace of instruction and the patronizing attitude of the male students and teachers, she decided to study the old masters on her own.",
"She later said: \"There was no teaching\" at the academy.",
"Female students could not use live models, until somewhat later, and the principal training was primarily drawing from casts.Cassatt decided to end her studies: At that time, no degree was granted.",
"After overcoming her father's objections, she moved to Paris in 1866, with her mother and family friends acting as chaperones.",
"Since women could not yet attend the École des Beaux-Arts, Cassatt applied to study privately with masters from the school and was accepted to study with Jean-Léon Gérôme, a highly regarded teacher known for his hyper-realistic technique and his depiction of exotic subjects.",
"(A few months later Gérôme also accepted Eakins as a student.)",
"Cassatt augmented her artistic training with daily copying in the Louvre, obtaining the required permit, which was necessary to control the \"copyists\", usually low-paid women, who daily filled the museum to paint copies for sale.",
"The museum also served as a social place for Frenchmen and American female students, who, like Cassatt, were not allowed to attend cafes where the avant-garde socialized.",
"In this manner, fellow artist and friend Elizabeth Jane Gardner met and married famed academic painter William-Adolphe Bouguereau.",
"''The Boating Party'' by Mary Cassatt, 1893–94, oil on canvas, 35½ × 46 in., National Gallery of Art, WashingtonToward the end of 1866, she joined a painting class taught by Charles Joshua Chaplin, a genre artist.",
"In 1868, Cassatt also studied with artist Thomas Couture, whose subjects were mostly romantic and urban.",
"On trips to the countryside, the students drew from life, particularly the peasants going about their daily activities.",
"In 1868, one of her paintings, ''A Mandoline Player'', was accepted for the first time by the selection jury for the Paris Salon.",
"With Elizabeth Jane Gardner, whose work was also accepted by the jury that year, Cassatt was one of two American women to first exhibit in the Salon.",
"''A Mandoline Player'' is in the Romantic style of Corot and Couture, and is one of only two paintings from the first decade of her career that is documented today.The French art scene was in a process of change, as radical artists such as Courbet and Édouard Manet tried to break away from accepted Academic tradition, and the Impressionists were in their formative years.",
"Cassatt's friend Eliza Haldeman wrote home that artists \"are leaving the Academy style and each seeking a new way, consequently just now everything is Chaos.\"",
"Cassatt, on the other hand, continued to work in the traditional manner, submitting works to the Salon for over ten years, with increasing frustration.Returning to the United States in the late summer of 1870—as the Franco-Prussian War was starting—Cassatt lived with her family in Altoona.",
"Her father continued to resist her chosen vocation, and paid for her basic needs, but not her art supplies.",
"Cassatt placed two of her paintings in a New York gallery and found many admirers but no purchasers.",
"She was also dismayed at the lack of paintings to study while staying at her summer residence.",
"Cassatt even considered giving up art, as she was determined to make an independent living.",
"She wrote in a letter of July 1871, \"I have given up my studio & torn up my father's portrait, & have not touched a brush for six weeks nor ever will again until I see some prospect of getting back to Europe.",
"I am very anxious to go out west next fall & get some employment, but I have not yet decided where.",
"\"Cassatt traveled to Chicago to try her luck, but lost some of her early paintings in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.Shortly afterward, her work attracted the attention of Roman Catholic Bishop Michael Domenec of Pittsburgh, who commissioned her to paint two copies of paintings by Correggio in Parma, Italy, advancing her enough money to cover her travel expenses and part of her stay.",
"In her excitement she wrote, \"O how wild I am to get to work, my fingers farely itch & my eyes water to see a fine picture again\".",
"With Emily Sartain, a fellow artist from a well-regarded artistic family from Philadelphia, Cassatt set out for Europe again."
],
[
"Impressionism",
"Tea'' by Mary Cassatt, 1880, oil on canvas, 25½ × 36¼ in., Museum of Fine Arts, BostonWithin months of her return to Europe in the autumn of 1871, Cassatt's prospects had brightened.",
"Her painting ''Two Women Throwing Flowers During Carnival'' was well received in the Salon of 1872, and was purchased.",
"She attracted much favorable notice in Parma and was supported and encouraged by the art community there: \"All Parma is talking of Miss Cassatt and her picture, and everyone is anxious to know her\".Oil, , private collection.",
"Mrs. Currey had worked for the Cassatt family.",
"When Mary Cassatt returned home from Paris at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war, she asked Mrs. Currey to pose for her and gave her the sketch.",
"Superimposed (the canvas turned upside down) is a sketch of her father.After completing her commission for the bishop, Cassatt traveled to Madrid and Seville, where she painted a group of paintings of Spanish subjects, including ''Spanish Dancer Wearing a Lace Mantilla'' (1873, in the National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution).",
"In 1874, she made the decision to take up residence in France.",
"She was joined by her sister Lydia who shared an apartment with her.",
"Cassatt opened a studio in Paris.",
"Louisa May Alcott's sister, Abigail May Alcott, was then an art student in Paris and visited Cassatt.",
"Cassatt continued to express criticism of the politics of the Salon and the conventional taste that prevailed there.",
"She was blunt in her comments, as reported by Sartain, who wrote: \"she is entirely too slashing, snubs all modern art, disdains the Salon pictures of Cabanel, Bonnat, all the names we are used to revere\".Cassatt saw that works by female artists were often dismissed with contempt unless the artist had a friend or protector on the jury, and she would not flirt with jurors to curry favor.",
"Her cynicism grew when one of the two pictures she submitted in 1875 was refused by the jury, only to be accepted the following year after she darkened the background.",
"She had quarrels with Sartain, who thought Cassatt too outspoken and self-centered, and eventually they parted.",
"Out of her distress and self-criticism, Cassatt decided that she needed to move away from genre paintings and onto more fashionable subjects, in order to attract portrait commissions from American socialites abroad, but that attempt bore little fruit at first.",
"''Portrait de fillette'', 1879, Musée des Beaux-Arts de BordeauxIn 1877, both her entries were rejected, and for the first time in seven years she had no works in the Salon.",
"At this low point in her career she was invited by Edgar Degas to show her works with the Impressionists, a group that had begun their own series of independent exhibitions in 1874 with much attendant notoriety.",
"The Impressionists (also known as the \"Independents\" or \"Intransigents\") had no formal manifesto and varied considerably in subject matter and technique.",
"They tended to prefer plein air painting and the application of vibrant color in separate strokes with little pre-mixing, which allows the eye to merge the results in an \"impressionistic\" manner.",
"The Impressionists had been receiving the wrath of the critics for several years.",
"Henry Bacon, a friend of the Cassatts, thought that the Impressionists were so radical that they were \"afflicted with some hitherto unknown disease of the eye\".",
"They already had one female member, artist Berthe Morisot, who became Cassatt's friend and colleague.Cassatt admired Degas, whose pastels had made a powerful impression on her when she encountered them in an art dealer's window in 1875.",
"\"I used to go and flatten my nose against that window and absorb all I could of his art,\" she later recalled.",
"\"It changed my life.",
"I saw art then as I wanted to see it.\"",
"She accepted Degas' invitation with enthusiasm and began preparing paintings for the next Impressionist show, planned for 1878, which (after a postponement because of the World's Fair) took place on April 10, 1879.She felt comfortable with the Impressionists and joined their cause enthusiastically, declaring: \"we are carrying on a despairing fight & need all our forces\".",
"Unable to attend cafes with them without attracting unfavorable attention, she met with them privately and at exhibitions.",
"She now hoped for commercial success selling paintings to the sophisticated Parisians who preferred the avant-garde.",
"Her style had gained a new spontaneity during the intervening two years.",
"Previously a studio-bound artist, she had adopted the practice of carrying a sketchbook with her while out-of-doors or at the theater, and recording the scenes she saw.",
"''Summertime'' by Mary Cassatt, , oil on canvas, Terra Foundation for American Art, ChicagoIn 1877, Cassatt was joined in Paris by her father and mother, who returned with her sister Lydia, all eventually to share a large apartment on the fifth floor of 13, Avenue Trudaine, ().",
"Mary valued their companionship, as neither she nor Lydia had married.",
"A case was made that Mary had narcissistic disturbance, never completing the recognition of herself as a person outside of the orbit of her mother.",
"Mary had decided early in life that marriage would be incompatible with her career.",
"Lydia, who was frequently painted by her sister, had recurrent bouts of illness, and her death in 1882 left Cassatt temporarily unable to work.Cassatt's father insisted that her studio and supplies be covered by her sales, which were still meager.",
"Afraid of having to paint \"potboilers\" to make ends meet, Cassatt applied herself to produce some quality paintings for the next Impressionist exhibition.",
"Three of her most accomplished works from 1878 were ''Portrait of the Artist'' (self-portrait), ''Little Girl in a Blue Armchair'', and ''Reading Le Figaro'' (portrait of her mother).Mary Cassatt, ''Woman Standing Holding a Fan'', 1878–79, (Amon Carter Museum of American Art)Degas had considerable influence on Cassatt.",
"Both were highly experimental in their use of materials, trying distemper and metallic paints in many works, such as ''Woman Standing Holding a Fan'', 1878–79 (Amon Carter Museum of American Art).She became extremely proficient in the use of pastels, eventually creating many of her most important works in this medium.",
"Degas also introduced her to etching, of which he was a recognized master.",
"The two worked side by side for a while, and her draftsmanship gained considerable strength under his tutelage.",
"One example of her thoughtful approach to the medium of drypoint as a mode for reflecting on her status as an artist is 'Reflection' of 1889–90, which has recently been interpreted as a self-portrait.",
"Degas in turn depicted Cassatt in a series of etchings recording their trips to the Louvre.",
"She treasured his friendship but learned not to expect too much from his fickle and temperamental nature after a project they were collaborating on at the time, a proposed journal devoted to prints, was abruptly dropped by him.",
"The sophisticated and well-dressed Degas, then forty-five, was a welcome dinner guest at the Cassatt residence, and likewise they at his ''soirées''.The Impressionist exhibit of 1879 was the most successful to date, despite the absence of Renoir, Sisley, Manet and Cézanne, who were attempting once again to gain recognition at the Salon.",
"Through the efforts of Gustave Caillebotte, who organized and underwrote the show, the group made a profit and sold many works, although the criticism continued as harsh as ever.",
"The ''Revue des Deux Mondes'' wrote, \"M. Degas and Mlle.",
"Cassatt are, nevertheless, the only artists who distinguish themselves... and who offer some attraction and some excuse in the pretentious show of window dressing and infantile daubing\".Cassatt displayed eleven works, including ''Lydia in a Loge, Wearing a Pearl Necklace, (Woman in a Loge)''.",
"Although critics claimed that Cassatt's colors were too bright and that her portraits were too accurate to be flattering to the subjects, her work was not savaged as was Monet's, whose circumstances were the most desperate of all the Impressionists at that time.",
"She used her share of the profits to purchase a work by Degas and one by Monet.",
"She participated in the Impressionist Exhibitions that followed in 1880 and 1881, and she remained an active member of the Impressionist circle until 1886.In 1886, Cassatt provided two paintings for the first Impressionist exhibition in the US, organized by art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel.",
"Her friend Louisine Elder married Harry Havemeyer in 1883, and with Cassatt as advisor, the couple began collecting the Impressionists on a grand scale.",
"Much of their vast collection is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.Cassatt also made several portraits of family members during that period, of which ''Portrait of Alexander Cassatt and His Son Robert Kelso'' (1885) is one of her best regarded.",
"Cassatt's style then evolved, and she moved away from Impressionism to a simpler, more straightforward approach.",
"She began to exhibit her works in New York galleries as well.",
"After 1886, Cassatt no longer identified herself with any art movement and experimented with a variety of techniques."
],
[
"Feminist Viewpoints and the \"New Woman\"",
"''Reading \"Le Figaro\"'' by Mary Cassatt (1878), Collection Mrs. Eric de Spoelberch, Haverford, PennsylvaniaCassatt and her contemporaries enjoyed the wave of feminism that occurred in the 1840s, allowing them access to educational institutions at newly coed colleges and universities, such as Oberlin and the University of Michigan.",
"Likewise, women's colleges such as Vassar, Smith and Wellesley opened their doors during this time.",
"Cassat was an outspoken advocate for women's equality, campaigning with her friends for equal travel scholarships for students in the 1860s, and the right to vote in the 1910s.Mary Cassatt depicted the \"New Woman\" of the 19th century from the woman's perspective.",
"As a successful, highly trained woman artist who never married, Cassatt—like Ellen Day Hale, Elizabeth Coffin, Elizabeth Nourse and Cecilia Beaux—personified the \"New Woman\".",
"She \"initiated the profound beginnings in recreating the image of the 'new' women\", drawn from the influence of her intelligent and active mother, Katherine Cassatt, who believed in educating women to be knowledgeable and socially active.",
"She is depicted in ''Reading 'Le Figaro' ''(1878).Although Cassatt did not explicitly make political statements about women's rights in her work, her artistic portrayal of women was consistently done with dignity and the suggestion of a deeper, meaningful inner life.",
"Cassatt objected to being stereotyped as a \"woman artist\", she supported women's suffrage, and in 1915 showed eighteen works in an exhibition supporting the movement organised by Louisine Havemeyer, a committed and active feminist.",
"The exhibition brought her into conflict with her sister-in-law Eugenie Carter Cassatt, who was anti-suffrage and who boycotted the show along with Philadelphia society in general.",
"Cassatt responded by selling off her work that was otherwise destined for her heirs.",
"In particular ''The Boating Party'', thought to have been inspired by the birth of Eugenie's daughter Ellen Mary, was bought by the National Gallery, Washington, D.C."
],
[
"Relationship with Degas",
"Edgar Degas, ''Mary Cassatt Seated, Holding Cards'', , oil on canvas, 74 × 60 cm, National Portrait Gallery, Washington DC.",
"NPG.84.34 Cassatt hated it later and wrote to her dealer Paul Durand-Ruel in 1912 or 1913 that \"I don't want anyone to know that I posed for it.",
"\"Cassatt and Degas had a long period of collaboration.",
"The two painters had studios close together, Cassatt at 19, rue Laval (), Degas at 4, rue Frochot (), less than a five-minute stroll apart, and Degas developed the habit of looking in at Cassatt's studio and offering her advice and helping her gain models.They had much in common: they shared similar tastes in art and literature, came from affluent backgrounds, had studied painting in Italy, and both were independent, never marrying.",
"The degree of intimacy between them cannot be assessed now, as no letters survive, but it is unlikely they were in a relationship given their conservative social backgrounds and strong moral principles.",
"Several of Vincent van Gogh's letters attest to Degas' sexual self-constraint.",
"Degas introduced Cassatt to pastel and engraving, both of which Cassatt quickly mastered, while for her part Cassatt was instrumental in helping Degas sell his paintings and promoting his reputation in America.Both regarded themselves as figure painters, and the art historian George Shackelford suggests they were influenced by the art critic Louis Edmond Duranty's appeal in his pamphlet ''The New Painting'' for a revitalization in figure painting: \"Let us take leave of the stylized human body, which is treated like a vase.",
"What we need is the characteristic modern person in his clothes, in the midst of his social surroundings, at home or out in the street.",
"\"Mary Cassatt, ''Self-Portrait'', , gouache and watercolor over graphite on paper, 32.7 cm × 24.6 cm, National Portrait Gallery, Washington, D.C. NPG.76.33''Little Girl in a Blue Armchair'', 1878After Cassatt's parents and sister Lydia joined Cassatt in Paris in 1877, Degas, Cassatt, and Lydia were often to be seen at the Louvre studying artworks together.",
"Degas produced two prints, notable for their technical innovation, depicting Cassatt at the Louvre looking at artworks while Lydia reads a guidebook.",
"These were destined for a prints journal planned by Degas (together with Camille Pissarro and others), which never came to fruition.",
"Cassatt frequently posed for Degas, notably for his millinery series trying on hats.Around 1884, Degas made a portrait in oils of Cassatt, ''Mary Cassatt Seated, Holding Cards''.",
"A ''Self-Portrait'' () by Cassatt depicts her in the identical hat and dress, leading art historian Griselda Pollock to speculate they were executed in a joint painting session in the early years of their acquaintance.Cassatt and Degas worked most closely together in the fall and winter of 1879–80 when Cassatt was mastering her printmaking technique.",
"Degas owned a small printing press, and by day she worked at his studio using his tools and press while in the evening she made studies for the etching plate the next day.",
"However, in April 1880, Degas abruptly withdrew from the prints journal they had been collaborating on, and without his support the project folded.",
"Degas' withdrawal piqued Cassatt who had worked hard at preparing a print, ''In the Opera Box'', in a large edition of fifty impressions, no doubt destined for the journal.",
"Although Cassatt's warm feelings for Degas were to last her entire life, she never again worked with him as closely as she had over the prints journal.",
"Mathews notes that she ceased executing her theater scenes at this time.Degas was forthright in his views, as was Cassatt.",
"They clashed over the Dreyfus affair (early in her career she had executed a portrait of the art collector Moyse Dreyfus, a relative of the court-martialled lieutenant at the center of the affair).",
"Cassatt later expressed satisfaction at the irony of Lousine Havermeyer's 1915 joint exhibition of hers and Degas' work being held in aid of women's suffrage, equally capable of affectionately repeating Degas' antifemale comments as being estranged by them (when viewing her ''Two Women Picking Fruit'' for the first time, he had commented \"No woman has the right to draw like that\").",
"From the 1890s onwards their relationship took on a decidedly commercial aspect, as in general had Cassatt's other relations with the Impressionist circle; nevertheless they continued to visit each other until Degas died in 1917."
],
[
"Later life",
"''The Child's Bath (The Bath)'' by Mary Cassatt, 1893, oil on canvas, 39 × 26 in., Art Institute of ChicagoCassatt's reputation is based on an extensive series of rigorously drawn and tenderly observed paintings and prints on the theme of the mother and child.",
"The earliest dated work on this subject is the drypoint ''Gardner Held by His Mother'' (an impression inscribed \"Jan/88\" is in the New York Public Library), although she had painted a few earlier works on the theme.",
"Some of these works depict her own relatives, friends, or clients, although in her later years she generally used professional models in compositions that are often reminiscent of Italian Renaissance depictions of the Madonna and Child.",
"After 1900, she concentrated almost exclusively on mother-and-child subjects, such as ''Woman with a Sunflower''.",
"Viewers may be surprised to find that despite her focus on portraying mother-child pairs in her portraits, \"Cassatt rejected the idea of becoming a wife and mother...\"The 1890s were Cassatt's busiest and most creative period.",
"She had matured considerably and became more diplomatic and less blunt in her opinions.",
"She also became a role model for young American artists who sought her advice.",
"Among them was Lucy A. Bacon, whom Cassatt introduced to Camille Pissarro.",
"Though the Impressionist group disbanded, Cassatt still had contact with some of the members, including Renoir, Monet, and Pissarro.Mary Cassatt, ''Mother and Child Before a Pool'', .",
"Drypoint and aquatint on laid paper, Brooklyn Museum In 1891, she exhibited a series of highly original colored drypoint and aquatint prints, including ''Woman Bathing'' and ''The Coiffure'', inspired by the Japanese masters shown in Paris the year before.",
"(See Japonism) Cassatt was attracted to the simplicity and clarity of Japanese design, and the skillful use of blocks of color.",
"In her interpretation, she used primarily light, delicate pastel colors and avoided black (a \"forbidden\" color among the Impressionists).",
"Adelyn D. Breeskin, the author of two ''catalogue raisonnés'' of Cassatt's work, comments that these colored prints, \"now stand as her most original contribution... adding a new chapter to the history of graphic arts...technically, as color prints, they have never been surpassed\".Also in 1891, Chicago businesswoman Bertha Palmer approached Cassatt to paint a 12' × 58' mural about \"Modern Woman\" for the Women's Building for the World's Columbian Exposition to be held in 1893.Cassatt completed the project over the next two years while living in France with her mother.",
"The mural was designed as a triptych.",
"The central theme was titled ''Young Women Plucking the Fruits of Knowledge or Science''.",
"The left panel was ''Young Girls Pursuing Fame'' and the right panel ''Arts, Music, Dancing''.",
"The mural displays a community of women apart from their relation to men, as accomplished persons in their own right.",
"Palmer considered Cassatt to be an American treasure and could think of no one better to paint a mural at an exposition that was to do so much to focus the world's attention on the status of women.",
"The mural did not survive following the run of the exhibition when the building was torn down.",
"Cassatt made several studies and paintings on themes similar to those in the mural, so it is possible to see her development of those ideas and images.",
"Cassatt also exhibited other paintings in the Exposition.As the new century arrived, Cassatt served as an advisor to several major art collectors and stipulated that they eventually donate their purchases to American art museums.",
"In recognition of her contributions to the arts, France awarded her the Légion d'honneur in 1904.Although instrumental in advising American collectors, recognition of her art came more slowly in the United States.",
"Even among her family members back in America, she received little recognition and was totally overshadowed by her famous brother.Mary Cassatt's brother, Alexander Cassatt, was president of the Pennsylvania Railroad from 1899 until his death in 1906.She was shaken, as they had been close, but she continued to be very productive in the years leading up to 1910.An increasing sentimentality is apparent in her work of the 1900s; her work was popular with the public and the critics, but she was no longer breaking new ground, and her Impressionist colleagues who once provided stimulation and criticism were dying.",
"She was hostile to such new developments in art as post-Impressionism, Fauvism and Cubism.",
"Two of her works appeared in the Armory Show of 1913, both images of a mother and child.A trip to Egypt in 1910 impressed Cassatt with the beauty of its ancient art, but was followed by a crisis of creativity; not only had the trip exhausted her, but she declared herself \"crushed by the strength of this Art\", saying, \"I fought against it but it conquered, it is surely the greatest Art the past has left us ... how are my feeble hands to ever paint the effect on me.\"",
"Diagnosed with diabetes, rheumatism, neuralgia, and cataracts in 1911, she did not slow down, but after 1914 she was forced to stop painting as she became almost blind.",
"In 1925 she was featured on 32nd Annual Exhibition of American Art at the Cincinnati Art Museum, together with Louise Woodroofe, Childe Hassam and Robert Henri.Cassatt died on June 14, 1926, at Château de Beaufresne, near Paris, and was buried in the family vault at Le Mesnil-Théribus, France.Image:Rue de Marignan 10.jpg|House of rue de Marignan in Paris, where Mary Cassatt lived from 1887 until her deathImage:Mary Cassatt plaque - 10, rue de Marignan, Paris 8.jpg|Memorial on the facade of 10 rue de Marignan"
],
[
"Legacy",
"* Mary Cassatt inspired many Canadian women artists who were members of the Beaver Hall Group.",
"* The SS ''Mary Cassatt'' was a World War II Liberty ship, launched May 16, 1943.",
"* A quartet of young Juilliard string musicians formed the all-female Cassatt Quartet in 1985, named in honor of the painter.",
"In 2009, the award-winning group recorded String Quartets Nos.",
"1–3 (Cassatt String Quartet) by composer Dan Welcher; the 3rd quartet on the album was written inspired by the work of Mary Cassatt as well.",
"* In 1966, Cassatt's painting ''The Boating Party'' was reproduced on a US postage stamp.",
"Later she was honored by the United States Postal Service with a 23-cent Great Americans series postage stamp.",
"* In 1973, Cassatt was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.",
"* In 2003, four of her paintings – ''Young Mother'' (1888), ''Children Playing on the Beach'' (1884), ''On a Balcony'' (1878/79) and ''Child in a Straw Hat'' () – were reproduced on the third issue in the American Treasures stamp series.",
"* On May 22, 2009, she was honored by a Google Doodle in recognition of her birthday.",
"* Cassatt's paintings have sold for as much as $4 million, the record price of $4,072,500 being set in 1996 at Christie's, New York, for ''In the Box''.",
"* A public garden in the 12th arrondissement of Paris is named 'Jardin Mary Cassatt' in her memory."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Cassatt Mary Portrait of Madame Sisley 1873.jpg|''Portrait of Madame Sisley'' (1873)File:Mary Cassatt The Reader 1877.jpg|''The Reader'' (1877), Crystal Bridges Museum of American ArtFile:Mary Cassat - Lilacs in a Window - MMA 1997.207.jpg|''Lilacs in a Window'' (1879)File:Cassatt corner loge.jpg|''In the Box'' (1879)File:Cassatt Mary At the Theater 1879.jpg|''Lydia Leaning on Her Arms, Seated in Loge'' (1879)File:Miss Mary Ellison.JPG|''Miss Mary Ellison'' (1880)File:Cassatt Mary Lydia at the Tapestry Loom c. 1881.jpg|Lydia at the Tapestry Loom (c. 1881)File:Cassatt Mary Children on the Beach 1884 .jpg|''Children on the Beach'' (1884)File:Young Girl at a Window.JPG|''Young Girl at a Window'' (–1884), National Gallery of ArtFile:Lady at the Tea Table MET DT516.jpg|''Lady at the Tea Table'' (1883-1885), Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Child in a Straw Hat by Mary Cassatt c1886.jpg|''Child in Straw Hat'' (1886)File:Cassatt Mary Maternite 1890.jpg|''Maternité'' (1890), pastelFile:Cassatt Mary Nurse Reading to a Little Girl 1895.jpg|''Nurse Reading to a Little Girl'' (1895), pastelFile:Brooklyn Museum - Woman in a Red Bodice and Her Child - Mary Cassatt - overall.jpg|''Woman in a Red Bodice and Her Child'' (), Brooklyn MuseumFile:Cassatt, Mary Pink Sash 1898.jpg|''The Pink Sash'' (1898), pastelFile:Madame Gaillard and Her Daughter Marie-Thérèse 1899 Mary Cassatt.jpg|''Madame Gaillard and Her Daughter Marie-Thérèse'' (1899), pastel, Reynolda House Museum of American ArtFile:Cassatt Mary Jules Being Dried by His Mother 1900.jpg|''Jules Being Dried by His Mother'' (1900)File:Margot in Blue Cassatt.jpg|''Margot in Blue'' (1903), pastel, Walters Art MuseumFile:Cassatt Mary Young Woman in Green, Outdoors in the Sun 1914.jpg|''Young Woman in Green, Outdoors in the Sun'' (1914)File:Brooklyn Museum - The Fitting - Mary Cassatt - overall.jpg|''The Fitting'' (), drypoint and aquatint, Brooklyn MuseumFile:Offering the Panal to the Bullfighter, Mary Cassatt.jpg|''Offering the Panal to the Bullfighter'' (1873), oil on canvas, Clark Art InstituteFile:Young Mother Sewing MET DP139632.jpg|''Young Mother Sewing'' (1900), oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Mary Cassatt - Under the Horse-Chestnut Tree - Google Art Project.jpg|''Under the Horse Chestnut Tree'' by Mary Cassatt, 1898, drypoint and aquatint print, 19 × 15 in., Museum of Fine Arts, Houston.File:Woman Bathing (La Toilette) MET dp16.2.2.R.jpg|''Woman Bathing (La Toilette)'' by Mary Cassatt, 1890–91, Drypoint and aquatint print, Metropolitan Museum of Art.File:Mary Cassatt, 1902, Reine Lefebre and Margot before a Window.jpg|''Mère et enfant (Reine Lefebre and Margot before a Window)'', File:Mary Stevenson Cassatt, American - Woman with a Pearl Necklace in a Loge - Google Art Project.jpg|''Woman with a Pearl Necklace in a Loge'', 1879, oil on canvas, 81 × 60 cm, Philadelphia Museum of Art"
],
[
"Film",
"* ''Mary Cassatt: Painting the Modern Woman''.",
"Director: Ali Ray, UK, 93 minutes, 2023"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * (mentions family relationship to Alexander Cassatt)===Further reading===* Adelson, Warren; Bertalan, Sarah; Mathews, Nancy Mowll; Pinsky, Susan; Rosen, Marc (2008).",
"''Mary Cassatt: Prints and Drawings from the Collection of Ambroise Vollard''.",
"New York: Adelson Galleries.",
".",
"* Barter, Judith A., et al.",
"''Mary Cassatt: Modern Woman''.",
"Exhibition catalogue.",
"New York: Art Institute of Chicago in association with Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1998.",
"* Breeskin, Adelyn D. ''Mary Cassatt: A Catalogue Raisonné of the Oils, Pastels, Watercolors, and Drawings''.",
"Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1970.",
"* Conrads, Margaret C. ''American Paintings and Sculpture at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute''.",
"New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1990.",
"* Pinsky, Susan; Rosen, Marc; Adelson, Warren; Cantor, Jay E.; Shapiro, Barbara Stern (2000).",
"''Mary Cassatt: Prints and Drawings from the Artist's Studio''.",
"Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.",
".",
"* Pollock, Griselda.",
"''Mary Cassatt: Painter of Modern Women''.",
"World of Art.",
"London: Thames and Hudson, 1998.",
"* Stratton, Suzanne L. ''Spain, Espagne, Spanien: Foreign Artists Discover Spain 1800–1900''.",
"Exhibition catalogue.",
"New York: The Spanish Institute in association with the Equitable Gallery, 1993.",
"* (see index)"
],
[
"External links",
"* Mary Cassatt Biography* Mary Cassatt's Cat Paintings* A finding aid to the Mary Cassatt letters, 1882–1926 at the Archives of Art, Smithsonian Institution* Mary Cassatt at the National Gallery of Art* Mary Cassatt Gallery at MuseumSyndicate.com * Mary Cassatt at the WebMuseum.",
"* * Mary Cassatt prints at the National Art History Institut (INHA) in Paris * '' The Havemeyer Family Papers relating to Art Collecting'' Mary Cassatt was a close personal friend of Louisine Havemeyer and acted as an art collecting advisor and buying agent for the Havemeyer family.",
"This archival collection includes original letters from Mary Cassatt to Louisine and Henry Osborne Havemeyer.",
"* The foundation in France for the remembrance of Mary Cassatt, located in the village of Mesnil-Theribus, where Cassatt lived and is buried* Bibliothèque numérique de l'INHA – Estampes de Mary Cassatt"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Military academy"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A graduation parade of the Royal Military College, DuntroonArmenian soldiers at the Vazgen Sargsyan Military University in 2013A '''military academy''' or '''service academy''' is an educational institution which prepares candidates for service in the officer corps.",
"It normally provides education in a military environment, the exact definition depending on the country concerned.Three types of academy exist: pre-collegiate-level institutions awarding academic qualifications, university-level institutions awarding bachelor's-degree-level qualifications, and those preparing Officer Cadets for commissioning into the armed services of the state.A naval academy is either a type of military academy (in the broad sense of that term) or is distinguished from one (in the narrow sense).",
"In U.S. usage, the Military, Merchant Marine, Naval, Coast Guard, and the Air Force Academy serve as military academies under the categorization of service academies in that country."
],
[
"History",
"The first military academies were established in the 18th century to provide future officers for technically specialized corps, such as military engineers and artillery, with scientific training.The Italian Military Academy was inaugurated in Turin on January 1, 1678, as the Savoy Royal Academy, making it the oldest military academy in existence.",
"The Royal Danish Naval Academy was set up in 1701.The Royal Military Academy, Woolwich was set up in 1741, after a false start in 1720 because of a lack of funds, as the earliest military academy in Britain.",
"Its original purpose was to train cadets entering the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers.",
"In France, the École Royale du Génie at Mézières was founded in 1748, followed by a non-technical academy in 1751, the École Royale Militaire offering a general military education to the nobility.",
"French military academies were widely copied in Prussia, Austria, Russia.",
"The Norwegian Military Academy in Oslo, educates officers of the Norwegian Army.",
"The academy was established in 1750, and is the oldest institution for higher education in Norway.By the turn of the century, under the impetus of the Napoleonic Wars and the strain that the armies of Europe subsequently came under, military academies for the training of commissioned officers of the army were set up in most of the combatant nations.",
"These military schools had two functions: to provide instruction for serving officers in the functions of the efficient staff-officer, and to school youngsters before they gained an officer's commission.",
"The Kriegsakademie in Prussia was founded in 1801 and the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr was created by order of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802 as a replacement for the École Royale Militaire of the Ancien Régime (the institution that Napoleon himself had graduated from).The Royal Military College, Sandhurst, in England was the brainchild of John Le Marchant in 1801, who established schools for the military instruction of officers at High Wycombe and Great Marlow, with a grant of £30,000 from Parliament.",
"The two original departments were later combined and moved to Sandhurst.In the United States, the United States Military Academy (USMA) in West Point, New York was founded on March 16, 1802, and is one of five service academies in the nation."
],
[
"Types",
"===Pre-collegiate institutions===A military school teaches children of various ages (elementary school, middle school or high school) in a military environment which includes training in military aspects, such as drill.",
"Many military schools are also boarding schools, and others are simply magnet schools in a larger school system.",
"Many are privately run institutions, though some are public and are run either by a public school system (such as the Chicago Public Schools) or by a state.===Adult institutions===A college-level '''military academy''' is an institute of higher learning of things military.",
"It is part of a larger system of military education and training institutions.",
"The primary educational goal at military academies is to provide a high quality education that includes significant coursework and training in the fields of military tactics and military strategy.",
"The amount of non-military coursework varies by both the institution and the country, and the amount of practical military experience gained varies as well.Military academies may or may not grant university degrees.",
"In the US, graduates have a major field of study, earning a Bachelor's degree in that subject just as at other universities.",
"However, in British academies, the graduate does not achieve a university degree, since the whole of the one-year course (undertaken mainly but not exclusively by university graduates) is dedicated to military training.There are two types of military academies: national (government-run) and state/private-run.",
"*Graduates from national academies are typically commissioned as officers in the country's military.",
"The new officers usually have an obligation to serve for a certain number of years.",
"In some countries (e.g.",
"Britain) all military officers train at the appropriate academy, whereas in others (e.g.",
"the United States) only a percentage do and the service academies are seen as institutions which supply service-specific officers within the forces (about 15 percent of US military officers).",
"*State or private-run academy graduates have no requirement to join the military after graduation, although some schools have a high rate of graduate military service.",
"Today, most of these schools have ventured away from their military roots and now enroll both military and civilian students.",
"The only exception in the United States is the Virginia Military Institute which remains all-military."
],
[
"Albania",
"*Armed Forces Academy"
],
[
"Angola",
"* Army Military Academy* National Air Force Academy* Naval Academy"
],
[
"Argentina",
"Cristina Fernández de Kirchner addresses the 2010 graduating class of Argentina's National Military College.Argentine Army:* Colegio Militar de la Nación (National Military College), in El Palomar, Buenos Aires (northwestern outskirts of Buenos Aires)Argentine Navy:* Escuela Naval Militar (Naval Military School), in Río Santiago, Buenos Aires (in Ensenada, near La Plata)Argentine Air Force:* Escuela de Aviación Militar (Military Aviation School), in the city of Córdoba"
],
[
"Armenia",
"* National Defense Research University* Vazgen Sargsyan Military Institute* Armenak Khanperyants Military Aviation University"
],
[
"Australia",
"The Australian Defence Force Academy is a tri-service military college established in 1986.",
"*Australian Defence Force Academy*Royal Australian Naval College*Royal Military College, Duntroon*Officers' Training School RAAF"
],
[
"Austria",
"*Theresian Military Academy*Landesverteidigungsakademie"
],
[
"Azerbaijan",
"*War College of the Azerbaijani Armed Forces*Azerbaijan Higher Military Academy"
],
[
"Bangladesh",
"Colours Contingent of the Bangladesh Military Academy, a training institute for officers of the Bangladesh Army*Bangladesh Military Academy*Bangladesh Naval Academy*Bangladesh Air Force Academy*Armed Forces Medical College (AFMC), Airport Road, Dhaka===Cadet colleges in Bangladesh==="
],
[
"Belarus",
"* Military Academy of Belarus* Border Guard Service Institute of Belarus* Ministry of the Interior Academy of the Republic of Belarus"
],
[
"Belgium",
"*Royal Military Academy (Belgium)"
],
[
"Bolivia",
"*Military College of Bolivia (Colegio Militar del Ejército de Bolivia)*Bolivian Military Naval Academy* Bolivian Air Force Academy"
],
[
"Brazil",
"===Basic Education==='''(offers an education with military values for civilians students of primary and secondary school)'''Colégio Militar do Rio de JaneiroBrazilian Army:* (SCMB) ''(Military High School of Brazil System)''** (CMBel) ''(Military High School of Belém)''** (CMBH) ''(Military High School of Belo Horizonte)''** (CMB) ''(Military High School of Brasília)''** (CMCG) ''(Military High School of Campo Grande)''** (CMC) ''(Military High School of Curitiba)''** (CMF) ''(Military High School of Fortaleza)''** (CMJF) ''(Military High School of Juiz de Fora)''** (CMM) ''(Military High School of Manaus)''** (CMPA) ''(Military High School of Porto Alegre)''** (CMR) ''(Military High School of Recife)''** (CMRJ) ''(Military High School of Rio de Janeiro)''** (CMS) ''(Military High School of Salvador)''** (CMSM) ''(Military High School of Santa Maria)''** Colégio Militar de São Paulo (CMSP) ''(Military High School of São Paulo)''===Preparatory Schools==='''(prepares students for admission to one of the official training academies)'''Academia Militar das Agulhas NegrasBrazilian Army:* Escola Preparatória de Cadetes do Exército (EsPCEx) ''(Army Cadets Preparatory School)''Brazil's Navy:* (CN) ''(Naval High School)''Brazilian Air Force:* (EPCAR) ''(Air Cadets Preparatory School)''===Sailor and Marine Soldier Training===Escola de Aprendizes-Marinheiros de Santa CatarinaBrazil's Navy:* Centro de Instrução Almirante Milcíades Portela Alves (CIAMPA) ''(Admiral Milcíades Portela Alves Instruction Center)''* Centro de Instrução e Adestramento de Brasília (CIAB) ''(Brasília Instruction and Training Center)''* (EAM) ''(Apprentices-Sailors School)''** (EAMCE) ''(Ceará Apprentices-Sailors School)''** (EAMES) ''(Espirito Santo Apprentices-Sailors School)''** (EAMPE) ''(Pernambuco Apprentices-Sailors School)''** (EAMSC) ''(Santa Catarina Apprentices-Sailors School)''===Sergeants Training===Escola de Especialistas da AeronáuticaBrazilian Army:* (ESA) ''(Sergeant Weapons School)''* (EsSLog) ''(Sergeant of Logistics School)''* (CiAvEx) ''(Army Aviation Instruction Center)''Brazil's Navy:* Centro de Instrução Almirante Alexandrino (CIAA) ''(Admiral Alexandrino Instruction Center)''* Centro de Instrução Almirante Sylvio de Camargo (CIASC) ''(Admiral Sylvio de Camargo Instruction Center)''Brazilian Air Force:* (EEAR) ''(Air Force Specialists School)''===Officers Training===Escola NavalBrazilian Army:* Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras (AMAN) ''(Agulhas Negras Military Academy)''* (EsFCEx) ''(Army Complementary Training School)''* (EsSEx) ''(Army Health School)''* Instituto Militar de Engenharia (IME) ''(Military Institute of Engineering)''Brazil's navy:* Centro de Instrução Almirante Wandenkolk (CIAW) ''(Admiral Wandekolk Instruction Center)''* Escola de Formação de Oficiais da Marinha Mercante (EFOMM) ''(Merchant Navy Officers Training School)''* (EN) ''(Naval School)''Brazilian Air Force:* (AFA) ''(Air Force Academy)''* Centro de Instrução e Adaptação da Aeronáutica ''(CIAAR) (Air Force Instruction and Adaptation Center)''* Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica (ITA) ''(Aeronautics Institute of Technology)''"
],
[
"Bulgaria",
"* Vasil Levski National Military University founded in 1878 as a military school in Plovdiv**Air Force Faculty in Dolna Mitropoliya**Artillery, Air Defence and CIS Faculty in Shumen**All-Force Faculty faculty in Veliko Tarnovo* Nikola Vaptsarov Naval Academy in Varna and founded in 1881 as Naval Machinery School in Rousse* Rakovski Defence and Staff College in Sofia, founded with an Act of the 15th National Assembly of March 1, 1912, in Sofia"
],
[
"Canada",
"Royal Military College of Canada band piper and bugler.",
"Established in 1876, the College is Canada's only post-secondary military college with degree-granting powers.Two post-secondary military academies are operated under the Canadian Military Colleges system, the Royal Military College of Canada (RMCC) in Kingston, Ontario; and Royal Military College Saint-Jean (RMC Saint-Jean) in Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec.",
"RMCC was established in 1876, while RMC Saint-Jean was established in 1954.The two institutions provided military education to officer cadets of all three elements in the Canadian Forces; the navy, army and air force; with RMC granted the authority to confer academic degrees in arts, science and engineering by the 1960s.",
"From 1940 to 1995, the Department of National Defence operated a third military college in Victoria, British Columbia, known as Royal Roads Military College (RRMC).Graduates of the Colleges are widely acknowledged to have had a disproportionate impact in the Canadian services and society, thanks to the solid foundations provided by their military education.",
"Military discipline and training, as well as a focus on physical fitness and fluency in both of Canada's two official languages, English and French, provided cadets with ample challenges and a very fulfilling experience.",
"In 1995 the Department of National Defence was forced to close RRMC and RMC Saint-Jean due to budget considerations, but RMCC continues to operate.",
"(In the fall of 1995, the campus reopened as a civilian institution, Royal Roads University.)",
"In 2007, the Department of National Defence reopened RMC Saint-Jean as a military academy that offers equivalent schooling as CEGEP, a level of post-secondary education in Quebec's education system.",
"In 2021 RMC Saint-Jean was returned to University status and had officer cadets graduate and received their commission for the first time since 1995.In addition to Canadian Military Colleges, the Canadian Armed Forces also operate a number of training centres and schools, including the Canadian Forces College, and the Canadian Forces Language School.",
"The components of the Canadian Armed Forces also maintain training centres and schools.",
"The Canadian Army Doctrine and Training Centre (CADTC) is a formation in the Army that delivers combat, and doctrinal training.",
"The CADTC includes several training establishments, such as the Canadian Manoeuvre Training Centre, Combat Training Centre, Command and Staff College, and the Peace Support Training Centre.",
"The 2 Canadian Air Division is the formation responsible for training in the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), and includes establishments like the Royal Canadian Air Force Academy, 2 Canadian Forces Flying Training School, and 3 Canadian Forces Flying Training School.",
"The RCAF also maintains the Canadian Forces School of Survival and Aeromedical Training.In addition to publicly operated institutions, Canada is also home to one private military boarding school, Robert Land Academy, in West Lincoln, Ontario.",
"Founded in 1978, it is an all-boys' institute that is fully accredited by Ontario's Ministry of Education.",
"The school offers elementary and secondary levels of education, providing schooling for students from Grade 6 to Grade 12."
],
[
"Colombia",
"The Honour Guard of José María Córdova Military School.",
"Cadets undergo undergraduate studies at the institution.National Army of Colombia:*José María Córdova Military School, in Bogotá.",
"*Colombian Army NCO SchoolColombian Air Force:*Marco Fidel Suarez Military Aviation School, in Cali.Colombian Naval Infantry and Colombian Navy:*Admiral Padilla Naval Academy, in Cartagena de Indias.National Police of Colombia:*General Santander National Police Academy, in Bogotá."
],
[
"Czech Republic",
"* Univerzita Obrany (University of Defence)* Military academy and training command"
],
[
"Democratic People's Republic of Korea",
"* Kim Jong-un National Defense University* Kim Il-sung Military University* Kim Il-sung Military Political University* Kim Jong-suk Naval Academy* Kim Chaek Air Force Academy"
],
[
"Denmark",
"Established in 1701, the Royal Danish Naval Academy is the oldest-still-existing officers' academy in the world.",
"*Royal Danish Defence College*Royal Danish Military Academy*Royal Danish Naval Academy*Royal Danish Air Force Officers School"
],
[
"Egypt",
"*Egyptian Military Academy**Egyptian Military College**Egyptian Air Defense College**Egyptian Air College**Egyptian Naval College* Nasser Military Academy*Egyptian Military Technical College*Egyptian Military medical college"
],
[
"El Salvador",
"*Captain General Gerardo Barrios Military School"
],
[
"Estonia",
"The Baltic Defence College is a multinational military college established by Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.",
"*Estonian Military Academy*Baltic Defence College, both in Tartu"
],
[
"Finland",
"The Raakunamäki Military Academy in Lappeenranta, Finland *Finnish National Defence University ''(Maanpuolustuskorkeakoulu)'', on Santahamina island, Helsinki"
],
[
"France",
"Students of ''Prytanée National Militaire'' having lunch, 1900.The institution is one of several military preparatory schools in France.===High schools===*Lycée militaire de Saint-Cyr*Lycée militaire d'Autun*Prytanée National Militaire*Lycée militaire d'Aix-en-Provence*Lycée naval de Brest*École des Pupilles de l'Air===Officer academies===Cadets of ''École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr'' during the 2008 Bastille Day military parade.",
"The military college was established in 1802 by Napoleon.",
"*École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr (ESM, literally the \"Special Military School of St Cyr\") is the French Military Academy.",
"It is often referred to as \"Saint-Cyr\".",
"Founded by Napoleon in 1802, and initially in Fontainebleau, it was moved first to Saint-Cyr-l'École in 1808, and then to Coëtquidan (Brittany) in 1945.",
"*École militaire interarmes (EMIA)*École des commissaires des armées (ECA), founded in 2013*École de l'air: the French Air Force Academy*École Navale: the French Naval Academy* École des officiers de la gendarmerie nationale (EOGN): gendarmerie commissioned officers academy*École Polytechnique (X): a French engineering ''grande école'' of military status.",
"Though all of its French engineering students are enlisted and trained as officers, 5% of its graduates remain in the military after graduation.",
"* ENSTA Bretagne: a French engineering ''grande école'' of military status.",
"Only 1/4 of its students are actual officers-in-training.",
"* École de Santé des Armées: medical school of French army* National Military Infrastructure Engineers Academy: trains military engineers of the Armed Forces, opened 2013 (also one of the newest)===Postgraduate academies===* ''École d'état-major'' (Staff school): first step of higher military studies, for officer of OF-2 rank.",
"* ''École de Guerre'' (War School): second step of higher military studies, mainly for ranks OF-2 and OF-3 who want to continue the command track (e.g.",
"to command battalion or regiment).",
"* ''Collège d'enseignement supérieur de l'armée de terre'' (Army Higher Education College): second step of military education, but for officers whishing to achieve a high-level specialization.",
"** ''Cours supérieur d'état-major'' (Advanced Staff Course)** ''Enseignement militaire supérieur scientifique et technique'' (Higher Technical and Scientific Education).",
"* ''Centre des hautes études militaire'' (Center for Advanced Military Studies): final step of military education, for very few selected OF-5.Its students also attend the civilian institut des hautes études de défense nationale."
],
[
"Georgia",
"*National Defense Academy *Cadet Bachelor School*Junior Officer Basic School*Aviation Air Defense Officer Basic School*Medical Officer School*Captain Career School*Command and General Staff School*School of Advance Defense Studies*Language Training School"
],
[
"Germany",
"The main complex of the Naval Academy Mürwik of the German NavyLibrary of Bundeswehr University Munich, which provides post-secondary education to military personnel and civiliansGermany has a unique system for civil and military education.",
"The only true military academy is the ''Führungsakademie der Bundeswehr'' where mainly future staff officers and general staff officers are further trained.The standard education in military leadership is the task of the ''Offizierschulen'' (officers' schools) run by the three branches.",
"The contents differ from branch to branch.",
"According to the doctrine \"leading by task\", in the army all prospective platoon leaders are trained down to the level of a commander of a mixed combat battalion.",
"There they also have to pass an officer exam to become commissioned later on.Moreover, there exist so called ''Waffenschulen'' (school of weapons) like infantry school or artillery school.",
"There the officers learn to deal with the typical tasks of their respective corps.A specialty of the German concept of officer formation is the academic education.",
"Germany runs two ''Universities of the German Federal Armed Forces'' where almost every future officer has to pass non-military studies and achieve a bachelor's or master's degree.",
"During their studies (after at least three years of service) the candidates become commissioned ''Leutnant'' (second lieutenant).The three officer's schools are:* The German Navy supervises:** Naval Academy at Mürwik, in Flensburg-Mürwik* The German Army supervises:** ''Offizierschule des Heeres'', in Dresden* The German Air Force supervises:** ''Offizierschule der Luftwaffe'', in FürstenfeldbruckAcademic and staff education:* Universities of the German Federal Armed Forces** Helmut Schmidt University, in Hamburg** Bundeswehr University Munich, in Munich* Führungsakademie der Bundeswehr, in Hamburg"
],
[
"Greece",
"A sloop of the Hellenic Naval Academy sails past with a crew of naval cadet officers.",
"The Academy is supervised by the Hellenic Navy.The Hellenic Armed Forces have military academies supervised by each branch of the Armed Forces individually:''Highest Military Academies (ΑΣΣ) or Higher Military Educational Institutions (ΑΣΕΙ):''*The Hellenic Army supervises:**The Evelpidon Military Academy, in Athens.",
"**The Corps Officers Military Academy, in Thessaloniki.",
"**The Nursery Officers Academy, in Athens.",
"*The Hellenic Air Force supervises:** The Icarus Air Force Academy, in Tatoi (Athens).",
"*The Hellenic Navy supervises:** The Hellenic Naval Cadets Academy, in Piraeus.",
"''Higher Military NCO Academies (ΑΣΣΥ):''*The Hellenic Army supervises the ''Military Non-commissioned Officers' Academy (ΣΜΥ)''.",
"*The Hellenic Air Force supervises the ''Air Force Non-commissioned Officers' Academy (ΣΜΥΑ)''.",
"*The Hellenic Navy supervises the ''Naval Non-commissioned Officers' Academy (ΣΜΥΝ)''.Despite their names (), their alumni can advance to the rank of Antisyntagmatarchis/Antipterachos/Antiploiarchos."
],
[
"Hungary",
"* National University of Public Service (Successor of Royal Hungarian Ludovica Military Academy, which founded in 1808)** Faculty of Military Sciences and Officer Training"
],
[
"India",
"Robin K. Dhowan, Chief of Naval Staff for India, reviews cadets during a passing out parade of the Indian Military Academy.",
"The institution is a training academy of the Indian Army."
],
[
"Indonesia",
"Cadets of the Indonesian Military Academy in parade uniform during the Indonesian independence day ceremony.",
"The institution is the military academy of the Indonesian Army.Cadets from the Indonesian Naval Academy tour the USS Fort Worth on CARAT Indonesia 2015.The Indonesian Naval Academy is part of the Indonesian Navy.Cadets of the Indonesian Air Force Academy in formation before parading for the Air force anniversary ceremony.",
"The Academy is operated by the Indonesian Air Force.The Indonesian Military Academy was founded in Yogyakarta, October 13, 1945, by the order of General Staff Chief of Indonesia Army Lieutenant General Urip Sumohardjo as the Militaire Academie (MA) Yogyakarta.Currently, the Tentara Nasional Indonesia or the TNI (Indonesian National Armed Forces), under the supervision of the Commanding General of the Indonesian National Armed Forces Academy System (a two or three-star officer in billet) in the HQ of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, has divided the academies into the three respective services:* Indonesian Military Academy (''Akademi Militer''; Akmil), in Magelang, Central Java, is under the supervision of the Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Army, operated since 1946.",
"* Indonesian Naval Academy (''Akademi Angkatan Laut''; AAL), in Surabaya, East Java, is under the supervision of the Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Navy.",
"The Indonesian Naval Academy also educates and forms officers to serve in the Indonesian Marine Corps.",
"In existence since 1951.",
"* Indonesian Air Force Academy (''Akademi Angkatan Udara''; AAU), in Yogyakarta, is under the supervision of the Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force.",
"The academy has three majorings which are: electronics, engineering, and administration.",
"Following graduation, students who are selected as Pilot and Navigator conduct further training in the Pilot and Navigator Flight School prior bearing the Pilot/Navigator designation.",
"Active since 1945 (with its current form since 1965), but also inherits the traditions of former Dutch military aviation schools.Each service academy is headed by a two-star general who serves as superintendent, and his/her deputy is a one-star officer.",
"All the students (cadets/midshipman) are recruited from senior high school graduates from all over Indonesia.",
"Shortly after graduation, they are commissioned as ''Letnan Dua'' (Second Lieutenant/Ensign) in their respective service branches and receive a bachelor's degree comparable to those awarded by civil academies or universities.",
"The length term is now 4 years and is divided into five grades of cadets' ranks, starting from the lowest:* ''Prajurit Taruna'' (Cadet Private), 1st year (4 months)* ''Kopral Taruna'' (Cadet Corporal), 1st year (8 months)* ''Sersan Taruna'' (Cadet Sergeant), 2nd year* ''Sersan Mayor Dua Taruna'' (Cadet Second Sergeant Major), 3rd year* ''Sersan Mayor Satu Taruna'' (Cadet First Sergeant Major), 4th year''Taruna'' is also a nickname to cadets in the Military, Naval, and Air Force Academies, however other nicknames such as ''Kadet'' refers to cadets in the Naval Academy, while ''Karbol'' refers to cadets in the Air Force Academy.",
"The term \"''Taruna''\" however still applies to all cadets from the three academies.Until 1999, before the Indonesian National Police officially separated from the armed forces, the Indonesian Police Academy (\"AKPOL\") also stood under the National Armed Forces Academy but now has separated from the Military and is under the auspices of the President of Indonesia controlled by the National Police Headquarters (''Mabes Polri''), where in the other hand the Armed Forces (Army, Naval, and Air Force) Academies of Indonesia is under the auspices of the Ministry of Defense controlled by the Armed Forces General Headquarters (''Mabes TNI'').",
"Presently, the Police Academy is in Semarang (Central Java), and is supervised under the supervision of the Chief of the Indonesian National Police (''Kapolri'').All three academies and the Police Academy have a joint 4th class cadet training program since 2008, after completing it the cadets go to their respective academies to continue with the three remaining years of study before commissioning."
],
[
"Iran",
"Iran has five main military universities:* Imam Ali Officers' University (Persian: دانشگاه افسری امام علی; acronym: دا اف, DĀʿAF), formerly known as Officers' School (Persian: دانشکده افسری) is the military academy of Ground Forces of Islamic Republic of Iran Army, in Tehran, Iran.",
"* Shahid Sattari Aeronautical University (Persian: دانشگاه علوم و فنون هوایی شهید ستاری) is the military academy of Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, in Tehran, Iran.",
"* Imam Khomeini Naval University of Noshahr (Persian: دانشگاه علوم و فنون دریایی امام خمینی) is the military academy of Islamic Republic of Iran Navy, in Noshahr, Mazandaran, Iran.",
"* Khatam al-Anbia Air Defense Academy (Persian: دانشگاه پدافند هوایی خاتمالانبیاء آجا) is the military academy of Islamic Republic of Iran Air Defense Force, in Tehran, Iran.",
"* Imam Hossein University (Persian: دانشگاه امام حسین; acronym: IHU) is the military academy of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, in Tehran, Iran.",
"*Amir Al-Momenin University of Military Sciences and Technology"
],
[
"Israel",
"*Israeli Naval Academy"
],
[
"Italy",
"A cadet of Italy's Nunziatella military academy in 1787, the year the academy was establishedHigh school level institutions (only for classical and scientific liceum, starting from grade 10):*Scuola Militare Nunziatella, founded during the Bourbon Period in 1787, in Italian Army, Naples*Scuola Militare Teulié, founded during the Napoleonic period in 1802, Italian Army, Milan*Scuola Militare Navale Morosini, Italian Navy, Venice*Scuola Militare Aeronautica Douhet, Italian Air Force, Florence2009–2010 school year was the first school year with girls attending.Non Commissioned Officer (NCO) schools:* Army: Scuola sottufficiali dell'Esercito Italiano, Viterbo * Navy: Scuola sottufficiali della Marina Militare, Taranto and Law Maddalena* Air Force: Scuola marescialli dell'Aeronautica Militare, Viterbo* Carabinieri: Scuola marescialli e brigadieri dei carabinieri, Firenze* Guardia di Finanza: Scuola ispettori e sovrintendenti della Guardia di Finanza, L'AquilaUniversity level institutions:*Military Academy of Modena*Scuola di Applicazione, Torino*Accademia Navale, Livorno*Accademia Aeronautica, Pozzuoli*Scuola Ufficiali Carabinieri, Rome*Accademia della Guardia di Finanza, Bergamo"
],
[
"Japan",
"JMSDF Officer Candidate School, Etajima, Hiroshima=== Universities ===*National Defense Academy of Japan*National Defense Medical College*Japan Coast Guard Academy=== Officer Candidate Schools ===*JGSDF Officer Candidate School, Kurume*JMSDF Officer Candidate School, Etajima (Naval Academy Etajima)*JASDF Officer Candidate School, Nara=== Offcer Colleges ===* Joint Staff College* JGSDF Training Evaluation Research and Development Command* JMSDF Staff College* JASDF Staff College"
],
[
"Kazakhstan",
"Cadets of the Military Institute of the Kazakh Ground Forces march in the 2015 Moscow Victory Day Parade.",
"* National Defense University* Military Institute of the Kazakh Ground Forces (formerly the Alma-Ata Higher All-Arms Command School)* Talgat Bigeldinov Military Institute of the Air Defence Forces* Military Engineering Institute of Radio Electronics and Communications"
],
[
"Kyrgyzstan",
"* Military Institute of the Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic* Center for Advanced Training of Officers"
],
[
"Malaysia",
"Cadets of National Defence University of Malaysia on an exercise.",
"The institution is a post-secondary school operated by the Malaysian Armed Forces.Secondary level institutions:* Royal Military College (Malaysia) (Maktab Tentera Diraja)University level:* National Defence University of Malaysia (''University Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia'') (foundation, bachelor's degree, master's degree, PhD and specialist courses)* Armed Forces Defence College (''Maktab Pertahanan Angkatan Tentera'')Specialist training and staff institutions:* Officers Cadet School in Port Dickson (OCS)* Malaysian Armed Forces Staff College (Maktab Turus Angkatan Tentera)* Armed Forces Health Training Institute (Institut Latihan Kesihatan Angkatan Tentera)* Malaysian Peacekeeping Training Centre (Pusat Latihan Pengaman Malaysia)Reserve Officer Training Units ( or ) or ROTU exists only in public universities in Malaysia.",
"This is a tertiary institution based officer commissioning program to equip students as officer cadets with military knowledge and understanding for service as Commissioned Officers in the reserve components of the various branches of the Malaysian Armed Forces."
],
[
"Mexico",
"Heroic Military Academy with a golden eagle, the institution's mascot* Heroica Escuela Naval Militar* Heroico Colegio Militar* Colegio del Aire"
],
[
"Moldova",
"* Alexandru cel Bun Military Academy"
],
[
"Mongolia",
"* National Defense University** Military Music College of Mongolia"
],
[
"Myanmar",
"* Defence Services Academy* Defence Services Technological Academy* Defence Services Medical Academy* Officer Training School (Myanmar) (OTS)* National Defence College (Myanmar) (NDC)* Defence Services Institute of Nursing and Paramedical Science"
],
[
"Namibia",
"*Namibian Military School"
],
[
"Netherlands",
"Royal Naval Institute.",
"The academy is a part of ''Nederlandse Defensie Academie''.",
"*Koninklijke Militaire Academie*Royal Naval College (Netherlands)"
],
[
"New Zealand",
"Tier One – initial officer training* New Zealand Commissioning Course, Waiouru (NZ Army)* Initial Officer Training, Woodbourne (RNZAF)* Officer Training School, Devonport Naval BaseTier Two – junior officer education* NZDF Junior Staff Course, New Zealand Defence CollegeTier Three – senior officer education* NZDF Staff Course, New Zealand Defence College"
],
[
"Nigeria",
"Air Force Military School, a boys-only military high school===High school training===* Nigerian Military School, Zaria – Nigerian Army military school for boys* Air Force Military School, Jos, Nigeria, in Jos – Nigerian Air Force military school for boys* Nigerian Navy Military School, Ikot Ntuen, Akwa Ibom State – Nigerian Navy military School for boys===Undergraduate officer training===* Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna – Nigerian Armed Forces university school===Postgraduate officer training===* Armed Forces Command and Staff College, Jaji, at Jaji, Kaduna – joint Nigerian Armed Forces higher studies institute for both indigenous and international students* Nigerian Army College of Logistics, Lagos – school for training middle career Nigerian Army officers on military logistics* National Defence College, Abuja – school for training senior officers of the Nigerian Armed Forces and also some members of the civil service*Army War College Nigeria*Naval War College Nigeria*Air War College Nigeria"
],
[
"Norway",
"Buildings of the Norwegian Naval Academy, an undergraduate institution intended to instruct officers of the Royal Norwegian Navy===Undergraduate officer training===* Norwegian Military Academy, Linderud/Oslo (Norwegian Army)* Norwegian Naval Academy, Laksevåg/Bergen (Royal Norwegian Navy)* Norwegian Air Force Academy, Trondheim (Royal Norwegian Air Force)===Postgraduate training===* Norwegian Defence Staff College, Oslo (joint)* Norwegian National Defence College, Oslo (civil service/very senior officers)"
],
[
"Pakistan",
"A passing out parade at Pakistan Military Academy* Pakistan Military Academy, Kakul* Pakistan Air Force Academy, Risalpur* Pakistan Naval Academy, Karachi* Command and Staff College, Quetta* National Defence University, Islamabad* Pakistan Navy War College, Lahore* PAF Air War College, Karachi* Army Burn Hall College, for boys, Abbottabad* Army Public College of Management Sciences (public sector)* Military College Jhelum, Jhelum District* Military College Murree, Rawalpindi District* Military College Sui, Dera Bugti District* PAF College Sargodha* PAF College Murre Hills* Cadet College Razmak, Razmak North Waziristan Agency* Cadet College Kohat* Cadet College Wana* Cadet College Spinkai* Cadet College Mastung* Cadet College Petaro, Pakistan Navy* Garrison Cadet College Kohat* Cadet College Skardu"
],
[
"Paraguay",
"* Francisco López Military Academy, in Capiatá, Paraguay"
],
[
"People's Republic of China",
"Main gate of the PLA National Defence University, a national university administered by the People's Liberation Army.",
"*PLA National Defense University*National University of Defense Technology*PLA Information Engineering University*Army Command College of the Chinese People's Liberation Army"
],
[
"Peru",
"Undergraduate officer training* Chorrillos Military School (Peruvian Army)* Peruvian Naval School (Peruvian Navy)* (Peruvian Air Force)* Officers' School of the National Police of Peru (Police)* Leoncio Prado Military Academy"
],
[
"Philippines",
"Graduating cadets of Philippine Military Academy at a homecomingThe National Defense College of the Philippines is a graduate-level military college established in 1963.The Philippines patterned all its service academies after the United States Military Academy (West Point) and the United States Merchant Marine Academy (King's Point).These higher education institutions are operated by the Philippine Government and grant different baccalaureate degrees.",
"*Philippine Military Academy (Akademiyang Militar ng Pilipinas), City of Baguio – It is the primary training school of the Armed Forces of the Philippines for would be regular commissioned officers of the Philippine Army, Philippine Navy, Philippine Marine Corps and the Philippine Air Force.",
"It is under the control of the Department of National Defense.",
"Its former name was the Philippine Constabulary Academy.",
"During the American colonial rule era, U.S. Army Cavalry Officers established the school for the professionalization of the enlisted personnel of the defunct Philippine Constabulary.",
"It was renamed the Philippine Military Academy before the 1930s.",
"In 1992, PMA stopped providing graduates to the Philippine Constabulary after the passage of Republic Act 6975 which resulted in the merger of the Philippine Constabulary and the Integrated National Police.",
"The merged institutions was named the Philippine National Police.",
"Beginning in 1993, PMA became a co-educational school.",
"*Philippine Merchant Marine Academy, Zambales – It is a school for students who shall serve in different private shipping companies, foreign or local.",
"Its graduates may serve in the Philippine Coast Guard and the Philippine Navy as an ensign after graduation depending upon their choice.",
"All PMMA graduates are also automatically appointed by the president of the Philippines as ensigns (2nd lieutenants) in the Philippine Navy Reserve.",
"This is the oldest of the Philippine service academies having been established in 1820 during the long period of Spanish colonial rule in the country, and was first situated in Manila for many years.Aside from the PMA and the PMMA, all three branches of the AFP have their own Officer Candidate Course Programs for both men and women, patterned after their US counterparts.The nation's higher military colleges are:* Armed Forces of the Philippines Command and General Staff College, Quezon City – educates officers of the AFP not exceeding the ranks of Colonel or Navy Captain* National Defense College of the Philippines, Quezon City – is a school for senior AFP officers for military/naval planning and to ready them in holding the ranks of Brigadier General/Commodore.",
"Notable civilians may enroll and be given the honorary rank of Lieutenant Colonel/Commander in the AFP Reserve upon graduation."
],
[
"Poland",
"Cadets of the Polish Naval Academy aboard the ORP ''Iskra'', 1937*War Studies University*Jarosław Dąbrowski Military University of Technology in Warsaw*Tadeusz Kościuszko Land Forces Military Academy in Wrocław*Polish Air Force Academy in Dęblin*Heroes of Westerplatte Naval Academy in Gdynia*Faculty of Military Medicine of the Medical University in Łódź"
],
[
"Portugal",
"Students of ''Colégio Militar'' on parade.",
"The school is one of two pre-university institutions in Portugal.===Pre-university level institution===* Colégio Militar, Lisbon – military basic and high school* Instituto dos Pupilos do Exército, Lisbon – vocational education military school===Undergraduate officer training===The Bemposta Palace of the Portuguese Military Academy, an undergraduate-level institution* Academia Militar, Lisbon and Amadora – Portuguese Army and Republican National Guard university school* Escola Naval, Almada – Portuguese Navy university school* Academia da Força Aérea, Sintra – Portuguese Air Force university school===Postgraduate and staff training===* Instituto Universitário Militar, Lisbon – joint command and staff college"
],
[
"Republic of China (Taiwan)",
"*R.O.C.",
"Military Academy*R.O.C.",
"Naval Academy*R.O.C.",
"Air Force Academy*R.O.C.",
"Air Force Institute of Technology*Army Academy R.O.C.",
"*National Defense University** War College** Army Command and Staff College** Naval Command and Staff College** Air Force Command and Staff College** Institute of Technology** Management College** Political Warfare College*National Defense Medical Center*Chung-cheng Armed Forces Preparatory School"
],
[
"Republic of Ireland",
"* Defence Forces Training Centre* Naval College* Air Corps College"
],
[
"Republic of Korea",
"Cadets of the Korean Military Academy during a visit to United Nations CommandThe three main military academies:* Korea Military Academy (Army)* Korea Naval Academy* Korea Air Force AcademyOther military academies:* Korea Army Academy at Yeongcheon, formerly Korea Third Military Academy* Armed Forces Nursing Academy"
],
[
"Romania",
"* Carol I National Defence University (''Universitatea Națională de Apărare Carol I''), Bucharest* Technical Military Academy (''Academia Tehnică Militară''), Bucharest* Land Forces:**Nicolae Bălcescu Land Forces Academy, Sibiu* Air Forces:**Academia Forțelor Aeriene (Air Forces Academy), Braṣov* Naval Forces:**Mircea cel Bătrân Naval Academy, Constanṭa"
],
[
"Russia",
"See also: Cadet Corps (Russia), Military academies in Russia===First stage of training===* The Cadet Corps is an admissions-based military middle school for young boys that was founded in the Russian Empire in 1732, soon becoming widespread throughout the country.",
":*Omsk Cadet Corps:*Karelia Cadet Corps:*Krasnoyarsk Cadet Corps:*Magnitogorsk Cadet Corps:*Georgy Zhukov Moscow Cadet Corps:* Moscow Cossacks Cadet Corps:* Moscow Cadet Corps of Military Music:* Moscow Cadet Corps of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia:* Moscow Diplomatic Cadet Corps:* Moscow Cadet Corps \"Heroes of the Battle of Stalingrad\":*St.Petersburg Space Forces Cadet Corps:*St.Petersburg Strategic Rocket Forces Cadet Corps:*St.Petersburg Artillery Cadet Corps:*The 1st St. Petersburg Border guard Cadet Corps of the FSB:*Tambov Cadet Corps:*Toliatti Cadet Corps:*Ufa Cadet Corps* The Sea Cadet Corps:* Kronstadt S.C.C.",
":* Moscow Representative Sea Cadet Corps of the Navigation and Mathematics School:* Moscow Sea Cadet Corps Heroes of Sevastopol===Secondary education===A cadet of Moscow Suvorov Military School, the first of several Suvorov Military Schools established throughout Russia* Suvorov Military Schools are a type of boarding school in modern Russia for boys aged 14–18.Education in such these schools focuses on military related subjects.",
":* Irkutsk S.M.S.",
":* Kazan S.M.S.",
":* Moscow S.M.S.",
":* Moscow Military Music College:* North Caucasus S.M.S.",
":* Orenburg S.M.S.",
":* Perm S.M.S.",
":* St. Petersburg Space Forces S.M.S.",
":* Tula S.M.S.",
"(reopening 2016 after 56 years of closure):* Tver S.M.S.",
":* Ulyanovsk S.M.S.",
":* Ussuriysk S.M.S.",
":* Yekaterinburg S.M.S.",
"* Nakhimov Naval School is a form of higher naval education for teenagers introduced in modern Russia.",
":* St. Petersburg N.N.S.",
":* Murmansk N.N.S.",
":* Kaliningrad N.N.S:* Sevastopol N.N.S.",
":* Vladivostok N.N.S.===Post-secondary education===The Engineers Castle of Russia's Military Engineering-Technical University, with a monument to Peter the Great in the foregroundEstablished in 1832, the Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia is a post-graduate military academy.",
"* Combined Arms Academy of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation* Gagarin Air Force Academy (now the Gagarin-Zhukovsky Combined Air Force Academy)* Military Engineering-Technical University* Saint Petersburg Mining Institute* Alexander Popov Naval Radio-electronic Academy* Military Materiel Security Academy * Pacific Naval Institute* Moscow Peter the Great Strategic Rocket Forces Academy* Moscow Higher Military Command School* Baltic Naval Institute* Sevastopol Black Sea Higher Naval Institute* Military University of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation* Far Eastern Higher Combined Arms Command School* Budyonny Military Academy of the Signal Corps* Yekaterinburg Force Command School of Artillery* Air General Staff Center of Missile and Air Defense Excellence* Khabarovsk Military Commanders Training Academy* Civil Defense Academy of the Ministry of Emergency Situations* Sergey Kirov Military Communications Academy* S.M.",
"Kirov Military Medical Academy* St. Petersburg Military College of Physical Fitness and Sports* Marshal Aleksander Vasilevsky Military Academy of the Armed Forces Air Defense Branch* Moscow Border Guards Superior College* Military University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs===Staff college===* General staff Academy* N. G. Kuznetsov Naval Academy"
],
[
"Serbia",
"Serbian Military Academy* Military Academy Belgrade* Military Medical Academy (Serbia)"
],
[
"Singapore",
"Officer Cadet School within the SAFTI Military Institute as seen from the northwest.",
"* SAFTI Military Institute** Officer Cadet School (OCS): trains officers** SAF Advanced Schools: conducts specialised training for officers** Goh Keng Swee Command and Staff College: trains senior officers to take up command and staff appointments* Specialist and Warrant Officer Institute (SWI)** SAFWOS Leadership School: trains warrant officers and military experts** Specialist and Warrant Officer Advanced School: conducts advanced courses for warrant officers, military experts and specialists (NCOs)** Specialist Cadet School: trains specialists (NCOs)"
],
[
"Somalia",
"* Camp TURKSOM trains both officers and NCOs, offers a two-year course for officers and a one-year course for NCOs."
],
[
"South Africa",
"* South African Military Academy provides officers in the SANDF with an opportunity to earn a 3yr BMil degree."
],
[
"Spain",
"*General Military Academy, Zaragoza*Academia General del Aire, San Javier*Naval Military Academy, Marín* Escuela Superior de las Fuerzas Armadas* Academia Central de la Defensa* Academia de Artillería* Academia de Infantería* Academia de Caballería* Academia de Ingenieros* Academia de Logística* Academia General Básica de Suboficiales* Navy NCO School* Academia Básica del Aire* Escuela Militar de Montaña y Operaciones Especiales"
],
[
"Sri Lanka",
"===University===*General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University, Colombo===Officer training===*Sri Lanka Military Academy, Diyatalawa*Naval and Maritime Academy, Trincomalee*Air Force Academy, SLAF China Bay, Trincomalee===Staff training===*Defence Services Command and Staff College"
],
[
"Sweden",
"===Undergraduate officer training===Karlberg Palace, home of Sweden's Military Academy Karlberg.",
"Established in 1792, it is the oldest military academy in the world to remain in its original location.",
"*Military Academy Karlberg, officers*Military Academy Halmstad, specialist officers (NCO) and reserve officers===Postgraduate training===*Swedish Defence University"
],
[
"Tanzania",
"*Tanzania Military Academy"
],
[
"Thailand",
"*Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School (secondary level)*Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy (university level)*Phramongkutklao College of Medicine (medicine, university level)*Royal Thai Navy Academy (university level)*Royal Thai Air Force Academy (university level)* Royal Thai Police Cadet Academy; Medicine, University level* Phramongkutklao College of Medicine* Royal Thai Army Nursing College* Royal Thai Navy Nursing College* Royal Thai Air Force Nursing College* Royal Thai Police Nursing College"
],
[
"Turkey",
"Cadets of the Turkish Military Academy at 2016 Sandhurst Competition at West Point*National Defense University* Turkish Military Academy* Turkish Naval Academy* Turkish Air Force Academy* Turkish Gendarmerie and Coast Guard Academy"
],
[
"Turkmenistan",
"Cadets of the Berdimuhamed Annayev 1st Specialized Military School* Military Academy of Turkmenistan (founded in 2007)* Military Institute of the Ministry of Defense of Turkmenistan** Berdimuhamed Annayev 1st Specialized Military School (Ashgabat)** Alp Arslan 2nd Specialized Military School (Dashoguz)** Soltan Sanjar 3rd Specialized Military School (Mary)* Turkmen State Border Service Institute* Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Turkmenistan* Turkmen National Security Institute* Turkmen Naval Institute"
],
[
"Uganda",
"Uganda maintains the followings military training institutions, as of December 2010:* Bihanga Military Training School – at Bihanga, in Ibanda District, Western Uganda* Kalama Warfare Training School – at Kabamba, Mubende District* National Leadership Institute (NALI) – at Kyankwanzi, Kyankwanzi District* Oliver Tambo School of Leadership – at Kaweweta, Nakaseke District* Uganda Air Defence and Artillery School – at Nakasongola in Nakasongola District* Uganda Military Airforce Academy – at Nakasongola in Nakasongola District* University of Military Science and Technology – at Lugazi, Buikwe District* Uganda Junior Staff College – at Qaddafi Barracks, Jinja* Uganda Military Academy – at Kabamba, Mubende District* Uganda Senior Command and Staff College – at Kimaka, Jinja* Uganda Urban Warfare Training School – at Singo, Kiboga District"
],
[
"Ukraine",
"===Staff colleges===* National Defence University of Ukraine, Kyiv=== Service academies ===* Hetman Petro Sahaydachnyi National Ground Force Academy, Lviv* Ivan Kozhedub Kharkiv National Air Force University, Kharkiv* Institute of the Naval Forces of the National University \"Odessa Maritime Academy\", Odesa* Odesa Military Academy, Odesa* Ukrainian Military Medical Academy, Kyiv* Yevgeny Bereznyak Military Diplomatic Academy, Kyiv* Military Institute of Taras Shevchenko Kyiv National University, Kyiv* Military Institute of Telecommunication and Information Technologies named after the Heroes of Kruty, Kyiv* Military Institute of Tank Forces named after the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine NTU \"KhPI\", Kharkiv* Zhytomyr Military Institute named after S.P.",
"Korolev, Zhytomyr* Military Legal Institute of the Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University, Kharkiv=== Military service academies operated by the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine ===* National Academy of the National Guard of Ukraine, Kharkiv* National Academy of the State Border Service of Ukraine \"Bohdan Khmelnytskyi\", Khmelnytskyi* National University of Civil Defense of Ukraine, Kharkiv=== Other military service academies ===* National Academy of the Security Service of Ukraine, Kyiv* Academy of the State Penitentiary Service, Chernihiv* Academy of Foreign Intelligence of Ukraine, Kyiv* Institute for the Training of Legal Personnel for the Security Service of Ukraine, Kharkiv* Institute of Special Communication and Information Protection of NTUU \"KPI\", Kyiv=== Reserve Officers' Training Corps (Military educational units of higher education institutions of Ukraine) ===A number of public and military universities have specialized military institutes, military colleges, faculties, departments of military training, divisions of military training, departments of disaster medicine and military medicine.",
"The purpose of such institutions is the military training of students and cadets under the reserve officer training program, and some of them conduct training, retraining and advanced training of military specialists of the appropriate levels of higher education (bachelor or master) for military service in the Armed Forces of Ukraine, others formed in accordance with the laws Ukrainian military formations (Defence Forces of Ukraine), as well as law enforcement agencies for special purposes (Security Forces of Ukraine) and the State Transport Special Service of Ukraine.=== Military colleges of non-commissioned officers (Military Sergeant Colleges of Ukraine) ===* NCO School of the Hetman Petro Sahaydachnyi National Ground Force Academy, Lviv* NCO School of the Ivan Kozhedub National Air Force University, Kharkiv'* Department of Military Training of the Professional College of Maritime Transport of the National University \"Odesa Maritime Academy\", Odesa* Department of Training of Medical Assistants for the Armed Forces of Ukraine of the D. K. Zabolotny Vinnytsia Medical College, Vinnytsia* Military Sergeant College of the Kamyanets-Podilsky Ivan Ohienko National University, Kamyanets-Podilsky* Military Sergeant College of the Military Institute of Telecommunication and Information Technologies named after the Heroes of Kruty, Kyiv* Military Sergeant College of the National Technical University \"Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute\", Kharkiv'=== Military High Schools (Military Lyceum) ===* Ivan Bohun Military High School, Kyiv* Vice Admiral Volodymyr Bezkorovayn Naval Military High School, Odesa* Military High School of the Hetman Petro Sahaydachnyi National Ground Force Academy, Chervonohrad=== Cadets corp (Lyceum with enhanced military and physical training) ===A number of public state and regional lyceum (high school) with enhanced military and physical training (boarding schools) such of cadet corps in other countries."
],
[
"United Kingdom",
"===Pre-University level institution===*Duke of York's Royal Military School – Military based secondary school in Dover, Kent; students are influenced to join the forces after education, but have no commitment to do so.There are also numerous Cadet forces that operate for all branches of the armed forces for children aged 10–20.These are not designed to recruit people into the armed forces but rather are simply Ministry of Defence sponsored youth organisations.===Undergraduate service===Although an undergraduate degree is not a prerequisite for Officer training, the majority of potential Officers will have attended University before joining the Armed Forces.",
"At some universities there may be the option for people to join either a University Royal Naval Unit, a University Officer Training Corps (UOTC) or a University Air Squadron, which are designed to introduce students to life in the Forces and show them the careers that are available.",
"People sponsored under the Defence Technical Undergraduate Scheme will join one of the four Support Units attached to universities participating in DTUS.",
"There is a requirement for bursars of DTUS to join the military for three years after completion of their degree, there no requirement for students of any other organisation to join the military after they finish their degree programs; and the great majority have no further contact with the armed forces.",
"Although service with these organisations may give some initial benefit to cadets attending the military colleges/academies, the next stage of the officer training programs assumes no prior military experience/knowledge, and those that did not partake in military activities at university are not disadvantaged.===Officer training===The Passing Out Parade at Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, one of four military academies in the United Kingdom.There are now four military academies in the United Kingdom.",
"Although the curriculum at each varies due to the differing nature of the service a man or woman is joining, it is a combination of military and academic study that is designed to turn young civilians into comprehensively trained military officers.",
"*Britannia Royal Naval College, HMS ''Dartmouth''*Commando Training Centre Royal Marines*Royal Military Academy Sandhurst*Royal Air Force College CranwellOfficer Training for the Reserve Forces (e.g.",
"Army Reserve, Royal Naval Reserve, RAF Reserves and Royal Marines Reserves) also takes place at the relevant military academies, but under a different curriculum and the courses tend to be concentrated into a much shorter period – a significant amount of the study will be undertaken at the cadet's reserve unit.===Postgraduate and staff training===*Defence Academy of the United Kingdom:*Royal College of Defence Studies (mainly for officers of Colonel/Brigadier or equivalent rank selected as future senior leaders; highly selective):*Joint Services Command and Staff College (courses for officers from Major to Brigadier or equivalent rank):*Defence College of Management and Technology:*Armed Forces Chaplaincy Centre:*Advanced Research and Assessment Group:*Conflict Studies Research CentreRAF staff College course at Andover, 1922.The staff college operated from 1922 to 1970.==United States=====Introduction===In the United States, the term \"military academy\" does not necessarily mean a government-owned institution run by the armed forces to train its own officers.",
"It may also mean a middle school, high school, or college, whether public or private, which instructs its students in military-style education, discipline and tradition.",
"Students at such civilian institutions can earn a commission in the U.S. military through the successful completion of a Reserve Officer Training Corps program along with their college or university's academic coursework.",
"*The term '''military school''' primarily refers to pre-collegiate secondary-school-level military institutions.",
"*The term '''military academy''' commonly refers to a pre-collegiate, collegiate, and post-collegiate institution, especially the U.S. military-run academies.",
"* The term '''US military staff colleges''' refers to separate graduate schools catering to officers on active duty.Most state-level military academies maintain both a civilian student body and a traditional corps of cadets.",
"The only exception is the Virginia Military Institute, which remains all-military.===Federal service academies===Cadets of the United States Military Academy (USMA) navigate the horizontal ladder and vertical rope obstacle of the Indoor Obstacle Course Test.",
"USMA is one of five federal service academies.The colleges operated by the U.S. Federal Government, referred to as '''federal service academies''', are:*United States Military Academy, West Point, New York*United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland*United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado*United States Coast Guard Academy, New London, Connecticut*United States Merchant Marine Academy, Kings Point, New York===Post-graduate school===*Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland===Senior and junior military colleges===Although Texas A&M University has transformed into a state university, it still maintains a corps of cadets along with a civilian student body.Cadets of Marion Military Institute after the Alumni Weekend parade.",
"The Institute is one of four junior military colleges in the United States.There is one all-military state-sponsored military academy:*The Virginia Military Institute (VMI), Lexington, VirginiaIn addition, these five institutions that were military colleges at the time of their founding now maintain both a corps of cadets and a civilian student body.",
"Many of these institutions also offer on-line degree programs:*University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, Georgia — Formed by a 2013 merger with Gainesville State College, its main predecessor institution, last known as North Georgia College & State University, was chartered as a military college.",
"However, when NGCSU was founded in 1873 as North Georgia Agricultural College, it had both a corps and a civilian student body, and was also the state's first coeducational college.",
"*Norwich University Corps of Cadets.",
"Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont is a private university in Northfield, Vermont.",
"It is the oldest private military college in the United States.",
"The university was founded in 1819 at Norwich, Vermont, as the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy.",
"It is the oldest of six senior military colleges, and is recognized by the United States Department of Defense as the \"Birthplace of ROTC\"*Texas A&M Corps of Cadets, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas*The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina*Virginia Tech Corps of Cadets, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VirginiaAlong with VMI, these institutions are known as the senior military colleges of the US.Today four institutions are considered military junior colleges (MJC).",
"These four military schools participate in the Army's two-year Early Commissioning Program, an Army ROTC program where qualified students can earn a commission as a Second Lieutenant after only two years of college.",
"The four military Junior colleges are as follows:*Georgia Military College, Milledgeville, Georgia*Marion Military Institute, Marion, Alabama*New Mexico Military Institute, Roswell, New Mexico*Valley Forge Military Academy and College, Wayne, Pennsylvania===Merchant Marine Academies that have military academy-style operations===Cadets of the Great Lakes Maritime Academy learning how to row a boat.",
"The institution is one of six military-styled maritime academies in the United States.There are six state-operated Merchant Marine academies:* Massachusetts Maritime Academy* Maine Maritime Academy* State University of New York Maritime College (part of the State University of New York (SUNY) system)* Texas A&M Maritime Academy (part of the Texas A&M University System)* Great Lakes Maritime Academy (a division of Northwestern Michigan College)* California State University Maritime Academy (part of the California State University system)These merchant marine academies operate on a military college system.",
"Part of the training that the cadets receive is naval and military in nature.",
"Cadets may apply for Naval Reserve commissions upon obtaining their Merchant Marine Officer's licenses.",
"Most if not all also offer some form of military commissioning program into the active duty US Navy, US Marine Corps, or US Coast Guard.===Staff colleges===The United States staff colleges, mandated to serve the needs of officers for post-graduate studies and other such graduate institutions as mandated by the Department of Defense are:====United States Air Force Air University attached staff colleges====* The Air University in Maxwell AFB, Alabama, includes:** Squadron Officer College and Squadron Officer School** Air Command and Staff College** USAF Air War College====Staff colleges of the United States Army====A classroom at the School of Advanced Military Studies, one of four staff colleges of the United States Army* United States Army Command and General Staff College* United States Army School of Advanced Military Studies* United States Army War College====Staff colleges of the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps====* Naval War College* Naval Postgraduate School* Marine Corps University====Joint Service staff colleges====The National War College, a school of the National Defense University, is a multi-service staff college in the United States.",
"* National Defense University in Washington, D.C., includes:** Joint Forces Staff College (Norfolk, Virginia)** National War College** Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy* Defense Acquisition University===Other post-graduate colleges operated by the DoD===* National Intelligence University (military intelligence)* The Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School (legal services training)* Air Force Judge Advocate General's School (legal services training)* Naval Justice School (legal services training)"
],
[
"Uzbekistan",
"The Tashkent Higher Tank Command School during the soviet period* Academy of the Armed Forces of Uzbekistan (formerly the Tashkent Higher All-Arms Command School)* Joint Service Officer Training Academy* Tashkent Higher Tank Command School* Samarkand Higher Military Automobile Command School* Higher Military Customs Institute* Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Uzbekistan* Military-Technical Institute of the National Guard of Uzbekistan* Uzbekistan Air Academy"
],
[
"Vietnam",
"*National Defense Academy of Vietnam in Hanoi, Vietnam*Lê Quý Đôn Technical University in Hanoi, Vietnam*Vietnam Naval Academy in Nha Trang, Khánh Hòa Province, Vietnam"
],
[
"Zimbabwe",
"* Zimbabwe National Defence University"
],
[
"See also",
"*Military high school*List of fictional schools*List of government-run higher-level national military academies*Military building*Military education and training"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Cadet, Linton Hall, ''Linton Hall Military School Memories: One cadet's memoir'', Scrounge Press, 2014.Memoir of cadet who attended a military school for boys ages 6 to 16."
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Hayao Miyazaki"
],
[
"Introduction",
" is a Japanese animator, filmmaker, and manga artist.",
"A co-founder of Studio Ghibli, he has attained international acclaim as a masterful storyteller and creator of Japanese animated feature films, and is widely regarded as one of the most accomplished filmmakers in the history of animation.Born in Tokyo City in the Empire of Japan, Miyazaki expressed interest in manga and animation from an early age, and he joined Toei Animation in 1963.During his early years at Toei Animation he worked as an in-between artist and later collaborated with director Isao Takahata.",
"Notable films to which Miyazaki contributed at Toei include ''Doggie March'' and ''Gulliver's Travels Beyond the Moon''.",
"He provided key animation to other films at Toei, such as ''Puss in Boots'' and ''Animal Treasure Island'', before moving to A-Pro in 1971, where he co-directed ''Lupin the Third Part I'' alongside Takahata.",
"After moving to Zuiyō Eizō (later known as Nippon Animation) in 1973, Miyazaki worked as an animator on ''World Masterpiece Theater'', and directed the television series ''Future Boy Conan'' (1978).",
"He joined Tokyo Movie Shinsha in 1979 to direct his first feature film ''The Castle of Cagliostro'' as well as the television series ''Sherlock Hound''.",
"In the same period, he also began writing and illustrating the manga ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'' (1982–1994), and he also directed the 1984 film adaptation produced by Topcraft.Miyazaki co-founded Studio Ghibli in 1985.He directed numerous films with Ghibli, including ''Laputa: Castle in the Sky'' (1986), ''My Neighbor Totoro'' (1988), ''Kiki's Delivery Service'' (1989), and ''Porco Rosso'' (1992).",
"The films were met with critical and commercial success in Japan.",
"Miyazaki's film ''Princess Mononoke'' was the first animated film ever to win the Japan Academy Film Prize for Picture of the Year, and briefly became the highest-grossing film in Japan following its release in 1997; its distribution to the Western world greatly increased Ghibli's popularity and influence outside Japan.",
"His 2001 film ''Spirited Away'' became the highest-grossing film in Japanese history, winning the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, and is frequently ranked among the greatest films of the 21st century.",
"Miyazaki's later films—''Howl's Moving Castle'' (2004), ''Ponyo'' (2008), and ''The Wind Rises'' (2013)—also enjoyed critical and commercial success.",
"Following the release of ''The Wind Rises'', Miyazaki announced his retirement from feature films, though he later returned to write and direct his twelfth feature film ''The Boy and the Heron'' (2023).Miyazaki's works are characterized by the recurrence of themes such as humanity's relationship with nature and technology, the wholesomeness of natural and traditional patterns of living, the importance of art and craftsmanship, and the difficulty of maintaining a pacifist ethic in a violent world.",
"The protagonists of his films are often strong girls or young women, and several of his films present morally ambiguous antagonists with redeeming qualities.",
"Miyazaki's works have been highly praised and awarded; he was named a Person of Cultural Merit for outstanding cultural contributions in November 2012, and received the Academy Honorary Award for his impact on animation and cinema in November 2014.Miyazaki has frequently been cited as an inspiration for numerous animators, directors, and writers."
],
[
"Early life",
"Hayao Miyazaki was born on January 5, 1941, in Tokyo City, Empire of Japan, the second of four sons.",
"His father, Katsuji Miyazaki (born 1915), was the director of Miyazaki Airplane, his brother's company, which manufactured rudders for fighter planes during World War II.",
"The business allowed his family to remain affluent during Miyazaki's early life.",
"Miyazaki's father enjoyed purchasing paintings and demonstrating them to guests, but otherwise had little known artistic understanding.",
"He said that he was in the Imperial Japanese Army around 1940; after declaring to his commanding officer that he wished not to fight because of his wife and young child, he was discharged after a lecture about disloyalty.",
"According to Miyazaki, his father often told him about his exploits, claiming that he continued to attend nightclubs after turning 70.Katsuji Miyazaki died on March 18, 1993.After his death, Miyazaki felt that he had often looked at his father negatively and that he had never said anything \"lofty or inspiring\".",
"He regretted not having a serious discussion with his father, and felt that he had inherited his \"anarchistic feelings and his lack of concern about embracing contradictions\".Several characters from Miyazaki's films were inspired by his mother Yoshiko.Miyazaki has noted that some of his earliest memories are of \"bombed-out cities\".",
"In 1944, when he was three years old, Miyazaki's family evacuated to Utsunomiya.",
"After the bombing of Utsunomiya in July 1945, he and his family evacuated to Kanuma.",
"The bombing left a lasting impression on Miyazaki, then aged four.",
"As a child, Miyazaki suffered from digestive problems, and was told that he would not live beyond 20, making him feel like an outcast.",
"From 1947 to 1955, Miyazaki's mother Yoshiko suffered from spinal tuberculosis; she spent the first few years in hospital before being nursed from home.",
"Yoshiko was frugal, and described as a strict, intellectual woman who regularly questioned \"socially accepted norms\".",
"She was closest with Miyazaki, and had a strong influence on him and his later work.",
"Yoshiko Miyazaki died in July 1983 at the age of 72.Miyazaki began school in 1947, at an elementary school in Utsunomiya, completing the first through third grades.",
"After his family moved back to Suginami-ku, Miyazaki completed the fourth grade at Ōmiya Elementary School, and fifth grade at Eifuku Elementary School, which was newly established after splitting off from Ōmiya Elementary.",
"After graduating from Eifuku as part of the first graduating class, he attended .",
"He aspired to become a manga artist, but discovered he could not draw people; instead, he only drew planes, tanks, and battleships for several years.",
"Miyazaki was influenced by several manga artists, such as Tetsuji Fukushima, and Osamu Tezuka.",
"Miyazaki destroyed much of his early work, believing it was \"bad form\" to copy Tezuka's style as it was hindering his own development as an artist.",
"Around this time, Miyazaki would often see movies with his father, who was an avid moviegoer; memorable films for Miyazaki include ''Meshi'' (1951) and ''Tasogare Sakaba'' (1955).After graduating from Ōmiya Junior High, Miyazaki attended Toyotama High School.",
"During his third and final year, Miyazaki's interest in animation was sparked by ''Panda and the Magic Serpent'' (1958), Japan's first feature-length animated film in color; he had sneaked out to watch the film instead of studying for his entrance exams.",
"Miyazaki later recounted that he fell in love with the film's heroine, Bai-Niang, and that the film moved him to tears and left a profound impression; he wrote that he was \"moved to the depths of his soul\" and that the \"pure, earnest world of the film\" affirmed a side of him that \"yearned desperately to affirm the world rather than negate it\".",
"After graduating from Toyotama, Miyazaki attended Gakushuin University in the department of political economy, majoring in Japanese Industrial Theory.",
"He joined the \"Children's Literature Research Club\", the \"closest thing back then to a comics club\"; he was sometimes the sole member of the club.",
"In his free time, Miyazaki would visit his art teacher from middle school and sketch in his studio, where the two would drink and \"talk about politics, life, all sorts of things\".",
"Around this time, he also drew manga; he never completed any stories, but accumulated thousands of pages of the beginnings of stories.",
"He also frequently approached manga publishers to rent their stories.",
"In 1960, Miyazaki was a bystander during the Anpo protests, having developed an interest after seeing photographs in ''Asahi Graph''; by that point, he was too late to participate in the demonstrations.",
"Miyazaki graduated from Gakushuin in 1963 with degrees in political science and economics."
],
[
"Career",
"=== Early career ===Miyazaki first worked with Isao Takahata in 1964, spawning a lifelong collaboration and friendship.In 1963, Miyazaki was employed at Toei Animation; this was the last year the company hired regularly.",
"After gaining employment, he began renting a four-and-a-half ''tatami'' () apartment in Nerima, Tokyo; the rent was .",
"His salary at Toei was .",
"Miyazaki worked as an in-between artist on the theatrical feature anime ''Doggie March'' and the television anime ''Wolf Boy Ken'' (both 1963).",
"He also worked on ''Gulliver's Travels Beyond the Moon'' (1965).",
"He was a leader in a labor dispute soon after his arrival, and became chief secretary of Toei's labor union in 1964.Miyazaki later worked as chief animator, concept artist, and scene designer on ''The Great Adventure of Horus, Prince of the Sun'' (1968).",
"Throughout the film's production, Miyazaki worked closely with his mentor, Yasuo Ōtsuka, whose approach to animation profoundly influenced Miyazaki's work.",
"Directed by Isao Takahata, with whom Miyazaki would continue to collaborate for the remainder of his career, the film was highly praised, and deemed a pivotal work in the evolution of animation.",
"Miyazaki moved to a residence in Ōizumigakuenchō in April 1969, after the birth of his second son.Miyazaki provided key animation for ''The Wonderful World of Puss 'n Boots'' (1969), directed by Kimio Yabuki.",
"He created a 12-chapter manga series as a promotional tie-in for the film; the series ran in the Sunday edition of ''Tokyo Shimbun'' from January to March 1969.Miyazaki later proposed scenes in the screenplay for ''Flying Phantom Ship'' (1969), in which military tanks would cause mass hysteria in downtown Tokyo, and was hired to storyboard and animate the scenes.",
"Under the pseudonym , Miyazaki wrote and illustrated the manga ''People of the Desert'', published in 26 installments between September 1969 and March 1970 in .",
"He was influenced by illustrated stories such as Fukushima's .",
"In 1970, Miyazaki moved residence to Tokorozawa.",
"In 1971, he developed structure, characters and designs for Hiroshi Ikeda's adaptation of ''Animal Treasure Island''; he created the 13-part manga adaptation, printed in ''Tokyo Shimbun'' from January to March 1971.Miyazaki also provided key animation for ''Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves''.Miyazaki left Toei Animation in August 1971, and was hired at A-Pro, where he directed, or co-directed with Takahata, 23 episodes of ''Lupin the Third Part I'', often using the pseudonym .",
"The two also began pre-production on a series based on Astrid Lindgren's ''Pippi Longstocking'' books, designing extensive storyboards; the series was canceled after Miyazaki and Takahata were unable to meet with Lindgren, and permission was refused to complete the project.",
"In 1972 and 1973, Miyazaki wrote, designed and animated two ''Panda!",
"Go, Panda!''",
"shorts, directed by Takahata.",
"After moving from A-Pro to Zuiyō Eizō in June 1973, Miyazaki and Takahata worked on ''World Masterpiece Theater'', which featured their animation series ''Heidi, Girl of the Alps'', an adaptation of Johanna Spyri's ''Heidi''.",
"Zuiyō Eizō continued as Nippon Animation in July 1975.Miyazaki also directed the television series ''Future Boy Conan'' (1978), an adaptation of Alexander Key's ''The Incredible Tide''.=== Breakthrough films ===Miyazaki left Nippon Animation in 1979, during the production of ''Anne of Green Gables''; he provided scene design and organization on the first fifteen episodes.",
"He moved to Telecom Animation Film, a subsidiary of TMS Entertainment, to direct his first feature anime film, ''The Castle of Cagliostro'' (1979), a ''Lupin III'' film.",
"In his role at Telecom, Miyazaki helped train the second wave of employees.",
"Miyazaki directed six episodes of ''Sherlock Hound'' in 1981, until issues with Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's estate led to a suspension in production; Miyazaki was busy with other projects by the time the issues were resolved, and the remaining episodes were directed by Kyosuke Mikuriya.",
"They were broadcast from November 1984 to May 1985.Miyazaki also wrote the graphic novel ''The Journey of Shuna'', inspired by the Tibetan folk tale \"Prince who became a dog\".",
"The novel was published by Tokuma Shoten in June 1983, dramatized for radio broadcast in 1987, and published in English as ''Shuna's Journey'' in 2022.",
"''Hayao Miyazaki's Daydream Data Notes'' was also irregularly published from November 1984 to October 1994 in ''Model Graphix''; selections of the stories received radio broadcast in 1995.After the release of ''The Castle of Cagliostro'', Miyazaki began working on his ideas for an animated film adaptation of Richard Corben's comic book ''Rowlf'' and pitched the idea to Yutaka Fujioka at TMS.",
"In November 1980, a proposal was drawn up to acquire the film rights.",
"Around that time, Miyazaki was also approached for a series of magazine articles by the editorial staff of ''Animage''.",
"During subsequent conversations, he showed his sketchbooks and discussed basic outlines for envisioned animation projects with editors Toshio Suzuki and Osamu Kameyama, who saw the potential for collaboration on their development into animation.",
"Two projects were proposed: , to be set in the Sengoku period; and the adaptation of Corben's ''Rowlf''.",
"Both were rejected, as the company was unwilling to fund anime projects not based on existing manga, and the rights for the adaptation of ''Rowlf'' could not be secured.",
"An agreement was reached that Miyazaki could start developing his sketches and ideas into a manga for the magazine with the proviso that it would never be made into a film.",
"The manga—titled ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind''—ran from February 1982 to March 1994.The story, as re-printed in the volumes, spans seven volumes for a combined total of 1060 pages.",
"Miyazaki drew the episodes primarily in pencil, and it was printed monochrome in sepia-toned ink.",
"Miyazaki resigned from Telecom Animation Film in November 1982.Miyazaki opened his own personal studio in 1984, named Nibariki.Following the success of ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'', Yasuyoshi Tokuma, the founder of Tokuma Shoten, encouraged Miyazaki to work on a film adaptation.",
"Miyazaki initially refused, but agreed on the condition that he could direct.",
"Miyazaki's imagination was sparked by the mercury poisoning of Minamata Bay and how nature responded and thrived in a poisoned environment, using it to create the film's polluted world.",
"Miyazaki and Takahata chose the minor studio Topcraft to animate the film, as they believed its artistic talent could transpose the sophisticated atmosphere of the manga to the film.",
"Pre-production began on May 31, 1983; Miyazaki encountered difficulties in creating the screenplay, with only sixteen chapters of the manga to work with.",
"Takahata enlisted experimental and minimalist musician Joe Hisaishi to compose the film's score.",
"''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'' was released on March 11, 1984.It grossed ¥1.48 billion at the box office, and made an additional ¥742 million in distribution income.",
"It is often seen as Miyazaki's pivotal work, cementing his reputation as an animator and the foundation on which his career was built.",
"It was lauded for its positive portrayal of women, particularly that of main character Nausicaä.",
"Several critics have labeled ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'' as possessing anti-war and feminist themes; Miyazaki argues otherwise, stating that he only wishes to entertain.",
"The successful cooperation on the creation of the manga and the film laid the foundation for other collaborative projects.",
"In April 1984, Miyazaki opened his own office in Suginami Ward, naming it Nibariki.=== Studio Ghibli ======= Early films (1985–1996) ====In June 1985, Miyazaki, Takahata, Tokuma and Suzuki founded the animation production company Studio Ghibli, with funding from Tokuma Shoten.",
"Studio Ghibli's first film, ''Laputa: Castle in the Sky'' (1986), employed the same production crew of ''Nausicaä''.",
"Miyazaki's designs for the film's setting were inspired by Greek architecture and \"European urbanistic templates\".",
"Some of the architecture in the film was also inspired by a Welsh mining town; Miyazaki witnessed the mining strike upon his first visit to Wales in 1984 and admired the miners' dedication to their work and community.",
"''Laputa'' was released on August 2, 1986.It was the highest-grossing animation film of the year in Japan.",
"Miyazaki's following film, ''My Neighbor Totoro'', was released alongside Takahata's ''Grave of the Fireflies'' in April 1988 to ensure Studio Ghibli's financial status.",
"The simultaneous production was chaotic for the artists, as they switched between projects.",
"''My Neighbor Totoro'' features the theme of the relationship between the environment and humanity—a contrast to ''Nausicaä'', which emphasises technology's negative effect on nature.",
"While the film received critical acclaim, it was commercially unsuccessful at the box office.",
"However, merchandising was successful, and the film was labeled as a cult classic.In 1987, Studio Ghibli acquired the rights to create a film adaptation of Eiko Kadono's novel ''Kiki's Delivery Service''.",
"Miyazaki's work on ''My Neighbor Totoro'' prevented him from directing the adaptation; Sunao Katabuchi was chosen as director, and Nobuyuki Isshiki was hired as script writer.",
"Miyazaki's dissatisfaction of Isshiki's first draft led him to make changes to the project, ultimately taking the role of director.",
"Kadono was unhappy with the differences between the book and the screenplay.",
"Miyazaki and Suzuki visited Kadono and invited her to the studio; she allowed the project to continue.",
"The film was originally intended to be a 60-minute special, but expanded into a feature film after Miyazaki completed the storyboards and screenplay.",
"''Kiki's Delivery Service'' premiered on July 29, 1989.It earned ¥2.15 billion at the box office, and was the highest-grossing film in Japan in 1989.From March to May 1989, Miyazaki's manga was published in the magazine ''''.",
"Miyazaki began production on a 45-minute in-flight film for Japan Airlines based on the manga; Suzuki ultimately extended the film into the feature-length film, titled ''Porco Rosso'', as expectations grew.",
"Due to the end of production on Takahata's ''Only Yesterday'' (1991), Miyazaki initially managed the production of ''Porco Rosso'' independently.",
"The outbreak of the Yugoslav Wars in 1991 affected Miyazaki, prompting a more sombre tone for the film; Miyazaki would later refer to the film as \"foolish\", as its mature tones were unsuitable for children.",
"The film featured anti-war themes, which Miyazaki would later revisit.",
"The airline remained a major investor in the film, resulting in its initial premiere as an in-flight film, prior to its theatrical release on July 18, 1992.The film was critically and commercially successful—which surprised Miyazaki, who considered it \"too idiosyncratic for a toddlers-to-old-folks general audience\"—and remained the highest-grossing animated film in Japan for several years.Studio Ghibli set up its headquarters in Koganei, Tokyo in August 1992.In November 1992, two television spots directed by Miyazaki were broadcast by Nippon Television Network (NTV): , a 90-second spot loosely based on the illustrated story by Rieko Nakagawa and Yuriko Omura, and commissioned to celebrate NTV's fortieth anniversary; and , aired as one 15-second and four 5-second spots, centered on an undefinable creature which ultimately became NTV's mascot.",
"Miyazaki designed the storyboards and wrote the screenplay for ''Whisper of the Heart'' (1995), directed by Yoshifumi Kondō, who Miyazaki and Takahata had known from A-Pro.==== Global emergence (1997–2008) ====Miyazaki began work on the initial storyboards for ''Princess Mononoke'' in August 1994, based on preliminary thoughts and sketches from the late 1970s.",
"While experiencing writer's block during production, Miyazaki accepted a request for the creation of ''On Your Mark'', a music video for the song of the same name by Chage and Aska.",
"In the production of the video, Miyazaki experimented with computer animation to supplement traditional animation, a technique he would soon revisit for ''Princess Mononoke''.",
"''On Your Mark'' premiered as a short before ''Whisper of the Heart''.",
"Despite the video's popularity, Suzuki said that it was not given \"100 percent\" focus.Miyazaki used 3D rendering in ''Princess Mononoke'' (1997) to create writhing \"demon flesh\" and composite them onto the hand-drawn characters.",
"Approximately five minutes of the film use similar techniques.In May 1995, Miyazaki took a group of artists and animators to the ancient forests of Yakushima and the mountains of Shirakami-Sanchi, taking photographs and making sketches.",
"The landscapes in the film were inspired by Yakushima.",
"In ''Princess Mononoke'', Miyazaki revisited the ecological and political themes of ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind''.",
"Miyazaki supervised the 144,000 cels in the film, about 80,000 of which were key animation.",
"''Princess Mononoke'' was produced with an estimated budget of ¥2.35 billion (approximately ), making it the most expensive film by Studio Ghibli at the time.",
"Approximately fifteen minutes of the film uses computer animation: about five minutes uses techniques such as 3D rendering, digital composition, and texture mapping; the remaining ten minutes uses digital ink and paint.",
"While the original intention was to digitally paint 5,000 of the film's frames, time constraints doubled this.Upon its premiere on July 12, 1997, ''Princess Mononoke'' was critically acclaimed, becoming the first animated film to win the Japan Academy Film Prize for Picture of the Year.",
"The film was also commercially successful, earning a domestic total of ¥14 billion (), and becoming the highest-grossing film in Japan for several months.",
"Miramax Films purchased the film's distributions rights for North America; it was the first Studio Ghibli production to receive a substantial theatrical distribution in the United States.",
"While it was largely unsuccessful at the box office, grossing about , it was seen as the introduction of Studio Ghibli to global markets.",
"Miyazaki claimed ''Princess Mononoke'' would be his final film.Tokuma Shoten merged with Studio Ghibli in June 1997.Miyazaki's next film was conceived while on vacation at a mountain cabin with his family and five young girls who were family friends.",
"Miyazaki realized that he had not created a film for 10-year-old girls, and set out to do so.",
"He read manga magazines like and for inspiration, but felt they only offered subjects on \"crushes and romance\", which is not what the girls \"held dear in their hearts\".",
"He decided to produce the film about a female heroine whom they could look up to.",
"Production of the film, titled ''Spirited Away'', commenced in 2000 on a budget of ¥1.9 billion ().",
"As with ''Princess Mononoke'', the staff experimented with computer animation, but kept the technology at a level to enhance the story, not to \"steal the show\".",
"''Spirited Away'' deals with symbols of human greed, symbolizing the 1980s Japanese asset price bubble, and a liminal journey through the realm of spirits.",
"The film was released on July 20, 2001; it received critical acclaim, and is considered among the greatest films of the 2000s.",
"It won the Japan Academy Film Prize for Picture of the Year, and the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.",
"The film was also commercially successful, earning ¥30.4 billion () at the box office.",
"It became the highest-grossing film in Japan, a record it maintained for almost 20 years.",
"Following the death of Tokuma in September 2000, Miyazaki served as the head of his funeral committee.In September 2001, Studio Ghibli announced the production of ''Howl's Moving Castle'', based on the novel by Diana Wynne Jones.",
"Mamoru Hosoda of Toei Animation was originally selected to direct the film, but disagreements between Hosoda and Studio Ghibli executives led to the project's abandonment.",
"After six months, Studio Ghibli resurrected the project.",
"Miyazaki was inspired to direct the film upon reading Jones' novel, and was struck by the image of a castle moving around the countryside; the novel does not explain how the castle moved, which led to Miyazaki's designs.",
"He traveled to Colmar and Riquewihr in Alsace, France, to study the architecture and the surroundings for the film's setting.",
"Additional inspiration came from the concepts of future technology in Albert Robida's work, as well as the \"illusion art\" of 19th century Europe.",
"The film was produced digitally, but the characters and backgrounds were drawn by hand prior to being digitized.",
"It was released on November 20, 2004, and received widespread critical acclaim.",
"The film received the Osella Award for Technical Excellence at the 61st Venice International Film Festival, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.",
"In Japan, the film grossed a record $14.5 million in its first week of release.",
"It remains among the highest-grossing films in Japan, with a worldwide gross of over ¥19.3 billion.",
"Miyazaki received the honorary Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement award at the 62nd Venice International Film Festival in 2005.In March 2005, Studio Ghibli split from Tokuma Shoten.",
"In the 1980s, Miyazaki had contacted Ursula K. Le Guin expressing interest in producing an adaptation of her ''Earthsea'' novels; unaware of Miyazaki's work, Le Guin declined.",
"Upon watching ''My Neighbor Totoro'' several years later, Le Guin expressed approval to the concept of the adaptation.",
"She met with Suzuki in August 2005, who wanted Miyazaki's son Goro to direct the film, as Miyazaki had wished to retire.",
"Disappointed that Miyazaki was not directing, but under the impression that he would supervise his son's work, Le Guin approved of the film's production.",
"Miyazaki later publicly opposed and criticized Gorō's appointment as director.",
"Upon Miyazaki's viewing of the film, he wrote a message for his son: \"It was made honestly, so it was good\".Miyazaki designed the covers for several manga novels in 2006, including ''A Trip to Tynemouth''; he also worked as editor, and created a short manga for the book.",
"Miyazaki's next film, ''Ponyo'', began production in May 2006.It was initially inspired by \"The Little Mermaid\" by Hans Christian Andersen, though began to take its own form as production continued.",
"Miyazaki aimed for the film to celebrate the innocence and cheerfulness of a child's universe.",
"He intended for it to only use traditional animation, and was intimately involved with the artwork.",
"He preferred to draw the sea and waves himself, as he enjoyed experimenting.",
"''Ponyo'' features 170,000 frames—a record for Miyazaki.",
"The film's seaside village was inspired by Tomonoura, a town in Setonaikai National Park, where Miyazaki stayed in 2005.The main character, Sōsuke, is based on Gorō.",
"Following its release on July 19, 2008, ''Ponyo'' was critically acclaimed, receiving Animation of the Year at the 32nd Japan Academy Film Prize.",
"The film was also a commercial success, earning ¥10 billion () in its first month and ¥15.5 billion by the end of 2008, placing it among the highest-grossing films in Japan.==== Later films (2009–present) ====Miyazaki at the 2009 San Diego Comic-ConIn early 2009, Miyazaki began writing a manga called , telling the story of Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter designer Jiro Horikoshi.",
"The manga was first published in two issues of the Model Graphix magazine, published on February 25 and March 25, 2009.Miyazaki later co-wrote the screenplay for ''Arrietty'' (2010) and ''From Up on Poppy Hill'' (2011), directed by Hiromasa Yonebayashi and Gorō Miyazaki respectively.",
"Miyazaki wanted his next film to be a sequel to ''Ponyo'', but Suzuki convinced him to instead adapt to film.",
"In November 2012, Studio Ghibli announced the production of ''The Wind Rises'', based on , to be released alongside Takahata's ''The Tale of the Princess Kaguya''.Miyazaki was inspired to create ''The Wind Rises'' after reading a quote from Horikoshi: \"All I wanted to do was to make something beautiful\".",
"Several scenes in ''The Wind Rises'' were inspired by Tatsuo Hori's novel , in which Hori wrote about his life experiences with his fiancée before she died from tuberculosis.",
"The female lead character's name, Naoko Satomi, was borrowed from Hori's novel .",
"''The Wind Rises'' continues to reflect Miyazaki's pacifist stance, continuing the themes of his earlier works, despite stating that condemning war was not the intention of the film.",
"The film premiered on July 20, 2013, and received critical acclaim; it was named Animation of the Year at the 37th Japan Academy Film Prize, and was nominated for Best Animated Feature at the 86th Academy Awards.",
"It was also commercially successful, grossing ¥11.6 billion () at the Japanese box office, becoming the highest-grossing film in Japan in 2013.In September 2013, Miyazaki announced that he was retiring from the production of feature films due to his age, but wished to continue working on the displays at the Studio Ghibli Museum.",
"Miyazaki was awarded the Academy Honorary Award at the Governors Awards in November 2014.He developed ''Boro the Caterpillar'', a computer-animated short film which was first discussed during pre-production for ''Princess Mononoke''.",
"It was screened exclusively at the Studio Ghibli Museum in July 2017.Around this time, Miyazaki was working on a manga titled ''Teppo Samurai''.",
"In February 2019, a four-part documentary was broadcast on the NHK network titled ''10 Years with Hayao Miyazaki'', documenting production of his films in his private studio.",
"In 2019, Miyazaki approved a musical adaptation of ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'', as it was performed by a kabuki troupe.In August 2016, Miyazaki proposed a new feature-length film, ''Kimi-tachi wa Dō Ikiru ka'' (titled ''The Boy and the Heron'' in English), on which he began animation work without receiving official approval.",
"The film opened in Japanese theaters on July 14, 2023.It was preceded by a minimal marketing campaign, forgoing trailers, commercials, and advertisements, a response from Suzuki to his perceived oversaturation of marketing materials in mainstream films.",
"Despite claims that ''The Boy and the Heron'' would be Miyazaki's final film, Studio Ghibli vice president Junichi Nishioka said in September 2023 that Miyazaki continued to attend the office daily to plan his next film.",
"Suzuki said he could no longer convince Miyazaki to retire."
],
[
"Views",
"Miyazaki has often criticized the state of the animation industry, stating that some animators lack a foundational understanding of their subjects and do not prioritize realism.",
"He is particularly critical of Japanese animation, saying that anime is \"produced by humans who can't stand looking at other humans ... that's why the industry is full of ''otaku''!\".",
"He has frequently criticized ''otaku'', including \"fanatics\" of guns and fighter aircraft, declaring it a \"fetish\" and refusing to identify himself as such.",
"He bemoaned the state of Disney animated films in 1988, saying \"they show nothing but contempt for the audience\".In 2013, Miyazaki criticized Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe's policies and the proposed Constitutional amendment that would allow Abe to revise the clause outlawing war as a means to settle international disputes.",
"Miyazaki felt Abe wished to \"leave his name in history as a great man who revised the Constitution and its interpretation\", describing it as \"despicable\" and stating \"People who don't think enough shouldn't meddle with the constitution\".",
"In 2015, Miyazaki disapproved Abe's denial of Japan's military aggression, stating Japan \"should clearly say that they inflicted enormous damage on China and express deep remorse over it\".",
"He felt the government should give a \"proper apology\" to Korean comfort women who were forced to service the Japanese army during World War II and suggested the Senkaku Islands be \"split in half\" or controlled by both Japan and China.",
"After the release of ''The Wind Rises'' in 2013, some online critics labeled Miyazaki a \"traitor\" and \"anti-Japanese\", describing the film as overly \"left-wing\"; Miyazaki recognized leftist values in his movies, citing his influence by and appreciation of communism as defined by Karl Marx, but criticized the Soviet Union's political system.In 2003, Miyazaki refused to attend the 75th Academy Awards in Hollywood in protest of the United States's involvement in the Iraq War, and later said he \"didn't want to visit a country that was bombing Iraq\".",
"He did not publicly express this opinion at the request of his producer until 2009 when he lifted his boycott and attended San Diego Comic Con International as a favor to his friend John Lasseter.",
"Miyazaki also expressed his opinion about the terrorist attack at the offices of the French satirical magazine ''Charlie Hebdo'', criticizing the magazine's decision to publish the content cited as the catalyst for the incident; he felt caricatures should be made of politicians, not cultures.",
"In November 2016, Miyazaki stated that he believed \"many of the people who voted for Brexit and Trump\" were affected by the increase in unemployment due to companies \"building cars in Mexico because of low wages and selling them in the US\".",
"He did not think that Donald Trump would be elected president, calling it \"a terrible thing\", and said that Trump's political opponent Hillary Clinton was \"terrible as well\"."
],
[
"Themes",
"Miyazaki's works are characterized by the recurrence of themes such as feminism, environmentalism, pacifism, love, and family.",
"His narratives are also notable for not pitting a hero against an unsympathetic antagonist; Miyazaki felt ''Spirited Away''s Chihiro \"manages not because she has destroyed the 'evil', but because she has acquired the ability to survive\".Miyazaki's films often emphasize environmentalism and the Earth's fragility.",
"Margaret Talbot stated that Miyazaki dislikes modern technology, and believes much of modern culture is \"thin and shallow and fake\"; he anticipates a time with \"no more high-rises\".",
"Miyazaki felt frustrated growing up in the Shōwa period from 1955 to 1965 because \"nature—the mountains and rivers—was being destroyed in the name of economic progress\".",
"Peter Schellhase of ''The Imaginative Conservative'' identified that several antagonists of Miyazaki's films \"attempt to dominate nature in pursuit of political domination, and are ultimately destructive to both nature and human civilization\".",
"Miyazaki is critical of exploitation under both communism and capitalism, as well as globalization and its effects on modern life, believing that \"a company is common property of the people that work there\".",
"Ram Prakash Dwivedi identified values of Mahatma Gandhi in the films of Miyazaki.Several of Miyazaki's films feature anti-war themes.",
"Daisuke Akimoto of ''Animation Studies'' categorized ''Porco Rosso'' as \"anti-war propaganda\" and felt the protagonist, Porco, transforms into a pig partly due to his extreme distaste of militarism.",
"Akimoto also argues that ''The Wind Rises'' reflects Miyazaki's \"antiwar pacifism\", despite the latter stating that the film does not attempt to \"denounce\" war.",
"Schellhase also identifies ''Princess Mononoke'' as a pacifist film due to the protagonist, Ashitaka; instead of joining the campaign of revenge against humankind, as his ethnic history would lead him to do, Ashitaka strives for peace.",
"David Loy and Linda Goodhew argue that both ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'' and ''Princess Mononoke'' do not depict traditional evil, but the Buddhist roots of evil: greed, ill will, and delusion; according to Buddhism, the roots of evil must transform into \"generosity, loving-kindness and wisdom\" in order to overcome suffering, and both Nausicaä and Ashitaka accomplish this.",
"When characters in Miyazaki's films are forced to engage in violence, it is shown as being a difficult task; in ''Howl's Moving Castle'', Howl is forced to fight an inescapable battle in defense of those he loves, and it almost destroys him, though he is ultimately saved by Sophie's love and bravery.Suzuki described Miyazaki as a feminist in reference to his attitude to female workers.",
"Miyazaki has described his female characters as \"brave, self-sufficient girls that don't think twice about fighting for what they believe in with all their heart\", stating that they may \"need a friend, or a supporter, but never a saviour\" and that \"any woman is just as capable of being a hero as any man\".",
"''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'' was lauded for its positive portrayal of women, particularly protagonist Nausicaä.",
"Schellhase noted that the female characters in Miyazaki's films are not objectified or sexualized, and possess complex and individual characteristics absent from Hollywood productions.",
"Schellhase also identified a \"coming of age\" element for the heroines in Miyazaki's films, as they each discover \"individual personality and strengths\".",
"Gabrielle Bellot of ''The Atlantic'' wrote that, in his films, Miyazaki \"shows a keen understanding of the complexities of what it might mean to be a woman\".",
"In particular, Bellot cites ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'', praising the film's challenging of gender expectations, and the strong and independent nature of Nausicaä.",
"Bellot also noted that ''Princess Mononoke''s San represents the \"conflict between selfhood and expression\".Miyazaki is concerned with the sense of wonder in young people, seeking to maintain themes of love and family in his films.",
"Michael Toscano of ''Curator'' found that Miyazaki \"fears Japanese children are dimmed by a culture of overconsumption, overprotection, utilitarian education, careerism, techno-industrialism, and a secularism that is swallowing Japan's native animism\".",
"Schellhase wrote that several of Miyazaki's works feature themes of love and romance, but felt emphasis is placed on \"the way lonely and vulnerable individuals are integrated into relationships of mutual reliance and responsibility, which generally benefit everyone around them\".",
"He also found that many of the protagonists in Miyazaki's films present an idealized image of families, whereas others are dysfunctional."
],
[
"Creation process and influences",
"Miyazaki forgoes traditional screenplays in his productions, instead developing the film's narrative as he designs the storyboards.",
"\"We never know where the story will go but we just keep working on the film as it develops,\" he said.",
"In each of his films, Miyazaki has employed traditional animation methods, drawing each frame by hand; computer-generated imagery has been employed in several of his later films, beginning with ''Princess Mononoke'', to \"enrich the visual look\", though he ensures that each film can \"retain the right ratio between working by hand and computer ... and still be able to call my films 2D\".",
"He oversees every frame of his films.",
"For character designs, Miyazaki draws original drafts used by animation directors to create reference sheets, which are then corrected by Miyazaki in his style.Miyazaki has cited several Japanese artists as his influences, including Sanpei Shirato, Osamu Tezuka, Soji Yamakawa, and Isao Takahata.",
"A number of Western authors have also influenced his works, including Frédéric Back, Lewis Carroll, Roald Dahl, Jean Giraud, Paul Grimault, Ursula K. Le Guin, and Yuri Norstein, as well as animation studio Aardman Animations (specifically the works of Nick Park).",
"Specific works that have influenced Miyazaki include ''Animal Farm'' (1945), ''The Snow Queen'' (1957), and ''The King and the Mockingbird'' (1980); ''The Snow Queen'' is said to be the true catalyst for Miyazaki's filmography, influencing his training and work.",
"When animating young children, Miyazaki often takes inspiration from his friends' children, as well as memories of his own childhood."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Miyazaki's son, director Goro MiyazakiMiyazaki married fellow animator Akemi Ōta in October 1965; the two had met while colleagues at Toei Animation.",
"The couple have two sons: Goro, born in January 1967, and Keisuke, born in April 1969.Miyazaki felt that becoming a father changed him, as he tried to produce work that would please his children.",
"Miyazaki initially fulfilled a promise to his wife that they would both continue to work after Goro's birth, dropping him off at preschool for the day; however, upon seeing Goro's exhaustion walking home one day, Miyazaki decided that they could not continue, and his wife stayed at home to raise their children.",
"Miyazaki's dedication to his work harmed his relationship with his children, as he was often absent.",
"Goro watched his father's works in an attempt to \"understand\" him, since the two rarely talked.",
"Miyazaki said that he \"tried to be a good father, but in the end I wasn't a very good parent\".",
"During the production of ''Tales from Earthsea'' in 2006, Goro said that his father \"gets zero marks as a father but full marks as a director of animated films\".Goro worked at a landscape design firm before beginning to work at the Ghibli Museum; he designed the garden on its rooftop and eventually became its curator.",
"Keisuke studied forestry at Shinshu University and works as a wood artist; he designed a woodcut print that appears in ''Whisper of the Heart''.",
"Miyazaki's niece, Mei Okuyama, who was the inspiration behind the character Mei in ''My Neighbor Totoro'', is married to animation artist Daisuke Tsutsumi."
],
[
"Legacy",
"Miyazaki was described as the \"godfather of animation in Japan\" by BBC's Tessa Wong in 2016, citing his craftsmanship and humanity, the themes of his films, and his inspiration to younger artists.",
"Courtney Lanning of ''Arkansas Democrat-Gazette'' named him one of the world's greatest animators, comparing him to Osamu Tezuka and Walt Disney.",
"Swapnil Dhruv Bose of ''Far Out Magazine'' wrote that Miyazaki's work \"has shaped not only the future of animation but also filmmaking in general\", and that it helped \"generation after generation of young viewers to observe the magic that exists in the mundane\".",
"Richard James Havis of ''South China Morning Post'' called him a \"genius ... who sets exacting standards for himself, his peers and studio staff\".",
"''Paste''s Toussaint Egan described Miyazaki as \"one of anime's great auteurs\", whose \"stories of such singular thematic vision and unmistakable aesthetic\" captured viewers otherwise unfamiliar with anime.",
"Miyazaki became the subject of an exhibit at the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures in Los Angeles in 2021, featuring over 400 objects from his films.Miyazaki has frequently been cited as an inspiration to numerous animators, directors and writers around the world, including Wes Anderson, James Cameron, Dean DeBlois, Guillermo del Toro, Pete Docter, Mamoru Hosoda, Bong Joon-Ho, Travis Knight, John Lasseter, Nick Park, Henry Selick, Makoto Shinkai, and Steven Spielberg.",
"Glen Keane said Miyazaki is a \"huge influence\" on Walt Disney Animation Studios and has been \"part of our heritage\" ever since ''The Rescuers Down Under'' (1990).",
"The Disney Renaissance era was also prompted by competition with the development of Miyazaki's films.",
"Artists from Pixar and Aardman Studios signed a tribute stating, \"You're our inspiration, Miyazaki-san!\"",
"He has also been cited as inspiration for video game designers including Shigeru Miyamoto on ''The Legend of Zelda'' and Hironobu Sakaguchi on ''Final Fantasy'', as well as the television series ''Avatar: The Last Airbender'', and the video game ''Ori and the Blind Forest'' (2015).Studio Ghibli has searched for some time for Miyazaki and Suzuki's successor to lead the studio; Kondō, the director of ''Whisper of the Heart'', was initially considered, but died from a sudden heart attack in 1998.Some candidates were considered by 2023—including Miyazaki's son Goro, who declined—but the studio was not able to find a successor."
],
[
"Selected filmography",
"* ''The Castle of Cagliostro'' (1979)* ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'' (1984)* ''Laputa: Castle in the Sky'' (1986)* ''My Neighbor Totoro'' (1988)* ''Kiki's Delivery Service'' (1989)* ''Porco Rosso'' (1992)* ''Princess Mononoke'' (1997)* ''Spirited Away'' (2001)* ''Howl's Moving Castle'' (2004)* ''Ponyo'' (2008)* ''The Wind Rises'' (2013)* ''The Boy and the Heron'' (2023)"
],
[
"Awards and nominations",
"Miyazaki won the Ōfuji Noburō Award at the Mainichi Film Awards for ''The Castle of Cagliostro'' (1979), ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'' (1984), ''Laputa: Castle in the Sky'' (1986), and ''My Neighbor Totoro'' (1988), and the Mainichi Film Award for Best Animation Film for ''Kiki's Delivery Service'' (1989), ''Porco Rosso'' (1992), ''Princess Mononoke'' (1997), ''Spirited Away'' and ''Whale Hunt'' (both 2001).",
"''Spirited Away'' was also awarded the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, while ''Howl's Moving Castle'' (2004) and ''The Wind Rises'' (2013) received nominations.",
"He was named a Person of Cultural Merit by the Japanese government in November 2012, for outstanding cultural contributions.",
"His other accolades include eight Tokyo Anime Awards, eight Kinema Junpo Awards, six Japan Academy Film Prizes, five Annie Awards, and three awards from the Anime Grand Prix and the Venice Film Festival."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Studio Ghibli * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"March 5"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Events",
"===Pre-1600===* 363 – Roman emperor Julian leaves Antioch with an army of 90,000 to attack the Sasanian Empire, in a campaign which would bring about his own death.",
"*1046 – Nasir Khusraw begins the seven-year Middle Eastern journey which he will later describe in his book ''Safarnama''.",
"*1279 – The Livonian Order is defeated in the Battle of Aizkraukle by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.",
"*1496 – King Henry VII of England issues letters patent to John Cabot and his sons, authorising them to explore unknown lands.===1601–1900===*1616 – Nicolaus Copernicus's book ''On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres'' is added to the Index of Forbidden Books 73 years after it was first published.",
"*1766 – Antonio de Ulloa, the first Spanish governor of Louisiana, arrives in New Orleans.",
"*1770 – Boston Massacre: Five Americans, including Crispus Attucks, are fatally shot by British troops in an event that would contribute to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War (also known as the American War of Independence) five years later.",
"*1811 – Peninsular War: A French force under the command of Marshal Victor is routed while trying to prevent an Anglo-Spanish-Portuguese army from lifting the Siege of Cádiz in the Battle of Barrosa.",
"*1824 – First Anglo-Burmese War: The British officially declare war on Burma.",
"*1825 – Roberto Cofresí, one of the last successful Caribbean pirates, is defeated in combat and captured by authorities.",
"*1836 – Samuel Colt patents the first production-model revolver, the .34-caliber.",
"*1850 – The Britannia Bridge across the Menai Strait between the island of Anglesey and the mainland of Wales is opened.",
"*1860 – Parma, Tuscany, Modena and Romagna vote in referendums to join the Kingdom of Sardinia.",
"*1868 – ''Mefistofele'', an opera by Arrigo Boito, receives its premiere performance at La Scala.",
"*1872 – George Westinghouse patents the air brake.===1901–present===*1906 – Moro Rebellion: United States Army troops bring overwhelming force against the native Moros in the First Battle of Bud Dajo, leaving only six survivors.",
"*1912 – Italo-Turkish War: Italian forces are the first to use airships for military purposes, employing them for reconnaissance behind Turkish lines.",
"*1931 – The British Raj: Gandhi–Irwin Pact is signed.",
"*1933 – Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party receives 43.9% at the Reichstag elections, which allows the Nazis to later pass the Enabling Act and establish a dictatorship.",
"*1936 – First flight of ''K5054'', the first prototype Supermarine Spitfire advanced monoplane fighter aircraft in the United Kingdom.",
"*1939 – Spanish Civil War: The National Defence Council seizes control of the republican government in a coup d'etat, with the intention of negotiating an end to the war.",
"*1940 – Six high-ranking members of the Soviet politburo, including Joseph Stalin, sign an order for the execution of 25,700 Polish intelligentsia, including 14,700 Polish POWs, in what will become known as the Katyn massacre.",
"*1942 – World War II: Japanese forces capture Batavia, capital of Dutch East Indies, which is left undefended after the withdrawal of the KNIL garrison and Australian Blackforce battalion to Buitenzorg and Bandung.",
"*1943 – First Flight of the Gloster Meteor, Britain's first combat jet aircraft.",
"*1944 – World War II: The Red Army begins the Uman–Botoșani Offensive in the western Ukrainian SSR.",
"*1946 – Cold War: Winston Churchill coins the phrase \"Iron Curtain\" in his speech at Westminster College, Missouri.",
"*1953 – Joseph Stalin, the longest serving leader of the Soviet Union, dies at his Volynskoe dacha in Moscow after suffering a cerebral hemorrhage four days earlier.",
"*1960 – Indonesian President Sukarno dismissed the Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR), 1955 democratically elected parliament, and replaced with DPR-GR, the parliament of his own selected members.",
"*1963 – American country music stars Patsy Cline, Hawkshaw Hawkins, Cowboy Copas and their pilot Randy Hughes are killed in a plane crash in Camden, Tennessee.",
"*1965 – March Intifada: A Leftist uprising erupts in Bahrain against British colonial presence.",
"*1966 – BOAC Flight 911, a Boeing 707 aircraft, breaks apart in mid-air due to clear-air turbulence and crashes into Mount Fuji, Japan, killing all 124 people on board.",
"*1970 – The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons goes into effect after ratification by 43 nations.",
"*1974 – Yom Kippur War: Israeli forces withdraw from the west bank of the Suez Canal.",
"*1978 – The Landsat 3 is launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.",
"*1979 – Soviet probes Venera 11, Venera 12 and the German-American solar satellite Helios II all are hit by \"off the scale\" gamma rays leading to the discovery of soft gamma repeaters.",
"*1981 – The ZX81, a pioneering British home computer, is launched by Sinclair Research and would go on to sell over 1 million units around the world.",
"*1982 – Soviet probe Venera 14 lands on Venus.",
"*1991 – Aeropostal Alas de Venezuela Flight 108 crashes in Venezuela, killing 45.",
"*1993 – Palair Macedonian Airlines Flight 301 crashes at Skopje International Airport in Petrovec, North Macedonia, killing 83.",
"*2003 – In Haifa, 17 Israeli civilians are killed in the Haifa bus 37 suicide bombing.",
"*2012 – Tropical Storm Irina kills over 75 as it passes through Madagascar.",
"*2018 – Syrian civil war: The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) pause the Deir ez-Zor campaign due to the Turkish-led invasion of Afrin.",
"*2021 – Pope Francis begins a historical visit to Iraq amidst the COVID-19 pandemic.",
"* 2021 – Twenty people are killed and 30 injured in a suicide car bombing in Mogadishu, Somalia.",
"* 2023 – The 2023 Estonian parliamentary election is held, with two centre-right liberal parties gaining an absolute majority for the first time.",
"* 2023 – A group of four prisoners escape from the Nouakchott Civil Prison, before being caught the next day."
],
[
"Births",
"===Pre-1600===*1133 – Henry II of England (d. 1189)*1224 – Saint Kinga of Poland (d. 1292)*1324 – David II of Scotland (d. 1371)*1326 – Louis I of Hungary (d. 1382)*1340 – Cansignorio della Scala, Lord of Verona (d. 1375)*1451 – William Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English Earl (d. 1491)*1512 – Gerardus Mercator, Flemish mathematician, cartographer, and philosopher (d. 1594)*1523 – Rodrigo de Castro Osorio, Spanish cardinal (d. 1600)*1527 – Ulrich, Duke of Mecklenburg (d. 1603)*1539 – Christoph Pezel, German theologian (d. 1604)*1563 – John Coke, English civil servant and politician (d. 1644)*1575 – William Oughtred, English minister and mathematician (d. 1660)*1585 – John George I, Elector of Saxony (d. 1656)* 1585 – Frederick I, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg (d. 1638)===1601–1900===*1637 – Jan van der Heyden, Dutch painter and engineer (d. 1712)*1658 – Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, French explorer and politician, 3rd Colonial Governor of Louisiana (d. 1730)*1693 – Johann Jakob Wettstein, Swiss theologian and scholar (d. 1754)*1696 – Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Italian painter (d. 1770)*1703 – Vasily Trediakovsky, Russian poet and playwright (d. 1768)*1713 – Edward Cornwallis, English general and politician, Governor of Gibraltar (d. 1776)* 1713 – Frederick Cornwallis, English archbishop (d. 1783)*1723 – Princess Mary of Great Britain (d. 1773)*1733 – Vincenzo Galeotti, Italian-Danish dancer and choreographer (d. 1816)*1739 – Benjamin Ruggles Woodbridge, American colonel and physician (d. 1819)*1748 – Jonas Carlsson Dryander, Swedish botanist and biologist (d. 1810)* 1748 – William Shield, English violinist and composer (d. 1829)*1750 – Jean-Baptiste-Gaspard d'Ansse de Villoison, French scholar and academic (d. 1805)*1751 – Jan Křtitel Kuchař, Czech organist, composer, and educator (d. 1829)*1774 – Christoph Ernst Friedrich Weyse, Danish organist and composer (d. 1842)*1779 – Benjamin Gompertz, English mathematician and statistician (d. 1865)*1785 – Carlo Odescalchi, Italian cardinal (d. 1841)*1794 – Jacques Babinet, French physicist, mathematician, and astronomer (d. 1872)* 1794 – Robert Cooper Grier, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1870)*1814 – Wilhelm von Giesebrecht, German historian and academic (d. 1889)*1800 – Georg Friedrich Daumer, German poet and philosopher (d. 1875)*1815 – John Wentworth, American journalist and politician, 19th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1888)*1817 – Austen Henry Layard, English archaeologist, academic, and politician, Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (d. 1894)*1830 – Étienne-Jules Marey, French physiologist and chronophotographer (d. 1904)* 1830 – Charles Wyville Thomson, Scottish historian and zoologist (d. 1882)*1834 – Félix de Blochausen, Luxembourgian politician, 6th Prime Minister of Luxembourg (d. 1915)* 1834 – Marietta Piccolomini, Italian soprano (d. 1899)*1853 – Howard Pyle, American author and illustrator (d. 1911)*1862 – Siegbert Tarrasch, German chess player and theoretician (d. 1934)*1867 – Louis-Alexandre Taschereau, Canadian lawyer and politician, 14th Premier of Quebec (d. 1952)*1869 – Michael von Faulhaber, German cardinal (d. 1952)*1870 – Frank Norris, American journalist and author (d. 1902)* 1870 – Evgeny Paton, French-Ukrainian engineer (d. 1953)*1871 – Rosa Luxemburg, Polish-Russian economist and philosopher (d. 1919)* 1871 – Konstantinos Pallis, Greek general and politician, Minister Governor-General of Macedonia (d. 1941)*1873 – Olav Bjaaland, Norwegian skier and explorer (d. 1961)*1874 – Henry Travers, English-American actor (d. 1965)*1875 – Harry Lawson, Australian politician, 27th Premier of Victoria (d. 1952)*1876 – Thomas Inskip, 1st Viscount Caldecote, English lawyer and politician, 8th Lord Chief Justice of England (d. 1947)* 1876 – Elisabeth Moore, American tennis player (d. 1959)*1879 – William Beveridge, English economist and academic (d. 1963)* 1879 – Andres Larka, Estonian general and politician, 1st Estonian Minister of War (d. 1943)*1880 – Sergei Natanovich Bernstein, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1968)*1882 – Dora Marsden, English author and activist (d. 1960)*1883 – Pauline Sperry, American mathematician (d. 1967)*1885 – Marius Barbeau, Canadian ethnographer and academic (d. 1969)*1886 – Dong Biwu, Chinese judge and politician, Chairman of the People's Republic of China (d. 1975)* 1886 – Freddie Welsh, Welsh boxer (d. 1927)*1887 – Heitor Villa-Lobos, Brazilian guitarist and composer (d. 1959)*1894 – Henry Daniell, English-American actor (d. 1963)*1898 – Zhou Enlai, Chinese politician, 1st Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 1976)* 1898 – Misao Okawa, Japanese super-centenarian (d. 2015)*1900 – Lilli Jahn, Jewish German doctor (d. 1944) * 1900 – Johanna Langefeld, German guard and supervisor of three Nazi concentration camps (d. 1974)===1901–present===*1901 – Friedrich Günther, Prince of Schwarzburg (d. 1971)* 1901 – Julian Przyboś, Polish poet, essayist and translator (d. 1970)*1904 – Karl Rahner, German priest and theologian (d. 1984)*1905 – László Benedek, Hungarian-American director and cinematographer (d. 1992)*1908 – Fritz Fischer, German historian and author (d. 1999)* 1908 – Irving Fiske, American author and playwright (d. 1990)* 1908 – Rex Harrison, English actor (d. 1990)*1910 – Momofuku Ando, Taiwanese-Japanese businessman, founded Nissin Foods (d. 2007)* 1910 – Ennio Flaiano, Italian author, screenwriter, and critic (d. 1972)*1911 – Subroto Mukerjee, Indian Air Marshall, Father of the Indian Air Force (d. 1960)*1912 – Jack Marshall, New Zealand colonel, lawyer, and politician, 28th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1988)*1915 – Henry Hicks, Canadian academic and politician, 16th Premier of Nova Scotia (d. 1990)* 1915 – Laurent Schwartz, French mathematician and academic (d. 2002)*1918 – Milt Schmidt, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2017)* 1918 – Red Storey, Canadian football player, referee, and sportscaster (d. 2006)* 1918 – James Tobin, American economist and academic (d. 2002)*1920 – José Aboulker, Algerian surgeon and activist (d. 2009)* 1920 – Virginia Christine, American actress (d. 1996)* 1920 – Rachel Gurney, English actress (d. 2001)* 1920 – Wang Zengqi, Chinese writer (d. 1997)*1921 – Arthur A. Oliner, American physicist and electrical engineer (d. 2013)* 1921 – Elmer Valo, American baseball player and coach (d. 1998)*1922 – James Noble, American actor (d. 2016)* 1922 – Pier Paolo Pasolini, Italian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1975)*1923 – Juan A. Rivero, Puerto Rican biologist and academic (d. 2014)* 1923 – Laurence Tisch, American businessman, co-founded the Loews Corporation (d. 2003)*1924 – Roger Marche, French footballer (d. 1997)*1927 – Jack Cassidy, American actor and singer (d. 1976)* 1927 – Robert Lindsay, 29th Earl of Crawford, Scottish businessman and politician (d. 2023)*1928 – J. Hillis Miller, American academic and critic (d. 2021)*1929 – Erik Carlsson, Swedish race car driver (d. 2015)* 1929 – J.",
"B. Lenoir, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1967)*1930 – John Ashley, Canadian ice hockey player and referee (d. 2008)* 1930 – Del Crandall, American baseball player and manager (d. 2021)*1931 – Fred, French author and illustrator (d. 2013)* 1931 – Barry Tuckwell, Australian horn player and educator (d. 2020)*1932 – Paul Sand, American actor*1933 – Walter Kasper, German cardinal and theologian*1934 – Daniel Kahneman, Israeli-American economist and psychologist, Nobel Prize laureate*1935 – Letizia Battaglia, Italian photographer and journalist* 1935 – Philip K. Chapman, Australian-American astronaut and engineer (d. 2021)* 1935 – Shamsuddin Qasemi, Bangladeshi Islamic scholar and politician (d. 1996) *1936 – Canaan Banana, Zimbabwean minister and politician, 1st President of Zimbabwe (d. 2003)* 1936 – Dale Douglass, American golfer (d. 2022)* 1936 – Dean Stockwell, American actor (d. 2021)*1937 – Olusegun Obasanjo, Nigerian general and politician, 5th President of Nigeria*1938 – Paul Evans, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1938 – Lynn Margulis, American biologist and academic (d. 2011)* 1938 – Fred Williamson, American football player, actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1939 – Samantha Eggar, English actress* 1939 – Tony Rundle, Australian politician, 40th Premier of Tasmania* 1939 – Benyamin Sueb, Indonesian actor and comedian (d. 1995)* 1939 – Peter Woodcock, Canadian serial killer (d. 2010)* 1939 – Pierre Wynants, Belgian chef*1940 – Tom Butler, English bishop* 1940 – Ken Irvine, Australian rugby league player (d. 1990)* 1940 – Graham McRae, New Zealand race car driver (d. 2021)* 1940 – Sepp Piontek, German footballer and manager*1941 – Des Wilson, New Zealand-English businessman and activist*1942 – Felipe González, Spanish lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Spain* 1942 – Mike Resnick, American author and editor (d. 2020)* 1942 – David Watkins, Welsh rugby player*1943 – Lucio Battisti, Italian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1998)*1944 – Peter Brandes, Danish painter and sculptor* 1944 – Roy Gutman, American journalist and author*1945 – Wilf Tranter, English footballer*1946 – Richard Bell, Canadian pianist (d. 2007)* 1946 – Guerrino Boatto, Italian illustrator and painter (d. 2018)* 1946 – Graham Hawkins, English footballer and manager (d. 2016)* 1946 – Murray Head, English actor and singer*1947 – Clodagh Rodgers, Northern Irish singer and actress* 1947 – Kent Tekulve, American baseball player and sportscaster*1948 – Paquirri, Spanish bullfighter (d. 1984)* 1948 – Eddy Grant, Guyanese-British singer-songwriter and musician* 1948 – Richard Hickox, English conductor and scholar (d. 2008)* 1948 – Elaine Paige, English singer and actress* 1948 – Jan van Beveren, Dutch footballer and coach (d. 2011)*1949 – Bernard Arnault, French businessman, philanthropist, and art collector* 1949 – Franz Josef Jung, German lawyer and politician, German Federal Minister of Defence* 1949 – Tom Russell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1951 – Rodney Hogg, Australian cricketer and coach*1952 – Petar Borota, Serbian footballer and coach (d. 2010)* 1952 – Robin Hobb, American author* 1952 – Mike Squires, American baseball player and scout*1953 – Katarina Frostenson, Swedish poet and author* 1953 – Michael J. Sandel, American philosopher and academic* 1953 – Tokyo Sexwale, South African businessman and politician, 1st Premier of Gauteng*1954 – Marsha Warfield, American actress* 1954 – João Lourenço, Angolan president*1955 – Penn Jillette, American magician, actor, and author*1956 – Teena Marie, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2010)* 1956 – Christopher Snowden, English engineer and academic*1957 – Mark E. Smith, English singer, songwriter and musician (d. 2018)* 1957 – Ray Suarez, American journalist and author*1958 – Volodymyr Bezsonov, Ukrainian footballer and manager* 1958 – Bob Forward, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1958 – Andy Gibb, English-Australian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1988)*1959 – Vazgen Sargsyan, Armenian colonel and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Armenia (d. 1999)*1960 – Paul Drayson, Baron Drayson, English businessman and politician, Minister for Defence Equipment, Support and Technology* 1960 – Mike Munchak, American football player and coach*1963 – Joel Osteen, American pastor, author, and television host*1964 – Bertrand Cantat, French singer-songwriter* 1964 – Gerald Vanenburg, Dutch footballer and manager*1965 – Steve Linnane, Australian rugby league player* 1965 – José Semedo, Portuguese footballer and coach*1966 – Oh Eun-sun, South Korean mountaineer* 1966 – Bob Halkidis, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1966 – Michael Irvin, American football player, sportscaster, and actor* 1966 – Aasif Mandvi, Indian-American actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1966 – Zachery Stevens, American singer-songwriter*1968 – Gordon Bajnai, Hungarian businessman and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Hungary* 1968 – Theresa Villiers, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Northern Ireland*1969 – Paul Blackthorne, English actor and producer* 1969 – Danny King, English author and playwright* 1969 – Moussa Saïb, Algerian footballer and manager* 1969 – M.C.",
"Solaar, Senegalese-French rapper*1970 – Mike Brown, American basketball player and coach* 1970 – John Frusciante, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer* 1970 – Yuu Watase, Japanese illustrator*1971 – Greg Berry, English footballer and coach* 1971 – Jeffrey Hammonds, American baseball player and scout* 1971 – Yuri Lowenthal, American voice actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1971 – Filip Meirhaeghe, Belgian cyclist* 1971 – Mark Protheroe, Australian rugby league player *1973 – Yannis Anastasiou, Greek footballer and manager* 1973 – Nelly Arcan, Canadian author (d. 2009)* 1973 – Juan Esnáider, Argentinian footballer and manager* 1973 – Ryan Franklin, American baseball player* 1973 – Nicole Pratt, Australian tennis player, coach, and sportscaster* 1973 – Špela Pretnar, Slovenian skier*1974 – Kevin Connolly, American actor and director* 1974 – Jens Jeremies, German footballer * 1974 – Matt Lucas, English actor, comedian, writer, and television personality* 1974 – Eva Mendes, American model and actress*1975 – Luciano Burti, Brazilian race car driver and sportscaster* 1975 – Sasho Petrovski, Australian footballer* 1975 – Chris Silverwood, English cricketer and coach*1976 – Neil Jackson, English actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1976 – Šarūnas Jasikevičius, Lithuanian basketball player and coach* 1976 – Paul Konerko, American baseball player* 1976 – Norm Maxwell, New Zealand rugby player*1977 – Taismary Agüero, Cuban-Italian volleyball player* 1977 – Adam Hayden, Australian rugby league player*1978 – Jared Crouch, Australian footballer* 1978 – Mike Hessman, American baseball player and coach* 1978 – Kimberly McCullough, American actress, singer, and dancer* 1978 – Carlos Ochoa, Mexican footballer*1979 – Martin Axenrot, Swedish drummer* 1979 – Lee Mears, English rugby player*1980 – Shay Carl, American businessman, co-founded Maker Studios*1981 – Barret Jackman, Canadian ice hockey player* 1981 – Paul Martin, American ice hockey player*1982 – Dan Carter, New Zealand rugby player* 1982 – Philipp Haastrup, German footballer*1983 – Édgar Dueñas, Mexican footballer*1984 – Branko Cvetković, Serbian basketball player* 1984 – Guillaume Hoarau, French footballer*1985 – David Marshall, Scottish footballer* 1985 – Brad Mills, American baseball player* 1985 – Kenichi Matsuyama, Japanese actor*1986 – Alexandre Barthe, French footballer* 1986 – Matty Fryatt, English footballer* 1986 – Shikabala, Egyptian footballer*1987 – Anna Chakvetadze, Russian tennis player* 1987 – Chris Cohen, English footballer*1988 – Liassine Cadamuro-Bentaïba, Algerian footballer* 1988 – Jovana Brakočević, Serbian volleyball player*1990 – Danny Drinkwater, English footballer* 1990 – Mason Plumlee, American basketball player* 1990 – Alex Smithies, English footballer*1991 – Ramiro Funes Mori, Argentinian footballer* 1991 – Daniil Trifonov, Russian pianist and composer*1992 – Sam Bankman-Fried, American businessman*1993 – El Hadji Ba, French footballer* 1993 – Joshua Coyne, American violinist and composer* 1993 – Fred, Brazilian footballer* 1993 – Ahmed Hassan, Egyptian footballer* 1993 – Harry Maguire, English footballer*1994 – Daria Gavrilova, Russian-Australian tennis player* 1994 – Kyle Schwarber, American baseball player*1996 – Taylor Hill, American model* 1996 – Emmanuel Mudiay, Congolese basketball player*1997 – Milena Venega, Cuban rower*1998 – Bo Bichette, American baseball player*1999 – Justin Fields, American football player* 1999 – Kim Ye-rim, South Korean singer and actress*2007 – Roman Griffin Davis, British actor"
],
[
"Deaths",
"===Pre-1600===* 254 – Pope Lucius I* 824 – Suppo I, Frankish nobleman*1239 – Hermann Balk, German knight*1410 – Matthew of Kraków, Polish reformer (b.",
"1335)*1417 – Manuel III Megas Komnenos, Emperor of Trebizond (b.",
"1364)*1534 – Antonio da Correggio, Italian painter and educator (b.",
"1489)*1539 – Nuno da Cunha, Portuguese admiral and politician, Governor of Portuguese India (b.",
"1487)*1599 – Guido Panciroli, Italian historian and jurist (b.",
"1523)===1601–1900===*1611 – Shimazu Yoshihisa, Japanese daimyō (b.",
"1533)*1622 – Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma (b.",
"1569)*1695 – Henry Wharton, English writer and librarian (b.",
"1664)*1726 – Evelyn Pierrepont, 1st Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull, English politician, Lord President of the Council (b.",
"1655)*1770 – Crispus Attucks, American slave (b.",
"1723)*1778 – Thomas Arne, English composer and educator (b.",
"1710)*1815 – Franz Mesmer, German physician and astrologist (b.",
"1734)*1827 – Pierre-Simon Laplace, French mathematician and astronomer (b.",
"1749)* 1827 – Alessandro Volta, Italian physicist and academic (b.",
"1745)*1829 – John Adams, English sailor and mutineer (b.",
"1766)*1849 – David Scott, Scottish historical painter (b.",
"1806)*1876 – Marie d'Agoult, German-French historian and author (b.",
"1805)*1889 – Mary Louise Booth, American writer, editor and translator (b.",
"1831)*1893 – Hippolyte Taine, French historian and critic (b.",
"1828)*1895 – Nikolai Leskov, Russian author, playwright, and journalist (b.",
"1831)* 1895 – Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet, English general and scholar (b.",
"1810)===1901–present===*1907 – Friedrich Blass, German philologist, scholar, and academic (b.",
"1843)*1925 – Johan Jensen, Danish mathematician and engineer (b.",
"1859)*1927 – Franz Mertens, Polish-Austrian mathematician and academic (b.",
"1840)*1929 – David Dunbar Buick, Scottish-American businessman, founded Buick (b.",
"1854)*1934 – Reşit Galip, Turkish academic and politician, 6th Turkish Minister of National Education (b.",
"1893)*1935 – Roque Ruaño, Spanish priest and engineer (b.",
"1877)*1940 – Cai Yuanpei, Chinese philosopher and academic (b.",
"1868)*1942 – George Plant Executed Irish Republican (b.",
"1904)*1944 – Max Jacob, French poet and author (b.",
"1876)*1945 – Lena Baker, African American held captive post slavery-era(b.",
"1900)*1947 – Alfredo Casella, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.",
"1883)*1950 – Edgar Lee Masters, American poet, author, and playwright (b.",
"1868)* 1950 – Roman Shukhevych, Ukrainian general and politician (b.",
"1907)*1953 – Herman J. Mankiewicz, American screenwriter and producer (b.",
"1897)* 1953 – Sergei Prokofiev, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.",
"1891)* 1953 – Joseph Stalin, Soviet dictator and politician of Georgian descent, 2nd leader of the Soviet Union (b.",
"1878)*1955 – Antanas Merkys, Lithuanian lawyer and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Lithuania (b.",
"1888)*1963 – Patsy Cline, American singer-songwriter (b.",
"1932)* 1963 – Cowboy Copas, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.",
"1913)* 1963 – Hawkshaw Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.",
"1921)*1965 – Chen Cheng, Chinese general and politician, 27th Premier of the Republic of China (b.",
"1897)* 1965 – Pepper Martin, American baseball player and manager (b.",
"1904)*1966 – Anna Akhmatova, Ukrainian-Russian poet, author, and translator (b.",
"1889)*1967 – Mischa Auer, Russian-American actor (b.",
"1905)* 1967 – Mohammad Mosaddegh, Iranian political scientist and politician, 60th Prime Minister of Iran (b.",
"1882)* 1967 – Georges Vanier, Canadian general and politician, 19th Governor General of Canada (b.",
"1888)*1971 – Allan Nevins, American journalist and author (b.",
"1890)*1973 – Robert C. O'Brien, American journalist and author (b.",
"1918)*1974 – John Samuel Bourque, Canadian colonel and politician (b.",
"1894)* 1974 – Billy De Wolfe, American actor (b.",
"1907)* 1974 – Sol Hurok, Ukrainian-American businessman (b.",
"1888)*1976 – Otto Tief, Estonian lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia (b.",
"1889)*1977 – Tom Pryce, Welsh race car driver (b.",
"1949)*1980 – Jay Silverheels, Canadian-American actor (b.",
"1912)*1981 – Yip Harburg, American songwriter and composer (b.",
"1896)*1982 – John Belushi, American actor (b.",
"1949)*1984 – Tito Gobbi, Italian operatic baritone (b.",
"1913)* 1984 – William Powell, American actor (b.",
"1892)*1988 – Alberto Olmedo, Argentine comedian and actor (b.",
"1933)*1990 – Gary Merrill, American actor and director (b.",
"1915)*1995 – Vivian Stanshall, English singer-songwriter and musician (b.",
"1943)*1996 – Whit Bissell, American character actor (b.",
"1909)*1997 – Samm Sinclair Baker, American writer (b.",
"1909)* 1997 – Jean Dréville, French director and screenwriter (b.",
"1906)*1999 – Richard Kiley, American actor and singer (b.",
"1922)*2000 – Lolo Ferrari, French dancer, actress and singer (b.",
"1963)*2005 – David Sheppard, English cricketer and bishop (b.",
"1929)*2008 – Joseph Weizenbaum, German computer scientist and author (b.",
"1923)*2010 – Charles B.",
"Pierce, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.",
"1938)* 2010 – Richard Stapley, British actor and writer (b.",
"1923)*2011 – Manolis Rasoulis, Greek singer-songwriter (b.",
"1945)*2012 – Paul Haines, New Zealand-Australian author (b.",
"1970)* 2012 – Philip Madoc, Welsh-English actor (b.",
"1934)* 2012 – William O. Wooldridge, American sergeant (b.",
"1922)*2013 – Paul Bearer, American wrestler and manager (b.",
"1954)* 2013 – Hugo Chávez, Venezuelan colonel and politician, President of Venezuela (b.",
"1954)* 2013 – Duane Gish, American biochemist and academic (b.",
"1921)*2014 – Geoff Edwards, American actor and game show host (b.",
"1931)* 2014 – Ailsa McKay, Scottish economist and academic (b.",
"1963)* 2014 – Leopoldo María Panero, Spanish poet and translator (b.",
"1948)* 2014 – Ola L. Mize, American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (b.",
"1931)*2015 – Vlada Divljan, Serbian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.",
"1958)* 2015 – Edward Egan, American cardinal and former Archbishop of New York (b.",
"1932)*2016 – Hassan Al-Turabi, Sudanese activist and politician (b.",
"1932)* 2016 – Ray Tomlinson, American computer programmer and engineer (b.",
"1941)* 2016 – Al Wistert, American football player and coach (b.",
"1920)*2017 – Kurt Moll, German opera singer (b.",
"1938)"
],
[
"Holidays and observances",
"*Christian feast day:**Ciarán of Saigir **John Joseph of the Cross**Piran**Theophilus, bishop of Caesarea** Thietmar of Minden**March 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Day of Physical Culture and Sport (Azerbaijan)*Learn from Lei Feng Day (China)*St Piran's Day (Cornwall)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 5"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"March 4"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Events",
"===Pre-1600===*AD 51 – Nero, later to become Roman emperor, is given the title ''princeps iuventutis'' (head of the youth).",
"* 306 – Martyrdom of Saint Adrian of Nicomedia.",
"* 581 – Yang Jian declares himself Emperor Wen of Sui, ending the Northern Zhou and beginning the Sui dynasty.",
"* 852 – Croatian Knez Trpimir I issues a statute, a document with the first known written mention of the Croats name in Croatian sources.",
"* 938 – Translation of the relics of martyr Wenceslaus I, Duke of Bohemia, Prince of the Czechs.",
"*1152 – Frederick I Barbarossa is elected King of Germany.",
"*1238 – The Battle of the Sit River begins two centuries of Mongol horde domination of Russia.",
"*1351 – Ramathibodi becomes King of Siam.",
"*1386 – Władysław II Jagiełło (Jogaila) is crowned King of Poland.",
"*1461 – Wars of the Roses in England: Lancastrian King Henry VI is deposed by his House of York cousin, who then becomes King Edward IV.",
"*1493 – Explorer Christopher Columbus arrives back in Lisbon, Portugal, aboard his ship ''Niña'' from his voyage to what are now The Bahamas and other islands in the Caribbean.",
"*1519 – Hernán Cortés arrives in Mexico in search of the Aztec civilization and its wealth.===1601–1900===*1628 – The Massachusetts Bay Colony is granted a Royal charter.",
"*1665 – English King Charles II declares war on the Netherlands marking the start of the Second Anglo-Dutch War.",
"*1675 – John Flamsteed is appointed the first Astronomer Royal of England.",
"*1681 – Charles II grants a land charter to William Penn for the area that will later become Pennsylvania.",
"* 1769 – Mozart departed Italy after the last of his three tours there.",
"*1776 – American Revolutionary War: The Continental Army fortifies Dorchester Heights with cannon, leading the British troops to abandon the Siege of Boston.",
"*1789 – In New York City, the first Congress of the United States meets, putting the United States Constitution into effect.",
"*1790 – France is divided into 83 ''départements'', cutting across the former provinces in an attempt to dislodge regional loyalties based on ownership of land by the nobility.",
"* 1791 – Vermont is admitted to the United States as the fourteenth state.",
"*1794 – The 11th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is passed by the U.S.",
"Congress.",
"*1797 – John Adams is inaugurated as the 2nd President of the United States of America, becoming the first President to begin his presidency on March 4.",
"*1804 – Castle Hill Rebellion: Irish convicts rebel against British colonial authority in the Colony of New South Wales.",
"*1813 – Cyril VI of Constantinople is elected Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.",
"*1814 – Americans defeat British forces at the Battle of Longwoods between London, Ontario and Thamesville, near present-day Wardsville, Ontario.",
"*1837 – The city of Chicago is incorporated.",
"*1848 – Carlo Alberto di Savoia signs the ''Statuto Albertino'' that will later represent the first constitution of the ''Regno d'Italia''.",
"*1849 – President-elect of the United States Zachary Taylor and Vice President-elect Millard Fillmore did not take their respective oaths of office (they did so the following day), leading to the erroneous theory that outgoing President pro tempore of the United States Senate David Rice Atchison had assumed the role of acting president for one day.",
"*1861 – The first national flag of the Confederate States of America (the \"Stars and Bars\") is adopted.",
"*1865 – The third and final national flag of the Confederate States of America is adopted by the Confederate Congress.",
"*1865 – U.S. politician Andrew Johnson made his drunk vice-presidential inaugural address in Washington, D.C.*1878 – Pope Leo XIII reestablishes the Catholic Church in Scotland, recreating sees and naming bishops for the first time since 1603.",
"*1882 – Britain's first electric trams run in east London.",
"*1890 – The longest bridge in Great Britain, the Forth Bridge in Scotland, measuring long, is opened by the Duke of Rothesay, later King Edward VII.",
"*1899 – Cyclone Mahina sweeps in north of Cooktown, Queensland, with a wave that reaches up to inland, killing over 300.===1901–present===*1901 – McKinley inaugurated president for second time; Theodore Roosevelt is vice president.",
"*1908 – The Collinwood school fire, Collinwood near Cleveland, Ohio, kills 174 people.",
"*1909 – U.S. President William Taft used what became known as a Saxbe fix, a mechanism to avoid the restriction of the U.S. Constitution's Ineligibility Clause, to appoint Philander C. Knox as U.S. Secretary of State.",
"*1913 – First Balkan War: The Greek army engages the Turks at Bizani, resulting in victory two days later.",
"* 1913 – The United States Department of Labor is formed.",
"*1917 – Jeannette Rankin of Montana becomes the first female member of the United States House of Representatives.",
"*1933 – Franklin D. Roosevelt becomes the 32nd President of the United States.",
"He was the last president to be inaugurated on March 4.",
"* 1933 – Frances Perkins becomes United States Secretary of Labor, the first female member of the United States Cabinet.",
"* 1933 – The Parliament of Austria is suspended because of a quibble over procedure – Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss initiates an authoritarian rule by decree.",
"*1941 – World War II: The United Kingdom launches Operation Claymore on the Lofoten Islands; the first large scale British Commando raid.",
"*1943 – World War II: The Battle of the Bismarck Sea in the south-west Pacific comes to an end.",
"* 1943 – World War II: The Battle of Fardykambos, one of the first major battles between the Greek Resistance and the occupying Royal Italian Army, begins.",
"It ends on 6 March with the surrender of an entire Italian battalion and the liberation of the town of Grevena.",
"*1944 – World War II: After the success of Big Week, the USAAF begins a daylight bombing campaign of Berlin.",
"*1955 – An order to protect the endangered Saimaa ringed seal (''Pusa hispida saimensis'') was legalized.",
"*1957 – The S&P 500 stock market index is introduced, replacing the S&P 90.",
"*1960 – The French freighter ''La Coubre'' explodes in Havana, Cuba, killing 100.",
"*1962 – A Caledonian Airways Douglas DC-7 crashes shortly after takeoff from Cameroon, killing 111 – the worst crash of a DC-7.",
"*1966 – A Canadian Pacific Air Lines DC-8-43 explodes on landing at Tokyo International Airport, killing 64 people.",
"* 1966 – In an interview in the ''London Evening Standard'', The Beatles' John Lennon declares that the band is \"more popular than Jesus now\".",
"*1970 – French submarine ''Eurydice'' explodes underwater, resulting in the loss of the entire 57-man crew.",
"*1976 – The Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention is formally dissolved in Northern Ireland resulting in direct rule of Northern Ireland from London by the British parliament.",
"*1977 – The 1977 Vrancea earthquake in eastern and southern Europe kills more than 1,500, mostly in Bucharest, Romania.",
"*1980 – Nationalist leader Robert Mugabe wins a sweeping election victory to become Zimbabwe's first black prime minister.",
"*1985 – The Food and Drug Administration approves a blood test for HIV infection, used since then for screening all blood donations in the United States.",
"*1986 – The Soviet Vega 1 begins returning images of Halley's Comet and the first images of its nucleus.",
"*1990 – American basketball player Hank Gathers dies after collapsing during the semifinals of a West Coast Conference tournament game.",
"* 1990 – Lennox Sebe, President for life of the South African Bantustan of Ciskei, is ousted from power in a bloodless military coup led by Brigadier Oupa Gqozo.",
"*1994 – Space Shuttle program: the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' is launched on STS-62.",
"*1996 – A derailed train in Weyauwega, Wisconsin (USA) causes the emergency evacuation of 2,300 people for 16 days.",
"*1998 – Gay rights: ''Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc.'': The Supreme Court of the United States rules that federal laws banning on-the-job sexual harassment also apply when both parties are the same sex.",
"*2001 – BBC bombing: A massive car bomb explodes in front of the BBC Television Centre in London, seriously injuring one person; the attack was attributed to the Real IRA.",
"*2002 – Afghanistan: Seven American Special Operations Forces soldiers and 200 Al-Qaeda Fighters are killed as American forces attempt to infiltrate the Shah-i-Kot Valley on a low-flying helicopter reconnaissance mission.",
"*2009 – The International Criminal Court (ICC) issues an arrest warrant for Sudanese President Omar Hassan al-Bashir for war crimes and crimes against humanity in Darfur.",
"Al-Bashir is the first sitting head of state to be indicted by the ICC since its establishment in 2002.",
"*2012 – A series of explosions is reported at a munitions dump in Brazzaville, the capital of the Republic of the Congo, killing at least 250 people.",
"*2015 – At least 34 miners die in a suspected gas explosion at the Zasyadko coal mine in the rebel-held Donetsk region of Ukraine.",
"*2018 – Former MI6 spy Sergei Skripal and his daughter are poisoned with a Novichok nerve agent in Salisbury, England, causing a diplomatic uproar that results in mass-expulsions of diplomats from all countries involved.",
"*2020 – Nik Wallenda becomes the first person to walk on the Masaya Volcano in Nicaragua."
],
[
"Births",
"===Pre-1600===* 895 – Liu Zhiyuan, founder of the Later Han Dynasty (d. 948)* 977 – Al-Musabbihi, Fatimid historian and official (d. 1030)*1188 – Blanche of Castile, French queen consort (d. 1252)*1394 – Henry the Navigator, Portuguese explorer (d. 1460)*1484 – George, margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (d. 1543)*1492 – Francesco de Layolle, Italian organist and composer (d. 1540)*1502 – Elisabeth of Hesse, princess of Saxony (d. 1557)*1519 – Hindal Mirza, Mughal emperor (d. 1551)*1526 – Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon (d. 1596)===1601–1900===*1602 – Kanō Tan'yū, Japanese painter (d. 1674)*1634 – Kazimierz Łyszczyński, Polish philosopher (d. 1689)*1651 – John Somers, 1st Baron Somers, English lawyer, jurist, and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (d. 1716)*1655 – Fra Galgario, Italian painter (d. 1743)*1665 – Philip Christoph von Königsmarck, Swedish soldier (d. 1694)*1678 – Antonio Vivaldi, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1741)*1702 – Jack Sheppard, English criminal (d. 1724)*1706 – Lauritz de Thurah, Danish architect, designed the Hermitage Hunting Lodge and Gammel Holtegård (d. 1759)*1715 – James Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegrave, English historian and politician (d. 1763)*1719 – George Pigot, 1st Baron Pigot, English politician (d. 1777)*1729 – Anne d'Arpajon, French wife of Philippe de Noailles (d. 1794)*1745 – Charles Dibdin, English actor, playwright, and composer (d. 1814)* 1745 – Casimir Pulaski, Polish-American general (d. 1779)*1756 – Henry Raeburn, Scottish portrait painter (d. 1823)*1760 – William Payne, English painter (d. 1830)* 1760 – Hugh Ronalds, British nurseryman who cultivated and documented 300 varieties of apples (d. 1833)*1769 – Muhammad Ali, Ottoman military leader and pasha (d. 1849)*1770 – Joseph Jacotot, French philosopher and academic (d. 1840)*1778 – Robert Emmet, Irish republican (d. 1803)*1781 – Rebecca Gratz, American educator and philanthropist (d. 1869)*1782 – Johann Rudolf Wyss, Swiss philosopher, author, and academic (d. 1830)*1792 – Isaac Lea, American conchologist, geologist, and publisher (d. 1886)*1793 – Karl Lachmann, German philologist and critic (d. 1851)*1800 – William Price, Welsh physician, Chartist, and neo-Druid (d. 1893)*1814 – Napoleon Collins, Rear Admiral of the United States Navy during the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War (d. 1875)*1815 – Mykhailo Verbytsky, Ukrainian composer of religious hymns and the national anthem of Ukraine (d. 1870)*1817 – Edwards Pierrepont, American lawyer and politician, 34th United States Attorney General (d. 1892)*1820 – Francesco Bentivegna, Italian rebel leader (d. 1856)*1822 – Jules Antoine Lissajous, French mathematician and academic (d. 1880)*1823 – George Caron, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1902)*1826 – August Johann Gottfried Bielenstein, German linguist, ethnographer, and theologian (d. 1907)* 1826 – John Buford, American general (d. 1863)* 1826 – Elme Marie Caro, French philosopher and academic (d. 1887)* 1826 – Theodore Judah, American engineer, founded the Central Pacific Railroad (d. 1863)*1828 – Owen Wynne Jones, Welsh clergyman and poet (d. 1870)*1838 – Paul Lacôme, French pianist, cellist, and composer (d. 1920)*1847 – Carl Josef Bayer, Austrian chemist and academic (d. 1904)*1851 – Alexandros Papadiamantis, Greek author and poet (d. 1911)*1854 – Napier Shaw, English meteorologist and academic (d. 1945)*1856 – Alfred William Rich, English painter, author, and educator (d. 1921)*1861 – Arthur Cushman McGiffert, American theologian and author (d. 1933)*1862 – Jacob Robert Emden, Swiss astrophysicist and meteorologist (d. 1940)*1863 – R. I. Pocock, English zoologist and archaeologist (d. 1947)* 1863 – John Henry Wigmore, American academic and jurist (d. 1943)*1864 – David W. Taylor, American admiral, architect, and engineer (d. 1940)*1866 – Eugène Cosserat, French mathematician and astronomer (d. 1931)*1867 – Jacob L. Beilhart, American activist, founded the Spirit Fruit Society (d. 1908)* 1867 – Charles Pelot Summerall, American Army officer (d. 1955)*1870 – Thomas Sturge Moore, English author and poet (d. 1944)*1871 – Boris Galerkin, Russian mathematician and engineer (d. 1945)*1873 – Guy Wetmore Carryl, American journalist and poet (d. 1904)* 1873 – John H. Trumbull, American colonel and politician, 70th Governor of Connecticut (d. 1961)*1875 – Mihály Károlyi, Hungarian politician, President of Hungary (d. 1955)* 1875 – Enrique Larreta, Argentinian historian and author (d. 1961)*1876 – Léon-Paul Fargue, French poet and author (d. 1947)* 1876 – Theodore Hardeen, Hungarian-American magician (d. 1945)*1877 – Alexander Goedicke, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1957)* 1877 – Fritz Graebner, German geographer and ethnologist (d. 1934)* 1877 – Garrett Morgan, African-American inventor (d. 1963)*1878 – Takeo Arishima, Japanese author and critic (d. 1923)* 1878 – Egbert Van Alstyne, American pianist and songwriter (d. 1951)*1879 – Bernhard Kellermann, German author and poet (d. 1951)*1880 – Channing Pollock, American playwright and critic (d. 1946)*1881 – Todor Aleksandrov, Bulgarian educator and activist (d. 1924)* 1881 – Thomas Sigismund Stribling, American lawyer and author (d. 1965)* 1881 – Richard C. Tolman, American physicist and chemist (d. 1948)*1882 – Nicolae Titulescu, Romanian academic and politician, 61st Romanian Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1941)*1883 – Maude Fealy, American actress and screenwriter (d. 1971)* 1883 – Robert Emmett Keane, American actor (d. 1981)* 1883 – Sam Langford, Canadian-American boxer (d. 1956)*1884 – Red Murray, American baseball player (d. 1958)* 1884 – Lee Shumway, American actor (d. 1959)*1886 – Paul Bazelaire, French cellist and composer (d. 1958)*1888 – Rafaela Ottiano, Italian-American actress (d. 1942)* 1888 – Jeff Pfeffer, American baseball player (d. 1972)* 1888 – Emma Richter, German paleontologist (d. 1956)* 1888 – Knute Rockne, American football player and coach (d. 1931)*1889 – Oscar Chisini, Italian mathematician and statistician (d. 1967)* 1889 – Oren E. Long, American soldier and politician, 10th Territorial Governor of Hawaii (d. 1965)* 1889 – Pearl White, American actress (d. 1938)* 1889 – Robert William Wood, English-American painter (d. 1979)*1890 – Norman Bethune, Canadian soldier and physician (d. 1939)*1891 – Dazzy Vance, American baseball player (d. 1961)*1893 – Charles Herbert Colvin, American engineer, co-founded the Pioneer Instrument Company (d. 1985)* 1893 – Adolph Lowe, German sociologist and economist (d. 1995)*1894 – Charles Corm, Lebanese businessman and philanthropist (d. 1963)*1895 – Milt Gross, American animator, director, and screenwriter (d. 1953)*1896 – Kai Holm, Danish actor and director (d. 1985)*1897 – Lefty O'Doul, American baseball player and manager (d. 1969)*1898 – Georges Dumézil, French philologist and academic (d. 1986)* 1898 – Hans Krebs, German general (d. 1945)*1899 – Peter Illing, Austrian born, British film and television actor (d. 1966)* 1899 – Emilio Prados, Spanish poet and author (d. 1962)*1900 – Herbert Biberman, American director and screenwriter (d. 1971)===1901–present===*1901 – Wilbur R. Franks, Canadian scientist, invented the g-suit (d. 1986)* 1901 – Charles Goren, American bridge player and author (d. 1991)* 1901 – Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo, Malagasy-French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1937)*1902 – Rachel Messerer, Lithuanian-Russian actress (d. 1993)* 1902 – Russell Reeder, American soldier and author (d. 1998)*1903 – William C. Boyd, American immunologist and chemist (d. 1983)* 1903 – Malcolm Dole, American chemist and academic (d. 1990)* 1903 – Dorothy Mackaill, English-American actress and singer (d. 1990)* 1903 – John Scarne, American magician and author (d. 1985)*1904 – Luis Carrero Blanco, Spanish admiral and politician, 69th President of the Government of Spain (d. 1973)* 1904 – George Gamow, Ukrainian-American physicist and cosmologist (d. 1968)* 1904 – Joseph Schmidt, Austrian-Hungarian tenor and actor (d. 1942)*1906 – Meindert DeJong, Dutch-American soldier and author (d. 1991)* 1906 – Avery Fisher, American violinist and engineer, founded Fisher Electronics (d. 1994)* 1906 – Georges Ronsse, Belgian cyclist and manager (d. 1969)*1907 – Maria Branyas, Spanish supercentenarian, oldest living person* 1907 – Edgar Barrier, American actor (d. 1964)*1908 – T. R. M. Howard, American surgeon and activist (d. 1976)* 1908 – Thomas Shaw, American singer and guitarist (d. 1977)*1909 – Harry Helmsley, American businessman (d. 1997)* 1909 – George Edward Holbrook, American chemist and engineer (d. 1987)*1910 – Tancredo Neves, Brazilian lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Brazil (d. 1985)*1911 – Charles Greville, 7th Earl of Warwick, English actor (d. 1984)*1912 – Afro Basaldella, Italian painter and academic (d. 1976)* 1912 – Ferdinand Leitner, German conductor and composer (d. 1996)* 1912 – Carl Marzani, Italian-American activist and publisher (d. 1994)*1913 – Taos Amrouche, Algerian singer and author (d. 1976)* 1913 – John Garfield, American actor and singer (d. 1952)*1914 – Barbara Newhall Follett, American author (d. 1939)* 1914 – Ward Kimball, American animator, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2002)* 1914 – Robert R. Wilson, American physicist, sculptor, and architect (d. 2000)*1915 – László Csatáry, Hungarian art dealer (d. 2013)* 1915 – Frank Sleeman, Australian lieutenant and politician, Lord Mayor of Brisbane (d. 2000)* 1915 – Carlos Surinach, Spanish-Catalan composer and conductor (d. 1997)*1916 – William Alland, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1997)* 1916 – Giorgio Bassani, Italian author and poet (d. 2000)* 1916 – Hans Eysenck, German-English psychologist and theorist (d. 1997)* 1916 – Ernest Titterton, British Australian nuclear physicist (d. 1990)*1917 – Clyde McCullough, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1982)*1918 – Kurt Dahlmann, German pilot, lawyer, and journalist (d. 2017)* 1918 – Margaret Osborne duPont, American tennis player (d. 2012)*1919 – Buck Baker, American race car driver (d. 2002)* 1919 – Tan Chee Khoon, Malaysian physician and politician (d. 1996)*1920 – Jean Lecanuet, French politician, French Minister of Justice (d. 1993)* 1920 – Alan MacNaughtan, Scottish-English actor (d. 2002)*1921 – Halim El-Dabh, Egyptian-American composer and educator (d. 2017)* 1921 – Joan Greenwood, English actress (d. 1987)* 1921 – Dinny Pails, English-Australian tennis player (d. 1986)*1922 – Richard E. Cunha, American director and cinematographer (d. 2005)* 1922 – Dina Pathak, Indian actor and director (d. 2002)*1923 – Russell Freeburg, American journalist and author* 1923 – Francis King, English author and poet (d. 2011)* 1923 – Patrick Moore, English astronomer and television host (d. 2012)*1924 – Kenneth O'Donnell, American soldier and politician (d. 1977)*1925 – Alan R. Battersby, English chemist and academic (d. 2018)* 1925 – Paul Mauriat, French conductor and composer (d. 2006)*1926 – Henri de Contenson, French archaeologist and academic (d. 2019)* 1926 – Prince Michel of Bourbon-Parma, French businessman, soldier and racing driver (d. 2018)* 1926 – Richard DeVos, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Amway (d. 2018)* 1926 – Pascual Pérez, Argentinian boxer (d. 1977)* 1926 – Don Rendell, English saxophonist and flute player (d. 2015)*1927 – Phil Batt, American soldier and politician, 29th Governor of Idaho (d. 2023)* 1927 – Thayer David, American actor (d. 1978)* 1927 – Jacques Dupin, French poet and critic (d. 2012)* 1927 – Dick Savitt, American tennis player and businessman (d. 2023)*1928 – Samuel Adler, German-American composer and conductor* 1928 – Alan Sillitoe, English novelist, short story writer, essayist, and poet (d. 2010)*1929 – Bernard Haitink, Dutch violinist and conductor (d. 2021)* 1929 – Peter Swerling, American theoretician and engineer (d. 2000)*1931 – Wally Bruner, American journalist and television host (d. 1997)* 1931 – Bob Johnson, American ice hockey player and coach (d. 1991)* 1931 – William Henry Keeler, American cardinal (d. 2017)* 1931 – Alice Rivlin, American economist and politician (d. 2019)*1932 – Sigurd Jansen, Norwegian pianist, composer, and conductor* 1932 – Ryszard Kapuściński, Polish journalist, photographer, and poet (d. 2007)* 1932 – Miriam Makeba, South African singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2008)* 1932 – Ed Roth, American illustrator (d. 2001)* 1932 – Frank Wells, American businessman (d. 1994)*1933 – Nino Vaccarella, Italian racing driver (d. 2021)*1934 – Mario Davidovsky, Argentinian-American composer and academic (d. 2019)* 1934 – John Duffey, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1996)* 1934 – Anne Haney, American actress (d. 2001)* 1934 – Barbara McNair, American singer and actress (d. 2007)* 1934 – Sandra Reynolds, South African tennis player* 1934 – Janez Strnad, Slovenian physicist and academic (d. 2015)*1935 – Edward Dębicki, Ukrainian-Polish poet and composer * 1935 – Bent Larsen, Danish chess player and author (d. 2010)*1936 – Eric Allandale, Dominican trombonist and songwriter (d. 2001)* 1936 – Jim Clark, Scottish racing driver (d. 1968)* 1936 – Aribert Reimann, German pianist and composer*1937 – José Araquistáin, Spanish footballer* 1937 – William Deverell, Canadian lawyer, author, and activist* 1937 – Graham Dowling, New Zealand cricketer* 1937 – Leslie H. Gelb, American journalist and author (d. 2019)* 1937 – Yuri Senkevich, Russian physician and explorer (d. 2003)* 1937 – Barney Wilen, French saxophonist and composer (d. 1996)* 1937 – Richard B. Wright, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2017)*1938 – Anton Balasingham, Sri Lankan-English negotiator (d. 2006)* 1938 – Alpha Condé, Guinean politician, President of Guinea* 1938 – Allan Kornblum, American police officer and judge (d. 2010)* 1938 – Don Perkins, American football player and sportscaster* 1938 – Paula Prentiss, American actress* 1938 – Adam Daniel Rotfeld, Polish academic and politician, Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs*1939 – Jack Fisher, American baseball player* 1939 – Robert Shaye, American film producer*1940 – Wolfgang Hoffmann-Riem, German scholar and judge* 1940 – David Plante, American novelist*1941 – John Hancock, American film and television actor (d. 1992)* 1941 – Adrian Lyne, English director, producer, and screenwriter* 1941 – James Zagel, American lawyer and judge*1942 – Gloria Gaither, American singer-songwriter * 1942 – Charles C. Krulak, American general* 1942 – David Matthews, American keyboard player and composer * 1942 – Lynn Sherr, American journalist and author* 1942 – James Gustave Speth, American lawyer and politician* 1942 – Zorán Sztevanovity, Serbian-Hungarian singer-songwriter and guitarist *1943 – Lucio Dalla, Italian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2012)* 1943 – Aldo Rico, Argentinian commander and politician*1944 – Harvey Postlethwaite, English engineer (d. 1999)* 1944 – Anthony Ichiro Sanda, Japanese-American physicist and academic* 1944 – Len Walker, English footballer and manager* 1944 – Bobby Womack, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014)*1945 – Tommy Svensson, Swedish footballer and manager* 1945 – Gary Williams, American basketball player and coach* 1945 – Dieter Meier, Swiss musician, vocalist for Yello*1946 – Michael Ashcroft, English businessman and politician* 1946 – Danny Frisella, American baseball player (d. 1977)* 1946 – Haile Gerima, Ethiopian born US filmmaker* 1946 – Patricia Kennealy-Morrison, American journalist and author*1947 – David Franzoni, American screenwriter and film producer* 1947 – Jan Garbarek, Norwegian saxophonist and composer* 1947 – Bob Lewis, American guitarist * 1947 – Pēteris Plakidis, Latvian pianist and composer (d. 2017)*1948 – Lindy Chamberlain-Creighton, New Zealand-Australian author* 1948 – James Ellroy, American writer * 1948 – Tom Grieve, American baseball player, manager, and sportscaster* 1948 – Mike Moran, English musician, songwriter and record producer* 1948 – Jean O'Leary, American nun and activist (d. 2005)* 1948 – Chris Squire, English singer-songwriter and bass guitarist (d. 2015)* 1948 – Shakin' Stevens, British singer-songwriter *1949 – Sergei Bagapsh, Abkhazian politician, 2nd President of Abkhazia (d. 2011)* 1949 – Carroll Baker, Canadian singer-songwriter*1950 – Ofelia Medina, Mexican actress and screenwriter* 1950 – Rick Perry, American captain and politician, 47th Governor of Texas* 1950 – Safet Plakalo, Bosnian author and playwright (d. 2015)*1951 – Edelgard Bulmahn, German educator and politician, German Federal Minister of Education and Research* 1951 – Theresa Hak Kyung Cha, South Korean-American author, director, and producer (d. 1982)* 1951 – Kenny Dalglish, Scottish footballer and manager* 1951 – Pete Haycock, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013)* 1951 – Peter O'Sullivan, Welsh international footballer* 1951 – Sam Perlozzo, American baseball player and manager* 1951 – Chris Rea, English singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1951 – Glenis Willmott, English scientist and politician* 1951 – Zoran Žižić, Montenegrin politician, 4th Prime Minister of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (d. 2013)*1952 – Peter Kuhfeld, English painter* 1952 – Ronn Moss, American singer-songwriter and actor * 1952 – Svend Robinson, American-Canadian lawyer and politician* 1952 – Umberto Tozzi, Italian singer-songwriter and producer*1953 – John Edwards, Australian director and producer* 1953 – Emilio Estefan, Cuban-American drummer and producer* 1953 – Paweł Janas, Polish footballer and manager* 1953 – Ray Price, Australian rugby player and sportscaster* 1953 – Reinhold Roth, German motorcycle racer* 1953 – Chris Smith, American lawyer and politician* 1953 – Agustí Villaronga, Spanish actor, director, and screenwriter* 1953 – Daniel Woodrell, American novelist and short story writer*1954 – Timur Apakidze, Russian general and pilot (d. 2001)* 1954 – Theresa Hak Kyung Cha, Korean American author (d. 1982)* 1954 – François Fillon, French lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of France* 1954 – Peter Jacobsen, American golfer and sportscaster* 1954 – Catherine O'Hara, Canadian-American actress and comedian* 1954 – Irina Ratushinskaya, Russian poet and author (d. 2017)*1955 – Tim Costello, Australian minister and politician* 1955 – Joey Jones, Welsh footballer and manager*1957 – Nicholas Coleridge, English journalist and businessman* 1957 – Mykelti Williamson, American actor and director*1958 – Patricia Heaton, American actress * 1958 – Massimo Mascioletti, Italian rugby player and coach* 1958 – Tina Smith, American politician, junior senator of Minnesota*1959 – Rick Ardon, Australian journalist* 1959 – Plamen Getov, Bulgarian footballer*1960 – Chonda Pierce, American comedian*1961 – Ray Mancini, American boxer* 1961 – Roger Wessels, South African golfer and educator*1963 – Jason Newsted, American heavy metal singer-songwriter and bass player*1964 – Brian Crowley, Irish lawyer and politician* 1964 – Paolo Virzì, Italian director and screenwriter*1965 – Greg Alexander, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster* 1965 – Paul W. S. Anderson, English director, producer, and screenwriter* 1965 – Khaled Hosseini, Afghan-born American novelist* 1965 – Yury Lonchakov, Russian pilot, and cosmonaut*1966 – Emese Hunyady, Hungarian speed skater* 1966 – Kevin Johnson, American basketball player and politician, 55th Mayor of Sacramento* 1966 – Fiona Ma, American accountant and politician* 1966 – Helmut Mayer, Austrian skier* 1966 – Glen Nissen, Australian rugby league player* 1966 – Dav Pilkey, American author and illustrator* 1966 – Grand Puba, American rapper * 1966 – Mike Small, American golfer and coach*1967 – Daryll Cullinan, South African cricketer and coach* 1967 – Evan Dando, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1967 – Ivan Lewis, English lawyer and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland* 1967 – Terry Matterson, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1967 – Dave Rayner, English cyclist (d. 1994)* 1967 – Sam Taylor-Johnson, English filmmaker and photographer* 1967 – Kubilay Türkyilmaz, Swiss footballer* 1967 – Tim Vine, English comedian, actor, and author*1968 – Giovanni Carrara, Venezuelan baseball player* 1968 – Jorge Celedón, Colombian singer * 1968 – Patsy Kensit, English model and actress* 1968 – Kyriakos Mitsotakis, Greek banker and politician, Prime Minister of Greece* 1968 – Graham Westley, English footballer and manager*1969 – Pierluigi Casiraghi, Italian footballer and manager* 1969 – Wayne Collins, English footballer* 1969 – Annie Yi, Taiwanese singer, actress, and writer *1970 – Àlex Crivillé, Spanish motorcycle racer* 1970 – Will Keen, English actor* 1970 – Caroline Vis, Dutch tennis player*1971 – Iain Baird, Canadian soccer player and manager* 1971 – Claire Baker, Scottish politician* 1971 – Anders Kjølholm, Danish bass player * 1971 – Satoshi Motoyama, Japanese racing driver*1972 – Katherine Center, American journalist and author* 1972 – Nocturno Culto, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1972 – Robert Smith, American football player and sportscaster* 1972 – Ivy Queen, Puerto Rican singer, songwriter, rapper, actress and record producer * 1972 – Jos Verstappen, Dutch racing driver* 1972 – Alison Wheeler, English singer-songwriter *1973 – Massimo Brambilla, Italian footballer and coach* 1973 – Phillip Daniels, American football player and coach* 1973 – Valery Kobelev, Russian ski jumper* 1973 – Penny Mordaunt, English lieutenant and politician, Minister of State for the Armed Forces* 1973 – Linus of Hollywood, American singer-songwriter and producer * 1973 – Len Wiseman, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1973 – Chandra Sekhar Yeleti, Indian director and screenwriter*1974 – Crowbar, American wrestler* 1974 – Mladen Krstajić, Serbian footballer and manager* 1974 – Karol Kučera, Slovak tennis player* 1974 – Ariel Ortega, Argentinian footballer* 1974 – Tommy Phelps, South Korean-American baseball player and coach* 1974 – ICS Vortex, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1974 – David Wagner, American tennis player and educator* 1974 – Bill Young, Australian rugby player*1975 – Mats Eilertsen, Norwegian bassist and composer * 1975 – Patrick Femerling, German basketball player* 1975 – Antti Aalto, Finnish ice hockey player* 1975 – Kristi Harrower, Australian basketball player* 1975 – Hawksley Workman, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist *1976 – Robbie Blake, English footballer* 1976 – Tommy Jönsson, Swedish footballer*1977 – Nacho Figueras, Argentinian polo player and model* 1977 – Traver Rains, American fashion designer and photographer*1978 – Pierre Dagenais, Canadian ice hockey player* 1978 – Denis Dallan, Italian rugby player and singer* 1978 – Jean-Marc Pelletier, American ice hockey player*1979 – Sarah Stock, Canadian wrestler and trainer*1980 – Rohan Bopanna, Indian tennis player* 1980 – Omar Bravo, Mexican footballer* 1980 – Suzanna Choffel, American singer-songwriter* 1980 – Giedrius Gustas, Lithuanian basketball player* 1980 – Scott Hamilton, New Zealand rugby player and coach* 1980 – Jack Hannahan, American baseball player* 1980 – Michael Henrich, American ice hockey player* 1980 – Phil McGuire, Scottish footballer and manager* 1980 – Aja Volkman, American singer-songwriter*1981 – Ariza Makukula, Portuguese footballer* 1981 – Helen Wyman, English cyclist*1982 – Landon Donovan, American soccer player and coach* 1982 – Cate Edwards, American lawyer and author* 1982 – Ludmila Ezhova, Russian gymnast* 1982 – Yasemin Mori, Turkish singer*1983 – Samuel Contesti, French-Italian figure skater* 1983 – Adam Deacon, English film actor, rapper, writer and director* 1983 – Jaque Fourie, South African rugby player* 1983 – Drew Houston, American Internet entrepreneur*1984 – Josh Bowman, English actor* 1984 – Tamir Cohen, Israeli footballer* 1984 – Anders Grøndal, Norwegian racing driver* 1984 – Spencer Larsen, American football player* 1984 – Jeremy Loops, South African singer-songwriter and record producer* 1984 – Raven Quinn, American singer-songwriter* 1984 – Zak Whitbread, American-English footballer*1985 – Jake Buxton, English footballer* 1985 – Chinedum Ndukwe, American football player* 1985 – Whitney Port, American fashion designer and author*1986 – Steven Burke, English road and track cyclist* 1986 – Tom De Mul, Belgian footballer* 1986 – Mike Krieger, Brazilian-American computer programmer and businessman, co-founded Instagram* 1986 – Park Min-young, South Korean actress* 1986 – Siim Roops, Estonian footballer* 1986 – Bohdan Shust, Ukrainian footballer* 1986 – Manu Vatuvei, New Zealand rugby league player* 1986 – Margo Harshman, American actress*1987 – Ben McKinley, Australian footballer* 1987 – Cameron Wood, Australian footballer* 1987 – Tamzin Merchant, English actress*1988 – Gal Mekel, Israeli basketball player* 1988 – Laura Siegemund, German tennis player* 1988 – Adam Watts, English footballer*1989 – Benjamin Kiplagat, Ugandan long-distance runner *1990 – Andrea Bowen, American actress* 1990 – Draymond Green, American basketball player* 1990 – Paddy Madden, Irish footballer* 1990 – Fran Mérida, Spanish footballer*1992 – Nick Castellanos, American baseball player* 1992 – Erik Lamela, Argentinian international footballer* 1992 – Bernd Leno, German footballer* 1992 – Karl Mööl, Estonian footballer*1993 – Bobbi Kristina Brown, American singer and actress (d. 2015)* 1993 – Richard Peniket, English footballer*1994 – Callum Harriott, English footballer* 1994 – AJ Tracey, British hip-hop artist and record producer*1995 – Chlöe Howl, British singer-songwriter* 1995 – Bill Milner, English actor*1996 – Lukas Webb, Australian rules footballer*2001 – Freya Anderson, English freestyle swimmer*2002 – Jacob Hopkins, American actor*2007 – Miya Cech, American actress"
],
[
"Deaths",
"===Pre-1600===* 306 – Adrian and Natalia of Nicomedia, Christian martyrs* 480 – Landry of Sées, French bishop and saint* 561 – Pelagius I, pope of the Catholic Church* 934 – Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, Fatimid caliph (b.",
"873)*1172 – Stephen III, king of Hungary (b.",
"1147)*1193 – Saladin, founder of the Ayyubid Sultanate (b.",
"1137)*1238 – Joan of England, queen of Scotland (b.",
"1210)* 1238 – Yuri II, Russian Grand Prince (b.",
"1189)*1303 – Daniel of Moscow, Russian Grand Duke (b.",
"1261)*1314 – Jakub Świnka, Polish priest and archbishop*1371 – Jeanne d'Évreux, queen consort of France (b.",
"1310)*1388 – Thomas Usk, English author*1484 – Saint Casimir, Polish prince (b.",
"1458)*1496 – Sigismund, archduke of Austria (b.",
"1427)*1556 – Leonhard Kleber, German organist (b.",
"1495)*1583 – Bernard Gilpin, English priest and theologian (b.",
"1517)===1601–1900===*1604 – Fausto Sozzini, Italian theologian and educator (b.",
"1539)*1615 – Hans von Aachen, German painter and educator (b.",
"1552)*1710 – Louis III, duke of Bourbon (b.",
"1668)*1733 – Claude de Forbin, French admiral and politician (b.",
"1656)*1744 – John Anstis, English historian and politician (b.",
"1669)*1762 – Johannes Zick, German painter (b.",
"1702)*1793 – Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre (b.",
"1725)*1795 – John Collins, American politician, 3rd Governor of Rhode Island (b.",
"1717)*1805 – Jean-Baptiste Greuze, French painter (b.",
"1725)*1807 – Abraham Baldwin, American minister, lawyer, and politician (b.",
"1754)*1811 – Mariano Moreno, Argentinian journalist, lawyer, and politician (b.",
"1778)*1832 – Jean-François Champollion, French philologist and scholar (b.",
"1790)*1851 – James Richardson, English explorer (b.",
"1809)*1852 – Nikolai Gogol, Ukrainian-Russian short story writer, novelist, and playwright (b.",
"1809)*1853 – Thomas Bladen Capel, English admiral (b.",
"1776)* 1853 – Christian Leopold von Buch, German geologist and paleontologist (b.",
"1774)*1858 – Matthew C. Perry, American naval commander (b.",
"1794)*1864 – Thomas Starr King, American minister and politician (b.",
"1824)*1866 – Alexander Campbell, Irish-American minister and theologian (b.",
"1788)*1872 – Carsten Hauch, Danish poet and playwright (b.",
"1790)*1883 – Alexander H. Stephens, American lawyer and politician, Vice President of the Confederate States of America (b.",
"1812)*1888 – Amos Bronson Alcott, American philosopher and educator (b.",
"1799)===1901–present===*1903 – Joseph Henry Shorthouse, English author (b.",
"1834)*1906 – John Schofield, American general and politician, 28th United States Secretary of War (b.",
"1831)*1915 – William Willett, English inventor, founded British Summer Time (b.",
"1856)*1916 – Franz Marc, German painter (b.",
"1880)*1925 – Moritz Moszkowski, Polish-German pianist and composer (b.",
"1854)* 1925 – James Ward, English psychologist and philosopher (b.",
"1843)* 1925 – John Montgomery Ward, American baseball player and manager (b.",
"1860)*1927 – Ira Remsen, American chemist and academic (b.",
"1846)*1938 – George Foster Peabody, American banker and philanthropist (b.",
"1852)* 1938 – Jack Taylor, American baseball player (b.",
"1874)*1940 – Hamlin Garland, American novelist, poet, essayist, and short story writer (b.",
"1860)*1941 – Ludwig Quidde, German activist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1858)*1944 – Fannie Barrier Williams, American educator and activist (b.",
"1855)* 1944 – Louis Buchalter, American mob boss (b.",
"1897)* 1944 – Louis Capone, Italian-American gangster (b.",
"1896)* 1944 – René Lefebvre, French businessman (b.",
"1879)*1945 – Lucille La Verne, American actress (b.",
"1872)* 1945 – Mark Sandrich, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.",
"1900)*1948 – Antonin Artaud, French actor and director (b.",
"1896)*1949 – Clarence Kingsbury, English cyclist (b.",
"1882)*1952 – Charles Scott Sherrington, English neurophysiologist and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1857)*1954 – Noel Gay, English composer and songwriter (b.",
"1898)*1960 – Herbert O'Conor, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 51st Governor of Maryland (b.",
"1896)*1963 – William Carlos Williams, American poet, short story writer, and essayist (b.",
"1883)*1969 – Nicholas Schenck, Russian-American businessman (b.",
"1881)*1972 – Harold Barrowclough, New Zealand general, lawyer, and politician, 8th Chief Justice of New Zealand (b.",
"1894)* 1972 – Charles Biro, American author and illustrator (b.",
"1911)*1974 – Adolph Gottlieb, American painter and sculptor (b.",
"1903)*1976 – John Marvin Jones, American judge and politician (b.",
"1882)* 1976 – Walter H. Schottky, Swiss-German physicist and engineer (b.",
"1886)*1977 – Anatol E. Baconsky, Romanian poet, author, and critic (b.",
"1925)* 1977 – Nancy Tyson Burbidge, Australian botanist and curator (b.",
"1912)* 1977 – Andrés Caicedo, Colombian author, poet, and playwright (b.",
"1951)* 1977 – William Paul, American lawyer and politician (b.",
"1885)* 1977 – Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, German jurist and politician, German Minister for Foreign Affairs (b.",
"1887)*1978 – Wesley Bolin, American businessman and politician, 15th Governor of Arizona (b.",
"1909)* 1978 – Joe Marsala, American clarinet player and songwriter (b.",
"1907)*1979 – Willi Unsoeld, American mountaineer and educator (b.",
"1926)*1980 – Alan Hardaker, English lieutenant and businessman (b.",
"1912)*1981 – Torin Thatcher, American actor (b.",
"1905)* 1981 – Karl-Jesko von Puttkamer, German admiral (b.",
"1900)*1986 – Ding Ling, Chinese feminist and socialist realist author (b.",
"1904)* 1986 – Albert L. Lehninger, American biochemist and academic (b.",
"1917)* 1986 – Richard Manuel, Canadian singer-songwriter and pianist (b.",
"1943)* 1986 – Elizabeth Smart, Canadian poet and author (b.",
"1913)*1987 – Seibo Kitamura, Japanese sculptor (b.",
"1884)*1988 – Beatriz Guido, Argentine author and screenwriter (b.",
"1924)*1989 – Tiny Grimes, American guitarist (b.",
"1916)*1990 – Hank Gathers, American basketball player (b.",
"1967)*1991 – Godfrey Bryan, English cricketer (b.",
"1902)*1992 – Art Babbitt, American animator and director (b.",
"1907)* 1992 – Pare Lorentz, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.",
"1905)*1993 – Art Hodes, Ukrainian-American pianist and composer (b.",
"1904)* 1993 – Tomislav Ivčić, Croatian singer-songwriter and politician (b.",
"1953)* 1993 – Izaak Kolthoff, Dutch chemist and academic (b.",
"1894)* 1993 – Nicholas Ridley, Baron Ridley of Liddesdale, English lieutenant and politician, Secretary of State for the Environment (b.",
"1929)*1994 – John Candy, Canadian comedian and actor (b.",
"1950)* 1994 – George Edward Hughes, Irish-Scottish philosopher and author (b.",
"1918)*1995 – Matt Urban, American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (b.",
"1919)*1996 – Minnie Pearl, American entertainer (b.",
"1912)* 1996 – John Sauer, American football player, coach, and sportscaster (b.",
"1925)*1997 – Joe Baker-Cresswell, English captain (b.",
"1901)* 1997 – Robert H. Dicke, American physicist and astronomer (b.",
"1916)*1998 – Ivan Dougherty, Australian general (b.",
"1907)*1999 – Harry Blackmun, American lawyer and judge (b.",
"1908)* 1999 – Del Close, American actor and educator (b.",
"1934)* 1999 – Miłosz Magin, Polish pianist and composer (b.",
"1929)*2000 – Hermann Brück, German-Scottish physicist and astronomer (b.",
"1905)* 2000 – Michael Noonan, New Zealand-Australian author and screenwriter (b.",
"1921)* 2000 – Ta-You Wu, Chinese physicist and academic (b.",
"1907)*2001 – Gerardo Barbero, Argentinian chess player (b.",
"1961)* 2001 – Jean René Bazaine, French painter and author (b.",
"1904)* 2001 – Fred Lasswell, American cartoonist (b.",
"1916)* 2001 – Jim Rhodes, American businessman and politician, 61st Governor of Ohio (b.",
"1909)* 2001 – Harold Stassen, American educator and politician, 25th Governor of Minnesota (b.",
"1907)*2002 – Ugnė Karvelis, Lithuanian author and translator (b.",
"1935)* 2002 – Elyne Mitchell, Australian skier and author (b.",
"1913)* 2002 – Velibor Vasović, Serbian footballer and manager (b.",
"1939)*2003 – Jaba Ioseliani, Georgian playwright, academic, and politician (b.",
"1926)* 2003 – Sébastien Japrisot, French author, screenwriter, and director (b.",
"1931)*2004 – Claude Nougaro, French singer-songwriter (b.",
"1929)*2005 – Nicola Calipari, Italian general (b.",
"1953)* 2005 – Yuriy Kravchenko, Ukrainian police officer and politician (b.",
"1951)* 2005 – Carlos Sherman, Uruguayan-Belarusian author and activist (b.",
"1934)*2006 – John Reynolds Gardiner, American author and engineer (b.",
"1944)* 2006 – Edgar Valter, Estonian author and illustrator (b.",
"1929)*2007 – Thomas Eagleton, American lawyer and politician, 38th Lieutenant Governor of Missouri (b.",
"1929)* 2007 – Tadeusz Nalepa, Polish singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.",
"1934)* 2007 – Ian Wooldridge, English journalist (b.",
"1932)*2008 – Gary Gygax, American game designer, co-created ''Dungeons & Dragons'' (b.",
"1938)* 2008 – Leonard Rosenman, American composer and conductor (b.",
"1924)*2009 – Yvon Cormier, Canadian wrestler (b.",
"1938)\t* 2009 – Horton Foote, American playwright and screenwriter (b.",
"1916)\t* 2009 – George McAfee, American football player (b.",
"1918)\t*2010 – Raimund Abraham, Austrian architect and educator, designed the Austrian Cultural Forum New York (b.",
"1933)* 2010 – Johnny Alf, Brazilian pianist and composer (b.",
"1929)* 2010 – Vladislav Ardzinba, Abkhazian historian and politician, 1st President of Abkhazia (b.",
"1945)* 2010 – Fred Wedlock, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.",
"1942)*2011 – Krishna Prasad Bhattarai, Nepalese journalist and politician, 29th Prime Minister of Nepal (b.",
"1924)* 2011 – Vivienne Harris, English journalist and publisher, co-founded the ''Jewish Telegraph'' (b.",
"1921)* 2011 – Ed Manning, American basketball player and coach (b.",
"1943)* 2011 – Arjun Singh, Indian politician (b.",
"1930)* 2011 – Alenush Terian, Iranian astronomer and physicist (b.",
"1920)* 2011 – Simon van der Meer, Dutch-Swiss physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1925)*2012 – Paul McBride, Scottish lawyer and politician (b.",
"1965)\t* 2012 – Don Mincher, American baseball player (b.",
"1938)\t*2013 – Lillian Cahn, Hungarian-American businesswoman, co-founded Coach, Inc. (b.",
"1923)* 2013 – Mickey Moore, Canadian-American actor and director (b.",
"1914)* 2013 – Toren Smith, Canadian businessman, founded Studio Proteus (b.",
"1960)*2014 – Mark Freidkin, Russian author and poet (b.",
"1953)* 2014 – Elaine Kellett-Bowman, English lawyer and politician (b.",
"1923)* 2014 – Jack Kinzler, American engineer (b.",
"1920)* 2014 – Wu Tianming, Chinese director and producer (b.",
"1939)*2015 – Dušan Bilandžić, Croatian historian and politician (b.",
"1924)* 2015 – Ray Hatton, English-American runner, author, and academic (b.",
"1932)*2016 – Bud Collins, American journalist and sportscaster (b.",
"1929)* 2016 – Pat Conroy, American author (b.",
"1945)* 2016 – P. A. Sangma, Indian lawyer and politician, Speaker of the Lok Sabha (b.",
"1947)* 2016 – Zhou Xiaoyan, Chinese soprano and educator (b.",
"1917)*2017 – Clayton Yeutter, American politician (b.",
"1930)*2018 – Davide Astori, Italian soccer player (b.",
"1987)*2019 – Keith Flint, English singer (The Prodigy) (b.",
"1969)* 2019 – Luke Perry, American actor (b.",
"1966)*2020 – Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Peruvian politician and diplomat (b.",
"1920)*2022 – Rod Marsh, Australian cricketer and coach (b.",
"1947)* 2022 – Shane Warne, Australian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster (b.",
"1969)*2023 – Phil Batt, American soldier and politician, 29th Governor of Idaho (b.",
"1927)"
],
[
"Holidays and observances",
"*Christian feast day:**Adrian of Nicomedia**Casimir**Felix of Rhuys**Giovanni Antonio Farina (Catholic Church)**Blessed Humbert III, Count of Savoy (Roman Catholic Church)**Paul Cuffee (Episcopal Church)**Peter of Pappacarbone**Blessed Zoltán Meszlényi**March 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*St Casimir's Day (Poland and Lithuania)* World Obesity Day"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 4"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"March 19"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Events",
"===Pre-1600===*1277 – The Byzantine–Venetian treaty of 1277 is concluded, stipulating a two-year truce and renewing Venetian commercial privileges in the Byzantine Empire.",
"*1279 – A Mongol victory at the Battle of Yamen ends the Song dynasty in China.",
"*1284 – The Statute of Rhuddlan incorporates the Principality of Wales into England.",
"*1452 – Frederick III of Habsburg is the last Holy Roman Emperor crowned by medieval tradition in Rome by Pope Nicholas V.*1563 – The Edict of Amboise is signed, ending the first phase of the French Wars of Religion and granting certain freedoms to the Huguenots.===1601–1900===*1649 – The House of Commons of England passes an act abolishing the House of Lords, declaring it ''\"useless and dangerous to the people of England\"''.",
"*1687 – Explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle, searching for the mouth of the Mississippi River, is murdered by his own men.",
"*1808 – Charles IV, king of Spain, abdicates after riots and a popular revolt at the winter palace Aranjuez.",
"His son, Ferdinand VII, takes the throne.",
"*1812 – The Cortes of Cádiz promulgates the Spanish Constitution of 1812.",
"* 1824 – American explorer Benjamin Morrell departed Antarctica after a voyage later plagued by claims of fraud.",
"*1831 – First documented bank heist in U.S. history, when burglars stole $245,000 (1831 values) from the City Bank (now Citibank) on Wall Street.",
"Most of the money was recovered.",
"*1853 – The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom occupies and makes Nanjing its capital until 1864.",
"*1861 – The First Taranaki War ends in New Zealand.",
"*1863 – The , said to have been the most powerful Confederate cruiser, is destroyed on her maiden voyage with a cargo of munitions, medicines, and merchandise then valued at over $1,000,000.",
"*1865 – American Civil War: The Battle of Bentonville begins.",
"By the end of the battle two days later, Confederate forces had retreated from Four Oaks, North Carolina.",
"*1885 – Louis Riel declares a provisional government in Saskatchewan, beginning the North-West Rebellion.",
"*1895 – Auguste and Louis Lumière record their first footage using their newly patented cinematograph.",
"*1900 – The British archeologist Sir Arthur John Evans begins excavating Knossos Palace, the center of Cretan civilization.===1901–present===*1918 – The US Congress establishes time zones and approves daylight saving time.",
"*1920 – The United States Senate rejects the Treaty of Versailles for the second time (the first time was on November 19, 1919).",
"*1921 – Irish War of Independence: One of the biggest engagements of the war takes place at Crossbarry, County Cork.",
"About 100 Irish Republican Army (IRA) volunteers escape an attempt by over 1,300 British forces to encircle them.",
"*1931 – Governor Fred B. Balzar signs a bill legalizing gambling in Nevada.",
"*1932 – The Sydney Harbour Bridge is opened.",
"*1943 – Frank Nitti, the Chicago Outfit Boss after Al Capone, commits suicide at the Chicago Central Railyard.",
"*1944 – World War II: The German army occupies Hungary.",
"*1945 – World War II: Off the coast of Japan, a dive bomber hits the aircraft carrier , killing 724 of her crew.",
"Badly damaged, the ship is able to return to the US under her own power.",
"* 1945 – World War II: Adolf Hitler issues his \"Nero Decree\" ordering all industries, military installations, shops, transportation facilities, and communications facilities in Germany to be destroyed.",
"*1946 – French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Réunion become overseas ''départements'' of France.",
"*1958 – The Monarch Underwear Company fire leaves 24 dead and 15 injured.",
"*1962 – The Algerian War of Independence ends.",
"*1964 – Over 500,000 Brazilians attend the March of the Family with God for Liberty, in protest against the government of João Goulart and against communism.",
"*1965 – The wreck of the , valued at over $50,000,000 and said to have been the most powerful Confederate cruiser, is discovered by teenage diver and pioneer underwater archaeologist E. Lee Spence, exactly 102 years after its destruction.",
"*1969 – The TV-mast at Emley Moor transmitting station, United Kingdom, collapses due to ice build-up.",
"*1979 – The United States House of Representatives begins broadcasting its day-to-day business via the cable television network C-SPAN.",
"*1982 – Falklands War: Argentinian forces land on South Georgia Island, precipitating war with the United Kingdom.",
"*1989 – The Egyptian flag is raised at Taba, marking the end of Israeli occupation since the Six Days War in 1967 and the Egypt–Israel peace treaty in 1979.",
"*1990 – The ethnic clashes of Târgu Mureș begin four days after the anniversary of the Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire.",
"*1998 – An Ariana Afghan Airlines Boeing 727 crashes on approach to Kabul International Airport, killing all 45 on board.",
"*2001 – German trade union ver.di is formed.",
"*2002 – Zimbabwe is suspended from the Commonwealth on charges of human rights abuses and of electoral fraud, following a turbulent presidential election.",
"*2003 – United States President George W. Bush addresses the nation, announcing the beginning of hostilities in the illegal Coalition invasion of Iraq.",
"*2004 – Catalina affair: A Swedish DC-3 shot down by a Soviet MiG-15 in 1952 over the Baltic Sea is finally recovered after years of work.",
"* 2004 – March 19 Shooting Incident: The Republic of China (Taiwan) president Chen Shui-bian is shot just before the country's presidential election on March 20.",
"*2008 – GRB 080319B: A cosmic burst that is the farthest object visible to the naked eye is briefly observed.",
"*2011 – Libyan Civil War: After the failure of Muammar Gaddafi's forces to take Benghazi, the French Air Force launches Opération Harmattan, beginning foreign military intervention in Libya.",
"*2013 – A series of bombings and shootings kills at least 98 people and injures 240 others across Iraq.",
"*2016 – Flydubai Flight 981 crashes while attempting to land at Rostov-on-Don international airport, killing all 62 on board.",
"* 2016 – An explosion occurs in Taksim Square in Istanbul, Turkey, killing five people and injuring 36.",
"* 2019 – The first President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, resigns from office after nearly three decades, leaving Senate Chairman Kassym-Jomart Tokayev as the acting President and successor.",
"* 2023 – The Swiss Government brokers a deal for UBS to buy out rival Credit Suisse in an attempt to calm the 2023 banking crisis."
],
[
"Births",
"===Pre-1600===*1206 – Güyük Khan, Mongol ruler, 3rd Great Khan of the Mongol Empire (d. 1248)*1434 – Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1443)*1488 – Johannes Magnus, Swedish archbishop and theologian (d. 1544)*1534 – José de Anchieta, Spanish missionary and saint (d. 1597)*1542 – Jan Zamoyski, Polish nobleman (d. 1605)===1601–1900===*1601 – Alonzo Cano, Spanish painter, sculptor, and architect (d. 1667)*1604 – John IV of Portugal (d. 1656)*1641 – Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, Syrian author and scholar (d. 1731)*1661 – Francesco Gasparini, Italian composer and educator (d. 1727)*1684 – Jean Astruc, French physician and scholar (d. 1766)*1721 – Tobias Smollett, Scottish-Italian poet and author (d. 1771) (baptised on this day)*1734 – Thomas McKean, American lawyer and politician, 2nd Governor of Pennsylvania (d. 1817)*1739 – Charles-François Lebrun, duc de Plaisance, French lawyer and politician (d. 1824)*1742 – Túpac Amaru II, Peruvian rebel leader (d. 1781)*1748 – Elias Hicks, American farmer, minister, and theologian (d. 1830)*1778 – Edward Pakenham, Anglo-Irish general and politician (d. 1815)*1809 – Fredrik Pacius, German composer and conductor (d. 1891)*1813 – David Livingstone, Scottish missionary and explorer (d. 1873)*1816 – Johannes Verhulst, Dutch composer and conductor (d. 1891)*1821 – Richard Francis Burton, English soldier, geographer, and diplomat (d. 1890)*1823 – Arthur Blyth, English-Australian politician, 9th Premier of South Australia (d. 1891)*1824 – William Allingham, Irish poet, author, and scholar (d. 1889)*1829 – Carl Frederik Tietgen, Danish businessman (d. 1901)*1844 – Minna Canth, Finnish journalist, playwright, and activist (d. 1897)*1847 – Albert Pinkham Ryder, American painter (d. 1917)*1848 – Wyatt Earp, American police officer (d. 1929)*1849 – Alfred von Tirpitz, German admiral and politician (d. 1930)*1858 – Kang Youwei, Chinese scholar and politician (d. 1927)*1860 – William Jennings Bryan, American lawyer and politician, 41st United States Secretary of State (d. 1925)*1861 – Lomer Gouin, Canadian lawyer and politician, Premier of Quebec (d. 1929)*1864 – Charles Marion Russell, American painter and sculptor (d. 1926)*1865 – William Morton Wheeler, American entomologist, myrmecologist, and academic (d. 1937)*1868 – Senda Berenson Abbott, Lithuanian-American basketball player and educator (d. 1954)*1871 – Schofield Haigh, English cricketer and coach (d. 1921)*1872 – Anna Held, Polish singer (d. 1918)*1873 – Max Reger, German pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1916)*1875 – Zhang Zuolin, Chinese warlord (d. 1928)*1876 – Felix Jacoby, German philologist (d. 1959)*1880 – Ernestine Rose, American librarian and advocate (d. 1961) *1881 – Edith Nourse Rogers, American social worker and politician (d. 1960)*1882 – Gaston Lachaise, French-American sculptor (d. 1935)*1883 – Norman Haworth, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950)* 1883 – Joseph Stilwell, American general (d. 1946)*1885 – Attik, Greek composer (d. 1944)*1888 – Josef Albers, German-American painter and educator (d. 1976)* 1888 – Léon Scieur, Belgian cyclist (d. 1969)*1891 – Earl Warren, American lieutenant, jurist, and politician, 14th Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1974)*1892 – Theodore Sizer, American professor of the history of art (d. 1967) * 1892 – Ado Vabbe, Estonian painter (d. 1961)* 1892 – James Van Fleet, American general and diplomat (d. 1992)*1893 – Gertrud Dorka, German archaeologist, prehistorian and museum director (died 1976)*1894 – Moms Mabley, American comedian and singer (d. 1975)*1900 – Carmen Carbonell, Spanish stage and film actress (d. 1988)* 1900 – Frédéric Joliot-Curie, French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958)===1901–present===*1901 – Jo Mielziner, French-American set designer (d. 1976)*1904 – John Sirica, American lawyer and judge (d. 1992)*1905 – Joe Rollino, American weightlifter and boxer (d. 2010)* 1905 – Albert Speer, German architect and politician (d. 1981)*1906 – Adolf Eichmann, German SS officer (d. 1962)* 1906 – Clara Breed, American librarian and activist (d. 1994)*1909 – Louis Hayward, South African-born American actor (d. 1985)* 1909 – Marjorie Linklater, Scottish campaigner for the arts and environment of Orkney (d. 1997)*1910 – Joseph Carroll, American general (d. 1991)*1912 – Hugh Watt, Australian-New Zealand engineer and politician, Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1980)*1914 – Leonidas Alaoglu, Canadian-American mathematician and theorist (d. 1981)* 1914 – Jay Berwanger, American football player and coach (d. 2002)*1915 – Robert G. Cole, American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1944)* 1915 – Patricia Morison, American actress and singer (d. 2018)*1916 – Eric Christmas, English-Canadian actor (d. 2000)* 1916 – Irving Wallace, American journalist, author, and screenwriter (d. 1990)*1917 – Laszlo Szabo, Hungarian chess player (d. 1998)*1919 – Lennie Tristano, American pianist, composer, and educator (d. 1978)*1920 – Kjell Aukrust, Norwegian author, poet, and painter (d. 2002)*1921 – Tommy Cooper, British magician and prop comedian (d. 1984)*1922 – Guy Lewis, American basketball player and coach (d. 2015)* 1922 – Hiroo Onoda, Japanese lieutenant (d. 2014)*1923 – Pamela Britton, American actress (d. 1974)* 1923 – Benito Jacovitti, Italian illustrator (d. 1997)* 1923 – Henry Morgentaler, Polish-Canadian physician and activist (d. 2013)*1924 – Joe Gaetjens, Haitian footballer (d. 1964)*1925 – Brent Scowcroft, American general and diplomat, 9th United States National Security Advisor (d. 2020)*1927 – Richie Ashburn, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 1997)*1928 – Hans Küng, Swiss theologian and author (d. 2021)* 1928 – Patrick McGoohan, Irish-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2009)*1931 – Emma Andijewska, Ukrainian poet, writer and painter*1932 – Gay Brewer, American golfer (d. 2007)* 1932 – Peter Hall, English geographer, author, and academic (d. 2014)* 1932 – Gail Kobe, American actress and producer (d. 2013)*1933 – Phyllis Newman, American actress and singer (d. 2019)* 1933 – Philip Roth, American novelist (d. 2018)* 1933 – Renée Taylor, American actress, producer, and screenwriter* 1933 – Richard Williams, Canadian-English animator, director, and screenwriter (d. 2019)*1935 – Nancy Malone, American actress, director, and producer (d. 2014)*1936 – Ursula Andress, Swiss model and actress* 1936 – Ben Lexcen, Australian sailor and architect (d. 1988)*1937 – Clarence \"Frogman\" Henry, American R&B singer and pianist* 1937 – Egon Krenz, German politician*1938 – Joe Kapp, American football player, coach, and actor (d. 2023)*1942 – Heather Robertson, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2014)*1943 – Mario J. Molina, Mexican chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2020)* 1943 – Mario Monti, Italian economist and politician, Prime Minister of Italy* 1943 – Vern Schuppan, Australian race car driver*1944 – Said Musa, Belizean lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Belize*1945 – John Holder, English cricketer and umpire* 1945 – Modestas Paulauskas, Lithuanian basketball player and coach*1946 – Ruth Pointer, American musician*1947 – Glenn Close, American actress, singer, and producer* 1947 – Marinho Peres, Brazilian footballer and coach*1948 – David Schnitter, American saxophonist and educator*1949 – Blase J. Cupich, American theologian and cardinal*1950 – José S. Palma, Filipino archbishop*1952 – Warren Lees, New Zealand cricketer and coach* 1952 – Martin Ravallion, Australian economist and academic* 1952 – Harvey Weinstein, American director and producer*1953 – Ian Blair, English police officer* 1953 – Peter Hendy, English businessman* 1953 – Ricky Wilson, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1985) *1954 – Cho Kwang-rae, South Korean footballer, coach, and manager*1955 – Bruce Willis, German-American actor and producer*1956 – Yegor Gaidar, Russian economist and politician, First Deputy Prime Minister of Russia (d. 2009)*1958 – Andy Reid, American football player and coach*1960 – Eliane Elias, Brazilian singer-songwriter and pianist*1962 – Iván Calderón, Puerto Rican-American baseball player (d. 2003)*1963 – Neil LaBute, American director and screenwriter*1964 – Yoko Kanno, Japanese pianist and composer*1966 – Michael Crockart, Scottish police officer and politician* 1966 – Olaf Marschall, German footballer and manager* 1966 – Andy Sinton, English international footballer and manager*1967 – Sandra Dombrowski, Swiss ice hockey player and referee* 1967 – Vladimir Konstantinov, Russian-American ice hockey player*1968 – Tyrone Hill, American basketball player and coach*1970 – Harald Johnsen, Norwegian bassist and composer (d. 2011)* 1970 – Michael Krumm, German race car driver*1973 – Ashley Giles, English cricketer and coach*1975 – Antonio Daniels, American basketball player*1976 – Derek Chauvin, American criminal and former police officer* 1976 – Andre Miller, American basketball player* 1976 – Alessandro Nesta, Italian footballer and manager*1977 – David Ross, American baseball player and manager*1978 – Cydonie Mothersille, Jamaican-Caymanian sprinter*1979 – Sheldon Brown, American football player* 1979 – Ivan Ljubičić, Croatian tennis player* 1979 – Christos Patsatzoglou, Greek footballer* 1979 – Hedo Türkoğlu, Turkish basketball player*1980 – Luca Ferri, Italian footballer* 1980 – Taichi Ishikari, Japanese wrestler* 1980 – Mikuni Shimokawa, Japanese singer-songwriter *1981 – Steve Cummings, English cyclist* 1981 – Kolo Touré, Ivorian footballer*1982 – Jonathan Fanene, American football player* 1982 – Brad Jones, Australian footballer* 1982 – Hana Kobayashi, Venezuelan singer* 1982 – Eduardo Saverin, Brazilian-Singaporean businessman*1985 – Inesa Jurevičiūtė, Lithuanian figure skater*1986 – Tyler Bozak, Canadian ice hockey player*1987 – AJ Lee, American wrestler and author* 1987 – Michal Švec, Czech footballer* 1987 – Miloš Teodosić, Serbian basketball player*1988 – Clayton Kershaw, American baseball player*1991 – Aleksandr Kokorin, Russian footballer*1993 – Hakim Ziyech, Moroccan footballer*1995 – Héctor Bellerín, Spanish footballer* 1995 – Julia Montes, Filipino actress* 1995 – Alexei Sintsov, Russian figure skater*1996 – Barbara Haas, Austrian tennis player* 1996 – Quenton Nelson, American football player"
],
[
"Deaths",
"===Pre-1600===* 235 – Severus Alexander, Roman emperor (b.",
"208)* 953 – al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah, caliph of the Fatimid Caliphate (b.",
"913)* 968 – Emma of Paris, duchess of Normandy (b.",
"943)*1238 – Henry the Bearded, Polish duke and son of Bolesław I the Tall (b.",
"1163)*1263 – Hugh of Saint-Cher, French cardinal (b.",
"1200)*1279 – Zhao Bing, Chinese emperor (b.",
"1271)*1286 – Alexander III, king of Scotland (b.",
"1241)*1330 – Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent, English politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b.",
"1301)*1372 – John II, marquess of Montferrat (b.",
"1321)*1533 – John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners, English baron and statesman (b.",
"1467)*1534 – Michael Weiße, German theologian (b. c. 1488)*1539 – Lord Edmund Howard, English nobleman (b. c. 1478)*1563 – Arthur Brooke, English poet*1568 – Elizabeth Seymour, Lady Cromwell, English noblewoman (b.c.",
"1518)*1581 – Francis I, duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (b.",
"1510)===1601–1900===*1612 – Sophia Olelkovich Radziwill, Belarusian saint (b.",
"1585)*1637 – Péter Pázmány, Hungarian cardinal (b.",
"1570)*1649 – Gerhard Johann Vossius, German scholar and theologian (b.",
"1577)*1683 – Thomas Killigrew, English playwright and manager (b.",
"1612)*1687 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, French-American explorer (b.",
"1643)*1697 – Nicolaus Bruhns, German organist and composer (b.",
"1665)*1711 – Thomas Ken, English bishop and hymn-writer (b.",
"1637)*1717 – John Campbell, 1st Earl of Breadalbane and Holland, Scottish soldier (b.",
"1636)*1721 – Pope Clement XI (b.",
"1649)*1783 – Frederick Cornwallis, English archbishop (b.",
"1713)*1790 – Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha, Ottoman general and politician, 182nd Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b.",
"1713)*1797 – Philip Hayes, English organist and composer (b.",
"1738)*1816 – Philip Mazzei, Italian-American physician and philosopher (b.",
"1730)*1871 – Wilhelm Karl Ritter von Haidinger, Austrian mineralogist, geologist, and physicist (b.",
"1795)*1884 – Elias Lönnrot, Finnish physician and philologist (b.",
"1802)*1897 – Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie, Irish-French geographer, ethnologist, linguist, and astronomer (b.",
"1810)*1900 – John Bingham, American lawyer and politician, 7th United States Ambassador to Japan (b.",
"1815)* 1900 – Charles-Louis Hanon, French pianist and composer (b.",
"1819)===1901–present===*1914 – Giuseppe Mercalli, Italian priest, geologist, and volcanologist (b.",
"1850)*1919 – Emma Bell Miles, American writer, poet, and artist of Appalachia (b.",
"1879)*1930 – Arthur Balfour, Scottish-English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.",
"1848)* 1930 – Henry Lefroy, Australian politician, 11th Premier of Western Australia (b.",
"1854)*1942 – Clinton Hart Merriam, American zoologist, ornithologist, and entomologist (b.",
"1855)*1944 – William Hale Thompson, American rancher and politician, 41st Mayor of Chicago (b.",
"1869)*1947 – James A. Gilmore, American businessman and baseball executive (b.",
"1887)*1949 – James Somerville, English admiral and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Somerset (b.",
"1882)* 1949 – James Newland, Australian soldier and policeman (b.",
"1881)*1950 – Edgar Rice Burroughs, American soldier and author (b.",
"1875)* 1950 – Norman Haworth, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1883)*1951 – Dmytro Doroshenko, Ukrainian historian and politician, Prime Minister of Ukraine (b.",
"1882)*1976 – Albert Dieudonné, French actor and author (b.",
"1889)* 1976 – Paul Kossoff, English guitarist and songwriter (b.",
"1950)*1977 – William L. Laurence, Lithuanian-born American journalist and author (b.",
"1888)*1978 – M. A. Ayyangar, Indian lawyer and politician, 2nd Speaker of the Lok Sabha (b.",
"1891)*1982 – J.",
"B. Kripalani, Indian lawyer and politician (b.",
"1888)* 1982 – Randy Rhoads, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer (b.",
"1956)*1984 – Garry Winogrand, American photographer (b.",
"1928)*1986 – Sabino Barinaga, Spanish footballer and manager (b.",
"1922)*1987 – Louis de Broglie, French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.",
"1892)*1988 – Bun Cook, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.",
"1904)*1990 – Andrew Wood, American singer-songwriter (b.",
"1966)*1993 – Henrik Sandberg, Danish production manager and producer (b.",
"1915)*1996 – Lise Østergaard, Danish psychologist and politician (b.",
"1924)* 1996 – Alan Ridout, English composer and teacher.",
"(b.",
"1934)* 1996 – Virginia Henderson, American nurse, researcher, theorist and author (b.",
"1897)*1997 – Willem de Kooning, Dutch-American painter and educator (b.",
"1904)* 1997 – Eugène Guillevic, French poet and author (b.",
"1907)*1998 – E. M. S. Namboodiripad, Indian theorist and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Kerala (b.",
"1909)*1999 – Tofilau Eti Alesana, Samoan politician, 5th Prime Minister of Samoa (b.",
"1924)*2000 – Joanne Weaver, American baseball player (b.",
"1935)* 2000 – Shafiq-ur-Rahman, Pakistani physician and author (b.",
"1920)*2003 – Michael Mathias Prechtl, German soldier and illustrator (b.",
"1926)*2004 – Mitchell Sharp, Canadian economist and politician, 23rd Canadian Minister of Finance (b.",
"1911)*2005 – John DeLorean, American engineer and businessman, founded the DeLorean Motor Company (b.",
"1925)*2008 – Arthur C. Clarke, English science fiction writer (b.",
"1917)* 2008 – Hugo Claus, Belgian author, poet, and playwright (b.",
"1929)* 2008 – Paul Scofield, English actor (b.",
"1922)*2009 – Maria Bergson, Austrian-American architect and interior designer (b.",
"1914)*2011 – Kym Bonython, Australian drummer and radio host (b.",
"1920)*2012 – Jim Case, American director and producer (b.",
"1927)* 2012 – Ulu Grosbard, Belgian-American director and producer (b.",
"1929)* 2012 – Hugo Munthe-Kaas, Norwegian intelligence agent (b.",
"1922)*2014 – Patrick Joseph McGovern, American businessman, founded IDG (b.",
"1937)* 2014 – Fred Phelps, American lawyer, pastor, and activist, founded the Westboro Baptist Church (b.",
"1929)* 2014 – Heather Robertson, Canadian journalist and author (b.",
"1942)* 2014 – Robert S. Strauss, American diplomat, United States Ambassador to Russia (b.",
"1918)* 2014 – Lawrence Walsh, Canadian-American lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th United States Deputy Attorney General (b.",
"1912)* 2014 – Joseph F. Weis, Jr., American lawyer and judge (b.",
"1923)*2015 – Gus Douglass, American farmer and politician (b.",
"1927)* 2015 – Safet Plakalo, Bosnian author and playwright (b.",
"1950)* 2015 – Danny Schechter, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.",
"1942)*2016 – Roger Agnelli, Brazilian banker and businessman (b.",
"1959)* 2016 – Jack Mansell, English footballer and manager (b.",
"1927)*2019 – William Whitfield, British architect (b.",
"1920) *2021 – Glynn Lunney, American engineer (b.",
"1936)"
],
[
"Holidays and observances",
"* Christian Observances:** Alkmund of Derby** Saint Joseph (Western Christianity; if this date falls on Sunday, the feast is moved to Monday March 20)*** Saint Joseph's Day (Roman Catholicism and Anglican Communion) related observances:**** Falles, celebrated on the week leading to March 19 (Valencia)**** Father's Day (Spain, Portugal, Italy, Honduras, and Bolivia)**** \"Return of the Swallow\", annual observance of the swallows' return to Mission San Juan Capistrano in California** March 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)** Earliest day on which Maundy Thursday can fall, while April 22 is the latest; celebrated on Thursday before Easter (Christianity)* Minna Canth's Birthday and the Day of Equality (Finland)* Kashubian Unity Day (Poland)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 19"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Macrobiotic diet"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''macrobiotic diet''' (or '''macrobiotics''') is a fad diet based on ideas about types of food drawn from Zen Buddhism.",
"The diet tries to balance the supposed yin and yang elements of food and cookware.",
"Major principles of macrobiotic diets are to reduce animal products, eat locally grown foods that are in season, and consume meals in moderation.There is no high-quality clinical evidence that a macrobiotic diet is helpful for people with cancer or other diseases, and it may be harmful.",
"Neither the American Cancer Society nor Cancer Research UK recommends adopting the diet."
],
[
"Conceptual basis",
"Macrobiotic diets are based on the concept of balancing yin and yang.The macrobiotic diet is associated with Zen Buddhism and is based on the idea of balancing yin and yang.",
"The diet proposes ten plans which are followed to reach a supposedly ideal yin:yang ratio of 5:1.The diet was popularized by George Ohsawa in the 1930s and subsequently elaborated on by his disciple Michio Kushi.",
"Medical historian Barbara Clow writes that, in common with many other types of quackery, macrobiotics takes a view of illness and of therapy which conflicts with mainstream medicine.Macrobiotics emphasizes locally grown whole grain cereals, pulses (legumes), vegetables, edible seaweed, fermented soy products, and fruit combined into meals according to the ancient Chinese principle of balance known as yin and yang.",
"Whole grains and whole-grain products such as brown rice and buckwheat pasta (soba), a variety of cooked and raw vegetables, beans and bean products, mild natural seasonings, fish, nuts and seeds, mild (non-stimulating) beverages such as bancha twig tea, and fruit are recommended.Some macrobiotic proponents stress that yin and yang are relative qualities that can only be determined in a comparison.",
"All food is considered to have both properties, with one dominating.",
"Foods with yang qualities are considered compact, dense, heavy, and hot, whereas those with yin qualities are considered expansive, light, cold, and diffuse.",
"However, these terms are relative; \"yangness\" or \"yinness\" is only discussed in relation to other foods.Brown rice and other whole grains such as barley, millet, oats, quinoa, spelt, rye, and teff are considered by macrobiotics to be the foods in which yin and yang are closest to being in balance.",
"Therefore, lists of macrobiotic foods that determine a food as yin or yang generally compare them to whole grains.Nightshade vegetables, including tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, and eggplant; also, spinach, beets, and avocados, are not recommended or are used sparingly in macrobiotic cooking, as they are considered extremely yin.",
"Some macrobiotic practitioners also discourage the use of nightshades because of the alkaloid solanine which is thought to affect calcium balance.",
"Some proponents of a macrobiotic diet believe that nightshade vegetables can cause inflammation and osteoporosis."
],
[
"Practices",
"=== Food ===Some basic macrobiotic ingredientsSome general guidelines for the Japanese-style macrobiotic diet are the following (it is also said that a macrobiotic diet varies greatly, depending on geographical and life circumstances):* Well-chewed whole cereal grains, especially brown rice: 40–60%* Vegetables: 25–30%* Beans and legumes: 5–10%* Miso soup: 5%* Sea vegetables: 5%* Traditionally or naturally processed foods: 5–10%Fish and seafood, seeds and nuts, seed and nut butters, seasonings, sweeteners, fruits, and beverages may be enjoyed occasionally, two to three times per week.",
"Other naturally-raised animal products may be included if needed during dietary transition or according to individual needs.=== Kitchenware ===Cooking utensils should be made from certain materials such as wood or glass, while some materials including plastic, copper, and non-stick coatings are to be avoided.",
"Electric ovens should not be used."
],
[
"Japanese popularity and influence",
"The macrobiotic way of eating was developed and popularized by the Japanese.",
"During the Edo period in Japan peasants had a diet based on staples of rice and soybeans.",
"According to some macrobiotic advocates, a majority of the world population in the past ate a diet based primarily on grains, vegetables, and other plants.",
"Because the macrobiotic diet was developed in Japan, Japanese foods that are thought to be beneficial for health are incorporated by most modern macrobiotic eaters."
],
[
"Cancer",
"The American Cancer Society recommends \"low-fat, high-fiber diets that consist mainly of plant products\"; however, they urge people with cancer not to rely on a dietary program as an exclusive or primary means of treatment.",
"Cancer Research UK states, \"some people think living a macrobiotic lifestyle may help them to fight their cancer and lead to a cure.",
"But there is no scientific evidence to prove this.",
"\"Nutritionist Fredrick J. Stare has commented that \"there is no scientific evidence that macrobiotic diets can be helpful for cancer or any other disease.\""
],
[
"Nutrition",
"The macrobiotic diet is a type of fad diet.Fish provides vitamin B12 in a macrobiotic diet, as bioavailable B12 analogues have not been established in any natural plant food, including sea vegetables, soya, fermented products, and algae.",
"Although plant-derived foods do not naturally contain B12, some are fortified during processing with added B12 and other nutrients.",
"Vitamin A, as its precursor beta-carotene, is available from plants such as carrots and spinach.",
"Adequate protein is available from grains, nuts, seeds, beans, and bean products.",
"Sources of Omega-3 fatty acids are discussed in the relevant article, and include soy products, walnuts, flax seeds, pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, and fatty fish.",
"Riboflavin along with most other B vitamins are abundant in whole grains.",
"Iron in the form of non-heme iron in beans, sea vegetables and leafy greens is sufficient for good health; detailed information is in the USDA database."
],
[
"Safety",
"===Regulation===Macrobiotic practitioners are not regulated, and need not have any qualification or training in the United Kingdom.===Complications===One of the earlier versions of the macrobiotic diet that involved eating only brown rice and water has been linked to severe nutritional deficiencies and even death.",
"Strict macrobiotic diets that include no animal products may result in nutritional deficiencies unless they are carefully planned.",
"The danger may be worse for people with cancer, who may have to contend with unwanted weight loss and often have increased nutritional and caloric requirements.",
"Relying on this type of treatment alone and avoiding or delaying conventional medical care for cancer may have serious health consequences.===Children===Children may also be particularly prone to nutritional deficiencies resulting from a macrobiotic diet.===Pregnancy===Macrobiotic diets have not been tested in women who are pregnant or breast-feeding, and the most extreme versions may not include enough of certain nutrients for normal fetal growth."
],
[
"See also",
"* Ch'i* Chinese food therapy* List of diets* List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments* Sanpaku* Shiatsu* Traditional Chinese medicine"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Motorola"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Motorola, Inc.''' () was an American multinational telecommunications company based in Schaumburg, Illinois.",
"It was founded in 1928 as '''Galvin Manufacturing Corporation''' by brothers Paul and Joseph Galvin.",
"The company changed its name to Motorola in 1947.After having lost $4.3 billion from 2007 to 2009, Motorola was split into two independent public companies, Motorola Mobility and Motorola Solutions, on January 4, 2011.The reorganization was structured with Motorola Solutions legally succeeding Motorola, Inc., and Motorola Mobility being spun off.Motorola designed and sold wireless network equipment such as cellular transmission base stations and signal amplifiers.",
"Motorola's home and broadcast network products included set-top boxes, digital video recorders, and network equipment used to enable video broadcasting, computer telephony, and high-definition television.",
"Its business and government customers consisted mainly of wireless voice and broadband systems (used to build private networks), and public safety communications systems like Astro and Dimetra.",
"These businesses, except for set-top boxes and cable modems, became part of Motorola Solutions.Motorola's wireless telephone handset division was a pioneer in cellular telephones.",
"Also known as the Personal Communication Sector (PCS) prior to 2004, it pioneered the \"mobile phone\" with the first truly mobile \"brick phone\" DynaTAC, \"flip phone\" with the MicroTAC as well as the \"clam phone\" with the StarTAC in the mid-1990s.",
"It had staged a resurgence by the mid-2000s with the RAZR, but lost market share in the second half of that decade.",
"Later it focused on smartphones using Google's open-source Android mobile operating system.",
"The first phone to use Android 2.0 \"Eclair\", the Motorola Droid, was released in 2009 (the GSM version launched a month later, in Europe, as the Motorola Milestone).",
"The handset division, along with the cable set-top box and modem businesses, were later spun off into Motorola Mobility."
],
[
"History",
"Motorola was founded in Chicago, Illinois, as '''Galvin Manufacturing Corporation''' (at 847 West Harrison Street) in 1928.Paul Galvin wanted a brand name for Galvin Manufacturing Corporation's new car radio, and created the name \"Motorola\" by linking \"motor\" (for motorcar) with \"ola\" (from Victrola), which was also a popular ending for many companies at the time, e.g.",
"Moviola, Crayola.",
"The company sold its first Motorola branded radio on June 23, 1930, to Herbert C. Wall of Fort Wayne, Indiana, for $30.The Motorola brand name became so well known that Galvin Manufacturing Corporation later changed its name to Motorola, Inc., in 1947.Galvin Manufacturing Corporation began selling Motorola car-radio receivers to police departments and municipalities in November 1930.The company's first public safety customers (all in the U.S. state of Illinois) included the Village of River Forest, Village of Bellwood Police Department, City of Evanston Police, Illinois State Highway Police, and Cook County (Chicago area) Police.Many of Motorola's products have been radio-related, starting with a battery eliminator for battery powered radios (during the burgeoning electrification of rural homes), through the first hand-held walkie-talkie in the world in 1940, defense electronics, cellular infrastructure equipment, and mobile phone manufacturing.",
"In the same year, the company built its research and development program with Dan Noble, a pioneer in FM radio and semiconductor technologies, who joined the company as director of research.",
"The company produced the hand-held AM SCR-536 radio during World War II, which was vital to Allied communication.",
"Motorola ranked 94th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts.Motorola went public in 1943, and became Motorola, Inc. in 1947.At that time Motorola's main business was producing and selling televisions and radios.===Post World War II===Motorola vacuum tube cartonThe last plant was listed in Quincy, Illinois at 1400 North 30th Street where 1,200 employees made radio assemblies for both homes and automobiles.In 1969, Neil Armstrong spoke the famous words \"That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind\" from the Moon on a Motorola transceiver.In 1973, Motorola demonstrated the first hand-held portable telephone.In 1974, Motorola introduced its first microprocessor, the 8-bit MC6800, used in automotive, computing and video game applications.",
"The 6800 was the basis for the more popular MOS Technology 6502 which was made by former Motorola employees.",
"That same year, Motorola sold its television business to the Japan-based Matsushita – the parent company of Panasonic.In 1980, Motorola's next generation 32-bit microprocessor, the MC68000, led the wave of technologies that spurred the computing revolution in 1984, powering devices from companies such as Apple, Commodore, Atari, Sun, and Hewlett-Packard.Dr.",
"Martin Cooper of Motorola made the first private handheld mobile phone call on a larger prototype model in 1973.This is a reenactment in 2007.In September 1983, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved the DynaTAC 8000X telephone, the world's first commercial cellular device.",
"By 1998, cellphones accounted for two thirds of Motorola's gross revenue.In 1986 Motorola acquired Storno resulting in a whole new range of innovative communication products for the new owner, including the NMT, an automatic cellular phone system, and made Motorola a more central player in the early stages of the GSM standardization process in 1987.With this addition Motorola strengthened its position in Europe significantly.",
"As Motorola's European development arm, Storno developed a GSM terminal in 1992.On January 29, 1988, Motorola sold its Arcade, New York facility and automotive alternators, electromechanical speedometers and tachometers products to Prestolite Electric.In 1996, Motorola released the Motorola StarMax, which was a Macintosh clone that was licensed by Apple and it came with System 7.However, with the return of Steve Jobs to Apple in 1997, Apple released Mac OS 8.Because the clone makers' licenses were valid only for Apple's System 7 operating system, Apple's release of Mac OS 8 left the clone manufacturers unable to ship a current Mac OS version without negotiation with Apple.",
"A heated telephone conversation between Jobs and Motorola CEO Christopher Galvin resulted in the termination of Motorola's clone contract, the discontinuation of the Motorola StarMax, and the long-favored Apple being demoted to \"just another customer\" mainly for PowerPC CPUs.",
"Apple (and Jobs) did not want Motorola to limit the PowerPC CPU supply so as retaliation, Apple and IBM expelled Motorola from the AIM alliance and forced Motorola to stop producing any PowerPC CPUs, leaving IBM to make all future PowerPC CPUs.",
"However, Motorola was later reinstated into the alliance in 1998.In 1998, Motorola was overtaken by Nokia as the world's biggest seller of mobile phone handsets.In 1999, Motorola separated a portion of its semiconductor business—the Semiconductor Components Group (SCG)-- and formed onsemi (then ON Semiconductor), whose headquarters were located in Phoenix, Arizona.=== After 2000 ===In June 2000, Motorola and Cisco supplied the world's first commercial GPRS cellular network to BT Cellnet in the United Kingdom.",
"Motorola also developed the world's first GPRS cell phone.In August 2000, Motorola acquired Printrak International Inc. for $160 million.",
"In doing so, Motorola not only acquired computer aided dispatch and related software , but also acquired Automated fingerprint identification system software.",
"With recent acquisitions from that year, Motorola reached its peak employment of 150,000 employees worldwide.",
"Two years later, employment would be at 93,000 due to layoffs and spinoffs.In June 2005, Motorola overtook the intellectual property of Sendo for $30,000 and paid £362,575 for the plant, machinery and equipment.In June 2006, Motorola acquired the software platform (AJAR) developed by the British company TTP Communications plc.",
"Later in 2006, the firm announced a music subscription service named ''iRadio''.",
"The technology came after a break in a partnership with Apple Computer (which in 2005 had produced an iTunes compatible cell phone ROKR E1, and most recently, mid-2007, its own iPhone).",
"iRadio was to have many similarities with existing satellite radio services (such as Sirius and XM Radio) by offering live streams of commercial-free music content.",
"Unlike satellite services, however, iRadio content would be downloaded via a broadband internet connection.",
"However, iRadio was never commercially released.Greg Brown became Motorola's chief executive officer in 2008.In October 2008, Motorola agreed to sell its Biometrics business to Safran, a French defense firm.",
"Motorola's biometric business unit was headquartered in Anaheim, California.",
"The deal closed in April 2009.The unit became part of Sagem Morpho, which was renamed MorphoTrak.==== Split ====On March 26, 2008, Motorola's board of directors approved a split into two different publicly traded companies.",
"This came after talk of selling the company to another corporation.",
"These new companies would comprise the business units of Motorola Mobile Devices and Motorola Broadband & Mobility Solutions.",
"Originally it was expected that this action would be approved by regulatory bodies and complete by mid-2009, but the split was delayed due to company restructuring problems and the 2008–2009 extreme economic downturn.On February 11, 2010, Motorola announced it would separate into two independent, publicly traded companies.",
"The cell phone and cable television equipment businesses would spin off to form Motorola Mobility, while the remainder of Motorola, Inc., which comprised the government and enterprise equipment businesses, would become Motorola Solutions.",
"The split was closed on January 4, 2011.Motorola Mobility was eventually acquired by Google on May 22, 2012.Google later sold Motorola Mobility's cable equipment business to Arris Group in December 2012, and Motorola Mobility itself to Lenovo on October 30, 2014."
],
[
"Divisions",
"At the time of its split, Motorola had three divisions:''''''*'''Enterprise Mobility Solutions''' was headquartered in Schaumburg, Illinois.",
"It comprised communications offered to government and public safety sectors and enterprise mobility business.",
"Motorola developed analog and digital two-way radio, voice and data communications products and systems, mobile computing, advanced data capture, wireless infrastructure and RFID solutions to customers worldwide.",
"*'''Home & Networks Mobility''' produced end-to-end systems that facilitate uninterrupted access to digital entertainment, information and communications services via wired and wireless mediums.",
"Motorola developed digital video system solutions, interactive set-top devices, voice and data modems for digital subscriber line and cable networks, broadband access systems for cable and satellite television operators, and also wireline carriers and wireless service providers.",
"It was based in Arlington Heights, Illinois.",
"*'''Mobile Devices'''' headquarters were located in Chicago, Illinois, and designed wireless handsets, but also licensed much of its intellectual properties.",
"This included cellular and wireless systems and as well as integrated applications and Bluetooth accessories."
],
[
"Finances",
"Motorola's handset division recorded a loss of $1.2 billion in the fourth quarter of 2007, while the company as a whole earned $100 million during that quarter.",
"It lost several key executives to rivals, and the website TrustedReviews called the company's products repetitive and un-innovative.",
"Motorola laid off 3,500 workers in January 2008, followed by a further 4,000 job cuts in June and another 20% cut of its research division a few days later.",
"In July 2008, a large number of executives left Motorola to work on Apple Inc.'s iPhone.",
"The company's handset division was also put on offer for sale.",
"Also that month, analyst Mark McKechnie from American Technology Research said that Motorola \"would be lucky to fetch $500 million\" for selling its handset business.",
"Analyst Richard Windsor said that Motorola might have to pay someone to take the division off the company's hands , and that Motorola may even exit the handset market altogether.",
"Its global market share has been on the decline; from 18.4% of the market in 2007 the company had a share of just 6.0% by Q1 2009, but at last, Motorola scored a profit of $26 million in Q2 and showed an increase of 12% in stocks for the first time after losses in many quarters.",
"During the second quarter of 2010, the company reported a profit of $162 million, which compared very favorably to the $26 million earned for the same period the year before.",
"Its Mobile Devices division reported, for the first time in years, earnings of $87 million."
],
[
"Environmental record",
"Motorola, Inc., along with the Arizona Water Co. had been identified as the sources of trichloroethylene (TCE) contamination that took place in Scottsdale, Arizona.",
"The malfunction led to a ban on the use of water that lasted three days and affected almost 5000 people in the area.",
"Motorola was found to be the main source of the TCE, an industrial solvent that is thought to cause cancer.",
"The TCE contamination was caused by a faulty blower on an air stripping tower that was used to take TCE from the water, and Motorola has attributed the situation to operator error.Of eighteen leading electronics manufacturers in Greenpeace's Guide to Greener Electronics (October 2010), Motorola shared sixth place with competitors Panasonic and Sony.Motorola scored relatively well on the chemicals criteria and has a goal to eliminate PVC plastic and Brominated flame retardants (BFRs), though only in mobile devices and not in all its products introduced after 2010, despite the fact that Sony Ericsson and Nokia were already there.",
"All of its mobile phones were now PVC-free and it had two PVC and BFR-free mobile phones, the A45 ECO and the GRASP; all chargers were also free from PVC and BFRs.The company was also increasing the proportion of recycled materials used in its products.",
"For example, the housings for the MOTO W233 Renew and MOTOCUBO A45 Eco mobile phones contained plastic from post-consumer recycled water cooler bottles.",
"According to the company's information, all of Motorola's newly designed chargers met the current Energy Star requirements and exceed the requirements for standby/no-load modes by at least 67%."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Motorola products* List of companies of the United States* List of electronics companies"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official website (archived December 31, 2010)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mazda MX-5"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Mazda MX-5''' is a lightweight two-passenger sports car manufactured and marketed by Mazda with a front mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout.",
"The convertible is marketed as the or in Japan, and as the '''Mazda Miata''' () in the United States, and formerly in Canada, where it is now marketed as the MX-5 but is still commonly referred to as ''Miata''.Manufactured at Mazda's Hiroshima plant, the MX-5 debuted in 1989 at the Chicago Auto Show and was conceived and executed under a tightly focused design credo, , meaning \"oneness of horse and rider\".",
"Widely noted for its small, light, technologically modern, dynamically balanced and minimally complex design, the MX-5 has frequently been called a spiritual successor to 1950s and '60s Italian and British roadster sports cars.",
"The Lotus Elan was used as a design benchmark.Generations were internally designated with a two-letter code, beginning with the first generation, the NA.",
"The second generation (NB) launched in 1998 for MY 1999; followed by the third generation (NC) in 2005 for MY 2006, and the fourth generation (ND) in 2015 for MY 2016.As the best-selling two-seat convertible sports car in history, the MX-5 has been marketed globally, with production exceeding one million, as of early 2016.The name derives from Old High German for \"reward\"."
],
[
"Overview",
"The original MX-5 was launched at a time when small roadsters had almost disappeared from the market, with the Alfa Romeo Spider being one of the only comparable models still in production at the time.",
"However, even the Spider was not a direct competitor of the MX-5 due to its significantly higher price tag.",
"That left the Mazda as the spiritual successor to a host of discontinued sports cars such as the MG B, Triumph TR7, Triumph Spitfire, and Fiat Spider.The MX-5 was officially introduced in February 1989 at the Chicago Auto Show, and the public immediately resonated with the new sports car.",
"The first generation MX-5 would go on to be the most popular of the four MX-5 generations by a wide margin, with over 228,961 units sold in the United States between 1989 and 1997.The lightweight, unibody MX-5 boasts sharp, responsive handling and a curb weight of under 2,500 pounds.",
"Notably, the MX-5 incorporates a longitudinal truss, marketed as the Powerplant Frame (PPF), that provides a rigid connection between the engine and differential to minimize flex and improve balance.",
"Some MX-5 models feature limited slip differentials, traction control, and an anti-lock braking system.With an approximate 50:50 front/rear weight balance, the car has nearly neutral handling.",
"Inducing oversteer is easy and very controllable, thus making the MX-5 a popular choice for amateur and stock racing, autocross, and club racing."
],
[
"Design",
"In 1976, Bob Hall, a journalist at ''Motor Trend'' magazine who was an expert in Japanese cars and fluent in the language, met Kenichi Yamamoto and Gai Arai, head of Research and Development at Mazda.",
"Yamamoto and Gai Arai asked Hall what kind of car Mazda should make in the future:In 1981, Hall moved to a product planning position with Mazda USA and again met Yamamoto, now chairman of Mazda Motors, who remembered their conversation about a roadster and in 1982 gave Hall the go-ahead to research the idea further.",
"At this time Hall hired designer Mark Jordan to join the newly formed Mazda design studio in Southern California.",
"There, Hall and Jordan collaborated on the parameters of the initial image, proportion and visualization of the \"light-weight sports\" concept.",
"In 1983, the idea turned concept was approved under the \"Offline 55\" program, an internal Mazda initiative that sought to change the way new models were developed.",
"Thus, under head of project Masakatsu, the concept development was turned into a competition between the Mazda design teams in Tokyo and California.The California team proposed a front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout, codenamed Duo 101, in line with the British roadster ancestry, but their Japanese counterparts favored the more common front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout or the rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout.The first round of judging the competing designs was held in April 1984, with designs presented on paper only.",
"The mid-engined car appeared to offer favorable qualities, although it was known at the time that such a layout would struggle to meet the noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) requirements of the project.",
"It was only at the second round of the competition in August 1984, when full-scale clay models were presented, that the Duo 101 won the competition and was selected as the basis for what would become the MX-5.The Duo 101, so named as either a soft top or hardtop could be used, incorporated many key stylistic cues inspired by the Lotus Elan, a 1960s roadster, including the door handles, tail lamps and grille opening as well as engine appearance and center console layout.",
"It is known that Mazda design studio acquired a vintage Lotus Elan as a source of inspiration for the designers.",
"International Automotive Design (IAD) in Worthing, England, was commissioned to develop a running prototype, codenamed V705.It was built with a fiberglass body, a engine from a Mazda Familia and components from a variety of early Mazda models.",
"The V705 was completed in August 1985 and taken to the US where it rolled on the roads around Santa Barbara, California and got positive reactions.The project received final approval on 18 January 1986.The model's codename was changed to P729 as it moved into the production phase, under head of program Toshihiko Hirai.",
"The task of constructing five engineering ''mules'' (more developed prototypes) was again allocated to IAD, which also conducted the first front and rear crash tests on the P729.While Tom Matano, Mark Jordan, Wu-huang Chin (, also on the RX-7 team), Norman Garrett, and worked on the final design, the project was moved to Japan for engineering and production details.By 1989, with a definitive model name now chosen, the MX-5 was ready to be introduced to the world as a true lightweight sports car, weighing just .Although Mazda's concept was for the MX-5 to be an inexpensive sports car, at introduction the design met strong demand, with many dealers placing customers on pre-order lists and several dealers across North America increasing the vehicle markup."
],
[
"Generations",
"=== First generation – NA (1989–1997) ===Mazda MX-5 (NA)The first generation MX-5 was introduced in 1989 and was in production until 1997.Upon its release, the car won numerous accolades such as ''Automobile'' Magazine's 1990 Automobile of the Year and ''Car and Driver''s 10Best list from 1990 to 1992.It initially featured a inline-four engine making 116 horsepower; in late 1993, a larger 1.8-liter engine was made standard in most markets.The MX-5 was designed with inspiration from the Lotus Elan, and features such as pop-up headlights, unique to the NA model, and slim chrome door handles pay homage to the famous British roadster.",
"To keep the weight down, base models were not equipped with power steering or power brakes.",
"A five-speed manual transmission was standard, with the option of a four-speed automatic also available.=== Second generation – NB (1998–2005) ===Mazda MX-5 (NB)The second generation MX-5 was unveiled in 1997 and put on sale in 1998 for the 1999 model year.",
"While it kept the same proportions of its predecessor, its most noticeable change was the removal of the retractable headlamps, which were eliminated in the face of more stringent pedestrian safety tests.",
"The NB model of the MX-5 featured a slight increase in engine power, a refined interior design and the option of a six-speed manual transmission.",
"In 2001, the model underwent revisions, the second generation boasted a slight increase in engine power, a more refined interior with an updated design, and a newly available six-speed manual transmission.",
"In 2001, further revisions included slightly updated front and rear styling as well as variable-valve timing engine technology for the 1.8-liter engine, which now made .",
"Updated models have since been known as NB2, while the earlier versions are referred to as NB1.While various special editions continued to be introduced throughout the entire NB production run, the Mazdaspeed MX-5 is distinctive for being the only MX-5 to be turbocharged at the factory.",
"The Mazdaspeed variant, built for the model years 2004 and 2005, made from a turbocharged version of the normal 1.8-liter engine, enabling a quarter-mile time of 15.2 seconds and a time of 6.7 seconds.",
"Other Mazdaspeed specs include stiffer and shorter springs, Bilstein shocks, and larger 17-inch wheels.=== Third generation – NC (2005–2015) ===Mazda MX-5 (NC)Taking design cues from the 2003 Mazda Ibuki concept car, the third-generation Mazda MX-5 was introduced in 2005 and was in production until 2015.This generation introduced Power Retractable Hard Top (PRHT), a variant featuring a folding hard top mechanism that does not encroach on trunk space.",
"During its release, the third generation MX-5 received several accolades such as the 2005–2006 Car of the Year Japan Award and ''Car and Driver''s 10Best list from 2006 to 2013.=== Fourth generation – ND (2015–present) ===Mazda MX-5 RF (ND)The fourth-generation Mazda MX-5 was unveiled in 2014 and has been in production since 2015.An updated model was introduced in 2019 and is visually identical to the pre-update model; the engine was upgraded to and a dual-mass flywheel introduced to the powertrain in the manual transmission.",
"The ND generation introduced a Retractable Fastback (RF) variant that features a rigid roof and buttresses that give the silhouette a more coupé-like appearance than the soft top convertible.",
"The fourth generation MX-5 has received several accolades such as the 2015-2016 Car of the Year Japan Award, the 2016 World Car of the Year Award, ''Car and Driver''s 10Best list from 2016 to 2019, and the Red Dot Best of the Best Award in Product Design 2017.In addition, the car is the basis for the Fiat 124 Spider and Abarth 124 Spider."
],
[
"Production numbers and details",
"In 2000, the ''Guinness Book of World Records'' declared the MX-5 the best-selling two-seat sports car in history, with a then total production of 531,890 units.",
"The 250,000th MX-5 rolled out of the factory on November 9, 1992; the 500,000th, on February 8, 1999; the 750,000th, in March 2004; the 800,000th in January 2007, and the 900,000th in February 2011.On April 22, 2016, Mazda produced its one millionth MX-5.It was displayed in several cities, where the first 240 people present could sign it before it went to the next destination.",
"Calendar year Production Sales Model US Canada Mexico Australia UK Europe Japan Others Global 1988 12 (pre-production cars) 1989 45,266 23,052 2,827 657 4 9,307 35,847 First Generation (NA) (Total Production 431,506) 1990 95,640 35,944 3,906 1,455 2,246 9,267 25,226 75,798 1991 63,434 31,240 2,956 698 1,986 14,050 22,594 71,538 1992 52,712 24,964 2,277 499 1,017 6,632 18,648 53,020 1993 44,743 21,588 1,501 453 910 4,824 16,779 45,145 1994 39,623 21,400 1,173 404 1,250 5,019 10,828 38,824 1995 31,886 20,174 934 196 2,495 7,174 7,171 35,649 1996 33,610 18,408 558 241 3,855 9,585 4,413 33,201 1997 24,580(NA)+2,457(NB) 17,218 594 206 4,956 10,480 3,537 32,035 1998 58,682 19,845 1,045 1,310 6,307 16,831 10,174 49,205 Second Generation (NB)(Total Production 290,123) 1999 44,851 17,738 1,198 1,354 6,411 21,130 4,952 30 46,402 2000 47,496 18,299 1,328 1,038 5,199 19,268 4,644 33 44,610 2001 38,870 16,486 1,271 924 3,720 16,368 4,211 6 39,266 2002 40,754 14,392 1,230 698 7,162 19,670 2,934 34 38,958 2003 30,106 10,920 1,079 540 9,097 18,934 1,520 11 33,004 2004 24,232 9,356 1,146 483 6,372 13,885 1,646 248 26,764 2005 2,675(NB)+27,275(NC) 9,801 857 743 5,182 9,852 3,657 353 25,263 Third Generation (NC)(Total Production 231,632) 2006 48,389 16,897 1,582 223 1,468 8,593 19,402 4,067 827 44,243 2007 37,022 15,075 1,814 261 1,170 9,234 18,899 3,845 772 41,575 2008 22,886 10,977 1,407 179 639 6,109 13,252 1,858 610 28,743 2009 19,341 7,917 850 119 521 4,698 9,709 1,947 1,195 22,139 2010 20,554 6,370 736 149 440 5,157 10,317 1,120 1,083 20,066 2011 14,995 5,674 612 176 315 3,660 8,147 1,104 730 16,582 2012 15,400 6,305 711 145 159 3,342 7,207 941 513 15,836 2013 11,639 5,780 554 186 178 3,285 6,113 768 377 13,770 2014 12,246 4,745 511 154 118 2,982 5,786 491 296 12,162 2015 1,885(NC)+30,022(ND) 8,591 630 480 917 6,746 8,509 26,508 Fourth Generation (ND) 2016 40,101 9,465 903 1,317 13.677 6,126 34,567 2017 38,861 11,294 1,067 1,769 15,769 7,005 39,773 2018 27,452 8,971 615 1,072 13,703 5,331 31,938 2019 7,753 774 1,101 13.803 31,000 2020 8,807 520 793 4.815 27,000 Total 1,089,697 465,437 35,287 8,124 17,824 115,225 377,064 168,378 7,118 1,123,399"
],
[
"Legacy and recognition",
"The MX-5 has won numerous awards, including ''Wheels Magazine''s Car of the Year for 1989, 2005 and 2016; ''Sports Car International''s \"best sports car of the 1990s\" and \"ten best sports cars of all time\"; 2005–2006 Car of the Year Japan; and 2005 Australian Car of the Year.",
"The MX-5 has also made ''Car and Driver'' magazine's annual 10 Best list 17 times.",
"In their December 2009 issue, ''Grassroots Motorsports'' magazine named the MX-5 as the most important sports car built during the previous 25 years.",
"As production continues and generations are added, the core idea, dimensions and basic technology remain, with technological advancements added with each revised version, while adhering to the original goals that led to its creation.In 2009, English automotive critic Jeremy Clarkson wrote: === Awards ===*''Automobile'' Magazine 1990 \"Automobile of the Year\" and \"All-Stars\" list in 2016.",
"*''Car and Driver''s 10Best list from 1990-1992, 1998-1999, 2001, 2006-2013, 2016-2019.",
"*Car of the Year Japan Award 2005-2006 and 2015-2016.",
"*2006 World Car of the Year Awards: \"World Car of the Year\" Finalist.",
"*2012 ''Autocar'' Indonesia Reader's Choice Award, Favorite Convertible.",
"*''What Car?''",
"Magazine 2014 Used Car of the Year - Best Fun Car.*Yahoo!",
"Autos 2016 Fresh Ride of the Year.",
"* Roadshow by CNET Editors Choice Best Convertibles 2016.",
"*World Car of the Year at the 2016 World Car Awards (UK).",
"*2016 World Car of the Year Awards: \"World Car of the Year\" and \"World Car Design of the Year\".",
"*2016 UK Car of the Year.",
"*''The Daily Telegraph'' 2016 Car of the Year.",
"*''Auto Express'' 2017 Roadster of the Year.",
"*Red Dot Best of the Best Award: Product Design 2017.",
"*''New York Daily News'' DNA Award 2018.",
"*''What Car?''",
"Magazine 2018 Best Convertible Less Than £25,000.",
"*MotorWeek Drivers' Choice Awards Best Convertible 2018.",
"*2018 RJC Car of the Year Special Award: Classic Car Restoration Service.",
"*Edmunds.com 2019 Editor's Choice Awards: Best Sports Car.",
"*iSeeCars named the Mazda MX-5 Miata as the top sports car that US owners keep the longest."
],
[
"See also",
"* Spec Miata, a class of racing cars in the US:* Global MX-5 Cup, a Spec Miata series sanctioned by IMSA.",
"* MaX5 Racing, a class of racing cars in the United Kingdom* Simpson Design, US-based custom coachbuilder producing bodies and interior for the Miata MX-5"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* Long, B.",
"''MX-5 Miata – The full story of the world's favourite sports car'', Veloce Publishing, 2002..* Carey, J.",
"(March, 2005).",
"\"New Mazda MX-5\".",
"Wheels (Australia), p. 48."
],
[
"External links",
"* (US)* (The Story of the MX-5)*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mackinac Bridge"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Mackinac Bridge''' ( ; also referred to as the '''Mighty Mac''' or '''Big Mac''') is a suspension bridge that connects the Upper and Lower peninsulas of the U.S. state of Michigan.",
"It spans the Straits of Mackinac, a body of water connecting Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, two of the Great Lakes.",
"Opened in 1957, the bridge is the world's 27th-longest main span and is the longest suspension bridge between anchorages in the Western Hemisphere.",
"The Mackinac Bridge is part of Interstate 75 (I-75) and the Lake Michigan and Huron components of the Great Lakes Circle Tour across the straits; it is also a segment of the U.S. North Country National Scenic Trail.",
"The bridge connects the city of St. Ignace to the north with the village of Mackinaw City to the south.Envisioned since the 1880s, the bridge was designed by the engineer David B. Steinman and completed in 1957 only after many decades of struggles to begin construction.",
"The bridge has since become an iconic symbol of the state of Michigan."
],
[
"Length",
"The bridge opened on November 1, 1957, connecting two peninsulas linked for decades by ferries.",
"At the time, the bridge was formally dedicated as the \"world's longest suspension bridge between anchorages\", allowing a superlative comparison to the Golden Gate Bridge, which has a longer center span between towers, and the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, which has an anchorage in the middle.It remains the longest suspension bridge with two towers between anchorages in the Western Hemisphere.",
"Much longer anchorage-to-anchorage spans have been built in the Eastern Hemisphere, including the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in Japan (), but the long leadups to the anchorages on the Mackinac make its total shoreline-to-shoreline length of 26,372 feet — 28 feet short of — longer than the Akashi Kaikyo ().The length of the bridge's main span is , which makes it the third-longest suspension span in the United States and 27th longest suspension span worldwide.",
"It is also one of the world's longest bridges overall."
],
[
"History",
"===Early history===Vacationland'', the largest and last Michigan State Highway Department automobile ferry put in service prior to the completion of the Mackinac BridgeThe Algonquian peoples who lived in the straits area prior to the arrival of Europeans in the 17th century called this region ''Michilimackinac'', which is widely understood to mean ''Place of the Great Turtle.''",
"This is thought to refer to the shape of what is now called Mackinac Island.",
"This interpretation of the word is debated by scholars.",
"Trading posts at the Straits of Mackinac attracted peak populations during the summer trading season; they also developed as intertribal meeting places.As usage of the state's mineral and timber resources increased during the 19th century, the area became an important transport hub.",
"In 1881 the three railroads that reached the Straits, the Michigan Central, Grand Rapids & Indiana, and the Detroit, Mackinac & Marquette, jointly established the Mackinac Transportation Company to operate a railroad car ferry service across the straits and connect the two peninsulas.Improved highways along the eastern shores of the Lower Peninsula brought increased automobile traffic to the Straits region starting in the 1910s.",
"The state of Michigan initiated an automobile ferry service between Mackinaw City and St. Ignace in 1923; it eventually operated nine ferry boats that would carry as many as 9,000 vehicles per day.",
"Traffic backups could stretch as long as .===Plans for the bridge===Bridge's opening in November 1957After the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883, local residents began to imagine that such a structure could span the straits.",
"In 1884, a store owner in St. Ignace published a newspaper advertisement that included a reprint of an artist's conception of the Brooklyn Bridge with the caption \"Proposed bridge across the Straits of Mackinac\".The idea of the bridge was discussed in the Michigan Legislature as early as the 1880s.",
"At the time, the Straits of Mackinac area was becoming a popular tourist destination, especially following the creation of Mackinac National Park on Mackinac Island in 1875.At a July 1888 meeting of the board of directors of the Grand Hotel on Mackinac Island, Cornelius Vanderbilt II proposed that a bridge be built across the straits, of a design similar to the one then under construction across the Firth of Forth in Scotland.",
"This would advance commerce in the region and help lengthen the resort season of the hotel.Decades went by with no formal action.",
"In 1920, the Michigan state highway commissioner advocated construction of a floating tunnel across the Straits.",
"At the invitation of the state legislature, C. E. Fowler of New York City put forth a plan for a long series of causeways and bridges across the straits from Cheboygan, southeast of Mackinaw City, to St. Ignace, using Bois Blanc, Round, and Mackinac islands as intermediate steps.===Formal planning===In 1923, the state legislature ordered the State Highway Department to establish ferry service across the strait.",
"More and more people used ferries to cross the straits each year, and as they did, the movement to build a bridge increased.",
"Chase Osborn, a former governor, wrote:By 1928, the ferry service had become so popular and so expensive to operate that Governor Fred W. Green ordered the department to study the feasibility of building a bridge across the strait.",
"The department deemed the idea feasible, estimating the cost at $30 million (equivalent to $ in ).In 1934, the Michigan Legislature created the ''Mackinac Straits Bridge Authority'' to explore possible methods of constructing and funding the proposed bridge.",
"The Legislature authorized the Authority to seek financing for the project.",
"In the mid-1930s, during the Great Depression, when numerous infrastructure projects received federal aid, the Authority twice attempted to obtain federal funds for the project but was unsuccessful.",
"The United States Army Corps of Engineers and President Franklin D. Roosevelt endorsed the project but Congress never appropriated funds.",
"Between 1936 and 1940, the Authority selected a route for the bridge based on preliminary studies.",
"Borings were made for a detailed geological study of the route.The preliminary plans for the bridge featured a three-lane roadway, a railroad crossing on the underdeck of the span, and a center-anchorage double-suspension bridge configuration similar to the design of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge.",
"Because this would have required sinking an anchorage pier in the deepest area of the Straits, the practicality of this design may have been questionable.",
"A concrete causeway, approximately , extending from the northern shore, was constructed in shallow water from 1939 to 1941.However, a unique engineering challenge was created by the tremendous forces that operate against the base of the bridge, because the lakes freeze during the winter, causing large icebergs to place enormous stress on the bridge.At that time, with funding for the project still uncertain, further work was put on hold because of the outbreak of World War II.",
"The ''Mackinac Straits Bridge Authority'' was abolished by the state legislature in 1947, but the same body created a new Mackinac Bridge Authority three years later in 1950.In June 1950, engineers were retained for the project.",
"By then, it was reported that cars queuing for the ferry at Mackinaw City did not reach St. Ignace until five hours later, and the typical capacity of 460 vehicles per hour could not match the estimated 1,600 for a bridge.After a report by the engineers in January 1951, the state legislature authorized the sale of $85 million (equivalent to $ in ) in bonds for bridge construction on April 30, 1952.However, a weak bond market in 1953 forced a delay of more than a year before the bonds could be issued.===Engineering and construction===View of the north tower of the bridgeDavid B. Steinman was appointed as the design engineer in January 1953 and by the end of 1953, estimates and contracts had been negotiated.",
"A civil engineer at the firm, Abul Hasnat, did the preliminary plans for the bridge.",
"Total cost estimate at that time was $95 million (equivalent to $ in ) with estimated completion by November 1, 1956.Tolls collected were to pay for the bridge in 20 years.",
"Construction began on May 7, 1954.The bridge was built under two major contracts.",
"The Merritt-Chapman and Scott Corporation of New York was awarded the contract for all major substructure work for $25.7 million (equivalent to $ in ), while the American Bridge Division of United States Steel Corporation was awarded a contract of more than $44 million (equivalent to $ in ) to build the steel superstructure.Construction, staged using the 1939–41 causeway, took three and a half years (four summers, no winter construction) at a total cost of $100 million and the lives of five workers.",
"Contrary to popular belief, none of them are entombed in the bridge.",
"It opened to traffic on schedule on November 1, 1957, and the ferry service was discontinued on the same day.",
"The bridge was formally dedicated on June 25, 1958.G.",
"Mennen Williams was governor during the construction of the Mackinac Bridge.",
"He began the tradition of the governor leading the Mackinac Bridge Walk across it every Labor Day.",
"Senator Prentiss M. Brown has been called the \"father of the Mackinac Bridge\", and was honored with a special memorial bridge token created by the Mackinac Bridge Authority.The bridge officially achieved its 100 millionth crossing exactly 40 years after its dedication, on June 25, 1998.The 50th anniversary of the bridge's opening was celebrated on November 1, 2007, in a ceremony hosted by the Mackinac Bridge Authority at the viewing park adjacent to the St. Ignace causeway.",
"The bridge was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2010.===History of the bridge's design===View of a bridge towerThe design of the Mackinac Bridge was directly influenced by the lessons from the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge, which failed in 1940 because of its instability in high winds.",
"Three years after that disaster, Steinman had published a theoretical analysis of suspension-bridge stability problems, which recommended that future bridge designs include deep stiffening trusses to support the bridge deck and an open-grid roadway to reduce its wind resistance.",
"Both of these features were incorporated into the design of the Mackinac Bridge.",
"The stiffening truss is open to reduce wind resistance.",
"The road deck is shaped as an airfoil to provide lift in a cross wind, and the center two lanes are open grid to allow vertical (upward) air flow, which fairly precisely cancels the lift, making the roadway stable in design in winds of up to ."
],
[
"Facts and figures",
"The Mackinac Bridge from the south shoreThe Mackinac Bridge at nightFreighter passing under the bridge, from Straits State ParkThe Mackinac Bridge is a toll bridge on Interstate 75 (I-75).",
"The US Highway 27 (US 27) designation was initially extended across the bridge.",
"In November 1960, sections of I-75 freeway opened from Indian River north to the southern bridge approaches in Mackinaw City, and US 27 was removed from the bridge.",
"It is one of only three segments of I-75 that are tolled, the others being the American half of the International Bridge near Sault Ste.",
"Marie, Michigan, and Alligator Alley in Florida.",
"The current toll is $4.00 for automobiles and $5.00 per axle for trucks.",
"The Mackinac Bridge Authority raised the toll in 2007 to fund a $300 million renovation program, which would include completely replacing the bridge deck.Every Labor Day, the bridge is open to walkers for the Mackinac Bridge Walk.Painting of the bridge takes seven years, and when painting of the bridge is complete, it begins again.",
"The current painting project began in 1999 and was expected to take 20 years to complete because the lead-based paint needs to be removed, incurring additional disposal requirements.The bridge celebrated its 150 millionth vehicle crossing on September 6, 2009.",
"* Length from cable bent pier to cable bent pier: .",
"* Total width of the roadway: ** Two outside lanes: wide each** Two inside lanes: wide each** Center mall: ** Catwalk, curb and rail width: on each side* Width of stiffening truss in the suspended span: .",
"* Depth of stiffening truss: * Height of the roadway at mid-span: approximately above water level.",
"* Vertical clearance at normal temperature:** at the center of the main suspension span.",
"** at the boundaries of the navigation channel.",
"* Construction cost: $99.8 million (equivalent to $ in )* Height of towers above water: * Max.",
"depth of towers below water: * Depth of water beneath the center of the bridge, * Main cables:** Number of wires in each cable: 12,580** Diameter of each wire: ** Diameter of each cable: ** Total length of wire in main cables: .",
"* Total vehicle crossings, 2005: 4,236,491 (average 11,608 per day)* Speed limit: for passenger cars, for heavy trucks.",
"Heavy trucks are also required to leave a spacing ahead.===Work and major accident fatalities===Five workers died during the construction of the bridge:* Diver Frank Pepper ascended too quickly from a depth of on September 16, 1954.Despite being rushed to a decompression chamber, the 46-year-old died from the bends.",
"* 26-year-old James LeSarge lost his balance on October 10, 1954, and fell into a caisson.",
"He fell and likely died of head injuries caused by impact with the criss-crossing steel beams inside the caisson.",
"* Albert Abbott died on October 25, 1954.The forty-year-old fell into the water while working on an wide beam.",
"Witnesses speculate he suffered a heart attack.",
"* 28-year-old Jack Baker and 28-year-old Robert Koppen died in a catwalk collapse near the north tower on June 6, 1956; it was their first day on the job.",
"Koppen's body was never recovered.",
"Another man suffered a broken ankle.All five men are memorialized on a plaque near the bridge's northern end (Bridge View Park).",
"Contrary to folklore, no bodies are embedded in the concrete.One worker has died since the bridge was completed.",
"Daniel Doyle fell from scaffolding on August 7, 1997.He survived the fall but fell victim to the water temperature.",
"His body was recovered the next day in of water.Two vehicles have fallen off the bridge:* On September 22, 1989, Leslie Ann Pluhar died when her car, a 1987 Yugo, plunged over the railing.",
"High winds were initially blamed, which was not supported by recorded wind speed measurements taken on and around the bridge at the time of the accident.",
"Later investigation showed the driver lost control due to excessive speed and her vehicle bumped the bridge's 4-inch-high median and then crossed back through the northbound lanes, hitting a curb, jumping an outer guardrail and falling off the bridge, * On March 2, 1997, Richard Alan Daraban drove his car, a 1996 Ford Bronco, over the edge.",
"It was later determined to be a suicide.On September 10, 1978, a small private plane carrying United States Marine Corps Reserve officers Maj. Virgil Osborne, Capt.",
"James Robbins, and Capt.",
"Wayne W. Wisbrock smashed into one of the bridge's suspension cables while flying in a heavy fog.",
"The impact tore the wings off the plane, which then plunged into the Straits of Mackinac.",
"All three men were killed.Because the bridge is not accessible to pedestrians, suicides by jumping from the bridge have been rare, with the most recent confirmed case taking place on December 31, 2012.There have been roughly a dozen suicides by people jumping off the bridge .===Crossing the bridge===Some individuals have difficulty crossing bridges, a phenomenon known as gephyrophobia.",
"The Mackinac Bridge Authority has a Drivers Assistance Program that provides drivers for those with gephyrophobia, or anyone who is more comfortable having someone else drive them across.",
"More than a thousand people use this service every year.",
"Those interested can arrange, either by phone or with the toll collector, to have their cars or motorcycles driven to the other end.",
"There is an additional fee for this service.Bicycles and pedestrians are not permitted on the bridge.",
"Up until 2017, an exception was allowed for riders of two annual bicycle tours.",
"As of March 13, 2020 a program to transport bicycles has been suspended indefinitely due to the COVID-19 pandemic.",
"A yearly exception is also made for pedestrians, see \"Bridge Walk\" below.Travelers across the Mackinac Bridge can listen to an AM radio broadcast that recounts the history of the bridge and provides updates on driving conditions."
],
[
"Bridge Walk",
"The Mackinac Bridge Walk in 2004The first Mackinac Bridge Walk was held in 1958, when it was led by Governor G. Mennen Williams.",
"The first walk was held during the Bridge's Dedication Ceremony held in late June, and has been held on Labor Day since 1959.Until 2018, school buses from local districts transported walkers from Mackinaw City to St. Ignace to begin the walk.",
"Thousands of people, traditionally led by the governor of Michigan, cross the five-mile (8 km) span on foot from St. Ignace to Mackinaw City.",
"Before 1964, people walked the Bridge from Mackinaw City to St. Ignace.",
"Prior to 2017, two lanes of the bridge would remain open to public vehicle traffic; this policy was changed in 2017 to close the entire bridge to public vehicle traffic for the duration of the event.",
"The Bridge Walk is the only day of the year that hikers can hike this section of the North Country National Scenic Trail."
],
[
"Tourism",
"A Mackinac Island ferry passing in front of the Mackinac Bridge.During the summer months, the Upper Peninsula and the Mackinac Bridge have become a major tourist destination.",
"In addition to visitors to Mackinac Island, the bridge has attracted interest from a diverse group of tourists including bridge enthusiasts, bird-watchers, and photographers.",
"The Straits area is a popular sailing destination for boats of all types, which make it easier to get a closer view to the underlying structure of the bridge."
],
[
"In media",
"Mackinac Bridge from Michilimackinac State Park, Mackinaw CityOn June 25, 1958, to coincide with that year's celebration of the November 1957 opening, the United States Postal Service (USPS) released a 3¢ commemorative stamp featuring the recently completed bridge.",
"It was entitled \"Connecting the Peninsulas of Michigan\" and 107,195,200 copies were issued.",
"The USPS again honored the Mackinac Bridge as the subject of its 2010 priority mail $4.90 stamp, which went on sale February 3.The bridge authority and MDOT unveiled the stamp, which featured a \"seagull's-eye view\" of the landmark, with a passing freighter below.",
"Artist Dan Cosgrove worked from panoramic photographs to create the artwork.",
"This is one of several designs that Cosgrove has produced for the USPS.On April 24, 1959, Captain John S. Lappo, an officer in the Strategic Air Command, operating from Lockbourne AFB flew his Boeing B-47 Stratojet beneath the bridge.",
"Following a general court-martial, he was grounded for life.A feature-length documentary entitled ''Building the Mighty Mac'' was produced by Hollywood filmmaker Mark Howell in 1997 and was shown on PBS.",
"The program features numerous interviews with the key people who built the structure and includes restored 16mm color footage of the bridge's construction.The history and building of the bridge was featured in a 2003 episode of the History Channel TV show ''Modern Marvels''.On July 19, 2007, the Detroit Science Center unveiled an , scale model of the Mackinac Bridge.",
"The exhibit was part of the state's 50th anniversary celebration of the bridge.",
"Sherwin-Williams supplied authentic Mackinac Bridge-colored paint for the project.The bridge and its maintenance crew were featured in an episode of the Discovery Channel TV show ''Dirty Jobs'' on August 7, 2007.Host Mike Rowe and crew spent several days filming the episode in May 2007.MDOT also featured the bridge on the cover of the 2007 state highway map to celebrate its 50th anniversary."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of longest suspension bridge spans"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Mackinac Bridge Authority* Length Comparison* Mackinac Bridge photographs and facts* Monitoring the Mighty Mac, Point of Beginning, 2007* Web cams monitoring the Mackinac Bridge* The view from the top of the iconic Mackinac Bridge that connects the two peninsulas of Michigan, 2014*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Motorola 68030"
],
[
"Introduction",
" Motorola 68030 microprocessorThe '''Motorola 68030''' (\"''sixty-eight-oh-thirty''\") is a 32-bit microprocessor in the Motorola 68000 family.",
"It was released in 1987.The 68030 was the successor to the Motorola 68020, and was followed by the Motorola 68040.In keeping with general Motorola naming, this CPU is often referred to as the 030 (pronounced ''oh-three-oh'' or ''oh-thirty'').The 68030 is essentially a 68020 with a memory management unit (MMU) and instruction and data caches of 256 bytes each.",
"It added a burst mode for the caches, where four longwords can be loaded into the cache in a single operation.",
"The MMU was mostly compatible with the external 68851 that would be used with the 68020, but being internal allowed it to access memory one cycle faster than a 68020/68851 combo.",
"The 68030 did not include a built-in floating-point unit (FPU), and was generally used with the 68881 and the faster 68882.The addition of the FPU was a major design note of the subsequent 68040.The 68030 lacks some of the 68020's instructions, but it increases performance by ≈5% while reducing power draw by ≈25%.The 68030 features 273,000 transistors.",
"A lower-cost version was also released, the Motorola 68EC030, lacking the on-chip MMU.",
"It was commonly available in both 132-pin QFP and 128-pin PGA packages.",
"The poorer thermal characteristics of the QFP package limited that variant to 33 MHz; the PGA 68030s included 40 MHz and 50 MHz versions.",
"There was also a small supply of QFP packaged EC variants.Motorola MC68030RC33B dieThe 68030 can be used with the 68020 bus, in which case its performance is similar to 68020 that it was derived from.",
"However, the 68030 provides an additional synchronous bus interface which, if used, accelerates memory accesses up to 33% compared to an equally clocked 68020.The finer manufacturing process allowed Motorola to scale the full-version processor to 50 MHz.",
"The EC variety topped out at 40 MHz."
],
[
"Usage",
"The 68030 was used in many models of the Apple Macintosh II and Commodore Amiga series of personal computers, NeXT Cube, later Alpha Microsystems multiuser systems, and some descendants of the Atari ST line such as the Atari TT and the Atari Falcon.",
"It was also used in Unix workstations such as the Sun Microsystems Sun-3x line of desktop workstations (the earlier \"sun3\" used a 68020), Apollo Computer's DN3500 and DN4500 workstations, laser printers and the Nortel Networks DMS-100 telephone central office switch.",
"More recently, the 68030 core has also been adapted by Freescale into a microcontroller for embedded applications.LeCroy has used the 68EC030 in certain models of their 9300 Series digital oscilloscopes including “C” suffix models and high performance 9300 Series models, along with the Mega Waveform Processing hardware option for 68020-based 9300 Series models."
],
[
"Variants",
"The 68EC030 is a low cost version of the 68030, the difference between the two being that the 68EC030 omits the on-chip memory management unit (MMU) and is thus essentially an upgraded 68020.The 68EC030 was used as the CPU for the low-cost model of the Amiga 4000, and on a number of CPU accelerator cards for the Commodore Amiga line of computers.",
"It was also used in the Cisco Systems 2500 Series router, a small-to-medium enterprise computer internetworking appliance.",
"Additionally it was also used as the primary processor in a number of Alpha Microsystems Eagle mini-computers.The 50 MHz speed is exclusive to the ceramic PGA package, the plastic '030 stopped at 40 MHz."
],
[
"Technical data",
" CPU clock rate 16, 20, 25, 33, 40, 50 MHz, except for MC68EC030 available in 25 and 40 MHz Internal split-cache modified Harvard architecture Address bus 32 bit Data bus 32 bit Cache 256 bytes each for instruction and data, 16 lines of 4 entries of 4 bytes each, direct mapped dynamic bus sizing burst memory interface Performance 18 MIPS @ 50 MHz"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Macintosh models grouped by CPU type"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* 68030 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de* Official information about the Freescale MC68030 microcontroller* Motorola 68k family data sheets at bitsavers.org* ''Extraordinarily'' rare, pictures, (Shared) of the 68030 emulator pre-silicon breadboard.",
"( before they layout the silicon, they made a simulator out of discrete logic )"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Motorola 68040"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A Motorola 68040 microprocessor Motorola 68040 die shot with FPU on the leftThe '''Motorola 68040''' (\"''sixty-eight-oh-forty''\") is a 32-bit microprocessor in the Motorola 68000 series, released in 1990.It is the successor to the 68030 and is followed by the 68060, skipping the 68050.In keeping with general Motorola naming, the 68040 is often referred to as simply the '040 (pronounced ''oh-four-oh'' or ''oh-forty'').The 68040 was the first 680x0 family member with an on-chip Floating-Point Unit (FPU).",
"It thus included all of the functionality that previously required external chips, namely the FPU and Memory Management Unit (MMU), which was added in the 68030.It also had split instruction and data caches of 4 kilobytes each.",
"It was fully pipelined, with six stages.Versions of the 68040 were created for specific market segments, including the 68LC040, which removed the FPU, and the 68EC040, which removed both the FPU and MMU.",
"Motorola had intended the EC variant for embedded use, but embedded processors during the 68040's time did not need the power of the 68040, so EC variants of the 68020 and 68030 continued to be common in designs.Motorola produced several speed grades.",
"The 16 MHz and 20 MHz parts were never qualified (XC designation) and used as prototyping samples.",
"25 MHz and 33 MHz grades featured across the whole line, but until around 2000 the 40 MHz grade was only for the \"full\" 68040.A planned 50 MHz grade was canceled after it exceeded the thermal design envelope."
],
[
"Usage",
"In Apple Macintosh computers, the 68040 was introduced in the Macintosh Quadra, which was named for the chip.",
"The fastest 68040 processor was clocked at 40 MHz and it was used only in the Quadra 840AV.",
"The more expensive models in the (short-lived) Macintosh Centris line also used the 68040, while the cheaper Quadra, Centris and Macintosh Performa used the 68LC040.The 68040 was also used in other personal computers, such as the Amiga 4000 and Amiga 4000T, as well as a number of workstations, Alpha Microsystems servers, the HP 9000/400 series, NCR Corporation's TOWER 32/750, 32/825 and 32/850, Apollo Computer's DN5500, and later versions of the NeXT computer.The 68040 processor is used in the flight management computers (FMC) aboard many Boeing 737 aircraft, including all Next Generation and MAX models."
],
[
"Design",
"The 68040 ran into the transistor budget limit early in design.",
"While the MMU did not take many transistors—indeed, having it on the same die as the CPU actually saved on transistors—the FPU certainly did.",
"Motorola's 68882 external FPU was known as a very high performance unit and Motorola did not wish to risk integrators using the \"LC\" version with a 68882 instead of the more profitable full \"RC\" unit.",
"(For information on Motorola's multiprocessing model with the 680x0 series, see Motorola 68020.)",
"The FPU in the 68040 was thus made incapable of IEEE transcendental functions, which had been supported by both the 68881 and 68882 and were used by the popular fractal generating software of the time and little else.",
"The Motorola floating point support package (FPSP) emulated these instructions in software under interrupt.",
"As this was an exception handler, heavy use of the transcendental functions caused severe performance penalties.Heat was always a problem throughout the 68040's life.",
"While it delivered over four times the per-clock performance of the 68020 and 68030, the chip's complexity and power requirements came from a large die and large caches.",
"This affected the scaling of the processor and it was never able to run with a clock rate exceeding 40 MHz.",
"A 50 MHz variant was planned, but canceled.",
"Overclocking enthusiasts reported success reaching 50 MHz using a 100 MHz oscillator instead of an 80 MHz part and the then novel technique of adding oversized heat sinks with fans.The 68040 offered the same features as the Intel 80486, but on a clock-for-clock basis could significantly outperform the Intel chip in integer and floating point instructions."
],
[
"Variants",
"===68EC040===The ''68EC040'' is a version of the Motorola 68040 microprocessor, intended for embedded controllers (EC).",
"It differs from the 68040 in that it has neither an FPU nor an MMU.",
"This makes it less expensive and it draws less power.",
"The 68EC040 was used in Cisco switch Supervisor Engine I that is the heart of models 2900, 2948G, 2980G, 4000, 4500, 5000, 5500, 6000, 6500 and 7600.===68LC040===Die of a Motorola 68LC040The ''68LC040'' is a ''low cost'' version of the Motorola 68040 microprocessor with no FPU.",
"This makes it less expensive and it draws less power.",
"Although the CPU now fits into a feature chart more like the Motorola 68030, it continues to include the 68040's caches and pipeline and is thus significantly faster than the 68030.Some mask revisions of the 68LC040 contained a bug that prevents the chip from operating correctly when a software FPU emulator is used.",
"According to Motorola's errata, any chip with a mask set 2E71M or later does not contain the bug.",
"This new mask was introduced in mid-1995 and converted the 68LC040 chip to MC status.The buggy revisions are typically found in 68LC040-based Apple Macintosh computers.",
"Chips with mask set 2E23G (as used in the LC 475) have been confirmed to be faulty.",
"The fault relates to pending writes being lost when the F-line exception is triggered.",
"The 68040 cannot update its microcode in the manner of modern x86 chips.",
"This means that the only way to use software that requires floating-point functionality is to replace the buggy 68LC040 with a later revision, or a full 68040.===Feature table=== Variant MMU FPU 68040 68'''LC'''040 68'''EC'''040"
],
[
"Technical data",
" CPU clock rate 25, 33, 40 MHz Production process static CMOS , , Freescale Chip carrier 179 ceramic PGA and 184 QFP Address bus 32 bit Data bus 32 bit Instruction set CISC Transistors ATC = Address Translation Cache"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Macintosh models grouped by CPU type"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * MC68040V Third-Generation 32-Bit Low-Power Microprocessor (PDF)* M68040 Microprocessors User's Manual (PDF)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Motorola 68060"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A Motorola 68EC060 microprocessorThe '''Motorola 68060''' (\"''sixty-eight-oh-sixty''\") is a 32-bit microprocessor from Motorola released in 1994.It is the successor to the Motorola 68040 and is the highest performing member of the 68000 series.",
"Two derivatives were produced, the '''68LC060''' and the '''68EC060'''."
],
[
"Architecture",
"There is an '''LC''' (Low-Cost) version, without an FPU and '''EC''' (Embedded Controller), without MMU and FPU.",
"The 68060 design was led by Joe Circello.The 68060 shares most architectural features with the P5 Pentium.",
"Both have a very similar superscalar in-order dual instruction pipeline configuration, and an instruction decoder which breaks down complex instructions into simpler ones before execution, described in publicity as \"two four-stage RISC engines that execute the fixed-format instructions emitted by the instruction converter\".",
"However, a significant difference is that the 68060 FPU is not pipelined and is therefore up to three times slower than the Pentium in floating point applications.",
"In contrast to that, integer multiplications and bit shifting instructions are significantly faster on the 68060.The 68060 has the ability to execute simple instructions in the address generation unit (AGU) and thereby supply the result two cycles before the ALU.",
"In the development of the 68060, large amounts of commercial compiled code were analyzed for clues as to which instructions would be the best candidates for performance optimization.Against the Pentium, the 68060 can perform better on mixed code; Pentium's decoder cannot issue an FP instruction every opportunity and hence the FPU is not superscalar as the ALUs were.",
"If the 68060's non-pipelined FPU can accept an instruction, it can be issued one by the decoder.",
"This means that optimizing for the 68060 is easier: no rules prevent FP instructions from being issued whenever was convenient for the programmer other than well understood instruction latencies.",
"However, with properly optimized and scheduled code, the Pentium's FPU is capable of double the clock for clock throughput of the 68060's FPU.The 68060 is the last development of the 68000 family for general purpose use, abandoned in favor of the PowerPC chips.",
"It saw use in some late-model Amiga machines and Amiga accelerator cards as well as some Atari ST clones and Falcon accelerator boards (CT60/CT63/CT60e, the latter of which was created in 2015), and very late models of the Alpha Microsystems multiuser computers before their migration to x86, but Apple Inc. and the Unix world had moved onto various RISC platforms by the time the 68060 was available.",
"Apple had already announced its adoption of PowerPC, developed by IBM and Motorola, prior to the availability of the 68060.The 68060 was introduced at 50 MHz on Motorola's 0.6 µm manufacturing process.",
"A few years later it was shrunk to 0.42 µm and clock speed raised to 66 MHz and 75 MHz.",
"Some users managed to overclock rev6.68060 CPU-s (mask: 71E41J) up to 120 or 133 MHz.",
"Motorola projected a performance of around three-and-a-half times that of a 25 MHz 68040 at the initial clock rate of 50 MHz for the 68060, this described as being \"about 77 MIPS\", later adjusting such claims to three times the performance of the 68040 for a 68060 running at twice the frequency of the 68040.Benchmarking of the 50 MHz 68060 fitted in accelerator cards for the Commodore Amiga indicated Dhrystone 2.1 benchmark results of around 80,000 Dhrystones per second, this being broadly comparable to a Sun SPARCstation 10 workstation.Developments of the basic core continue, intended for embedded systems.",
"Here they are combined with a number of peripheral interfaces to reduce the overall complexity and power requirements of a design.",
"A number of chips, each with different sets of interfaces, are sold under the names ColdFire and DragonBall."
],
[
"History",
"Model numbers with even second-to-last digit (68000, 680'''2'''0, 680'''4'''0, 680'''6'''0) were reserved for major revisions to the 680x0 core architecture.",
"Model numbers with odd second-to-last digit (680'''1'''0, 680'''3'''0) were reserved for upgrades to the architecture of the previous chip.",
"Motorola never produced a 68050.For example, the Motorola 68010 (and the obscure 68012) is a 68000 with improvements to the loop instruction and the ability to suspend then continue an instruction in the event of a page fault, enabling the use of virtual memory with the appropriate MMU hardware.",
"There were, however, no major overhauls of the core architecture.",
"Similarly, the Motorola 68030 represents a process improvement on the 68020 with the MMU and a small data cache (256 bytes) moved on-chip.",
"The 68030 was released in speed ratings up to 50 MHz.The jump from the 68000/68010 to the 68020/68030, however, represents a major overhaul, with innumerable individual changes.By the time the 68060 was in production, Motorola had abandoned development of the 68000 family in favor of the PowerPC.",
"The 68060 is the last 68000 family processor from Motorola.Signetics (Philips) produced a 68000-based variant that they somewhat confusingly named the 68070.It contains a modestly-improved 68000 CPU, a simple on-chip MMU and an I²C bus controller.",
"It came out long before the 68060 and was used principally as an embedded processor in some consumer electronics items, notably CD-i consoles."
],
[
"Usage",
"Chyron's , Max!, and Maxine!",
"series of television character generators use the 68060 as the main processor.",
"These character generators were a fixture on many American television networks' affiliate stations.In desktops, the 68060 is used in some variants of the Amiga 4000T produced by Amiga Technologies, and available as a third party upgrade for other Amiga models.",
"It is also used in the Amiga clone DraCo non-linear video system.The Q60 extended the Sinclair QL design similarly from the slowest start to the ultimate pace of the 68K architecture's capabilities; these 68060-based motherboards—at 66 MHz for the full 68060 or a non-FPU 68LC060 option overclocked to 80 MHz—are more than 100 times faster than the Sinclair QL while running the same operating systems.The 68060 was used in Nortel Meridian 1 Option 51, 61 and 81 large office PBX systems, powering the CP3 and CP4 core processor boards.",
"A pair of these boards each sporting a 68060 could be used to make the PBX fault tolerant.",
"This was a logical application as previous Meridian 1 cores used other Motorola chips.",
"Nortel later changed the architecture to use Intel processors.The Motorola Vanguard 6560 multiprotocol router uses a 50 MHz 68EC060 processor.Motorola MVME-17x and Force Computer SYS68K VMEbus systems use a 68060 CPU.Alpha Microsystems AM-6000, AM-6060, and AM-7000 use a 68060.After Motorola stopped developing newer processors, Alpha Microsystems migrated to x86."
],
[
"Variants",
"===68EC060===The 68EC060 is a version of the Motorola 68060 microprocessor, intended for embedded controllers (EC).",
"It differs from the 68060 in that it has neither an FPU nor an MMU.",
"This makes it less expensive and it draws less power.===68LC060===The 68LC060 is a low cost version of the Motorola 68060 microprocessor with no FPU.",
"This makes it less expensive and it draws less power.===Feature table=== Variant MMU FPU Max Frequency 68060 75 MHz or 133 MHz overclocked 68'''LC'''060 75 MHz or 133 MHz overclocked 68'''EC'''060 75 MHz or 133 MHz overclocked"
],
[
"Technical data",
" CPU clock rate Officially: 50, 60, 66, 75 MHzOverclocked: 66 (rev1-2), 80 (rev3-4), 110, 120 and 133 MHz (rev5-6) Voltage supply * Vcore 3.3 V* I/O 5 V Temperature ( with the current mask) Logic family Static CMOS Production process CMOS and later Chip carrier PGA 206 (compatible with 68040), TBGA 304 31*31*1.7P1.27 Address bus 32 bit Data bus 32 bit Instruction set CISC Cache * DCache ()* ICache ()* FIFO Instruction Buffer* 256 Entry Branch Cache* 64 Entry ATC* MMU Buffer (4-way associative) Register * 10 for Address operations (7 gen., 2 stack, 1 pc)* 8 for Data operations* 1 for CPU flags (status register) Transistors Performance * ~67 MIPS @ 50 MHz* ~88 MIPS @ 66 MHz* ~110 MIPS @ 75 MHz* ~36 MFlops @ 66 MHz* ~160 MIPS @ 120 MHz* ~177 MIPS @ 133 MHz (estimate)ATC = Address Translation Cache"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* A paper describing the 68060 architecture*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Motorola 6809"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Motorola 6809''' (\"''sixty-eight-oh-nine''\") is an 8-bit microprocessor with some 16-bit features.",
"It was designed by Motorola's Terry Ritter and Joel Boney and introduced in 1978.Although source compatible with the earlier Motorola 6800, the 6809 offered significant improvements over it and 8-bit contemporaries like the MOS Technology 6502, including a hardware multiplication instruction, 16-bit arithmetic, system and user stack registers allowing re-entrant code, improved interrupts, position-independent code and an orthogonal instruction set architecture with a comprehensive set of addressing modes.The 6809 was among the most powerful (and most expensive) 8-bit processors of its era.",
"In 1981 a 6809 in single-unit quantities was compared to for a Zilog Z80 and for a 6502.It was launched when a new generation of 16-bit processors were coming to market, like the Intel 8086, and 32-bit designs were on the horizon, including Motorola's own 68000.It was not feature competitive with newer designs and not price competitive with older ones."
],
[
"Usage",
"The 6809 was used in the TRS-80 Color Computer, Dragon 32/64, SuperPET, ENER 1000, Fujitsu FM-7, the Cybernex LC3, and Thomson MO/TO home computers, the Vectrex game console, and early 1980s arcade machines including ''Star Wars'', ''Defender'', ''Robotron: 2084'', ''Joust'', and ''Gyruss''.",
"1990s Williams pinball machines are equipped with WPC-series controller boards based on 68B09.Series II of the Fairlight CMI digital audio workstation and Konami's ''Time Pilot '84'' arcade game each use dual 6809 processors.",
"Hitachi was a major user of the 6809 and later produced an updated version as the Hitachi 6309."
],
[
"History",
"Die of Motorola 6809===6800 and 6502===The Motorola 6800 was designed beginning in 1971 and released in 1974.In overall design terms, it has a strong resemblance to other CPUs that were designed from the start as 8-bit designs, like the Intel 8080.It was initially fabricated using early NMOS logic, which normally required several different power supply voltages.",
"A key feature was an on-chip voltage doubler that allowed it to run on a single supply, a major advantage over its competitors like the Intel 8080 which required , , and ground.The 6800 was initially fabricated using the then-current contact lithography process.",
"In this process, the photomask is placed in direct contact with the wafer, exposed, and then lifted off.",
"There was a small chance that some of the etching material would be left on the wafer when it was lifted, causing future chips patterned with the mask to fail.",
"For complex multi-patterned designs like a CPU, this led to about 90% of the chips failing when tested.",
"To make a profit on the small number of chips that did work, the prices for the working models had to be fairly high, on the order of hundreds of dollars in small quantities.Some of the 6800's designers were convinced that a lower-cost system would be key to widespread acceptance.",
"Notable among them was Chuck Peddle, who was sent on sales trips and saw prospective customers repeatedly reject the design as being too expensive for their intended uses.",
"He began a project to produce a much less costly design, but Motorola's management proved uninterested and eventually told him to stop working on it.",
"Peddle and some other members of the 6800 team left Motorola for MOS Technology and introduced this design in 1975 as the MOS Technology 6502.The 6800 was initially sold at in single-unit quantities, but had been lowered to .",
"The 6502 was introduced at , and Motorola immediately reduced the 6800 to $125.It remained uncompetitive and sales prospects dimmed.",
"The introduction of the Micralign to Motorola's lines allowed further reductions and by 1981 the price of the then-current 6800P was slightly less than the equivalent 6502, at least in single-unit quantities.",
"By that point, however, the 6502 had sold tens of millions of units and the 6800 had been largely forgotten.===6809===While the 6502 began to take over the 6800's market, Intel was experiencing the same problem when the upstart Zilog Z80 began to steal sales from the Intel 8080.Both Motorola and Intel began new design cycles to leapfrog those designs.",
"Intel responded by quickly introducing a small but practical upgrade of the 8080 as the 8085, which made it less expensive to use and more competitive with the Z80.They also began to design a series of 16-bit processors, which emerged as the Intel 8086 in 1978.Motorola also began the design of a similar high-end design, in the MACSS project, but did not initially consider an improved 8-bit design.",
"But when they polled their existing 6800 customers, they found that many were not willing to pay for a 16-bit design for their simple needs.",
"This led to the decision to produce a greatly improved but compatible 8-bit design that became the 6809.Analysis of 6800 code demonstrated that loads and stores were the vast majority of all the time in CPU terms, accounting for 39% of all the operations in the code they examined.",
"In contrast, mathematical operations were relatively rare, only 2.8% of the code.",
"However, a careful examination of the loads and stores noted that many of these were being combined with adds and subtracts, revealing that a significant amount of those math operations were being performed on 16-bit values.",
"This led to the decision to include basic 16-bit mathematics in the new design: load, store, add, and subtract.",
"Similarly, increments and decrements accounted for only 6.1% of the code, but these almost always occurred within loops where each one was performed many times.",
"This led to the addition of post-incrementing and pre-decrementing modes using the index registers.The main goal for the new design was to support position-independent code.",
"Motorola's market was mostly embedded systems and similar single-purpose systems, which often ran programs that were very similar to those on other platforms.",
"Development for these systems often took the form of collecting a series of pre-rolled subroutines and combining them together.",
"However, as assembly language is generally written starting at a \"base address\", combining pre-written modules normally required a lengthy process of changing constants (or \"equates\") that pointed to key locations in the code.Motorola's idea was to eliminate this task and make the building-block concept much more practical.",
"System integrators would simply combine off-the-shelf code in ROMs to handle common tasks.",
"Libraries of common routines like floating point arithmetic, graphics primitives, Lempel-Ziv compression, and so forth would be available to license, combine together along with custom code, and burn to ROM.In previous processor designs, including the 6800, there was a mix of ways to refer to memory locations.",
"Some of these were relative to the current location in memory or to a value in an index register, while others were absolute, a 16-bit value that referred to a physical location in memory.",
"The former style allows code to be moved because the address it references will move along with the code.",
"The absolute locations do not; code that uses this style of addressing will have to be recompiled if it moves.",
"To address this, the 6809 filled out its instruction opcodes so that there were more instances of relative addressing where possible.As an example, the 6800 included a special \"direct\" addressing mode that was used to make code smaller and faster; instead of a memory address having 16-bits and thus requiring two bytes to store, direct addresses were only 8-bits long.",
"The downside was that it could only refer to memory within a 256-byte window, the \"direct page\", which was normally at the bottom of memory - the 6502 referred to this as \"zero page addressing\".",
"The 6809 added a new 8-bit DP register, for \"direct page\".",
"Code that formerly had to be in the zero page could now be moved anywhere in memory as long as the DP was changed to point to its new location.Using DP solved the problem of referring to addresses within the code, but data is generally located some distance from the code, outside ROM.",
"To solve the problem of easily referring to data while remaining position independent, the 6809 added a variety of new addressing modes.",
"Among these was program-counter-relative addressing which allowed any memory location to be referred to by its location relative to the instruction.",
"Additionally, the stack was more widely used, so that a program in ROM could set aside a block of memory in RAM, set the SP to be the base of the block, and then refer to data within it using relative values.To aid this type of access, the 6809 renamed the SP to U for \"user\", and added a second stack pointer, S, for \"system\".",
"The idea was user programs would use U while the CPU itself would use S to store data during subroutine calls.",
"This allowed system code to be easily called by changing S without affecting any other running program.",
"For instance, a program calling a floating-point routine in ROM would place its data on the U stack and then call the routine, which could then perform the calculations using data on its own private stack pointed to by S, and then return, leaving the U stack untouched.Another reason for the expanded stack access was to support reentrant code, code that can be called from various different programs concurrently without concern for coordination between them, or that can recursively call itself.",
"This makes the construction of operating systems much easier; the operating system had its own stack, and the processor could quickly switch between a user application and the operating system simply by changing which stack pointer it was using.",
"This also makes servicing interrupts much easier for the same reason.",
"The 6809 adds a fast interrupt request (FIRQ) interrupt that saves only the program counter and condition code register before calling the interrupt code, whereas the IRQ interrupt saves all registers, taking additional cycles, then more to unwind the stack on exit.The 6809 includes one of the earliest dedicated hardware multipliers.",
"It takes 8-bit numbers in the A and B accumulators and produces a result in A:B, known collectively as D.===Market acceptance===Much of the design had been based around the market concept of building-block code.",
"But the market for pre-rolled ROM modules never materialized: Motorola's only released example was the MC6839 floating-point ROM.",
"The industry as a whole solved the problem of integrating code modules from separate sources by using automatic relocating linkers and loaders, which is the solution used today.",
"However, the decisions made by the design team enabled multi-user, multitasking operating systems like OS-9 and UniFlex.The added features of the 6809 were costly; the CPU had approximately 9,000 transistors compared to the 6800's 4,100 or the 6502's 3,500.While process improvements meant it could be fabricated cheaper than the original 6800, those same improvements were being applied to the other designs and so the relative cost remained the same.",
"Such was the case in practice; in 1981 the 6809 sold in single-unit quantities for roughly six times the price of a 6502.For those systems that needed some of its special features, like the hardware multiplier, the system could justify its price, but in most roles, it was overlooked.Another factor in its low use was the presence of newer designs with significantly higher performance.",
"Among these was the Intel 8086, released the same year, and its lower-cost version, the Intel 8088 of 1979.A feeling for the problem can be seen in the Byte Sieve assembly language results against other common designs from the era (taken from 1981 and 1983):+ Byte Sieve comparison Processor Seconds Total clocks(millions) 6502 1 MHz 13.9 13.9 Z80 4 MHz 6.8 27.2 6809 2 MHz 5.1 10.2 8086 8 MHz 1.9 15.2 68000 8 MHz 0.49 3.92Although the 6809 did offer a performance improvement over the likes of the 6502 and Z80, the improvement was not in line with the increase in price.",
"For those where price was not the primary concern, but outright performance was, the new designs outperformed it by as much as an order of magnitude.Even before the 6809 was released, in 1976 Motorola had launched its own advanced CPU project, then known as Motorola Advanced Computer System on Silicon project, or MACSS.",
"Although too late to be chosen for the IBM PC project, when MACSS appeared as the Motorola 68000 in 1979 it took any remaining interest in the 6809.Motorola soon announced that their future 8-bit systems would be powered by cut-down versions of the 68000 rather than further improved versions of the 6809.===Major uses===TRS-80 Color ComputerIts first major use was in the TRS-80 Color Computer, which happened largely by accident.",
"Motorola had been asked to design a color-capable computer terminal for an online farm-aid project, a system known as \"AgVision\".",
"Tandy (Radio Shack) was brought in as a retail partner and sold them under the name \"VideoTex\", but the project was ultimately canceled shortly after its introduction in 1980.Tandy then re-worked the design to produce a home computer, which became one of the 6809's most notable design wins.SuperPET SP9000Looking for a low-cost programming platform for computer science students, the University of Waterloo developed a system that combined a 6809-based computer-on-a-card with an existing Commodore PET, including a number of programming languages and program editors in ROM.",
"The result was later picked up by Commodore, who sold it as the SuperPET, or MicroMainframe in Europe.",
"These were relatively popular in the mid-1980s before the introduction of the PC clone market took over the programming role for most users.Other popular home computer uses include the Fujitsu FM-7, Canon CX-1, Dragon 32/64, and the Thomson TO7 series.",
"It was also available as an option on the Acorn System 2, 3 and 4 computers.",
"Most SS-50 bus designs that had been built around the 6800 also had options for the 6809 or switched to it exclusively.",
"Examples include machines from SWTPC, Gimix, Smoke Signal Broadcasting, etc.",
"Motorola also build a series of EXORmacs and EXORset development systems.Hitachi produced its own 6809-based machines, the MB-6890 and later the S1.These were primarily for the Japanese market, but some were exported to and sold in Australia, where the MB-6890 was dubbed the \"Peach\", probably in reference to the Apple II.",
"The S1 was notable in that it contained paging hardware extending the 6809's native 64 kilobyte addressing range to a full 1 megabyte in 4 KB pages.",
"It was similar in this to machines produced by SWTPC, Gimix, and several other suppliers.",
"TSC produced a Unix-like operating system uniFlex which ran only on such machines.",
"OS-9 Level II, also took advantage of such memory management facilities.",
"Most other computers of the time with more than 64 KB of memory addressing were limited to bank switching where much if not all the 64 KB was simply swapped for another section of memory, although in the case of the 6809, Motorola offered their own MC6829 MMU design mapping 2 megabytes in 2 KB pages.Vectrex home video game consoleThe 6809 also saw use in various videogame systems.",
"Notable among these, in the 68A09 incarnation, was the unique vector graphics-based Vectrex home videogame machine.",
"It was also used in the Milton Bradley Expansion (MBX) system (an arcade console for the TI-99/4A home computer), and a series of arcade games released during the early to mid-1980s.",
"Williams Electronics was a prolific user of the processor, which was deployed in ''Defender'', ''Stargate'', ''Joust'', ''Robotron: 2084'', ''Sinistar'', and other games.",
"The 6809 CPU forms the core of the successful Williams Pinball Controller.",
"The KONAMI-1 is a modified 6809 used by Konami in ''Roc'n Rope'', ''Gyruss'', and ''The Simpsons''.Series II of the Fairlight CMI (computer musical instrument) used dual 6809 CPUs running OS-9, and also used one 6809 CPU per voice card.",
"The 6809 was often employed in music synthesizers from other manufacturers such as Oberheim (Xpander, Matrix 6/12/1000), PPG (Wave 2/2.2/2.3, Waveterm A), and Ensoniq (Mirage sampler, SDP-1, ESQ-1, SQ-80).",
"The latter used the 6809E as their main CPU.",
"The (E) version was used in order to synchronize the microprocessor's clock to the sound chip (Ensoniq 5503 DOC) in those machines; in the ESQ-1 and SQ-80 the 68B09E was used, requiring a dedicated arbiter logic in order to ensure 1 MHz bus timing when accessing the DOC chip.In contrast to earlier Motorola products, the 6809 did not see widespread use in the microcontroller field.",
"It was used in traffic signal controllers made in the 1980s by several different manufacturers, as well as Motorola's SMARTNET and SMARTZONE Trunked Central Controllers (so dubbed the \"6809 Controller\").",
"These controllers were used as the central processors in many of Motorola's trunked two-way radio communications systems.The 6809 was used by Mitel as the main processor in its SX20 Office Telephone System.===Versions===The Motorola 6809 was originally produced in 1 MHz, 1.5 MHz (68A09) and 2 MHz (68B09) speed ratings.",
"Faster versions were produced later by Hitachi.",
"With little to improve, the 6809 marks the end of the evolution of Motorola's 8-bit processors; Motorola intended that future 8-bit products would be based on an 8-bit data bus version of the 68000 (the 68008).",
"A microcontroller version with a slightly modified instruction set, the 6811, was discontinued as late as the second decade of the 21st century.The Hitachi 6309 is an enhanced version of the 6809 with extra registers and additional instructions, including block move, additional multiply instructions, and division.===Legacy===Motorola spun off its microprocessor division in 2004.The division changed its name to Freescale and was subsequently acquired by NXP.Neither Motorola nor Hitachi produce 6809 processors or derivatives anymore.",
"6809 cores are available in VHDL and can be programmed into an FPGA and used as an embedded processor with speed ratings up to 40 MHz.",
"Some 6809 opcodes also live on in the Freescale embedded processors.",
"In 2015, Freescale authorized Rochester Electronics to start manufacturing the MC6809 once again as a drop-in replacement and copy of the original NMOS device.",
"Freescale supplied Rochester the original GDSII physical design database.",
"At the end of 2016, Rochester's MC6809 (including the MC68A09, and MC68B09) is fully qualified and available in production.Australian developer John Kent has synthesized the Motorola 6809 CPU in hardware description language (HDL).",
"This has made possible the use of the 6809 core at much higher clock speeds than were available with the original 6809.Gary Becker's CoCo3FPGA runs the Kent 6809 core at 25 MHz.",
"Roger Taylor's Matchbox CoCo runs at 7.16 MHz.",
"Dave Philipsen's CoCoDEV runs at 25 MHz."
],
[
"Description",
"The 6809's internal design is closer to simpler, non-microcoded CPU designs.",
"Like most 8-bit microprocessors, the 6809 implementation is a register-transfer level machine, using a central PLA to implement much of the instruction decoding as well as parts of the sequencing.Like the 6800 and 6502, the 6809 uses a two-phase clock to gate the latches.",
"This two-phase clock cycle is used as a full machine cycle in these processors.",
"Simple instructions can execute in as little as two or three such cycles.",
"The 6809 has an internal two-phase clock generator (needing only an external crystal) whereas the 6809E needs an external clock generator.",
"There are variants such as the 68A09(E) and 68B09(E); the internal letter indicates the processor's rated clock speed.The 6800, 6502, the 6809's clock system differs from other processors of the era.",
"For instance, the Z80 uses a single external clock and the internal steps of the instruction process continue on each transition.",
"This means that the external clock generally runs much faster; 680x designs generally ran at 1 or 2 MHz while the Z80 generally ran at 2 or 4.Internally, the 680x's divided the external clock frequency by four to create the system clock; so a 1 MHz 6809 would have a 4 MHz crystal or clock signal.",
"Typically, on an instruction-for-instruction basis, they ran roughly twice as fast, when comparing the external clocks to other microprocessors.The advantage to the 680x style access was that dynamic RAM chips of the era generally ran at 2 MHz.",
"Due to the cycle timing, there were periods of the internal clock where the memory bus was guaranteed to be free.",
"This allowed the computer designer to interleave access to memory between the CPU and an external device, say a direct memory access controller, or more commonly, a graphics chip.",
"By running both chips at 1 MHz and stepping them one after the other, they could share access to the memory without any additional complexity or circuitry.",
"Depending on version and speed grade, approximately 40–60% of a single clock cycle is typically available for memory access in a 6800, 6502, or 6809.===Registers and instructions===6809 programming model, showing the processor registers The original 6800 included two 8-bit accumulators, A and B, a single 16-bit index register, X, a 16-bit program counter, PC, a 16-bit stack pointer, SP, and an 8-bit status register.",
"The 6809 added a second index register, Y, a second stack pointer, U (while renaming the original S), and allowed the A and B registers to be treated as a single 16-bit accumulator, D. It also added another 8-bit register, DP, to set the base address of the direct page.",
"These additions were invisible to 6800 code, and the 6809 was 100% source-compatible with earlier code.Another significant addition was program-counter-relative addressing for all data manipulation instructions.",
"This was a key addition for position-independent code, as it allows data to be referred to relative to the instruction, and as long as the resulting memory location exists then the instructions can be moved in memory freely.",
"The system retained its previous addressing modes as well, although in the new assembler language, what were previously separate instructions were now considered to be different addressing modes on other instructions.",
"This reduced the number of instructions from the 6800's 78 instructions to the 6809's 59.These new modes had the same opcodes as the previously separate instruction, so these changes were only visible to the programmer working on new code.The instruction set and register complement are highly orthogonal, making the 6809 easier to program than contemporaries.",
"Like the 6800, the 6809 includes an undocumented address bus test instruction which came to be nicknamed Halt and Catch Fire (HCF)."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Bibliography===* * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
";Datasheets and manuals* '' MC6809 Datasheet''; Motorola; 36 pages; 1983.",
"* '' MC6809E Datasheet''; Motorola; 34 pages.",
"* '' Motorola 8-bit Microprocessors Data Book''; Motorola; 1182 pages; 1981.;Books* ''6809 Assembly Language Programming''; 1st Ed; Lance Leventhal; 579 pages; 1981; .",
"(archive)* ''The MC6809 Cookbook''; 1st Ed; Carl Warren; 180 pages; 1980; .",
"(archive)* ''Advanced 8-bit Microprocessor: MC6809: Its Software, Hardware, Architecture and Interfacing Techniques''; 1st Ed; Robert Simpson; 274 pages; 1998; ;Magazines* '' A Microprocessor for the Revolution: The 6809''; Terry Ritter & Joel Boney (co-designers of 6809); BYTE magazine; Jan-Feb 1979.",
"(archive) * ''MC6809 microprocessor''; Ian Powers; Microprocessors, Volume 2, Issue 3; July 1978; page 162; , .",
";Reference cards* ''MC6809 Reference Card''; Motorola; 16 pages; 1981.",
"(archive)* ''6809/6309 Reference Card''; Chris Lomont; 10 pages; 2007.",
"(archive)"
],
[
"External links",
";Simulators / Emulators* 6809 Emulation Page – collection of 6809 instructions, emulators, tools, debuggers, disassemblers, assemblers* 6809 Emulator based on the SWTPC 6809 system;Boards* Grant's 6-chip 6809 computer* 6809 microprocessor training board;FPGA* System09 6809 CPU core - VHDL source code - OpenCores - project website"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Motorola 68HC11"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''68HC11''' (also abbreviated as '''6811''' or '''HC11''') is an 8-bit microcontroller family introduced by Motorola Semiconductor in 1984 (later from Freescale then NXP).",
"It descended from the Motorola 6800 microprocessor by way of the 6801.The 68HC11 devices are more powerful and more expensive than the 68HC08 microcontrollers and are used in automotive applications, barcode readers, hotel card key writers, amateur robotics, and various other embedded systems.",
"The MC68HC11A8 was the first microcontroller to include CMOS EEPROM."
],
[
"Architecture",
"''Motorola 68HC11 registers'' 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 ''(bit position)'' '''Main registers''' A B '''D''' register pair '''Index registers''' IX '''X''' index register IY '''Y''' index register SP '''S'''tack '''P'''ointer '''Program counter''' PC '''P'''rogram '''C'''ounter '''Status register''' 1 1 H I N Z V C Flags68HC11 block diagramInternally, the HC11 instruction set is backward compatible with the 6800 and features the addition of a Y index register.",
"It has two eight-bit accumulators, A and B, two sixteen-bit index registers, X and Y, a condition code register, a 16-bit stack pointer, and a program counter.",
"In addition, there is an 8 x 8-bit multiply (A x B), with full 16-bit result, and fractional/integer 16-bit by 16-bit divide instructions.",
"A range of 16-bit instructions treat the A and B registers as a combined 16-bit D register for comparison (X and Y registers may also be compared to 16-bit memory operands), addition, subtraction and shift operations, or can add the B accumulator to the X or Y index registers.",
"Bit test operations have also been added, performing a logical and function between operands, setting the correct conditions codes, but not modifying the operands.Different versions of the HC11 have different numbers of external ports, labeled alphabetically.",
"The most common version has five ports, A, B, C, D, and E, but some have as few as 3 ports (version D3).",
"Each port is eight bits wide except for D, which is six bits (in some variations of the chip, D also has eight bits).",
"It can be operated with an internal program and RAM (1 to 768 bytes) or an external memory of up to 64 kilobytes.",
"With external memory, B and C are used as address and data bus.",
"In this mode, port C is multiplexed to carry both the lower byte of the address and data."
],
[
"Implementations",
"52-pin plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC)In the early 1990s Motorola produced an evaluation board kit for the 68HC11 with several UARTs, RAM, and an EPROM.",
"The cost of the evaluation kit was $68.11.The standard monitor for the HC11 family is called BUFFALO, \"Bit User Fast Friendly Aid to Logical Operation\".",
"It can be stored in on-chip ROM, EPROM, or external memory (also typically EPROM).",
"BUFFALO is available for most 68HC11 family derivatives as it generally only depends upon having access to a single UART (SCI, or Serial Communications Interface, in Motorola parlance).",
"BUFFALO can also run on devices that do not have internal non-volatile memory, such as the 68HC11A0, A1, E0, E1, and F1 derivatives."
],
[
"Other versions",
"The Freescale 68HC16 microcontroller family is intended as a 16-bit mostly software-compatible upgrade of the 68HC11.The Freescale 68HC12 microcontroller family is an enhanced 16-bit version of the 68HC11.The Handy Board robotics controller by Fred Martin is based on the 68HC11.A MC68HC24 port replacement unit is available for the 68HC11D, which lacks ports B and C. When placed on the external address bus, it replicates the original functions of B and C. Port A has input capture, output compare, pulse accumulator, and other timer functions; port D has serial I/O, and port E has an analog-to-digital converter (ADC)."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
";Datasheets and manuals* ''M68HC11 Reference Manual''; Motorola; 498 pages; 1991.",
"* ''MC68HC11A8 Technical Manual''; Motorola; 154 pages; 1991.",
"* ''MC68HC11E9 Technical Manual''; Motorola; 170 pages; 1991.;Books* ''Microcontroller Technology – 68HC11''; 1st Ed; Peter Spasov; Regents/Prentice Hall; 622 pages; 1993; .",
"(archive)* ''Build Your Own Robot – 68HC11''; 1st Ed; Karl Lunt; A.K.",
"Peters Publishing; 574 pages; 2000; .",
"(archive)"
],
[
"External links",
"* Freescale 68HC11 (Legacy) Part Info* ASM11 macro cross-assembler for Windows and Linux;Simulators / Emulators* THRSim11 68HC11 simulator and debugger – Windows;Boards* 4MHz-bus 68HC11F1-based board* Wytec 68HC11 Development Board;FPGA* System11 68HC11 CPU core – VHDL source code – OpenCores – project website* Green Mountain Synthesizable 68HC11 CPU core – VHDL source code"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"March 21"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Events",
"===Pre-1600===* 537 – Siege of Rome: King Vitiges attempts to assault the northern and eastern city walls, but is repulsed at the Praenestine Gate, known as the ''Vivarium'', by the defenders under the Byzantine generals Bessas and Peranius.",
"* 630 – Emperor Heraclius returns the True Cross, one of the holiest Christian relics, to Jerusalem.",
"* 717 – Battle of Vincy between Charles Martel and Ragenfrid.",
"*1152 – Annulment of the marriage of King Louis VII of France and Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine.",
"*1180 – Emperor Antoku accedes to the throne of Japan.",
"*1556 – On the day of his execution in Oxford, former archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer deviates from the scripted sermon by renouncing the recantations he has made and adds, \"And as for the pope, I refuse him, as Christ's enemy, and Antichrist with all his false doctrine.",
"\"===1601–1900===*1788 – A fire in New Orleans leaves most of the town in ruins.",
"*1800 – With the church leadership driven out of Rome during an armed conflict, Pius VII is crowned Pope in Venice with a temporary papal tiara made of papier-mâché.",
"*1801 – The Battle of Alexandria is fought between British and French forces near the ruins of Nicopolis near Alexandria in Egypt.",
"*1804 – Code Napoléon is adopted as French civil law.",
"*1814 – Napoleonic Wars: Austrian forces repel French troops in the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube.",
"*1821 – Greek War of Independence: Greek revolutionaries seize Kalavryta.",
"*1844 – The Baháʼí calendar begins.",
"This is the first day of the first year of the Baháʼí calendar.",
"It is annually celebrated by members of the Baháʼí Faith as the Baháʼí New Year or Náw-Rúz.",
"*1861 – Alexander H. Stephens gives the Cornerstone Speech.",
"*1871 – Otto von Bismarck is appointed as the first Chancellor of the German Empire.",
"* 1871 – Journalist Henry Morton Stanley begins his trek to find the missionary and explorer David Livingstone.===1901–present===*1918 – World War I: The first phase of the German spring offensive, Operation Michael, begins.",
"*1919 – The Hungarian Soviet Republic is established becoming the first Communist government to be formed in Europe after the October Revolution in Russia.",
"*1921 – The New Economic Policy is implemented by the Bolshevik Party in response to the economic failure as a result of war communism.",
"*1925 – The Butler Act prohibits the teaching of human evolution in Tennessee.",
"* 1925 – Syngman Rhee is removed from office after being impeached as the President of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.",
"*1928 – Charles Lindbergh is presented with the Medal of Honor for the first solo trans-Atlantic flight.",
"*1935 – Shah of Iran Reza Shah Pahlavi formally asks the international community to call Persia by its native name, ''Iran''.",
"*1937 – Ponce massacre: Nineteen unarmed civilians in Ponce, Puerto Rico are gunned down by police in a terrorist attack ordered by the US-appointed Governor, Blanton Winship.",
"*1943 – Wehrmacht officer Rudolf von Gersdorff plots to assassinate Adolf Hitler by using a suicide bomb, but the plan falls through; von Gersdorff is able to defuse the bomb in time and avoid suspicion.",
"*1945 – World War II: British troops liberate Mandalay, Burma.",
"* 1945 – World War II: Operation Carthage: Royal Air Force planes bomb Gestapo headquarters in Copenhagen, Denmark.",
"They also accidentally hit a school, killing 125 civilians.",
"* 1945 – World War II: Bulgaria and the Soviet Union successfully complete their defense of the north bank of the Drava River as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes.",
"*1946 – The Los Angeles Rams sign Kenny Washington, making him the first African American player in professional American football since 1933.",
"*1952 – Alan Freed presents the Moondog Coronation Ball, the first rock and roll concert, in Cleveland, Ohio.",
"*1960 – Apartheid: Sharpeville massacre, South Africa: Police open fire on a group of black South African demonstrators, killing 69 and wounding 180.",
"*1963 – Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary closes.",
"*1965 – Ranger program: NASA launches Ranger 9, the last in a series of uncrewed lunar space probes.",
"* 1965 – Martin Luther King Jr. leads 3,200 people on the start of the third and finally successful civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama.",
"*1968 – Battle of Karameh in Jordan between the Israel Defense Forces and the combined forces of the Jordanian Armed Forces and PLO.",
"*1970 – The first Earth Day proclamation is issued by Joseph Alioto, Mayor of San Francisco.",
"* 1970 – San Diego Comic-Con, the largest pop and culture festival in the world, hosts its inaugural event.",
"*1980 – Cold War: American President Jimmy Carter announces a United States boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow to protest the Soviet–Afghan War.",
"*1983 – The first cases of the 1983 West Bank fainting epidemic begin; Israelis and Palestinians accuse each other of poison gas, but the cause is later determined mostly to be psychosomatic.",
"*1986 – Debi Thomas became the first African American to win the World Figure Skating Championships*1989 – Transbrasil Flight 801 crashes into a slum near São Paulo/Guarulhos International Airport, killing 25 people.",
"*1990 – Namibia becomes independent after 75 years of South African rule.",
"*1994 – The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change enters into force.",
"*1999 – Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones become the first to circumnavigate the Earth in a hot air balloon.",
"*2000 – Pope John Paul II makes his first ever pontifical visit to Israel.",
"*2006 – The social media site X (former Twitter) is founded.",
"*2019 – The 2019 Xiangshui chemical plant explosion occurs, killing at least 47 people and injuring 640 others.",
"*2022 – China Eastern Airlines Flight 5735 crashes in Guangxi, China, killing 132 people."
],
[
"Births",
"===Pre-1600===* 927 – Emperor Taizu of Song (d. 976)*1474 – Angela Merici, Italian educator and saint (d. 1540)*1501 – Anne Brooke, Baroness Cobham, English noble (d. 1558)*1521 – Maurice, Elector of Saxony (d. 1553)*1527 – Hermann Finck, German composer and educator (d. 1558)*1555 – John Leveson, English politician (d. 1615)*1557 – Anne Howard, Countess of Arundel, English countess and poet (d. 1630)===1601–1900===*1626 – Peter of Saint Joseph Betancur, Spanish saint and missionary (d. 1667)*1672 – Stefano Benedetto Pallavicino, Italian poet and translator (d. 1742)*1685 – Johann Sebastian Bach, German Baroque composer and musician (d. 1750)*1713 – Francis Lewis, Welsh-American merchant and politician (d. 1803)*1716 – Josef Seger, Bohemian organist, composer, and educator (d. 1782)*1752 – Mary Dixon Kies, American inventor (d. 1837)*1763 – Jean Paul, German journalist and author (d. 1825)*1768 – Joseph Fourier, French mathematician and physicist (d. 1830)*1779 – José Bernardo de Tagle y Portocarrero, Marquis of Torre Tagle, Peruvian soldier and politician, 2nd President of Peru (d. 1825)*1802 – Augusta Waddington, Welsh writer and patron of the arts (d. 1896)*1806 – Benito Juárez, Mexican lawyer and politician, 25th President of Mexico (d. 1872)*1811 – Nathaniel Woodard, English priest and educator (d. 1891)*1825 – Alexander Mozhaysky, Russian soldier and engineer (d. 1890)*1831 – Dorothea Beale, English suffragist, educational reformer and author (d. 1906)*1835 – Thomas Hayward, English cricketer (d. 1876)*1839 – Modest Mussorgsky, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1881)*1854 – Alick Bannerman, Australian cricketer and coach (d. 1924)*1857 – Alice Henry, Australian journalist and activist (d. 1943)*1859 – Daria Pratt, American golfer (d. 1938)*1865 – George Owen Squier, American general (d. 1934)*1866 – Antonia Maury, American astronomer and astrophysicist (d. 1952)*1867 – Florenz Ziegfeld, Jr., American director and producer (d. 1932)*1869 – David Robertson, Scottish-English golfer and rugby player (d. 1937)*1874 – Alfred Tysoe, English runner (d. 1901)*1876 – Walter Tewksbury, American runner and hurdler (d. 1968)*1877 – Maurice Farman, French race car driver and pilot (d. 1964)*1878 – Morris H. Whitehouse, American architect (d. 1944)*1880 – Broncho Billy Anderson, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1971)* 1880 – Hans Hofmann, German-American painter and academic (d. 1966)*1882 – Aleksander Kesküla, Estonian politician (d. 1963)*1884 – George David Birkhoff, American mathematician (d. 1944)*1885 – Pierre Renoir, French actor and director (d. 1952)*1886 – Walter Dray, American pole vaulter (d. 1973)*1887 – Clarice Beckett, Australian painter (d. 1935)* 1887 – Lajos Kassák, Hungarian poet, novelist and painter (d. 1967)* 1887 – M. N. Roy, Indian philosopher and politician (d. 1954)*1889 – Jock Sutherland, American football player and coach (d. 1948)*1896 – Friedrich Waismann, Austrian mathematician, physicist, and philosopher from the Vienna Circle (d. 1959)*1897 – Sim Gokkes, Dutch composer and conductor (d. 1943)* 1897 – Salvador Lutteroth, Mexican wrestling promoter, founded Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (d. 1987)*1899 – Panagiotis Pipinelis, Greek politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1970)===1901–present===*1901 – Karl Arnold, German businessman and politician, President of the German Bundesrat (d. 1958)*1902 – Son House, American blues singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1988)*1904 – Jehane Benoît, Canadian journalist and author (d. 1987)* 1904 – Forrest Mars, Sr., American candy maker, created M&M's and Mars bar (d. 1999)* 1904 – Nikos Skalkottas, Greek violinist and composer (d. 1949)*1905 – Phyllis McGinley, American author and poet (d. 1978)*1906 – John D. Rockefeller III, American philanthropist (d. 1978)* 1906 – Jim Thompson, American businessman (d. 1967)* 1906 – André Filho, Brazilian musician and songwriter (d. 1974)*1907 – Zoltán Kemény, Hungarian sculptor (d. 1965)*1909 – Harry Lane, English footballer (d. 1977)*1910 – Julio Gallo, American businessman, co-founded E & J Gallo Winery (d. 1993)* 1910 – Muhammad Siddiq Khan, Bangladeshi librarian and educator (d. 1978)*1911 – Walter Lincoln Hawkins, African-American scientist and inventor (d. 1992)*1912 – André Laurendeau, Canadian journalist, playwright, and politician (d. 1968)*1913 – George Abecassis, English race car driver and pilot (d. 1991)* 1913 – Guillermo Haro, Mexican astronomer (d. 1988)*1914 – Paul Tortelier, French cellist and composer (d. 1990)*1916 – Bismillah Khan, Indian shehnai player (d. 2006)* 1916 – Ken Wharton, English race car driver (d. 1957)*1917 – Frank Hardy, Australian journalist, author, and playwright (d. 1994)*1918 – Patrick Lucey, American captain and politician, 38th Governor of Wisconsin (d. 2014)* 1918 – Charles Thompson, American pianist and composer (d. 2016)*1919 – Douglas Warren, Australian bishop (d. 2013)*1920 – Manolis Chiotis, Greek singer-songwriter and bouzouki player (d. 1970)* 1920 – Éric Rohmer, French director, film critic, journalist, novelist and screenwriter (d. 2010)*1921 – Arthur Grumiaux, Belgian violinist and pianist (d. 1986)* 1921 – Antony Hopkins, English pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2014)*1922 – Russ Meyer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2004)*1923 – Louis-Edmond Hamelin, Canadian geographer, author, and academic (d. 2020)* 1923 – Nizar Qabbani, Syrian poet, publisher, and diplomat (d. 1998)* 1923 – Nirmala Srivastava, Indian religious leader, founded Sahaja Yoga (d. 2011)* 1923 – Rezső Nyers, Hungarian politician (d. 2018)*1924 – Philip Abbott, American actor (d. 1998)* 1924 – Dov Shilansky, Lithuanian-Israeli lawyer and politician (d. 2010)*1925 – Harold Ashby, American saxophonist (d. 2003)* 1925 – Peter Brook, English-French director and producer (d. 2022)* 1925 – Hugo Koblet, Swiss cyclist (d. 1964)*1926 – André Delvaux, Belgian director and screenwriter (d. 2002)*1927 – Halton Arp, American-German astronomer and critic (d. 2013)* 1927 – Hans-Dietrich Genscher, German soldier and politician, Vice-Chancellor of Germany (d. 2016)*1928 – Surya Bahadur Thapa, Nepalese politician, 24th Prime Minister of Nepal (d. 2015)*1929 – Maurice Catarcio, American wrestler (d. 2005)*1930 – James Coco, American actor (d. 1987)* 1930 – Otis Spann, American blues pianist, singer and composer (d. 1970)*1931 – Toyonobori, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 1998)* 1931 – Clark L. Brundin, American-English engineer and academic (d. 2021)* 1931 – Catherine Gibson, Scottish swimmer (d. 2013)* 1931 – Al Williamson, American illustrator (d. 2010)*1932 – Walter Gilbert, American physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate* 1932 – Joseph Silverstein, American violinist and conductor (d. 2015)*1933 – John Hall, English businessman* 1933 – Michael Heseltine, Welsh businessman and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom*1934 – Al Freeman, Jr., American actor and director (d. 2012)*1935 – Brian Clough, English footballer and manager (d. 2004)*1936 – Ed Broadbent, Canadian pilot and politician (d. 2024)* 1936 – Mike Westbrook, English pianist and composer *1937 – Ann Clwyd, Welsh journalist and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Wales (d. 2023)* 1937 – Tom Flores, American football player and coach* 1937 – Pierre-Jean Rémy, French diplomat and author (d. 2010)*1938 – Michael Foreman, English author and illustrator* 1938 – Grahame Thomas, Australian cricketer*1939 – Kathleen Widdoes, American actress*1940 – Solomon Burke, American singer-songwriter (d. 2010)* 1940 – Andrea Elle, German bicyclist *1942 – Françoise Dorléac, French actress (d. 1967)* 1942 – Kostas Politis, Greek basketball player and coach (d. 2018)* 1942 – Amina Claudine Myers, African-American singer-songwriter and pianist* 1942 – Patcha Ramachandra Rao, India metallurgist, educator and administrator (d. 2010)*1943 – István Gyulai, Hungarian sprinter and sportscaster (d. 2006)* 1943 – Hartmut Haenchen, German conductor* 1943 – Vivian Stanshall, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and painter (d. 1995)*1944 – Marie-Christine Barrault, French actress* 1944 – Janet Daley, American-English journalist and author* 1944 – Hideki Ishima, Japanese guitarist * 1944 – Mike Jackson, English general* 1944 – David Lindley, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2023)* 1944 – Gaye Adegbalola, African-American singer and guitarist *1945 – Anthony Grabiner, Baron Grabiner, English lawyer* 1945 – Charles Greene, American sprinter and coach* 1945 – Rose Stone, African-American R&B singer and keyboard player*1946 – Timothy Dalton, Welsh-English actor* 1946 – Ray Dorset, English singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1946 – Joseph Mitsuaki Takami, Japanese cardinal*1947 – George Johnston, Scottish footballer *1948 – Scott Fahlman, American computer scientist and academic*1949 – Alvin Kallicharran, Guyanese cricketer and coach* 1949 – Andy Love, Scottish-English politician* 1949 – Eddie Money, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2019)* 1949 – Slavoj Žižek, Slovenian sociologist, philosopher, and academic*1950 – Roger Hodgson, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player * 1950 – Ron Oden, American minister and politician, 19th Mayor of Palm Springs* 1950 – Sergey Lavrov, Russian politician and diplomat, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs*1951 – Conrad Lozano, American bass player * 1951 – Russell Thompkins Jr., American soul singer*1953 – Steve Furber, English computer scientist and academic* 1953 – Paul Martin Lester, American photographer, author, and educator* 1953 – David Wisniewski, English-American author and illustrator (d. 2002)*1954 – Prayut Chan-o-cha, Thai politician, Prime Minister of Thailand*1955 – Fadi Abboud, Lebanese economist and politician* 1955 – Jair Bolsonaro, Brazilian politician and retired military officer, 38th President of Brazil* 1955 – Bob Bennett, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1955 – Dimitrios Papadimoulis, Greek politician* 1955 – Bärbel Wöckel, East German sprinter*1956 – Dick Beardsley, American runner* 1956 – Guy Chadwick, German-English singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1956 – Richard H. Kirk, English guitarist, keyboard player, composer, and producer (d. 2021)* 1956 – Ingrid Kristiansen, Norwegian runner*1958 – Marlies Göhr, German sprinter* 1958 – Brad Hall, American comedian, director, and screenwriter* 1958 – Gary Oldman, English actor, filmmaker, musician and author*1959 – Sarah Jane Morris, English singer-songwriter* 1959 – Yuval Rotem, Israeli diplomat* 1959 – Nobuo Uematsu, Japanese keyboard player and composer*1960 – Marwan Farhat, Syrian actor and voice actor* 1960 – Benito T. de Leon, Filipino general* 1960 – Raivo Puusepp, Estonian architect* 1960 – Ayrton Senna, Brazilian race car driver (d. 1994)* 1960 – Robert Sweet, American drummer and producer*1961 – Lothar Matthäus, German footballer and manager* 1961 – Gary O'Reilly, English footballer * 1961 – Kassie DePaiva, American actress* 1961 – Slim Jim Phantom, American rock drummer* 1961 – Kim Turner, American hurdler*1962 – Matthew Broderick, American actor* 1962 – Kathy Greenwood, Canadian actress and screenwriter* 1962 – Rosie O'Donnell, American actress, producer, and talk show host* 1962 – Mark Waid, American author*1963 – Shawon Dunston, American baseball player* 1963 – Ronald Koeman, Dutch footballer and manager* 1963 – Shawn Lane, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2003)* 1963 – Share Pedersen, American bass player *1964 – Ieuan Evans, Welsh rugby player* 1964 – Jesper Skibby, Danish cyclist*1965 – Xavier Bertrand, French businessman and politician, French Minister of Social Affairs* 1965 – Thomas Frank, American author, historian and political analyst *1966 – Benito Archundia, Mexican footballer, referee, lawyer, and economist* 1966 – Hauke Fuhlbrügge, German runner* 1966 – Matthew Maynard, English cricketer and coach * 1966 – Moa Matthis, Swedish author*1967 – Carwyn Jones, Welsh lawyer and politician, First Minister of Wales* 1967 – Mirela Rupic, American costume and fashion designer*1968 – Cameron Clyne, Australian businessman* 1968 – Andrew Copeland, American singer and guitarist* 1968 – Gary Walsh, English football coach and former footballer* 1968 – Greg Ellis, English actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1968 – Tolunay Kafkas, Turkish footballer and manager* 1968 – Scott Williams, American basketball player and sportscaster*1969 – Jonah Goldberg, American journalist and author*1970 – Shiho Niiyama, Japanese voice actress (d. 2000)* 1970 – Cenk Uygur, Turkish-American political activist*1971 – Zsolt Kürtösi, Hungarian decathlete*1972 – Chris Candido, American wrestler (d. 2005)* 1972 – Balázs Kiss, Hungarian hammer thrower* 1972 – Derartu Tulu, Ethiopian runner* 1972 – Graeme Welch, English cricketer*1973 – Ananda Lewis, American television host* 1973 – Stuart Nethercott, English footballer and manager * 1973 – Large Professor, American rapper and producer *1974 – Rhys Darby, New Zealand comedian and actor* 1974 – Dejima Takeharu, Japanese sumo wrestler* 1974 – Edsel Dope, American singer-songwriter and producer * 1974 – Ted Kravitz, British presenter and Formula One pit-lane reporter* 1974 – Kevin Leahy, American drummer * 1974 – Conor Woodman, Irish journalist and author*1975 – Yacoub Al-Mohana, Kuwaiti director and producer* 1975 – Corné Krige, South African rugby player* 1975 – Fabricio Oberto, Argentinian-Italian basketball player* 1975 – Vitaly Potapenko, Ukrainian basketball player and coach* 1975 – Mark Williams, Welsh snooker player*1976 – Rachael MacFarlane, American voice actress and singer* 1976 – Bamboo Mañalac, Filipino singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1976 – Tekin Sazlog, German-Turkish footballer*1977 – Bruno Cirillo, Italian footballer* 1977 – Jamie Delgado, English tennis player*1978 – Sally Barsosio, Kenyan runner* 1978 – Charmaine Dragun, Australian journalist (d. 2007)* 1978 – Kevin Federline, American dancer and television personality* 1978 – Cristian Guzmán, Dominican baseball player* 1978 – Joyce Jimenez, Filipino movie and TV actress* 1978 – Mohammad Rezaei, Iranian wrestler*1980 – Ronaldinho, Brazilian footballer* 1980 – Marit Bjørgen, Norwegian skier* 1980 – Lee Jin, South Korean singer and actress * 1980 – Deryck Whibley, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer *1981 – Germano Borovicz Cardoso Schweger, Brazilian footballer* 1981 – Sébastien Chavanel, French cyclist* 1981 – Glenn Hall, Australian rugby league player* 1981 – Jason King, Australian rugby league player* 1981 – Todd Polglase, Australian rugby league player*1982 – Maria Elena Camerin, Italian tennis player* 1982 – Ejegayehu Dibaba, Ethiopian runner* 1982 – Aaron Hill, American baseball player* 1982 – Colin Turkington, Northern Irish race car driver*1983 – Lucila Pascua, Spanish basketball player* 1983 – Jean Ondoa, Cameroonian footballer*1984 – Tiago dos Santos Roberto, Brazilian footballer* 1984 – Guillermo Daniel Rodríguez, Uruguayan footballer*1985 – Ryan Callahan, American ice hockey player* 1985 – Adrian Peterson, American football player*1986 – Scott Eastwood, American actor* 1986 – Michu, Spanish footballer* 1986 – Romanos Alyfantis, Greek swimmer* 1986 – Nikoleta Kyriakopoulou, Greek pole vaulter*1987 – Carlos Carrasco, Venezuelan baseball pitcher*1988 – Kateřina Čechová, Czech sprinter* 1988 – Erik Johnson, American ice hockey player* 1988 – Eric Krüger, German sprinter* 1988 – Michael Madl, Austrian footballer *1989 – Jordi Alba, Spanish footballer* 1989 – Nicolás Lodeiro, Uruguayan footballer* 1989 – Takeru Satoh, Japanese actor*1990 – Mandy Capristo, German singer-songwriter and dancer * 1990 – Ryann Krais, American runner and heptathlete* 1990 – Alex Nimo, Liberian-American soccer player*1991 – Luke Chapman, English footballer* 1991 – Antoine Griezmann, French footballer*1992 – Lehlogonolo Masalesa, South African footballer* 1992 – Karolína Plíšková, Czech tennis player* 1992 – Kristýna Plíšková, Czech tennis player*1993 – Jake Bidwell, English footballer* 1993 – Jesse Joronen, Finnish footballer*1994 – Margaret Lu, American fencer*1996 – Aurora Mikalsen, Norwegian footballer*1997 – Martina Stoessel, Argentine actress* 1997 – Nat Phillips, English footballer*2000 – Jace Norman, American actor*2003 – Natalie Garcia, Canadian rhythmic gymnast* 2003 – Abbi Pulling, British racing driver"
],
[
"Deaths",
"===Pre-1600===* 543 or 547 – Benedict of Nursia, Italian saint (b.",
"480)* 867 – Ælla, king of Northumbria* 867 – Osberht, king of Northumbria*1034 – Ezzo, Count Palatine of Lotharingia (b.",
"955)*1063 – Richeza of Lotharingia (b.",
"995)*1076 – Robert I, Duke of Burgundy (b.",
"1011)*1201 – Absalon, Danish archbishop (b. c. 1128)*1306 – Robert II, Duke of Burgundy (b.",
"1248)*1372 – Rudolf VI, Margrave of Baden*1487 – Nicholas of Flüe, Swiss monk and saint (b.",
"1417)*1540 – John de Vere, 15th Earl of Oxford, English peer and courtier (b. c. 1482)*1556 – Thomas Cranmer, English archbishop (b.",
"1489)*1571 – Odet de Coligny, French cardinal and Protestant (b.",
"1517)===1601–1900===*1617 – Pocahontas, Algonquian Indigenous woman (b. c. 1595)*1653 – Tarhoncu Ahmed Pasha, Albanian politician, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire*1656 – James Ussher, Irish archbishop (b.",
"1581)*1676 – Henri Sauval, French historian and author (b.",
"1623)*1729 – John Law, Scottish-French economist and politician, Controller-General of Finances (b.",
"1671)* 1729 – Elżbieta Sieniawska, politically influential Polish magnate (b.",
"1669)*1734 – Robert Wodrow, Scottish historian and author (b.",
"1679)*1751 – Johann Heinrich Zedler, German publisher (b.",
"1706)*1752 – Gio Nicola Buhagiar, Maltese painter (b.",
"1698)*1762 – Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, French priest, astronomer, and academic (b.",
"1713)*1772 – Jacques-Nicolas Bellin, French geographer and cartographer (b.",
"1703)*1795 – Giovanni Arduino, Italian miner and geologist (b.",
"1714)*1801 – Andrea Luchesi, Italian composer and educator (b.",
"1741)*1804 – Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien (b.",
"1772)*1843 – Robert Southey, English poet, historian, and translator (b.",
"1774)* 1843 – Guadalupe Victoria, Mexican general and politician, 1st President of Mexico (b.",
"1786)*1854 – Pedro María de Anaya, Mexican soldier.",
"President (1847-1848) (b.",
"1795)*1863 – Edwin Vose Sumner, American general (b.",
"1797)*1869 – Juan Almonte, son of José María Morelos, was a Mexican soldier and diplomat who served as a regent in the Second Mexican Empire (1863-1864) (b.",
"1803)*1884 – Ezra Abbot, American scholar and academic (b.",
"1819)*1891 – Joseph E. Johnston, American general (b.",
"1807)===1901–present===*1915 – Frederick Winslow Taylor, American golfer, tennis player, and engineer (b.",
"1856)*1920 – Evelina Haverfield, British suffragette and aid worker (b.",
"1867)*1927 – Thomas Oikonomou, Greek actor (b.",
"1864)*1934 – Franz Schreker, Austrian composer and conductor (b.",
"1878)* 1934 – Lilyan Tashman, American actress (b.",
"1896)*1936 – Alexander Glazunov, Russian composer and conductor (b.",
"1865)*1939 – Evald Aav, Estonian composer and conductor (b.",
"1900)* 1939 – Ali Hikmet Ayerdem, Turkish general and politician (b.",
"1877)*1943 – Cornelia Fort, American soldier and pilot (b.",
"1919)*1945 – Arthur Nebe, German SS officer (b.",
"1894)*1951 – Willem Mengelberg, Dutch conductor and composer (b.",
"1871)*1953 – Ed Voss, American basketball player (b.",
"1922)*1956 – Hatı Çırpan, Turkish politician (b.",
"1890)*1958 – Cyril M. Kornbluth, American soldier and author (b.",
"1923)*1970 – Manolis Chiotis, Greek singer-songwriter and bouzouki player (b.",
"1920)*1975 – Joe Medwick, American baseball player and coach (b.",
"1911)*1978 – Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh, President of Ireland (b.",
"1911)*1980 – Peter Stoner, American mathematician and astronomer (b.",
"1888)*1985 – Michael Redgrave, English actor, director, and manager (b.",
"1908)*1987 – Walter L. Gordon, Canadian accountant, lawyer, and politician, 22nd Canadian Minister of Finance (b.",
"1906)* 1987 – Robert Preston, American captain, actor, and singer (b.",
"1918)*1991 – Vedat Dalokay, Turkish architect and politician, Mayor of Ankara (b.",
"1927)* 1991 – Leo Fender, American businessman, founded Fender Musical Instruments Corporation (b.",
"1909)*1992 – John Ireland, Canadian-American actor and director (b.",
"1914)* 1992 – Natalie Sleeth, American pianist and composer (b.",
"1930)*1994 – Macdonald Carey, American actor (b.",
"1913)* 1994 – Lili Damita, French-American actress and singer (b.",
"1904)* 1994 – Aleksandrs Laime, Latvian-born explorer (b.",
"1911) *1997 – Wilbert Awdry, English cleric and author, created ''The Railway Series'', the basis for ''Thomas the Tank Engine'' (b.",
"1911)*1998 – Galina Ulanova, Russian ballerina (b.",
"1910)*1999 – Jean Guitton, French philosopher and author (b.",
"1905)* 1999 – Ernie Wise, English comedian and actor (b.",
"1925)*2001 – Chung Ju-yung, South Korean businessman, founded Hyundai (b.",
"1915)* 2001 – Anthony Steel, English actor and singer (b.",
"1920)*2002 – Herman Talmadge, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 70th Governor of Georgia (b.",
"1913)*2003 – Shivani, Indian author (b.",
"1923)* 2003 – Umar Wirahadikusumah, Indonesian general and politician, 4th Vice President of Indonesia (b.",
"1924)*2004 – Ludmilla Tchérina, French actress, dancer, and choreographer (b.",
"1924)*2005 – Barney Martin, American police officer and actor (b.",
"1923)* 2005 – Bobby Short, American singer and pianist (b.",
"1924)*2007 – Drew Hayes, American author and illustrator (b.",
"1969)* 2007 – Sven O. Høiby, Norwegian hurdler and journalist (b.",
"1936)*2008 – Denis Cosgrove, English-American geographer and academic (b.",
"1948)* 2008 – Guillermo Jullian de la Fuente, Chilean architect and academic (b.",
"1931)* 2008 – John List, American murderer (b.",
"1925)*2009 – Mohit Sharma, Indian army officer (b.",
"1978)*2009 – Walt Poddubny, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.",
"1960)*2010 – Wolfgang Wagner, German director and manager (b.",
"1919)*2011 – Loleatta Holloway, American singer-songwriter (b.",
"1946)* 2011 – Gerd Klier, German footballer (b.",
"1944)* 2011 – Ladislav Novák, Czech footballer and manager (b.",
"1931)* 2011 – Pinetop Perkins, American singer and pianist (b.",
"1913)*2012 – Albrecht Dietz, German economist and businessman (b.",
"1926)* 2012 – Ron Erhardt, American football player and coach (b.",
"1931)* 2012 – Robert Fuest, English director, screenwriter, and production designer (b.",
"1927)* 2012 – Tonino Guerra, Italian poet and screenwriter (b.",
"1920)* 2012 – Irving Louis Horowitz, American sociologist, author, and academic (b.",
"1929)* 2012 – Yuri Razuvaev, Russian chess player and trainer (b.",
"1945)* 2012 – Marina Salye, Russian geologist and politician (b.",
"1934)*2013 – Chinua Achebe, Nigerian novelist, poet, and critic (b.",
"1930)* 2013 – Rick Hautala, American author and screenwriter (b.",
"1949)* 2013 – Harlon Hill, American football player and coach (b.",
"1932)* 2013 – Pietro Mennea, Italian sprinter and politician (b.",
"1952)* 2013 – Giancarlo Zagni, Italian director and screenwriter (b.",
"1926)*2014 – Qoriniasi Bale, Fijian lawyer and politician, 25th Attorney-General of Fiji (b.",
"1929)* 2014 – Bill Boedeker, American football player and soldier (b.",
"1924)* 2014 – Jack Fleck, American golfer (b.",
"1921)* 2014 – Simeon Oduoye, Nigerian police officer and politician (b.",
"1945)* 2014 – James Rebhorn, American actor (b.",
"1948)* 2014 – Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, Iraqi patriarch (b.",
"1933)*2015 – Ishaya Bakut, Nigerian general and politician, Governor of Benue State (b.",
"1947)* 2015 – Chuck Bednarik, American lieutenant and football player (b.",
"1925)* 2015 – James C. Binnicker, American sergeant (b.",
"1938)* 2015 – Hans Erni, Swiss painter, sculptor, and illustrator (b.",
"1909)* 2015 – Jørgen Ingmann, Danish singer and guitarist (b.",
"1925)* 2015 – Alberta Watson, Canadian actress (b.",
"1955)*2017 – Chuck Barris, American game show host and producer (b.",
"1929)* 2017 – Colin Dexter, English author (b.",
"1930)* 2017 – Martin McGuinness, Irish republican and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland (b.",
"1950)* 2017 – Mike Hall, British cyclist (b.",
"1981)*2019 – Victor Hochhauser CBE, British music promoter (b.",
"1923)* 2019 – Gonzalo Portocarrero, Peruvian sociologist (b.",
"1949)*2021 – Nawal El Saadawi, Egyptian secularist, feminist (b.",
"1931)*2023 – Willis Reed, a former NBA basketball player (b.",
"1942)"
],
[
"Holidays and observances",
"*Arbor Day (Portugal)*Birth of Benito Juárez, a Fiestas Patrias (Mexico)* Christian feast day:**Benedetta Cambiagio Frassinello**Passing of Saint Benedict (Order of Saint Benedict, pre-1970 Calendar)**Birillus**Enda of Aran**Nicholas of Flüe**Serapion of Thmuis**Thomas Cranmer (Anglicanism)**March 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Education Freedom Day*Harmony Day (Australia)*Human Rights Day (South Africa)*Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Namibia from South African mandate in 1990*International Colour Day (International)*International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (International)*International Day of Forests (International), by proclamation of the United Nations General Assembly*Mother's Day (most of the Arab world)*National Tree Planting Day (Lesotho)*Newroz (Iran, Kurdistan, Mesopotamia)*Oltenia Day (Romania)*Rosie the Riveter Day (United States)*Truant's Day (Poland, Faroe Islands)*Vernal equinox related observances ''(see March 20)''*World Down Syndrome Day (International)*World Poetry Day (International)*World Puppetry Day (International)*Youth Day (Tunisia)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 21"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mainframe (disambiguation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''mainframe computer''' is a type of large data processing system.",
"'''Mainframe''' may also refer to:* Mainframe Studios, a Canadian computer animation company founded as Mainframe Entertainment"
],
[
"Fictional entities",
"* Mainframe (comics), several Marvel Comics characters* Mainframe (''G.I.",
"Joe''), a character in the ''G.I.",
"Joe'' universe* Mainframe, a character from the game ''Gunman Chronicles''* Mainframe, the city in the animated series ''ReBoot''* Tina \"Mainframe\" Cassidy, a character from the animated TV series ''COPS''* Mainframe, a character in Gene Wolfe's series of novels ''The Book of the Long Sun''"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Merovingian dynasty"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Merovingian dynasty''' () was the ruling family of the Franks from around the middle of the 5th century until 751.They first appear as \"Kings of the Franks\" in the Roman army of northern Gaul.",
"By 509 they had united all the Franks and northern Gallo-Romans under their rule.",
"They conquered most of Gaul, defeating the Visigoths (507) and the Burgundians (534), and also extended their rule into Raetia (537).",
"In Germania, the Alemanni, Bavarii and Saxons accepted their lordship.",
"The Merovingian realm was the largest and most powerful of the states of western Europe following the breaking up of the empire of Theodoric the Great.The dynastic name, medieval Latin or (\"sons of Merovech\"), derives from an unattested Frankish form, akin to the attested Old English , with the final -''ing'' being a typical Germanic patronymic suffix.",
"The name derives from Salian King Merovech, who is at the center of many legends.",
"Unlike the Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies, the Merovingians never claimed descent from a god, nor is there evidence that they were regarded as sacred.The Merovingians' long hair distinguished them among the Franks, who commonly cut their hair short.",
"Contemporaries sometimes referred to them as the \"long-haired kings\" (Latin ''reges criniti'').",
"A Merovingian whose hair was cut could not rule, and a rival could be removed from the succession by being tonsured and sent to a monastery.",
"The Merovingians also used a distinct name stock.",
"One of their names, Clovis, evolved into Louis and remained common among French royalty down to the 19th century.The first well-known Merovingian king was Childeric I (died 481).",
"His son Clovis I (died 511) converted to Nicene Christianity, united the Franks and conquered most of Gaul.",
"The Merovingians treated their kingdom as single yet divisible.",
"Clovis's four sons divided the kingdom among themselves, and it remained divided — with the exception of four short periods (558–561, 613–623, 629–634, 673–675) — down to 679.After that it was divided again only once (717–718).",
"The main divisions of the kingdom were Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitaine.During the final century of Merovingian rule, the kings were increasingly pushed into a ceremonial role.",
"Actual power was increasingly in the hands of the mayor of the palace, the highest-ranking official under the king.",
"In 656, the mayor Grimoald I tried to place his son Childebert on the throne in Austrasia.",
"Grimoald was arrested and executed; but his son ruled until 662, when the Merovingian dynasty was restored.",
"When King Theuderic IV died in 737, the mayor Charles Martel continued to rule the kingdoms without a king until his death in 741.The dynasty was restored again in 743, but in 751 Charles's son, Pepin the Short, deposed the last king, Childeric III, and had himself crowned, inaugurating the Carolingian dynasty."
],
[
"Legendary origins",
"Signet ring of Childeric I. Monnaie de Paris.The 7th-century ''Chronicle of Fredegar'' implies that the Merovingians were descended from a sea-beast called a quinotaur:It is said that while Chlodio was staying at the seaside with his wife one summer, his wife went into the sea at midday to bathe, and a beast of Neptune rather like a Quinotaur found her.",
"In the event she was made pregnant, either by the beast or by her husband, and she gave birth to a son called Merovech, from whom the kings of the Franks have subsequently been called Merovingians.In the past, this tale was regarded as an authentic piece of Germanic mythology and was often taken as evidence that the Merovingian kingship was sacral and the royal dynasty of supernatural origin.",
"Today, it is more commonly seen as an attempt to explain the meaning of the name Merovech (sea-bull): \"Unlike the Anglo-Saxon rulers the Merovingians—if they ever themselves acknowledged the quinotaur tale, which is by no means certain—made no claim to be descended from a god\".In 1906, the British Egyptologist Flinders Petrie suggested that the Marvingi recorded by Ptolemy as living near the Rhine were the ancestors of the Merovingian dynasty."
],
[
"History",
"Frankish gold Tremissis, imitation of Byzantine Tremissis, mid-6th century.Coin of Clotaire II, 584–628.British Museum.In 486 Clovis I, the son of Childeric, defeated Syagrius, a Roman military leader who competed with the Merovingians for power in northern France.",
"He won the Battle of Tolbiac against the Alemanni in 496, at which time, according to Gregory of Tours, Clovis adopted his wife Clotilda's Orthodox (i.e., Nicene) Christian faith.",
"He subsequently went on to decisively defeat the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse in the Battle of Vouillé in 507.After Clovis's death, his kingdom was partitioned among his four sons.",
"This tradition of partition continued over the next century.",
"Even when several Merovingian kings simultaneously ruled their own realms, the kingdom—not unlike the late Roman Empire—was conceived of as a single entity ruled collectively by these several kings (in their own realms) among whom a turn of events could result in the reunification of the whole kingdom under a single ruler.Upon Clovis's death in 511, the Merovingian kingdom included all of Gaul except Burgundy and all of Germania magna except Saxony.",
"To the outside, the kingdom, even when divided under different kings, maintained unity and conquered Burgundy in 534.After the fall of the Ostrogoths, the Franks also conquered Provence.",
"After this their borders with Italy (ruled by the Lombards since 568) and Visigothic Septimania remained fairly stable.=== Division of the kingdom ===Internally, the kingdom was divided among Clovis's sons and later among his grandsons and frequently saw war between the different kings, who allied amongst themselves and against one another.",
"The death of one king created conflict between the surviving brothers and the deceased's sons, with differing outcomes.",
"Later, conflicts were intensified by the personal feud around Brunhilda.",
"However, yearly warfare often did not constitute general devastation but took on an almost ritual character, with established 'rules' and norms.=== Reunification of the kingdom ===Eventually, Clotaire II in 613 reunited the entire Frankish realm under one ruler.",
"The frequent wars had weakened royal power, while the aristocracy had made great gains and procured enormous concessions from the kings in return for their support.",
"These concessions saw the very considerable power of the king parcelled out and retained by leading ''comites'' and ''duces'' (counts and dukes).",
"Very little is in fact known about the course of the 7th century due to a scarcity of sources, but Merovingians remained in power until the 8th century.=== Weakening of the kingdom ===Clotaire's son Dagobert I (died 639), who sent troops to Spain and pagan Slavic territories in the east, is commonly seen as the last powerful Merovingian King.",
"Later kings are known as ''rois fainéants'' (\"do-nothing kings\"), despite the fact that only the last two kings did nothing.",
"The kings, even strong-willed men like Dagobert II and Chilperic II, were not the main agents of political conflicts, leaving this role to their mayors of the palace, who increasingly substituted their own interest for their king's.",
"Many kings came to the throne at a young age and died in the prime of life, weakening royal power further.=== Return to power ===The conflict between mayors was ended when the Austrasians under Pepin the Middle triumphed in 687 in the Battle of Tertry.",
"After this, Pepin, though not a king, was the political ruler of the Frankish kingdom and left this position as a heritage to his sons.",
"It was now the sons of the mayor that divided the realm among each other under the rule of a single king.After Pepin's long rule, his son Charles Martel assumed power, fighting against nobles and his own stepmother.",
"His reputation for ruthlessness further undermined the king's position.",
"Under Charles Martel's leadership, the Franks defeated the Moors at the Battle of Tours in 732.After the victory of 718 of the Bulgarian Khan Tervel and the Emperor of Byzantium Leo III the Isaurian over the Arabs led by Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik prevented the attempts of Islam to expand into eastern Europe, the victory of Charles Martel at Tours limited its expansion onto the west of the European continent.",
"During the last years of his life, he even ruled without a king, though he did not assume royal dignity.",
"His sons Carloman and Pepin again appointed a Merovingian figurehead (Childeric III) to stem rebellion on the kingdom's periphery.",
"However, in 751, Pepin finally displaced the last Merovingian and, with the support of the nobility and the blessing of Pope Zachary, became one of the Frankish kings."
],
[
"Government",
"The Merovingian Basilica of Saint-Pierre-aux-Nonnains in Metz, capital of Austrasia The Merovingian king redistributed conquered wealth among his followers, both material wealth and the land including its indentured peasantry, though these powers were not absolute.",
"As Rouche points out, \"When he died his property was divided equally among his heirs as though it were private property: the kingdom was a form of patrimony.\"",
"Some scholars have attributed this to the Merovingians' lacking a sense of ''res publica'', but other historians have criticized this view as an oversimplification.The kings appointed magnates to be ''comites'' (counts), charging them with defense, administration, and the judgment of disputes.",
"This happened against the backdrop of a newly isolated Europe without its Roman systems of taxation and bureaucracy, the Franks having taken over administration as they gradually penetrated into the thoroughly Romanised west and south of Gaul.",
"By the time of Dagobert I, governmental documents were recognizably Roman, it is by then written in Latin on imported papyrus similar to Roman bureaucratic norms and where it also made use of the old legal formulae.",
"While laymen made up most of the administrators, there was a gradual shift to a clerical presence from the reign of Clotaire II.The counts had to provide armies, enlisting their ''milites'' and endowing them with land in return.",
"These armies were subject to the king's call for military support.",
"Annual national assemblies of the nobles and their armed retainers decided major policies of war making.",
"The army also acclaimed new kings by raising them on its shields continuing an ancient practice that made the king leader of the warrior-band.",
"Furthermore, the king was expected to support himself with the products of his private domain (royal demesne), which was called the ''fisc''.",
"This system developed in time into feudalism, and expectations of royal self-sufficiency lasted until the Hundred Years' War.Trade declined with the fall of the Roman Empire, and agricultural estates were mostly self-sufficient.",
"The remaining international trade was dominated by Middle Eastern merchants, often Jewish Radhanites.=== Law ===Merovingian law was not universal law equally applicable to all; it was applied to each man according to his origin: Ripuarian Franks were subject to their own , codified at a late date, while the so-called (Salic Law) of the Salian clans, first tentatively codified in 511 was invoked under medieval exigencies as late as the Valois era.",
"In this the Franks lagged behind the Burgundians and the Visigoths, that they had no universal Roman-based law.",
"In Merovingian times, law remained in the rote memorisation of ''rachimburgs'', who memorised all the precedents on which it was based, for Merovingian law did not admit of the concept of creating ''new'' law, only of maintaining tradition.",
"Nor did its Germanic traditions offer any code of civil law required of urbanised society, such as Justinian I caused to be assembled and promulgated in the Byzantine Empire.",
"The few surviving Merovingian edicts are almost entirely concerned with settling divisions of estates among heirs.=== Coinage ===Coin of Theudebert I, 534–548Byzantine coinage was in use in Francia before Theudebert I began minting his own money at the start of his reign.",
"He was the first to issue distinctly Merovingian coinage.",
"On gold coins struck in his royal workshop, Theudebert is shown in the pearl-studded regalia of the Byzantine emperor; Childebert I is shown in profile in the ancient style, wearing a toga and a diadem.",
"The solidus and triens were minted in Francia between 534 and 679.The denarius (or denier) appeared later, in the name of Childeric II and various non-royals around 673–675.A Carolingian denarius replaced the Merovingian one, and the Frisian penning, in Gaul from 755 to the 11th century.Merovingian coins are on display at the Monnaie de Paris in Paris; there are Merovingian gold coins at the Bibliothèque Nationale, Cabinet des Médailles."
],
[
"Religion",
"Frankish gold Tremissis with Christian cross, issued by minter Madelinus, Dorestad, Netherlands, mid-7th centuryfibulae.",
"Cabinet des MédaillesA gold chalice from the Treasure of GourdonCover of Merovingian sarcophagus with Christian IX monogram, Musée de Saint-Germain-en-LayeBaptistry of St. Jean, PoitiersChristianity was introduced to the Franks by their contact with Gallo-Romanic culture and later further spread by monks.",
"The most famous of these missionaries is St. Columbanus (d 615), an Irish monk.",
"Merovingian kings and queens used the newly forming ecclesiastical power structure to their advantage.",
"Monasteries and episcopal seats were shrewdly awarded to elites who supported the dynasty.",
"Extensive parcels of land were donated to monasteries to exempt those lands from royal taxation and to preserve them within the family.",
"The family-maintained dominance over the monastery by appointing family members as abbots.",
"Extra sons and daughters who could not be married off were sent to monasteries so that they would not threaten the inheritance of older Merovingian children.",
"This pragmatic use of monasteries ensured close ties between elites and monastic properties.Numerous Merovingians who served as bishops and abbots, or who generously funded abbeys and monasteries, were rewarded with sainthood.",
"The outstanding handful of Frankish saints who were not of the Merovingian kinship nor the family alliances that provided Merovingian counts and dukes, deserve a closer inspection for that fact alone: like Gregory of Tours, they were almost without exception from the Gallo-Roman aristocracy in regions south and west of Merovingian control.",
"The most characteristic form of Merovingian literature is represented by the ''Lives'' of the saints.",
"Merovingian hagiography did not set out to reconstruct a biography in the Roman or the modern sense, but to attract and hold popular devotion by the formulas of elaborate literary exercises, through which the Frankish Church channeled popular piety within orthodox channels, defined the nature of sanctity and retained some control over the posthumous cults that developed spontaneously at burial sites, where the life-force of the saint lingered, to do good for the votary.The ''vitae et miracula'', for impressive miracles were an essential element of Merovingian hagiography, were read aloud on saints' feast days.",
"Many Merovingian saints, and the majority of female saints, were local ones, venerated only within strictly circumscribed regions; their cults were revived in the High Middle Ages, when the population of women in religious orders increased enormously.",
"Judith Oliver noted five Merovingian female saints in the diocese of Liège who appeared in a long list of saints in a late 13th-century psalter-hours.",
"The ''vitae'' of six late Merovingian saints that illustrate the political history of the era have been translated and edited by Paul Fouracre and Richard A. Gerberding, and presented with , to provide some historical context."
],
[
"Significant individuals",
"=== Kings ====== Queens and abbesses ===* Genovefa (died 502)* Clothilde, queen of the Franks (died 545)* Monegund (died 544)* Radegund, Thuringian princess who founded a monastery at Poitiers (died 587)* Rusticula, abbess of Arles (died 632)* Caesaria II, abbess of St Jean of Arles (died c. 550)* Brunhilda, queen of Austrasia (died 613)* Fredegund, queen of Neustria (died 597)* Glodesind, abbess in Metz (died c. 600)* Burgundofara, abbess of Moutiers (died 645)* Sadalberga, abbess of Laon (died 670)* Rictrude, founding abbess of Marchiennes (died 688)* Itta, founding abbess of Nivelles (died 652)* Begga, abbess of Andenne (died 693)* Gertrude of Nivelles, abbess of Nivelles (died 658) presented in ''The Life of St. Geretrude'' (in Fouracre and Gerberding 1996)* Aldegonde, abbess of Mauberges (died c. 684)* Waltrude, abbess of Mons (died c. 688)* Balthild, queen of the Franks (died ca 680), presented in ''The Life of Lady Bathild, Queen of the Franks'' (in Fouracre and Gerberding 1996)* Eustadiola (died 684)* Bertilla, abbess of Chelles (died c. 700)* Anstrude, abbess of Laon (died before 709)* Austreberta, abbess of Pavilly (died 703)"
],
[
"Language",
"Yitzhak Hen stated that it seems certain that the Gallo-Roman population was far greater than the Frankish population in Merovingian Gaul, especially in regions south of the Seine, with most of the Frankish settlements being located along the Lower and Middle Rhine.",
"The further south in Gaul one traveled, the weaker the Frankish influence became.",
"Hen finds hardly any evidence for Frankish settlements south of the Loire.",
"The absence of Frankish literature sources suggests that the Frankish language was forgotten rather rapidly after the early stage of the dynasty.",
"Hen believes that for Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitania, Vulgar Latin remained the spoken language in Gaul throughout the Merovingian period and remained so even well in to the Carolingian period.",
"However, Urban T. Holmes estimated that a Germanic language was spoken as a second tongue by public officials in western Austrasia and Neustria as late as the 850s, and that it completely disappeared as a spoken language from these regions only during the 10th century."
],
[
"Historiography and sources",
"A limited number of contemporary sources describe the history of the Merovingian Franks, but those that survive cover the entire period from Clovis's succession to Childeric's deposition.",
"First among chroniclers of the age is the canonised bishop of Tours, Gregory of Tours.",
"His is a primary source for the reigns of the sons of Clotaire II and their descendants until Gregory's own death in 594, but must be read with account of the pro-church point of view of its author.The next major source, far less organised than Gregory's work, is the ''Chronicle of Fredegar'', begun by Fredegar but continued by unknown authors.",
"It covers the period from 584 to 641, though its continuators, under Carolingian patronage, extended it to 768, after the close of the Merovingian era.",
"It is the only primary narrative source for much of its period.",
"The only other major contemporary source is the , an anonymous adaptation of Gregory's work apparently ignorant of Fredegar's chronicle: its author(s) ends with a reference to Theuderic IV's sixth year, which would be 727.It was widely read; though it was undoubtedly a piece of Arnulfing work, and its biases cause it to mislead (for instance, concerning the two decades between the controversies surrounding mayors Grimoald the Elder and Ebroin: 652–673).Aside from these chronicles, the only surviving reservoirs of historiography are documentary sources (letters, charters, laws, etc.)",
"and hagiography.",
"Clerical men such as Gregory and Sulpitius the Pious were letter-writers, though relatively few letters survive.",
"Edicts, grants, and judicial decisions survive, as well as the famous ''Lex Salica'', mentioned above.",
"From the reign of Clotaire II and Dagobert I survive many examples of the royal position as the supreme justice and final arbiter.",
"There also survive biographies of saints of the period, for instance Saint Eligius and Leodegar, written soon after their subjects' deaths.Finally, archaeological evidence cannot be ignored as a source for information, at the very least, on the Frankish mode of life.",
"Among the greatest discoveries of lost objects was the 1653 accidental uncovering of Childeric I's tomb in the church of Saint Brice in Tournai.",
"The grave objects included a golden bull's head and the famous golden insects (perhaps bees, cicadas, aphids, or flies) on which Napoleon modelled his coronation cloak.",
"In 1957, the sepulchre of a Merovingian woman at the time believed to be Clotaire I's second wife, Aregund, was discovered in Saint Denis Basilica in Paris.",
"The funerary clothing and jewellery were reasonably well-preserved, giving us a look into the costume of the time.",
"Beyond these royal individuals, the Merovingian period is associated with the archaeological Reihengräber culture."
],
[
"Family tree"
],
[
"In popular culture",
" The Merovingians play a prominent role in French historiography and national identity, although their importance was partly overshadowed by that of the Gauls during the Third Republic.",
"Charles de Gaulle is on record as stating his opinion that \"For me, the history of France begins with Clovis, elected as king of France by the tribe of the Franks, who gave their name to France.",
"Before Clovis, we have Gallo-Roman and Gaulish prehistory.",
"The decisive element, for me, is that Clovis was the first king to have been baptized a Christian.",
"My country is a Christian country and I reckon the history of France beginning with the accession of a Christian king who bore the name of the Franks\".The Merovingians feature in the novel ''In Search of Lost Time'' by Marcel Proust: \"The Merovingians are important to Proust because, as the oldest French dynasty, they are the most romantic and their descendants the most aristocratic.\"",
"The word \"Merovingian\" is used as an adjective at least five times in ''Swann's Way''.The Merovingians are featured in the book ''The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail'' (1982) where they are depicted as descendants of Jesus, inspired by the \"Priory of Sion\" story developed by Pierre Plantard in the 1960s.",
"Plantard playfully sold the story as non-fiction, giving rise to a number of works of pseudohistory among which ''The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail'' was the most successful.",
"The \"Priory of Sion\" material has given rise to later works in popular fiction, notably ''The Da Vinci Code'' (2003), which mentions the Merovingians in chapter 60.The title of \"Merovingian\" (also known as \"the Frenchman\") is used as the name for a fictional character and a supporting antagonist of the films ''The Matrix Reloaded'', ''The Matrix Revolutions'' and ''The Matrix Resurrections''."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Frankish kings* Merovingian art and architecture* Merovingian script"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Oxford Merovingian Page.",
"* Genealogy of the Merovingian dynasty at Genealogy.eu* Merovingian Archaeology at the Museum of the Dark Ages (France)."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"The Morrígan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The Morrígan as a crow'''The Morrígan''' or '''Mórrígan''', also known as '''Morrígu''', is a figure from Irish mythology.",
"The name is '''Mór-ríoghan''' in modern Irish before the spelling reform, and it has been translated as \"great queen\" or \"phantom queen\".The Morrígan is mainly associated with war and fate, especially with foretelling doom, death, or victory in battle.",
"In this role she often appears as a crow, the ''badb''.",
"She incites warriors to battle and can help bring about victory over their enemies.",
"The Morrígan encourages warriors to do brave deeds, strikes fear into their enemies, and is portrayed washing the bloodstained clothes of those fated to die.",
"She is most frequently seen as a goddess of battle and war and has also been seen as a manifestation of the earth- and sovereignty-goddess, chiefly representing the goddess's role as guardian of the territory and its people.The Morrígan is often described as a trio of individuals, all sisters, called \"the three Morrígna\".",
"In mythology membership of the triad is given as Badb, Macha, and the Morrigan, who may be named Anand.",
"It is believed that these were all names for the same goddess.",
"In modern sources Nemain may also be named as one of the three Morrigan along with Badb, Macha, although her inclusion is unclear.",
"The three Morrígna are also named as sisters of the three land goddesses Ériu, Banba, and Fódla.",
"The Morrígan is described as the envious wife of The Dagda and a shape-shifting goddess, while Badb and Nemain are said to be the wives of Neit.",
"She is associated with the banshee of later folklore."
],
[
"Etymology",
"There is some disagreement over the meaning of the Morrígan's name.",
"''Mor'' may derive from an Indo-European root connoting terror, monstrousness cognate with the Old English ''maere'' (which survives in the modern English word \"nightmare\") and the Scandinavian ''mara'' and the Old East Slavic \"mara\" (\"nightmare\"); while ''rígan'' translates as \"queen\".",
"This etymological sequence can be reconstructed in the Proto-Celtic language as *''Moro-rīganī-s''.",
"Accordingly, ''Morrígan'' is often translated as \"Phantom Queen\".",
"This is the derivation generally favoured in current scholarship.In the Middle Irish period, the name is often spelled ''Mórrígan'' with a lengthening diacritic over the ''o'', seemingly intended to mean \"Great Queen\" (Old Irish ''mór'', \"great\"; this would derive from a hypothetical Proto-Celtic *''Māra Rīganī-s'').",
"Whitley Stokes believed this latter spelling was due to a false etymology popular at the time.",
"There have also been attempts by modern writers to link the Morrígan with the Welsh literary figure Morgan le Fay from the Matter of Britain, in whose name ''mor'' may derive from Welsh word for \"sea\", but the names are derived from different cultures and branches of the Celtic linguistic tree."
],
[
"Sources",
"===Glosses and glossaries===The earliest sources for the Morrígan are glosses in Latin manuscripts and glossaries (collections of glosses).",
"The 8th century ''O'Mulconry's Glossary'' says that Macha is one of the three ''morrígna''.",
"In a 9th-century manuscript containing the Vulgate version of the Book of Isaiah, the word ''Lamia'' is used to translate the Hebrew ''Lilith''.",
"A gloss explains this ''night hag'' as \"a monster in female form, that is, a ''morrígan''.\"",
"''Cormac's Glossary'' (also 9th century), and a gloss in the later manuscript H.3.18, both explain the plural word ''gudemain'' (\"spectres\") with the plural form ''morrígna''.===Ulster Cycle===The Morrígan's earliest narrative appearances, in which she is depicted as an individual, are in stories of the Ulster Cycle, where she has an ambiguous relationship with the hero Cúchulainn.",
"In the ''Táin Bó Regamna'' (\"''The Cattle Raid of Regamain''\"), Cúchulainn encounters the Morrígan, but does not recognise her, as she drives a heifer from his territory.",
"In response to this perceived challenge, and his ignorance of her role as a sovereignty figure, he insults her.",
"But before he can attack her she becomes a black bird on a nearby branch.",
"Cúchulainn now knows who she is, and tells her that had he known before, they would not have parted in enmity.",
"She notes that whatever he had done would have brought him ill luck.",
"To his response that she cannot harm him, she delivers a series of warnings, foretelling a coming battle in which he will be killed.",
"She tells him, \"It is at the guarding of thy death that I am; and I shall be.",
"\"In the ''Táin Bó Cúailnge'' (\"''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''\"), Queen Medb of Connacht launches an invasion of Ulster to steal the bull Donn Cuailnge; the Morrígan, like Alecto of the Greek Furies, appears to the bull in the form of a crow and warns him to flee.",
"Cúchulainn defends Ulster by fighting a series of single combats at fords against Medb's champions.",
"In between combats, the Morrígan appears to him as a young woman and offers him her love and her aid in the battle, but he rejects her offer.",
"In response, she intervenes in his next combat, first in the form of an eel who trips him, then as a wolf who stampedes cattle across the ford, and finally as a white, red-eared heifer leading the stampede, just as she had warned in their previous encounter.",
"However, Cúchulainn wounds her in each form and defeats his opponent despite her interference.",
"Later, she appears to him as an old woman bearing the same three wounds that her animal forms had sustained, milking a cow.",
"She gives Cúchulainn three drinks of milk.",
"He blesses her with each drink, and her wounds are healed.",
"He regrets blessing her for the three drinks of milk, which is apparent in the exchange between the Morrígan and Cúchulainn: \"She gave him milk from the third teat, and her leg was healed.",
"'You told me once,' she said,'that you would never heal me.'",
"'Had I known it was you,' said Cúchulainn, 'I never would have.'\"",
"As the armies gather for the final battle, she prophesies the bloodshed to come.In one version of Cúchulainn's death-tale, as Cúchulainn rides to meet his enemies, he encounters the Morrígan as a hag washing his bloody armour in a ford, an omen of his death.",
"Later in the story, mortally wounded, Cúchulainn ties himself to a standing stone with his own entrails so he can die upright, and it is only when a crow lands on his shoulder that his enemies believe he is dead.===Mythological Cycle===The Morrígan also appears in texts of the Mythological Cycle.",
"In 12th-century pseudohistorical compilation the ''Lebor Gabála Érenn'' (\"''The Book of the Taking of Ireland''\"), she is listed among the Tuatha Dé Danann as one of the daughters of Ernmas, granddaughter of Nuada.The first three daughters of Ernmas are given as Ériu, Banba, and Fódla.",
"Their names are synonyms for \"Ireland\", and they were respectively married to Mac Gréine, Mac Cuill, and Mac Cécht, the last three Tuatha Dé Danann kings of Ireland.",
"Associated with the land and kingship, they probably represent a triple goddess of sovereignty.",
"Next come Ernmas' other three daughters: Badb, Macha, and the Morrígan.",
"A quatrain describes the three as wealthy, \"springs of craftiness\", and \"sources of bitter fighting\".",
"The Morrígu's name is also said to be Anand.",
"According to Geoffrey Keating's 17th-century ''History of Ireland'', Ériu, Banba, and Fódla worshipped Badb, Macha, and the Morrígan respectively.The Morrígan also appears in the ''Cath Maige Tuired'' (\"''The Battle of Magh Tuireadh''\").",
"On Samhain, she keeps a tryst with the Dagda before the battle against the Fomorians.",
"When he meets her, she is washing herself, standing with one foot on either side of the river Unius, near Riverstown, Co. Sligo.",
"In some sources, she is believed to have created the river.",
"After they have sex, the Morrígan promises to summon the magicians of Ireland to cast spells on behalf of the Tuatha Dé, and to destroy Indech, the Fomorian king, taking from him \"the blood of his heart and the kidneys of his valour.\"",
"Later, we are told, she would bring two handfuls of his blood and deposit them in the same river (however, we are also told later in the text that Indech was killed by Ogma).As battle is about to be joined, the Tuatha Dé leader, Lug, asks each what power they bring to the battle.",
"The Morrígan's reply is difficult to interpret, but involves pursuing, destroying and subduing.",
"When she comes to the battlefield, she chants a poem, and immediately the battle breaks and the Fomorians are driven into the sea.",
"After the battle, she chants another poem celebrating the victory and prophesying the end of the world.In another story, she lures away the bull of a woman named Odras.",
"Odras then follows the Morrígan to the Otherworld, via the cave of Cruachan, which is said to be her \"fit abode.\"",
"When Odras falls asleep, the Morrígan turns her into a pool of water that feeds into the River Shannon.",
"In this story, the Morrigan is called the Dagda's envious queen, fierce of mood.",
"She is also called a \"shape-shifter\" and a cunning raven caller whose pleasure was in mustered hosts."
],
[
"Nature and role",
"The Morrígan is often considered a triple goddess, but this triple nature is ambiguous and inconsistent.",
"These triple appearances are partially due to the Celtic significance of threeness.",
"Sometimes she appears as one of three sisters, the daughters of Ernmas: Morrígan, Badb and Macha.",
"Sometimes the trinity consists of Badb, Macha and Anand, collectively known as the ''Morrígna''.",
"Occasionally, Nemain or Fea appear in the various combinations.",
"However, the Morrígan can also appear alone, and her name is sometimes used interchangeably with Badb.The Morrígan is mainly associated with war and fate, and is often interpreted as a \"war goddess\".",
"W. M. Hennessy's ''The Ancient Irish Goddess of War'', written in 1870, was influential in establishing this interpretation.",
"She is said to derive pleasure from mustered hosts.",
"Her role often involves premonitions of a particular warrior's violent death, suggesting a link with the banshee of later folklore.",
"This connection is further noted by Patricia Lysaght: \"In certain areas of Ireland this supernatural being is, in addition to the name banshee, also called the ''badhb''\".",
"Her role was to not only be a symbol of imminent death, but to also influence the outcome of war.",
"Most often, she did this by appearing as a crow flying overhead, and would either inspire fear or courage in the hearts of the warriors.",
"In some cases, she is written to have appeared in visions to those who are destined to die in battle as washing their bloody armor.",
"In this specific role, she is also given the role of foretelling imminent death with a particular emphasis on the individual.",
"There are also a few rare accounts where she would join in the battle itself as a warrior and show her favouritism in a more direct manner.The Morrígan is also associated with the land and animals, particularly livestock.",
"Máire Herbert argues that \"war ''per se'' is not a primary aspect of the role of the goddess.\"",
"Herbert suggests that \"her activities have a tutelary character.",
"She oversees the land, its stock and its society.",
"Her shape-shifting is an expression of her affinity with the whole living universe.\"",
"Patricia Lysaght notes that the ''Cath Maige Tuired'' depicts the Morrígan as \"a protectress of her people's interests\" and associates her with both war and fertility.",
"According to Proinsias Mac Cana, the goddess in Ireland is \"primarily concerned with the prosperity of the land: its fertility, its animal life, and (when it is conceived as a political unit) its security against external forces.\"",
"Likewise, Maria Tymoczko writes, \"The welfare and fertility of a people depend on their security against external aggression,\" and notes that \"warlike action can thus have a protective aspect.\"",
"It is therefore suggested that the Morrígan is a manifestation of the earth- and sovereignty-goddess, chiefly representing the goddess' role as guardian of the territory and its people.",
"She can be interpreted as providing political or military aid, or protection to the king—acting as a goddess of sovereignty, not necessarily of war.It has also been suggested that she was closely linked to the ''fianna'', and that these groups may have been in some way dedicated to her.",
"These were \"bands of youthful warrior-hunters, living on the borders of civilized society and indulging in lawless activities for a time before inheriting property and taking their places as members of settled, landed communities.\"",
"If true, her worship may have resembled that of Perchta groups in Germanic areas.There is a burnt mound site in County Tipperary known as ''Fulacht na Mór Ríoghna'' (\"cooking pit of the Mórrígan\").",
"The fulachtaí sites are found in wild areas, and are usually associated with outsiders such as the fianna, as well as with the hunting of deer.",
"There may be a link with the three mythical hags who cook the meal of dogflesh that brings the hero Cúchulainn to his doom.",
"The ''Dá Chích na Morrígna'' (\"two breasts of the Mórrígan\"), a pair of hills near Brú na Bóinne in County Meath, suggest to some a role as a tutelary goddess, comparable to Anu, who has her own hills, ''Dá Chích Anann'' (\"the breasts of Anu\") in County Kerry.",
"Other goddesses known to have similar hills are Áine and Grian of County Limerick who, in addition to a tutelary function, also have solar attributes."
],
[
"Arthurian legend",
"There have been attempts by some modern researchers and authors of fiction to link the Morrígan with the character of Morgan, the latter often being depicted in the legend as a fairy or otherwise supernatural sister of King Arthur.",
"Morgan first appears in literature in Geoffrey of Monmouth's 12th-century ''Vita Merlini'' as a goddess-like figure in no blood relation to Arthur, whom she takes to her Otherworld style land of Avalon following his mortal wound in a battle.",
"In some Arthurian texts, such as ''Sir Gawain and the Green Knight'', Morgan is portrayed as a hag whose actions set into motion a bloody trail of events that lead the hero into numerous instances of danger.",
"Morgan is also depicted as a seductress, much like the older legends of the Morrígan, and has numerous lovers whom she might even abduct for this purpose (as in some stories of Lancelot and Ogier the Dane, among others).",
"The character is frequently depicted as wielding power over others to achieve her own purposes, allowing those actions to play out over time, to the benefit or detriment of other characters.However, while the creators of the literary character of Morgan may have been somewhat inspired by the much older tales of the goddess, the relationship likely ends there.",
"Scholars such as Rosalind Clark hold that the names are unrelated, the Welsh \"Morgan\" (Wales being the original source of the Matter of Britain) being derived from root words associated with the sea, while the Irish \"Morrígan\" has its roots either in a word for \"terror\" or a word for \"greatness\"."
],
[
"See also",
"* Bean nighe* Clíodhna* Mongfind* Scáthach* Baba Yaga"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* War Goddess: the Morrígan and her Germano-Celtic Counterparts thesis by Angelique Gulermovich Epstein (ZIP format)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Marquette, Michigan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Marquette''' ( ) is the county seat of Marquette County and the largest city in the Upper Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan.",
"Located on the shores of Lake Superior, Marquette is a major port, known primarily for shipping iron ore from the Marquette Iron Range.",
"The city is partially surrounded by Marquette Township, but the two are administered autonomously.",
"Marquette is named after Jacques Marquette, a French Jesuit missionary who had explored the Great Lakes region.",
"Marquette had a population of 20,629 at the 2020 census, making it the largest city in Michigan north of the Tri-Cities.",
"Marquette is also the third-largest American city on Lake Superior, behind Duluth, Minnesota, and Superior, Wisconsin.",
"Marquette's urban area extends south toward the community of Harvey, and west toward Negaunee and Ishpeming, at the base of the Huron Mountains.",
"Marquette is the home of Northern Michigan University (NMU), a four-year public university.",
"NMU's athletic teams are nicknamed the Wildcats, and compete primarily in the NCAA Division II Great Lakes Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (GLIAC).",
"The men's ice hockey team, which competes in the NCAA Division I Central Collegiate Hockey Association (CCHA), won the Division I national championship in 1991."
],
[
"History",
"Statue of Jacques Marquette in MarquetteMarquette Harbor Light StationThe land around Marquette was known to French missionaries of the early 17th century and the trappers of the early 19th century.",
"The area was originally inhabited by the Anishinaabe Council of Three Fires, who referred to the area as Gichi-namebini Ziibing.",
"Development of the area did not begin until 1844, when William Burt and Jacob Houghton (the brother of geologist Douglass Houghton) discovered iron deposits near Teal Lake west of Marquette.",
"In 1845, Jackson Mining Company, the first organized mining company in the region, was formed.The village of Marquette began on September 14, 1849, with the formation of a second iron concern, the Marquette Iron Company.",
"Three men participated in organizing the firm: Robert J. Graveraet, who had prospected the region for ore; Edward Clark, agent for Waterman A. Fisher of Worcester, Massachusetts, who financed the company, and Amos Rogers Harlow.",
"The village was at first called '''New Worcester''', with Harlow as the first postmaster.",
"On August 21, 1850, the name was changed to honor Jacques Marquette, the French Jesuit missionary who had explored the region.",
"A second post office, named Carp River, was opened on October 13, 1851, by Peter White, who had gone there with Graveraet at age 18.Harlow closed his post office in August 1852.The Marquette Iron Company failed, while its successor, the Cleveland Iron Mining Company, flourished and had the village platted in 1854.The plat was recorded by Peter White.",
"White's office was renamed as Marquette in April 1856, and the village was incorporated in 1859.It was incorporated as a city in 1871.During the 1850s, Marquette was linked by rail to numerous mines and became the leading shipping center of the Upper Peninsula.",
"The first ore pocket dock, designed by an early town leader, John Burt, was built by the Cleveland Iron Mining Company in 1859.By 1862, the city had a population of over 1,600 and a soaring economy.In the late 19th century, during the height of iron mining, Marquette became nationally known as a summer haven.",
"Visitors brought in by Great Lakes passenger steamships filled the city's hotels and resorts.South of the city, K. I. Sawyer Air Force Base was an important Air Force installation during the Cold War, host to B-52H bombers and KC-135 tankers of the Strategic Air Command, as well as a fighter interceptor squadron.",
"The base closed in September 1995, and is now the county's Sawyer International Airport.Marquette continues to be a shipping port for hematite ores and, today, enriched iron ore pellets, from nearby mines and pelletizing plants.",
"About 7.9 million gross tons of pelletized iron ore passed through Marquette's Presque Isle Harbor in 2005.The Roman Catholic Bishop Frederic Baraga is buried at St. Peter Cathedral, which is the center for the Diocese of Marquette.Lakeview Arena, an ice hockey rink in Marquette, won the Kraft Hockeyville USA contest on April 30, 2016.The arena received $150,000 in upgrades, and hosted the Buffalo Sabres and Carolina Hurricanes on October 4, 2016, in a preseason NHL contest.",
"Buffalo won the game 2–0.===Postal and philatelic history===In addition to the Marquette #1 Post Office, there is the \"Northern Michigan University Bookstore Contract Station #384\".The first day of issue of a postal card showing Bishop Frederic Baraga took place in Marquette on June 29, 1984, and that of the Wonders of America Lake Superior stamp on May 27, 2006."
],
[
"Geography and climate",
"===Geography===According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.The city includes several small islands (principally Middle Island, Gull Island, Lover's Island, Presque Isle Pt.",
"Rocks, White Rocks, Ripley Rock, and Picnic Rocks) in Lake Superior.",
"The Marquette Underwater Preserve lies immediately offshore.Marquette Mountain, used for skiing in the winter and lift-serviced downhill mountain biking in the summer, is located in the city, as is most of the land of Marquette Branch Prison of the Michigan Department of Corrections.",
"The town of Trowbridge Park (under Marquette Township), is located to the west, Sands Township to the south, and Marquette Township to the northwest of the city.===Climate===The climate is a hemiboreal humid continental (Köppen: ''Dfb'') with four distinct seasons that are strongly moderated by Lake Superior and is located in Plant Hardiness zone 5b.",
"Narrative below is based on chart below, reflecting 1991-2020 climate normals.",
"Winters are long and cold with a January average of .",
"Winter temperatures are slightly warmer than inland locations at a similar latitude due to the release of the heat stored by the lake, which moderates the climate.",
"On average, there are 11.6 days annually where the minimum temperature reaches and 73 days with a maximum at or below freezing, including a majority of days during meteorological winter (December thru February).Being located in the snowbelt region, Marquette receives a significant amount of snowfall during the winter months, mostly from lake-effect snow.",
"Because Lake Superior rarely freezes over completely, this enables lake effect snow to persist throughout winter, making Marquette the third snowiest location in the contiguous United States as reported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration with an average annual snowfall of .",
"The snow depth in winter usually exceeds .",
"Marquette is the city with the deepest snow depths with a population of more than 20,000 in the US (and one of the largest in North America outside the western Cordillera or eastern Canada), as temperatures remain low throughout the winter and cold, dry air is intercepted by the Great Lakes.The warmest months, July and August, each average , showing somewhat of a seasonal lag, with August averaging slightly warmer than July.",
"The surrounding lake cools summertime temperatures and as a result, temperatures above are rare, with only 3.4 days per year.",
"Spring and fall are transitional seasons that are generally mild though highly variable due to the alternation of air masses moving quickly.",
"Spring is usually cooler than fall because the surrounding lake is slower to warm than the land, while in fall the lake releases heat, warming the area.Marquette receives of precipitation per year, which is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, though September and October are the wettest months with February and March being the driest.",
"The average window for morning freezes is October 15 thru May 7.The highest temperature ever recorded in Marquette was on July 15, 1901, and the lowest was on February 8, 1861.Marquette receives an average of 2,294 hours of sunshine per year or 51 percent of possible sunshine, ranging from a low of 29 percent in December to a high of 68 percent in July.The City of Marquette has received national attention for its measures to adapt to climate change, such as coastline restoration and moving portions of Lakeshore Boulevard which are flooded by Lake Superior 100 yards inland.",
"Property owners are required to maintain “riparian buffers” of native plants along waterways.",
"A county task force has created a guidebook in cooperation with the University of Michigan for landscaping which can reduce the habitat for disease-bearing ticks.",
"A federally funded stormwater drain project will route runoff which flows into Lake Superior into restored wetlands.",
"At the time of a 2014 NOAA climate study, climate change was expected to lead to rising temperatures, a longer growing season, and greater precipitation in Marquette."
],
[
"Demographics",
"=== 2020 census ===As of the 2020 census, there were 20,629 people, 8,163 households, and 3,651 families residing in the city.",
"The population density was .",
"The racial makeup of the city was 90.5% White, 3.6% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.4% Asian, 0.7% from other races, and 4.7% from two or more races.",
"Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.5% of the population.There were 8,163 households, of which 16% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 55.3% were non-families.",
"36.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.",
"The average household size was 2.17 and the average family size was 2.7.The median age of the city was 40.2 years.",
"11.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 30.2% were between 18 and 24; 22.8% were from 25 to 44; 19.9% were from 45 to 64; and 15.8% were 65 years of age or older.",
"The gender makeup of the city was 50.7% male and 49.3% female.===2010 census===As of the census of 2010, there were 21,355 people, 8,321 households, and 3,788 families residing in the city.",
"The population density was .",
"There were 8,756 housing units at an average density of .",
"The racial makeup of the city was 91.1% White, 4.4% African American, 1.5% Native American, 0.9% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races.",
"Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.4% of the population.There were 8,321 households, of which 18.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 33.3% were married couples living together, 9.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 54.5% were non-families.",
"38.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.",
"The average household size was 2.05 and the average family size was 2.71.The median age in the city was 29.1 years.",
"12.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 30.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.3% were from 25 to 44; 21.9% were from 45 to 64; and 13% were 65 years of age or older.",
"The gender makeup of the city was 51.8% male and 48.2% female.===2000 census===At the 2000 census, there were 19,661 people, 8,071 households and 4,067 families residing in the city.",
"The population density was .",
"There were 8,429 housing units at an average density of .",
"The racial makeup of the city was 95% White, 0.8% African American, 1.7% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 0% Pacific Islander, 0.22% from other races, and 1.33% from two or more races.",
"Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.77% of the population.",
"15.5% were of German, 12.6% Finnish, 8.9% French, 8.5% English, 8.2% Irish, 6.8% Italian and 6.7% Swedish ancestry according to Census 2000.There were 8,071 households, of which 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.2% were married couples living together, 10.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 49.6% were non-families.",
"37.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.",
"The average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.81.Age distribution was 16.8% under the age of 18, 25.9% from 18 to 24, 23.8% from 25 to 44, 19.7% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% who were 65 years of age or older.",
"The median age was 31 years.",
"For every 100 females, there were 94.4 males.",
"For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.4 males.The median household income was $29,918, and the median family income was $48,120.Males had a median income of $34,107 versus $24,549 for females.",
"The per capita income for the city was $17,787.About 7.2% of families and 17.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.3% of those under age 18 and 5.1% of those age 65 or over.US Post Office and Federal Building on Washington Street."
],
[
"Business",
"Along with Northern Michigan University, the largest employers in Marquette are the Marquette Area Public Schools, UP Health System-Marquette (a regional medical center that is the only Level 2 Trauma center in the Upper Peninsula), Marquette Branch Prison, RTI Surgical, Charter Communications, and Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan.Marquette is known for its breweries, including Ore Dock Brewing Company and Blackrocks Brewery.",
"Five breweries were extant in the city ().Marquette's port was the 140th largest in the United States in 2015, ranked by tonnage."
],
[
"Recreation and tourism",
"===Recreational facilities===Lake Superior shoreline at Presque Isle Park in JulyPresque Isle Park is located on the north side of the city.",
"The largely untouched, forested landscape of the park was the result of a 1891 visit from landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, who refused to develop a plan for it due to his belief that it \"should not be marred by the intrusion of artificial objects.\"",
"Amenities include a wooden band shell for concerts, a park pavilion, a gazebo, a marina, a concession stand, picnic tables, barbecue pits, walking/skiing trails, playground facilities, and Moosewood Nature Center.",
"The city has two beaches, South Beach Park and McCarty's Cove.",
"McCarty's Cove is flanked by a red U.S. Coast Guard Station lighthouse on its south shore.",
"Both beaches have picnic areas, grills, children's playgrounds and lifeguard stands.",
"Other parks include Tourist Park, Founder's Landing, LaBonte Park, Mattson Lower Harbor Park, Park Cemetery, Shiras Park, Williams Park, Harlow Park, Pocket Park, Spring Street Park and Father Marquette Park.Superior Dome, the world's largest wooden dome, serves as the home stadium of the Northern Michigan Wildcats football team.There are also numerous other recreational facilities located within the city.",
"Lakeview Arena is best known for its use as an ice hockey facility, but it also hosts a number of public events.",
"A skateboard park is located just outside the arena and open during the summer.",
"Lakeview Arena was home to the Marquette Electricians and Marquette Senior High School's Redmen hockey team.",
"In 1974, the arena replaced the historic Palestra, which had been located a few blocks away.",
"Gerard Haley Memorial Baseball field home of the Marquette Blues and Reds is located in the north side along with numerous little league and softball fields.",
"Marquette is home to the largest wooden dome in the world, the Superior Dome—unofficially but affectionately known as the YooperDome.",
"During the football season, the Dome is used primarily for football on its newly renovated AstroTurf field.",
"The turf was installed in July 2009.Northern Michigan University holds its home football games in the Dome, as does the Michigan High School Athletic Association with the upper peninsula's High School football playoffs.",
"The dome also hosts numerous private and public events that draw in thousands from around the region.",
"The Marquette Golf Club has brought international recognition to the area for its unique and dramatic Greywalls course, opened in 2005.The course features several panoramic views of Lake Superior and winds its way through rocky outcroppings, heaving fairways and a rolling valley, yet is located less than from the downtown area.The city is also known for fishing for deep water lake trout, whitefish, salmon and brown trout.Marquette has an extensive network of biking and walking paths.",
"The city has been gradually expanding the paths and has been promoting itself as a walkable and livable community.",
"Cross Country ski trails are also located at Presque Isle Park and the Fit Strip.Camping facilities are located at Tourist Park.The combination of hilly terrain (a vertical difference from top to bottom) and large area snow falls makes snowboarding and downhill skiing a reality on the edge of town.===Museums, galleries, and lighthouses===* The Marquette Maritime Museum, including the Marquette Harbor Light;* The Upper Peninsula Children's Museum, Baraga Avenue.",
"* The Marquette County History Museum.",
"* The DeVos Art Museum, Northern Michigan University.",
"* The Oasis Gallery for Contemporary Art.===Festivals and events===* Art on the Rocks—art festival at Ellwood Mattson Lower Harbor Park* Hiawatha Music Festival Traditional music festival at Tourist Park* Marquette's July 4 Celebration* Marquette's Blueberry Festival * Superior Bike Fest* UP 200 Dog Sled Race* Noquemanon Ski Marathon* Marquette Area Blues Fest* Marquette Scandinavian Midsummer Festival and Wife-Carrying Contest* U.P.",
"Fall Beer Festival-hosted by Michigan Brewers Guild * Ore to Shore* Marquette Marathon* OutBack Art FairLive theatrical productions are also provided through Northern Michigan University's Forest Roberts Theatre and Black Box Theatre, Marquette's Graveraet School Kaufman Auditorium and Lake Superior Theatre, a semi-professional summer stock theatre."
],
[
"Transportation",
"ore pocket dock, was built in 1912.Trains drop ore into the dock.",
"Then chutes on the side of the dock lower to spill the ore into ships.",
"Shown docked in the photo are the MV ''Lee A. Tregurtha'' (near) and the MV ''Kaye E. Barker'' (far).Marquette is served by American Eagle and Delta Connection out of Sawyer International Airport (MQT, KSAW) with daily flights to Chicago and Detroit.",
"The airport is located south of downtown Marquette.The city is served by a public transit system known as MarqTran, which runs buses through the city and to nearby places such as Sawyer International Airport and Ishpeming.",
"The system operates out of a transit center in the adjacent Marquette Township in addition to a small transfer station in downtown.",
"In addition, Indian Trails bus lines operates daily intercity bus service between Hancock and Milwaukee, Wisconsin.",
"The line operates a stop at MarqTran's transit center.Marquette has limited freight rail service by the Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railroad (LS&I).",
"The Canadian National Railway also goes through nearby Negaunee.",
"The LS&I serves the Upper Harbor Ore Dock, which loads iron ore pellets from nearby mining operations onto lake freighters for shipment throughout the Great Lakes.Three of MDOT's state highways serve Marquette as did a former business route for US 41 and a former state highway.",
"* are two highways continuing westerly and northerly toward Houghton and Wakefield and southerly toward Escanaba and Sault Ste.",
"Marie.",
"* previously ran through downtown Marquette before the streets carrying it were turned back to city control in 2005.",
"* is a highway providing a connection to Sawyer International Airport and Gwinn.",
"* previously ran along a section of Division Street on the south side of the city before it was turned over to city control in 2005Bishop Baraga House"
],
[
"Education",
"===Public schools===The City of Marquette is served by the Marquette Area Public Schools.",
"The district is the largest school district in the Upper Peninsula and Northern Wisconsin, with about 3,100 students and 420 faculty and Staff.",
"* Marquette Senior High School, grades 9-12 (Marquette Area Public Schools)* Marquette Alternative High School at Vandenboom (Marquette Area Public Schools)* Bothwell Middle School, grades 6-8 (Marquette Area Public Schools)* Cherry Creek Elementary (Marquette Area Public Schools)* Graveraet Elementary (Marquette Area Public Schools)* Sandy Knoll Elementary School (Marquette Area Public Schools)* Superior Hills Elementary School (Marquette Area Public Schools)* North Star Academy (public charter Montessori K-12)===Private schools===* Father Marquette Elementary School* Father Marquette Middle School===Universities===* Marquette is home to Northern Michigan University, the Upper Peninsula's largest university at just under 10,000 students.===Public libraries===* Peter White Public LibraryPresque Isle Power Plant, a coal-fired power station that was fully decommissioned in 2019."
],
[
"Media",
"Multiple media outlets provide local coverage of the Marquette area.",
"* Newspaper: ''The Mining Journal'', ''The North Wind'', and ''Marquette Monthly''* Television: WLUC-TV/WLUC-DT2 (NBC and Fox), WBUP-TV/WBKP (ABC), WNMU-TV (PBS), WJMN-TV (MyNetworkTV), WZMQ (CBS and MeTV)* Radio: WNMU-FM, WHWL-FM, WUPK-FM, WFXD-FM, WUPT-FM, WUPX, WJPD-FM, WUPZ-FM, WKPK-FM, WUPG-FM, WGLQ-FM, WRUP-FM, WNGE-FM, WKQS-FM, WCMM-FM, WMQT-FM, WDMJ-AM, WZAM-AM"
],
[
"Notable people",
"* Stephen Adamini, politician* Mike Bordick, baseball player* Edward Breitung, mines owner, mayor, State and US Congressman* Leonard Brumm, college hockey coach* Alfred Burt, composer of Christmas carols* Kyle Carr, speed skater* Curtis L. Carter, academic and founder of the Patrick and Beatrice Haggerty Museum of Art* Tony Chebatoris, the only person executed in Michigan since 1846* Sallie W. Chisholm, oceanographer* Robert William Davis, politician* Shani Davis, speed skater* Susan Diol, actress* Dallas Drake, NHL player* Nita Engle, artist* Robert Erickson, composer* Joe Fine, mayor of Marquette 1964–1965 and prominent businessman* Justin Florek, NHL player* Vernon Forrest, boxer* James Henry Garland, Catholic bishop* John Gilmore, NFL tight end* Patricia Hogan, professor* John Henry Jacobs, former mayor* Louis Graveraet Kaufman, banker* Alfred V. Kidder, archaeologist* Reynolds R. Kinkade, justice of the Ohio Supreme Court* John Kivela, former mayor* Joseph Kondro, murderer and suspected serial killer* John Munro Longyear, former mayor and land developer* Mary Beecher Longyear, philanthropist* John Lautner, architect* Francis Joseph Magner, Catholic bishop* John D. Mangum, politician* Aghasi Manukyan, wrestler* Helen Maroulis, wrestler* Beverly Matherne, writer* C. V. Money, coach* Jon Morosi, sportswriter and reporter* Ignatius Mrak, bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Marquette* William J. Olcott, mining executive and college football player* Weldon Olson, hockey player* David Palumbo, illustrator* Jimmy Peters, Sr., NHL hockey player* Hjalmar Peterson, musician and comedian* Joseph G. Pinten, Catholic bishop* Jeremy Porter, rock musician* Robert Roosa, economist* Chris Rothfuss, Wyoming politician* Ralph Royce, USAF general* Mark Francis Schmitt, Catholic bishop* Bernard F. Sliger, former president, Florida State University* Sycamore Smith, folk musician* Matthew Songer, surgeon* Frederic Dorr Steele, illustrator* Mary Stein, actress* Wendel Suckow, luger* Jane Summersett, ice dancer* Alfred P. Swineford, former mayor and newspaper editor* John Vertin, Catholic bishop* Peter White, businessman"
],
[
"In popular culture",
"The Marquette County Courthouse was used for the courtroom scenes in the film ''Anatomy of a Murder''.",
"* John D. Voelker (who wrote as Robert Traver) set his novels ''Anatomy of a Murder'' (1958) and ''Laughing Whitefish'' (1965) in Marquette.",
"The film version of ''Anatomy of a Murder'', dramatizing a 1952 murder that happened in the area and the subsequent trial, was partly filmed in Marquette and Big Bay.",
"Much of it was filmed in the Marquette County Courthouse in Marquette, where the actual murder case had been tried.",
"Traver's ''Danny and the Boys'' (1951) is a collection of short stories set in and around Marquette.",
"* Philip Caputo set his novel ''Indian Country'' (1987) in the Upper Peninsula and several scenes depict Marquette.",
"* Jim Harrison's novel ''True North'' (2005) tells about a Marquette family whose wealth is based on exploiting Upper Peninsula timber.",
"* A large portion of the graphic novel ''Blankets'', by Craig Thompson, takes place in Marquette.",
"* The Adult Swim television series ''Joe Pera Talks with You'' was partially filmed at and takes place in and around the city."
],
[
"Sister cities",
"Marquette has two sister cities.",
"* '''Higashiōmi''' (Japan) ''since 1979''* '''Kajaani''' (Finland) ''1997''"
],
[
"See also",
"* Arch and Ridge Streets Historic District* Big Bay Point Light* List of shipwrecks of the 1913 Great Lakes storm"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"***"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mary (programming language)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Mary''' is a programming language designed and implemented by RUNIT at Trondheim, Norway in the 1970s.",
"It borrowed many features from ALGOL 68 but was designed for systems programming (machine-oriented programming).An unusual feature of its syntax was that expressions were constructed using the conventional infix operators, but all of them had the same precedence and evaluation went from left to right unless there were brackets.",
"Assignment had the destination on the right and assignment was considered just another operator.Similar to C, several language features appear to have existed to allow producing reasonably well optimised code, despite a quite primitive code generator in the compiler.",
"These included operators similar to the += ''et alter'' in C and explicit register declarations for variables.Notable features:* Dataflow syntax – values flow from left to right, including assignment* Most constructs could be used in expressions: blocks, IF, CASE, etc.",
"* Text-based recursive macros* Overloaded user-defined operators, not constrained to predefined identifiers as in C++* Automatic building and dereferencing of pointers from type context* Scalar range types* Array and set enumeration in loop iterators* Dynamic array descriptors (ROW)A book describing Mary was printed in 1974 (Fourth and last edition in 1979): ''Mary Textbook'' by Reidar Conradi & Per Holager.Compilers were made for Kongsberg Våpenfabrikk's SM-4 and Norsk Data Nord-10/ND-100 mini-computers.",
"The original Mary compiler was written in NU ALGOL, ran on the Univac-1100 series and was used to bootstrap a native compiler for ND-100/Sintran-III.",
"RUNIT implemented a CHILL compiler written in Mary which ran on ND-100 and had Intel 8086 and 80286 targets.",
"When this compiler was ported to the VAX platform, a common backend for Mary and CHILL was implemented.",
"Later, backends for i386 and SPARC were available.",
"Since the Mary compiler was implemented in Mary, it was possible to run the compiler on all these platforms.Mary is no longer maintained."
],
[
"Example",
" BEGIN INT i := 10; %% Variable with initial value.",
"REF INT ri := i; %% Pointer initialized to point to i. INT j := 11; j :- REF INT =: ri; %% Type conversion and assignment %% ri now points to j. i =: (ri :- VAL REF INT); %% Assignment and type conversion %% ri points to j so j is changed.",
"IF j > 10 %% Conditional statement with result THEN %% used inside an arithmetic expression.",
"1 ELSE 2 FI + j =: j; END"
],
[
"See also",
"* ALGOL 68"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mountaineering"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Mountain climbers ascending Mount Rainier looking at Little Tahoma PeakA climber taking the final few steps to the summit of Imja Tse (Island Peak) in Nepal, 2004'''Mountaineering''', '''mountain climbing''', or '''alpinism''' is a set of outdoor activities that involves ascending mountains.",
"Mountaineering-related activities include traditional outdoor climbing, skiing, and traversing via ferratas that have become sports in their own right.",
"Indoor climbing, sport climbing, and bouldering are also considered variants of mountaineering by some, but are part of a wide group of mountain sports.Unlike most sports, mountaineering lacks widely applied formal rules, regulations, and governance; mountaineers adhere to a large variety of techniques and philosophies (including grading and guidebooks) when climbing mountains.",
"Numerous local alpine clubs support mountaineers by hosting resources and social activities.",
"A federation of alpine clubs, the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA), is the International Olympic Committee-recognized world organization for mountaineering and climbing.",
"The consequences of mountaineering on the natural environment can be seen in terms of individual components of the environment (land relief, soil, vegetation, fauna, and landscape) and the location/zone of mountaineering activity (hiking, trekking, or climbing zone).",
"Mountaineering impacts communities on economic, political, social and cultural levels, often leading to changes in people's worldviews influenced by globalization, specifically foreign cultures and lifestyles."
],
[
"History",
"===Early mountaineering===Humans have been present in mountains since prehistory.",
"The remains of Ötzi, who lived in the 4th millennium BC, were found in a glacier in the Ötztal Alps.",
"However, the highest mountains were rarely visited early on, and were often associated with supernatural or religious concepts.",
"Nonetheless, there are many documented examples of people climbing mountains prior to the formal development of the sport in the 19th century, although many of these stories are sometimes considered fictional or legendary.The famous poet Petrarch describes his 26 April 1336 ascent of Mount Ventoux () in one of his ''epistolae familiares'', claiming to be inspired by Philip V of Macedon's ascent of Mount Haemo.For most of antiquity, climbing mountains was a practical or symbolic activity, usually undertaken for economic, political, or religious purposes.",
"A commonly cited example is the 1492 ascent of Mont Aiguille () by Antoine de Ville, a French military officer and lord of Domjulien and Beaupré.",
"Because ropes, ladders and iron hooks were used, and because it was the first climb of any technical difficulty to be officially verified, this ascent is widely recognized as being the birth of mountaineering.Conrad Gessner, a mid-16th Century physician, botanist and naturalist from Switzerland, is widely recognized as being the first person to hike and climb for sheer pleasure.In the Andes, around the late 1400s and early 1500s many ascents were made of extremely high peaks by the Incas and their subjects.",
"The highest they are known for certain to have climbed is 6739 m at the summit of Volcan Llullaillaco.===The Enlightenment and the Golden Age of Alpinism===Edward Whymper (1840–1911), painting by Lance CalkinThe Age of Enlightenment and the Romantic era marked a change of attitudes towards high mountains.",
"In 1757 Swiss scientist Horace-Bénédict de Saussure made the first of several unsuccessful attempts on Mont Blanc in France.",
"He then offered a reward to anyone who could climb the mountain, which was claimed in 1786 by Jacques Balmat and Michel-Gabriel Paccard.",
"The climb is usually considered an epochal event in the history of mountaineering, a symbolic mark of the birth of the sport.By the early 19th century, many of the alpine peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813.In 1808, Marie Paradis became the first woman to climb Mont Blanc, followed in 1838 by Henriette d'Angeville.The beginning of mountaineering as a sport in the UK is generally dated to the ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854 by English mountaineer Sir Alfred Wills, who made mountaineering fashionable in Britain.",
"This inaugurated what became known as the Golden Age of Alpinism, with the first mountaineering club – the Alpine Club – being founded in 1857.One of the most dramatic events was the spectacular first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 by a party led by English illustrator Edward Whymper, in which four of the party members fell to their deaths.",
"By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a large body of professional guides, equipment, and methodologies.Edelweiss, a plant associated with mountain sportsIn the early years of the \"golden age\", scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall.",
"In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and alpine mountaineering overall.",
"The first president of the Alpine Club, John Ball, is considered to be the discoverer of the Dolomites, which for decades were the focus of climbers like Paul Grohmann and Angelo Dibona.",
"At that time, the edelweiss also established itself as a symbol of alpinists and mountaineers.===Expansion around the world===British mountaineer William Cecil Slingsby became known as the father of Norwegian mountaineering and contributed greatly to its popularization with his classic book ''Norway, the Northern Playground''In the 19th century, the focus of mountaineering turned towards mountains beyond the Alps.",
"One of the earliest mountain areas to be explored beyond the Alps in the 19th century were the mountains of Norway—particularly Jotunheimen—where British mountaineers such as William Cecil Slingsby, Harold Raeburn and Howard Priestman were early pioneers.",
"Slingsby's book ''Norway, the Northern Playground'' contributed greatly to the popularization of mountaineering in Norway among the international mountaineering community.",
"Around the turn of the century, a young generation of Norwegian mountaineers such as George Paus, Eilert Sundt and Kristian Tandberg appeared, and later founded Norsk Tindeklub, the third oldest mountaineering association in the world.",
"By the turn of the 20th century, mountaineering had acquired a more international flavour.In 1897 Mount Saint Elias () on the Alaska-Yukon border was summitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party.",
"In 1879–1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo () and explored the mountains of Ecuador.",
"It took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa.",
"Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa was climbed in 1889 by Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller and German geologist Hans Meyer, Mount Kenya in 1899 by Halford Mackinder.===The last frontier: The Himalayas===Mountaineers, The last and greatest mountain range to be conquered was the Himalayas in South Asia.",
"They had initially been surveyed by the British Empire for military and strategic reasons.",
"In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway explored the Karakoram Himalayas, and climbed a peak of .",
"In 1895 Albert F. Mummery died while attempting Nanga Parbat, while in 1899 Douglas Freshfield took an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim.In 1899, 1903, 1906, and 1908 American mountaineer Fanny Bullock Workman (one of the first professional female mountaineers) made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks ().",
"A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Charles Granville Bruce, and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them.In 1902 the Eckenstein–Crowley Expedition, led by English mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and English occultist Aleister Crowley was the first to attempt to scale K2.They reached before turning back due to weather and other mishaps.",
"Undaunted, in 1905 Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world, in an attempt described as \"misguided\" and \"lamentable\".Eckenstein was also a pioneer in developing new equipment and climbing methods.",
"He started using shorter ice axes that could be used single-handedly, designed the modern crampons, and improved on the nail patterns used for the climbing boots.By the 1950s, all the eight-thousanders but two had been climbed starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal on the 1950 French Annapurna expedition.",
"The highest of these peaks Mount Everest was climbed in 1953 after the British had made several attempts in the 1920s; the 1922 expedition reached before being aborted on the third summit attempt after an avalanche killed seven porters.",
"The 1924 expedition saw another height record achieved but still failed to reach the summit with confirmation when George Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappeared on the final attempt.",
"The summit was finally reached on 29 May 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay from the south side in Nepal.Just a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), on the 1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, completing the last 1,300 meters walking alone, being under the influence of drugs: pervitin (based on the stimulant methamphetamine used by soldiers during World War II), padutin and tea from coca leaves.",
"K2 (8,611m), the second-highest peak in the world, was first scaled in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni.",
"In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was Shishapangma (8,013m), the lowest of all the 8,000-metre peaks.Reinhold Messner from the Dolomites mountain range (Italy) was then the first to climb all eight-thousanders up to 1986, in addition to being the first without supplemental oxygen.",
"In 1978 he climbed Mount Everest with Peter Habeler without supplemental oxygen, the first men to do so.===Today===Long the domain of the wealthy elite and their agents, the emergence of the middle-class in the 19th and 20th centuries resulted in mass interest in mountaineering.",
"It became a popular pastime and hobby of many people.",
"Some have come to criticize the sport as becoming too much of a tourist activity."
],
[
"Organisation",
"===Activities===There are different activities associated with the sport.",
"* Traditional mountaineering involves identifying a specific mountain and route to climb, and executing the plan by whatever means appropriate.",
"A mountain summit is almost always the goal.",
"This activity is strongly associated with aid climbing and free climbing, as well as the use of ice axe and crampons on glaciers and similar terrain.",
"* Ski mountaineering involves skiing on mountainous terrain, usually in terrain much more rugged than typical cross-country skiing.",
"Unlike traditional mountaineering, routes are less well-defined and summiting may not be the main goal.",
"* Peak bagging is the general activity of ascending peaks that are on a list of notable mountains, such as the 4000m peaks of the Alps.",
"* Enchainment is climbing more than one significant summit in one outing, usually on the same day.",
"* Climbing via ferratas involves traversing ladder-like paths on highly exposed terrain.",
"* Ice climbing which involves proceeding on steep sections of blank ice with crampons and ice axes.",
"This activity often requires progressing on steep and blank sections of ice.",
"Most mountaineers have to rely on ice climbing skills to climb upon the higher peaks in the European Alps, Himalayas and Canadian ranges.===Rules and governance===Mountaineering lacks formal rules; in theory, any person may climb a mountain and call themself a mountaineer.",
"In practice, the sport is defined by the safe and necessary use of technical skills in mountainous terrain: in particular, roped climbing and snow travel abilities.",
"A variety of techniques have been developed to help people climb mountains that are widely applied among practitioners of the sport.Despite its lack of defined rules and non-competitive nature, mountaineering has much of the trappings of an organized sport, with recognition by the International Olympic Committee and a prominent international sport federation, the UIAA, which counts numerous national alpine clubs as its members.",
"There are also many notable mountaineering/alpine clubs unassociated with the UIAA, such as The Mountaineers and the French Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing.The premier award in mountaineering is the Piolet d'Or.",
"There are no \"world championships\" or other similar competitions for mountaineering."
],
[
"Terrain and techniques",
"Antique climbing toolsMountaineering techniques vary greatly depending on location, season, and the particular route a mountaineer chooses to climb.",
"Mountaineers train to climb on all types of terrain whether it be level ground, rock, snow, or ice.",
"Each type of terrain presents its own hazards.",
"Mountaineers must possess adequate food, water, information, equipment and stamina to complete their tasks.",
"''See also: Grade (climbing)''===Walk-up terrain===The term \"walk-up\" or \"trek\" is used to describe terrain in which no technical equipment is needed.",
"To traverse this terrain, mountaineers hike long distances to a base camp or the beginning of rough terrain, either following trails or using navigation techniques to travel cross-country.",
"Hiking may be a strenuous activity, and adequate physical fitness and familiarity with the wilderness is necessary to complete a hike; it is also a prerequisite of success in all aspects of mountaineering.===Rock===Alpine rock climbing involves technical skills including the ability to place anchors into the rock to safely ascend a mountain.",
"In some cases, climbers may have to climb multiple pitches of rock to reach the top.",
"Typically, for any one pitch, there is a belayer who is stationary and creates tension on the rope to catch a climber should he or she fall, and a climber who ascends the rock.",
"The first climber, called the ''leader'', will reach a point on the rock and then build an anchor, which will secure subsequent climbers.",
"Anchors could be created by using slings around a tree or boulder, or by using protection devices like cams and nuts.Once anchored, the leader will then belay the climber coming up from below.",
"Once the follower reaches the leader, the leader will often transfer all necessary protection devices (known as a rack) to the follower.",
"The follower then becomes the leader and will ascend the next pitch.",
"This process will continue until the climbers either reach the top, or run into different terrain.For extremely vertical rocks, or to overcome certain logistical challenges, climbers may use aid climbing techniques.",
"This involves the use of equipment, such as ladders, fixed lines, and ascenders to help the climber push themself up the rock.In alpine climbing, it is common for climbers to see routes of mixed terrain.",
"This means climbers may need to move efficiently from climbing glacier, to rock, to ice, back and forth in a number of variations.===Snow and ice===Mountaineers proceed across snow fields on South Tyrol; other climbers are visible further up the slopes.Compacted snow conditions allow mountaineers to progress on foot.",
"Frequently crampons are required to travel efficiently and safely over snow and ice.",
"Crampons attach to the bottom of a mountaineer's boots and provide additional traction on hard snow and ice.",
"For loose snow, crampons are less suitable, and snowshoes or skis may be preferred.",
"Using various techniques from alpine skiing to ascend/descend a mountain is a form of the sport by itself, called ski mountaineering.Ascending and descending a steep snow slope safely requires the use of an ice axe and different footwork techniques that have been developed over the past century, such as the ''French technique'' and ''German technique''.",
"Teams of climbers may choose to attach everyone together with a rope, to form a rope team.",
"The team may then secure themselves by attaching the rope to anchors.",
"These anchors are sometimes unreliable and include snow stakes or pickets, deadman devices called flukes, or buried equipment or rocks.",
"Bollards, which are simply carved out of consolidated snow or ice, also sometimes serve as anchors.",
"Alternatively, a roped team may choose not to use anchors; instead, all members of the team will prepare to use their ice axes to self-arrest in the event should a team member fall.It is not always wise for climbers to form a rope team, since one falling climber may pull the entire team off the mountain.",
"However, the risks of individual, unprotected travel are often so great that groups have no choice but to form a rope team.For example, when traveling over glaciers, crevasses pose a grave danger to a climber who is not roped in.",
"These giant cracks in the ice are not always visible as snow can be blown and freeze over the top to make a snowbridge.",
"At times snowbridges can be as thin as a few inches and may collapse from people walking over them.",
"Should a climber fall, being protected by a rope greatly reduces the risk of injury or death.",
"The other members of the rope team may proceed with a crevasse rescue to pull the fallen climber from the crevasse.For extremely slippery or steep snow, ice, and mixed rock and ice terrain climbers must use more advanced techniques, called ice climbing or mixed climbing.",
"Specialized tools such as ice screws and ice picks help climbers build anchors and move up the ice, as well as traditional rock climbing equipment for anchoring in mixed terrain.",
"Often, mountaineers climbing steep snow or mixed snowy rock terrain will not use a fixed belay.",
"Instead, each climber on the team will climb at the same time while attached to anchors, in groups of two.",
"This allows for safety should the entire team be taken off their feet which also allows for greater speed than the traditional technique of belaying one climber at a time.",
"This technique is known as ''simul-climbing'' or a ''running belay'' and is sometimes also used on ice, however, the risk of dropping frequently displaced ice on the lower team member(s) limits its usefulness on ice.",
"Traditional belays are also used; in this case, this is sometimes necessary due to ice fall hazard, steepness, or other factors.==Shelter== Climbers use a few different forms of shelter depending on the situation and conditions; alpine shelters or arctic shelters.",
"Shelter is a very important aspect of safety for the climber as weather in the mountains may be very unpredictable.",
"Tall mountains may require many days of camping.Short trips lasting less than a day generally do not require shelter, although for safety, most mountaineers will carry an emergency shelter, such a light bivouac sack.===Camping===Mountain hikers on the mountainTypical shelters used for camping include tents and bivouac sacks.",
"The ability of these shelters to provide protection from the elements is dependent on their design.",
"Mountaineers who climb in areas with cold weather or snow and ice will use more heavy-duty shelters than those who climb in more forgiving environments.In remote locations, mountaineers will set up a \"base camp,\" which is an area used for staging attempts at nearby summits.",
"Base camps are positioned to be relatively safe from harsh terrain and weather.",
"Where the summit cannot be reached from base camp in a single day, a mountain will have additional camps above base camp.",
"For popular mountains, base camps may be at a fixed location and become famous.",
"The Everest base camps and Camp Muir are among the most famous base camps.===Hut===Glacier National Park, USCamping is not always an option, or may not be suitable if a mountain is close to civilization.",
"Some regions may legally prohibit primitive camping due to concern for the environment, or due to issues with crowds.",
"In lieu of camping, mountaineers may choose to stay in mountain huts.The European alpine regions, in particular, have a large network of huts.",
"Such huts exist at many different heights, including in the high mountains themselves – in extremely remote areas, more rudimentary shelters may exist.",
"The mountain huts are of varying size and quality, but each is typically centred on a communal dining room and have dormitories equipped with mattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows; guests are expected to bring and use their own sleeping bag liners.",
"The facilities are usually rudimentary, but, given their locations, huts offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (by allowing journeys to be broken and reducing the weight of equipment needing to be carried), and offer good value.",
"In Europe, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June to mid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-March to mid-May).",
"Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall.",
"Huts also may have a part that is always open, but unstaffed, a so-called winter hut.When open and staffed, the huts are generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on a voluntary basis by members of alpine clubs.",
"The manager of the hut, termed a guardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sell refreshments and meals, both to those visiting only for the day and to those staying overnight.",
"The offering is surprisingly wide, given that most supplies, often including fresh water, must be flown in by helicopter, and may include glucose-based snacks (such as candy bars) on which climbers and walkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at the hut, a variety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), and high carbohydrate dinners in the evenings.",
"Not all huts offer a catered service, though, and visitors may need to provide for themselves.",
"Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitors wishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cooking equipment and to cater using the facilities provided.",
"Booking for overnight stays at huts is deemed obligatory, and in many cases is essential as some popular huts, even with more than 100 bed spaces, may be full during good weather and at weekends.",
"Once made, the cancellation of a reservation is advised as a matter of courtesy – and, indeed, potentially of safety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers and walkers state they plan to walk to next.",
"Most huts may be contacted by telephone and most take credit cards as a means of payment.In the UK the term \"hut\" is used for any cottage or cabin used as a base for walkers or climbers.",
"These are mostly owned by mountaineering clubs for use by members or visiting clubs and generally do not have wardens or permanent staff, but have cooking and washing facilities and heating.",
"In the Scottish Highlands small simple unstaffed shelters without cooking facilities known as \"bothies\" are maintained to break up cross country long routes and act as base camps to certain mountains.===Snow cave===Where conditions permit, snow caves are another way to shelter high on the mountain.",
"Some climbers do not use tents at high altitudes unless the snow conditions do not allow for snow caving, since snow caves are silent and much warmer than tents.",
"They can be built relatively easily, given sufficient time, using a snow shovel.",
"The temperature of a correctly made snow cave will hover around freezing, which relative to outside temperatures can be very warm.",
"They can be dug anywhere where there is at least four feet of snow.",
"The addition of a good quality bivouac bag and closed cell foam sleeping mat will also increase the warmth of the snow cave.",
"Another shelter that works well is a quinzee, which is excavated from a pile of snow that has been work hardened or sintered (typically by stomping).",
"Igloos are used by some climbers, but are deceptively difficult to build and require specific snow conditions."
],
[
"Safety and hazards",
"Mountaineers face a variety of hazards.",
"When climbing mountains, there are two types of hazards, ''objective'' (mountain-based) and ''subjective (human-based)''.",
"Objective hazards relate to the environment, and may include inclement weather conditions, dangerous terrain, duration of exposure, and other environmental conditions.",
"Subjective hazards relate to a climber's poor judgement, poor planning, lack of skills, faulty analysis and conclusions, or inadequate conditioning.",
"In terms of objective hazards, the dangers mountaineers face include loose or falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses, and the dangers from altitude and weather.From 1947 to 2018 in the United States \"2,799 people were reported to be involved in mountaineering accidents and 43% of these accidents resulted in death.\"",
"Climbers themselves are responsible for nearly all climbing accidents.When planning and preparing for a trip, safe climbers know what hazards to look for and how to recognize them.",
"In situations where hazards are not able to be avoided, the climber must use their decision-making skills to mitigate those hazards.",
"Climbers improve upon their ability to become a safe decision maker and recognize hazards by receiving proper education, training, practice, and experience as well as learning how to spot personal bias.===Altitude===Rapid ascent can lead to altitude sickness.",
"The best treatment is to descend immediately.",
"The climber's motto at high altitude is \"climb high, sleep low\", referring to the regimen of climbing higher to acclimatise but returning to lower elevation to sleep.",
"In the Andes, the chewing of coca leaves has been traditionally used to treat altitude sickness symptoms.Common symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache.",
"Mountain sickness may progress to HACE (high-altitude cerebral edema) and HAPE (high-altitude pulmonary edema), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours.In high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe.",
"This is the underlying cause of altitude sickness.",
"Everyone needs to acclimatise, even exceptional mountaineers that have been to high altitude before.",
"Generally speaking, mountaineers start using bottled oxygen when they climb above 7,000 m. Exceptional mountaineers have climbed 8000-metre peaks (including Everest) without oxygen, almost always with a carefully planned program of acclimatisation.=== Heat-related conditions ===Exposure to hot environments or activities involving exertion cause heat to build up in the body.",
"A heat-related illness can occur when the body is unable to lose that heat through the skin.Problems that can arise from this type of exposure include heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke.",
"Common symptoms of heat exhaustion include headaches, cool and clammy skin, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, thirst, and rapid pulse.",
"The best treatment is resting with feet elevated, replenishing fluids, and removing excess clothing.Common symptoms of heat stroke can be an altered state of mind, rapid pulse and respiratory rate, headache, hot skin, loss of coordination, and possible seizures.",
"This is a life threatening illness that must be dealt with right away.",
"While mountaineering, snow and ice can be used to cool the body and head.=== Cold-related conditions ===In certain environmental conditions body heat can be lost due to evaporation, radiation, convection, and conduction.",
"A cold-related illness can occur when that body heat is lost.Problems that can arise from the cold include wind chill, hypothermia, frost nip, frostbite, and immersion foot.The best treatment for hypothermia is to deal with it before it occurs, using preventative measures instead of waiting for symptoms to appear.",
"Mountaineering requires a slower pace to avoid sweating and fatigue that could lead to these dangerous conditions.",
"Other tips for preventing hypothermia include staying well fed and hydrated, putting on more clothes when feeling cold, and wearing adequate equipment to keep warm and dry."
],
[
"Styles of mountaineering",
"Fixed lines and ladders are distinguishing characteristics of expedition style mountaineering.There are two main styles of mountaineering: expedition style and alpine style.===Expedition style===The alpine style contrasts with \"expedition style\".",
"With this style, climbers will carry large amounts of equipment and provisions up and down the mountain, slowly making upward progress.",
"Climbing in an expedition style is preferred if the summit is very high or distant from civilization.",
"Mountaineers who use this style are usually, but not always, part of a large team of climbers and support staff (such as porters and guides).",
"To cover large distances with their massive amounts of gear, sleds and pack animals are commonly used.",
"Climbers will set up multiple camps along the mountain, and will haul their gear up the mountain multiple times, returning to a lower camp after each haul until all the gear is at a higher camp; and repeating this procedure until they reach the summit.",
"This technique is also helpful for acclimatization.",
"While it is the original style in which high mountains were climbed, expedition style is rare these days as more mountains have become accessible to the general public with air travel and the penetration of highways into mountainous regions.",
"It is still common in ranges such as the Alaska Range and the Himalayas.",
"* Uses multiple trips between camps to carry supplies up to higher camps* Group sizes are often larger than alpine style climbs because more supplies are carried between camps.",
"* Fixed lines are often used to minimize the danger involved in continually moving between camps.",
"* For the highest mountains, supplemental oxygen is frequently used.",
"* There is a higher margin of safety in relation to equipment, food, time, and ability to wait out storms at high camps.",
"* Avoidance of being trapped in storms at high altitudes and being forced to descend in treacherous avalanche conditions* Possible higher exposure to objective hazards such as avalanches or rockfall, due to slower travel times between camps* Higher capital expenditures and a longer time scale===Alpine style===Alpine style, or informal variations of it, is the most common form of mountaineering today.",
"It involves a single, straightforward climb of the mountain, with no backtracking.",
"This style is most suited for medium-sized mountain areas close to civilization with elevations of , such as the Alps or the Rocky Mountains.",
"Alpine style ascents have been done throughout history on extreme altitude (above 5,000 m) peaks also, albeit in lower volume to expedition style ascents.",
"Climbers generally carry their loads between camps without backtracking, in a single push for the summit.",
"If the summit is reachable from the base camp or trailhead within one day, then alpine-style mountaineers will not change camps at all, and only carry the slightest of loads (necessary nourishment and equipment) up to the summit.",
"\"Light and fast\" is the mantra of the alpine mountaineer.",
"* Climbers climb the route only once because they do not continually climb up and down to stock camps with supplies.",
"* Fewer supplies are used on the climb, therefore fewer personnel are needed.",
"* Alpine-style ascents do not leave the climber exposed to objective hazards as long as an expedition-style climb does; however, because of the speed of the ascent relative to an expedition-style climb there is less time for acclimatization.",
"* For the highest mountains, supplemental oxygen is rarely used, or used more sparingly.",
"* Danger of being trapped at high altitude due to storms, potentially being exposed to HAPE or HACE* Lower capital expenditures and a shorter time scale"
],
[
"See also",
"* Exploration of the High Alps* Glossary of climbing terms* Hazards in the Rocky Mountains* Highest unclimbed mountain* Index of climbing topics* Lead climbing* List of climbers and mountaineers* List of deaths on eight-thousanders* List of first ascents* List of mountaineering equipment brands* Mountain film* Mountain rescue* ''Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills''* Peak bagging* Ski mountaineering* Snow goggles* Piolet d'Or* Snow Leopard award* World altitude record (mountaineering)* National Outdoor Leadership School"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* A Climber's Glossary* Military Mountaineering, Army Field Manual FM 3–97.61 (Aug 2002) − Federation of American Scientists (PDF)* International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation (UIAA) – official organisation of mountaineering and climbing recognised by International Olympic Committee* Climbing the clouds – virtual exhibit of British Columbia mountaineering"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Megara"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Megara''' (; , ) is a historic town and a municipality in West Attica, Greece.",
"It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, before being taken by Athens.",
"Megara was one of the four districts of Attica, embodied in the four mythic sons of King Pandion II, of whom Nisos was the ruler of Megara.",
"Megara was also a trade port, its people using their ships and wealth as a way to gain leverage on armies of neighboring poleis.",
"Megara specialized in the exportation of wool and other animal products including livestock such as horses.",
"It possessed two harbors, Pagae to the west on the Corinthian Gulf, and Nisaea to the east on the Saronic Gulf of the Aegean Sea."
],
[
"Early history",
"View of the archaeological siteAccording to Pausanias, the Megarians said that their town owed its origin to Car, the son of Phoroneus, who built the citadel called 'Caria' and the temples of Demeter called Megara, from which the place derived its name.In historical times, Megara was an early dependency of Corinth, in which capacity colonists from Megara founded Megara Hyblaea, a small ''polis'' north of Syracuse in Sicily.",
"Megara then fought a war of independence with Corinth, and afterwards founded Chalcedon in 685 BC, as well as Byzantium (c. 667 BC).Megara is known to have early ties with Miletos, in the region of Caria in Asia Minor.",
"According to some scholars, they had built up a \"colonisation alliance\".",
"In the 7th/6th century BCE these two cities acted in concordance with each other.Both cities acted under the leadership and sanction of an Apollo oracle.",
"Megara cooperated with that of Delphi.",
"Miletos had her own oracle of Apollo Didymeus Milesios in Didyma.",
"Also, there are many parallels in the political organisation of both cities.In the late 7th century BC Theagenes established himself as tyrant of Megara by slaughtering the cattle of the rich to win over the poor.",
"During the second Persian invasion of Greece (480–479 BC) Megara fought alongside the Spartans and Athenians at crucial battles such as Salamis and Plataea.Megara defected from the Spartan-dominated Peloponnesian League (c. 460 BC) to the Delian league due to border disputes with its neighbour Corinth; this defection was one of the causes of the First Peloponnesian War (460 – c. 445 BC).",
"By the terms of the Thirty Years' Peace of 446–445 BC Megara was forced to return to the Peloponnesian League.In the (second) Peloponnesian War (c. 431 – 404 BC), Megara was an ally of Sparta.",
"The Megarian decree is considered to be one of several contributing \"causes\" of the Peloponnesian War.",
"Athens issued the Megarian decree, which banned Megarian merchants from territory controlled by Athens; its aim was to constrict the Megarian economy.",
"The Athenians claimed that they were responding to the Megarians' desecration of the ''Hiera Orgas'', a sacred precinct in the border region between the two states.Arguably the most famous citizen of Megara in antiquity was Byzas, the legendary founder of Byzantium in the 7th century BC.",
"The 6th century BC poet Theognis also came from Megara.",
"In the early 4th century BC, Euclid of Megara founded the Megarian school of philosophy which flourished for about a century, famous for the use of logic and dialectic.During the Celtic invasion in 279 BC, Megara sent a force of 400 peltasts (light infantrymen) to Thermopylae.",
"During the Chremonidean War, in 266 BC, the Megarians were besieged by the Macedonian king Antigonus Gonatas and managed to defeat his elephants employing burning pigs.",
"Despite this success, the Megarians had to submit to the Macedonians.In 243 BC, exhorted by Aratus of Sicyon, Megara expelled its Macedonian garrison and joined the Achaean League, but when the Achaeans lost control of the Isthmus in 223 BC the Megarians left them and joined the Boeotian League.",
"Not more than thirty years later, however, the Megarians grew tired of the Boeotian decline and returned their allegiance to Achaea.",
"The Achaean strategos Philopoemen fought off the Boeotian intervention force and secured Megara's return, either in 203 or in 193 BC.According to Plutarch, Megarians tried to unleash lions against the besieging Roman troops guided by Quintus Fufius Calenus around 48 BC, but the animals \"rushed among the unarmed citizens themselves and preyed upon them as they ran hither and thither, so that even to the enemy the sight was a pitiful one\".Megara by Vincenzo Coronelli, 1687The Megarians were proverbial for their generosity in building and endowing temples.",
"Saint Jerome reports \"There is a common saying about the Megarians ...: 'They build as if they are to live forever; they live as if they are to die tomorrow.",
"'\"The Greeks used the proverb \"worthy of the Megarians share\" (), meaning dishonorable/dishonored."
],
[
"Democracy in Megara",
"Nike of Megara, large statue of Nike found at Megara in 1821.Megara seems to have experienced democracy on two occasions.",
"The first was between 427 BC, when there was a democratic uprising, and 424 BC, when a narrow oligarchy was installed (Thuc.",
"3.68.3; 4.66-8, 73-4).",
"The second was in the 370s BC, when we hear that the people of Megara expelled some anti-democratic conspirators (Diod.",
"15.40.4).",
"By the 350s BC, though, Isocrates is referring to Megara in terms that suggests that it was an oligarchy again (Isoc.",
"8.117-19).One of the first actions of the new oligarchy in 424 BC was to compel the people to vote openly, which suggests that the democracy had made use of the secret ballot.",
"Megarian democracy also made use of ostracism.",
"Other key institutions of the democracy included a popular Assembly and Council, and a board of five (or six) generals.According to Plutarch, Megara was also a democracy in the 6th century BC.",
"The measures said to be implemented by the radical government included making interest-bearing loans illegal and forcing creditors to return the interest they had collected.",
"While some historians accept the existence of democracy in the archaic period, others consider the story to reflect the later anti-democratic political thought."
],
[
"Geography",
"Megara is located in the westernmost part of Attica, near the Megara Gulf, a bay of the Saronic Gulf.",
"The coastal plain around Megara is referred to as Megaris, which is also the name of the ancient city state centered on Megara.",
"Megara is 8 km west of Nea Peramos, 18 km west of Elefsina, 19 km east of Agioi Theodoroi, 34 km west of Athens and 37 km east of Corinth."
],
[
"Transport",
"===Road===The Motorway 8 connects Megara with Athens and Corinth.===Rail===The Megara railway station is served by Proastiakos suburban trains to Athens and Kiato.===Air===There is a small military airfield south of the town, ICAO code LGMG."
],
[
"Population",
"The main town Megara had 23,456 inhabitants at the 2011 census.",
"The largest other settlements in the municipal unit are Vlychada (pop.",
"1,462), Kineta (1,446), Pachi (542) and Lakka Kalogirou (517)."
],
[
"Municipality",
"Municipality mapMonument at Heroes' SquareThe municipality of Megara was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of two former municipalities, Megara and Nea Peramos, which became municipal units.The municipality has an area of 330.11 km2, the municipal unit 322.21 km2."
],
[
"Districts and suburbs",
"*Agia Triada*Aigeirouses*Kineta*Koumintri*Lakka Kalogirou*Moni Agiou Ierotheou*Moni Agiou Ioannou Prodromou*Moni Panachrantou*Pachi*Stikas*Vlychada"
],
[
"Historical population",
" Year Town Municipal unit Municipality 1971 17,584 - - 1981 20,814 21,245 - 1991 20,403 25,061 - 2001 23,032 28,195 - 2011 23,456 28,591 36,924"
],
[
"Sports",
"*Vyzas F.C., football team"
],
[
"Notable people",
"Coinage with idealized depiction of Byzas, founder of Byzantium.",
"Struck in Byzantium, Thrace, around the time of Marcus Aurelius (161–180 CE).",
"*Orsippus (8th century BC), runner*Byzas (7th century BC), founder of Byzantium*Theognis (6th century BC), elegiac poet*Eupalinos (6th century BC), engineer who built the Tunnel of Eupalinos on Samos*Theagenes (c. 600 BC), Tyrant of Megara*Euclid (c. 400 BC), founder of the Megarian school of philosophy*Stilpo (c. 325 BC), philosopher of the Megarian school*Teles (3rd century BC), cynic philosopher.",
"*Giorgos Papagiannis, Professional basketball player, playing for Fenerbahçe S.K.",
"(basketball) in the Turkish Basketbol Süper Ligi"
],
[
"Facilities",
"* Medium-wave transmitter with a 180-metre-tall radio mast, broadcasting on 666 kHz and 981 kHz"
],
[
"See also",
"*List of ancient Greek cities*List of settlements in Attica"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"External links",
"**"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Martin of Tours"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Martin of Tours''' (; 316/336 – 8 November 397), also known as '''Martin the Merciful''', was the third bishop of Tours.",
"He has become one of the most familiar and recognizable Christian saints in France, heralded as the patron saint of the Third Republic, and is patron saint of many communities and organizations across Europe.",
"A native of Pannonia (in present-day Hungary), he converted to Christianity at a young age.",
"He served in the Roman cavalry in Gaul, but left military service at some point prior to 361, when he became a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers, establishing the monastery at Ligugé.",
"He was consecrated as Bishop of Caesarodunum (Tours) in 371.As bishop, he was active in the suppression of the remnants of Gallo-Roman religion, but he opposed the violent persecution of the Priscillianist sect of ascetics.His life was recorded by a contemporary hagiographer, Sulpicius Severus.",
"Some of the accounts of his travels may have been interpolated into his ''vita'' to validate early sites of his cult.",
"He is best known for the account of his using his sword to cut his cloak in two, to give half to a beggar clad only in rags in the depth of winter.",
"His shrine in Tours became a famous stopping-point for pilgrims on the road to Santiago de Compostela in Spain.",
"His cult was revived in French nationalism during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/1, and as a consequence he was seen as a patron saint of France during the French Third Republic."
],
[
"Hagiography",
"The early life of Martin was written by Sulpicius Severus, a contemporary Christian writer, who knew him personally.",
"This biography expresses, among other things, the immediacy that the 4th-century Christian had with the Devil in all his disguises, and has some accounts of miracles.",
"Some follow familiar hagiographical tropes— casting out demons, raising a paralytic or the dead.",
"Sulpicius Severus recounts in which manner St Martin raised a dead man as follows:Other miracle stories described are: turning back the flames from a house while Martin was burning down the Roman temple it adjoined; deflecting the path of a felled sacred pine; the healing power of a letter written by Martin.A part of St Martin's skull in the Basilica of Saint Martin, Tours"
],
[
"Life",
"===Soldier===Martin was born in AD 316 or 336 in Savaria in the Diocese of Pannonia (now Szombathely, Hungary).",
"His father was a senior officer (tribune) in the Roman military.",
"His father was then allowed veteran status and was given land on which to retire at Ticinum (now Pavia), in northern Italy, where Martin grew up.St Martin leaves the life of chivalry and renounces the army.",
"Fresco by Simone Martini.At the age of 10 he attended the Christian church against the wishes of his parents and became a catechumen.",
"Christianity had been made a legal religion (in 313) in the Roman Empire.",
"It had many more adherents in the Eastern Empire, whence it had sprung, and was concentrated in cities, brought along the trade routes by converted Jews and Greeks (the term 'pagan' literally means 'country-dweller').",
"Christianity was far from accepted among the higher echelons of society; among members of the army the worship of Mithras would have been stronger.",
"Although the conversion of the Emperor Constantine and the subsequent programme of church-building gave a greater impetus to the spread of the religion, it was still a minority faith.As the son of a veteran officer, Martin at 15 was required to join a cavalry ''ala.''",
"At the age of 18 (around 334 or 354), he was stationed at ''Ambianensium civitas'' or Samarobriva in Gaul (now Amiens, France).",
"It is likely that he joined the ''Equites catafractarii Ambianenses'', a heavy cavalry unit listed in the ''Notitia Dignitatum''.",
"As the unit was stationed at Milan and is also recorded at Trier, it is likely to have been part of the elite cavalry bodyguard of the Emperor, which accompanied him on his travels around the Empire.",
"Martin's biographer, Sulpicius Severus, provided no dates in his chronology, so although he indicated that Martin served in the military \"for nearly two years after his baptism,\" it is difficult for the historian to pin down the exact date of Martin's exit from military service.",
"Still, historian Andre Mertens has provided this guidance: \"He Martin served under the Roman emperor Constantine II (ruled 337-61) and afterwards under Julian (ruled 355-60).",
"\"Regardless of the difficulties in chronology, Sulpicius reports that just before a battle in the Gallic provinces at Borbetomagus (now Worms, Germany), Martin determined that his switch of allegiance to a new commanding officer (away from antichristian Julian and to Christ), along with reluctance to receive Julian's pay just as Martin was retiring, prohibited his taking the money and continuing to submit to the authority of the former now, telling him, \"I am the soldier of Christ: it is not lawful for me to fight.\"",
"He was charged with cowardice and jailed, but in response to the charge, he volunteered to go unarmed to the front of the troops.",
"His superiors planned to take him up on the offer, but before they could, the invaders sued for peace, the battle never occurred, and Martin was released from military service.===Monk and hermit===Martin declared his vocation, and made his way to the city of Caesarodunum (now Tours), where he became a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers' Christian orthodoxy.",
"He opposed the Arianism of the Imperial Court.",
"When Hilary was forced into exile from Pictavium (now Poitiers), Martin returned to Italy.",
"According to Sulpicius, he converted an Alpine brigand on the way, and confronted the Devil himself.",
"Having heard in a dream a summons to revisit his home, Martin crossed the Alps, and from Milan went over to Pannonia.",
"There he converted his mother and some other persons; his father he could not win over.",
"While in Illyricum he took sides against the Arians with so much zeal that he was publicly whipped and forced to leave.",
"Returning from Illyria, he was confronted by Auxentius, the Arian Archbishop of Milan, who expelled him from the city.",
"According to the early sources, Martin decided to seek shelter on the island then called Gallinaria, now Isola d'Albenga, in the Ligurian Sea, where he lived the solitary life of a hermit.",
"Not entirely alone, since the chronicles indicate that he would have been in the company of a ''priest, a man of great virtues'', and for a period with Hilary of Poitiers, on this island, where the wild hens lived.",
"Martin lived on a diet of herbs and wild roots.",
"It is alleged he ate hellebore, a plant that he did not know was poisonous.",
"A legend tells that being on the verge of death for having eaten this herb, he prayed and was miraculously cured.With the return of Hilary to his see in 361, Martin joined him and established a hermitage at what is now the town of Ligugé south of Poitiers, and soon attracted converts and followers.",
"The crypt under the parish church (not the current Abbey Chapel) reveals traces of a Roman villa, probably part of the bath complex, which had been abandoned before Martin established himself there.",
"The monastery became a centre for the evangelisation of the country districts around Poitiers, and later developed into Ligugé Abbey, belonging to the Order of St. Benedict and claiming to be the oldest monastery known in western Europe.",
"Martin travelled and preached through western Gaul: \"The memory of these apostolic journeyings survives to our day in the numerous local legends of which Martin is the hero and which indicate roughly the routes that he followed.",
"\"===Bishop===In AD 371 Martin was elected bishop of Tours, and subsequently he impressed the city with his demeanour.",
"He had enticed to Tours from Ligugé by a ruse — he was urged to come to minister to someone sick — and was brought to the church, where he reluctantly allowed himself to be consecrated bishop.",
"According to one version, he was so unwilling to be made bishop that he hid in a barn full of geese, but their cackling at his intrusion gave him away to the crowd; that may account for complaints by a few that his appearance was too disheveled to be commensurate with a bishopric, but the critics were hugely outnumbered.As bishop, Martin set to enthusiastically ordering the destruction of pagan temples, altars and sculptures:Saint Martin Dividing his Cloak'' by van Dyck, c. 1618Sulpicius affirms that Martin withdrew from the city to live in Marmoutier (''Majus Monasterium''), a rural monastery which he founded a short distance upstream from Tours on the opposite shore of the river Loire.",
"Recent excavations under the abbey church have revealed the traces of a Roman posting station, beside the main Roman road along the north bank of the Loire, which seems to have been the original dwelling for the community; the \"caves\" on the site are post-Roman and are probably the result of quarrying the coteau for the Romanesque abbey buildings.",
"\"Here Martin and some of the monks who followed him built cells of wood; others lived in caves dug out of the rock.\"",
"(Sulpicius Severus).Martin introduced a rudimentary parish system in his diocese.",
"Once a year, the bishop visited each of his parishes, traveling on foot, or by donkey or boat.",
"He continued to set up monastic communities, and extended the influence of his episcopate from Touraine to such distant points as Chartres, Paris, Autun, and Vienne.In one instance, the pagans agreed to fell their sacred pine tree, if Martin would stand directly in its path.",
"He did so, and it miraculously missed him.",
"Sulpicius, a classically educated aristocrat, related this anecdote with dramatic details, as a set piece.",
"Sulpicius could not have failed to know the incident the Roman poet Horace recalls in several ''Odes'' of his own narrow escape from a falling tree.Martin was so dedicated to the freeing of prisoners that when authorities, even emperors, heard he was coming, they refused to see him because they knew he would request mercy for someone and they would be unable to refuse.===On behalf of the Priscillianists===The churches of other parts of Gaul and in Spain were being disturbed by the Priscillianists, an ascetic sect, named after its leader, Priscillian.",
"The First Council of Saragossa had forbidden several of Priscillian's practices (albeit without mentioning Priscillian by name), but Priscillian was elected bishop of Avila shortly thereafter.",
"Ithacius of Ossonoba appealed to the emperor Gratian, who issued a rescript against Priscillian and his followers.",
"After failing to obtain the support of Ambrose of Milan and Pope Damasus I, Priscillian appealed to Magnus Maximus, who had usurped the throne from Gratian.Saint Martin and the Beggar'' by El Greco, c. 1577–1579Although greatly opposed to the Priscillianists, Martin traveled to the Imperial court of Trier to remove them from the secular jurisdiction of the emperor.",
"With Ambrose, Martin rejected Bishop Ithacius's principle of putting heretics to death—as well as the intrusion of the emperor into such matters.",
"He prevailed upon the emperor to spare the life of the heretic Priscillian.",
"At first, Maximus acceded to his entreaty, but, when Martin had departed, yielded to Ithacius and ordered Priscillian and his followers to be beheaded (in 385).",
"Martin then pleaded for a cessation of the persecution of Priscillian's followers in Spain.",
"Deeply grieved, Martin refused to communicate with Ithacius, until pressured by the Emperor.===Death===Martin died in Candes-Saint-Martin, Gaul (central France) in 397.After he died, local citizens of the Poitou region and residents of Tours quarreled over where Martin would be buried.",
"One evening after dark, several residents of Tours carried Martin's body to a waiting boat on the river Loire, where teams of rowers ferried his body on the river to Tours, where a huge throng of people waited on the river banks to meet and pay their last respects to Martin's body.",
"One chronicle states that \"2,000 monks, and nearly as many white-robed virgins, walked in the procession\" accompanying the body from the river to a small grove just west of the city, where Martin was buried and where his shrine was established.===Shrine basilica===The shrine chapel at Tours developed into one of the most prominent and influential establishments in medieval France.",
"Charlemagne awarded the position of Abbot to his friend and adviser Alcuin.",
"At this time the abbot could travel between Tours and the court at Trier in Germany and always stay overnight at one of his own properties.",
"It was at Tours that Alcuin's scriptorium (a room in monasteries devoted to the copying of manuscripts by monastic scribes) developed Caroline minuscule, the clear round hand that made manuscripts far more legible.In later times the abbey was destroyed by fire on several occasions and ransacked by Norman Vikings in 853 and in 903.It burned again in 994, and was rebuilt by Hervé de Buzançais, treasurer of Saint Martin, an effort that took 20 years to complete.",
"Expanded to accommodate the crowds of pilgrims and to attract them, the shrine of St. Martin of Tours became a major stopping-point on pilgrimages.",
"In 1453 the remains of Saint Martin were transferred to a magnificent new reliquary donated by Charles VII of France and Agnes Sorel.",
"''Saint Martin Dividing his Cloak'' by Jean FouquetDuring the French Wars of Religion, the basilica was sacked by the Protestant Huguenots in 1562.It was disestablished during the French Revolution.",
"It was deconsecrated, used as a stable, then utterly demolished.",
"Its dressed stones were sold in 1802 after two streets were built across the site, to ensure the abbey would not be reconstructed."
],
[
"Legend of Saint Martin Dividing his Cloak",
"While Martin was a soldier in the Roman army and stationed in Gaul (modern-day France), he experienced a vision, which became the most-repeated story about his life.",
"One day as he was approaching the gates of the city of Amiens, he met a scantily clad beggar.",
"He impulsively cut his military cloak in half to share with the man.",
"That night, Martin dreamed of Jesus wearing the half of the cloak he had given away.",
"He heard Jesus say to some of the angels, \"Martin, who is still but a catechumen, clothed me with this robe.\"",
"( Sulpicius, ch 2).",
"In another version, when Martin woke, he found his cloak restored to wholeness.",
"The dream confirmed Martin in his piety, and he was baptised at the age of 18.The part kept by himself became the famous relic preserved in the oratory of the Merovingian kings of the Franks at the Marmoutier Abbey near Tours.",
"During the Middle Ages, the supposed relic of St. Martin's miraculous cloak (''cappa Sancti Martini'') was carried by the king even into battle, and used as a holy relic upon which oaths were sworn.",
"The cloak is first attested to in the royal treasury in 679, when it was conserved at the ''palatium'' of Luzarches, a royal villa that was later ceded to the monks of Saint-Denis by Charlemagne, in 798/99.The priest who cared for the cloak in its reliquary was called a ''cappellanu'', and ultimately all priests who served the military were called ''cappellani''.",
"The French translation is ''chapelains'', from which the English word ''chaplain'' is derived.A similar linguistic development took place for the term referring to the small temporary churches built for the relic.",
"People called them a \"capella\", the word for a little cloak.",
"Eventually, such small churches lost their association with the cloak, and all small churches began to be referred to as \"chapels\"."
],
[
"Veneration",
"Reliquary for the head of St. Martin, silver and copper, part gilt, from the church at Soudeilles, late 14th century, LouvreThe veneration of Martin was widely popular in the Middle Ages, above all in the region between the Loire and the Marne, where Le Roy Ladurie and Zysberg noted the densest accretion of place names commemorating Martin.",
"Venantius Fortunatus had earlier declared, \"Wherever Christ is known, Martin is honored.",
"\"When Bishop Perpetuus took office at Tours in 461, the little chapel over Martin's grave, built in the previous century by Martin's immediate successor, Bricius, was no longer sufficient for the crowd of pilgrims it was already drawing.",
"Perpetuus built a larger basilica, long and wide, with 120 columns.",
"Martin's body was taken from the simple chapel at his hermitage at Candes-St-Martin to Tours and his sarcophagus was reburied behind the high altar of the new basilica.",
"A large block of marble above the tomb, the gift of bishop Euphronius of Autun (472–475), rendered it visible to the faithful gathered behind the high altar.",
"Werner Jacobsen suggests it may also have been visible to pilgrims encamped in the atrium of the basilica.",
"Contrary to the usual arrangement, the atrium was situated behind the church, close to the tomb in the apse, which may have been visible through a ''fenestrella'' in the apse wall.St.",
"Martin's popularity can be partially attributed to his adoption by successive royal houses of France.",
"Clovis, King of the Salian Franks, one of many warring tribes in sixth-century France, promised his Christian wife Clotilda that he would be baptised if he was victorious over the Alemanni.",
"He credited the intervention of St Martin with his success, and with several following triumphs, including the defeat of Alaric II.",
"The popular devotion to St Martin continued to be closely identified with the Merovingian monarchy: in the early seventh century Dagobert I commissioned the goldsmith Saint Eligius to make a work in gold and gems for the tomb-shrine.",
"The bishop Gregory of Tours wrote and distributed an influential ''Life'' filled with miraculous events of St. Martin's career.",
"Martin's ''cultus'' survived the passage of power to the Merovingians' successors, the Carolingian dynasty.Martin is honored in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 11 November.===Revival of the popular devotion to St. Martin in the Third Republic=======Excavations and rediscovery of the tomb====Basilica of St. Martin, ToursIn 1860 excavations by Leo Dupont (1797–1876) established the dimensions of the former abbey and recovered some fragments of architecture.",
"The tomb of St. Martin was rediscovered on 14 December 1860, which aided in the nineteenth-century revival of the popular devotion to St. Martin.After the radical Paris Commune of 1871, there was a resurgence of conservative Catholic piety, and the church decided to build a basilica to St. Martin.",
"They selected Victor Laloux as architect.",
"He eschewed Gothic for a mix of Romanesque and Byzantine, sometimes defined as neo-Byzantine.",
"The new Basilique Saint-Martin was erected on a portion of its former site, which was purchased from the owners.",
"Started in 1886, the church was consecrated 4 July 1925.The new basilica====Franco-Prussian War====Martin's renewed popularity in France was related to his promotion as a military saint during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871.During the military and political crisis of the Franco-Prussian war, Napoleon III's Second Empire collapsed.",
"After the surrender of Napoleon to the Prussians after the Battle of Sedan in September 1870, a provisional government of national defense was established, and France's Third Republic was proclaimed.",
"Paris was evacuated due to the advancing enemy and for a brief time (September–December 1870), Tours became the effective capital of France.Tomb of Saint MartinSt Martin was promoted by the clerical right as the protector of the nation against the German threat.",
"Conservatives associated the dramatic collapse of Napoleon III's regime as a sign of divine retribution on the irreligious emperor.",
"Priests interpreted it as punishment for a nation led astray due to years of anti-clericalism.",
"They preached repentance and a return to religion for political stability.",
"The ruined towers of the old royal basilica of St. Martin at Tours came to symbolize the decline of traditional Catholic France.With the government's relocation to Tours during the Franco-Prussian War, 1870, numerous pilgrims were attracted to St. Martin's tomb.",
"It was covered by a temporary chapel built by archbishop Guibert.",
"The popular devotion to St. Martin was also associated with the nationalistic devotion to the Sacred Heart.",
"The flag of Sacre-Coeur, borne by Ultramontane Catholic Pontifical Zouaves who fought at Patay, had been placed overnight in St. Martin's tomb before being taken into battle on 9 October 1870.The banner read \"Heart of Jesus Save France\" and on the reverse side Carmelite nuns of Tours embroidered \"Saint Martin Protect France\".As the French army was victorious in Patay, many among the faithful took the victory to be the result of divine favor.",
"Popular hymns of the 1870s developed the theme of national protection under the cover of Martin's cloak, the \"first flag of France\".During the nineteenth-century Frenchmen, influenced by secularism, agnosticism, and anti-clericalism, deserted the church in great numbers.",
"As Martin was a man's saint, the devotion to him was an exception to this trend.",
"For men serving in the military, Martin of Tours was presented by the Catholic Right as the masculine model of principled behavior.",
"He was a brave fighter, knew his obligation to the poor, shared his goods, performed his required military service, followed legitimate orders, and respected secular authority.====Opposition from Anticlericals====During the 1870s, the procession to St. Martin's tomb at Tours became a display of ecclesiastical and military cooperation.",
"Army officers in full uniform acted as military escorts, symbolically protecting the clergy and clearing the path for them.",
"Anti-clerics viewed the staging of public religious processions as a violation of civic space.",
"In 1878, M. Rivière, the provisional mayor of Tours, with anticlerical support banned the November procession in honor of St. Martin.",
"President Patrice de Mac-Mahon was succeeded by the Republican Jules Grévy, who created a new national anticlerical offensive.",
"Bishop Louis-Édouard-François-Desiré Pie of Poitiers united conservatives and devised a massive demonstration for the November 1879 procession.",
"Pie's ultimate hope was that St Martin would stop the \"chariot\" of modern society, and lead to the creation of a France where the religious and secular sectors merged.The struggle between the two men was reflective of that between conservatives and anti-clerics over the church's power in the army.",
"From 1874, military chaplains were allowed in the army in times of peace, but anti-clerics viewed the chaplains as sinister monarchists and counter-revolutionaries.",
"Conservatives responded by creating the short-lived Legion de Saint Maurice in 1878 and the society, Notre Dame de Soldats, to provide unpaid voluntary chaplains with financial support.",
"The legislature passed the anticlerical Duvaux Bill of 1880, which reduced the number of chaplains in the French army.",
"Anticlerical legislators wanted commanders, not chaplains, to provide troops with moral support and to supervise their formation in the established faith of \"patriotic Republicanism\".===St.",
"Martin as a French Republican patron===St.",
"Martin has long been associated with France's royal heritage.",
"Monsignor René François Renou (Archbishop of Tours, 1896–1913) worked to associate St. Martin as a specifically \"republican\" patron.",
"Renou had served as a chaplain to the 88e Régiment des mobils d'Indre-et-Loire during the Franco-Prussian war and was known as the \"army bishop\".",
"Renou was a strong supporter of St. Martin and believed that the national destiny of France and all its victories were attributed to him.",
"He linked the military to the cloak of St. Martin, which was the \"first flag of France\" to the French tricolor, \"the symbol of the union of the old and new.\"",
"This flag symbolism connected the devotion to St. Martin with the Third Republic.",
"But, the tensions of the Dreyfus Affair renewed anti-clericalism in France and drove a wedge between the Church and the Republic.",
"By 1905, the influence of Rene Waldeck-Rousseau and Emile Combes, combined with deteriorating relations with the Vatican, led to the separation of church and state.St.",
"Martin's popularity was renewed during the First World War.",
"Anticlericalism declined, and priests served in the French forces as chaplains.",
"More than 5,000 of them died in the war.",
"In 1916, Assumptionists organized a national pilgrimage to Tours that attracted people from all of France.",
"The devotion to St. Martin was amplified in the dioceses of France, where special prayers were offered to the patron saint.",
"When the armistice was signed on Saint Martin's Day, 11 November 1918, the French people saw it was a sign of his intercession in the affairs of France."
],
[
"Patronage",
"Martin of Tours' Fountain, behind the Visitors' Centre in Szombathely in Hungary, the birthplace of St Martin of ToursHe is the patron saint of beggars (because of his sharing his cloak), wool-weavers and tailors (also because of his cloak), he is also the patron saint of the US Army Quartermaster Corps (also because of sharing his cloak), geese (some say because they gave his hiding place away when he tried to avoid being chosen as bishop, others because their migration coincides with his feast), vintners and innkeepers (because his feast falls just after the late grape harvest), and France.",
"He was proclaimed patron of Italian volunteering by the Italian bishops in the spring of 2021.Beyond his patronage of the French Third Republic, Saint Martin more recently has also been described in terms of \"a spiritual bridge across Europe\" due to his \"international\" background, being a native of Pannonia who spent his adult life in Gaul."
],
[
"Iconography",
"Martin is most generally portrayed on horseback dividing his cloak with the beggar.",
"His emblem in English art is often that of a goose, whose annual migration is about late autumn.===Hammer of Martin of Tours===Hammer of Martin of Tours, Catharijne Convent, Utrecht, the Netherlands\t The Museum Catharijneconvent in Utrecht has a relic in its collection which is called \"the hammer of St. Martin of Tours\" (Latin: ''maleus beati Martini'').",
"It was made in the 13th or 14th century from a late Bronze Age stone axe from c. 1,000 – 700 BC, though the dating is uncertain.",
"The grip contains a Latin text saying \"''Ydola vanurunt Martini cesa securi nemo deos credat qui sic fuerant ruicuri''\" (\"the pagan statues fall down, hit by St. Martin's axe.",
"Let nobody believe that those are gods, who so easily fall down\").",
"Legend says that the axe belonged to St. Martin, and was used to hit the devil and to destroy the heathen temples and statues."
],
[
"Influence",
"Saint Martin as a heraldic symbol (the coat of arms of Senica, Slovakia)By the early 9th century, respect for Saint Martin was well-established in Ireland.",
"His monastery at Marmoûtiers became the training ground for many Celtic missions and missionaries.",
"Some believe that St. Patrick was his nephew and that Patrick was one of many Celtic notables who lived for a time at Marmoûtiers.",
"St. Ninian definitely studied at Marmoûtiers and was profoundly influenced by Martin, carrying a deep love and respect for his teacher and his methods back to Scotland.",
"Ninian was in the process of building a church when news reached him of Martin's death.",
"Ninian dedicated that church to Martin.The Book of Armagh contains three distinct groups of material: (1) a complete text of the New Testament, (2) a dossier of materials on Saint Patrick, and (3) almost the complete body of writings on Saint Martin by Sulpicius Severus.In Jonas of Bobbio's ''Vita Columbani'', Jonas relates that Saint Columbanus, while travelling, requested to be allowed to pray at the tomb of St Martin.",
"The Irish palimpsest sacramentary from the mid-7th century contains the text of a mass for St Martin.",
"In the ''Life of Columba'', Adamnan mentions in passing that St Martin was commemorated during Mass at Iona.In his ''Ireland and Her Neighbours in the Seventh Century'', Michael Richter attributes this to the mission of Palladius seen within the wider context of the mission of Germanus of Auxerre to Britain around 429.Thus, this could be the context in which the Life of St Martin was brought from Gaul to Ireland at an early date, and could explain how Columbanus was familiar with it before he ever left Ireland."
],
[
"Legacy",
"===Ligugé Abbey===Founded by Martin of Tours in 360, Ligugé Abbey is one of the earliest monastic foundations in France.",
"The reputation of the founder attracted a large number of disciples to the new monastery; the disciples initially living in locaciacum or small huts, this name later evolved to Ligugé.",
"Its reputation was soon eclipsed by Martin's later foundation at Marmoutier.",
"As of 2013, the Benedictine community at Ligugé numbered twenty-five.===European folk traditions===''Martinitoren'', the Martini Tower in Groningen, The NetherlandsFrom the late 4th century to the late Middle Ages, much of Western Europe, including Great Britain, engaged in a period of fasting beginning on the day after St. Martin's Day, November 11.This fast period lasted 40 days (not including Saturdays and Sundays), and was, therefore, called ''Quadragesima Sancti Martini'', which means in Latin \"the forty days of St. Martin\".",
"At St. Martin's eve and on the feast day, people ate and drank very heartily for a last time before they started to fast.",
"This fasting time was later called \"Advent\" by the Church and was considered a time for spiritual preparation for Christmas.On St. Martin's Day, children in Flanders, the southern and northern parts of the Netherlands, and the Catholic areas of Germany and Austria still participate in paper lantern processions.",
"Often, a man dressed as St. Martin rides on a horse in front of the procession.",
"The children sing songs about St. Martin and about their lanterns.",
"The food traditionally eaten on the day is goose, a rich bird.",
"According to legend, Martin was reluctant to become bishop, which is why he hid in a stable filled with geese.",
"The noise made by the geese betrayed his location to the people who were looking for him.Statue of Saint Martin in the grounds of Saint Martin de Tours Roman Catholic Church in Saint Martinville, LouisianaIn the eastern part of the Belgian province of East Flanders (Aalst) and the western part of West Flanders (Ypres), traditionally children receive presents from St. Martin on November 11, instead of from Saint Nicholas on December 6 or Santa Claus on December 25.They also have lantern processions, for which children make lanterns out of beets.",
"In recent years, the lantern processions have become widespread as a popular ritual, even in Protestant areas of Germany and the Netherlands, although most Protestant churches no longer officially recognize Saints.In Portugal, where the saint's day is celebrated across the country, it is common for families and friends to gather around the fire in reunions called ''magustos'', where they typically eat roasted chestnuts and drink wine, ''jeropiga'' (a drink made of grape must and aguardente) and ''aguapé'' (a sort of weak and watered-down wine).",
"According to the most widespread variation of the cloak story, Saint Martin cut off half of his cloak in order to offer it to a beggar and along the way, he gave the remaining part to a second beggar.",
"As he faced a long ride in a freezing weather, the dark clouds cleared away and the sun shone so intensely that the frost melted away.",
"Such weather was rare for early November, so was credited to God's intervention.",
"The phenomenon of a sunny break to the chilly weather on Saint Martin's Day (11 November) is called ''Verão de São Martinho'' (Saint Martin's Summer, ''veranillo de san Martín'' in Spanish) in honor of the cloak legend.",
"''Rogal świętomarciński'', baked for St. Martin's Day in PoznańIn Malta on the night of the eve of Saint Martin's day children leave an empty bag next to the bed.",
"This bag is found full of fruit on the next day.Many churches are named after Saint Martin of Tours.",
"St Martin-in-the-fields, at Trafalgar Square in the centre of London, has a history appropriately associated with Martin's renunciation of war; Dick Sheppard, founder of the Peace Pledge Union, was Vicar 1914–26, and there is a memorial chapel for him, with a plaque for Vera Brittain, also a noted Anglican pacifist; the steps of the church are often used for peace vigils.",
"Saint Martin's Cathedral, in Ypres, Belgium, is dedicated to him.",
"St. Martin is the patron saint of Szombathely, Hungary, with a church dedicated to him, and also the patron saint of Buenos Aires.",
"In the Netherlands, he is the patron of the cathedral and city of Utrecht.",
"He is the patron of the city of Groningen; its Martini tower and Martinikerk (Groningen) (Martin's Church) were named for him.He is also the patron of the church and town of Bocaue.St.",
"Martin's Church in Kaiserslautern, Germany is a major city landmark.",
"It is located in the heart of the city's downtown in St. Martin's Square, and is surrounded by a number of restaurants and shops.",
"The church was originally built as a Franciscan monastery in the 14th century and has a number of unique architectural features.Stained glass in St. Martin of Tours Church in Vegreville, Alberta, CanadaSt.",
"Martin is the patron saint of the Polish towns of Bydgoszcz and Opatów.",
"His day is celebrated with a procession and festivities in the city of Poznań, where the main street (''Święty Marcin'') is named for him, after a 13th-century church in his honor.",
"A special type of crescent cake (''rogal świętomarciński'') is baked for the occasion.",
"As November 11 is also Polish Independence Day, it is a public holiday.The Monastery of Saint Martin of Castañeda has been a national historic monument since 1931.It is located in Galende, Sanabria, province of Zamora, Spain.",
"It now functions as an interpretation center.In Latin America, St. Martin has a strong popular following and is frequently referred to as '''''San Martín Caballero''''', in reference to his common depiction on horseback.",
"Mexican folklore believes him to be a particularly helpful saint toward business owners.The largest Anglican church in North America is St Martin's Episcopal in Houston, Texas.",
"It was the home church for many years of President and Mrs. George H. W. Bush and still is for former Secretary of State and Treasury James Baker and his wife Susan.San Martín de Loba is the name of a municipality in the Bolívar Department of Colombia.",
"Saint Martin, as San Martín de Loba, is the patron saint of Vasquez, a small village in Colombia.In Finland, the town and municipality Marttila (''S:t Mårtens'' in Swedish) is named after St. Martin and depicts him on its coat of arms.Though no mention of St. Martin's connection with viticulture is made by Gregory of Tours or other early hagiographers, he is now credited with a prominent role in spreading wine-making throughout the Touraine region and the planting of many vines.",
"The Greek myth that Aristaeus first discovered the concept of pruning the vines, after watching a goat eat some of the foliage, has been adopted for Martin.",
"He is also credited with introducing the Chenin blanc grape varietal, from which most of the white wine of western Touraine and Anjou is made.Martin Luther was named after St. Martin, as he was baptised on November 11 (St. Martin's Day), 1483, and many older Lutheran congregations are named after St. Martin.Martin of Tours is the patron saint of the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps, which has a medal in his name.",
"The Anglican ''Church Lads' and Church Girls' Brigade'', a 5–7 age group, was renamed 'Martins' in his honour in 1998.Many schools have St Martin as their Patron, one being St. Martin's School (Rosettenville) in Johannesburg.===In art and modern film===The Dutch film ''Flesh and Blood'' (1985) prominently features a statue of Saint Martin.",
"A mercenary in Renaissance Italy, named Martin, finds a statue of Saint Martin cutting his cloak and takes it as a sign to desert and rogue around under the saint's protection.File:Derick Baegert - Death of St Martin of Tours.jpg|''Death of Saint Martin of Tours'', by workshop of Derick Baegert, 1490 (LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur)File:'Saint Martin Healing the Possessed Man' by Jacob Jordaens.jpg|''Saint Martin Healing the Possessed Man'' by Jacob Jordaens, 1630File:Pietro bernini, san martino divide il mantello col povero, 1598 ca.",
"(napoli, s. martino) 01.jpg|''Saint Martin Dividing his Cloak'' by Pietro BerniniFile:Kloster Wettingen Ost IV 1.jpg|Kloster Wettingen OstBay 20 in the Chartres Cathedral portrays the life of St. Martin in a 40-panel stained glass window."
],
[
"See also",
"* St. Martin's Day* The Community of Saint Martin, an association of Roman Catholic priests* Church of St Martin of Tours (disambiguation)* Martin (name)* Saint Martin of Tours, patron saint archive"
],
[
"References",
"=== Explanatory notes ======Citations====== General and cited sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * Boucheron, Patrick, et al., eds.",
"(2019).",
"''France in the World: A New Global History''.",
"pp. 75–80.",
"* Maurey, Yossi (2014).",
"''Medieval Music, Legend, and the Cult of St Martin: The Local Foundations of a Universal Saint''.",
"Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014."
],
[
"External links",
"* \"St. Martin, Bishop of Tours, Confessor\", ''Butler's Lives of the Saints''* The Life and Miracles of Saint Martin of Tours, Bishop and Confessor of the Catholic Church* The Community of St Martin* St Martin's churches of the world * * Joachim Schäfer: * Erzbistum Köln: ''1600 Jahre Verehrung des heiligen Martin von Tours''* Martin from a historian's viewpoint (German)* Saint Martin Churches around the world* ''Martin von Tours: Soldat, Eremit und Heiliger'', film clips by Rüdiger Achenbach in the series ''Tag für Tag'' on Deutschlandfunk, Part 1 on 6 November 2014 and Part 2 on 7 November 2014"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Meaning of life"
],
[
"Introduction",
"''Where Do We Come From?",
"What Are We?",
"Where Are We Going?",
"'', one of Post-Impressionist Paul Gauguin's most famous paintingsThe '''meaning of life''' pertains to the significance of living or existence in general, and is sought through the question \"What is the meaning of life?\"",
"Many other related questions include: \"Why are we here?",
"\", \"What is life all about?",
"\", or \"What is the purpose of existence?\"",
"There have been many proposed answers to these questions from many different cultural and ideological backgrounds.",
"The search for life's meaning has produced much philosophical, scientific, theological, and metaphysical speculation throughout history.",
"Different people and cultures believe different things for the answer to this question.The meaning of life can be derived from philosophical and religious contemplation of, and scientific inquiries about, existence, social ties, consciousness, and happiness.",
"Many other issues are also involved, such as symbolic meaning, ontology, value, purpose, ethics, good and evil, free will, the existence of one or multiple gods, conceptions of God, the soul, and the afterlife.",
"Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing related empirical facts about the universe, exploring the context and parameters concerning the \"how\" of life.",
"Science also studies and can provide recommendations for the pursuit of well-being and a related conception of morality.",
"An alternative, humanistic approach poses the question, \"What is the meaning of ''my'' life?\""
],
[
"Origin of the expression",
"\"The Storm Fiend\" — Heading to Book II Chapter IX of Thomas Carlyle's ''Sartor Resartus'', 1898 illustration by E. J. SullivanThe first English use of the expression \"meaning of life\" appears in Thomas Carlyle's ''Sartor Resartus'' (1833–1834), book II chapter IX, \"The Everlasting Yea\".",
"Our Life is compassed round with Necessity; yet is the '''meaning of Life''' itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle.Carlyle may have been inspired by earlier usage of the equivalent German expression ''der Sinn des Lebens'' by German Romantic writers Novalis and Friedrich Schlegel.",
"Schlegel was the first to use it in print by way of his novel ''Lucinde'' (1799), though Novalis had done so in a 1797–1798 manuscript, in which he wrote: \"Only an artist can divine the meaning of life.\"",
"Additionally, the word ''lebenssinn'', translated as life's meaning, had been used by Goethe in a 1796 letter to Schiller.",
"These authors grappled with the rationalism and materialism of modernity.",
"Carlyle called this the \"Torch of Science\", which burned \"more fiercely than ever\" and made religion \"all parched away, under the Droughts of practical and spiritual Unbelief\", resulting in the \"Wilderness\" of \"the wide World in an Atheistic Century\"."
],
[
"Origin of the question",
"''Philosopher in Meditation'' (detail) by RembrandtArthur Schopenhauer was the first to explicitly ask the question, in an essay entitled \"Character\".Since ''a man does not alter'', and his ''moral character'' remains absolutely the same all through his life; since he must play out the part which he has received, without the least deviation from the character; since neither experience, nor philosophy, nor religion can effect any improvement in him, the question arises, '''What is the meaning of life at all?'''",
"To what purpose is it played, this farce in which everything that is essential is irrevocably fixed and determined?Questions about the meaning of life have been expressed in a broad variety of other ways, including:* What is the meaning of life?",
"What's it all about?",
"Who are we?",
"* Why are we here?",
"What are we here for?",
"* What is the origin of life?",
"* What is the nature of life?",
"What is the nature of reality?",
"* What is the purpose of life?",
"What is the purpose of one's life?",
"* What is the significance of life?",
"(See also #Psychological significance and value in life)* What is meaningful and valuable in life?",
"* What is the value of life?",
"* What is the reason to live?",
"What are we living for?These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and explications, from scientific theories, to philosophical, theological, and spiritual explanations."
],
[
"Scientific inquiry and perspectives",
"Many members of the scientific community and philosophy of science communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life.",
"In their view, science can offer a wide range of insights on topics ranging from the science of happiness to death anxiety.",
"Scientific inquiry facilitates this through nomological investigation into various aspects of life and reality, such as the Big Bang, the origin of life, and evolution, and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness.===Psychological significance and value in life===Researchers in positive psychology study empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction, full engagement in activities, making a fuller contribution by using one's personal strengths, and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self.",
"Large-data studies of flow experiences have consistently suggested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment when mastering challenging tasks and that the experience comes from the way tasks are approached and performed rather than the particular choice of task.",
"For example, flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in concentration camps with minimal facilities, and occur only slightly more often in billionaires.",
"A classic example is of two workers on an apparently boring production line in a factory.",
"One treats the work as a tedious chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast he/she can make each unit and achieves flow in the process.Neuroscience describes reward, pleasure, and motivation in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in the limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in particular.",
"If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure and to ease general life, then this allows normative predictions about how to act to achieve this.",
"Likewise, some ethical naturalists advocate a science of morality—the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all conscious creatures.Experimental philosophy and neuroethics research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such as trolley problems.",
"It has shown that many types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures, suggesting that they may be innate, whilst others are culture-specific.",
"The findings show actual human ethical reasoning to be at odds with most philosophical theories, for example consistently showing distinctions between action by cause and action by omission which would be absent from utility-based theories.",
"Cognitive science has theorized about differences between conservative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on different metaphors from family life such as strong fathers vs nurturing mother models.Neurotheology is a controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience.",
"Some researchers have suggested that the human brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and that living without using them for their evolved purposes may be a cause of imbalance.",
"Studies have reported conflicting results on correlating happiness with religious belief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta-analyses.Sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory, norms, anomie, etc.",
"One value system suggested by social psychologists, broadly called Terror Management Theory, states that human meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death, and values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death.Alongside this, there are a number of theories about the way in which humans evaluate the positive and negative aspects of their existence and thus the value and meaning they place on their lives.",
"For example, depressive realism posits an exaggerated positivity in all except those experiencing depressive disorders who see life as it truly is, and David Benatar theorises that more weight is generally given to positive experiences, providing bias towards an over-optimistic view of life.Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts better physical health outcomes.",
"Greater meaning has been associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease, reduced risk of heart attack among individuals with coronary heart disease, reduced risk of stroke, and increased longevity in both American and Japanese samples.",
"There is also growing evidence for a small decline in purpose in life in the early stages of cognitive impairment.In 2014, the British National Health Service began recommending a five-step plan for mental well-being based on meaningful lives, whose steps are:# Connect with community and family# Physical exercise# Lifelong learning# Giving to others# Mindfulness of the world around you===Origin and nature of biological life===DNA contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all known organisms.The exact mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown: notable hypotheses include the RNA world hypothesis (RNA-based replicators) and the iron-sulfur world hypothesis (metabolism without genetics).",
"The process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via genetic mutation and natural selection is explained by evolution.",
"At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from the gene-centered view of evolution, biologists George C. Williams, Richard Dawkins, and David Haig, among others, concluded that if there is a primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes.",
"Responding to an interview question from Richard Dawkins about \"what it is all for\", James Watson stated \"I don't think we're ''for'' anything.",
"We're just the products of evolution.",
"\"Though scientists have intensively studied life on Earth, defining life in unequivocal terms is still a challenge.",
"Physically, one may say that life \"feeds on negative entropy\" which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal entropy at the expense of some form of energy taken in from the environment.",
"Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are self-organizing systems which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state, metabolism serves to provide energy, and reproduction causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations.",
"Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation, resulting in adaptation through evolution; this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively.Non-cellular replicating agents, notably viruses, are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism.",
"This classification is problematic, though, since some parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of independent life.",
"Astrobiology studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA.===Origins and ultimate fate of the universe===Modern view of the expansion of space.",
"The inflationary epoch is a period of rapidly accelerating expansion at left.Though the Big Bang theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations.",
"However, current physics can only describe the early universe from around 10−43 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature); a theory of quantum gravity would be required to understand events before that time.",
"Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how the universe came into being.",
"For example, one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the anthropic principle, it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a multiverse.The ultimate fate of the universe, and implicitly of humanity, is hypothesized as one in which biological life will eventually become unsustainable, such as through a Big Freeze, Big Rip, or Big Crunch.Theoretical cosmology studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the Big Bang theory.",
"A recent trend has been models of the creation of 'baby universes' inside black holes, with our own Big Bang being a white hole on the inside of a black hole in another parent universe.",
"Many-worlds theories claim that every possibility of quantum mechanics is played out in parallel universes.===Scientific questions about the mind===The nature and origin of consciousness and the mind are also widely debated in science.",
"The explanatory gap is generally equated with the hard problem of consciousness, and the question of free will is also considered to be of fundamental importance.",
"These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of cognitive science, neuroscience (e.g.",
"the neuroscience of free will) and philosophy of mind, though some evolutionary biologists and theoretical physicists have also made several allusions to the subject.Hieronymus Bosch's ''Ascent of the Blessed'' depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures, often described in reports of near-death experiences.Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches, for example the Multiple Drafts Model, hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the brain and its neurons, thus adhering to biological naturalism.On the other hand, some scientists, like Andrei Linde, have considered that consciousness, like spacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that one's perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects.",
"Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a \"space of conscious elements\", often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.",
"Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciousness in saying that the electromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience; there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind.",
"Quantum mind theories use quantum theory in explaining certain properties of the mind.",
"Explaining the process of free will through quantum phenomena is an alternative to determinism.==== Parapsychology ====Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a cosmic consciousness, asserting that consciousness is actually the \"ground of all being\".",
"Proponents of this view cite accounts of paranormal phenomena, primarily extrasensory perceptions and psychic powers, as evidence for an incorporeal higher consciousness.",
"In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments, but successful results might be due to poor experimental controls and might have alternative explanations.=== Nature of meaning in life ===Reker and Wong define personal meaning as the \"cognizance of order, coherence and purpose in one's existence, the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals, and an accompanying sense of fulfillment\" (p. 221).",
"In 2016, Martela and Steger defined meaning as coherence, purpose, and significance.",
"In contrast, Wong has proposed a four-component solution to the question of meaning in life, with the four components purpose, understanding, responsibility, and enjoyment (PURE):# You need to choose a worthy ''purpose'' or a significant life goal.# You need to have sufficient ''understanding'' of who you are, what life demands of you, and how you can play a significant role in life.# You and you alone are ''responsible'' for deciding what kind of life you want to live, and what constitutes a significant and worthwhile life goal.",
"# You will ''enjoy'' a deep sense of significance and satisfaction only when you have exercised your responsibility for self-determination and actively pursue a worthy life-goal.Thus, a sense of significance permeates every dimension of meaning, rather than standing as a separate factor.Although most psychology researchers consider meaning in life as a subjective feeling or judgment, most philosophers (e.g., Thaddeus Metz, Daniel Haybron) propose that there are also objective, concrete criteria for what constitutes meaning in life.",
"Wong has proposed that whether life is meaningful depends not only on subjective feelings but, more importantly, on whether a person's goal-striving and life as a whole is meaningful according to some objective normative standard."
],
[
"Western philosophical perspectives",
"The philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans.===Ancient Greek philosophy===Plato and Aristotle in ''The School of Athens'' fresco by Raphael.",
"Plato is pointing heavenwards, and Aristotle is gesturing to the world.====Platonism====Plato, a pupil of Socrates, was one of the earliest, most influential philosophers.",
"His reputation comes from his idealism of believing in the existence of universals.",
"His theory of forms proposes that universals do not physically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms.",
"In the dialogue of the ''Republic'', the character of Socrates describes the Form of the Good.",
"His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life.In Platonism, the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea (Form) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value.====Aristotelianism====Aristotle, an apprentice of Plato, was another early and influential philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is not ''certain'' knowledge (such as metaphysics and epistemology), but is ''general'' knowledge.",
"Because it is not a theoretical discipline, a person had to study and practice in order to become \"good\"; thus if the person were to become virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue ''is'', he had to ''be'' virtuous, via virtuous activities.",
"To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous:Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B also would have a goal, goal C, and goal C also would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern, until something stopped its infinite regression.",
"Aristotle's solution is the ''Highest Good'', which is desirable for its own sake.",
"It is its own goal.",
"The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other \"goods\" desirable for its sake.",
"This involves achieving ''eudaemonia'', usually translated as \"happiness\", \"well-being\", \"flourishing\", and \"excellence\".====Cynicism====Antisthenes.",
"Roman copy after a Hellenistic original.",
"From the Villa of Cassius at Tivoli, 1774.Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates, first outlined the themes of Cynicism, stating that the purpose of life is living a life of Virtue which agrees with Nature.",
"Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and master of one's mental attitude; suffering is the consequence of false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions and a concomitant vicious character.The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for wealth, power, health, and fame, by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional.",
"As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural to human beings.",
"The world equally belongs to everyone, so suffering is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the customs and conventions of society.====Cyrenaicism====Aristippus of Cyrene, a pupil of Socrates, founded an early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of Socrates's teachings—that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a hedonistic world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure.",
"Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness.====Epicureanism====Epicurus, a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos, taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain (aponia) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires.",
"Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form.",
"Epicurus' lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi-ascetic \"abstention\" from sex and the appetites:\"When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or willful misrepresentation.",
"By pleasure, we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul.",
"It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul.",
"\"The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body.",
"There is no afterlife, yet, one need not fear death, because \"Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us.",
"\"====Stoicism====Bust of Zeno of Citium at the Neues MuseumZeno of Citium, a pupil of Crates of Thebes, established the school which teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal ''logos'', or reason, an essential value of all people.",
"The meaning of life is \"freedom from suffering\" through ''apatheia'' (Gr: απαθεια), that is, being objective and having \"clear judgement\", ''not'' indifference.Stoicism's prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural law, abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions.",
"The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration.The Stoic ethical foundation is that \"good lies in the state of the soul\", itself, exemplified in wisdom and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: \"''Virtue'' consists in a ''will'' which is in agreement with Nature.\"",
"The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: \"to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy\".===Enlightenment philosophy===The Enlightenment and the colonial era both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide.",
"Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship.The meaning of life changed as well, focusing less on humankind's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society.",
"This era is filled with theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order.====Classical liberalism====Classical liberalism is a set of ideas that arose in the 17th and 18th centuries, out of conflicts between a growing, wealthy, propertied class and the established aristocratic and religious orders that dominated Europe.",
"Liberalism cast humans as beings with inalienable natural rights (including the right to retain the wealth generated by one's own work), and sought out means to balance rights across society.",
"Broadly speaking, it considers individual liberty to be the most important goal, because only through ensured liberty are the other inherent rights protected.There are many forms and derivations of liberalism, but their central conceptions of the meaning of life trace back to three main ideas.",
"Early thinkers such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith saw humankind beginning in the state of nature, then finding meaning for existence through labor and property, and using social contracts to create an environment that supports those efforts.====Kantianism====Immanuel Kant is regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of the late Enlightenment.Kantianism is a philosophy based on the ethical, epistemological, and metaphysical works of Immanuel Kant.",
"Kant is known for his deontological theory where there is a single moral obligation, the \"Categorical Imperative\", derived from the concept of duty.",
"Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying maxim or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative.Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the maxim (imagine that all people acted in this way) and then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim in the world without contradiction.",
"In ''Groundwork'', Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back.",
"This is a contradiction because if it were a universal action, no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back.",
"The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty).Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside one's full control and thus one cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it.===19th-century philosophy===The first English use of the expression \"meaning of life\" appeared in Thomas Carlyle's ''Sartor Resartus'' (1833–August 1834): \"Our Life is compassed round with Necessity; yet is the meaning of Life itself no other than Freedom, than Voluntary Force: thus have we a warfare; in the beginning, especially, a hard-fought battle.",
"\"====Utilitarianism====Jeremy BenthamThe origins of utilitarianism can be traced back as far as Epicurus, but, as a school of thought, it is credited to Jeremy Bentham, who found that \"nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure\"; then, from that moral insight, he derived the ''Rule of Utility'': \"that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people\".",
"He defined the meaning of life as the \"greatest happiness principle\".Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day, and father of John Stuart Mill.",
"The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarizing much of his father's work.====Nihilism====Nihilism suggests that life is without objective meaning.Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of \"the devaluing of the highest values\".",
"Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that God is dead, and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-negating values returned meaning to the Earth.To Martin Heidegger, nihilism is the movement whereby \"being\" is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.",
"Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche, saw in the so-called \"death of God\" a potential source for nihilism:If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-building power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself.The End of the World'' by John MartinThe French philosopher Albert Camus asserts that the absurdity of the human condition is that people search for external values and meaning in a world which has none and is indifferent to them.",
"Camus writes of value-nihilists such as Meursault, but also of values in a nihilistic world, that people can instead strive to be \"heroic nihilists\", living with dignity in the face of absurdity, living with \"secular saintliness\", fraternal solidarity, and rebelling against and transcending the world's indifference.===20th-century philosophy===The current era has seen radical changes in both formal and popular conceptions of human nature.",
"The knowledge disclosed by modern science has effectively rewritten the relationship of humankind to the natural world.",
"Advances in medicine and technology have freed humans from significant limitations and ailments of previous eras; and philosophy—particularly following the linguistic turn—has altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other are conceived.",
"Questions about the meaning of life have also seen radical changes, from attempts to reevaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms (as in pragmatism and logical positivism) to efforts to meta-theorize about meaning-making as a personal, individual-driven activity (existentialism, secular humanism).====Pragmatism====Pragmatism originated in the late-19th-century US, concerning itself (mostly) with truth, and positing that \"only in struggling with the environment\" do data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that ''consequences'', like utility and practicality, are also components of truth.",
"Moreover, pragmatism posits that ''anything'' useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long course is true.",
"In practice, theoretical claims must be ''practically verifiable'', i.e.",
"one should be able to predict and test claims, and, that, ultimately, the needs of humankind should guide human intellectual inquiry.Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life.",
"William James argued that truth could be made, but not sought.",
"To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience.====Theism====Theists believe God created the universe and that God had a purpose in doing so.",
"Theists also hold the view that humans find their meaning and purpose for life in God's purpose in creating.",
"Some theists further hold that if there were no God to give life ultimate meaning, value, and purpose, then life would be absurd.====Existentialism====Edvard Munch's ''The Scream'', a representation of existential angstAccording to existentialism, each person creates the essence (meaning) of their life; life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, one is free.",
"As such, one's ethical prime directives are ''action'', ''freedom'', and ''decision'', thus, existentialism opposes rationalism and positivism.",
"In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; this gives rise to the emotions of anxiety and dread, felt in considering one's free will, and the concomitant awareness of death.",
"According to Jean-Paul Sartre, existence precedes essence; the (essence) of one's life arises ''only'' after one comes to existence.Søren Kierkegaard spoke about a \"leap\", arguing that life is full of absurdity, and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world.",
"One can live meaningfully (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commitment to something finite and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so.Arthur Schopenhauer answered: \"What is the meaning of life?\"",
"by stating that one's life reflects one's will, and that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive.",
"Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism.For Friedrich Nietzsche, life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live.",
"Accordingly, he saw nihilism (\"all that happens is meaningless\") as without goals.",
"He stated that asceticism denies one's living in the world; stated that values are not objective facts, that are rationally necessary, universally binding commitments: our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, all ideations take place from a particular perspective.====Absurdism====In absurdist philosophy, the Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual's search for meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the universe.",
"As beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world, humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma.",
"Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works, ''The Sickness Unto Death'' (1849) and ''The Myth of Sisyphus'' (1942):* Suicide (or, \"escaping existence\"): a solution in which a person simply ends one's own life.",
"Both Kierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this option.",
"* Religious belief in a transcendent realm or being: a solution in which one believes in the existence of a reality that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, has meaning.",
"Kierkegaard stated that a belief in anything beyond the Absurd requires a non-rational but perhaps necessary religious acceptance in such an intangible and empirically unprovable thing (now commonly referred to as a \"leap of faith\").",
"However, Camus regarded this solution as \"philosophical suicide\".",
"* Acceptance of the Absurd: a solution in which one accepts and even embraces the Absurd and continues to live in spite of it.",
"Camus endorsed this solution (notably in his 1947 allegorical novel ''The Plague'' or ''La Peste''), while Kierkegaard regarded this solution as \"demoniac madness\": \"''He rages most of all at the thought that eternity might get it into its head to take his misery from him!",
"''\"====Secular humanism====The \"Happy Human\" symbol representing secular humanismPer secular humanism, the human species came to be by reproducing successive generations in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral expression of nature, which is self-existing.",
"Human knowledge comes from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (the scientific method), and not from supernatural sources; the nature of the universe is what people discern it to be.",
"Likewise, \"values and realities\" are determined \"by means of intelligent inquiry\" and \"are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience\", that is, by critical intelligence.",
"\"As far as we know, the total personality is a function of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context.",
"\"People determine human purpose without supernatural influence; it is the human personality (general sense) that is the purpose of a human being's life which humanism seeks to develop and fulfill: \"Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity\".",
"Humanism aims to promote enlightened self-interest and the common good for all people.",
"It is based on the premises that the happiness of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of all humanity, in part because humans are social animals who find meaning in personal relations and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the culture.The philosophical subgenres posthumanism and transhumanism (sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values.",
"One should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible and seek to reconcile Renaissance humanism with the 21st century's technoscientific culture.",
"In this light, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social \"meaning of life\".From a humanism-psychotherapeutic point of view, the question of the meaning of life could be reinterpreted as \"What is the meaning of ''my'' life?\"",
"This approach emphasizes that the question is personal—and avoids focusing on cosmic or religious questions about overarching purpose.",
"There are many therapeutic responses to this question.",
"For example, Viktor Frankl argues for \"Dereflection\", which translates largely as to cease endlessly reflecting on the self; instead, engage in life.",
"On the whole, the therapeutic response is that the question itself—what is the meaning of life?—evaporates when one is fully engaged in life.",
"(The question then morphs into more specific worries such as \"What delusions am I under?",
"\"; \"What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?",
"\"; \"Why do I neglect loved-ones?\".",
")====Logical positivism====Logical positivists ask: \"What is the meaning of life?",
"\", \"What is the meaning in asking?\"",
"and \"If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless?\"",
"Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said: \"Expressed in language, the question is meaningless\"; because, ''in'' life the statement the \"meaning of x\", usually denotes the ''consequences'' of x, or the ''significance'' of x, or ''what is notable'' about x, etc., thus, when the meaning of life concept equals \"x\", in the statement the \"meaning of x\", the statement becomes recursive, and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life.The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life, itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned.",
"A person's life has meaning (for themselves, others) as the life events resulting from their achievements, legacy, family, etc., but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only ''in'' life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous.",
"Bertrand Russell wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this:When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is \"the Good,\" we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties.",
"Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy.",
"Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument.",
"In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better case—or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided.",
"But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall arouse similar emotions in others ...",
"Questions as to \"values\"—that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects—lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert.",
"I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to \"values\" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge.",
"That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has \"value\", we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.====Postmodernism====Postmodernist thought—broadly speaking—sees human nature as constructed by language, or by structures and institutions of human society.",
"Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out ''a priori'' or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing ''given'' meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them.",
"Anything resembling a \"meaning of life\", in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures that are already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction.",
"As a rule, postmodernists see awareness of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints, but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process: from a radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals (as in deconstructionism) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society, without real autonomy (as in poststructuralism).====Naturalistic pantheism====According to naturalistic pantheism, the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment.====Embodied cognition====Embodied cognition uses the neurological basis of emotion, speech, and cognition to understand the nature of thought.",
"Cognitive neuropsychology has identified brain areas necessary for these abilities, and genetic studies show that the gene FOXP2 affects neuroplasticity which underlies language fluency.George Lakoff, a professor of cognitive linguistics and philosophy, advances the view that metaphors are the usual basis of meaning, not the logic of verbal symbol manipulation.",
"Computers use logic programming to effectively query databases but humans rely on a trained biological neural network.",
"Postmodern philosophies that use the indeterminacy of symbolic language to deny definite meaning ignore those who feel they know what they mean and feel that their interlocutors know what they mean.",
"Choosing the correct metaphor results in enough common understanding to pursue questions such as the meaning of life.",
"Improved knowledge of brain function should result in better treatments producing healthier brains.",
"When combined with more effective training, a sound personal assessment as to the meaning of one's life should be straightforward."
],
[
"East Asian philosophical perspectives",
"===Mohism===The Mohist philosophers believed that the purpose of life was universal, impartial love.",
"Mohism promoted a philosophy of impartial caring—a person should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship with him or her.",
"The expression of this indiscriminate caring is what makes a man a righteous being in Mohist thought.",
"This advocacy of impartiality was a target of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools, most notably the Confucians who believed that while love should be unconditional, it should not be indiscriminate.",
"For example, children should hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers.===Confucianism===Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education.",
"Because humankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving virtue through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative.",
"This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Tu Wei-Ming's quote, \"We can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence.",
"\"===Legalism===The Legalists believed that finding the purpose of life was a meaningless effort.",
"To the Legalists, only practical knowledge was valuable, especially as it related to the function and performance of the state."
],
[
"Religious perspectives",
"The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of an implicit purpose not defined by humans.",
"According to the Charter for Compassion, signed by many of the world's leading religious and secular organizations, the core of religion is the golden rule of 'treat others as you would have them treat you'.",
"The Charter's founder, Karen Armstrong, quotes the ancient Rabbi Hillel who suggested that 'the rest is commentary'.",
"This is not to reduce the commentary's importance, and Armstrong considers that its study, interpretation, and ritual are the means by which religious people internalize and live the golden rule.===Abrahamic religions===Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam====Judaism====In the Judaic worldview, the meaning of life is to elevate the physical world ('Olam HaZeh') and prepare it for the world to come ('Olam HaBa'), the messianic era.",
"This is called Tikkun Olam (\"Fixing the World\").",
"Olam HaBa can also mean the spiritual afterlife, and there is debate concerning the eschatological order.",
"However, Judaism is not focused on personal salvation, but on communal (between man and man) and individual (between man and God) spiritualised actions in this world.Judaism's most important feature is the worship of a single, incomprehensible, transcendent, one, indivisible, absolute Being, who created and governs the universe.",
"Closeness with the God of Israel is through a study of His Torah, and adherence to its mitzvot (divine laws).",
"In traditional Judaism, God established a special covenant with a people, the people of Israel, at Mount Sinai, giving the Jewish commandments.",
"Torah comprises the written Pentateuch and the transcribed oral tradition, further developed through the generations.",
"The Jewish people are intended as \"a kingdom of priests and a holy nation\" and a \"light to the Nations\", influencing the other peoples to keep their own religio-ethical Seven Laws of Noah.",
"The messianic era is seen as the perfection of this dual path to God.Jewish observances involve ethical and ritual, affirmative, and prohibitive injunctions.",
"Modern Jewish denominations differ over the nature, relevance, and emphases of mitzvot.",
"Jewish philosophy emphasises that God is not affected or benefited, but the individual and society benefit by drawing close to God.",
"The rationalist Maimonides sees the ethical and ritual divine commandments as a necessary, but insufficient preparation for philosophical understanding of God, with its love and awe.",
"Among fundamental values in the Torah are pursuit of justice, compassion, peace, kindness, hard work, prosperity, humility, and education.",
"The world to come, prepared in the present, elevates man to an everlasting connection with God.",
"Simeon the Righteous says, \"The world stands on three things: on Torah, on worship, and on acts of loving kindness.\"",
"The prayer book relates, \"Blessed is our God who created us for his honor ... and planted within us everlasting life.\"",
"Of this context, the Talmud states, \"Everything that God does is for the good.\"",
"including suffering.The Jewish mystical Kabbalah gives complementary esoteric meanings of life.",
"As well as Judaism providing an immanent relationship with God (personal theism), in Kabbalah, the spiritual and physical creation is a paradoxical manifestation of the immanent aspects of God's Being (panentheism), related to the Shekhinah (Divine feminine).",
"Jewish observance unites the sephirot (Divine attributes) on high, restoring harmony to creation.",
"In Lurianic Kabbalah, the meaning of life is the messianic rectification of the shattered sparks of God's persona, exiled in physical existence (the Kelipot shells), through the actions of Jewish observance.",
"Through this, in Hasidic Judaism the ultimate essential \"desire\" of God is the revelation of the Omnipresent Divine essence through materiality, achieved by a man from within his limited physical realm when the body will give life to the soul.====Christianity====Christ the Redeemer'' statue on Corcovado mountain in Rio de Janeiro is symbolic of Christianity, illustrating the concept of seeking redemption through Jesus Christ.Christianity has its roots in Judaism, and shares much of the latter faith's ontology.",
"Its central beliefs derive from the teachings of Jesus Christ as presented in the New Testament.",
"Life's purpose in Christianity is to seek divine salvation through the grace of God and intercession of Christ.",
"The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come, which can happen only if one's sins are forgiven.In the Christian view, humankind was made in the Image of God and perfect, but the Fall of Man caused the progeny of the First Parents to inherit Original Sin and its consequences.",
"Christ's passion, death and resurrection provide the means for transcending that impure state (Romans 6:23).",
"That this restoration from sin is possible is called the gospel.The specific process of appropriating salvation through Christ and maintaining a relationship with God varies between different denominations of Christians, but all rely on faith in Christ and the gospel as the fundamental starting point.",
"Salvation through faith in God is found in Ephesians 2:8–98 \"For by grace you have been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God;9 not as a result of works, that no one should boast.\"",
"(NASB; 1973).",
"The gospel maintains that through this belief, the barrier that sin has created between man and God is destroyed, thereby allowing believers to be regenerated by God and to instill in them a new heart after God's own will with the ability to live righteously before him.",
"This is what the term saved almost always refer to.In Reformed theology, it is believed the purpose of life is to glorify God.",
"In the ''Westminster Shorter Catechism'', an important creed for Reformed Christians, the first question is: \"What is the chief end of Man?\"",
"(that is, \"What is Man's main purpose?\").",
"The answer is: \"Man's chief end is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever\".",
"God requires one to obey the revealed moral law, saying: \"Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbour as yourself\".",
"The ''Baltimore Catechism'' answers the question \"Why did God make you?\"",
"by saying \"God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven.",
"\"Areopagus from the Acropolis (Athens, 2006)The Apostle Paul also answers this question in his speech on the Areopagus in Athens: \"And He has made from one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth, and has determined their preappointed times and the boundaries of their dwellings, so that they should seek the Lord, in the hope that they might grope for Him and find Him, though He is not far from each one of us.",
"\"Catholicism's way of thinking is better expressed through the Principle and Foundation of St. Ignatius of Loyola: \"The human person is created to praise, reverence, and serve God Our Lord, and by doing so, to save his or her soul.",
"All other things on the face of the earth are created for human beings in order to help them pursue the end for which they are created.",
"It follows from this that one must use other created things, in so far as they help towards one's end, and free oneself from them, in so far as they are obstacles to one's end.",
"To do this, we need to make ourselves indifferent to all created things, provided the matter is subject to our free choice and there is no other prohibition.",
"Thus, as far as we are concerned, we should not want health more than illness, wealth more than poverty, fame more than disgrace, a-long life more than a short one, and similarly for all the rest, but we should desire and choose only what helps us more towards the end for which we are created.",
"\"Mormonism teaches that the purpose of life on Earth is to gain knowledge and experience and to have joy.",
"Mormons believe that humans are literally the spirit children of God the Father, and thus have the potential to progress to become like Him.",
"Mormons teach that God provided his children the choice to come to Earth, which is considered a crucial stage in their development—wherein a mortal body, coupled with the freedom to choose, makes for an environment to learn and grow.",
"The Fall of Adam is not viewed as an unfortunate or unplanned cancellation of God's original plan for a paradise; rather, the opposition found in mortality is an essential element of God's plan because the process of enduring and overcoming challenges, difficulties, and temptations provides opportunities to gain wisdom and strength, thereby learning to appreciate and choose good and reject evil.",
"Because God is just, he allows those who were not taught the gospel during mortality to receive it after death in the spirit world, so that all of his children have the opportunity to return to live with God, and reach their full potential.A recent alternative Christian theological discourse interprets Jesus as revealing that the purpose of life is to elevate our compassionate response to human suffering; nonetheless, the conventional Christian position is that people are justified by belief in the propitiatory sacrifice of Jesus' death on the cross.====Islam====In Islam, humanity's ultimate purpose is to worship their creator, Allah (), through his signs, and be grateful to him through sincere love and devotion.",
"This is practically shown by following the divine guidelines revealed in the Qur'an and the tradition of the Prophet (with the exception of Quranists).",
"Earthly life is a test, determining one's position of closeness to Allah in the hereafter.",
"A person will either be close to him and his love in ''Jannah'' (Paradise) or far away in ''Jahannam'' (Hell).For Allah's satisfaction, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the \"Day of Judgment\".",
"The Qur'an describes the purpose of creation as follows: \"Blessed be he in whose hand is the kingdom, he is powerful over all things, who created death and life that he might examine which of you is best in deeds, and he is the almighty, the forgiving.\"",
"(Qur'an 67:1–2) and \"And I (Allâh) created not the jinn and mankind except that they should be obedient (to Allah).\"",
"(Qur'an 51:56).",
"Obedience testifies to the oneness of God in his lordship, his names, and his attributes.",
"Terrenal life is a test; how one ''acts'' (behaves) determines whether one's soul goes to Jannat (Heaven) or to Jahannam (Hell).",
"However, on the day of Judgement the final decision is of Allah alone.The Five Pillars of Islam are duties incumbent to every Muslim; they are: Shahadah (profession of faith); Salat (ritual prayer); Zakat (charity); Sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).",
"They derive from the Hadith works, notably of Sahih Al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim.",
"The five pillars are not mentioned directly in the Quran.Beliefs differ among the Kalam.",
"The Sunni and the Ahmadiyya concept of pre-destination is divine decree; the Shi'a concept of pre-destination is divine justice; in the esoteric view of the Sufis, the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize.The Sufi view of the meaning of life stems from the hadith qudsi that states \"I (God) was a Hidden Treasure and loved to be known.",
"Therefore I created the Creation that I might be known.\"",
"One possible interpretation of this view is that the meaning of life for an individual is to know the nature of God, and the purpose of all of creation is to reveal that nature and to prove its value as the ultimate treasure, that is God.",
"However, this hadith is stated in various forms and interpreted in various ways by people, such, as 'Abdu'l-Bahá of the Baháʼí Faith, and in Ibn'Arabī's Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam.====Baháʼí Faith====Ringstone symbol represents humanity's connection to God.The Baháʼí Faith emphasizes the unity of humanity.",
"To Baháʼís, the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity.",
"Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings.",
"People's lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow, to develop divine qualities and virtues, and the prophets were sent by God to facilitate this.===South Asian religions=======Hindu philosophies====Aum written in Devanagari.",
"The Aum is sacred in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religions.Hinduism is a religious category including many beliefs and traditions.",
"Since Hinduism was the way of expressing meaningful living for a long time before there was a need for naming it as a separate religion, Hindu doctrines are supplementary and complementary in nature, generally non-exclusive, suggestive, and tolerant in content.",
"Most believe that the ātman (spirit, soul)—the person's true ''self''—is eternal.",
"In part, this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the state of development of the individual.",
"There are four possible aims to human life, known as the ''purusharthas'' (ordered from least to greatest): (i) ''Kāma'' (wish, desire, love and sensual pleasure), (ii) ''Artha'' (wealth, prosperity, glory), (iii) ''Dharma'' (righteousness, duty, morality, virtue, ethics), encompassing notions such as ''ahimsa'' (non-violence) and satya (truth) and (iv) ''Moksha'' (liberation, i.e.",
"liberation from Saṃsāra, the cycle of reincarnation).In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts of karma (causal action), sansara (the cycle of birth and rebirth), and moksha (liberation).",
"Existence is conceived as the progression of the ātman (similar to the western concept of a soul) across numerous lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma.",
"Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader yogas (practices) or dharma (correct living) which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in this life as well.",
"Traditional schools of Hinduism often worship Devas which are manifestations of Ishvara (a personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improvement.In short, the goal is to realize the fundamental truth about oneself.",
"This thought is conveyed in the Mahāvākyas (\"Tat Tvam Asi\" (thou art that), \"Aham Brahmāsmi\", \"Prajñānam Brahma\" and \"Ayam Ātmā Brahma\" (This Ātman is Brahman)).=====Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism=====Later schools reinterpreted the vedas to focus on Brahman, \"The One Without a Second\", as a central God-like figure.In monist Advaita Vedanta, ātman is ultimately indistinguishable from Brahman, and the goal of life is to know or realize that one's Ātman (soul) is identical to Brahman.",
"To the Upanishads, whoever becomes fully aware of the Ātman, as one's core of self, realizes identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achieves Moksha (liberation, freedom).Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools have a dualist interpretation.",
"Brahman is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities.",
"The Ātman depends upon Brahman for its existence; the meaning of life is achieving Moksha through the love of God and upon His grace.=====Vaishnavism=====Vaishnavism is a branch of Hinduism in which the principal belief is the identification of Vishnu or Narayana as the one supreme God.",
"This belief contrasts with the Krishna-centered traditions, such as Vallabha, Nimbaraka and Gaudiya, in which Krishna is considered to be the One and only Supreme God and the source of all avataras.Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hinduism such as monotheism, reincarnation, samsara, karma, and the various Yoga systems, but with a particular emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu through the process of Bhakti yoga, often including singing Vishnu's name's (bhajan), meditating upon his form (dharana) and performing deity worship (puja).",
"The practices of deity worship are primarily based on texts such as Pañcaratra and various Samhitas.One popular school of thought, Gaudiya Vaishnavism, teaches the concept of Achintya Bheda Abheda.",
"In this, Krishna is worshipped as the single true God, and all living entities are eternal parts and the Supreme Personality of the Godhead Krishna.",
"Thus the constitutional position of a living entity is to serve the Lord with love and devotion.",
"The purpose of human life especially is to think beyond the animalistic way of eating, sleeping, mating, and defending and engage the higher intelligence to revive the lost relationship with Krishna.====Jainism====Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else.",
"Through following the ascetic teachings of Jina, a human achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge).",
"Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings.",
"Only when the living becomes attached to the non-living does suffering result.",
"Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects.",
"The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, ''jiva''.",
"Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha.",
"The Jain view of karma is that every action, every word, every thought has effect on the soul.Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa (or ''ahinsā''), a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism.",
"Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty.",
"Many practice a lifestyle similar to veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.====Buddhism========= Early Buddhism =====Buddhists practice embracing mindfulness, the ill-being (suffering) and well-being that is present in life.",
"Buddhists practice seeing the causes of ill-being and well-being in life.",
"For example, one of the causes of suffering is an unhealthy attachment to objects material or non-material.",
"The Buddhist sūtras and tantras do not speak about \"the meaning of life\" or \"the purpose of life\", but about the potential of human life to end suffering, for example through embracing (not suppressing or denying) cravings and conceptual attachments.",
"Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of Nirvana.",
"Nirvana means freedom from both suffering and rebirth.The eight-spoked DharmachakraTheravada Buddhism is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice.",
"It promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally \"Teaching of Analysis\", which says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith.",
"However, the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged.",
"The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths.",
"This is attained in the achievement of Nirvana, or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness, and death.",
"The way to attain Nirvana is by following and practicing the Noble Eightfold Path.=====Mahayana Buddhism=====Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional view (still practiced in Theravada) of the release from individual Suffering (Duhkha) and attainment of Awakening (Nirvana).",
"In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being.",
"The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent Buddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings.Philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism, such as Chan/Zen and the Vajrayana Tibetan and Shingon schools, explicitly teach that Bodhisattva should refrain from full liberation, allowing themselves to be reincarnated into the world until all beings achieve enlightenment.",
"Devotional schools such as Pure Land Buddhism seek the aid of celestial buddhas—individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma, and use that accumulation to aid all.====Sikhism====Khanda, an important symbol of SikhismThe followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh Gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the ''Gurū Granth Sāhib'', which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds.The Sikh Gurus say that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths, so Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: \"The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him.\"",
"Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God.",
"Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself (pantheism).",
"Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual.",
"While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings, Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable, and stressed that God must be seen from \"the inward eye\", or the \"heart\", of a human being: devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment and the ultimate destination of a Sikh is to lose the ego completely in the love of the lord and finally merge into the almighty creator.",
"Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.===East Asian religions=======Taoism====''Taijitu'' symbolizes the unity of opposites between yin and yang.Taoist cosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all men to return to the ''primordial'' or to rejoin with the ''Oneness'' of the Universe by way of self-cultivation and self-realization.",
"All adherents should understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.Taoists believe all things were originally from Taiji and Tao, and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realize the temporal nature of the existence.",
"\"Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living ... the simple answer is here within ourselves.",
"\"====Shinto====Shinto torii, a traditional Japanese gateShinto is the native religion of Japan.",
"Shinto means \"the path of the kami\", but more specifically, it can be taken to mean \"the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way\".",
"The \"divine\" crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit.",
"This foundation of free will, choosing one's way, means that life is a creative process.Shinto wants life to live, not to die.",
"Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development.",
"Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms.",
"The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so.",
"The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.====New religions====There are many new religious movements in East Asia, and some with millions of followers: Chondogyo, Tenrikyo, Cao Đài, and Seicho-No-Ie.",
"New religions typically have unique explanations for the meaning of life.",
"For example, in Tenrikyo, one is expected to live a Joyous Life by participating in practices that create happiness for oneself and others.===Iranian religions=======Zoroastrianism====Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by a transcendent God, Ahura Mazda, to whom all worship is ultimately directed.",
"Ahura Mazda's creation is ''asha'', truth and order, and it is in conflict with its antithesis, ''druj'', falsehood and disorder.Since humanity possesses free will, people must be responsible for their moral choices.",
"By using free will, people must take an active role in the universal conflict, with good thoughts, good words and good deeds to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay."
],
[
"Popular views",
"\"What is the meaning of life?\"",
"is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context \"What is the purpose of life?\".",
"Some popular answers include:===To realize one's potential and ideals===*To chase dreams.",
"* To live one's dreams.",
"* To spend it for something that will outlast it.",
"* To matter: to count, to stand for something, to have made some difference that you lived at all.",
"* To expand one's potential in life.",
"* To become the person you've always wanted to be.",
"* To become the best version of yourself.",
"* To seek happiness and flourish.",
"* To be a true authentic human being.",
"* To be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feelings, one's work, one's beliefs.",
"* To follow or submit to our destiny.",
"* To achieve eudaimonia, a flourishing of human spirit.===To evolve, or to achieve biological perfection===* To evolve, changing from generation to generation.",
"* To survive, that is, to live as long as possible, including pursuit of immortality (through scientific means).",
"* To live forever or die trying.",
"* To maximize one's genes' advantage in terms of natural selection, by having many children or indirect descendants via relatives.",
"* To replicate, to reproduce.",
"\"The 'dream' of every cell is to become two cells.",
"\"===To seek wisdom and knowledge===* To expand one's perception of the world.",
"* To follow the clues and walk out the exit.",
"* To learn as many things as possible in life.",
"* To know as much as possible about as many things as possible.",
"* To seek wisdom and knowledge and to tame the mind, as to avoid suffering caused by ignorance and find happiness.",
"* To face our fears and accept the lessons life offers us.",
"* To find the meaning or purpose of life.",
"* To find a reason to live.",
"* To resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality.=== To do good, to do the right thing ===* To leave the world as a better place than you found it.",
"* To do your best to leave every situation better than you found it.",
"* To benefit others.",
"* To give more than you take.",
"* To end suffering.",
"* To create equality.",
"* To challenge oppression.",
"* To distribute wealth.",
"* To be generous.",
"* To contribute to the well-being and spirit of others.",
"* To help others, to help one another.",
"* To take every chance to help another while on your journey here.",
"* To be creative and innovative.",
"* To forgive.",
"* To accept and forgive human flaws.",
"* To be emotionally sincere.",
"* To be responsible.",
"* To be honorable.",
"* To seek peace.Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by angels; from Gustave Doré's illustrations for the ''Divine Comedy.",
"''===Meanings relating to religion===* To reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of the Divine.",
"* To have a pure soul and experience God.",
"* To understand the mystery of God.",
"* To know or attain union with God.",
"* To know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven.",
"* To love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it.",
"* To love God and all of his creations.",
"* To glorify God by enjoying him forever.",
"* To spread your religion and share it with others.",
"* To act justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with your God.",
"* To be fruitful and multiply.",
"()* To obtain freedom.",
"()* To fill the Earth and subdue it.",
"()* To serve humankind, to prepare to meet and become more like God, to choose good over evil, and have joy.",
"* ˹He is the One˺ Who created death and life in order to test which of you is best in deeds.",
"And He is the Almighty, All-Forgiving.",
"—* To worship God and enter heaven in afterlife.===To love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living===* To love more.",
"* To love those who mean the most.",
"Every life you touch will touch you back.",
"* To treasure every enjoyable sensation one has.",
"* To seek beauty in all its forms.",
"* To have fun or enjoy life.",
"* To seek pleasure and avoid pain.",
"* To be compassionate.",
"* To be moved by the tears and pain of others, and try to help them out of love and compassion.",
"* To love others as best we possibly can.",
"* To eat, drink, and be merry.===To have power, to be better===* To strive for power and superiority.",
"* To rule the world.",
"* To know and master the world.",
"* To know and master nature.",
"* To help life become as powerful as possible.===Life has no meaning===* Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random chance in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose.",
"* Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence.",
"* There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special.===One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life===* The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood.",
"* You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life.",
"* The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life.",
"* Ultimately, a person should not ask what the meaning of their life is, but rather must recognize that it is they themselves who are asked.",
"In a word, each person is questioned by life; and they can only answer to life by answering for their own life; to life they can only respond by being responsible."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"Charles Allan Gilbert's ''All is Vanity,'' an example of ''vanitas,'' depicts a young woman amidst her makeup and perfumes, preoccupied with her own beauty at the mirror of her vanity.",
"But all is positioned in such a way as to make the image of a skull appear, expressing ''memento mori'', that no matter how good she looks, it won't last, as death is inevitable.The mystery of life and its true meaning is an often recurring subject in popular culture, featured in entertainment media and various forms of art.",
"''Monty Python's The Meaning of Life'' includes a character played by Michael Palin being handed an envelope containing \"the meaning of life\", which she opens and reads out to the audience: \"Well, it's nothing very special.",
"Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations.",
"\"In Douglas Adams' book ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'', the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything is given the numeric solution \"42\", after seven and a half million years of calculation by a giant supercomputer called Deep Thought.",
"When this answer is met with confusion and anger from its constructors, Deep Thought explains that \"I think the problem such as it was, was too broadly based.",
"You never actually stated what the question was.\"",
"Deep Thought then constructs another computer—the Earth—to calculate what the Ultimate Question actually is.",
"Later Ford and Arthur manage to extract the question as the Earth computer would have rendered it.",
"That question turns out to be \"what do you get if you multiply six by nine\", and it is realised that the program was ruined by the unexpected arrival of the Golgafrinchans on Earth, and so the actual Ultimate Question of Life, The Universe, And Everything remains unknown.Hamlet meditating upon Yorick's skull has become the most lasting embodiment of the imagery of vanitas, conveying the theme ''memento mori'' ('Remember you shall die').",
"Whatever the meaning of life, it (life) is fleeting.In ''Person of Interest'' season 5 episode 13, an artificial intelligence referred to as The Machine tells Harold Finch that the secret of life is \"Everyone dies alone.",
"But if you mean something to someone, if you help someone, or love someone.",
"If even a single person remembers you then maybe you never really die at all.\"",
"This phrase is then repeated at the very end of the show to add emphasis to the finale."
],
[
"Related concepts",
"=== Existential crisis ===Existential crises are crises of meaning.",
"They are triggered by the impression that life lacks meaning.",
"This impression can lead to an inner conflict because there is a strong desire to find some form of meaning in life.",
"In the existentialist literature, the discrepancy between the individual's desire for meaning and the world's apparent lack thereof is termed the absurd.",
"It may be summarized by the question \"How does a being who needs meaning find meaning in a universe that has no meaning?\".",
"While this conflict may affect different people at least to some extent, it reaches a more severe level in the case of existential crises.",
"This level leads to various negative experiences, such as stress, anxiety, despair, and depression.",
"In the more serious cases, these symptoms disturb the individual's normal functioning in everyday life.",
"A positive side effect of these negative experiences is that they push the affected individual to address the underlying issue.",
"This opens the opportunity of developing as a person and improving one's way of life.Therapists often try to treat existential crises by helping their patients discover meaning in life.",
"An important distinction in this regard is the difference between personal meaning and cosmic meaning.",
"In the cosmic sense, the term \"meaning of life\" refers to the purpose of the world as a whole or why we are here.",
"One way to solve an existential crisis is to discover a satisfying answer to this question.",
"This often takes the form of a religious explanation involving a divine entity that created the world for a certain purpose.",
"Another approach to solving existential crises is to seek meaning not on the cosmic but on the personal level.",
"This usually takes a more secular form: the therapist helps the individual realize what matters to them or why their life is worth living.",
"In this regard, they may discover how their personal life can be meaningful, for example, by dedicating themselves to their family or their career.",
"This approach may mitigate or solve an existential crisis even if the individual still lacks an answer to the bigger question of the deeper meaning behind everything.=== Importance ===The question of the meaning of life is closely related to the question of what has importance or what matters.",
"This is reflected in the fact that finding meaning in life is often associated with dedicating oneself to some kind of higher purpose, which is seen as having special importance.",
"Nonetheless, some theorists have argued that the two concepts are not identical.",
"This distinction is often motivated by the observation that seeking the meaning of life is usually regarded as an admirable goal associated with self-transcendence.",
"Craving importance, on the other hand, seems to be a more egoistic or narcissistic aim in comparison.Various theorists have argued that to be important means to have an impact on the world or to make a difference.",
"Some only require that this causal impact is big enough.",
"Others include as an additional element that the difference in question has to affect the value of the world.",
"This is often interpreted with reference to well-being: the degree of importance of a thing is given by the extent to which it affects the well-being of sentient entities.",
"However, the relation to a purpose is usually not required for importance.",
"In this regard, some things may be important accidentally or unintentionally without being guided by a higher goal.",
"For example, a person may by chance bump into something and thereby unwittingly trigger a butterfly effect of extreme proportions.",
"In such a case, the person's life has acquired high importance due to the consequences it caused.",
"Nonetheless, this does not imply that it has also acquired some form of deeper meaning or higher purpose.Another difference is that seeking and realizing the meaning of life is usually seen by most theorists as a positive and worthwhile undertaking.",
"Importance, however, can be either positive or negative depending on the type of value difference involved.",
"For example, Alexander Fleming was important in a positive sense since his discovery of penicillin helped many people cure their bacterial infections.",
"Adolf Hitler, on the other hand, was important in a negative sense since his policies caused widespread suffering to innumerous people."
],
[
"See also",
"; Scientific explanations* * * * ; Origin and nature of life and reality* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ; Value of life* * * * * ; Purpose of life* * * * * * * ; Miscellaneous* * * * * * * *"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Meaning of Life: The Analytic Perspective article in the ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* The Meaning of Life in the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* Wikiversity:Do living things on Earth have a purpose?"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Margaret River, Western Australia"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Margaret River''' is a town in the South West of Western Australia, located in the valley of the eponymous Margaret River, south of Perth, the state capital.",
"Its Local Government Area is the Shire of Augusta-Margaret River.Margaret River's coast to the west of the town is a renowned surfing location with worldwide fame for its surf breaks including, but not limited to, 'Main Break' and 'The Box'.",
"Colloquially, the area is referred to as \"Margs\".The surrounding area is the Margaret River wine region and is known for its wine production and tourism, attracting an estimated 500,000 visitors annually."
],
[
"History",
"The town is named after the river, which is presumed to be named after Margaret Whicher, cousin of John Garrett Bussell (founder of Busselton) in 1831.The name is first shown on a map of the region published in 1839.Before British settlement the area was inhabited by the Noongar people.",
"The first British settlers arrived as early as 1850, with timber logging commencing in around 1870.By 1910, the town had a hotel which also operated as a post office.",
"That year the Margaret River Progress Association requested that a townsite be declared at \"the Upper Margaret Bridge\", because \"the district is likely to be dotted with public buildings several miles apart in the near future if a townsite is not made available shortly\".",
"The inspecting district surveyor had a preference for an area near the lower bridge on Caves Road, but his preferred site was unavailable.",
"Lots were surveyed in 1912 and the townsite was gazetted in 1913.From 1918 to 1927, the name of the townsite was officially \"Margaret\" but it was changed back to \"Margaret River\" due to local usage.After World War I, an attempt by the Government of Western Australia to attract migrants to Western Australia (known as the Group Settlement Scheme) and establish farms in the region attracted new settlers to the town.",
"In 1922, over 100 settlers moved into the district.In the early 1920s, the Busselton to Margaret River Railway was built and, in 1925, the Margaret River to Flinders Bay line opened.The Perimeter Road, a bypass to take traffic, including heavy vehicles, from Bussell Highway, to the east of the town, and also connect to a new access road to the nearby airport, was opened in December 2018 and completed in February 2019."
],
[
"Geography and climate",
"Margaret River is located inland from the Indian Ocean at a point about halfway between Cape Naturaliste and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia's South West region.The climate is warm-summer Mediterranean (''Csb'' in the Köppen climate classification), with an average annual rainfall of around .",
"Most rain falls between May and August, when around two days in three record measurable rainfall and around one in ten over .",
"On occasions, as in August 1955, the town has had measurable rain on every day of a month in this period.",
"During the summer, the weather is warm, though there are usually sea breezes, and it is frequently sunny.",
"The dry summers, coupled with strong winds, creates an environment where there is always a high risk of bush fires."
],
[
"Wine region",
"Margaret River is the foremost Geographical Indication wine region in the South West Australia Zone, with nearly under vine and over 138 wineries as at 2008.The region is made up predominantly of boutique-size wine producers, although winery operations range from the smallest, crushing per year, to the largest at around .",
"The region produces just three percent of total Australian grape production, but commands over 20 percent of the Australian premium wine market.Stretching some from north to south and about wide in parts, the region is bounded to the east by the Leeuwin-Naturaliste Ridge, between Cape Naturaliste and Cape Leeuwin, and to the west by the Indian Ocean.",
"A Mediterranean-style climate, lacking extreme summer and winter temperatures, provides ideal growing conditions.",
"The climate is described as similar to that of Bordeaux in a dry vintage.Humidity levels are ideal during the growing period and the combination of climate, soil and viticulture practices leads to consistently high quality fruit of intense flavour.",
"Consequently, annual vintage results continue to exceed expectations and reinforce Margaret River's reputation as one of the premium wine-producing regions of the world.The principal grape varieties in the region are fairly evenly split between red and white; Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Shiraz, Merlot, Chenin blanc and Verdelho."
],
[
"Caves",
"Mammoth CaveSeveral hundred caves are located near Margaret River, all of them within Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park.",
"Six of these are open to the public.One of these caves is the multi-chambered Mammoth Cave, which lies south of the town and contains fossils dating back over 35,000 years.",
"The cave was first discovered by European settlers in 1850 and has been open to the public since 1904.The cave can be explored by a self-guided audio tour, and is one of the few caves in Australia offering partial disabled access.The other five caves open to the public in the area are Jewel Cave, Lake Cave, Ngilgi Cave, Calgardup Cave and Giants Cave.",
"Many other caves can be accessed with a permit by experienced cavers."
],
[
"Surfing breaks",
"The Margaret River area has acquired a range of synonyms for the collection of surf breaks nearby, with some 75 breaks along of coastline.",
"Usually significant surfing competitions concentrate their locale to ''Margarets Main Break'' (aka Surfers Point) which breaks in the vicinity of Prevelly at the mouth of Margaret River.The actual range of surf breaks range from the eastern side of Cape Naturaliste down to just south of Cape Hamelin, and despite web sites and online sources calling the whole Cape Naturaliste to Cape Leeuwin region the ''Margaret River'' surfing area, conditions and break types vary along the coast.The Cowaramup Bombora (\"Cow Bombie\") big wave surf break offshore produces one of the biggest waves in Australia."
],
[
"Education",
"The town contains four primary schools, Margaret River Primary School, Rapids Landing Primary School, Margaret River Montessori School, and St Thomas More Catholic Primary School, and one high school, Margaret River Senior High School.",
"All schools are located within the town itself except for Rapids Landing Primary School, which is located in the suburb of Rapids Landing."
],
[
"Cultural events",
"The WSL Margaret River Pro is held annually in May attracting professional surfers from across the globe.",
"The CinefestOZ film festival stages several events across the region in late August each year."
],
[
"In the media",
"Arte-TV produced an episode of ''Nouveaux paradis'' about Margaret River.",
"The 2008 documentary shows interviews with (amongst others) tourist officials, surfers, and dolphin watchers.Margaret River was also visited in the 1966 documentary film ''The Endless Summer''.",
"In 2013, many locals featured in the film ''Drift'', starring Sam Worthington, as well as many surfing scenes being shot on location at local surf breaks such as Grunters and Main Break."
],
[
"See also",
"* West Australian wine* Great Southern (wine region)"
],
[
"References",
"===Notes======Bibliography===*****"
],
[
"External links",
"* Western Australia government tourist information (including map)* The Rotary Club of Margaret River* Popular guidebook App for the Margaret River Region (works offline)*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Maginot Line"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Maginot Line''' (, ), named after the French Minister of War André Maginot, is a line of concrete fortifications, obstacles and weapon installations built by France in the 1930s to deter invasion by Nazi Germany and force them to move around the fortifications.The Maginot Line was impervious to most forms of attack.",
"Consequently, the Germans invaded through the Low Countries in 1940, passing it to the north.",
"The line, which was supposed to be fully extended further towards the west to avoid such an occurrence, was finally scaled back in response to demands from Belgium.",
"Indeed, Belgium feared it would be sacrificed in the event of another German invasion.",
"The line has since become a metaphor for expensive efforts that offer a false sense of security.Constructed on the French side of its borders with Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Luxembourg and Belgium, the line did not extend to the English Channel.",
"French strategy, therefore, envisioned a move into Belgium to counter a German assault.",
"Based on France's experience with trench warfare during World War I, the massive Maginot Line was built in the run-up to World War II, after the Locarno Conference in 1925 gave rise to a fanciful and optimistic \"Locarno spirit\".",
"French military experts believed the line would deter German aggression because it would slow an invasion force long enough for French forces to mobilise and counterattack.The Maginot Line was invulnerable to aerial bombings and tank fire; it featured underground railways as a backup.",
"It also had state-of-the-art living conditions for garrisoned troops, supplying air conditioning and eating areas for their comfort.",
"French and British officers had anticipated the geographical limits of the Maginot Line; when Germany invaded the Netherlands and Belgium, they carried out plans to form an aggressive front that cut across Belgium and connected to the Maginot Line.However, the French line was weak near the Ardennes.",
"General Maurice Gamelin, when drafting the Dyle Plan, believed this region, with its rough terrain, would be an unlikely invasion route of German forces; if it were traversed, it would be done at a slow rate that would allow the French time to bring up reserves and counterattacks.",
"The German Army, having reformulated their plans from a repeat of the First World War-era plan, became aware of and exploited this weak point in the French defensive front.",
"A rapid advance through the forest and across the River Meuse encircled much of the Allied forces, resulting in a sizeable force having to be evacuated at Dunkirk and leaving the troops to the south unable to mount an effective resistance to the German invasion of France."
],
[
"Purposes",
"The Maginot Line was built to fulfill several purposes:* To prevent a German surprise attack.",
"* To deter a cross-border assault.",
"* To protect Alsace and Lorraine (returned to France in 1918) and their industrial basin.",
"* To save manpower (France counted 39 million inhabitants, Germany 70 million)* To cover the mobilisation of the French Army (which took between two and three weeks)* To push Germany into an effort to circumvent via Switzerland or Belgium, and allow France to fight the next war off French soil to avoid a repeat of 1914–1918.",
"* To be used as a basis for a counter-offensive."
],
[
"Manning",
"Maginot Line fortifications were manned by specialist units of fortress infantry, artillery and engineers.",
"The infantry manned the lighter weapons of the fortresses and formed units with the mission of operating outside if necessary.",
"Artillery troops operated the heavy guns, and the engineers were responsible for maintaining and operating other specialist equipment, including all communications systems.",
"All these troops wore distinctive uniform insignia and considered themselves among the elite of the French Army.",
"During peacetime, fortresses were only partly manned by full-time troops.",
"They would be supplemented by reservists who lived in the local area and who could be quickly mobilised in an emergency.Full-time Maginot Line troops were accommodated in barracks built close to the fortresses.",
"They were also accommodated in complexes of wooden housing adjacent to each fortress, which were more comfortable than living inside, but were not expected to survive wartime bombardment.The training was carried out at a fortress near the town of Bitche in Moselle in Lorraine, built in a military training area and so capable of live fire exercises.",
"This was impossible elsewhere as the other parts of the line were located in civilian areas."
],
[
"Organisation",
"Side view diagram of the operation of a retractable turret: 75 mm gun of block 3 in Ouvrage SchoenenbourgCasemate of Dambach Nord, Fortified Sector of the Vosges, Subsector of PhilippsbourgAlthough the name \"Maginot Line\" suggests a relatively thin linear fortification, it was quite deep, varying (from the German border to the rear area) from .",
"It was composed of an intricate system of strong points, fortifications and military facilities such as border guard posts, communications centres, infantry shelters, barricades, artillery, machine-gun and anti-tank-gun emplacements, supply depots, infrastructure facilities and observation posts.",
"These various structures reinforced a ''principal line of resistance'' made up of the most heavily armed ''ouvrages'', which can be roughly translated as fortresses or big defensive works.===Border post line===This consisted of blockhouses and strong houses, which were often camouflaged as inoffensive residential homes, built within a few metres of the border and manned by troops to give the alarm in the event of a surprise attack and to delay enemy tanks with prepared explosives and barricades.===Outpost and support point line===Approximately behind the border, a line of anti-tank blockhouses that were intended to provide resistance to armoured assault, sufficient to delay the enemy to allow the crews of the ''C.O.R.F.",
"ouvrages'' to be ready at their battle stations.",
"These outposts covered the main passages within the principal line.===Principal line of resistance===This line began behind the border.",
"It was preceded by anti-tank obstacles made of metal rails planted vertically in six rows, with heights varying from and buried to a depth of .",
"These anti-tank obstacles extended from end to end in front of the main works, over hundreds of kilometres, interrupted only by extremely dense forests, rivers, or other nearly impassable terrains.The anti-tank obstacle system was followed by an ''anti-personnel obstacle'' system made primarily of dense barbed wire.",
"''Anti-tank road barriers'' also made it possible to block roads at necessary points of passage through the tank obstacles.===Infantry casemates===These bunkers were armed with twin machine-guns (abbreviated as ''JM'' — ''Jumelage de mitrailleuses'' — in French) and anti-tank guns of .",
"They could be single (with a firing room in one direction) or double (two firing rooms in opposite directions).",
"These generally had two floors, with a firing level and a support/infrastructure level that provided the troops with rest and services (power-generating units, reserves of water, fuel, food, ventilation equipment, etc.).",
"The infantry casemates often had one or two \"cloches\" or turrets located on top of them.",
"These GFM cloches were sometimes used to emplace machine guns or observation periscopes.",
"20 to 30 men manned them.===''Petits ouvrages''===These small fortresses reinforced the line of infantry bunkers.",
"The ''petits ouvrages'' were generally made up of several infantry bunkers, connected by a tunnel network with attached underground facilities, such as barracks, electric generators, ventilation systems, mess halls, infirmaries and supply caches.",
"Their crew consisted of between 100 and 200 men.===''Gros ouvrages''===These fortresses were the most important fortifications on the Maginot Line, having the sturdiest construction and the heaviest artillery.",
"These were composed of at least six \"forward bunker systems\" or \"combat blocks\" and two entrances and were connected via a network of tunnels that often featured narrow gauge electric railways for transport between bunker systems.",
"The blocks contained infrastructure such as power stations, independent ventilating systems, barracks and mess halls, kitchens, water storage and distribution systems, hoists, ammunition stores, workshops and spare parts and food stores.",
"Their crews ranged from 500 to more than 1,000 men.thumb===Observation posts===These were located on hills that provided a good view of the surrounding area.",
"Their purpose was to locate the enemy, direct and correct the indirect fire of artillery, and report on the progress and position of critical enemy units.",
"These are large reinforced buried concrete bunkers, equipped with armoured turrets containing high-precision optics, connected with the other fortifications by field telephone and wireless transmitters (known in French by the acronym T.S.F., ''Télégraphie Sans Fil'').===Telephone network===This system connected every fortification in the Maginot Line, including bunkers, infantry and artillery fortresses, observation posts and shelters.",
"Two telephone wires were placed parallel to the line of fortifications, providing redundancy in case a wire gets cut.",
"There were places along the cable where dismounted soldiers could connect to the network.===Infantry reserve shelters===These were found from behind the principal line of resistance.",
"These were buried concrete bunkers designed to house and shelter up to a company of infantry (200 to 250 men).",
"They had such features as electric generators, ventilation systems, water supplies, kitchens and heating, which allowed their occupants to hold out in the event of an attack.",
"They could also be used as a local headquarters and counterattack base.===Flood zones===thumbFlood zones were natural basins or rivers that could be flooded on demand and thus constitute an additional obstacle in the event of an enemy offensive.===Safety quarters===These were built near the major fortifications so fortress (''ouvrage'') crews could reach their battle stations in the shortest possible time in the event of a surprise attack during peacetime.===Supply depots======Ammunition dumps======Narrow gauge railway system===A network of narrow gauge railways was built to rearm and resupply the main fortresses (''ouvrages'') from supply depots up to away.",
"Petrol-engined armoured locomotives pulled supply trains along these narrow-gauge lines.",
"(A similar system was developed with armoured steam engines in 1914–1918.",
")===High-voltage transmission lines===Initially above-ground but then buried, and connected to the civil power grid, these provided electric power to the many fortifications and fortresses.===Heavy rail artillery===This was hauled by locomotives to planned locations to support the emplaced artillery in the fortresses, which was intentionally limited in range to ."
],
[
"Inventory",
"=== Ouvrages ===There are 142 ''ouvrages'', 352 casemates, 78 shelters, 17 observatories and around blockhouses in the Maginot Line.=== Armoured cloches ===There are several kinds of armoured cloches.",
"Cloches are non-retractable turrets.",
"The word ''cloche'' is a French term meaning ''bell'' due to its shape.",
"All cloches were made of alloy steel.",
"* The most widespread are the '''GFM cloches''', where ''GFM'' means ''Guetteur fusil-mitrailleur'' (machine-gun sentry).",
"They are composed of three to four openings, called crenels or embrasures.",
"These crenels may be equipped as follows: light machine-guns, direct vision blocks, binoculars blocks or mortars.",
"Sometimes, the cloche is topped by a periscope.",
"There are GFM cloches on the line.",
"Almost every block, casemate and shelter is topped by one or two GFM cloches.",
"* The '''JM cloches''' (''jumelage de mitrailleuses'' or \"twin machine guns\") are the same as the GFM cloches except that they have one opening equipped with a pair of machine guns.",
"There are 174 JM cloches on the line.",
"* There are 72 '''AM cloches''' (''armes mixtes'' or \"mixed weapons\") on the line, equipped with a pair of machine guns and a anti-tank gun.",
"Some GFM cloches were transformed into AM cloches in 1934.",
"(The aforementioned total does not include these modified cloches.",
")* There are 75 '''LG cloches''' (''lance-grenade'' or \"grenade launcher\") on the line.",
"Those cloches are almost completely covered by concrete, with only a small hole to launch grenades through for local defence.",
"* There are 20 '''VP cloches''' (''vision périscopique'' or \"periscopic vision\") on the line.",
"These cloches could be equipped with several different periscopes.",
"Like the LG cloches, they were almost entirely covered by concrete.",
"* The '''VDP cloches''' (''vision directe et périscopique'' or \"direct and periscopic vision\") are similar to the VP cloches but have two or three openings to provide a direct view.",
"Consequently, they were not covered by concrete.File:Cloche gfm.jpg|GFM clocheFile:Cloche jm.jpg|JM clocheFile:Cloche am.jpg|AM clocheFile:Cloche lg.jpg|LG clocheFile:Cloche vp.jpg|VP clocheFile:Cloche vdp.jpg|VDP cloche=== Retractable turrets ===The line included the following retractable turrets.",
"* 21 turrets of model 1933* 12 turrets of model 1932* 1 turret of model 1905* 17 turrets of * 21 turrets of * 12 turrets for mixed weapons (AM)* 7 turrets for mixed weapons + mortar of * 61 turrets of machine-gunsFile:Turret75.JPG| Turret model 1932File:135Turret.JPG| TurretFile:81Turret.JPG| TurretFile:Tourelle jm.jpg|Machine-gun TurretFile:AMTurret.JPG|AM (Mixed-Weapons) Turret=== Artillery ===Both static and mobile artillery units were assigned to defend the Maginot Line.",
"''Régiments d'artillerie de position'' (RAP) consisted of static artillery units.",
"''Régiments d'artillerie mobile de forteresse'' (RAMF) consisted of mobile artillery.=== Anti-tank guns ===* Canon de 25 mm SA Mle1934* SA-L Mle1937 (Puteaux) L/72"
],
[
"History",
"=== Planning and construction ===The Maginot LineThe defences were first proposed by Marshal Joseph Joffre.",
"He was opposed by modernists such as Paul Reynaud and Charles de Gaulle, who favoured investment in armour and aircraft.",
"Joffre had support from Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain, and the government organised many reports and commissions.",
"André Maginot finally convinced the government to invest in the scheme.",
"Maginot was another veteran of World War I; he became the French Minister of Veteran Affairs and then Minister of War (1928–1932).In January 1923, after Weimar Germany defaulted on reparations, the French Premier Raymond Poincaré responded by sending French troops to occupy Germany's Ruhr region.",
"During the ensuing ''Ruhrkampf'' (\"Ruhr struggle\") between the Germans and the French that lasted until September 1923, Britain condemned the French occupation of the Ruhr.",
"A period of sustained Francophobia broke out in Britain, with Poincaré being vilified in Britain as a cruel bully punishing Germany with unreasonable reparations demands.",
"The British—who openly championed the German position on reparations—applied intense economic pressure on France to change its policies towards Germany.",
"At a conference in London in 1924 to settle the Franco-German crisis caused by the ''Ruhrkampf'', the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald successfully pressed the French Premier Édouard Herriot to make concessions to Germany.",
"The British diplomat Sir Eric Phipps, who attended the conference, commented afterwards that: The London Conference was for the French 'man in the street' one long Calvary as he saw M. Herriot abandoning one by one the cherished possessions of French preponderance on the Reparations Commission, the right of sanctions in the event of German default, the economic occupation of the Ruhr, the French-Belgian railway ''Régie'', and finally, the military occupation of the Ruhr within a year.",
"The great conclusion that was drawn in Paris after the ''Ruhrkampf'' and the 1924 London Conference was that France could not make unilateral military moves to uphold Versailles as the resulting British hostility to such moves was too dangerous to the republic.",
"Beyond that, the French were well aware of the contribution of Britain and its dominions to the victory of 1918.French decision-makers believed they needed Britain's help to win another war; the French could only go so far with alienating the British.",
"From 1871 forward, French elites had concluded that France had no hope of defeating Germany on its own, and France would need an alliance with another great power to defeat the ''Reich''.==== 1927: Allied Control Commission abolished ====In 1926, ''The Manchester Guardian'' ran an exposé showing the ''Reichswehr'' had been developing military technology forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles in the Soviet Union.",
"The secret German-Soviet cooperation started in 1921.The German statement following ''The Manchester Guardian''s article that Germany did not feel bound by the terms of Versailles and would violate them as much as possible gave much offence in France.",
"Nonetheless, in 1927, the Inter-Allied Commission, which was responsible for ensuring that Germany complied with Part V of the Treaty of Versailles, was abolished as a goodwill gesture reflecting the \"Spirit of Locarno\".",
"When the Control Commission was dissolved, the commissioners in their final report issued a blistering statement, stating that Germany had never sought to abide by Part V and the ''Reichswehr'' had been engaging in covert rearmament all through the 1920s.",
"Under the Treaty of Versailles, France was to occupy the Rhineland region of Germany until 1935.Still, the last French troops left the Rhineland in June 1930 in exchange for Germany accepting the Young Plan.",
"As long as the French occupied the Rhineland, it served as a type of collateral under which the French would annex the Rhineland in the event of Germany breaching any of the articles of the treaty, such as rearming in violation of Part V; this threat was powerful enough to deter successive German governments all through the 1920s from attempting any overt violation of Part V. French plans as developed by Marshal Ferdinand Foch in 1919 were based on the assumption that in the event of a war with the ''Reich'', the French forces in the Rhineland were to embark upon an offensive to seize the Ruhr.",
"A variant of the Foch plan had been used by Poincaré in 1923 when he ordered the French occupation of the Ruhr.French plans for an offensive in the 1920s were realistic, as Versailles had forbidden German conscription, and the ''Reichswehr'' was limited to 100,000 men.",
"Once the French forces left the Rhineland in 1930, this form of leverage with the Rhineland as collateral was no longer available to Paris, which from then on had to depend on Berlin's word that it would continue to abide by the terms of the Versailles and Locarno treaties, which stated that the Rhineland was to stay demilitarised forever.",
"Given that Germany had engaged in covert rearmament with the co-operation of the Soviet Union starting in 1921 (a fact that had become public knowledge in 1926) and that every German government had gone out of its way to insist on the moral invalidity of Versailles, claiming it was based upon the so-called ''Kriegsschuldlüge'' (\"War guilt lie\") that Germany started the war in 1914, the French had little faith that the Germans would willingly allow the Rhineland's demilitarised status to continue forever, and believed that at some time in the future, Germany would rearm in violation of Versailles, reintroduce conscription and remilitarise the Rhineland.",
"The decision to build the Maginot Line in 1929 was a tacit French admission that without the Rhineland as collateral, Germany was soon going to rearm and that the terms of Part V had a limited lifespan.==== German economic superiority ====After 1918, the German economy was twice as large as that of France; Germany had a population of 70 million compared to France's 40 million, and the French economy was hobbled by the need to reconstruct the enormous damage of World War I, while German territory had seen little fighting.",
"French military chiefs were dubious about their ability to win another war against Germany on its own, especially an offensive war.",
"French decision-makers knew that the victory of 1918 had been achieved because the British Empire and the United States were allies in the war and that the French would have been defeated on their own.",
"With the United States isolationist and Britain stoutly refusing to make the \"continental commitment\" to defend France on the same scale as in World War I, the prospects of Anglo-American assistance in another war with Germany appeared to be doubtful at best.",
"Versailles did not call for military sanctions in the event of the German military reoccupying the Rhineland or breaking Part V, while Locarno committed Britain and Italy to come to French aid in the event of a \"flagrant violation\" of the Rhineland's demilitarised status, it did not define what a \"flagrant violation\" would be.",
"The British and Italian governments refused in subsequent diplomatic talks to define \"flagrant violation\", which led the French to place little hope in Anglo-Italian help if German military forces should reoccupy the Rhineland.",
"Given the diplomatic situation in the late 1920s, the Quai d'Orsay informed the government that French military planning should be based on a worst-case scenario that France would fight the next war against Germany without the help of Britain or the United States.France had an alliance with Belgium and with the states of the ''Cordon sanitaire'', as the French alliance system in Eastern Europe was known.",
"Although the alliances with Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia were appreciated in Paris, it was widely understood that this was no compensation for the absence of Britain and the United States.",
"The French military was especially insistent that the population disparity made an offensive war of manoeuvre and swift advances suicidal, as there would always be far more German divisions; a defensive strategy was needed to counter Germany.",
"The French assumption was always that Germany would not go to war without conscription, which would allow the German Army to take advantage of the ''Reich''s numerical superiority.",
"Without the natural defensive barrier provided by the Rhine River, French generals argued that France needed a new defensive barrier made of concrete and steel to replace it.",
"The power of properly dug-in defensive trenches had been amply demonstrated during World War I, when a few soldiers manning a single machine gun post could kill hundreds of the enemy in the open and therefore building a massive defensive line with subterranean concrete shelters was the most rational use of French manpower.The American historian William Keylor wrote that given the diplomatic conditions of 1929 and likely trends – with the United States isolationist and Britain unwilling to make the \"continental commitment\" – the decision to build the Maginot Line was not irrational and stupid, as building the Maginot Line was a sensible response to the problems that would be created by the coming French withdrawal from the Rhineland in 1930.Part of the rationale for the Maginot Line stemmed from the severe French losses during the First World War and their effect on the French population.",
"The drop in the birth rate during and after the war, resulting in a national shortage of young men, created an \"echo\" effect on the generation that provided the French conscript army in the mid-1930s.",
"Faced with a manpower shortage, French planners had to rely more on older and less fit reservists, who would take longer to mobilise and would diminish the French industry because they would leave their jobs.",
"Static defensive positions were therefore intended not only to buy time but to economise on men by defending an area with fewer and less mobile forces.",
"However, in 1940, France deployed about twice as many men, 36 divisions (roughly one third of its force), for the defence of the Maginot Line in Alsace and Lorraine.",
"In contrast, the opposing German Army Group C only contained 19 divisions, fewer than a seventh of the force committed in the Manstein Plan for the invasion of France.",
"Reflecting memories of World War I, the French General Staff had developed the concept of ''la puissance du feu'' (\"the power of fire\"), the power of artillery dug in and sheltered by concrete and steel, to inflict devastating losses on an attacking force.==== Preparing for a long war ====thumbFrench planning for war with Germany was always based on the assumption that the war would be ''la guerre de longue durée'' (the long war), in which the superior economic resources of the Allies would gradually grind the Germans down.",
"The fact that the ''Wehrmacht'' embraced the strategy of Blitzkrieg (Lightning War) with the vision of swift wars in which Germany would win quickly via a knockout blow was a testament to the fundamental soundness of the concept of ''la guerre de longue durée''.",
"Germany had the largest economy in Europe but lacked many of the raw materials necessary for a modern industrial economy (making the ''Reich'' vulnerable to a blockade) and the ability to feed its population.",
"The ''guerre de longue durée'' strategy called for the French to halt the expected German offensive meant to give the ''Reich'' a swift victory; afterwards, there would be an attrition struggle; once the Germans were exhausted, France would begin an offensive to win the war.The Maginot Line was intended to block the main German blow if it should come via eastern France and divert it through Belgium, where French forces would meet and stop the Germans.",
"The Germans were expected to fight costly offensives, whose failures would sap the strength of the ''Reich'', while the French waged a total war, mobilising the resources of France, its empire and allies.",
"Besides the demographic reasons, a defensive strategy served the needs of French diplomacy towards Great Britain.",
"The French imported a third of their coal from Britain, and 32 per cent of all imports through French ports were carried by British ships.",
"Of French trade, 35 per cent was with the British Empire and the majority of the tin, rubber, jute, wool and manganese used by France came from the British Empire.About 55 per cent of overseas imports arrived in France via the Channel ports of Calais, Le Havre, Cherbourg, Boulogne, Dieppe, Saint-Malo and Dunkirk.",
"Germany had to import most of its iron, rubber, oil, bauxite, copper and nickel, making naval blockade a devastating weapon against the German economy.",
"For economic reasons, the success of the strategy of ''la guerre de longue durée'' would at the very least require Britain to maintain a benevolent neutrality, preferably to enter the war as an ally as British sea power could protect French imports while depriving Germany of hers.",
"A defensive strategy based on the Maginot Line was an excellent way of demonstrating to Britain that France was not an aggressive power and would only go to war in the event of German aggression, a situation that would make it more likely that Britain would enter the war on France's side.The line was built in several phases from 1930 by the ''Service Technique du Génie'' (STG), overseen by ''Commission d'Organisation des Régions Fortifiées'' (CORF).",
"The main construction was largely completed by 1939, at the cost of around 3 billion French francs (around 3.9 billion in today's U.S. dollar’s worth).",
"The line stretched from Switzerland to Luxembourg and a much lighter extension was extended to the Strait of Dover after 1934.The original construction did not cover the area ultimately chosen by the Germans for their first challenge, which was through the Ardennes in 1940, a plan known as ''Fall Gelb'' (Case Yellow), due to the neutrality of Belgium.",
"The location of this attack, chosen because of the location of the Maginot Line, was through the Belgian Ardennes Forest (sector 4), which is off the map to the left of Maginot Line sector 6 (as marked).==== Features ====mortarThe specification of the defences was very high, with extensive and interconnected bunker complexes for thousands of men; there were 45 main forts (''grands ouvrages'') at intervals of , 97 smaller forts (''petits ouvrages'') and 352 casemates between, with over of tunnels.",
"Artillery was coordinated with protective measures to ensure that one fort could support the next in line by bombarding it directly without harm.",
"The largest guns were, therefore fortress guns; larger weapons were to be part of the mobile forces and were to be deployed behind the lines.The fortifications did not extend through the Ardennes Forest (which was believed to be impenetrable by Commander-in-Chief Maurice Gamelin) or along France's border with Belgium because the two countries had signed an alliance in 1920, by which the French army would operate in Belgium if the German forces invaded.",
"However, after France had failed to counter the German remilitarisation of the Rhineland, Belgium—thinking that France was not a reliable ally—abrogated the treaty in 1936 and declared neutrality.",
"France quickly extended the Maginot Line along the Franco-Belgian border, but not to the standard of the rest of the line.",
"As the water table in this region is high, there was the danger of underground passages getting flooded, which the line designers knew would be difficult and expensive to overcome.In 1939 U.S. Army officer Kenneth Nichols visited the Metz sector, where he was impressed by the formidable formations which he thought the Germans would have to outflank by driving through Belgium.",
"In discussion with General Brousseau, the commander of the Metz sector and other officers, the general outlined the French problem in extending the line to the sea in that placing the line along the Belgian-German border required the agreement of Belgium, but putting the line along the French-Belgian border relinquished Belgium to the Germans.",
"Another complication was Holland, and the various governments never resolved their problems.Corridor inside the Fort Saint-Gobain near Modane in the Alps.",
"The DecauvilleWhen the British Expeditionary Force landed in France in September 1939, they and the French reinforced and extended the Maginot line to the sea in a flurry of construction from 1939 to 1940, accompanied by general improvements all along the line.",
"The final line was strongest around the industrial regions of Metz, Lauter and Alsace, while other areas were, in comparison, only weakly guarded.",
"In contrast, the propaganda about the line made it appear far greater a construction than it was; illustrations showed multiple storeys of interwoven passages and even underground rail yards and cinemas.",
"This reassured allied civilians.==== Czechoslovak connection ====Czechoslovakia also feared Hitler and began building its own defences.",
"As an ally of France, they got advice on the Maginot design and applied it to Czechoslovak border fortifications.",
"The design of the casemates is similar to the ones found in the southern part of the Maginot Line, and photographs of them are often confused with Maginot forts.",
"Following the Munich Agreement and the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, the Germans were able to use the Czech fortifications to plan attacks that proved successful against the western fortifications (the Belgian Fort Eben-Emael is the best-known example).=== German invasion in World War II ===Combat block 1 at the fortress Limeiln (ouvrage Four-à-Chaux, Alsace), showing signs of German testing of explosives inside some fortresses between 1942 and 1944The World War II German invasion plan of 1940 (''Sichelschnitt'') was designed to deal with the line.",
"A decoy force sat opposite the line while a second Army Group cut through the Low Countries of Belgium and the Netherlands, as well as through the Ardennes Forest, which lay north of the main French defences.",
"Thus the Germans were able to avoid a direct assault on the Maginot Line by violating the neutrality of Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands.",
"Attacking on 10 May, German forces were well into France within five days and they continued to advance until 24 May, when they stopped near Dunkirk.During the advance to the English Channel, the Germans overran France's border defence with Belgium and several Maginot Forts in the Maubeuge area whilst the Luftwaffe simply flew over it.",
"On 19 May, the German 16th Army captured the isolated petit ouvrage La Ferté (south-east of Sedan) after conducting a deliberate assault by combat engineers backed up by heavy artillery, taking the fortifications in only four days.",
"The entire French crew of 107 soldiers was killed during the action.",
"On 14 June 1940, the day Paris fell, the German 1st Army went over to the offensive in \"Operation Tiger\" and attacked the Maginot Line between St Avold and Saarbrücken.",
"The Germans then broke through the fortification line as defending French forces retreated southward.",
"In the following days, infantry divisions of the 1st Army attacked fortifications on each side of the penetration, capturing four petits ouvrages.",
"The 1st Army also conducted two attacks against the Maginot Line further to the east in northern Alsace.",
"One attack broke through a weak section of the line in the Vosges Mountains, but the French defenders stopped a second attack near Wissembourg.",
"On 15 June, infantry divisions of the German 7th Army attacked across the Rhine River in Operation \"Small Bear\", penetrating the defences deep and capturing the cities of Colmar and Strasbourg.By early June, the German forces had cut off the line from the rest of France, and the French government was making overtures for an armistice, which was signed on 22 June in Compiègne.",
"As the line was surrounded, the German Army attacked a few ouvrages from the rear but was unsuccessful in capturing any significant fortifications.",
"The main fortifications of the line were still mostly intact, many commanders were prepared to hold out, and the Italian advance had been contained.",
"Nevertheless, Maxime Weygand signed the surrender instrument and the army was ordered out of their fortifications to be taken to POW camps.When the Allied forces invaded in June 1944, the line, now held by German defenders, was again largely bypassed; fighting touched only portions of the fortifications near Metz and in northern Alsace towards the end of 1944.During the German offensive Operation Nordwind in January 1945, Maginot Line casemates and fortifications were utilised by Allied forces, especially in the Bas-Rhin department in Grand Est, and some German units had been supplemented with flamethrower tanks in anticipation of this possibility.",
"In January 1945 von Luck with 21 Panzerdivision was tasked with cutting through the old Maginot Line defences and severing Allied links with Strasbourg as part of Operation Nordwind.",
"He was told there were no plans available of the Line but that it was “barely manned and constituted no obstacle”.",
"However they came up against fierce resistance and concentrated American artillery fire.",
"They had to withdraw on 6 January 1945 and again after another attack on 8 January, although they drove a \"tiny wedge\" into the Line.",
"Stephen Ambrose wrote that in January 1945, \"a part of the line was used for the purpose it had been designed for and showed what a superb fortification it was.\"",
"Here the Line ran east-west, around the villages of Rittershoffen and Hatten, south of Wissembourg.=== After World War II ===The view from a battery at Ouvrage Schoenenbourg in Alsace.",
"A retractable turret is in the left foreground.After the war, the French re-manned the line and undertook some modifications.",
"With the advent of French nuclear weapons in the early 1960s, the line became an expensive anachronism.",
"Some of the larger ''ouvrages'' were converted to command centres.",
"When France withdrew from NATO's military component in 1966, much of the line was abandoned, with the NATO facilities turned back over to French forces and the rest of it auctioned off to the public or left to decay.",
"A number of old fortifications have now been turned into wine cellars, a mushroom farm, and even a disco.",
"Besides that, a few private houses are built atop some blockhouses.View of the village of Lembach in Alsace (north-east), taken from combat unit number 5 of the fortress ouvrage Four-à-ChauxOuvrage Rochonvillers was retained by the French Army as a command centre into the 1990s but was deactivated following the disappearance of the Soviet threat.",
"Ouvrage Hochwald is the only facility in the main line that remains in active service as a hardened command facility for the French Air Force known as Drachenbronn Airbase.In 1968, when scouting locations for ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'', producer Harry Saltzman used his French contacts to gain permission to use portions of the Maginot Line as SPECTRE headquarters in the film.",
"Saltzman provided art director Syd Cain with a tour of the complex.",
"Still, Cain said that the location would be challenging to light and film inside and that artificial sets could be constructed at the studios for a fraction of the cost.",
"The idea was shelved."
],
[
"Postwar assessment",
"In analysing the Maginot Line, Ariel Ilan Roth summarised its main purpose: it was not \"as popular myth would later have it, to make France invulnerable\", but it was constructed to make the appeal of flanking the French \"far outweigh the appeal of attacking them head on\".",
"J.E.",
"Kaufmann and H.W.",
"Kaufmann added that before construction in October 1927, the Superior Council of War adopted the final design for the line and identified that one of the main missions would be to deter a German cross-border assault with only minimal force to allow \"the army time to mobilise.\"",
"In addition, the French envisioned that the Germans would conduct a repeat of their First World War battle plan to flank the defences and drew up their overall strategy with that in mind.Julian Jackson highlighted one of the line's roles was to facilitate that strategy by \"freeing manpower for offensive operations elsewhere... and to protect the forces of manoeuvre\"; the latter included a more mechanised and modernised military, which would advance into Belgium and engage the German main thrust flanking the line.",
"In support, Roth commented that the French strategy envisioned one of two possibilities by advancing into Belgium: \"either there would be a decisive battle in which France might win, or, more likely, a front would develop and stabilise\".",
"The latter meant the next war's destructive consequences would not take place on French soil.Tunnel, Ouvrage Schoenenbourg, the decauvillePostwar assessment of whether the Maginot Line served its purpose has been mixed.",
"Its enormous cost and its failure to prevent German forces from invading France have caused journalists and political commentators to remain divided on whether the line was worthwhile.The historian Clayton Donnell commented, \"If one believes the Maginot Line was built for the primary purpose of stopping a German invasion of France, most will consider it a massive failure and a waste of money... in reality, the line was not built to be the ultimate saviour of France\".",
"Donnell argued that the primary purpose of \"preventing a concerted attack on France through the traditional invasion routes and to permit time for the mobilisation of troops... was fulfiled\", as was the French strategy of forcing the Germans to enter Belgium, which ideally would have allowed \"the French to fight on favourable terrain\".",
"However, he noted that the French failed to use the line as the basis for an offensive.Marc Romanych and Martin Rupp highlight that \"poor decisions and missed opportunities\" plagued the line and point to its purpose of conserving manpower: \"about 20 percent of France's field divisions remained inactive along the Maginot Line\".",
"Belgium was overrun, and British and French forces evacuated at Dunkirk.",
"They argue had those troops been moved north, \"it is possible that Heeresgruppe A's advance could have been blunted, giving time for Groupe d'armees 1 to reorganise\".",
"Kaufmann and Kaufmann commented, \"When all is said and done, the Maginot Line did not fail to accomplish its original mission... it provided a shield that bought time for the army to mobilise... and concentrate its best troops along the Belgian border to engage the enemy.",
"\"The psychological factor of the Maginot Line has also been discussed.",
"Its construction created a false sense of security, which was widely believed by the French population.",
"Kaufmann and Kaufmann comment that it was an unintended consequence of André Maginot's efforts to \"focus the public's attention on the work being done, emphasising the role and nature of the line\".",
"That resulted in \"the media exaggerating their descriptions by turning the line into an impregnable fortified position that would seal the frontier\".",
"The false sense of security contributed \"to the development of the \"Maginot mentality\".Jackson commented that \"it has often been alleged that the Maginot Line contributed to France's defeat by making the military too complacent and defence-minded.",
"Such accusations are unfounded\".",
"Historians have pointed to numerous reasons for the French defeat: faulty strategy and doctrine, dispersion of forces, the loss of command and control, poor communications, faulty intelligence that provided excessive German numbers, the slow nature of the French response to the German penetration of the Ardennes and a failure to understand the nature and speed of the German doctrine.",
"More seriously, historians have noted rather than the Germans doing what the French had envisioned, the French played into the Germans' hand, culminating in their defeat.When the French Army failed in Belgium, the Maginot Line covered their retreat.",
"Romanych and Rupp indicate that except for the loss of several insignificant fortifications from insufficient defending troops, the actual fortifications and troops \"withstood the test of battle\", repulsed numerous attacks, and \"withstood intense aerial and artillery bombardment\".",
"Kaufmann and Kaufmann point to the Maginot Line along the Italian border, which \"demonstrated the effectiveness of the fortifications... when properly employed\"."
],
[
"Cultural impact",
"The term \"''Maginot Line''\" has become a part of the English language: \"America's Maginot Line\" was the title used for an ''Atlantic Magazine'' article about America's military bases in Asia.",
"The article portrayed vulnerability by showing a rocket being transported through a marshy area atop an ox.",
"''New York Times'' headlined \"Maginot Line in the Sky\" in 2000 and \"A New Maginot Line\" in 2001.It was also frequently referenced in wartime films, notably ''Thunder Rock'', ''The Major and the Minor'' (albeit as a comedic metaphor) and ''Passage to Marseille''.Somewhat like \"line in the sand\" it is also used in non-military situations, as in \"Reagan's budgetary Maginot Line.\""
],
[
"See also",
"* Atlantic Wall* Bar Lev Line* British hardened field defences of World War II* Ceintures de Lyon* Commission for Organising the Fortified Regions (CORF)* Çakmak Line * Czechoslovak border fortifications* K-W Line – a contemporary defence line in Belgium* List of Alpine Line ouvrages (works)* List of Maginot Line ouvrages (works)* Metaxas Line* Rupnik Line* Siegfried Line"
],
[
"Notes",
"''' Footnotes'''''' Citations'''"
],
[
"References",
"'''Books'''* * * * * Donnell, Clayton.",
"''The Battle for the Maginot Line, 1940'' (Pen and Sword, 2017).",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * '''Journals'''* * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Mary, Jean-Yves; Hohnadel, Alain; Sicard, Jacques.",
"''Hommes et Ouvrages de la Ligne Maginot, Tome 1.''",
"(Men and Works of the Maginot Line).",
"Paris, Histoire & Collections, 2001.. * Mary, Jean-Yves; Hohnadel, Alain; Sicard, Jacques.",
"''Hommes et Ouvrages de la Ligne Maginot, Tome 2.''",
"Paris, Histoire & Collections, 2003.. * Mary, Jean-Yves; Hohnadel, Alain; Sicard, Jacques.",
"''Hommes et Ouvrages de la Ligne Maginot, Tome 3.''",
"Paris, Histoire & Collections, 2003.. * Mary, Jean-Yves; Hohnadel, Alain; Sicard, Jacques.",
"''Hommes et Ouvrages de la Ligne Maginot, Tome 4 – La fortification alpine.''",
"Paris, Histoire & Collections, 2009.. * Mary, Jean-Yves; Hohnadel, Alain; Sicard, Jacques.",
"''Hommes et Ouvrages de la Ligne Maginot, Tome 5.''",
"Paris, Histoire & Collections, 2009.. * * Kaufmann, J.E., Kaufmann, H.W., Jancovič-Potočnik, A. and Lang, P. ''The Maginot Line: History and Guide'', Pen and Sword, 2011."
],
[
"External links",
"* The Maginot Line (French/English/German/Italian)* Fortress of Schoenenbourg, (French/English/German/Italian)* The U.S. Army vs.",
"The Maginot Line by Bryan J. Dickerson* Maginot Line today* Armament of Maginot Line (''Czech only'')"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Metrication"
],
[
"Introduction",
"World map, colour-coded to show the years the countries started of the process of official conversion to the metric system.",
"Using data from PhD thesis by Hector Vera and NIST.",
"'''Metrication''' or '''metrification''' is the act or process of converting to the metric system of measurement.",
"All over the world, countries have transitioned from local and traditional units of measurement to the metric system.",
"This process began in France during the 1790s, and has persistently advanced over two centuries, accumulating into 95% of the world officially only using the modern metric system.",
"Nonetheless, this also highlights that certain countries and sectors are either still transitioning or have chosen not to fully adopt the metric system."
],
[
"Overview",
"The process of metrication is typically initiated and overseen by a country's government, generally motivated by the necessity of establishing a uniform measurement system for effective international cooperation in fields like trade and science.",
"Governments achieve metrication through either mandatory changes to existing units within a specified timeframe or through voluntary adoption.While metric use is mandatory in some countries and voluntary in others, all countries have recognised and adopted the SI, albeit to different degrees, including the United States.",
"As of 2011, ninety-five percent of the world's population live in countries where the metric system is the only legal system of measurement.According to the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's ''The World Factbook'' (2023), there are only three countries that have not fully adopted the metric system (Liberia, Myanmar, and the United States), however a research paper completed by Vera (2011) stated in practice there were an additional four countries (Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Palau, and Samoa).",
"In 2018, the Liberia government had pledged to adopt the metric system, but still mainly uses the US customary units.",
"In 2013, the Myanmar Ministry of Commerce announced that Myanmar was preparing to adopt the metric system as the country's official system of measurement, and metrication in Myanmar began with some progress was made (road signs and temperature are in metric), however there had been very little progress in local trade.",
"As of 2023, the United States has a national policy of adopting the metric system, and all United States Government agencies are required to adopt it.The metrication process can take years to implement and complete.",
"For instance Guyana, adopted the metric system 2002 and was only able to make it mandatory in local trade 2017 after the metric system was fully adopted in schools.",
"Antigua and Barbuda, also officially metric, is moving slowly in its metrication process, with a new push in 2011 for all government agencies to convert by 2013 and the entire country to use the metric system by the first quarter of 2015.Other metric Caribbean countries, such as Saint Lucia officially metric 2000, are still in the process toward full conversion.The United Kingdom has officially embraced a dual measurement system.",
"The United Kingdom as of 2007 halted its metrication process, and retain imperial units of the mile and yard in road markings, pints for returnable milk containers, and (with Ireland) for the pint for draught beer and cider sold in pubs.",
"Throughout the 1990s, the European Commission helped accelerate the metrication process for member states, for the implemented the Units of Measure Directive to promote trade.",
"This acceleration caused public backlash in the United Kingdom, and in 2007 the United Kingdom announced that it had secured permanent exemptions listed above and, to appease British public opinion and to facilitate trade with the United States, the option to include imperials units alongside metric units could continue indefinitely.The United Kingdom and the United States face ongoing resistance toward metrication, rooted in a belief that their cultural identity is intertwined with the traditional measurement systems they historically have used.",
"This has resulted in a review of mandatory sales and trade of metric units by the UK government and active opposition to metrication by some commentators in the US."
],
[
"Forerunners of metrication",
"National Convention decree of April 1795 establishing the metric systemThe metre was adopted as exclusive measure in 1801 under the French Consulate, then the First French Empire until 1812, when Napoleon decreed the introduction of the ''mesures usuelles'' which remained in use in France up to 1840 in the reign of Louis Philippe.",
"Meanwhile, the metre was adopted by the Republic of Geneva.",
"After the joining of canton of Geneva to Switzerland in 1815, Guillaume Henri Dufour published the first Swiss official map for which the metre was adopted as unit of length.",
"A Swiss-French binational officer, Louis Napoléon Bonaparte was present when a baseline was measured near Zürich for Dufour map which would win the gold medal for the national map at the Exposition Universelle of 1855.Among the scientific instruments calibrated on the metre, which were displayed at the Exposition Universelle, was Brunner apparatus, a geodetic instrument devised for measuring the central baseline of Spain whose designer, Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero would represent Spain at the International Statistical Institute.",
"In addition to the Exposition Universelle and the second Statistical Congress held in Paris, an International Association for obtaining a uniform decimal system of measures, weights, and coins was created there in 1855.Copies of the Spanish standard would be made for Egypt, France and Germany.",
"These standards were compared to each other and with Borda apparatus which was the main reference for measuring all geodetic baselines in France.",
"These comparisons were essential, because of the expansibility of solid materials with raise in temperature.",
"Indeed, one fact had constantly dominated all the fluctuations of ideas on the measurement of geodesic bases: it was the constant concern to accurately assess the temperature of standards in the field; and the determination of this variable, on which depended the length of the instrument of measurement, had always been considered by geodesists as so difficult and so important that one could almost say that the history of measuring instruments is almost identical with that of the precautions taken to avoid temperature errors.",
"In 1867, the second general Conference of the European Arc Measurement recommended the adoption of the metre in replacement of the toise.",
"In 1869, the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences sent to the French Academy of Sciences a report drafted by Otto Wilhelm von Struve, Heinrich von Wild and Moritz von Jacobi inviting his French counterpart to undertake joint action with a view to ensuring the universal use of the metric system in all scientific work.",
"The same year, Napoleon III convened the International Metre Commission which was to meet in Paris in 1870.The Franco-Prussian War broke out, the Second French Empire collapsed, but the metre survived.During the nineteenth century the metric system of weights and measures proved a convenient political compromise during the unification processes in the Netherlands, Germany and Italy.",
"In 1814, Portugal became the second country not part of the French Empire to officially adopt the metric system.",
"Spain found it expedient in 1849 to follow the French example and within a decade Latin America had also adopted the metric system, or had already adopted the system, such as the case of Chile by 1848.There was considerable resistance to metrication in the United Kingdom and in the United States.",
"Despite this, they were actually the first countries in the World to use a metric standard for cartography.===France (1795–1840)===The introduction of the metric system into France in 1795 was done on a district by district basis with Paris being the first district.",
"By modern standards the transition was poorly managed.",
"Although thousands of pamphlets were distributed, the Agency of Weights and Measures who oversaw the introduction underestimated the work involved.",
"Paris alone needed 500,000 metre sticks, yet one month after the metre became the sole legal unit of measure, they only had 25,000 in store.",
"This, combined with the excesses of the Revolution and the high level of illiteracy in 18th century France, made the metric system unpopular.Napoleon himself ridiculed the metric system but, as an able administrator, recognised the value of a sound basis for a system of measurement.",
"Under the (imperial decree of 12 February 1812), a new system of measure – the (\"customary measures\") was introduced for use in small retail businesses – all government, legal and similar works still had to use the metric system and the metric system continued to be taught at all levels of education.",
"That system reintroduced the names of many units used during the ancient regime, but their values were redefined in terms of metric units.",
"Thus the was defined as being two metres, with six making up one ''toise'', twelve making up one ''pied'' and twelve making up one ''pouce''.",
"Likewise the was defined as being 500 g, each ''livre'' comprising sixteen ''once'' and each ''once'' eight ''gros'' and the ''aune'' as 120 centimetres.",
"This intermediate step eased the transition to a metric-based system.By the (the law of 4 July 1837), Louis Philippe I effectively revoked the use of ''mesures usuelles'' by reaffirming the laws of measurement of 1795 and 1799 to be used from 1 May 1840.However, many units of measure, such as the ''livre'' (for half a kilogram), remained in everyday use for many years, and to a residual extent up to this day.Conversion table in an 1848 German schoolbook showing the metric equivalent of the foot in use in over two dozen countries, including several German states===Germany (1810–1877)===Europäische Gradmessung''|278x278pxAustro-Hungarian/Italian border at Pontebba displaying myriametres (10 km), a unit used in Central Europe in the 19th centuryAt the outbreak of the French Revolution, much of modern-day Germany and Austria were part of the Holy Roman Empire which had become a loose federation of kingdoms, principalities, free cities, bishoprics and other fiefdoms, each with its own system of measurement, though in most cases the systems were loosely derived from the Carolingian system instituted by Charlemagne a thousand years earlier.During the Napoleonic era, some of the German states moved to reform their systems of measurement using the prototype metre and kilogram as the basis of the new units.",
"Baden, in 1810, for example, redefined the ''Ruthe'' (rods) as being 3.0 m exactly and defined the subunits of the ''Ruthe'' as 1 ''Ruthe'' = 10 ''Fuß'' (feet) = 100 ''Zoll'' (inches) = 1,000 ''Linie'' (lines) = 10,000 ''Punkt'' (points) (for simplicity at the expense of grammar, these are the singular forms of each name) while the ''Pfund'' was defined as 500 g, divided into 30 Loth, each of 16.67 g. Bavaria, in its reform of 1811, trimmed the Bavarian ''Pfund'' from 561.288 g to 560 g exactly, consisting of 32 ''Loth'', each of 17.5 g while the Prussian ''Pfund'' remained at 467.711 g.After the Congress of Vienna there was a degree of commercial cooperation between the various German states resulting in the German Customs Union (''Zollverein'').",
"There were, however, still many barriers to trade until Bavaria took the lead in establishing the General German Commercial Code in 1856.As part of the code the ''Zollverein'' introduced the ''Zollpfund'' (Customs Pound) which was defined as exactly 500 g and could be split into 30 'lot'.",
"This unit was used for inter-state movement of goods, but was not applied in all states for internal use.In 1832, Carl Friedrich Gauss studied the Earth's magnetic field and proposed adding the second to the basic units of the metre and the kilogram in the form of the CGS system (centimetre, gram, second).",
"In 1836, he founded the ''Magnetischer Verein'', the first international scientific association, in collaboration with Alexander von Humboldt and Wilhelm Edouard Weber.",
"Geophysics (the study of the Earth by the means of physics) preceded physics and contributed to the development of its methods.",
"It was primarily a natural philosophy whose object was the study of natural phenomena such as the Earth's magnetic field, lightning and gravity.",
"The coordination of the observation of geophysical phenomena in different points of the globe was of paramount importance and was at the origin of the creation of the first international scientific associations.",
"The foundation of the ''Magnetischer Verein'' would be followed by that of the Central European Arc Measurement (German: ''Mitteleuropaïsche Gradmessung'') on the initiative of Johann Jacob Baeyer in 1863, and by that of the International Meteorological Organisation whose second president, the Swiss meteorologist and physicist, Heinrich von Wild represented Russia at the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM).",
"In 1867, the European Arc Measurement (German: ''Europäische Gradmessung'') called for the creation of a new, ''international prototype metre'' (IPM) and the arrangement of a system where national standards could be compared with it.",
"The French government gave practical support to the creation of an International Metre Commission, which met in Paris in 1870 and again in 1872 with the participation of about thirty countries.",
"The Metre Convention was signed on 20 May 1875 in Paris and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures was created under the supervision of the CIPM.Although the Zollverein collapsed after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the metric system became the official system of measurement in the newly formed German Empire in 1872 and of Austria in 1875.The Zollpfund ceased to be legal in Germany after 1877.===Italy (1797–1870)===Tablet showing conversions of legacy units of weights and measures to metric units, Vicopisano, TuscanyThe Cisalpine Republic, a North Italian republic set up by Napoleon in 1797 with its capital at Milan, first adopted a modified form of the metric system based on the ''braccio cisalpino'' (Cisalpine cubit) which was defined to be half a metre.",
"In 1802 the Cisalpine Republic was renamed the Italian Republic, with Napoleon as its head of state.",
"The following year the Cisalpine system of measure was replaced by the metric system.In 1806, the Italian Republic was replaced by the Kingdom of Italy with Napoleon as its emperor.",
"By 1812, all of Italy from Rome northwards was under the control of Napoleon, either as French Departments or as part of the Kingdom of Italy, ensuring that the metric system was in use throughout this region.After the Congress of Vienna, the various Italian states reverted to their original systems of measurements, but in 1845 the Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia passed legislation to introduce the metric system within five years.",
"By 1860, most of Italy had been unified under the King of Sardinia Victor Emmanuel II; and under ''Law 132 of 28 July 1861'' the metric system became the official system of measurement throughout the kingdom.",
"Numerous ''Tavole di ragguaglio'' (conversion tables) were displayed in shops until 31 December 1870.===Netherlands (1799–1817)===The Netherlands (as the revolutionary Batavian Republic) began to use the metric system from 1799 but, as with its co-revolutionaries in France, encountered numerous practical difficulties.",
"Subsequently, as part of the First French Empire since 1809, the Netherlands used Napoleon's from their introduction in 1812 until the fall of his Empire in 1815.Under the (Dutch) Weights and Measures Act of 21 August 1816 and the Royal decree of 27 March 1817 (), the newly formed Kingdom of the Netherlands abandoned the in favour of the \"Dutch\" metric system () in which metric units were simply given the names of units of measure that were then in use: for instance the (ounce) was defined as 100 g.=== Norway (1875)===In 1875, Norway was the first country to ratify the metre convention, and it was seen as an important step towards Norwegian independence.",
"The decision to adopt the metric system is said to have been the Norwegian Parliament's fastest decision in peacetime.===Portugal (1814)===In August 1814, Portugal officially adopted the metric system but with the names of the units substituted by Portuguese traditional ones.",
"In this system the basic units were the ''mão-travessa'' (hand) = 1 decimetre (10 ''mão-travessas'' = 1 ''vara'' (yard) = 1 metre), the ''canada'' = 1 litre and the ''libra'' (pound) = 1 kilogram.===Spain (1700–1889)===International Geodetic Association and of the International Committee for Weights and Measures|leftUntil the ascent of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain in 1700, each region of Spain had its own system of measurement.",
"The new Bourbon monarchy tried to centralise control and with it the system of measurement.",
"There were debates regarding the desirability of retaining the Castilian units of measure or, in the interests of harmonisation, adopting the French system.",
"Although Spain assisted Méchain in his meridian survey, the Government feared the French revolutionary movement and reinforced the Castilian units of measure to counter such movements.",
"By 1849 however, it proved difficult to maintain the old system and in that year the metric system became the legal system of measure in Spain.The Spanish Royal Academy of Science urged the Government to approve the creation of a large-scale map of Spain in 1852.The following year Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero was appointed to undertake this task.",
"All the scientific and technical material had to be created.",
"Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero and Saavedra went to Paris to supervise the production by Brunner of a measuring instrument which they had devised and which they later compared with Borda's double-toise N°1 which was the main reference for measuring all geodetic bases in France and whose length was by definition 3.8980732 metres at a specified temperature.In 1865 the triangulation of Spain was connected with that of Portugal and France.",
"In 1866 at the conference of the Association of Geodesy in Neuchâtel, Ibáñez announced that Spain would collaborate in remeasuring the French meridian arc.",
"In 1879 Ibáñez and François Perrier (representing France) completed the junction between the geodetic network of Spain and Algeria and thus completed the measurement of the French meridian arc which extended from Shetland to the Sahara.In 1866, Spain and Portugal joined the Central European Arc Measurement which would become the European Arc Measurement the next year.",
"In 1867 at the second general conference of the geodetic association held in Berlin, the question of an international standard unit of length was discussed in order to combine the measurements made in different countries to determine the size and shape of the Earth.",
"The conference proposed according to recommendations drawn up by a committee chaired by Otto Wilhelm von Struve director of the Pulkovo Observatory in St. Petersburg the adoption of the metre and the creation of an international metre commission, after a preliminary discussion held in Neuchâtel between Johann Jacob Baeyer director of the Royal Prussian Geodetic Institute, Adolphe Hirsch founder of the Neuchâtel Observatory and Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero Spanish representative, founder and first director of the Instituto Geográfico Nacional.In November 1869 the French government issued invitations to join this commission.",
"Spain accepted and Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero took part in the Committee of preparatory research from the first meeting of the International Metre Commission in 1870.He became president of the permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission in 1872.In 1874 he was elected as president of the Permanent Commission of the European Arc Measurement.",
"He also presided the General Conference of the European Arc Measurement held in Paris in 1875, when the association decided the creation of an international geodetic standard for the bases' measurement.",
"He represented Spain at the 1875 conference of the Metre Convention, which was ratified the same year in Paris.",
"The Spanish geodesist was elected as the first president of the International Committee for Weights and Measures.",
"His activities resulted in the distribution of a platinum and iridium prototype of the metre to all States parties to the Metre Convention during the first meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1889.These prototypes defined the metre right up until 1960.International Geodetic Association and of the International Committee for Weights and Measures=== Switzerland (1801–1877)===Guillaume Henri Dufour, founder of SwisstopoHeinrich von Wild, president of the International Meteorological Organization and member of the International Committee for Weights and MeasuresIn 1801, the Helvetic Republic at the instigation of Johann Georg Tralles promulgated a law introducing the metric system.",
"However this was never applied, because in 1803 the competence for weights and measures returned to the cantons.",
"On the territory of the current canton of Jura, then annexed to France (Mont-Terrible), the metre was adopted in 1800.The Canton of Geneva adopted the metric system in 1813, the canton of Vaud in 1822, the canton of Valais in 1824 and the canton of Neuchâtel in 1857.In 1835, twelve cantons of the Swiss Plateau and the north-east adopted a concordat based on the federal foot (exactly 0.3 m) which entered into force in 1836.The cantons of central and eastern Switzerland, as well as the Alpine cantons, continued to use the old measures.Guillaume-Henri Dufour founded in 1838 in Geneva a topographic office (the future Federal Office of topography), which published under his direction, from 1845 to 1864, the first official map of Switzerland, on the basis of new cantonal measurements.",
"This map at 1:100,000 engraved on copper, suggested the relief by hatching and shadows.",
"The map projection adopted by the commission was the Bonne projection, centred on the Bern Observatory (5° 6 east of Paris meridian), although this point was much closer to the western end of Switzerland than to its eastern end.",
"But its position was well known, and there was no more central observatory.",
"The scale was set at 1:100 000 because it was considered more suitable for a country as rugged as Switzerland than the 1:80 000 adopted for the large map of France and the two maps were in any case inconsistent, as the meridians of the map of Switzerland tilted in the opposite direction to those of the map of France.",
"The map commission wanted to adopt decimal measures; and Switzerland did not have an already existing map which, like the Cassini map, used a scale close to 1:86 400, i.e.",
"1 line ( of a French inch) to 100 toises (i.e.",
"600 French feet).",
"The metre was adopted as a linear measure, and the entire map was divided into twenty-five sheets: five east–west and five north–south.",
"Each sheet must have shown two scales, one purely metric, the other in Swiss leagues 4800 metres in length.",
"The frame would be divided into sexagesimal minutes and centesimal minutes; the latter, each subdivided into ten parts, had the advantage of showing Kilometres in the direction of the meridians; so that there are new scales on the sides of the sheet to appreciate the distances.According to the 1848 Constitution the federal foot was to come into force throughout the country.",
"In Geneva, a committee chaired by Guillaume Henri Dufour militated in favor of maintaining the decimal metric system in the French-speaking cantons and against the standardization of weights and measures in Switzerland on the basis of the metric foot.",
"In 1868 the metric system was legalized alongside the federal foot, which was a first step towards its definitive introduction.",
"Cantonal calibrators were supervised by a Federal Bureau of Verification created in 1862, whose management was entrusted to Heinrich von Wild from 1864.In 1875, the responsibility for weights and measures was transferred back from the cantons to the Confederation, and Switzerland (represented by Adolphe Hirsch) joined the Metre Convention.",
"The same year a federal law imposed the metric system from 1 January 1877.In 1977, Switzerland joined the International System of Units.===United Kingdom (1824–present)===In 1824 the Weights and Measures Act imposed one standard 'imperial' system of weights and measures on the British Empire.",
"The effect of this Act was to standardise existing British units of measure rather than to align them with the metric system.During the next eighty years a number of Parliamentary select committees recommended the adoption of the metric system, each with a greater degree of urgency, but Parliament prevaricated.",
"A Select Committee report of 1862 recommended compulsory metrication, but with an \"Intermediate permissive phase\"; Parliament responded in 1864 by legalising metric units only for 'contracts and dealings'.",
"The United Kingdom initially declined to sign the Treaty of the Metre, but did so in 1883.Meanwhile, British scientists and technologists were at the forefront of the metrication movement – it was the British Association for the Advancement of Science that promoted the CGS system of units as a coherent system and it was the British firm Johnson Matthey that was accepted by the CGPM in 1889 to cast the international prototype metre and kilogram.In 1895 another Parliamentary select committee recommended the compulsory adoption of the metric system after a two-year permissive period.",
"The 1897 Weights and Measures Act legalised the metric units for trade, but did not make them mandatory.",
"A bill to make the metric system compulsory to help the British industrial base fight off the challenge of the nascent German base passed through the House of Lords in 1904, but did not pass in the House of Commons before the next general election was called.",
"Following opposition by the Lancashire cotton industry, a similar bill was defeated in the House of Commons in 1907 by 150 votes to 118.In 1965 the UK began an official programme of metrication, and as of , in the United Kingdom the metric is the official measurement system for all regulated trading by weight or measure purposes, however imperial pint remains the sole legal unit for milk in returnable bottles and for draught beer and cider in British pubs.",
"Imperial units are also legally permited to be used alongside metric units on food packaging and price indications for goods sold loose.",
"The Uk goverment undertook a \"Choice on units of measurement: consultation response\", and found just over 1% of respondants wish to revert to an increase the use of imperial units, and a such kept the current regulations on the sale of goods.In addition imperial units may be used exclusively where a product is sold by description, rather than by weight/mass/volume: e.g.",
"television screen and clothing sizes tend to be given in inches only, but a piece of material priced per inch would be unlawful unless the metric price was also shown.The general public still use imperial units in common langange for their height and weight, and imperial units are the norm when discussing longer distances such as journeys by car, but otherwise metric measurements are often used.===United States (1830–present)===United States Coast Survey|leftIn 1805 a Swiss geodesist Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler brought copies of the French metre and kilogram to the United States.",
"In 1830 the Congress decided to create uniform standards for length and weight in the United States.",
"Hassler was mandated to work out the new standards and proposed to adopt the metric system.",
"The Congress opted for the British Parliamentary Standard from 1758 and the Troy Pound of Great Britain from 1824 as length and weight standards.",
"Nevertheless, the primary baseline of the Survey of the Coast (renamed the United States Coast Survey in 1836 and the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1878) was measured in 1834 at Fire Island using four iron bars constructed after Hassler's specification in the United Kingdom and brought back in the United States in 1815.All distances measured by the Survey of the Coast, Coast Survey, and Coast and Geodetic Survey were referred to the metre.",
"In 1866 the United States Congress passed a bill making it lawful to use the metric system in the United States.",
"The bill, which was permissive rather than mandatory in nature, defined the metric system in terms of customary units rather than with reference to the international prototype metre and kilogram.",
"Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler's use of the metre in coastal surveying, which had been an argument for the introduction of the Metric Act of 1866 allowing the use of the metre in the United States, probably also played a role in the choice of the metre as international scientific unit of length and the proposal by the European Arc Measurement (German: ''Europäische Gradmessung'') to “establish a European international bureau for weights and measures”.By 1893, the reference standards for customary units had become unreliable.",
"Moreover, the United States, being a signatory of the Metre Convention was in possession of national prototype metres and kilograms that were calibrated against those in use elsewhere in the world.",
"This led to the Mendenhall Order which redefined the customary units by referring to the national metric prototypes, but used the conversion factors of the 1866 act.",
"In 1896, a bill that would make the metric system mandatory in the United States was presented to Congress.",
"Twenty-three of the 29 people who gave evidence before the congressional committee who were considering the bill were in favor of it, but six were against.",
"Four of these six dissenters represented manufacturing interests and the other two were from the United States Revenue service.",
"The grounds cited were the cost and inconvenience of the change-over.",
"The bill was not enacted.",
"Subsequent bills suffered a similar fate.The United States mandated the acceptance of the metric system in 1866 for commercial and legal proceedings, without displacing their customary units.",
"The non-mandatory nature of the adoption of the SI has resulted in a much slower pace of adoption in the US than in other countries.In 1971, the US National Bureau of Standards completed a three-year study of the impact of increasing worldwide metric use on the US.",
"The study concluded with a report to Congress entitled ''A Metric America – A Decision Whose Time Has Come''.",
"Since then metric use has increased in the US, principally in the manufacturing and educational sectors.",
"Public Law 93-380, enacted 21 August 1974, states that it is the policy of the US to encourage educational agencies and institutions to prepare students to use the metric system of measurement with ease and facility as a part of the regular education program.",
"On 23 December 1975, President Gerald Ford signed Public Law 94–168, the Metric Conversion Act of 1975.This act declares a national policy of coordinating the increasing use of the metric system in the US.",
"It established a US Metric Board whose functions as of 1 October 1982 were transferred to the Dept of Commerce, Office of Metric Programs, to coordinate the voluntary conversion to the metric system.In January 2007 NASA decided to use metric units for all future Moon missions, in line with the practice of other space agencies.===Other English-speaking countries===The British metrication programme signalled the start of metrication programmes elsewhere in the Commonwealth, though India had started its programme in 1959, six years before the United Kingdom.",
"South Africa (then not a member of the Commonwealth) set up a Metrication Advisory Board in 1967, New Zealand set up its Metric Advisory Board in 1969, Australia passed the Metric Conversion Act in 1970 and Canada appointed a Metrication Commission in 1971.The metric units of measurement on Canadian canned food labels are merely the equivalent of the still widely used imperial units such as the ounce.Metrication in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa was essentially complete within a decade, while in Canada metrication has been halted since the 1970s.",
"In that country, the square foot is still widespread for commercial and residential advertisements and partially in construction because of the close trade relations with the United States.",
"Metric measurements on food products such as canned food are often merely the equivalent of the still widely used imperial units of measurement such as the ounce and the pound.",
"Butter is everywhere sold in 454 g packagings, which is the equivalent of one pound.",
"The railways of Canada such as the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific as well as commuter rail services continue to measure their trackage in miles and speed limits in miles per hour because they also operate in the United States (although urban railways including subways and light rail have adopted kilometres and kilometres per hour).",
"Canadian railcars show weight figures in both imperial and metric.",
"Most other Commonwealth countries adopted the metric system during the 1970s.Apart from the United Kingdom and Canada, which have effectively halted their metrication programs, the great majority of countries using the imperial system have completed official metrication during the second half of the 20th century or the first decade of the 21st century.",
"The most recent to complete this process was the Republic of Ireland, which began metric conversion in the 1970s and completed it in early 2005.Hong Kong uses three systems (traditional, imperial, and metric) and all three are permitted for use in trade."
],
[
"Global status of metrication",
"===Status by country/region===metric, imperial, and US customary) as of 2023 (based on popular and official usage)Countries by current metrication status (based on official usage only) (2016):''Links in the '''country/region''' point to articles about metrication in that country/region.''",
"Year official metrication process started Country/RegionPrevious systemof measureCurrent official status of metrication 1795 France French 5Complete 1814 Portugal Portuguese 5Complete 1820 Belgium Belgian 5Complete 1820 Netherlands Dutch 5Complete 1843 Algeria Algerian 5Complete 1848 Chile Chilean (variants of Spanish) 5Complete 1852 Mexico Mexican (variants of Spanish) 4Complete (some national and regional units are still in use and some United States customary units also in use in some industries) 1852 Spain Spanish 4Complete 18601906 Philippines Philippine (Spanish, US customary and local) 3Almost entirely complete.",
"The Philippines first adopted the metric system in 1860 because of the Spanish Colonial government; imperial units were introduced by the American Colonial government; however, the metric system was made the official system of measurement in 1906 through Act No.",
"1519, s. 1906.US customary units still in use for body measurements and small products while the metric system is used for larger measurements; e.g.",
"floor area, highway length, tonnage.",
"1861 Italy Italian 5Complete 1862 Brazil Brazilian (variants of Portuguese) 4Complete, but some non-metric units are used for specific areas: rural land – alqueire; cattle weight – arroba; screen sizes – polegada; tyre pressure – libra-força por polegada quadrada, but referred by its English abbreviation: psi.",
"1862 Peru Peruvian (variants of Spanish) 3Almost entirely complete 1863 Uruguay Uruguayan (variants of Spanish) 5Complete 1863 Argentina Argentine (variants of Spanish) 5Complete 1864 Romania Romanian 5Complete 1868 North German Confederation German 5Complete 1869South German states German 5Complete 1871 Austria Austrian 5Complete 1872 Germany German 5Complete 1873 Serbia Serbian 5Complete 1874 Hungary Hungarian 5Complete 1875Ottoman Empire/Turkey Ottoman 5Complete 1875 Norway Norwegian 5Complete 1876 Sweden Swedish 4Complete; the old unit of length ''mil'', redefined in 1876 as 10 km, is however still in everyday use: e.g.",
"fuel consumption for motor vehicles is always given as \"litre per mil\", both in everyday speech and in advertising; the ''mil'' is even still used in legal texts, despite officially not being a legal unit of length.",
"1876 Switzerland Swiss 5Complete 1878 Mauritius Mauritian (English, French) 5Complete 1886 Finland Finnish 5Complete 1895 Tunisia Tunisian (Arabic, Turc) 5Complete 1897 Madagascar Malagasy 5Complete 1899 Paraguay Paraguayan (variants of Spanish) 5Complete 1907 Denmark Danish 5Complete 1907 Iceland Icelandic / Danish 5Complete 1908 Costa Rica Costa Rican (variants of Spanish) 5Complete 1912 Dominican Republic Spanish 5Complete 1918 Russia Russian 5Complete 1920 Poland Polish 5Complete 1920 Haiti Haitian (variants of French) 5Complete 19201959 Greece Greek and Ancient Greek 5Complete 1923 Morocco Moroccan (Arabic, Turc) 5Complete 1923 Iran Persian 5Complete 1923 Thailand Thai 3Almost entirely complete 1924 Japan Japanese 4Complete, with continued informal use of the gō serving size, tsubo of floorspace etc.",
"1925 China Chinese 3Almost entirely complete.",
"Wet markets continue to use ''jin'' (catty) and ''liang'' for weight, land area is still given in ''mu'', and other traditional units (e.g., ''chi'' for length) continue to be used informally in everyday language.",
"The People's Republic of China has defined these units so that conversion factors to SI are simple fractions or whole numbers.",
"(See the article on Chinese units of measurement for differences in definitions between the PRC, ROC, and other Sinosphere countries and regions.)",
"1926 Afghanistan Afghan (Persian, Arab, Indian) 5Complete 1929 Estonia Estonian 5Complete 1946 Indonesia Indonesian 3Almost entirely complete.",
"AC units are measured and advertised in horsepower.",
"Informally, floorspace or rural/agrarian land measured differently in each local regions (Sundanese regions tend to use \"bata/tumbak\", Javanese regions use \"ubin/rakit/kesuk/bahu/ru\", \"rante\" in Malay regions, \"borong/anggar\" in West Kalimantan, \"ubin/iring/lupit/tampah\" in other regions, etc.).",
"1948 Israel Ottoman and Biblical and Talmudic 5Complete 1950 Somalia Somali 5Complete 1954 India Indian 5Complete 1954 Sudan Sudanese (various) 5Complete 1961 South Korea Korean 4Complete, with continued informal use of the pyeong of floorspace 1963 Ethiopia Ethiopian 5Complete 1963 Laos Laotian (various) 5Complete 1963 Vietnam Vietnamese 5Complete 1965 United Kingdom Imperial 2Partial adoption, but the metrication process has halted and it most likely will not continue within the foreseeable future.",
"1967 Ireland Irish then Irish measure prior to 1824, and imperial.",
"3Almost entirely complete.",
"Draught beer and cider are required to be sold by imperial pint; troy ounce for precious metals also legal.",
"Imperial still in everyday use for body measurements.",
"Some imperial-size packages persist, with metric labels (e.g.",
"\"454 g\" label rather than \"1 lb\").",
"Floor area is still commonly advertised using square feet.",
"1967 Pakistan Pakistani and imperial 5Complete 1969 New Zealand Imperial 5Complete 1970 Australia Imperial 5Complete 1970 Canada Imperial Stalled (body measurements are referred to in imperial units, and certain industries such as real estate, construction, and home appliances still use imperial measurements due to a high reliance on American manufacturing.)",
"Metrication was halted in 1985 and is unlikely to continue within the foreseeable future.",
"1971 Singapore Malay and imperial Almost entirely complete (land and property areas are still measured with square foot or hectare.)",
"1971 South Africa South African and imperial 5Complete 1972 Malaysia Malay and imperial Almost entirely complete, with some traditional wet markets and pasar pagi still using the Malay units.",
"Imperial units are widely used such as size of the real estate are often denoted by square feet rather than square metres.",
"1975 United States of America United States customary units 1Partial adoption (science fields mainly use metric, NASA switched to metric-only in 2007, bottles of wine are sold in 750 mL, US military uses metric-only with the exception of units for aviation, products are dual-labelled, 5K races stand for 5 kilometres, most food nutrition labels list quantities in grams) However, the metrication process has halted and it most likely will not continue within the foreseeable future.",
"1975 North Korea Korean 2Partially complete, with formal continued use of traditional units 1975 Ghana Imperial 5Complete 1976 Sri Lanka Sri Lankan and imperial 3Almost entirely complete 1976 Hong Kong Hong Kong, imperial, Chinese 3Almost entirely complete (wet markets still use the Chinese units or imperial units, and real estates still use square foot as area measurement unit.)",
"1984 Taiwan Taiwanese 3Almost entirely complete (traditional wet markets and real estate still use Taiwanese units.)",
"1992 Macau Imperial, Chinese(Also United States customary units) 3Almost entirely complete 1998 Jamaica Imperial 3Incomplete.",
"In 2018, decades after the country formally adopted the metric system of measurement, most Jamaicans still continued to think and operate in pounds and gallons.",
"The Bureau of Standards Jamaica (BSJ) said that it will take even more time for the change to take full effect.",
"2004 Trinidad and Tobago Imperial 5Stalled.",
"In 2020, market vendors still exclusively engaged in retail trade using pounds and ounces.",
"Meteorologists were still speaking of wave heights in feet.",
"It appears that the authorities have all but given up on ensuring that all commerce is conducted using the official system of measurements.",
"State agencies such as the Ministry of Health are advertising COVID-19 guidelines such as keeping six feet apart despite the fact that the Metrology Act (No.",
"18) of 2004 clearly mandated that the official measurement system for TT is SI.",
"2005 Saint Lucia Imperial 5Complete Indeterminate LiberiaUnited States customary units 1Some adoption 20112013 Myanmar Burmese and imperial 1 Partial adoptionAnnouncement of full metrication in 2014, with technical assistance from the German National Metrology Institute.",
"Distances and speed limits on road signs are shown in kilometres (per hour), and height clearance signs are shown in metres; fuel is measured and sold in litres; and meteorological data and weather reports are shown in degrees Celsius for temperatures, millimetres for precipitation and kilometres per hour for wind speed.",
"'''Notes'''"
],
[
"Methods of conversion",
"There are three common ways that nations convert from traditional measurement systems to the metric system.",
"The first is the quick or \"Big-Bang\" route.",
"The second way is to phase in units over time and progressively outlaw traditional units.",
"This method, favoured by some industrial nations, is slower and generally less complete.",
"The third way is to redefine traditional units in metric terms.",
"This has been used successfully where traditional units were ill-defined and had regional variations.The \"Big-Bang\" way is to simultaneously outlaw the use of pre-metric measurement, metricate, reissue all government publications and laws, and change education systems to metric.",
"India was the first Commonwealth country to use this method of conversion.",
"Its changeover lasted from 1 April 1960, when metric measurements became legal, to 1 April 1962, when all other systems were banned.",
"The Indian model was extremely successful and was copied over much of the developing world.",
"Two industrialized Commonwealth countries, Australia and New Zealand, also did a quick conversion to metric.The phase-in way is to pass a law permitting the use of metric units in parallel with traditional ones, followed by education of metric units, then progressively ban the use of the older measures.",
"This has generally been a slow route to metric.",
"The British Empire permitted the use of metric measures in 1873, but the changeover was not completed in most Commonwealth countries other than India and Australia until the 1970s and 1980s when governments took an active role in metric conversion.",
"In the United Kingdom and Canada, the process is still incomplete.",
"Japan also followed this route and did not complete the changeover for 70 years.",
"By law, loose goods sold with reference to units of quantity have to be weighed and sold using the metric system.",
"In 2001, the EU directive 80/181/EEC stated that supplementary units (imperial units alongside metric including labelling on packages) would become illegal from the beginning of 2010.In September 2007, a consultation process was started which resulted in the directive being modified to permit supplementary units to be used indefinitely.The third method is to redefine traditional units in terms of metric values.",
"These redefined \"quasi-metric\" units often stay in use long after metrication is said to have been completed.",
"Resistance to metrication in post-revolutionary France convinced Napoleon to revert to ''mesures usuelles'' (usual measures), and, to some extent, the names remain throughout Europe.",
"In 1814, Portugal adopted the metric system, but with the names of the units substituted by Portuguese traditional ones.",
"In this system, the basic units were the ''mão-travessa'' (hand) = 1 decimetre (10 ''mão-travessas'' = 1 ''vara'' (yard) = 1 metre), the ''canada'' = 1 litre and the ''libra'' (pound) = 1 kilogram.",
"In the Netherlands, 500 g is informally referred to as a ''pond'' (pound) and 100 g as an ''ons'' (ounce), and in Germany and France, 500 g is informally referred to respectively as ''ein Pfund'' and ''une livre'' (\"one pound\").In Denmark, the re-defined ''pund'' (500 g) is occasionally used, particularly among older people and (older) fruit growers, since these were originally paid according to the number of pounds of fruit produced.",
"In Sweden and Norway, a ''mil'' (Scandinavian mile) is informally equal to 10 km, and this has continued to be the predominantly used unit in conversation when referring to geographical distances.",
"In the 19th century, Switzerland had a non-metric system completely based on metric terms (e.g.",
"1 ''Fuss'' (foot) = 30 cm, 1 ''Zoll'' (inch) = 3 cm, 1 ''Linie'' (line) = 3 mm).",
"In China, the ''jin'' now has a value of 500 g and the liang is 50 g.It is difficult to judge the degree to which ordinary people change to using metric in their daily lives.",
"In countries that have recently changed, older segments of the population tend still to use the older units.",
"Also, local variations abound in which units are round metric quantities or not.",
"In Canada, for example, ovens and cooking temperatures are usually measured in degrees Fahrenheit and Celsius.",
"Except for imported items, all recipes and packaging include both Celsius and Fahrenheit, so Canadians are typically comfortable with both systems of measurement.",
"This extends to manufacturing, where both imperial and metric units can be used, since the major export market is the US, but metric is required both for domestic use and for nearly all other exports.",
"This may be due to the overwhelming influence of the neighbouring United States; similarly, many Canadians still often use non-metric measurements in day-to-day discussions of height and weight, though most drivers' licences and other official government documents record weight and height only in metric.",
"(Saskatchewan driver licences, prior to the introduction of the current one-piece licence, indicated height in feet and inches, but have switched to centimetres following the new licence format.",
")In Canadian schools, metric is the standard, except in recipes, where both are included, and in practical lessons involving measuring wood or other materials for manufacturing.",
"In the United Kingdom, degrees Fahrenheit are seldom encountered (except when some people talk about hot summer weather), while other metric units are often used in conjunction with older measurements, and road signs use miles rather than kilometres.One can distinguish \"hard\" and \"soft\" metric: Canada converted liquid dairy products to litre, 500 mL, and 250 mL sizes; this caused some complaints at the time of the conversion, as the former imperial quart used in Canada to sell milk was about 1.14 litres.",
"This is an example of a \"hard\" metric conversion.",
"Conversely, butter in Canada is sold primarily in 454 g packages, which converts to one imperial pound.",
"Similarly, one of the standard sizes of some liquor bottles is again 1.14 litres.",
"This is considered a \"soft\" metric conversion.In Ireland, metric is the official system of measurement, though most people would not understand metric units for measuring the body, distances or area.",
"Conversely British imperial units would generally not be understood for temperature.",
"For non-body weights, metric is gradually replacing imperial in everyday use, possibly due to weights on packaging being in metric."
],
[
"Industries and countries resistant to metrication",
"Precious metals, such as gold, are often measured in troy ounces., the metric system predominates in most of the world, however specific industries are more resistant to metrication.",
"For example:===Manufacturing and engineering===*Photograph and video cameras are standardised to mount to tripods using -20 and -16 screws, which are dimensioned in inches, by ISO 1222:2010.",
"*Thread count is frequently measured in threads per inch.",
"*Abrasives, such as sandpaper and sharpening stones, are commonly graded by grit, corresponding to the level of abrasiviness (mesh size) per square inch.",
"*For food energy the calorie is still commonly used.===Computers and televisions===*Dots per inch and pixels per inch are still used to describe graphical resolution with computers and printing.",
"*Data density for magnetic tape data storage is measured in bits per inch for density and bits per square inch for area density.",
"*Digital display sizes are usually advertised diagonally, using inches, along with centimetres supplementarily; however, in France and South Africa, centimetres are often used for TVs, whereas LCD monitors are measured in inches.",
"*Photographic paper are still sold with imperial print sizes across the world in metric countries.",
"*The dominant pin spacing for electronic components is based on .===Consumer goods===*Surfboards are usually designed, constructed, and sold in feet and inches.",
"*Shoes are still sold by the barleycorn in most English speaking countries, or the Paris Point in Europe.",
"*The fill power of down feather insulation is commonly expressed in \"cubic inches per ounce\".",
"*Precious metals are often sold in troy ounces, even in mostly metric states.===Land, area and distances on the ground===*Golf courses are measured in yards in the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, China, Thailand, the Philippines, Venezuela, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Cambodia.",
"In the United Kingdom and Ireland, some golf courses are measured in yards while others are measured in metres.",
"*Office space and housing space is often sold and rented in square feet in Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, Canada and India, square yards in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, and ''tsubo''/''pyeong''/\"ping\" in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan.===Road and rail transportation===*Road Signs for distance and speed limit are still displayed in yards, miles and miles per hour in the United States, United Kingdom, and multiple Caribbean states.",
"*Tyre pressure is commonly measured in pounds per square inch in multiple countries, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, India, Ireland, Mexico, Peru, the United Kingdom, and the United States.",
"*Car and bicycle rim diameters are still usually set as whole inch measurements, and tyre widths are measured in millimetres.",
"*Engine power is usually measured in horsepower in most former USSR countries and German-speaking countries (this is metric horsepower rather than mechanical horsepower), although in the EU from 2010 the horsepower is permitted only as a supplementary unit.",
"*Imperial gallons are still used for the sale of fuel in four British Overseas Territories (Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, and Montserrat) and six states: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.",
"*The United States gallons are used in the United States and its territories (except for Puerto Rico, which has used litres since 1980), the Bahamas, Belize, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Peru, and the Turks and Caicos Islands.===Air and sea transportation===Air and sea transportation commonly use the nautical mile.",
"This is about one minute of arc of latitude along any meridian arc and it is precisely defined as 1 852 metres (about 1.151 miles).",
"It is not an SI unit.",
"The prime unit of speed or velocity for maritime and air navigation remains the knot (nautical mile per hour).The prime unit of measure for aviation (altitude, or flight level) is usually estimated based on air pressure values, and in many countries, it is still described in nominal feet, although many others employ nominal metres.",
"The policies of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) relating to measurement are:*there should be a single system of units throughout the world*the single system should be the SI*the use of the foot for altitude is a permitted variation.Consistent with ICAO policy, aviation has undergone a significant amount of metrication over the years.",
"For example, runway lengths are usually given in metres.",
"The United States metricated the data interchange format (METAR) for temperature reports in 1996, and since indicates temperature in Celsius.",
"Metrication is also gradually taking place in cargo mass and dimensions and in fuel volume and mass.In former Soviet countries and China, the metric system is used in aviation (whereby in Russia altitudes above the transition level are given in feet).",
"Sailplanes use the metric system in many European countries.In 1975, the assembly of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) decided that future conventions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and other future IMO instruments should use SI units only.===Legacy of previous units===*In Australia, pints are still used for beer (redefined to 570 ml (see Australian beer glasses)).",
"*McDonald's sells ''Quarter Pounders'' under their original name in all English-speaking countries despite metrication.",
"In the Netherlands and Finland, it is known as a ''Quarter Pounder Cheese'' while Sweden also refers to it as ''QP Cheese''.",
"In Quebec, it is called a ''Quart de livre''.",
"In Latin America and Spain, it is called ''Cuarto de Libra con Queso''.",
"In Taiwan, it is known as the ''four-ounce beef burger''.",
"*Inch-based spare parts are occasionally kept to service American and pre-1950s machines, but screws are changed to metric thread at maintenance.",
"*In plumbing, some pipes and pipe threads are still designated in inch sizes due to historic international acceptance of particular sequences of pipe sizes and pipe threads, such as BSP/ISO 7/EN 10226 threads.A shower hose sold in Germany with metric length (150 cm) and imperial (1/2 in) fittings===United Kingdom===In the United Kingdom, some of the population continues to resist metrication to varying degrees.",
"The traditional imperial measures are preferred by a majority and continue to have widespread use in some applications.",
"The metric system is used by most businesses, and is used for most trade transactions.",
"Metric units must be used for certain trading activities (selling by weight or measure for example), although imperial units may continue to be displayed in parallel.British law has enacted the provisions of European Union directive 80/181/EEC, which catalogues the units of measure that may be used for \"economic, public health, public safety and administrative purposes\".",
"These units consist of the recommendations of the General Conference on Weights and Measures, supplemented by some additional units of measure that may be used for specified purposes.",
"Metric units could be legally used for trading purposes for nearly a century before metrication efforts began in earnest.",
"The government had been making preparations for the conversion of the imperial unit since the 1862 ''Select Committee on Weights and Measures'' recommended the conversion and the ''Weights and Measures Act of 1864'' and the ''Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act of 1896'' legalised the metric system.In 1965, with lobbying from British industries and the prospects of joining the Common Market, the government set a 10-year target for full conversion, and created the Metrication Board in 1969.Metrication occurred in some areas during this time period, including the re-surveying of Ordnance Survey maps in 1970, decimalisation of the currency in 1971, and teaching the metric system in schools.",
"No plans were made to make the use of the metric system compulsory, and the Metrication Board was abolished in 1980 following a change in government.The United Kingdom avoided having to comply with the 1989 European Units of Measurement Directive (89/617/EEC), which required all member states to make the metric system compulsory, by negotiating derogations (delayed switchovers), including for miles on road signs and for pints for draught beer, cider, and milk sales.Immediately following the United Kingdom's vote to withdraw from the European Union, it was reported that some retailers requested to revert to imperial units, with some reverting without permission.",
"A poll following the 2016 vote also found that 45% of Britons sought to revert to selling produce in imperial units.The UK government started a consultation on 3 June 2022 on the choice of units of measurement markings.Imperial units remain in common everyday use for human body measurements, in particular stones and pounds for weight, and feet and inches for height.Fuel economy is often advertised in miles per imperial gallon, which may lead to some confusion for users of US gallons for American manufactured cars.Heating, air conditioning, and gas cooking appliances occasionally display power in British thermal units per hour (BTU/h).===United States===A measuring cup, manufactured and sold in the United States (circa 1980), features graduations in both metric and US customary systems.",
"Held in the right hand, a person would have the metric graduations in front, facing them; but they might hold it in their left hand, and read from the customary graduations.Over time, the metric system has influenced the United States through international trade and standardisation.",
"The use of the metric system was made legal as a system of measurement in 1866 and the United States was a founding member of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in 1875.The system was officially adopted by the federal government in 1975 for use in the military and government agencies, and as preferred system for trade and commerce.",
"Attempts in the 1990s to make it mandatory for federal and state road signage to use metric units failed and it remains voluntary.A 1992 amendment to the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA), which took effect in 1994, required labels on federally regulated \"consumer commodities\" to include both metric and US customary units.",
"As of 2013, all but one US state (New York) have passed laws permitting metric-only labels for the products they regulate.After many years of informal or optional metrication, the American public and much of the private business and industry still use US customary units today.",
"At least two states, Kentucky and California, have even moved towards demetrication of highway construction projects.===Canada===Canada legally allows for dual labelling of goods provided that the metric unit is listed first and that there is a distinction of whether a liquid measure is a US or a Canadian (imperial) unit."
],
[
"Metrication mishaps",
"Confusion over units during the process of metrication can sometimes lead to accidents.",
"In 1983, an Air Canada Boeing 767, nicknamed the \"Gimli Glider\" following the incident, ran out of fuel in midflight.",
"The incident was caused, in a large part, by the confusion over the conversion between litres, kilograms, and pounds, resulting in the aircraft receiving of fuel instead of the required .While not strictly an example of national metrication, the use of two different measurement systems was a contributing factor in the loss of the Mars Climate Orbiter in 1999.The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) specified metric units in the contract.",
"NASA and other organisations worked in metric units, but one subcontractor, Lockheed Martin, provided thruster performance data to the team in pound force-seconds instead of newton-seconds.",
"The spacecraft was intended to orbit Mars at about in altitude, but the incorrect data meant that it descended to about .",
"As a result, it burned up in the Martian atmosphere."
],
[
"See also",
"* History of the metric system* Metre Convention * Metrication opposition* Conversion of units* Metric engine (American expression)** Language reform* Preferred numbers* Spread of the Latin script* Decimalisation"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Month"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''month''' is a unit of time, used with calendars, that is approximately as long as a natural orbital period of the Moon; the words ''month'' and ''Moon'' are cognates.",
"The traditional concept of months arose with the cycle of Moon phases; such lunar months (\"lunations\") are synodic months and last approximately 29.53 days, making for roughly 12.37 such months in one Earth year.",
"From excavated tally sticks, researchers have deduced that people counted days in relation to the Moon's phases as early as the Paleolithic age.",
"Synodic months, based on the Moon's orbital period with respect to the Earth–Sun line, are still the basis of many calendars today and are used to divide the year.Calendars, such as the internationally used Gregorian calendar, that developed from the Roman calendar system divide the year into 12 months, each of which lasts between 28 and 31 days.",
"The names of the months were Anglicized from various Latin names and events important to Rome, except for the months 9–12, which are named after the Latin numerals 7–10 (''septem'', ''octo'', ''novem'', and ''decem'') because they were originally the seventh through tenth months in the Roman calendar.",
"In the modern Gregorian calendar, the only month with a variable number of days is the second month, February, which has 29 days during a leap year and 28 days otherwise."
],
[
"Types of months in astronomy",
"The following types of months are mainly of significance in astronomy.",
"Most of them (but not the distinction between sidereal and tropical months) were first recognized in Babylonian lunar astronomy.# The '''sidereal month''' is defined as the Moon's orbital period in a non-rotating frame of reference (which on average is equal to its rotation period in the same frame).",
"It is about 27.32166 days (27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, 11.6 seconds).",
"It is closely equal to the time it takes the Moon to twice pass a \"fixed\" star (different stars give different results because all have a very small proper motion and are not really fixed in position).# A '''synodic month''' is the most familiar lunar cycle, defined as the time interval between two consecutive occurrences of a particular phase (such as new moon or full moon) as seen by an observer on Earth.",
"The mean length of the synodic month is 29.53059 days (29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 2.8 seconds).",
"Due to the eccentricity of the lunar orbit around Earth (and to a lesser degree, the Earth's elliptical orbit around the Sun), the length of a synodic month can vary by up to seven hours.# The '''tropical month''' is the average time for the Moon to pass twice through the same equinox point of the sky.",
"It is 27.32158 days, very slightly shorter than the sidereal month (27.32166) days, because of precession of the equinoxes.# An '''anomalistic month''' is the average time the Moon takes to go from perigee to perigee—the point in the Moon's orbit when it is closest to Earth.",
"An anomalistic month is about 27.55455 days on average.# The '''draconic month''', draconitic month, or nodal month is the period in which the Moon returns to the same node of its orbit; the nodes are the two points where the Moon's orbit crosses the plane of the Earth's orbit.",
"Its duration is about 27.21222 days on average.A synodic month is longer than a sidereal month because the Earth-Moon system is orbiting the Sun in the same direction as the Moon is orbiting the Earth.",
"The Sun moves eastward with respect to the stars (as does the Moon) and it takes about 2.2 days longer for the Moon to return to the same apparent position with respect to the Sun.An anomalistic month is longer than a sidereal month because the perigee moves in the same direction as the Moon is orbiting the Earth, one revolution in nine years.",
"Therefore, the Moon takes a little longer to return to perigee than to return to the same star.A draconic month is shorter than a sidereal month because the nodes move in the opposite direction as the Moon is orbiting the Earth, one revolution in 18.6 years.",
"Therefore, the Moon returns to the same node slightly earlier than it returns to the same star."
],
[
"Calendrical consequences",
"At the simplest level, most well-known lunar calendars are based on the initial approximation that 2 lunations last 59 solar days: a 30-day '''full month''' followed by a 29-day '''hollow month''' — but this is only roughly accurate and regularly needs intercalation (correction) by a leap day.Additionally, the synodic month does not fit easily into the solar (or 'tropical') year, which makes accurate, rule-based lunisolar calendars that combine the two cycles complicated.",
"The most common solution to this problem is the Metonic cycle, which takes advantage of the fact that 235 lunations are approximately 19 tropical years (which add up to not quite 6,940 days): 12 years have 12 lunar months, and 7 years are 13 lunar months long.",
"However, a Metonic calendar based year will drift against the seasons by about one day every 2 centuries.",
"Metonic calendars include the calendar used in the Antikythera Mechanism about 21 centuries ago, and the Hebrew calendar.Alternatively in a pure lunar calendar, years are defined as having always 12 lunations, so a year is 354 or 355 days long: the Islamic calendar is the prime example.",
"Consequently, an Islamic year is about 11 days shorter than a solar year and cycles through the seasons in about 33 solar = 34 lunar years: the Islamic New Year has a different Gregorian calendar date in each (solar) year.Purely solar calendars often have months which no longer relate to the phase of the Moon, but are based only on the motion of the Sun relative to the equinoxes and solstices, or are purely conventional like in the widely used Gregorian calendar.The complexity required in an accurate lunisolar calendar may explain why solar calendars have generally replaced lunisolar and lunar calendars for civil use in most societies."
],
[
"Months in various calendars",
"=== Beginning of the lunar month ===The Hellenic calendars, the Hebrew Lunisolar calendar and the Islamic Lunar calendar started the month with the first appearance of the thin crescent of the new moon.However, the motion of the Moon in its orbit is very complicated and its period is not constant.",
"The date and time of this actual observation depends on the exact geographical longitude as well as latitude, atmospheric conditions, the visual acuity of the observers, etc.",
"Therefore, the beginning and lengths of months defined by observation cannot be accurately predicted.While some like orthodox Islam and the Jewish Karaites still rely on actual moon observations, reliance on astronomical calculations and tabular methods is increasingly common in practice.=== Roman calendar ===The Roman calendar was reformed several times, the last three enduring reforms during historical times.",
"The last three reformed Roman calendars are called the ''Julian'', ''Augustan'', and ''Gregorian''; all had the same number of days in their months.",
"Despite other attempts, the names of the months after the Augustan calendar reform have persisted, and the number of days in each month (except February) have remained constant since before the Julian reform.",
"The Gregorian calendar, like the Roman calendars before it, has twelve months, whose Anglicized names are: : Order Name Numberof days 1 '''January''' 31 2 '''February''' 28 3 '''March''' 31 4 '''April''' 30 5 '''May''' 31 6 '''June''' 30 7 '''July''' 31 8 '''August''' 31 9 '''September''' 30 10 '''October''' 31 11 '''November''' 30 12 '''December''' 31On top of the knuckles (yellow): 31 daysBetween the knuckles (blue): 30 daysFebruary (red) has 28 or 29 days.The white keys of the musical keyboard correspond to months with 31 day months.",
"('''F''' corresponds to January.",
")The famous mnemonic ''Thirty days hath September'' is a common way of teaching the lengths of the months in the English-speaking world.",
"The knuckles of the four fingers of one's hand and the spaces between them can be used to remember the lengths of the months.",
"By making a fist, each month will be listed as one proceeds across the hand.",
"All months landing on a knuckle are 31 days long and those landing between them are 30 days long, with variable February being the remembered exception.",
"When the knuckle of the index finger is reached (July), go over to the first knuckle on the other fist, held next to the first (or go back to the first knuckle) and continue with August.",
"This physical mnemonic has been taught to primary school students for many decades, if not centuries.This cyclical pattern of month lengths matches the musical keyboard alternation of wide white keys (31 days) and narrow black keys (30 days).",
"The note '''F''' corresponds to '''January''', the note '''F''' corresponds to '''February''', the exceptional 28–29 day month, and so on.==== Numerical relations ====The mean month-length in the Gregorian calendar is 30.436875 days.Any five consecutive months, that do not include February, contain 153 days.==== Calends, nones, and ides ====Months in the pre-Julian Roman calendar included:* ''Intercalaris'' an intercalary month occasionally embedded into February, to realign the calendar.",
"* ''Quintilis'', later renamed to ''Julius'' in honour of Julius Caesar.",
"* ''Sextilis'', later renamed to ''Augustus'' in honour of Augustus.The Romans divided their months into three parts, which they called the ''calends'', the ''nones'', and the ''ides''.",
"Their system is somewhat intricate.",
"The '''ides''' occur on the thirteenth day in eight of the months, but in March, May, July, and October, they occur on the fifteenth.",
"The '''nones''' always occur 8 days (one Roman 'week') before the ides, i.e., on the fifth or the seventh.",
"The '''calends''' are always the first day of the month, and before Julius Caesar's reform fell sixteen days (two Roman weeks) after the ides (except the ides of February and the intercalary month).==== Relations between dates, weekdays, and months in the Gregorian calendar ====Within a month, the following dates fall on the same day of the week:* '''01, 08, 15, 22, and 29''' (e.g., in January 2022, all these dates fell on a Saturday)* '''02, 09, 16, 23, and 30''' (e.g., in January 2022, all these dates fell on a Sunday)* '''03, 10, 17, 24, and 31''' (e.g., in January 2022, all these dates fell on a Monday)* '''04, 11, 18, and 25''' (e.g., in January 2022, all these dates fell on a Tuesday)* '''05, 12, 19, and 26''' (e.g., in January 2022, all these dates fell on a Wednesday)* '''06, 13, 20, and 27''' (e.g., in January 2022, all these dates fell on a Thursday)* '''07, 14, 21, and 28''' (e.g., in January 2022, all these dates fell on a Friday)Some months have the same date/weekday structure.In a non-leap year:* '''January/October''' (e.g., in 2022, they began on a Saturday)* '''February/March/November''' (e.g., in 2022, they began on a Tuesday)* '''April/July''' (e.g., in 2022, they began on a Friday) * '''September/December''' (e.g., in 2022, they began on a Wednesday)* '''1 January''' and '''31 December''' fall on the same weekday (e.g.",
"in 2022 on a Saturday)In a leap year:* '''February/August''' (e.g., in 2020, they began on a Saturday)* '''March/November''' (e.g., in 2020, they began on a Sunday)* '''January/April/July''' (e.g., in 2020, they began on a Wednesday)* '''September/December''' (e.g., in 2020, they began on a Tuesday)* '''29 February''' (the leap day) falls on the same weekday like 1, 8, 15, 22 February and 1 August (see above; e.g.",
"in 2020 on a Saturday)=== Hebrew calendar ===The Hebrew calendar has 12 or 13 months.# Nisan, 30 days ניסן# Iyar, 30 days אייר# Sivan, 30 days סיון# Tammuz, 29 days תמוז# Av, 30 days אב# Elul, 29 days אלול# Tishri, 30 days תשרי# Marcheshvan, 29/30 days מַרְחֶשְׁוָן# Kislev, 30/29 days כסלו# Tevet, 29 days טבת# Shevat, 30 days שבט# Adar 1, 30 days, intercalary month אדר א# Adar 2, 29 days אדר בAdar 1 is only added 7 times in 19 years.",
"In ordinary years, Adar 2 is simply called Adar.=== Islamic calendar ===There are also twelve months in the Islamic calendar.",
"They are named as follows:# Muharram (Restricted/sacred) محرّم# Safar (Empty/Yellow) صفر# Rabī' al-Awwal/Rabi' I (First Spring) ربيع الأول# Rabī' ath-Thānī/Rabi' al-Aakhir/Rabi' II (Second spring or Last spring) ربيع الآخر أو ربيع الثاني# Jumada al-Awwal/Jumaada I (First Freeze) جمادى الأول# Jumada ath-Thānī or Jumādā al-Thānī/Jumādā II (Second Freeze or Last Freeze) جمادى الآخر أو جمادى الثاني# Rajab (To Respect) رجب# Sha'bān (To Spread and Distribute) شعبان# Ramadān (Parched Thirst) رمضان# Shawwāl (To Be Light and Vigorous) شوّال# Dhu al-Qi'dah (The Master of Truce) ذو القعدة# Dhu al-Hijjah (The Possessor of Hajj) ذو الحجةSee Islamic calendar for more information on the Islamic calendar.=== Arabic calendar === Gregorian month Arabic month January يناير كانون الثاني Kanun Al-Thani February فبراير شباط Shebat March مارس اذار Adhar April ابريل نيسان Nisan May مايو أيّار Ayyar June يونيو حزيران Ḩazayran July يوليو تمّوز Tammuz August أغسطس اَب ʕAb September سبتمبر أيلول Aylul October أكتوبر تشرين الأول Tishrin Al-Awwal November نوفمبر تشرين الثاني Tishrin Al-Thani December ديسمبر كانون الأول Kanun Al-Awwal=== Hindu calendar ===The Hindu calendar has various systems of naming the months.",
"The months in the lunar calendar are: Sanskrit name Tamil name Telugu name Nepali name 1 Vaiśākha (वैशाख) Vaikasi (வைகாசி) Vaisaakhamu (వైశాఖము) Baisakh (बैशाख) 2 Jyeṣṭha (ज्येष्ठ) Aani (ஆனி) Jyeshttamu (జ్యేష్ఠము) Jesth (जेष्ठ/जेठ)3Ashadha (आषाढ) Aadi (ஆடி) Aashaadhamu (ఆషాఢము) Aasad (आषाढ/असार) 4Śrāvaṇa (श्रावण) Aavani (ஆவணி) Sraavanamu (శ్రావణము) Srawan (श्रावण/साउन)5 Bhadrapada (भाद्रपद) Purratasi (புரட்டாசி) Bhaadhrapadamu (భాద్రపదము) Bhadau (भाद्र|भदौ)6Āśvina (अश्विन) Aiypasi (ஐப்பசி) Aasveeyujamu (ఆశ్వయుజము) Asoj (आश्विन/असोज)7 Kārtika (कार्तिक) Kaarthigai (கார்த்திகை) Kaarthikamu (కార్తీకము) Kartik (कार्तिक) 8 Mārgaśīrṣa (मार्गशीर्ष) Maargazhi (மார்கழி) Maargaseershamu\t(మార్గశిరము) Mangsir (मार्ग/मंसिर) 9 Pauṣa (पौष) Thai (தை) Pushyamu (పుష్యము) Push (पौष/पुष/पूस) 10 Māgha (माघ) Maasi (மாசி) Maaghamu (మాఘము) Magh (माघ) 11Phālguna (फाल्गुन) Panguni (பங்குனி) Phaalgunamu (ఫాల్గుణము) Falgun (फाल्गुन/फागुन) 12 Chaitra (चैत्र) Chitirai (சித்திரை) Chaithramu\t(చైత్రము) Chaitra (चैत्र/चैत) These are also the names used in the Indian national calendar for the newly redefined months.",
"Purushottam Maas or Adhik Maas (translit. ''''",
"= 'extra', '''' = 'month') is an extra month in the Hindu calendar that is inserted to keep the lunar and solar calendars aligned.",
"\"Purushottam\" is an epithet of Vishnu, to whom the month is dedicated.The names in the solar calendar are just the names of the zodiac sign in which the sun travels.",
"They are# Mesha# Vrishabha# Mithuna# Kataka# Simha# Kanyaa# Tulaa# Vrishcika# Dhanus# Makara# Kumbha# Miina=== Baháʼí calendar ===The Baháʼí calendar is the calendar used by the Baháʼí Faith.",
"It is a solar calendar with regular years of 365 days, and leap years of 366 days.",
"Years are composed of 19 months of 19 days each (361 days), plus an extra period of \"Intercalary Days\" (4 in regular and 5 in leap years).",
"The months are named after the attributes of God.",
"Days of the year begin and end at sundown.=== Iranian calendar (Persian calendar) ===The Iranian / Persian calendar, currently used in Iran, also has 12 months.",
"The Persian names are included in the parentheses.",
"It begins on the northern Spring equinox.# Farvardin (31 days, فروردین)# Ordibehesht (31 days, اردیبهشت)# Khordad (31 days, خرداد)# Tir (31 days, تیر)# Mordad (31 days, مرداد)# Shahrivar (31 days, شهریور)# Mehr (30 days, مهر)# Aban (30 days, آبان)# Azar (30 days, آذر)# Dey (30 days, دی)# Bahman (30 days, بهمن)# Esfand (29 days- 30 days in leap year, اسفند)=== Reformed Bengali calendar ===The Bengali calendar, used in Bangladesh, follows solar months and it has six seasons.",
"The months and seasons in the calendar are: No.",
"Name (Bengali) Name (Sylheti) Name (Rohingya) Season Days Roman months 1 Boishakh (বৈশাখ) Boishakh Boicák Grishmo (গ্রীষ্ম) 31 14 April – May 2 Joishtho (জ্যৈষ্ঠ) Zoit Zeth Grishmo (গ্রীষ্ম) 31 May – June 3 Asharh (আষাঢ়) Aaŗ Acár Borsha (বর্ষা) 31 June – July 4 Shrabon (শ্রাবণ) Haon Cón Borsha (বর্ষা) 31 July – August 5 Bhadro (ভাদ্র) Bhado Bádo Shorot (শরৎ) 31 August – September 6 Aashin (আশ্বিন) Ashin Acín Shorot (শরৎ) 30 September – October 7 Kartik (কার্তিক) Khati Hati Hemonto(হেমন্ত) 30 October – November 8 Ogrohayon (অগ্রহায়ণ) Aghon Óon Hemonto(হেমন্ত) 30 November – December 9 Poush (পৌষ) Phush Fuc Sheet (শীত) 30 December – January 10 Magh (মাঘ) Magh (মাঘ) Mak Sheet (শীত) 30 January – February 11 Falgun (ফাল্গুন) Fagun Fóon Boshonto (বসন্ত) 30 (31 in leap years) February – March 12 Choitro (চৈত্র) Soit Soit Boshonto (বসন্ত) 30 March – April=== Nanakshahi calendar ===The months in the Nanakshahi calendar are: No.",
"Name Punjabi Days Julian months 1 Chet ਚੇਤ 31 14 March – 13 April 2 Vaisakh ਵੈਸਾਖ 31 14 April – 14 May 3 Jeth ਜੇਠ 31 15 May – 14 June 4 Harh ਹਾੜ 31 15 June – 15 July 5 Sawan ਸਾਵਣ 31 16 July – 15 August 6 Bhadon ਭਾਦੋਂ 30 16 August – 14 September 7 Assu ਅੱਸੂ 30 15 September – 14 October 8 Katak ਕੱਤਕ 30 15 October – 13 November 9 Maghar ਮੱਘਰ 30 14 November – 13 December 10 Poh ਪੋਹ 30 14 December – 12 January 11 Magh ਮਾਘ 30 13 January – 11 February 12 Phagun ਫੱਗਣ 30/31 12 February – 13 March=== Khmer calendar ===Different from the Hindu calendar, the Khmer calendar consists of both a lunar calendar and a solar calendar.",
"The solar is used more commonly than the lunar calendar.",
"Gregorian month Meaning Zodiac sign English Khmer UNGEGN ALA-LC January មករា Môkâréa Makarā មករ (UNGEGN: ''môkâr'', ALA-LC: ''makar''); \"naga\"Capricorn February កុម្ភៈ Kŏmpheă Kumbhà ក្អម (UNGEGN: ''k'âm'', ALA-LC: ''kʿʹam''); \"clay pitcher\"Aquarius March មិនា/មីនា Mĭnéa/Minéa Minā/Mīnā ត្រី (UNGEGN: ''trei'', ALA-LC: trī); \"fish\" or \"three/third\"Pisces April មេសា Mésa Mesā ចៀម (UNGEGN: ''chiĕm'', ALA-LC: ''ciam''); \"sheep\"Aries May ឧសភា Ŭsâphéa Usabhā គោឈ្មោល (UNGEGN: ''koŭ chhmoŭl'', ALA-LC: ''go jhmol''); \"bull\"Taurus June មិថុនា Mĭthŏnéa Mithunā គូ (UNGEGN: ''ku'', ALA-LC: ''gū''); \"couple\"Gemini July កក្កដា Kâkkâda kakkaṭā ក្ដាម (UNGEGN: ''kdam'', ALA-LC: ''kṭām''); \"crab\"Cancer August សីហា Seiha Sīhā សីហៈ (UNGEGN: ''seihă'', ALA-LC: ''sīhà''); \"lion\"Leo September កញ្ញា Kânhnhéa Kaññā ក្រមុំ (UNGEGN: ''krâmŭm'', ALA-LC: ''kramuṃ''); \"maiden\"Virgo October តុលា Tŏléa Tulā ជញ្ជីង (UNGEGN: ''chônhching'', ALA-LC: ''jañjīng''); \"scales\"Libra November វិច្ឆិកា Vĭchchhĕka Vicchikā ខ្ទួយ (UNGEGN: ''khtuŏy'', ALA-LC: ''khtuay''); \"scorpion\"Scorpio December ធ្នូ Thnu Dhnū ធ្នូ (UNGEGN: ''thnu'', ALA-LC: ''dhnū''); \"bow\", \"arc\"SagittariusThe Khmer lunar calendar most often contains 12 months; however, the eighth month is repeated (as a \"leap month\") every two or three years, making 13 months instead of 12.Each lunar month has 29 or 30 days.",
"The year normally has then 354 or 384 days (when an intercalary month is added), but the calendar follows the rules of the Gregorian calendar to determine leap years and add a lead day to one month, so the Khmer lunar year may have a total of 354, 355, 384 or 385 days.",
"No.",
"Khmer month Khmer UNGEGN ALA-LC 1 មិគសិរ Mĭkôsĕr Migasir 2 បុស្ស Bŏss Puss 3 មាឃ Méakh Māgh 4 ផល្គុន Phâlkŭn Phalgun 5 ចេត្រ Chétr Cetr 6 វិសាខ/ពិសាខ Vĭsakh/Pĭsakh Visākh/Bisākh 7 ជេស្ឋ Chésth Jesṭh 8 (8a, 8b) ឤសាឍ(បឋមសាឍ, ទុតិយាសាឍ) Asath(Bâthâmôsath, Tŭtĕyéasath) ʿʹāsāḍh (Paṭhamasāḍh, Dutiyāsāḍh) 9 ស្រាពណ៍ Srapôn Srābaṇ ̊ 10 ភទ្របទ Phôtrôbât Bhadrapad 11 អស្សុជ Âssŏch ʿʹassuj 12 កត្តិក Kâtdĕk Katṭik=== Thai calendar ===English name Thai name Abbr.",
"Transcription Sanskrit word Zodiac signJanuary มกราคม ม.ค.",
"mokarakhom makara \"sea-monster\" CapricornFebruary กุมภาพันธ์ ก.พ.",
"kumphaphan kumbha \"pitcher, water-pot\" AquariusMarch มีนาคม มี.ค.",
"minakhom mīna \"(a specific kind of) fish\" PiscesApril เมษายน เม.ย.",
"mesayon meṣa \"ram\" AriesMay พฤษภาคม พ.ค.",
"phruetsaphakhom vṛṣabha \"bull\" TaurusJune มิถุนายน มิ.ย.",
"mithunayon mithuna \"a pair\" GeminiJuly กรกฎาคม ก.ค.",
"karakadakhom karkaṭa \"crab\" CancerAugust สิงหาคม ส.ค.",
"singhakhom siṃha \"lion\" LeoSeptember กันยายน ก.ย.kanyayon kanyā \"girl\" VirgoOctober ตุลาคม ต.ค.",
"tulakhom tulā \"balance\" LibraNovember พฤศจิกายน พ.ย.",
"phruetsachikayon vṛścika \"scorpion\" ScorpioDecember ธันวาคม ธ.ค.",
"thanwakhom dhanu \"bow, arc\" Sagittarius===Tongan calendar===The Tongan calendar is based on the cycles of the Moon around the Earth in one year.",
"The months are:# Liha Mu'a# Liha Mui# Vai Mu'a# Vai Mui# Faka'afu Mo'ui# Faka'afu Mate# Hilinga Kelekele# Hilinga Mea'a# 'Ao'ao# Fu'ufu'unekinanga# 'Uluenga# Tanumanga# 'O'oamofanongo=== Pingelapese ===Pingelapese, a language from Micronesia, also uses a lunar calendar.",
"There are 12 months associated with their calendar.",
"The Moon first appears in March, they name this month ''Kahlek''.",
"This system has been used for hundreds of years and throughout many generations.",
"This calendar is cyclical and relies on the position and shape of the Moon.=== Kollam era (Malayalam) calendar ===Malayalam name Transliteration Concurrent Gregorian months Sanskrit word and meaning Zodiac signചിങ്ങം chi-ngnga-m August–September simha \"lion\" Leoകന്നി ka-nni September–October kanyā \"girl\" Virgoതുലാം thu-lā-m October–November tulā \"balance\" Libraവൃശ്ചികം vRSh-chi-ka-m November–December vṛścika \"scorpion\" Scorpioധനു dha-nu December–January dhanu \"bow, arc\" Sagittariusമകരം ma-ka-ra-m January–February mokara \"sea-monster\" Capricornകുംഭം kum-bha-m February–March kumbha \"pitcher, water-pot\" Aquarius മീനം mee-na-m March–April mīna \"(a specific kind of) fish\" Piscesമേടം mE-Da-m April–May meṣa \"ram\" Ariesഇടവം i-Ta-va-m May – June vṛṣabha \"bull\" Taurusമിഥുനം mi-thu-na-m June–July mithuna \"a pair\" Gemini കർക്കടകം kar-kka-Ta-ka-m July–August karkaṭa \"crab\" Cancer === Sinhalese calendar ===The Sinhalese calendar is the Buddhist calendar in Sri Lanka with Sinhala names.",
"Each full moon Poya day marks the start of a Buddhist lunar month.",
"The first month is Bak.",
"# Duruthu (දුරුතු)# Navam (නවම්)# Mædin (මැදින්)# Bak (බක්)# Vesak (වෙසක්)# Poson (පොසොන්)# Æsala (ඇසල)# Nikini (නිකිණි)# Binara (බිනර)# Vap (වප්)# Il (iL) (ඉල්)# Unduvap (උඳුවප්)=== Germanic calendar ===The old Icelandic calendar is not in official use anymore, but some Icelandic holidays and annual feasts are still calculated from it.",
"It has 12 months, broken down into two groups of six often termed \"winter months\" and \"summer months\".",
"The calendar is peculiar in that the months always start on the same weekday rather than on the same date.",
"Hence Þorri always starts on a Friday sometime between January 22 and January 28 ''(Old style: January 9 to January 15)'', Góa always starts on a Sunday between February 21 and February 27 ''(Old style: February 8 to February 14)''.",
"* Skammdegi (\"Short days\")# Gormánuður (mid-October – mid-November, \"slaughter month\" or \"Gór's month\")# Ýlir (mid-November – mid-December, \"Yule month\")# Mörsugur (mid-December – mid-January, \"fat sucking month\")# Þorri (mid-January – mid-February, \"frozen snow month\")# Góa (mid-February – mid-March, \"Góa's month, see Nór\")# Einmánuður (mid-March – mid-April, \"lone\" or \"single month\")* Náttleysi (\"Nightless days\")# Harpa (mid-April – mid-May, Harpa is a female name, probably a forgotten goddess, first day of Harpa is celebrated as Sumardagurinn fyrsti – first day of summer)# Skerpla (mid-May – mid-June, another forgotten goddess)# Sólmánuður (mid-June – mid-July, \"sun month\")# Heyannir (mid-July – mid-August, \"hay business month\")# Tvímánuður (mid-August – mid-September, \"two\" or \"second month\")# Haustmánuður (mid-September – mid-October, \"autumn month\")=== Old Georgian calendar ===MonthGeorgian month nameTransliterationGeorgian other namesTransliteration January აპნისი, აპანი Apnisi, Apani February სურწყუნისი Surtskunisi განცხადებისთვე Gantskhadebistve March მირკანი Mirkani April იგრიკა Igrika May ვარდობისა Vardobisa ვარდობისთვე Vardobistve June მარიალისა Marialisa თიბათვე, ივანობისთვე Tibatve, Ivanobistve July თიბისა Tibisa მკათათვე, კვირიკობისთვე Mkatatve, Kvirikobistve August ქველთობისა Kveltobisaმარიამობისთვე Mariamobistve September ახალწლისა Akhaltslisa ენკენისთვე Enkenistve October სთვლისა Stvlisa ღვინობისთვე Gvinobistve November ტირისკონი Tiriskoni გიორგობისთვე, ჭინკობისთვე Giorgobistve, Chinkobistve December ტირისდენი Tirisdeni ქრისტეშობისთვე Kristeshobistve'''*NOTE:''' ''New Year in ancient Georgia started from September.",
"''=== Old Swedish calendar ===# Torsmånad (January, 'Torre's month' (ancient god))# Göjemånad (February, 'Goe's month' (ancient goddess))# Vårmånad (March, 'Spring month')# Gräsmånad (April, 'Grass month')# Blomstermånad (May, 'Bloom month')# Sommarmånad (June, 'Summer month')# Hömånad (July, 'Hay month')# Skördemånad, Rötmånad (August, 'Harvest month' or 'Rot month')# Höstmånad (September, 'Autumn month')# Slaktmånad (October, 'Slaughter month')# Vintermånad (November, 'Winter month')# Julmånad (December, 'Christmas month')=== Old English calendar ===Like the Old Norse calendar, the Anglo-Saxons had their own calendar before they were Christianized which reflected native traditions and deities.",
"These months were attested by Bede in his works ''On Chronology'' and ''The Reckoning of Time'' written in the 8th century.",
"His Old English month names are probably written as pronounced in Bede's native Northumbrian dialect.",
"The months were named after the Moon; the new moon marking the end of an old month and start of a new month; the full moon occurring in the middle of the month, after which the whole month took its name.",
":+ from Bede's ''The Reckoning of Time'' Year Order NorthumbrianOld English Modern Englishtransliteration Romanequivalent 1 Æfterra-ġēola mōnaþ “After-Yule month” January 2 Sol-mōnaþ “Sol month” February 3 Hrēð-mōnaþ “Hreth month” March 4 Ēostur-mōnaþ “Ēostur month” April 5 Ðrimilce-mōnaþ “Three-milkings month” May 6 Ærra-Liþa “Ere-Litha” June 7 Æftera-Liþa “After-Litha” July 8 Weōd-mōnaþ “Weed month” August 9 Hāliġ-mōnaþ Hærfest-mōnaþ “Holy month” “Harvest month” September 10 Winter-fylleþ “Winter-filleth” October 11 Blōt-mōnaþ “Blót month” November 12 Ærra-ġēola mōnaþ “Ere-Yule” DecemberWhen an intercalary month was needed, a third ''Litha'' month was inserted in mid-summer.===Old Celtic calendar===The Coligny calendar (Gaulish/Celtic) is an Iron Age Metonic lunisolar calendar, with 12 lunar months of either 29 or 30 days.",
"The lunar month is calculated to a precision of within 24 hours of the lunar phase, achieved by a particular arrangement of months, and the month of EQUOS having a variable length of 29 or 30 days to adjust for any lunar slippage.",
"This setup means the calendar could stay precisely aligned to its lunar phase indefinitely.",
"The lunar month is divided into two halves, the first of 15 days and the second of 14 or 15 days.",
"The month is calculated to start at the first quarter moon, with the full moon at the centre of the first half-month and the dark moon at the centre of the second half-month.",
"The calendar does not rely on unreliable visual sightings.An intercalary lunar month is inserted before every 30 lunar months to keep in sync with the solar year.",
"Every 276 years this adds one day to the solar point, so if for example the calendar was 1,000 years old, it would only have slipped by less than 4 days against the solar year.",
"Name Days Meaning Modern months -1 Unknown 30 Intercalary One 1 30 summer month May-June 2 29 June-July 3 30 fat month July-August 4 29 August-September 5 30 cold month September-October 6 30 wind month October-November -2 30 Intercalary Two 7 29 winter month November-December 8 30 December-January 9 29 or 30 January-February 10 29 February-March 11 30 month of heat March-April 12 29 month of song April-May=== Old Hungarian calendar ==='''Nagyszombati kalendárium''' (in Latin: ''Calendarium Tyrnaviense'') from 1579.Historically Hungary used a 12-month calendar that appears to have been zodiacal in nature but eventually came to correspond to the Gregorian months as shown below:# Boldogasszony hava (January, 'month of the happy/blessed lady')# Böjtelő hava (February, 'month of early fasting/Lent' or 'month before fasting/Lent')# Böjtmás hava (March, 'second month of fasting/Lent')# Szent György hava (April, 'Saint George's month')# Pünkösd hava (May, 'Pentecost month')# Szent Iván hava (June, 'Saint John the Baptist's month')# Szent Jakab hava (July, 'Saint James' month')# Kisasszony hava (August, 'month of the Virgin')# Szent Mihály hava (September, 'Saint Michael's month')# Mindszent hava (October, 'all saints' month')# Szent András hava (November, 'Saint Andrew's month')# Karácsony hava (December, 'month of Yule/Christmas')=== Czech calendar ===# Leden – derives from 'led' (ice)# Únor – derives from 'nořit' (to dive, referring to the ice sinking into the water due to melting)# Březen – derives from 'bříza' (birch)# Duben – derives from 'dub' (oak)# Květen – derives from 'květ' (flower)# Červen – derives from 'červená' (red – for the color of apples and tomatoes)# Červenec – is the second 'červen' (formerly known as 2nd červen)# Srpen – derives from old Czech word 'sirpsti' (meaning to reflect, referring to the shine on the wheat)# Září – means 'to shine'# Říjen – derives from 'jelení říje', which refers to the estrous cycle of female elk# Listopad – falling leaves# Prosinec – derives from old Czech 'prosiněti', which means to shine through (refers to the sun light shining through the clouds)=== Old Egyptian calendar ===The ancient civil Egyptian calendar had a year that was 365 days long and was divided into 12 months of 30 days each, plus 5 extra days (epagomenes) at the end of the year.",
"The months were divided into 3 \"weeks\" of ten days each.",
"Because the ancient Egyptian year was almost a quarter of a day shorter than the solar year and stellar events \"wandered\" through the calendar, it is referred to as Annus Vagus or \"Wandering Year\".#Thout#Paopi#Hathor#Koiak#Tooba#Emshir#Paremhat#Paremoude#Pashons#Paoni#Epip#Mesori=== Nisga'a calendar ===The Nisga'a calendar coincides with the Gregorian calendar with each month referring to the type of harvesting that is done during the month.#K'aliiyee = Going North – referring to the Sun returning to its usual place in the sky#Buxwlaks = Needles Blowing About – February is usually a very windy month in the Nass River Valley#Xsaak = To Eat Oolichans – Oolichans are harvested during this month#Mmaal = Canoes – The river has defrosted, hence canoes are used once more#Yansa'alt = Leaves are Blooming – Warm weather has arrived and leaves on the trees begin to bloom#Miso'o = Sockeye – majority of Sockeye Salmon runs begin this month#Maa'y = Berries – berry picking season#Wii Hoon = Great Salmon – referring to the abundance of Salmon that are now running#Genuugwwikw = Trail of the Marmot – Marmots, Ermines and animals as such are hunted#Xlaaxw = To Eat Trout – trout are mostly eaten this time of year#Gwilatkw = To Blanket – The earth is \"blanketed\" with snow#Luut'aa = Sit In – the Sun \"sits\" in one spot for a period of time=== French Republican calendar ===This calendar was proposed during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about twelve years from late 1793.There were twelve months of 30 days each, grouped into three ten-day weeks called ''décades''.",
"The five or six extra days needed to approximate the tropical year were placed after the months at the end of each year.",
"A period of four years ending on a leap day was to be called a ''Franciade''.",
"It began at the autumn equinox:* Autumn:#Vendémiaire#Brumaire#Frimaire* Winter:#Nivôse#Pluviôse#Ventôse* Spring:#Germinal#Floréal#Prairial* Summer:#Messidor#Thermidor#Fructidor=== Eastern Ojibwe calendar ===Ojibwe month names are based on the key feature of the month.",
"Consequently, months between various regions have different names based on the key feature of each month in their particular region.",
"In the Eastern Ojibwe, this can be seen in when the sucker makes its run, which allows the Ojibwe to fish for them.",
"Additionally, Rhodes also informs of not only the variability in the month names, but how in Eastern Ojibwe these names were originally applied to the lunar months the Ojibwe originally used, which was a lunisolar calendar, fixed by the date of ''Akiinaaniwan'' (typically December 27) that marks when sunrise is the latest in the Northern Hemisphere.",
":RomanMonthMonth inEastern OjibweEnglishtranslationOriginal order in the Ojibwa yearStarting at the first full moon after:Januaryin those places that have a sucker run during that time''namebin-giizis''sucker moon''Akiinaaniwan'' on 27 December''namebini-giizis''February''onaabani-giizis''Crust-on-the-snow moon25 JanuaryMarch''ziinzibaakwadoke-giizis''Sugaring moon26 FebruaryAprilin those places that have a sucker run during that time''namebin-giizis''sucker moon25 March''namebini-giizis''Aprilin those places that do not have a sucker run during that time''waawaasagone-giizis''Flower moonMayin those places that have an April sucker runMayin those places that have a January sucker run''gitige-giizis''Planting moon24 AprilJunein those places that have an April sucker runJunein those places that have a January sucker run''odehimin-giizis''Strawberry moon23 MayJuly''miin-giizis''Blueberry moon22 JuneAugust''odatagaagomin-giizis''Blackberry moon20 JulySeptember''mandaamin-giizis''Corn moon18 AugustOctober''binaakwe-giizis''Leaves-fall moon17 September''binaakwii-giizis''Harvest moonNovember''gashkadin-giizis''Freeze-up moon16 OctoberDecember''gichi-biboon-giizis''Big-winter moon15 NovemberJanuaryin those places that do not have a sucker run during that time''oshki-biboon-giizisoons''Little new-winter moon"
],
[
"See also",
"* Assyrian calendar* Chinese calendar* Egyptian calendar* Ethiopian calendar* French Republican calendar* Kurdish calendar* Lunar month* Maya calendar* Month of year"
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
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