Datasets:
howey
/
wiki_en

Dataset card Data Studio Files Community
1
text
sequencelengths
3
270
source
stringclasses
1 value
[ [ "Mage: The Ascension" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Mage: The Ascension''''' is a role-playing game set in the World of Darkness, initially published by White Wolf Game Studio on August 19, 1993.Influenced by the mechanics of another White Wolf game, ''Ars Magica'', Mage diverges from its predecessor with unique settings and premises.", "It serves as a precursor to ''Mage: The Awakening'' and was released in 2005 as part of the new World of Darkness game." ], [ "History", "Following the success of ''Vampire: The Masquerade'', Mage: The Ascension emerged as the second of four games within White Wolf's shared universe.", "The inaugural edition was launched by White Wolf Publishing at the Gen Con Gaming Convention on August 19, 1993, marking the first chapter of the Mage series.", "Subsequently, a second edition followed in December 1995, with a revised edition released in March 2000.Onyx Path Publishing later introduced the 20th Anniversary Edition in September 2015,representing the fourth iteration of Mage: The Ascension." ], [ "Game setting", "=== History =======Early times====Powerful mages have existed since the story began, conforming to and influencing the belief systems of their respective societies in teams or small groups.", "Myths suggest that the precursors of the modern organization of mages initially gathered in Ancient Egypt.", "This historical uncertainty period also saw the Nephandi and the Marauders rise in the Near East.", "All of this set the stage for what the history of the game calls the Mythic Ages.Until the Late Middle Ages, mages' fortunes waxed and waned along with their native societies.", "Eventually, mages belonging to the Order of Hermes and the Messianic Voices attained a significant influence over European society.", "Absorbed by their pursuit of occult power and esoteric knowledge, they often neglected and even abused humanity.", "They were at odds with mainstream religions, envied by noble authorities, and cursed by ordinary folk.====The Order of Reason====Mages who believed in proto-scientific theories banded together under the banner of the Order of Reason, declaring their aim to create a safe world with Man as its ruler.", "They won support of by developing the useful arts of manufacturing, economics, wayfaring, and medicine.", "They also championed many of the values we now associate with the Renaissance.", "Masses of Sleepers embraced the gifts of early Technology and the Science that accompanied them.", "As the masses' beliefs shifted, the consensus amongst the populace changed, and wizards began to lose their position as their influence waned.The Order of Reason perceived a safe world as one devoid of heretical beliefs, ungodly practices, and supernatural creatures preying upon humanity.", "They intended to replace the dominant magical groups with a society of philosopher-scientists as shepherds, protecting and guiding humanity.", "In response, non-scientific mages banded together to form the Council of Nine Traditions, where mages of all the primary magical paths gathered.====Rise of the Technocracy====From the turn of the 17th century on, the goals of the Order of Reason began to change.", "As their scientific paradigm unfolded, they decided that the mystical beliefs of ordinary people were not only backward but dangerous; they should be replaced by measurable and predictable physical laws and respect for human genius.", "They replaced long-held theologies, pantheons, and mystical traditions with \"rational thought\" and the scientific method.", "However, the Order of Reason became decreasingly focused on improving the daily lives of Sleepers and more concerned with eliminating any resistance.", "Following a reorganization performed under Queen Victoria in the late 1800s, the Order of Reason began referring to themselves as the Technocracy.====Contemporary setting====The Technocracy maintains an authoritarian rule over Sleepers' beliefs, suppressing the Council of Nine's attempts to reintroduce magic.Finally, between 1997 and 2000, a series of metaplot events destroyed the Council of Nine's Umbral steadings, killing many of their most powerful members.", "This also cut the technocracy off from their leadership.", "Both sides called a truce in their struggle to assess their new situation.", "Chief among these signs was the creation of a barrier between the physical and spiritual world.These changes were introduced in supplements for the game's second edition and became core material in the third edition.====Later plot and finale====Aside from common changes introduced by the World of Darkness metaplot, mages dealt with renewed conflict when the hidden Rogue Council and the Technocracy's control encouraged the Traditions and Technocracy to struggle once again.", "The Rogue Council only made itself known through coded messages, while the surveillance created by the leaders of the Technocracy was to counter it.This struggle eventually led to the point on the timeline occupied by the book called ''Ascension''.", "''Ascension'' provided multiple possible endings, with none of them being definitive." ], [ "Factions", "The metaplot of the game involves a four-way struggle between the technological and authoritarian Technocracy, the insane Marauders, the cosmically evil Nephandi, and the nine mystical Traditions (that tread the middle path) to which the player characters are assumed to belong.", "This struggle has in every edition of the game been characterized both as primarily a covert, violent war directly between factions, and as an effort to sway the imaginations and beliefs of Sleepers.===Council of Nine Mystic Traditions.===The Traditions (formally called the Nine Mystic Traditions) are an alliance of secret societies in ''Mage''.", "The Traditions exist to unify users of magic under a common banner to protect reality (particularly those parts of reality that are magical) against the growing disbelief of the modern world, the spreading dominance of the Technocracy, and the predations of unstable mages such as Marauders and Nephandi.", "Each of the Traditions is a largely independent organization unified by a broadly accepted paradigm for practicing magic.", "Though unified in their desire to keep magic alive, the magic practiced by different Traditions is often wildly different and entirely incompatible.The nine traditions are: *Mages of the '''Akashic Brotherhood,''' ascetics, martial artists, and monks, largely drawing from Buddhism, Taoism, Shinto, and Hinduism.", "They are masters of the sphere of Mind.", "*Mages of '''Celestial Chorus,''' pious believers in a supreme being that encompasses many religions that believe in one supreme creator.", "They are masters of the sphere of Prime, the raw essence that fuels magic itself.", "*Mages of '''Cult of Ecstasy,''' intuitive seers using sensory stimulation, consciousness-expanding techniques, and meditation.", "They are masters of the sphere of Time.", "*Mages of '''Dream speakers,''' shamanistic emissaries to the spirit world.", "They are masters of Spirit magic.", "*Mages of '''Euthanatos,''' and Thanatoic, workers and killers drawing from a legacy of death cults in India, Greece, and the cultures of the Arabs and Celts.", "They are masters of the sphere of Entropy.", "*Mages of the '''Order of Hermes,''' formalized high ritualists, ceremonial magicians, sorcerers, alchemists, and mystics drawing from classical occult practices.", "They are masters of the sphere of Forces.", "*Mages of '''Sons of Ether, i'''nspiration-oriented scientists dedicated to fringe theories and alternative science.", "They are masters of the sphere of Matter.", "*Mages of '''Verbena,''' blood shamans, healers, primordial witches, and warlocks.", "They are masters of the sphere of Life.", "*Mages of '''Virtual Adepts,''' technological adepts capable of informational wizardry.", "They are masters of the sphere of Correspondence, magic dealing with three-dimensional location, space, and communications.===The Technocratic Union===The Technocracy is likewise divided into groups.", "Unlike the Traditions, however, they share a single paradigm and instead divide themselves based upon methodologies and areas of expertise.The Technocracy groups are:* Technocrats of '''Iteration X,''' experts in the arena of the physical sciences.", "* Technocratic '''Progenitors,''' masters of the biological sciences as a whole.", "* Technocrats of the '''New World Order,''' controllers of information and knowledge.", "* Technocrats of the '''Syndicate,''' controllers of the flow of money and power between disparate groups.", "* Technocratic members of the '''Void Engineers,''' explorers of the unknown.", "===Marauders===Marauders are chaos mages and to other mages, they appear immune to paradoxical effects, often using vulgar magic to accomplish their insane tasks.", "Marauders represent the other narrative extreme, the corruption of unrestrained power and unchecked dynamism.", "Marauders are mages whose Avatars have been warped by their mental instability, and who exist in a state of permanent Quiet.", "They cannot become Archmages, as they lack sufficient insight and are incapable of appreciating truths that do not suit their madness.", "In the revised edition, Marauders were made darker and less coherent, in keeping with the more serious treatment of madness used for Malkavians in ''Vampire: The Masquerade Revised Edition''.", "In this edition, the Regulars are a cell of the Underground, and like the other cells have highly compatible Quiets.===Nephandi===With the Technocracy representing Stasis and the Marauders acting on behalf of Dynamism, the third part of this trifecta is Entropy, as borne by the Nephandi.", "The Nephandi are morally inverted and spiritually mutilated.", "A Nephandus retains a clear moral compass and deliberately pursues actions to worsen the world and bring about its end.The Technocracy and Traditions have been known to set aside the ongoing war for reality to temporarily join forces to oppose the Nephandi, and the Marauders are known to attack the Nephandi on sight.", "All Nephandi have experienced the Rebirth, wherein they embrace the antithesis of everything they know to be right, and are physically and spiritually torn apart and reassembled.===The Disparate Alliance===The Disparate Alliance is a newly created network of independent Crafts that have chosen to take the matters of the Ascension War into their own hands.", "During the Age of Information, small mage societies and groups called crafts began reaching out to each other.", "With no desire to join the Traditions and a general hatred for the Technocracy, they decided to band together.", "'''The five founding crafts are:''' *The Ahl-i-Batin, Arabian mages originally based in the Middle East and North Africa, this group has expanded worldwide.", "They practice magic with a strong focus on subtlety and seek to bring Unity to the world.", "*The Children of Knowledge are LSD and other psychedelic-using alchemists hoping that these drugs can open people's minds.", "*The Hollow Ones are mages who have either been orphaned by or rejected the Traditions and refused to join the Technocracy.", "They are a craft composed of ragtag who take what they like from every tradition and fuse it.", "Their magic often uses whatever they have to work with, referred to as gutter magic.", "They draw members from various subcultures and counterculture groups such as afrofuturists, cosplayers, cybergoths, emos, goths, new agers, skaters, hip hop, and ballroom voguers.", "*The Ngoma, proud sub-Saharan African ritualists and knowledge-seekers who strive to unravel the mysteries of the cosmos and the gods.", "*The Bata'a, Followers of voodoo, vodun, Santería, Candomblé, Obeah, Hoodoo, and other Afro-Caribbean religions'''They were then joined by five other crafts:'''*The Kopa Loei, Polynesian mystics who are working to return ancient wisdom and culture to their people and balance to their islands.", "*The Knights of the Temple of Solomon, also known as Knights Templar, is dedicated to the Christian God.", "*The Sisters of Hippolyta, feminist holistic with roots in the ancient warrior Amazons.", "*The Taftâni, Djinn-binding Persian mages who craft bold spells and displays of magic.", "*The Wu Lung, Confucian dragon wizards who practice Chinese high ritual magic, alchemy, and a special fighting technique known as Kuei Lung Chuan.", "'''Other Crafts that have been considered for membership include:'''*The Balamob, jaguar-priests from Central America.", "*The Thunder Society, North American native shamans that are working to heal their communities and tribes.", "*The Uzoma, Yoruba mediums, and spirit intercessors.", "*The Navalon, breakaways from the Utopian faction within the Technocracy who revere the ideal of Camelot and King Arthur.", "*The Mirainohmen, Japanese technomystical tricksters who use psychic bonds with technological spirits to rearrange identities and undermine social preconceptions.", "*The Red Thorn Dedicants, a cult of magic-using Bahari that revere Lilith.", "*The Itz'at, Mesoamerican seers and prophets.", "*The Go Kamisori Gama, technomantic ninja assassins with a vendetta against the Technocratic Union." ], [ "Rules and continuity", "The core rules of the game are similar to those in other World of Darkness games; see Storyteller System for an explanation.Like other storytelling games, ''Mage'' emphasizes personal creativity and that ultimately the game's powers and traits should be used to tell a satisfying story.", "One of ''Mage'''s highlights is its system for describing magic, based on spheres, a relatively open-ended 'toolkit' approach to using game mechanics to define the bounds of a given character's magical ability.", "Different Mages will have differing aptitudes for spheres, and player characters' magical expertise is described by the allocation of points in the spheres.There are nine known spheres:===Correspondence===Deals with spatial relations, giving the Mage power over space and distances.", "Correspondence magic allows powers such as teleportation and seeing into distant areas.===Entropy===This sphere gives the Mage power over order, chaos, fate, and fortune.", "A mage can sense where elements of chance influence the world and manipulate them to some degree.", "The only requirement of the Entropy sphere is that all interventions work within the general flow of natural entropy.===Forces===Forces concern energies and natural forces and their negative opposites (i.e.", "light and shadow can both be manipulated independently with this Sphere).", "Essentially, anything in the material world that can be seen or felt but is not material can be controlled: electricity, gravity, magnetism, friction, heat, motion, fire, etc.", "This sphere tends to do the most damage and is the most flashy and vulgar.", "===Life===Life deals with understanding and influencing biological systems.", "Generally speaking, any material object with mostly living cells falls under the influence of this sphere.", "Simply, this allows the mage to heal herself or metamorphose simple life forms at lower levels, working up to healing others and controlling more complex life at higher levels.", "Along with Matter and Forces, Life is one of the three \"Pattern Spheres\".===Mind===Dealing with control over one's mind, the reading and influencing of other minds, and a variety of subtler applications such as astral projection and psychometry.", "At high levels, Mages can create new complete minds or completely rework existing ones.===Matter===Matter deals with all inanimate material.", "Thus, being alive protects an organism from direct manipulation by the Matter sphere.", "With this Sphere, matter can be reshaped mentally, transmuted into another substance, or given altered properties.", "Along with Life and Forces, Matter is one of the three \"Pattern Spheres\".===Prime===This sphere deals directly with Quintessence, the raw material of the tapestry, which is the metaphysical structure of reality.", "This sphere allows Quintessence to be channeled and/or funneled in any way at higher levels.", "It is necessary if the mage ever wants to conjure something out of nothing, as opposed to transforming one pattern into another.", "Uses of Prime include general magic senses, counter-magic, and making magical effects permanent.===Spirit===This sphere is an eclectic mixture of abilities relating to dealings with the spirit world or Umbra.", "It includes stepping into the Near Umbra right up to traveling through outer space, contacting and controlling spirits, communing with your own or others' avatars, returning a Mage into a sleeper, returning ghosts to life, creating magical fetish items, and so forth.", "===Time===This sphere deals with dilating, slowing, stopping, or traveling through time.", "Due to game mechanics, it is simpler to travel forward in time than backward.", "Time can be used to install delays into spells, view the past or future, and even pull people and objects out of linear progression.", "===The Tenth Sphere===One of the plot hooks that the second edition books put forth was persistent rumors of a \"tenth sphere.\"", "Though there were hints, it was deliberately left vague.", "The final book in the series, ''Ascension'', implies that the tenth sphere is the sphere of Ascension.", "As the book presents alternative resolutions for the Mage line, Chapter Two also presents an alternative interpretation that the tenth sphere is \"Judgement\" or \"Telos\" and that Anthelios (the red star in the World of Darkness metaplot) is its planet (each sphere has an associated planet and Umbral realm).", "===Sphere Sigils===The various sphere sigils are, in whole or in part, symbols taken from alchemical texts.", "* Correspondence is a symbol for amalgam or amalgamation, \"Amalgama.", "\"* Entropy is a symbol for rotting or decay, \"Putredo/putrefactio.", "\"* Force is part of the symbol for \"boiling,\" \"Ebbulio.", "\"* Life is a symbol for composition, \"Compositio.", "\"* Matter, like Correspondence, is another symbol for the process of amalgamation, \"Amalgama.", "\"* Mind is a symbol for solution, \"Solutio.", "\"* Prime is a symbol meaning essence, \"Essentia.", "\"* Spirit may be derived from the symbol for fumes, \"Fumus.", "\"* Time is the symbol for dust, \"Pulvis.", "\"* The tenth symbol depicted in ''Ascension'' is a symbol for vinegar.", "''Mage: The Sorcerer's Crusade'' also presented a symbol for the tenth sphere, a combination of the symbols for stone and distillation." ], [ "Reception", "Adam Tinworth of ''Arcane'' gave ''Mage: The Ascension'' second edition a score of 8/10, calling it good for those who like involving and challenging games.", "He noted that it could be difficult for new players to grasp the entire background and how magic works, and to develop their style of magic, but found the game-play system itself to be easy to understand for newcomers.", "''Mage: The Ascension'' was ranked 16th in the 1996 reader poll of ''Arcane'' magazine to determine the 50 most popular role-playing games of all time.", "The magazine's editor, Paul Pettengale commented: \"Mage is perfect for those of a philosophical bent.", "It's a hard game to get right, requiring a great deal of thought from players and referees alike, but its underlying theme – the nature of reality – makes it one of the most interesting and mature roleplaying games available.", "\"===Awards===* In 1994, ''Mage: The Ascension'' was nominated for ''Casus Belli'' awards for the best role-playing game of 1993 and ended up in fifth place.", "* ''Mage: The Ascension'', 2nd Edition won the Origins Award for ''Best Roleplaying Rules'' of 1995." ], [ "Reviews", "*Dragon No.", "202 (February 1994)*''Shadis'' #27 (May 1996)*''Pyramid'' for Second Edition Revised*''Rollespilsmagasinet Fønix'' (Danish) (Issue 12 - Mar/Apr 1996)*''Envoyer'' (German) (Issue 27 - Jan 1999)" ], [ "See also", "* List of Mage: The Ascension books" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Onyx's Path's Mage Page* Wayback Machine archive of White Wolf's Official Mage page* GURPS edition" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Malcolm Fraser" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Malcolm Fraser''' (; 21 May 1930 – 20 March 2015) was an Australian politician who served as the 22nd prime minister of Australia from 1975 to 1983.He held office as the leader of the Liberal Party of Australia.Fraser was raised on his father's sheep stations, and after studying at Magdalen College, Oxford, returned to Australia to take over the family property in the Western District of Victoria.", "After an initial defeat in 1954, he was elected to the Australian House of Representatives at the 1955 federal election, as a member of parliament (MP) for the division of Wannon.", "He was 25 at the time, making him one of the youngest people ever elected to parliament.", "When Harold Holt became prime minister in 1966, Fraser was appointed Minister for the Army.", "After Holt's disappearance and replacement by John Gorton, Fraser became Minister for Education and Science (1968–1969) and then Minister for Defence (1969–1971).", "In 1971, Fraser resigned from cabinet and denounced Gorton as \"unfit to hold the great office of prime minister\"; this precipitated the replacement of Gorton with William McMahon.", "He subsequently returned to his old education and science portfolio.After the Liberal-National Coalition was defeated at the 1972 election, Fraser unsuccessfully stood for the Liberal leadership, losing to Billy Snedden.", "When the party lost the 1974 election, he began to move against Snedden, eventually mounting a successful challenge in March 1975.As Leader of the Opposition, Fraser used the Coalition's control of the Australian Senate to block supply to the Whitlam government, precipitating the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis.", "This culminated with Gough Whitlam being dismissed as prime minister by the governor-general, Sir John Kerr, a unique occurrence in Australian history.", "The correctness of Fraser's actions in the crisis and the exact nature of his involvement in Kerr's decision have since been a topic of debate.", "Fraser remains the only Australian prime minister to ascend to the position upon the dismissal of his predecessor.After Whitlam's dismissal, Fraser was sworn in as prime minister on an initial caretaker basis.", "The Coalition won a landslide victory at the 1975 election, and was re-elected in 1977 and 1980.Fraser took a keen interest in foreign affairs as prime minister, and was more active in the international sphere than many of his predecessors.", "He was a strong supporter of multiculturalism, and during his term in office Australia admitted significant numbers of non-white immigrants (including Vietnamese boat people) for the first time, effectively ending the White Australia policy.", "His government also established the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS).", "Particularly in his final years in office, Fraser came into conflict with the \"dry\" economic rationalist and fiscal conservative faction of his party.", "His government made few major changes to economic policy.After losing the 1983 election, Fraser retired from politics.", "In his post-political career, he held advisory positions with the United Nations (UN) and the Commonwealth of Nations, and was president of the aid agency CARE from 1990 to 1995.He resigned his membership of the Liberal Party in 2009 after the election of Tony Abbott as leader, Fraser having been a critic of the Liberals’ policy direction for a number of years.", "Evaluations of Fraser's prime ministership have been mixed.", "He is generally credited with restoring stability to the country after a series of short-term leaders and has been praised for his commitment to multiculturalism and opposition to apartheid in South Africa, but the circumstances of his entry to office remains controversial and many have viewed his government as a lost opportunity for economic reform.", "His seven and a half-year tenure as prime minister is the fourth longest in Australian history, only surpassed by Bob Hawke, John Howard and Robert Menzies." ], [ "Early life", "===Birth and family background===John Malcolm Fraser was born in Toorak, Melbourne, Victoria, on 21 May 1930.He was the second of two children born to Una Arnold (née Woolf) and John Neville Fraser; his older sister Lorraine had been born in 1928.Both he and his father were known exclusively by their middle names.", "His paternal grandfather, Sir Simon Fraser, was born in Nova Scotia, Canada, and arrived in Australia in 1853.He made his fortune as a railway contractor, and later acquired significant pastoral holdings, becoming a member of the \"squattocracy\".", "Fraser's maternal grandfather, Louis Woolf, was born in Dunedin, New Zealand, and arrived in Australia as a child.", "He was of Jewish origin, a fact which his grandson did not learn until he was an adult.", "A chartered accountant by trade, he married Amy Booth, who was related to the wealthy Hordern family of Sydney and was a first cousin of Sir Samuel Hordern.Fraser had a political background on both sides of his family.", "His father served on the Wakool Shire Council, including as president for two years, and was an admirer of Billy Hughes and a friend of Richard Casey.", "Simon Fraser served in both houses of the colonial Parliament of Victoria, and represented Victoria at several of the constitutional conventions of the 1890s.", "He eventually become one of the inaugural members of the new federal Senate, serving from 1901 to 1913 as a member of the early conservative parties.", "Louis Woolf also ran for the Senate in 1901, standing as a Free Trader in Western Australia.", "He polled only 400 votes across the whole state, and was never again a candidate for public office.===Childhood===Fraser spent most of his early life at ''Balpool-Nyang'', a sheep station of on the Edward River near Moulamein, New South Wales.", "His father had a law degree from Magdalen College, Oxford, but never practised law and preferred the life of a grazier.", "Fraser contracted a severe case of pneumonia when he was eight years old, which nearly proved fatal.", "He was home-schooled until the age of ten, when he was sent to board at Tudor House School in the Southern Highlands.", "He attended Tudor House from 1940 to 1943, and then completed his secondary education at Melbourne Grammar School from 1944 to 1948 where he was a member of Rusden House.", "While at Melbourne Grammar, he lived in a flat that his parents owned on Collins Street.", "In 1943, Fraser's father sold ''Balpool-Nyang'' – which had been prone to drought – and bought ''Nareen'', in the Western District of Victoria.", "He was devastated by the sale of his childhood home, and regarded the day he found out about it as the worst of his life.===University===In 1949, Fraser moved to England to study at Magdalen College, Oxford, which his father had also attended.", "He read Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE), graduating in 1952 with third-class honours.", "Although Fraser did not excel academically, he regarded his time at Oxford as his intellectual awakening, where he learned \"how to think\".", "His college tutor was Harry Weldon, who was a strong influence.", "His circle of friends at Oxford included Raymond Bonham Carter, Nicolas Browne-Wilkinson, and John Turner.", "In his second year, he had a relationship with Anne Reid, who as Anne Fairbairn later became a prominent poet.", "After graduating, Fraser considered taking a law degree or joining the British Army, but eventually decided to return to Australia and take over the running of the family property." ], [ "Early political career", "Fraser returned to Australia in mid-1952.He began attending meetings of the Young Liberals in Hamilton, and became acquainted with many of the local party officials.", "In November 1953, aged 23, Fraser unexpectedly won Liberal preselection for the Division of Wannon, which covered most of Victoria's Western District.", "The previous Liberal member, Dan Mackinnon, had been defeated in 1951 and moved to a different electorate.", "He was expected to be succeeded by Magnus Cormack, who had recently lost his place in the Senate.", "Fraser had put his name forward as a way of building a profile for future candidacies, but mounted a strong campaign and in the end won a narrow victory.", "In January 1954, he made the first of a series of weekly radio broadcasts on 3HA Hamilton and 3YB Warrnambool, titled ''One Australia''.", "His program – consisting of a pre-recorded 15-minute monologue – covered a wide range of topics, and was often reprinted in newspapers.", "It continued more or less uninterrupted until his retirement from politics in 1983, and helped him build a substantial personal following in his electorate.At the 1954 election, Fraser lost to the sitting Labor member Don McLeod by just 17 votes (out of over 37,000 cast).", "However, he reprised his candidacy at the early 1955 election after a redistribution made Wannon notionally Liberal.", "McLeod concluded the reconfigured Wannon was unwinnable and retired.", "These factors, combined with the 1955 Labor Party split, allowed Fraser to win a landslide victory." ], [ "Backbencher", "Fraser in 1956, shortly after his election to ParliamentFraser took his seat in parliament at the age of 25 – the youngest sitting MP by four years, and the first who had been too young to serve in World War II.", "He was re-elected at the 1958 election despite being restricted in his campaigning by a bout of hepatitis.", "Fraser was soon being touted as a future member of cabinet, but despite good relations with Robert Menzies never served in cabinet during Menzies' tenure.", "His long wait for ministerial preferment was probably due to a combination of his youth and the fact that Menzies' ministries already contained a disproportionately high number of Victorians.Fraser spoke on a wide range of topics during his early years in parliament, but took a particular interest in foreign affairs.", "In 1964, he and Gough Whitlam were both awarded Leader Grants by the United States Department of State, allowing them to spend two months in Washington, D.C., getting to know American political and military leaders.", "The Vietnam War was the main topic of conversation, and on his return trip to Australia he spent two days in Saigon.", "Early in 1965, he also made a private seven-day visit to Jakarta, and with assistance from Ambassador Mick Shann secured meetings with various high-ranking officials." ], [ "Cabinet Minister and Gorton downfall", "John EnglandIn 1966, after more than a decade on the backbench, Sir Robert Menzies retired as prime minister.", "His successor Harold Holt appointed Fraser to the ministry as Minister for the Army.", "In that position, Fraser presided over the controversial Vietnam War conscription program.Under the new prime minister, John Gorton, he was elevated to Cabinet as Minister for Education and Science.", "In 1969 he was promoted to Minister for Defence, a particularly challenging post at the time, given the height of Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War and the protests against it.In March 1971 Fraser abruptly resigned from the Cabinet in protest at what he called Gorton's \"interference in (his) ministerial responsibilities\", and denounced Gorton on the floor of the House of Representatives as \"not fit to hold the great office of Prime Minister\".", "This precipitated a series of events which eventually led to the downfall of Gorton and his replacement as prime minister by William McMahon.", "In the leadership contest that followed Gorton's resignation, Fraser unsuccessfully contested the deputy Liberal leadership against Gorton and David Fairbairn.", "Gorton never forgave Fraser for the role he played in his downfall; to the day Gorton died in 2002, he could not bear to be in the same room with Fraser.Fraser remained on the backbenches until he was reinstated to Cabinet in his old position of Minister for Education and Science by McMahon in August 1971, immediately following Gorton's sacking as deputy Liberal leader by McMahon.", "When the Liberals were defeated at the 1972 election by the Labor Party under Gough Whitlam, McMahon resigned and Fraser became Shadow Minister for Labour under Billy Snedden." ], [ "Opposition (1972–1975)", "After the Coalition lost the 1972 election, Fraser was one of five candidates for the Liberal leadership that had been vacated by McMahon.", "He outpolled John Gorton and James Killen, but was eliminated on the third ballot.", "Billy Snedden eventually defeated Nigel Bowen by a single vote on the fifth ballot.", "In the new shadow cabinet – which featured only Liberals – Fraser was given responsibility for primary industry.", "This was widely seen as a snub, as the new portfolio kept him mostly out of the public eye and was likely to be given to a member of the Country Party when the Coalition returned to government.", "In an August 1973 reshuffle, Snedden instead made him the Liberals' spokesman for industrial relations.", "He had hoped to be given responsibility for foreign affairs (in place of the retiring Nigel Bowen), but that role was given to Andrew Peacock.", "Fraser oversaw the development of the party's new industrial relations policy, which was released in April 1974.It was seen as more flexible and even-handed than the policy that the Coalition had pursued in government, and was received well by the media.", "According to Fraser's biographer Philip Ayres, by \"putting a new policy in place, he managed to modify his public image and emerge as an excellent communicator across a traditionally hostile divide\".===Leader of the Opposition===After the Liberals lost the 1974 election, Fraser unsuccessfully challenged Snedden for the leadership in November.", "Despite surviving the challenge, Snedden's position in opinion polls continued to decline and he was unable to get the better of Whitlam in the Parliament.", "Fraser again challenged Snedden on 21 March 1975, this time succeeding and becoming Leader of the Liberal Party and Leader of the Opposition.===Role in the Dismissal===Following a series of ministerial scandals engulfing the Whitlam government later that year, Fraser began to instruct Coalition senators to delay the government's budget bills, with the objective of forcing an early election that he believed he would win.", "After several months of political deadlock, during which time the government secretly explored methods of obtaining supply funding outside the Parliament, the Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, controversially dismissed Whitlam as prime minister on 11 November 1975.Fraser was immediately sworn in as caretaker prime minister on the condition that he end the political deadlock and call an immediate double dissolution election.On 19 November 1975, shortly after the election had been called, a letter bomb was sent to Fraser, but it was intercepted and defused before it reached him.", "Similar devices were sent to the governor-general and the Premier of Queensland, Joh Bjelke-Petersen." ], [ "Prime Minister (1975–1983)", "=== 1975 and 1977 federal elections ===Fraser in 1976At the 1975 election, Fraser led the Liberal-Country Party Coalition to a landslide victory.", "The Coalition won 91 seats of a possible 127 in the election to gain a 55-seat majority, which remains to date the largest in Australian history.", "Fraser subsequently led the Coalition to a second victory in 1977, with only a very small decrease in their vote.", "The Liberals actually won a majority in their own right in both of these elections, something that Menzies and Holt had never achieved.", "Although Fraser thus had no need for the support of the (National) Country Party to govern, he retained the formal Coalition between the two parties.", "This is likely because the Liberals needed the Country Party's support to pass bills in the Senate, since they came up just short of majorities in their own right in both 1975 and 1977.=== Fiscal policy ===Fraser at a White House state dinner in 1976, being introduced to actor Gregory Peck by President Gerald FordFraser quickly dismantled some of the programs of the Whitlam government, such as the Ministry of the Media, and made major changes to the universal health insurance system Medibank.", "He initially maintained Whitlam's levels of tax and spending, but real per-person tax and spending soon began to increase.", "He did manage to rein in inflation, which had soared under Whitlam.", "His so-called \"Razor Gang\" implemented stringent budget cuts across many areas of the Commonwealth Public Sector, including the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC).Fraser practised Keynesian economics during his time as prime minister, in part demonstrated by running budget deficits throughout his term as prime minister.", "He was the Liberal Party's last Keynesian Prime Minister.", "Though he had long been identified with the Liberal Party's right wing, he did not carry out the radically conservative program that his political enemies had predicted, and that some of his followers wanted.", "Fraser's relatively moderate policies particularly disappointed the Treasurer, John Howard, as well as other ministers who were strong adherents of fiscal conservatism and economic liberalism, and therefore detractors of Keynesian economics.", "The government's economic record was marred by rising double-digit unemployment and double-digit inflation, creating \"stagflation\", caused in part by the ongoing effects of the 1973 oil crisis.=== Foreign policy ===Fraser and US president Jimmy Carter in June 1977Fraser was particularly active in foreign policy as prime minister.", "He supported the Commonwealth in campaigning to abolish apartheid in South Africa and refused permission for the aircraft carrying the Springbok rugby team to refuel on Australian territory en route to their controversial 1981 tour of New Zealand.", "However, an earlier tour by the South African ski boat angling team was allowed to pass through Australia on the way to New Zealand in 1977 and the transit records were suppressed by Cabinet order.Fraser also strongly opposed white minority rule in Rhodesia.", "During the 1979 Commonwealth Conference, Fraser, together with his Nigerian counterpart, convinced the newly elected British prime minister, Margaret Thatcher, to withhold recognition of the internal settlement Zimbabwe Rhodesia government; Thatcher had earlier promised to recognise it.", "Subsequently, the Lancaster House Agreement was signed and Robert Mugabe was elected leader of an independent Zimbabwe at the inaugural 1980 election.", "Duncan Campbell, a former deputy secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade has stated that Fraser was \"the principal architect\" in the ending of white minority rule.", "The President of Tanzania, Julius Nyerere, said that he considered Fraser's role \"crucial in many parts\" and the President of Zambia, Kenneth Kaunda, called his contribution \"vital\".Under Fraser, Australia recognised Indonesia's annexation of East Timor, although many East Timorese refugees were granted asylum in Australia.", "Fraser was also a strong supporter of the United States and supported the boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow.", "However, although he persuaded some sporting bodies not to compete, Fraser did not try to prevent the Australian Olympic Committee sending a team to the Moscow Games.=== Other policy ===Fraser also surprised his critics over immigration policy; according to 1977 Cabinet documents, the Fraser government adopted a formal policy for \"a humanitarian commitment to admit refugees for resettlement\".", "Fraser's aim was to expand immigration from Asian countries and allow more refugees to enter Australia.", "He was a firm supporter of multiculturalism and established a government-funded multilingual radio and television network, the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS), building on their first radio stations which had been established under the Whitlam government.Despite Fraser's support for SBS, his government imposed stringent budget cuts on the national broadcaster, the ABC, which came under repeated attack from the Coalition for alleged \"left-wing bias\" and \"unfair\" coverage on their TV programs, including ''This Day Tonight'' and ''Four Corners'', and on the ABC's new youth-oriented radio station Double Jay.", "One result of the cuts was a plan to establish a national youth radio network, of which Double Jay was the first station.", "The network was delayed for many years and did not come to fruition until the 1990s.", "Fraser also legislated to give Indigenous Australians control of their traditional lands in the Northern Territory, but resisted imposing land rights laws on conservative state governments.=== 1980 federal election ===Reagans at the White House in 1982At the 1980 election, Fraser saw his majority more than halved, from 48 seats to 21.The Coalition also lost control of the Senate.", "Despite this, Fraser remained ahead of Labor leader Bill Hayden in opinion polls.", "However, the economy was hit by the early 1980s recession, and a protracted scandal over tax-avoidance schemes run by some high-profile Liberals also began to hurt the government.=== Disputes within the Liberal Party ===In April 1981, the Minister for Industrial Relations, Andrew Peacock, resigned from the Cabinet, accusing Fraser of \"constant interference in his portfolio\".", "Fraser, however, had accused former prime minister John Gorton of the same thing a decade earlier.", "Peacock subsequently challenged Fraser for the leadership; although Fraser defeated Peacock, these events left him politically weakened.=== Labor Party and 1983 federal election ===Fraser in 1982, towards the end of his tenure in officeBy early 1982, the popular former ACTU President, Bob Hawke, who had entered Parliament in 1980, was polling well ahead of both Fraser and the Labor Leader, Bill Hayden, on the question of who voters would rather see as prime minister.", "Fraser was well aware of the infighting this caused between Hayden and Hawke and had planned to call a snap election in autumn 1982, preventing the Labor Party changing leaders.", "These plans were derailed when Fraser suffered a severe back injury.", "Shortly after recovering from his injury, the Liberal Party narrowly won a by-election in the marginal seat of Flinders in December 1982.The failure of the Labor Party to win the seat convinced Fraser that he would be able to win an election against Hayden.As leadership tensions began to grow in the Labor Party throughout January, Fraser subsequently resolved to call a double dissolution election at the earliest opportunity, hoping to capitalise on Labor's disunity.", "He knew that if the writs were issued soon enough, Labor would essentially be frozen into going into the subsequent election with Hayden as leader.On 3 February 1983, Fraser arranged to visit the Governor-General of Australia, Sir Ninian Stephen, intending to ask for a surprise election.", "However, Fraser made his run too late.", "Without any knowledge of Fraser's plans, Hayden resigned as Labor leader just two hours before Fraser travelled to Government House.", "This meant that the considerably more popular Hawke was able to replace him at almost exactly the same time that the writs were issued for the election.", "Although Fraser reacted to the move by saying he looked forward to \"knocking two Labor Leaders off in one go\" at the forthcoming election, Labor immediately surged in the opinion polls.At the election on 5 March the Coalition was heavily defeated, suffering a 24-seat swing, the worst defeat of a non-Labor government since Federation.", "Fraser immediately announced his resignation as Liberal leader and formally resigned as prime minister on 11 March 1983; he retired from Parliament two months later.", "To date, he is the last non-interim prime minister from a rural seat." ], [ "Retirement", "In retirement Fraser was Chairman of the UN Panel of Eminent Persons on the Role of Transnational Corporations in South Africa 1985, as Co-Chairman of the Commonwealth Group of Eminent Persons on South Africa in 1985–86 (appointed by Prime Minister Hawke), and as Chairman of the UN Secretary-General's Expert Group on African Commodity Issues in 1989–90.He was a distinguished international fellow at the American Enterprise Institute from 1984 to 1986.Fraser helped to establish the foreign aid group CARE organisation in Australia and became the agency's international president in 1991, and worked with a number of other charitable organisations.", "In 2006, he was appointed Professorial Fellow at the Asia Pacific Centre for Military Law, and in October 2007 he presented his inaugural professorial lecture, \"Finding Security in Terrorism's Shadow: The importance of the rule of law\".===Memphis trousers affair===On 14 October 1986, Fraser, then the Chairman of the Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group, was found in the foyer of the Admiral Benbow Inn, a Memphis hotel, wearing only a pair of underpants and confused as to where his trousers were.", "The hotel was an establishment popular with prostitutes and drug dealers.", "Though it was rumoured at the time that the former prime minister had been with a prostitute, his wife stated that Fraser had no recollection of the events and that she believes it more likely that he was the victim of a practical joke by his fellow delegates.===Estrangement from the Liberal Party===Parliament House in 2008, for Kevin Rudd's national apology to the Stolen GenerationsIn 1993, Fraser made a bid for the Liberal Party presidency but withdrew at the last minute following opposition to his bid, which was raised due to his having been critical of then Liberal leader John Hewson for losing the election earlier that year.After 1996, Fraser was critical of the Howard Coalition government over foreign policy issues, particularly John Howard's alignment with the foreign policy of the Bush administration, which Fraser saw as damaging Australian relationships in Asia.", "He opposed Howard's policy on asylum-seekers, campaigned in support of an Australian Republic and attacked what he perceived as a lack of integrity in Australian politics, together with former Labor prime minister Gough Whitlam, finding much common ground with his predecessor and his successor Bob Hawke, another republican.The 2001 election continued his estrangement from the Liberal Party.", "Many Liberals criticised the Fraser years as \"a decade of lost opportunity\" on deregulation of the Australian economy and other issues.", "In early 2004, a Young Liberal convention in Hobart called for Fraser's life membership of the Liberal Party to be ended.In 2006, Fraser criticised Howard Liberal government policies on areas such as refugees, terrorism and civil liberties, and that \"if Australia continues to follow United States policies, it runs the risk of being embroiled in the conflict in Iraq for decades, and a fear of Islam in the Australian community will take years to eradicate\".", "Fraser claimed that the way the Howard government handled the David Hicks, Cornelia Rau and Vivian Solon cases was questionable.On 20 July 2007, Fraser sent an open letter to members of the large activist group GetUp!, encouraging members to support GetUp's campaign for a change in policy on Iraq including a clearly defined exit strategy.", "Fraser stated: \"One of the things we should say to the Americans, quite simply, is that if the United States is not prepared to involve itself in high-level diplomacy concerning Iraq and other Middle East questions, our forces will be withdrawn before Christmas.", "\"After the defeat of the Howard government at the 2007 federal election, Fraser claimed Howard approached him in a corridor, following a cabinet meeting in May 1977 regarding Vietnamese refugees, and said: \"We don't want too many of these people.", "We're doing this just for show, aren't we?\"", "The claims were made by Fraser in an interview to mark the release of the 1977 cabinet papers.", "Howard, through a spokesman, denied having made the comment.In October 2007 Fraser gave a speech to Melbourne Law School on terrorism and \"the importance of the rule of law,\" which Liberal MP Sophie Mirabellacondemned in January 2008, claiming errors and \"either intellectual sloppiness or deliberate dishonesty\", and claimed that he tacitly supported Islamic fundamentalism, that he should have no influence on foreign policy, and claimed his stance on the war on terror had left him open to caricature as a \"frothing-at-the-mouth leftie\".Shortly after Tony Abbott won the 2009 Liberal Party leadership spill, Fraser ended his Liberal Party membership, stating the party was \"no longer a liberal party but a conservative party\".===Later political activity===Peter Nicholson located in the Prime Minister's Avenue in the Ballarat Botanical GardensIn December 2011, Fraser was highly critical of the Australian government's decision (also supported by the Liberal Party Opposition) to permit the export of uranium to India, relaxing the Fraser government's policy of banning sales of uranium to countries that are not signatories of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.In 2012, Fraser criticised the basing of US military forces in Australia.In late 2012, Fraser wrote a foreword for the journal ''Jurisprudence'' where he openly criticised the current state of human rights in Australia and the Western World.", "\"It is a sobering thought that in recent times, freedoms hard won through centuries of struggle, in the United Kingdom and elsewhere have been whittled away.", "In Australia alone we have laws that allow the secret detention of the innocent.", "We have had a vast expansion of the power of intelligence agencies.", "In many cases the onus of proof has been reversed and the justice that once prevailed has been gravely diminished.", "\"In July 2013, Fraser endorsed Australian Greens Senator Sarah Hanson-Young for re-election in a television advertisement, stating she had been a \"reasonable and fair-minded voice\".Fraser's books include ''Malcolm Fraser: The Political Memoirs'' (with Margaret Simons – The Miegunyah Press, 2010) and ''Dangerous Allies'' (Melbourne University Press, 2014), which warns of \"strategic dependence\" on the United States.", "In the book and in talks promoting it, he criticised the concept of American exceptionalism and US foreign policy." ], [ "Personal life", "===Marriage and children===Malcolm and Tamie Fraser at a political event in 1958On 9 December 1956, Fraser married Tamara \"Tamie\" Beggs, who was almost six years his junior.", "They had met at a New Year's Eve party, and bonded over similar personal backgrounds and political views.", "The couple had four children together: Mark (b.", "1958), Angela (b.", "1960), Hugh (b.", "1962), and Phoebe (b.", "1964).", "Tamie frequently assisted her husband in campaigning, and her gregariousness was seen as complementing his more shy and reserved nature.", "She advised him on most of the important decisions in his career, and in retirement he observed that \"if she had been prime minister in 1983, we would have won\".===Views on religion===Fraser attended Anglican schools, although his parents were Presbyterian.", "In university he was inclined towards atheism, once writing that \"the idea that God exists is a nonsense\".", "However, his beliefs became less definite over time and tended towards agnosticism.", "During his political career, he occasionally self-described as Christian, such as in a 1975 interview with ''The Catholic Weekly''.", "Margaret Simons, the co-author of Fraser's memoirs, thought that he was \"not religious, and yet thinks religion is a necessary thing\".", "In a 2010 interview with her, he said: \"I would probably like to be less logical and, you know, really able to believe there is a God, whether it is Allah, or the Christian God, or some other – but I think I studied too much philosophy ... you can never know\"." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Fraser's grave within the Prime Ministers Garden of Melbourne General CemeteryFraser died on 20 March 2015 at the age of 84, after a brief illness.", "An obituary noted that there had been \"greater appreciation of the constructive and positive nature of his post-prime ministerial contribution\" as his retirement years progressed.", "Fraser's death came five months after that of his predecessor and political rival Gough Whitlam.Upon his death, Fraser's 1983 nemesis and often bitter opponent Bob Hawke fondly described him as a \"very significant figure in the history of Australian politics\" who, in his post-Prime Ministerial years, \"became an outstanding figure in the advancement of human rights issues in all respects\", praised him for being \"extraordinarily generous and welcoming to refugees from Indochina\" and concluded that Fraser had \"moved so far to the left he was almost out of sight\".", "Andrew Peacock, who had challenged Fraser for the Liberal leadership and later succeeded him, said that he had \"a deep respect and pleasurable memories of the first five years of the Fraser government...", "I disagreed with him later on but during that period in the 1970s he was a very effective Prime Minister\", and lamented that \"despite all my arguments with him later on I am filled with admiration for his efforts on China\".Fraser was given a state funeral at Scots' Church in Melbourne on 27 March 2015.His ashes are interred within the Prime Ministers Garden of Melbourne General Cemetery.In 2004, Fraser designated the University of Melbourne the official custodian of his personal papers and library to create the Malcolm Fraser Collection at the university.A street in Abuja, Nigeria, is named after Malcolm Fraser.In June 2018, he was honoured with the naming of the Australian Electoral Division of Fraser in the inner north-western suburbs of Melbourne." ], [ "Published works", "*''Malcolm Fraser: The Political Memoirs'' (Melbourne: The Miegunyah Press, 2010).", "*''Dangerous Allies'' (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2014)." ], [ "Honours", "'''Orders'''* '''1977''' Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH)* '''1988''' Companion of the Order of Australia (AC)'''Foreign honours'''* '''1999''' Order of the Three Stars, 3rd Class (Commander)* '''2006''' Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun from the Emperor of Japan* '''2009''' Grand Companion of the Order of Logohu (GCL)'''Organisations'''* '''2000''' Australian Human Rights Commission, Human Rights Medal===Appointments==='''Personal'''* '''1976''' Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (PC)'''Fellowships'''* Professorial Fellow, Asia Pacific Centre for Military Law at the University of Melbourne* Vice-President and Fellow of the Royal Commonwealth Society (RCS)'''Academic degrees'''* University of South Carolina, Honorary Doctor of Laws* Deakin University, Honorary Doctor of the University* University of Technology, Sydney, Honorary Doctor of Laws* University of New South Wales, Honorary Doctor of Laws* Murdoch University, Honorary Doctor of Laws" ], [ "See also", "* 1975 Australian constitutional crisis* First Fraser Ministry* Second Fraser Ministry* Third Fraser Ministry* Fourth Fraser Ministry" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ayres, Philip (1987), ''Malcolm Fraser, a Biography'', Heinemann, Richmond, Victoria.", "* Kelly, Paul (2000), ''Malcolm Fraser'', in Michelle Grattan (ed.", "), ''Australian Prime Ministers'', New Holland, Sydney, New South Wales.", "* Kerr, John (1978), ''Matters for Judgment.", "An Autobiography'', Macmillan, South Melbourne, Victoria.", "* Lopez, Mark (2000),''The Origins of Multiculturalism in Australian Politics 1945–1975'', Melbourne University Press, Carlton South, Victoria.", "* Mitcham, Chad J.", "(2022), 'Griffith, Allan Thomas (1922–1998)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/griffith-allan-thomas-444/text39690, published online 2022* O'Brien, Patrick (1985), ''Factions, Feuds and Fancies.", "The Liberals'', Viking, Ringwood, Victoria.", "* Reid, Alan (1971), ''The Gorton Experiment'', Shakespeare Head Press, Sydney, New South Wales* Reid, Alan (1976), ''The Whitlam Venture'', Hill of Content, Melbourne, Victoria.", "* Schneider, Russell (1980), ''War Without Blood.", "Malcolm Fraser in Power'', Angus and Robertson, Sydney, New South Wales.", "* Snedden, Billy Mackie and Schedvin, M. Bernie (1990), ''Billy Snedden.", "An Unlikely Liberal'', Macmillan, South Melbourne, esp.", "Ch.", "XV and XVI." ], [ "External links", "* Malcolm Fraser – Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia* Australian Biography– Malcolm Fraser An extensive 1994 interview with Fraser* The Malcolm Fraser Collection at the University of Melbourne Archives* Malcolm Fraser at the National Film and Sound Archive * How to revive a party that seems to be stuck in opposition: Malcolm Fraser– The Age 11/02/2008* Balanced policy the only way to peace: Malcolm Fraser– The Age 10/05/2008" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Macquarie University" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Macquarie University''' ( ) is a public research university located in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.", "Founded in 1964 by the New South Wales Government, it was the third university to be established in the metropolitan area of Sydney.Established as a verdant university, Macquarie has five faculties, as well as the Macquarie University Hospital and the Macquarie Graduate School of Management, which are located on the university's main campus in the suburb of Macquarie Park.", "The university is the first in Australia to fully align its degree system with the Bologna Accord." ], [ "History", "===20th century===Peter Mason delivers first lectureThe idea of founding a third university in Sydney was flagged in the early 1960s when the New South Wales Government formed a committee of enquiry into higher education to deal with a perceived emergency in university enrolments in New South Wales.", "During this enquiry, the Senate of the University of Sydney put in a submission which highlighted 'the immediate need to establish a third university in the metropolitan area'.", "After much debate a future campus location was selected in what was then a semi-rural part of North Ryde, and it was decided that the future university be named after Lachlan Macquarie, an important early governor of the colony of New South Wales.Macquarie University was formally established in 1964 with the passage of the Macquarie University Act 1964 by the New South Wales parliament.The initial concept of the campus was to create a new high technology corridor, similar to the area surrounding Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, the goal being to provide for interaction between industry and the new university.", "The academic core was designed in the Brutalist style and developed by the renowned town planner Walter Abraham who also oversaw the next 20 years of planning and development for the university.", "A committee appointed to advise the state government on the establishment of the new university at North Ryde nominated Abraham as the architect-planner.", "The fledgling Macquarie University Council decided that planning for the campus would be done within the university, rather than by consultants, and this led to the establishment of the architect-planners office.The first Vice-Chancellor of Macquarie University, Alexander George Mitchell, was selected by the University Council which met for the first time on 17 June 1964.Members of the first university council included: Colonel Sir Edward Ford OBE, David Paver Mellor, Rae Else-Mitchell QC and Sir Walter Scott.First students at Macquarie UniversityThe university first opened to students on 6 March 1967 with more students than anticipated.", "The Australian Universities Commission had allowed for 510 effective full-time students (EFTS) but Macquarie had 956 enrolments and 622 EFTS.", "Between 1968 and 1969, enrolment at Macquarie increased dramatically with an extra 1200 EFTS, with 100 new academic staff employed.", "1969 also saw the establishment of the Macquarie Graduate School of Management (MGSM).Macquarie University Library 1993, scaled by members of the Macquarie University Mountaineering Society during O-Week.Macquarie grew during the seventies and eighties with rapid expansion in courses offered, student numbers and development of the site.", "In 1972, the university established the Macquarie Law School, the third law school in Sydney.", "In their book ''Liberality of Opportunity'', Bruce Mansfield and Mark Hutchinson describe the founding of Macquarie University as 'an act of faith and a great experiment'.", "An additional topic considered in this book is the science reform movement of the late 1970s that resulted in the introduction of a named science degree, thus facilitating the subsequent inclusion of other named degrees in addition to the traditional BA.", "An alternative view on this topic is given by theoretical physicist John Ward.In 1973 the student union (MUSC) worked with the Builders Labourers Federation (BLF) to organise one of the first \"pink bans\".", "Similar in tactic to the green ban, the pink ban was recommended when one of the residential colleges at Macquarie University, Robert Menzies College, ordered a student to lead a celibate life and undertake therapy and confession to cure himself of his homosexuality.", "The BLF decided to stop all construction work at the college until the university and the college Master made statements committing to a non-discriminatory university environment.", "MUSC was successful in engaging with the BLF again in 1974 when a woman at Macquarie University had her NSW Department of Education scholarship cancelled on the basis that she was a lesbian and therefore unfit to be a teacher.After over a decade of service, the first Vice Chancellor Mitchell was succeeded by Edwin C. Webb in December 1975.Webb was required to steer the university through one of its most difficult periods as the value of universities were debated and the governments introduced significant funding cuts.", "Webb left the university in 1986 and was succeeded by Di Yerbury, the first female Vice-Chancellor in Australia.", "Yerbury would go on to hold the position of Vice-Chancellor for nearly 20 years.In 1990 the university absorbed the Institute of Early Childhood Studies of the Sydney College of Advanced Education, under the terms of the Higher Education (Amalgamation) Act 1989.l===21st century===''Wally's Walk''Steven Schwartz replaced Di Yerbury as Vice-Chancellor at the beginning of 2006.Yerbury's departure was attended with much controversy, including a \"bitter dispute\" with Schwartz, disputed ownership of university artworks worth $13 million and Yerbury's salary package.", "In August 2006, Schwartz expressed concern about the actions of Yerbury in a letter to university auditors.", "Yerbury strongly denied any wrongdoing and claimed the artworks were hers.During 2007, Macquarie University restructured its student organisation after an audit raised questions about management of hundreds of thousands of dollars in funds by student organisations At the centre of the investigation was Victor Ma, president of the Macquarie University Students' Council, who was previously involved in a high-profile case of student election fixing at the University of Sydney.The university Council resolved to immediately remove Ma from his position.", "Vice-Chancellor Schwartz cited an urgent need to reform Macquarie's main student bodies.However, Ma strongly denied any wrongdoing and labelled the controversy a case of 'character assassination'.The Federal Court ordered on 23 May 2007 that Macquarie University Union Ltd be wound up.Following the dissolution of Macquarie University Union Ltd, the outgoing student organisation was replaced with a new wholly owned subsidiary company of the university, known as U@MQ Ltd.", "The new student organisation originally lacked a true student representative union; however, following a complete review and authorisation from the university Council, a new student union known as Macquarie University Students Association (MUSRA) was established in 2009.Parklands at the universityWithin the first few hundred days of Schwartz's instatement as Vice-Chancellor, the 'Macquarie@50' strategic plan was launched, which positioned the university to enhance research, teaching, infrastructure and academic rankings by the university's 50th anniversary in 2014.Included in the university's plans for the future was the establishment of a sustainability office in order to more effectively manage environmental and social development at Macquarie.", "As part of this campaign, in 2009 Macquarie became the first Fair Trade accredited university in Australia.", "The beginning of 2009 also saw the introduction of a new logo for the university which retained the Sirius Star, present on both the old logo and the university crest, but now 'embedded in a stylised lotus flower'.", "In accordance with the university by-law, the crest continues to be used for formal purposes and is displayed on university testamurs.", "The by-law also prescribes the university's motto, taken from Chaucer: 'And gladly teche'.In 2013, the university became the first in Australia to fully align its degree system with the Bologna Accord." ], [ "Symbols", "The coat of arms of Lachlan Macquarie, as granted to the university by the Lord Lyon King of Arms in 1967.=== Coat of arms ===Macquarie University's coat of arms (often erroneously referred to as a 'crest') was assumed through a 1967 amendment of the ''Macquarie University Act, 1964'' (Confirmed by Letters patent of the College of Arms, 16 August 1969), and the Grant of arms reads::''Vert, the Macquarie lighthouse tower, masoned proper, in Chief the star Sirius, Or.", "''The escutcheon (in green taken from the tartan of Clan MacQuarrie) displays the Macquarie Lighthouse tower, the first major public building in the colony when completed in 1816, as well as the Sirius star (in gold), which was also the name of the flagship of the First Fleet.", "The motto chosen for the university, which following the rules of English heraldry does not form part of the original grant of arms, was ''And Gladly Teche'', a phrase taken from the general prologue of ''The Canterbury Tales'' by Geoffrey Chaucer (circa 1400), and symbolises the university's commitment to both learning and teaching.The university's founders originally wanted to base the university's arms on Lachlan Macquarie's family arms, but they decided to go for a more conceptual approach that represented Lachlan Macquarie as a builder and administrator.", "They did however identify that the arms used by Governor Macquarie had never been formally granted by the Court of the Lord Lyon in Scotland, and was successful in having a grant of arms issued for Macquarie by the Lord Lyon King of Arms, as well as the right to display his arms.", "These arms, along with the new arms of the university, were formally unveiled on 31 May 1967 by the chancellor, Sir Garfield Barwick.The coat of arms and the motto are used in a very limited number of formal communications.=== Logo ===Macquarie has had a number of logos in its history.", "In 2014, the university launched a new logo as part of its Shared Identity Project.", "The logo reintroduced the Macquarie Lighthouse, a popular symbol of the university within the university community and maintained the Sirus Star." ], [ "Campus", "University Lake, a popular spot for studentsAerial view of the campus, looking westMacquarie University's main campus is located about north-west of the Sydney CBD and is set on 126 hectares of rolling lawns and natural bushland.", "Located within the high-technology corridor of Sydney's north-west and in close proximity to Macquarie Park and its surrounding industries, Macquarie's location has been crucial in its development as a relatively research intensive university.Prior to the development of the campus, most of the site was cultivated with peach orchards, market gardens and poultry farms.", "The university's first architect-planner was Walter Abraham, one of the first six administrators appointed to Macquarie University.", "As the site adapted from its former rural use to a busy collegiate environment, he implemented carefully designed planting programs across the campus.", "Abraham established a grid design comprising lots of running north–south, with the aim of creating a compact academic core.", "The measure of was seen as one minute's walk, and grid design reflected the aim of having a maximum walk of 10 minutes between any two parts of the university.", "The main east–west walkway that runs from the Macquarie University Research Park through to the arts faculty buildings, was named Wally's Walk in recognition of Walter Abraham's contribution to the development of the university.Apart from its centres of learning, the campus features the Macquarie University Research Park, museums, art galleries, a sculpture park, an observatory, a sport and aquatic centre and also the private Macquarie University Hospital.", "The campus has its own postcode, 2109.Macquarie University Hospital=== Macquarie University Hospital ===Macquarie became the first university in Australia to own and operate a private medical facility in 2010 when it opened a $300 million hospital on its campus.", "The hospital is the first and only private not-for-profit teaching hospital on an Australian university campus.", "The Macquarie University Hospital is located to the north of the main campus area towards the university sports grounds.", "It comprises 183 beds, 13 operating theatres, 2 cardiac and vascular angiography suites.", "The hospital is co-located with the university's Australian School of Advanced Medicine.=== Commercial use ===The Australian Hearing Hub building at Macquarie UniversityThe university hosts a number of high-technology companies on its campus.", "Primarily designed to encourage interaction between the university and industry, commercialisation of its campus has also given the institution an additional revenue stream.", "Tenants are selected based on their potential to collaborate with the university's researches or their ability to provide opportunities for its students and graduates.", "Cochlear has its headquarters in close proximity to the Australian Hearing Hub on the southern edge of campus.", "Other companies that have office space at the campus include Dow Corning, Goodman Fielder, Nortel, OPSM, and Siemens.The Macquarie University Observatory was originally constructed in 1978 as a research facility but, since 1997, has been accessible to the public through its Public Observing Program.===Library===Macquarie University LibraryThe library houses over 1.8 million items and uses the Library of Congress Classification System.", "The library features several collections including a Rare Book Collection, a Palaeontology Collection and the Brunner Collection of Egyptological materials.", "Macquarie University operated two libraries during the transition.", "The old library in building C7A closed at the end of July 2011 (which has since been repurposed as a student support and study space), and the new library in building C3C became fully operational on 1 August 2011.The new library was the first university library in Australia to possess an Automated Storage and Retrieval System (ASRS).", "The ASRS consists of an environmentally controlled vault with metal bins storing the items; robotic cranes retrieve an item on request and deliver it to the service desk for collection.===Macquarie University Incubator===Macquarie University IncubatorThe Macquarie University Incubator is a space to research and develop ideas that can be commercialised.", "It was established in 2017 as a part of the Macquarie Park Innovation District (MPID) project.", "Macquarie University received $1 million grant from the New South Wales government to build the incubator.", "The university has also committed about $7 million to the incubator with financial support of the big businesses and the New South Wales government.", "It was officially opened by Prince Andrew, Duke of York on 25 September 2017.=== Residential colleges ===Macquarie University has two residential colleges on its campus, Dunmore Lang College and Robert Menzies College, both founded in 1972.The colleges offer academic support and a wide range of social and sporting activities in a communal environment.Separate to the colleges is the Macquarie University Village.", "The village has over 900 rooms in mostly town house style buildings to the north of the campus.", "The village encourages its students to interact in its communal spaces and has a number of social events throughout the year.=== Museums and collections ===Macquarie University Art GalleryThe museums and collections of Macquarie University are extensive and include nine museums and galleries.", "Each collection focuses on various historical, scientific or artistic interests.", "The most visible collection on campus is the sculpture park which is exhibited across the entire campus.", "At close to 100 sculptures on display, it is the largest park of its kind in the Southern Hemisphere.", "All museums and galleries are open to the public and offer educational programs for students at primary, secondary and tertiary levels.=== Sports facilities ===Sport and Aquatic CentreLocated on the western side of the campus is the Macquarie University Sport and Aquatic Centre.", "Previously a sports hall facility, the complex was renovated and reopened in 2007 with the addition of the new gym and aquatic centre.", "It houses a 50-metre FINA-compliant outdoor pool and a 25-metre indoor pool.", "The complex also contains a gymnasium and squash, badminton, basketball, volleyball and netball courts.Macquarie also has seven hectares of high quality playing fields for football, cricket and tennis.", "Situated to the north of the campus, the playing fields are used by the university as well as a number of elite sporting teams such as Sydney FC and the Matildas.===Transport===Macquarie University stationMacquarie University is served by Macquarie University Station on the Sydney Metro Northwest.", "Macquarie is the only university in Australia with a railway station on campus.There is also a major bus interchange within the campus that provides close to 800 bus services daily.", "The M2 Motorway runs parallel to the northern boundary of the campus and is accessible to traffic from the university.=== Gallery ===File:E4A at Entrance to MQ.JPG|E4A Building at Entrance to UniversityFile:E4A Courtyard mq.JPG|E4A courtyardFile:Central Courtyard MQ.JPG|Central CourtyardFile:Frederick Chong Courtyard Macquarie University.jpg|The Frederick Chong CourtyardFile:MQ Science Faculty Dusk.JPG|E7A Mitchell buildingFile:E6b Building, Macquarie University.JPG|E6B buildingFile:Lane Cove Rd Building MQ.JPG|Lane Cove Rd buildingFile:Macqurie observatory 2014 05 16.JPG|Macquarie University ObservatoryFile:Outsidelibmq.JPG|Building C7AFile:Arts buildingmq.JPG|Former Faculty of Arts building" ], [ "Organisation and governance", "===Structure===Cochlear BuildingThe university currently comprises 35 departments within four faculties:* Faculty of Arts* Macquarie Business School* Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences* Faculty of Science and EngineeringResearch centres, schools and institutes that are affiliated with the university:* The Australian Research Institute for Environment and Sustainability* The Macquarie University Hospital* The Australian Hearing HubAustralian Hearing HubMacquarie University's Australian Hearing Hub is partnered with Cochlear.", "Cochlear Headquarters are on campus.", "The Australian Hearing Hub includes the head office of Australian Hearing.The Australian Research Institute for Environment and Sustainability is a research centre that promotes change for environmental sustainability, is affiliated with the university and is located on its campus.Access Macquarie Limited was established in 1989 as the commercial arm of the university.", "It facilitates and supports the commercial needs of industry, business and government organisations seeking to utilise the academic expertise of the broader University community.===Governance===The university is governed by a 17-member Council.The University Council is the governing authority of the university under the ''Macquarie University Act 1989''.", "The Council takes primary responsibility for the control and management of the affairs of the university, and is empowered to make by-laws and rules relating to how the university is managed.", "Members of the Council include the university vice-chancellor, academic and non-academic staff, the vice president of the Academic Senate and a student representative.", "The Council is chaired by the chancellor of the university.The Academic Senate is the primary academic body of the university.", "It has certain powers delegated to it by Council, such as the approving of examination results and the completion of requirements for the award of degrees.", "At the same time, it makes recommendations to the Council concerning all changes to degree rules, and all proposals for new awards.", "While the Academic Senate is an independent body, it is required to make recommendations to the university Council in relation to matters outside its delegated authority.Macquarie's current Vice-Chancellor, Bruce Dowton, took over from Schwartz in September 2012.Prior to his appointment Dowton served as a senior medical executive having held a range of positions in university, healthcare and consulting organisations.", "He also served as a pediatrician at the Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, and as Clinical Professor of Pediatrics at Harvard Medical School.", "There have been five Vice-Chancellors in the university's history." ], [ "Academic profile", "===International admissions===The Macquarie University International College offers Foundation Studies (Pre-University) and University-level Diplomas.", "Upon successful completion of a MUIC Diploma, students enter the appropriate bachelor's degree as a second year student.The Centre for Macquarie English is the English-language centre that offers a range of specialised, direct entry English programmes that are approved by Macquarie University.===Research===Computer Science buildingThe university positions itself as being research intensive.", "In 2012, 85% of Macquarie's broad fields of research was rated 'at or above world standard' in the Excellence in Research for Australia 2012 National report.", "The university is within the top 3 universities in Australia for the number of peer-reviewed publications produced per academic staff member.Researchers at Macquarie University, David Skellern and Neil Weste, and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation helped develop Wi-Fi.", "David Skellern has been a major donor to the university through the Skellern Family Trust.", "Macquarie physicists Frank Duarte and Jim Piper pioneered the laser designs adopted by researchers worldwide, in various major national programs, for atomic vapor laser isotope separation.Macquarie University's linguistics department developed the Macquarie Dictionary.", "The dictionary is regarded as the standard reference on Australian English.Macquarie University has a research partnership with the University of Hamburg in Germany and Fudan University in China.", "They offer dual and joint degree programs and engage in joint research.===University rankings======= Overall ====Macquarie University is ranked 130th in the QS rankings, 180th in the Times Higher (THE) rankings, 192nd by US News, and 201-300th bracket in ARWU.", "This contributes to Macquarie being the 10th ranked Australian university overall in the world ranking systems.", "Macquarie University rankings within Australia include being placed at number 8 on the ERA scale (2012) and being a 4 1/2 Star AEN rated university.", "Macquarie also has a student survey satisfaction rating of 77.4% for business, 90.3% for health, 91.4% for arts, and 93.8% for science.", "Macquarie is ranked in the top 40 universities in the Asia-Pacific region and within Australia's top 10 universities according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, the Times Higher Education Rankings and the QS World University Rankings.", "Internationally, Macquarie was ranked 239th in the world (9th in Australia) in the Academic Ranking of World Universities of 2014.Macquarie was the highest ranked university in Australia under the age of 50 and was ranked 18th in the world (prior to its golden jubilee in 2014), according to the QS World University Rankings.The 2022 QS Graduate Employability Rankings ranked Macquarie graduates 9th most employable in Australia, and 98th in the world.==== Subject ====Macquarie University was ranked among the top 50 universities in the world for linguistics (43rd), psychology (48th) and earth and marine sciences (48th), and was ranked in the top 5 nationally for philosophy and earth and marine sciences, according to the 2014 QS World University Rankings.Macquarie ranked 67th in the world for Arts and Humanities (equal 5th in Australia), according to the 2015 Times Higher Education rankings by subject and 54th in the world for arts and humanities, according to the 2017 USNWR rankings by subject.", "Arts and Humanities is Macquarie's best discipline area in rankings.", "Macquarie was one of four non-Group of Eight universities ranked in the top 100 universities in the world in particular discipline areas.The Macquarie Graduate School of Management is one of the oldest business schools in Australia.", "In 2014, ''The Economist'' ranked MGSM 5th in the Asia-Pacific, 3rd in Australia, 1st in Sydney/New South Wales and 49th in the world.", "It was the highest ranked business school in Australia and was ranked 68th in the world in the 2015 ''Financial Times'' MBA ranking." ], [ "Student life", "Students relaxing near Wally's Walk ParkMacquarie is the fourth largest university in Sydney (38,753 students in 2013).", "The university has the largest student exchange programme in Australia.In 2012, 9,802 students from Asia were enrolled at Macquarie University (Sydney campuses and offshore programs in China, Hong Kong, Korea and Singapore).Campus Life manages the university's non-academic services: food and retail, sport and recreation, student groups, child care, and entertainment.", "From late 2017 onward its Campus Hub facility has been closed for reconstruction; a 'pop-up'-style replacement, the Campus Common, has been opened for the duration.The Global Leadership Program (GLP) is a university-funded co-curricular program that is open to all students and can be undertaken alongside any degree at Macquarie University.", "The GLP aims to instil leadership and innovation skills, cross-cultural understanding and a sense of global citizenship in its graduates.", "Upon successful completion of the GLP, students receive a formal notation on their academic transcript and a certificate.Macquarie's GLP was the first of its kind when it launched in the Australian university sector in 2005 and is the country's flagship tertiary global leadership program with more than 4000 active participants in more than 200 academic disciplines.", "GLP is a co-curricular learning and engagement program that students design according to their own interests and complete at their own pace.", "Students are required to complete a workshop series, attend tailored keynote speaker and networking events and complete an experiential credit component.", "This ranges from short-term study abroad, volunteering (domestic and/or international), internships (domestic and/or international), learning a new language or attending internationally themed seminars and study tours.The GLP won the Institute for International Education's 2017 Heiskell award for Innovation in International Education - Internationalising the Campus.", "Macquarie University is the first Southern Hemisphere university to receive the award in its 17-year history.The GLP was awarded the 2018 NSW International Student Community Engagement Award (Joint Winner) in the Education Provider category.", "This award recognises the innovative way in which the GLP facilitates connection and engagement with community for Macquarie University International GLP Students, and also recognises the contribution that the GLP makes to the International Student experience in New South Wales.", "In 2019, the GLP won the Global PIEoneer Award for International Education in the category of 'Progressive Education Delivery' in Guildhall, London.", "The PIEoneer Awards are the only global awards that celebrate innovation and achievement across the whole of the international education industry.Macquarie University has its own community radio station on campus, 2SER FM.", "The station is jointly owned by Macquarie University and University of Technology, Sydney.Macquarie University students celebrate Conception Day each year since 1969 to – according to legend – commemorate the date of conception of Lachlan Macquarie, as his birthday fell at the wrong time of year for a celebration.", "Conception Day is traditionally held on the last day of classes before the September mid-semester break." ], [ "Notable alumni and staff", "sculptor Linda KlarfeldAlumni include Rhodes and John Monash Scholars and several Fulbright Scholars.Notable alumni include: Minister for the Environment and Water, Tanya Plibersek; Australian politician and former Lord Mayor of Brisbane, Jim Soorley; New South Wales Minister for Health, Brad Hazzard; Australian politician, Mike Kelly; Australian basketball player, Lauren Jackson; Australian swimmer, Ian Thorpe; Australian water polo player, Holly Lincoln-Smith; three founding members of the Australian children's musical group The Wiggles, Murray Cook, Anthony Field, and Greg Page; former Director-General of the National Library of Australia, Anne-Marie Schwirtlich AM; New Zealand conservationist, Pete Bethune; Miss Universe Australia 2008, Laura Dundovic; Australian Journalist, Hugh Riminton; BBC Presenter, Yalda Hakim; solicitors Christian Signorelli and Alannah Giunta.Notable alumni in science include: Australian scientist Barry Brook, American physicist Frank Duarte, and Australian physicist Cathy Foley.", "Alumni notable in the business world include: Australian hedge fund manager Greg Coffey, Australian businesswoman Catherine Livingstone, founder of Freelancer.com Matt Barrie, businessman Napoleon Perdis; Australian venture capitalist Larry R. Marshall; Former CEO of Seven West Media, David Leckie; Australian Economist, Sean Turnell; Former CEO of Commonwealth Bank & former Chairman of the Australian Government Future Fund Board of Guardians, David Murray.Notable faculty members include: Indian neurosurgeon B. K. MisraAustralian writer and four time Miles Franklin Award winner, Thea Astley; Hungarian Australian mathematician, Esther Szekeres; Australian mathematician, Neil Trudinger; Australian environmentalist and activist, Tim Flannery; British physicist and author, Paul Davies; British-Australian physicist, John Clive Ward; Israeli-Australian mathematician, José Enrique Moyal; Australian linguist, Geoffrey Hull; Australian geologist, Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science, John Veevers; Australian climatologist, Ann Henderson-Sellers; Australian sociologist, Raewyn Connell.Four Macquarie University academics were included in The World's Most Influential Minds 2014 report by Thomson Reuters, which identified the most highly cited researchers of the last 11 years." ], [ "See also", "* List of Macquarie University people* List of universities in Australia* Macquarie University Sport and Aquatic Centre* S*, a collaboration between seven universities and the Karolinska Institutet for training in bioinformatics and genomics" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* Mansfield, Bruce and Mark Hutchinson, ''Liberality of opportunity: a history of Macquarie University, 1964–1989'' Macquarie University (Sydney, 1992)" ], [ "External links", "* * Map of the Main Campus" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Muspelheim" ], [ "Introduction", "In Norse cosmology, '''Muspelheim''' (), also called '''Muspell''' (), is a realm of fire.The etymology of \"Muspelheim\" is uncertain, but may come from ''Mund-spilli'', \"world-destroyers\", \"wreck of the world\"." ], [ "Narrative", "Muspelheim is described as a hot and glowing land of fire, home to the fire giants, and guarded by Surtr, with his flaming sword.", "It is featured in both the creation and destruction stories of Norse myth.", "According to the Prose Edda, a great time before the Earth was made, Niflheim existed.", "Inside Niflheim was a well called Hvergelmir, from this well flowed numerous streams known as the Élivágar.", "Their names were Svol, Gunnthro, Form, Finbul, Thul, Slid and Hrid, Sylg and Ylg, Vid, Leipt and Gjoll.After a time these streams had traveled sufficiently far from their source in Niflheim, that the venom that flowed within them hardened and turned to ice.", "When this ice eventually settled, rain rose up from it, and froze into rime.", "This ice then began to layer itself over the primordial void, Ginnungagap.", "This made the northern portion of Ginungagap thick with ice, and storms begin to form within.In the southern region of Ginnungagap, however, glowing sparks were still flying out of Muspelheim.", "When the heat and sparks from Muspelheim met the ice, it began to melt.", "The sparks would go on to create the Sun, Moon, and stars, and the drops of melted ice would form the primeval being Ymir: \"By the might of him who sent the heat, the drops quickened into life and took the likeness of a man, who got the name Ymir.", "But the Frost giants call him Aurgelmir\".The ''Prose Edda'' section ''Gylfaginning'' foretells that the sons of Muspell will break the Bifröst bridge as part of the events of Ragnarök:" ], [ "Depictions in popular culture", "Muspelheim – called \"Surt's sea of fire\" – is mentioned in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale \"The Marsh King's Daughter.", "\"===Comic books and their derived media===Muspelheim appears in different kinds of Marvel Entertainment media.", "* Muspelheim is a realm in the Marvel Comics universe.", "* In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Muspelheim is first depicted in ''Thor: The Dark World'' (2013) during the Convergence and later in ''Thor: Ragnarok'' (2017).", "Muspelheim is depicted as a dyson sphere with rocky terrain.", "* Muspelheim appears in ''Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends'' when Loki uses the Twins of the Gods to teleport Iceman to the Sea of Flame in Muspelheim.===Role playing games===The game ''Puzzle & Dragons'' features a monster entitled Flamedragon Muspelheim and Infernodragon Muspelheim.In the game ''God of War'', players can travel to Muspelheim where they can complete the six Trials of Muspelheim.", "When completing each trial, the player will receive rewards and will advance Kratos and Atreus closer to the top of a large volcano.In the Dawn of Ragnarök expansion for Ubisoft's Assassin's Creed Valhalla, Surtr and massive armies of muspels from Muspelheim invade the dwarven realm of Svartalfheim, infecting large parts of it with pools and streams of magma.", "In the mobile game ''Fire Emblem Heroes'', the land of Muspell is a prevalent part of the game's second book, which heavily features the battle between Muspell and Niflheim.In the MMORPG Dark Age of Camelot there are three different realms based on different mythologies the players can choose to play in, one of them is called Midgard and is based on the Norse mythology.", "In Midgard there is a large region called Muspelheim which is an ashen wasteland with rivers of lava populated largely by giants and fire elemental beings." ], [ "See also", "*Muspilli*Norse cosmology" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maxwell's equations" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Maxwell's equations''', or '''Maxwell–Heaviside equations''', are a set of coupled partial differential equations that, together with the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electromagnetism, classical optics, electric and magnetic circuits.", "The equations provide a mathematical model for electric, optical, and radio technologies, such as power generation, electric motors, wireless communication, lenses, radar, etc.", "They describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated by charges, currents, and changes of the fields.", "The equations are named after the physicist and mathematician James Clerk Maxwell, who, in 1861 and 1862, published an early form of the equations that included the Lorentz force law.", "Maxwell first used the equations to propose that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon.", "The modern form of the equations in their most common formulation is credited to Oliver Heaviside.Maxwell's equations may be combined to demonstrate how fluctuations in electromagnetic fields (waves) propagate at a constant speed in vacuum, ''c'' ().", "Known as electromagnetic radiation, these waves occur at various wavelengths to produce a spectrum of radiation from radio waves to gamma rays.In differential form and SI units, Maxwell's microscopic equations can be written as With the electric field, the magnetic field, the electric charge density and the current density.", "is the vacuum permittivity and the vacuum permeability.The equations have two major variants.", "The ''microscopic'' equations have universal applicability but are unwieldy for common calculations.", "They relate the electric and magnetic fields to total charge and total current, including the complicated charges and currents in materials at the atomic scale.", "The ''macroscopic'' equations define two new auxiliary fields that describe the large-scale behaviour of matter without having to consider atomic-scale charges and quantum phenomena like spins.", "However, their use requires experimentally determined parameters for a phenomenological description of the electromagnetic response of materials.The term \"Maxwell's equations\" is often also used for equivalent alternative formulations.", "Versions of Maxwell's equations based on the electric and magnetic scalar potentials are preferred for explicitly solving the equations as a boundary value problem, analytical mechanics, or for use in quantum mechanics.", "The covariant formulation (on spacetime rather than space and time separately) makes the compatibility of Maxwell's equations with special relativity manifest.", "Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime, commonly used in high-energy and gravitational physics, are compatible with general relativity.", "In fact, Albert Einstein developed special and general relativity to accommodate the invariant speed of light, a consequence of Maxwell's equations, with the principle that only relative movement has physical consequences.The publication of the equations marked the unification of a theory for previously separately described phenomena: magnetism, electricity, light, and associated radiation.Since the mid-20th century, it has been understood that Maxwell's equations do not give an exact description of electromagnetic phenomena, but are instead a classical limit of the more precise theory of quantum electrodynamics." ], [ "History of the equations" ], [ "Conceptual descriptions", "===Gauss's law===Electric field from positive to negative chargesGauss's law describes the relationship between an electric field and electric charges: an electric field points away from positive charges and towards negative charges, and the net outflow of the electric field through a closed surface is proportional to the enclosed charge, including bound charge due to polarization of material.", "The coefficient of the proportion is the permittivity of free space.===Gauss's law for magnetism===Gauss's law for magnetism: magnetic field lines never begin nor end but form loops or extend to infinity as shown here with the magnetic field due to a ring of current.Gauss's law for magnetism states that electric charges have no magnetic analogues, called magnetic monopoles; no north or south magnetic poles exist in isolation.", "Instead, the magnetic field of a material is attributed to a dipole, and the net outflow of the magnetic field through a closed surface is zero.", "Magnetic dipoles may be represented as loops of current or inseparable pairs of equal and opposite \"magnetic charges\".", "Precisely, the total magnetic flux through a Gaussian surface is zero, and the magnetic field is a solenoidal vector field.===Faraday's law===In a geomagnetic storm, a surge in the flux of charged particles temporarily alters Earth's magnetic field, which induces electric fields in Earth's atmosphere, thus causing surges in electrical power grids.", "(Not to scale.", ")The Maxwell–Faraday version of Faraday's law of induction describes how a time-varying magnetic field corresponds to curl of an electric field.", "In integral form, it states that the work per unit charge required to move a charge around a closed loop equals the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the enclosed surface.The electromagnetic induction is the operating principle behind many electric generators: for example, a rotating bar magnet creates a changing magnetic field and generates an electric field in a nearby wire.===Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition===Magnetic-core memory (1954) is an application of Ampère's law.", "Each core stores one bit of data.The original law of Ampère states that magnetic fields relate to electric current.", "Maxwell's addition states that magnetic fields also relate to changing electric fields, which Maxwell called displacement current.", "The integral form states that electric and displacement currents are associated with a proportional magnetic field along any enclosing curve.Maxwell's addition to Ampère's law is important because the laws of Ampère and Gauss must otherwise be adjusted for static fields.", "As a consequence, it predicts that a rotating magnetic field occurs with a changing electric field.", "A further consequence is the existence of self-sustaining electromagnetic waves which travel through empty space.The speed calculated for electromagnetic waves, which could be predicted from experiments on charges and currents, matches the speed of light; indeed, light ''is'' one form of electromagnetic radiation (as are X-rays, radio waves, and others).", "Maxwell understood the connection between electromagnetic waves and light in 1861, thereby unifying the theories of electromagnetism and optics." ], [ "Formulation in terms of electric and magnetic fields (microscopic or in vacuum version)", "In the electric and magnetic field formulation there are four equations that determine the fields for given charge and current distribution.", "A separate law of nature, the Lorentz force law, describes how, conversely, the electric and magnetic fields act on charged particles and currents.", "A version of this law was included in the original equations by Maxwell but, by convention, is included no longer.", "The vector calculus formalism below, the work of Oliver Heaviside, has become standard.", "It is manifestly rotation invariant, and therefore mathematically much more transparent than Maxwell's original 20 equations in x,y,z components.", "The relativistic formulations are even more symmetric and manifestly Lorentz invariant.", "For the same equations expressed using tensor calculus or differential forms, see ''''.The differential and integral formulations are mathematically equivalent; both are useful.", "The integral formulation relates fields within a region of space to fields on the boundary and can often be used to simplify and directly calculate fields from symmetric distributions of charges and currents.", "On the other hand, the differential equations are purely ''local'' and are a more natural starting point for calculating the fields in more complicated (less symmetric) situations, for example using finite element analysis.===Key to the notation===Symbols in '''bold''' represent vector quantities, and symbols in ''italics'' represent scalar quantities, unless otherwise indicated.The equations introduce the electric field, , a vector field, and the magnetic field, , a pseudovector field, each generally having a time and location dependence.The sources are*the total electric charge density (total charge per unit volume), , and*the total electric current density (total current per unit area), .The universal constants appearing in the equations (the first two ones explicitly only in the SI units formulation) are:*the permittivity of free space, , and*the permeability of free space, , and*the speed of light, ====Differential equations====In the differential equations, *the nabla symbol, , denotes the three-dimensional gradient operator, del,*the symbol (pronounced \"del dot\") denotes the divergence operator,*the symbol (pronounced \"del cross\") denotes the curl operator.====Integral equations====In the integral equations, * is any volume with closed boundary surface , and* is any surface with closed boundary curve ,The equations are a little easier to interpret with time-independent surfaces and volumes.", "Time-independent surfaces and volumes are \"fixed\" and do not change over a given time interval.", "For example, since the surface is time-independent, we can bring the differentiation under the integral sign in Faraday's law:Maxwell's equations can be formulated with possibly time-dependent surfaces and volumes by using the differential version and using Gauss and Stokes formula appropriately.", "* is a surface integral over the boundary surface , with the loop indicating the surface is closed* is a volume integral over the volume ,* is a line integral around the boundary curve , with the loop indicating the curve is closed.", "* is a surface integral over the surface ,* The ''total'' electric charge enclosed in is the volume integral over of the charge density (see the \"macroscopic formulation\" section below): where is the volume element.", "* The ''net'' electric current is the surface integral of the electric current density passing through a fixed surface, : where denotes the differential vector element of surface area , normal to surface .", "(Vector area is sometimes denoted by rather than , but this conflicts with the notation for magnetic vector potential).===Formulation in SI units convention=== Name Integral equations Differential equations Gauss's law Gauss's law for magnetism Maxwell–Faraday equation (Faraday's law of induction) Ampère's circuital law (with Maxwell's addition) ===Formulation in Gaussian units convention===The definitions of charge, electric field, and magnetic field can be altered to simplify theoretical calculation, by absorbing dimensioned factors of and into the units of calculation, by convention.", "With a corresponding change in convention for the Lorentz force law this yields the same physics, i.e.", "trajectories of charged particles, or work done by an electric motor.", "These definitions are often preferred in theoretical and high energy physics where it is natural to take the electric and magnetic field with the same units, to simplify the appearance of the electromagnetic tensor: the Lorentz covariant object unifying electric and magnetic field would then contain components with uniform unit and dimension.", "Such modified definitions are conventionally used with the Gaussian (CGS) units.", "Using these definitions and conventions, colloquially \"in Gaussian units\",the Maxwell equations become: Name Integral equations Differential equationsGauss's law Gauss's law for magnetism Maxwell–Faraday equation (Faraday's law of induction) Ampère's circuital law (with Maxwell's addition) The equations simplify slightly when a system of quantities is chosen in the speed of light, ''c'', is used for nondimensionalization, so that, for example, seconds and lightseconds are interchangeable, and ''c'' = 1.Further changes are possible by absorbing factors of .", "This process, called rationalization, affects whether Coulomb's law or Gauss's law includes such a factor (see ''Heaviside–Lorentz units'', used mainly in particle physics)." ], [ "Relationship between differential and integral formulations", "The equivalence of the differential and integral formulations are a consequence of the Gauss divergence theorem and the Kelvin–Stokes theorem.===Flux and divergence===Volume and its closed boundary , containing (respectively enclosing) a source and sink of a vector field .", "Here, could be the field with source electric charges, but ''not'' the field, which has no magnetic charges as shown.", "The outward unit normal is '''n'''.According to the (purely mathematical) Gauss divergence theorem, the electric flux through the boundary surface can be rewritten as:The integral version of Gauss's equation can thus be rewritten as Since is arbitrary (e.g.", "an arbitrary small ball with arbitrary center), this is satisfied if and only if the integrand is zero everywhere.", "This is the differential equations formulation of Gauss equation up to a trivial rearrangement.Similarly rewriting the magnetic flux in Gauss's law for magnetism in integral form gives :which is satisfied for all if and only if everywhere.===Circulation and curl===Surface with closed boundary .", "could be the or fields.", "Again, is the unit normal.", "(The curl of a vector field does not literally look like the \"circulations\", this is a heuristic depiction.", ")By the Kelvin–Stokes theorem we can rewrite the line integrals of the fields around the closed boundary curve to an integral of the \"circulation of the fields\" (i.e.", "their curls) over a surface it bounds, i.e.Hence the modified Ampere law in integral form can be rewritten as Since can be chosen arbitrarily, e.g.", "as an arbitrary small, arbitrary oriented, and arbitrary centered disk, we conclude that the integrand is zero if and only if Ampere's modified law in differential equations form is satisfied.The equivalence of Faraday's law in differential and integral form follows likewise.The line integrals and curls are analogous to quantities in classical fluid dynamics: the circulation of a fluid is the line integral of the fluid's flow velocity field around a closed loop, and the vorticity of the fluid is the curl of the velocity field." ], [ "Charge conservation", "The invariance of charge can be derived as a corollary of Maxwell's equations.", "The left-hand side of the modified Ampere's law has zero divergence by the div–curl identity.", "Expanding the divergence of the right-hand side, interchanging derivatives, and applying Gauss's law gives:i.e.,By the Gauss divergence theorem, this means the rate of change of charge in a fixed volume equals the net current flowing through the boundary::In particular, in an isolated system the total charge is conserved." ], [ "Vacuum equations, electromagnetic waves and speed of light", "This 3D diagram shows a plane linearly polarized wave propagating from left to right, defined by and The oscillating fields are detected at the flashing point.", "The horizontal wavelength is ''λ''.", "In a region with no charges () and no currents (), such as in a vacuum, Maxwell's equations reduce to:Taking the curl of the curl equations, and using the curl of the curl identity we obtainThe quantity has the dimension of (time/length)2.Defining, the equations above have the form of the standard wave equationsAlready during Maxwell's lifetime, it was found that the known values for and give , then already known to be the speed of light in free space.", "This led him to propose that light and radio waves were propagating electromagnetic waves, since amply confirmed.", "In the old SI system of units, the values of and are defined constants, (which means that by definition ) that define the ampere and the metre.", "In the new SI system, only ''c'' keeps its defined value, and the electron charge gets a defined value.In materials with relative permittivity, , and relative permeability, , the phase velocity of light becomeswhich is usually less than .In addition, and are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave propagation, and are in phase with each other.", "A sinusoidal plane wave is one special solution of these equations.", "Maxwell's equations explain how these waves can physically propagate through space.", "The changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field through Faraday's law.", "In turn, that electric field creates a changing magnetic field through Maxwell's addition to Ampère's law.", "This perpetual cycle allows these waves, now known as electromagnetic radiation, to move through space at velocity ." ], [ "Macroscopic formulation", "The above equations are the microscopic version of Maxwell's equations, expressing the electric and the magnetic fields in terms of the (possibly atomic-level) charges and currents present.", "This is sometimes called the \"general\" form, but the macroscopic version below is equally general, the difference being one of bookkeeping.The microscopic version is sometimes called \"Maxwell's equations in a vacuum\": this refers to the fact that the material medium is not built into the structure of the equations, but appears only in the charge and current terms.", "The microscopic version was introduced by Lorentz, who tried to use it to derive the macroscopic properties of bulk matter from its microscopic constituents.", "\"Maxwell's macroscopic equations\", also known as '''Maxwell's equations in matter''', are more similar to those that Maxwell introduced himself.", "Name Integral equations (SI convention) Differential equations (SI convention) Differential equations (Gaussian convention) Gauss's law Ampère's circuital law (with Maxwell's addition) Gauss's law for magnetism Maxwell–Faraday equation (Faraday's law of induction) In the macroscopic equations, the influence of bound charge and bound current is incorporated into the displacement field and the magnetizing field , while the equations depend only on the free charges and free currents .", "This reflects a splitting of the total electric charge ''Q'' and current ''I'' (and their densities and '''J''') into free and bound parts:The cost of this splitting is that the additional fields and need to be determined through phenomenological constituent equations relating these fields to the electric field and the magnetic field , together with the bound charge and current.See below for a detailed description of the differences between the microscopic equations, dealing with ''total'' charge and current including material contributions, useful in air/vacuum;and the macroscopic equations, dealing with ''free'' charge and current, practical to use within materials.===Bound charge and current===''Left:'' A schematic view of how an assembly of microscopic dipoles produces opposite surface charges as shown at top and bottom.", "''Right:'' How an assembly of microscopic current loops add together to produce a macroscopically circulating current loop.", "Inside the boundaries, the individual contributions tend to cancel, but at the boundaries no cancelation occurs.When an electric field is applied to a dielectric material its molecules respond by forming microscopic electric dipoles – their atomic nuclei move a tiny distance in the direction of the field, while their electrons move a tiny distance in the opposite direction.", "This produces a ''macroscopic'' ''bound charge'' in the material even though all of the charges involved are bound to individual molecules.", "For example, if every molecule responds the same, similar to that shown in the figure, these tiny movements of charge combine to produce a layer of positive bound charge on one side of the material and a layer of negative charge on the other side.", "The bound charge is most conveniently described in terms of the polarization of the material, its dipole moment per unit volume.", "If is uniform, a macroscopic separation of charge is produced only at the surfaces where enters and leaves the material.", "For non-uniform , a charge is also produced in the bulk.Somewhat similarly, in all materials the constituent atoms exhibit magnetic moments that are intrinsically linked to the angular momentum of the components of the atoms, most notably their electrons.", "The connection to angular momentum suggests the picture of an assembly of microscopic current loops.", "Outside the material, an assembly of such microscopic current loops is not different from a macroscopic current circulating around the material's surface, despite the fact that no individual charge is traveling a large distance.", "These ''bound currents'' can be described using the magnetization .The very complicated and granular bound charges and bound currents, therefore, can be represented on the macroscopic scale in terms of and , which average these charges and currents on a sufficiently large scale so as not to see the granularity of individual atoms, but also sufficiently small that they vary with location in the material.", "As such, ''Maxwell's macroscopic equations'' ignore many details on a fine scale that can be unimportant to understanding matters on a gross scale by calculating fields that are averaged over some suitable volume.===Auxiliary fields, polarization and magnetization===The ''definitions'' of the auxiliary fields are:where is the polarization field and is the magnetization field, which are defined in terms of microscopic bound charges and bound currents respectively.", "The macroscopic bound charge density and bound current density in terms of polarization and magnetization are then defined asIf we define the total, bound, and free charge and current density byand use the defining relations above to eliminate , and , the \"macroscopic\" Maxwell's equations reproduce the \"microscopic\" equations.===Constitutive relations===In order to apply 'Maxwell's macroscopic equations', it is necessary to specify the relations between displacement field and the electric field , as well as the magnetizing field and the magnetic field .", "Equivalently, we have to specify the dependence of the polarization (hence the bound charge) and the magnetization (hence the bound current) on the applied electric and magnetic field.", "The equations specifying this response are called constitutive relations.", "For real-world materials, the constitutive relations are rarely simple, except approximately, and usually determined by experiment.", "See the main article on constitutive relations for a fuller description.For materials without polarization and magnetization, the constitutive relations are (by definition)where is the permittivity of free space and the permeability of free space.", "Since there is no bound charge, the total and the free charge and current are equal.An alternative viewpoint on the microscopic equations is that they are the macroscopic equations ''together'' with the statement that vacuum behaves like a perfect linear \"material\" without additional polarization and magnetization.More generally, for linear materials the constitutive relations arewhere is the permittivity and the permeability of the material.", "For the displacement field the linear approximation is usually excellent because for all but the most extreme electric fields or temperatures obtainable in the laboratory (high power pulsed lasers) the interatomic electric fields of materials of the order of 1011 V/m are much higher than the external field.", "For the magnetizing field , however, the linear approximation can break down in common materials like iron leading to phenomena like hysteresis.", "Even the linear case can have various complications, however.", "*For homogeneous materials, and are constant throughout the material, while for inhomogeneous materials they depend on location within the material (and perhaps time).", "*For isotropic materials, and are scalars, while for anisotropic materials (e.g.", "due to crystal structure) they are tensors.", "*Materials are generally dispersive, so and depend on the frequency of any incident EM waves.Even more generally, in the case of non-linear materials (see for example nonlinear optics), and are not necessarily proportional to , similarly or is not necessarily proportional to .", "In general and depend on both and , on location and time, and possibly other physical quantities.In applications one also has to describe how the free currents and charge density behave in terms of and possibly coupled to other physical quantities like pressure, and the mass, number density, and velocity of charge-carrying particles.", "E.g., the original equations given by Maxwell (see History of Maxwell's equations) included Ohm's law in the form" ], [ "Alternative formulations", "Following is a summary of some of the numerous other mathematical formalisms to write the microscopic Maxwell's equations, with the columns separating the two homogeneous Maxwell equations from the two inhomogeneous ones involving charge and current.", "Each formulation has versions directly in terms of the electric and magnetic fields, and indirectly in terms of the electrical potential and the vector potential .", "Potentials were introduced as a convenient way to solve the homogeneous equations, but it was thought that all observable physics was contained in the electric and magnetic fields (or relativistically, the Faraday tensor).", "The potentials play a central role in quantum mechanics, however, and act quantum mechanically with observable consequences even when the electric and magnetic fields vanish (Aharonov–Bohm effect).Each table describes one formalism.", "See the main article for details of each formulation.", "SI units are used throughout.+ Vector calculus Formulation Homogeneous equations Inhomogeneous equations Fields3D Euclidean space + time Potentials (any gauge)3D Euclidean space + time Potentials (Lorenz gauge)3D Euclidean space + time + Tensor calculus Formulation Homogeneous equations Inhomogeneous equations Fieldsspace + timespatial metric independent of timePotentialsspace (with § topological restrictions) + timespatial metric independent of timePotentials (Lorenz gauge)space (with topological restrictions) + timespatial metric independent of time+ Differential forms Formulation Homogeneous equations Inhomogeneous equationsFieldsany space + timePotentials (any gauge)any space (with § topological restrictions) + timePotential (Lorenz Gauge)any space (with topological restrictions) + timespatial metric independent of time" ], [ "Relativistic formulations", "The Maxwell equations can also be formulated on a spacetime-like Minkowski space where space and time are treated on equal footing.", "The direct spacetime formulations make manifest that the Maxwell equations are relativistically invariant.", "Because of this symmetry, the electric and magnetic fields are treated on equal footing and are recognized as components of the Faraday tensor.", "This reduces the four Maxwell equations to two, which simplifies the equations, although we can no longer use the familiar vector formulation.", "In fact the Maxwell equations in the space + time formulation are not Galileo invariant and have Lorentz invariance as a hidden symmetry.", "This was a major source of inspiration for the development of relativity theory.", "Indeed, even the formulation that treats space and time separately is not a non-relativistic approximation and describes the same physics by simply renaming variables.", "For this reason the relativistic invariant equations are usually called the Maxwell equations as well.Each table below describes one formalism.+ Tensor calculus Formulation Homogeneous equations Inhomogeneous equations Fields Minkowski space Potentials (any gauge) Minkowski space Potentials (Lorenz gauge) Minkowski space Fields any spacetime Potentials (any gauge) any spacetime (with §topological restrictions) Potentials (Lorenz gauge) any spacetime (with topological restrictions) + Differential forms Formulation Homogeneous equations Inhomogeneous equations Fields any spacetime Potentials (any gauge) any spacetime (with topological restrictions) Potentials (Lorenz gauge) any spacetime (with topological restrictions) *In the tensor calculus formulation, the electromagnetic tensor is an antisymmetric covariant order 2 tensor; the four-potential, , is a covariant vector; the current, , is a vector; the square brackets, , denote antisymmetrization of indices; is the partial derivative with respect to the coordinate, .", "In Minkowski space coordinates are chosen with respect to an inertial frame; , so that the metric tensor used to raise and lower indices is .", "The d'Alembert operator on Minkowski space is as in the vector formulation.", "In general spacetimes, the coordinate system is arbitrary, the covariant derivative , the Ricci tensor, and raising and lowering of indices are defined by the Lorentzian metric, and the d'Alembert operator is defined as .", "The topological restriction is that the second real cohomology group of the space vanishes (see the differential form formulation for an explanation).", "This is violated for Minkowski space with a line removed, which can model a (flat) spacetime with a point-like monopole on the complement of the line.", "*In the differential form formulation on arbitrary space times, is the electromagnetic tensor considered as a 2-form, is the potential 1-form, is the current 3-form, is the exterior derivative, and is the Hodge star on forms defined (up to its orientation, i.e.", "its sign) by the Lorentzian metric of spacetime.", "In the special case of 2-forms such as ''F'', the Hodge star depends on the metric tensor only for its local scale.", "This means that, as formulated, the differential form field equations are conformally invariant, but the Lorenz gauge condition breaks conformal invariance.", "The operator is the d'Alembert–Laplace–Beltrami operator on 1-forms on an arbitrary Lorentzian spacetime.", "The topological condition is again that the second real cohomology group is 'trivial' (meaning that its form follows from a definition).", "By the isomorphism with the second de Rham cohomology this condition means that every closed 2-form is exact.Other formalisms include the geometric algebra formulation and a matrix representation of Maxwell's equations.", "Historically, a quaternionic formulation was used." ], [ "Solutions", "Maxwell's equations are partial differential equations that relate the electric and magnetic fields to each other and to the electric charges and currents.", "Often, the charges and currents are themselves dependent on the electric and magnetic fields via the Lorentz force equation and the constitutive relations.", "These all form a set of coupled partial differential equations which are often very difficult to solve: the solutions encompass all the diverse phenomena of classical electromagnetism.", "Some general remarks follow.As for any differential equation, boundary conditions and initial conditions are necessary for a unique solution.", "For example, even with no charges and no currents anywhere in spacetime, there are the obvious solutions for which '''E''' and '''B''' are zero or constant, but there are also non-trivial solutions corresponding to electromagnetic waves.", "In some cases, Maxwell's equations are solved over the whole of space, and boundary conditions are given as asymptotic limits at infinity.", "In other cases, Maxwell's equations are solved in a finite region of space, with appropriate conditions on the boundary of that region, for example an artificial absorbing boundary representing the rest of the universe, or periodic boundary conditions, or walls that isolate a small region from the outside world (as with a waveguide or cavity resonator).Jefimenko's equations (or the closely related Liénard–Wiechert potentials) are the explicit solution to Maxwell's equations for the electric and magnetic fields created by any given distribution of charges and currents.", "It assumes specific initial conditions to obtain the so-called \"retarded solution\", where the only fields present are the ones created by the charges.", "However, Jefimenko's equations are unhelpful in situations when the charges and currents are themselves affected by the fields they create.Numerical methods for differential equations can be used to compute approximate solutions of Maxwell's equations when exact solutions are impossible.", "These include the finite element method and finite-difference time-domain method.", "For more details, see Computational electromagnetics." ], [ "Overdetermination of Maxwell's equations", "Maxwell's equations ''seem'' overdetermined, in that they involve six unknowns (the three components of and ) but eight equations (one for each of the two Gauss's laws, three vector components each for Faraday's and Ampere's laws).", "(The currents and charges are not unknowns, being freely specifiable subject to charge conservation.)", "This is related to a certain limited kind of redundancy in Maxwell's equations: It can be proven that any system satisfying Faraday's law and Ampere's law ''automatically'' also satisfies the two Gauss's laws, as long as the system's initial condition does, and assuming conservation of charge and the nonexistence of magnetic monopoles.", "This explanation was first introduced by Julius Adams Stratton in 1941.Although it is possible to simply ignore the two Gauss's laws in a numerical algorithm (apart from the initial conditions), the imperfect precision of the calculations can lead to ever-increasing violations of those laws.", "By introducing dummy variables characterizing these violations, the four equations become not overdetermined after all.", "The resulting formulation can lead to more accurate algorithms that take all four laws into account.Both identities , which reduce eight equations to six independent ones, are the true reason of overdetermination.Equivalently, the overdetermination can be viewed as implying conservation of electric and magnetic charge, as they are required in the derivation described above but implied by the two Gauss's laws.For linear algebraic equations, one can make 'nice' rules to rewrite the equations and unknowns.", "The equations can be linearly dependent.", "But in differential equations, and especially partial differential equations (PDEs), one needs appropriate boundary conditions, which depend in not so obvious ways on the equations.", "Even more, if one rewrites them in terms of vector and scalar potential, then the equations are underdetermined because of gauge fixing." ], [ "Maxwell's equations and quantum mechanics", "Maxwell's equations are valid in both the classical and the Quantum realm.", "In the Heisenberg representation of Quantum Mechanics, the equations of the E and B operators are precisely Maxwell's equations.", "Of course since the fields are quantum operators, there are many aspects which differ from the classical fields.", "For example, the E field acts like the momentum conjugate to the spatial components of the vector potential A.", "This of course leads to many aspects of the quantum electromagnetic field with differ from them as classical fields but they still obey the same evolution equations as the classical field does.", "Of course once one examines the effects of the electromagnetic fields on charged matter, and those effects then change the electromagnetic field are examined, the field equations become non-linear, and the quantum behaviour of non-linear field can be very different from the classical behaviour of the non-linear fields.", "That however does not alter the fact that if one remains in the linear regime, the fields obey Maxwell's equations." ], [ "Variations", "Popular variations on the Maxwell equations as a classical theory of electromagnetic fields are relatively scarce because the standard equations have stood the test of time remarkably well.===Magnetic monopoles===Maxwell's equations posit that there is electric charge, but no magnetic charge (also called magnetic monopoles), in the universe.", "Indeed, magnetic charge has never been observed, despite extensive searches, and may not exist.", "If they did exist, both Gauss's law for magnetism and Faraday's law would need to be modified, and the resulting four equations would be fully symmetric under the interchange of electric and magnetic fields." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ===Historical publications===* On Faraday's Lines of Force – 1855/56.Maxwell's first paper (Part 1 & 2) – Compiled by Blaze Labs Research (PDF).", "* //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/On_Physical_Lines_of_Force.pdf On Physical Lines of Force – 1861.Maxwell's 1861 paper describing magnetic lines of force – Predecessor to 1873 Treatise.", "* James Clerk Maxwell, \"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field\", ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London'' '''155''', 459–512 (1865).", "(This article accompanied a December 8, 1864 presentation by Maxwell to the Royal Society.", ")** A Dynamical Theory Of The Electromagnetic Field – 1865.Maxwell's 1865 paper describing his 20 equations, link from Google Books.", "* J.", "Clerk Maxwell (1873), \"A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism\":** Maxwell, J. C., \"A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism\" – Volume 1 – 1873 – Posner Memorial Collection – Carnegie Mellon University.", "** Maxwell, J. C., \"A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism\" – Volume 2 – 1873 – Posner Memorial Collection – Carnegie Mellon University.", ";The developments before relativity* * * * Henri Poincaré (1900) \"La théorie de Lorentz et le Principe de Réaction\" , ''Archives Néerlandaises'', '''V''', 253–278.", "* Henri Poincaré (1902) \"La Science et l'Hypothèse\" .", "* Henri Poincaré (1905) \"Sur la dynamique de l'électron\" , ''Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences'', '''140''', 1504–1508.", "* Catt, Walton and Davidson.", "\"The History of Displacement Current\" .", "''Wireless World'', March 1979." ], [ "External links", "* * maxwells-equations.com — An intuitive tutorial of Maxwell's equations.", "* The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol.", "II Ch.", "18: The Maxwell Equations* Wikiversity Page on Maxwell's Equations===Modern treatments===* Electromagnetism (ch.", "11), B. Crowell, Fullerton College* Lecture series: Relativity and electromagnetism, R. Fitzpatrick, University of Texas at Austin* ''Electromagnetic waves from Maxwell's equations'' on Project PHYSNET.", "* MIT Video Lecture Series (36 × 50 minute lectures) (in .mp4 format) – Electricity and Magnetism Taught by Professor Walter Lewin.===Other===** ''Nature Milestones: Photons'' – ''Milestone 2 (1861) Maxwell's equations''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Metrizable space" ], [ "Introduction", "In topology and related areas of mathematics, a '''metrizable space''' is a topological space that is homeomorphic to a metric space.", "That is, a topological space is said to be metrizable if there is a metric such that the topology induced by is '''Metrization theorems''' are theorems that give sufficient conditions for a topological space to be metrizable." ], [ "Properties", "Metrizable spaces inherit all topological properties from metric spaces.", "For example, they are Hausdorff paracompact spaces (and hence normal and Tychonoff) and first-countable.", "However, some properties of the metric, such as completeness, cannot be said to be inherited.", "This is also true of other structures linked to the metric.", "A metrizable uniform space, for example, may have a different set of contraction maps than a metric space to which it is homeomorphic." ], [ "Metrization theorems", "One of the first widely recognized metrization theorems was ''''''.", "This states that every Hausdorff second-countable regular space is metrizable.", "So, for example, every second-countable manifold is metrizable.", "(Historical note: The form of the theorem shown here was in fact proved by Tikhonov in 1926.What Urysohn had shown, in a paper published posthumously in 1925, was that every second-countable ''normal'' Hausdorff space is metrizable).", "The converse does not hold: there exist metric spaces that are not second countable, for example, an uncountable set endowed with the discrete metric.", "The Nagata–Smirnov metrization theorem, described below, provides a more specific theorem where the converse does hold.Several other metrization theorems follow as simple corollaries to Urysohn's theorem.", "For example, a compact Hausdorff space is metrizable if and only if it is second-countable.Urysohn's Theorem can be restated as: A topological space is separable and metrizable if and only if it is regular, Hausdorff and second-countable.", "The Nagata–Smirnov metrization theorem extends this to the non-separable case.", "It states that a topological space is metrizable if and only if it is regular, Hausdorff and has a σ-locally finite base.", "A σ-locally finite base is a base which is a union of countably many locally finite collections of open sets.", "For a closely related theorem see the Bing metrization theorem.Separable metrizable spaces can also be characterized as those spaces which are homeomorphic to a subspace of the Hilbert cube that is, the countably infinite product of the unit interval (with its natural subspace topology from the reals) with itself, endowed with the product topology.A space is said to be '''locally metrizable''' if every point has a metrizable neighbourhood.", "Smirnov proved that a locally metrizable space is metrizable if and only if it is Hausdorff and paracompact.", "In particular, a manifold is metrizable if and only if it is paracompact." ], [ "Examples", "The group of unitary operators on a separable Hilbert space endowedwith the strong operator topology is metrizable (see Proposition II.1 in ).", "'''Examples of non-metrizable spaces'''Non-normal spaces cannot be metrizable; important examples include* the Zariski topology on an algebraic variety or on the spectrum of a ring, used in algebraic geometry,* the topological vector space of all functions from the real line to itself, with the topology of pointwise convergence.The real line with the lower limit topology is not metrizable.", "The usual distance function is not a metric on this space because the topology it determines is the usual topology, not the lower limit topology.", "This space is Hausdorff, paracompact and first countable.===Locally metrizable but not metrizable===The Line with two origins, also called the '''' is a non-Hausdorff manifold (and thus cannot be metrizable).", "Like all manifolds, it is locally homeomorphic to Euclidean space and thus locally metrizable (but not metrizable) and locally Hausdorff (but not Hausdorff).", "It is also a T1 locally regular space but not a semiregular space.The long line is locally metrizable but not metrizable; in a sense it is \"too long\"." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * , the property of a topological space of being homeomorphic to a uniform space, or equivalently the topology being defined by a family of pseudometrics" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Martin Agricola" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Martin Agricola''' (6 January 1486 – 10 June 1556) was a German composer of Renaissance music and a music theorist." ], [ "Biography", "Agricola was born in Świebodzin, a town in Western Poland, and took the name Agricola later in life, a common practice among Lutherans often meant to emphasize humble, peasant origins.", "From 1524 until his death, he lived in the German city of Magdeburg, where he was a teacher or cantor in the Protestant school.", "Georg Rhau, a publisher and senator in Wittenberg, was Agricola's close friend and publisher.", "Agricola's theoretical writing was valuable in expounding the change from the old to the new system of musical notation.", "His ''Musica instrumentalis deudsch'' (English: ''German Instrumental Music''), published in 1528, 1530, 1532 and 1542, and then heavily revised in 1545, was one of the most important early works in organology and on the elements of music.Agricola was the first to harmonize in four parts Martin Luther's famous chorale, \"Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott\" (English: \"A Mighty Fortress Is Our God\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", ";Attribution*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Translation of Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch* Classical Composers Database**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Max August Zorn" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Max August Zorn''' (; June 6, 1906 – March 9, 1993) was a German mathematician.", "He was an algebraist, group theorist, and numerical analyst.", "He is best known for Zorn's lemma, a method used in set theory that is applicable to a wide range of mathematical constructs such as vector spaces, and ordered sets amongst others.", "Zorn's lemma was first postulated by Kazimierz Kuratowski in 1922, and then independently by Zorn in 1935." ], [ "Life and career", "Zorn was born in Krefeld, Germany.", "He attended the University of Hamburg.", "He received his PhD in April 1930 for a thesis on alternative algebras.", "He published his findings in ''Abhandlungen aus dem Mathematischen Seminar der Universität Hamburg''.", "Zorn showed that split-octonions could be represented by a mixed-style of matrices called Zorn's vector-matrix algebra.Max Zorn was appointed to an assistant position at the University of Halle.", "However, he did not have the opportunity to work there for long as he was forced to leave Germany in 1933 because of policies enacted by the Nazis.", "According to grandson Eric, \"Max spoke with a raspy, airy voice most of his life.", "Few people knew why, because he only told the story after significant prodding, but he talked that way because pro-Hitler thugs who objected to his politics, had battered his throat in a 1933 street fight.", "\"Zorn immigrated to the United States and was appointed a Sterling Fellow at Yale University.", "While at Yale, Zorn wrote his paper \"A Remark on Method in Transfinite Algebra\" that stated his Maximum Principle, later called Zorn's lemma.", "It requires a set that contains the union of any chain of subsets to have one chain not contained in any other, called the maximal element.", "He illustrated the principle with applications in ring theory and field extensions.", "Zorn's lemma is an alternative expression of the axiom of choice, and thus a subject of interest in axiomatic set theory.In 1936 he moved to UCLA and remained until 1946.While at UCLA Zorn revisited his study of alternative rings and proved the existence of the nilradical of certain alternative rings.", "According to Angus E. Taylor, Max was his most stimulating colleague at UCLA.In 1946 Zorn became a professor at Indiana University, where he taught until retiring in 1971.He was thesis advisor for Israel Nathan Herstein.Zorn died in Bloomington, Indiana, in March 1993, of congestive heart failure." ], [ "Family", "Max Zorn married Alice Schlottau and they had one son, Jens, and one daughter, Liz.", "Jens (born June 19, 1931) is an emeritus professor of physics at the University of Michigan and an accomplished sculptor.", "Max Zorn's grandson Eric Zorn was a columnist for the ''Chicago Tribune'' from 1986 until 2021; after retirement Eric Zorn started a Substack newsletter titled \"The Picayune Sentinel\", named after the mathematics newsletter that Max Zorn had distributed during his years at Indiana University.", "Max's great grandson, Alexander Wolken Zorn, received a PhD in mathematics from the University of California Berkeley in 2018." ], [ "See also", "*Artin–Zorn theorem*Zorn ring" ], [ "References", "* Steve Carlson (2009) Max Zorn: World Renowned Mathematician and Member Indiana MAA Section , from Mathematics Association of America .", "* Darrell Haile (1993) On Max Zorn's Contributions to Mathematics (includes John Ewing, \"Zorn's Lemma\"), from Memorial Conference at Indiana University, June 1993." ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Main (river)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Main''' () is the longest tributary of the Rhine.", "It rises as the White Main in the Fichtel Mountains of northeastern Bavaria and flows west through central Germany for to meet the Rhine below Rüsselsheim, Hesse.", "The cities of Mainz and Wiesbaden are close to the confluence.", "The largest cities on the Main are Frankfurt am Main, Offenbach am Main and Würzburg.", "It is the longest river lying entirely in Germany (if the Weser-Werra are considered separate)." ], [ "Geography", "The Main flows through the north and north-west of the state of Bavaria then across southern Hesse; against the latter it demarcates a third state, Baden-Württemberg, east and west of Wertheim am Main, the northernmost town of that state.", "The upper end of its basin opposes that of the Danube where the watershed is recognised by natural biologists, sea salinity studies (and hydrology science more broadly) as the European Watershed.The Main begins near Kulmbach in Franconia at the joining of its two headstreams, the Red Main (''Roter Main'') and the White Main (''Weißer Main'').", "The Red Main originates in the Franconian Jura mountain range, in length, and runs through Creussen and Bayreuth.", "The White Main originates in the Fichtel Mountains; it is long.", "In its upper and middle section, the Main runs through the valleys of the German Highlands.", "Its lower section crosses the Lower Main Lowlands (Hanau-Seligenstadt Basin and northern Upper Rhine Plain) to Wiesbaden, where it discharges into the Rhine.", "Major tributaries of the Main are the Regnitz, the Franconian Saale, the Tauber, and the Nidda.The name ''Main'' originates from Latin ''Moenis'', ''Moenus'' or ''Menus''.", "It is not related to the name of the city Mainz (Latin: ''Mogontiacum'' or ''Moguntiacum'')." ], [ "Navigation", "The Main is navigable for shipping from its mouth at the Rhine close to Mainz for to Bamberg.", "Since 1992, the Main has been connected to the Danube via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal and the highly regulated Altmühl river.", "The Main has been canalized with 34 large locks () to allow CEMT class V vessels () to navigate the total length of the river.", "The 16 locks in the adjacent Rhine-Main-Danube Canal and the Danube itself are of the same dimensions.=== Weirs and locks ===Dams along the MainThere are 34 weirs and locks along the 380 km navigable portion of the Main, from the confluence with the Regnitz near Bamberg, to the Rhine.", "* '''No.", ":''' Number of the lock (from upstream to downstream).", "* '''Name:''' Name of the lock.", "* '''Location:''' City or town where the lock is located.", "* '''Year built:''' Year when the lock was put into operation (replacement dates are also listed where applicable).", "* '''Main-km:''' Location on the Main, measured from the 0 km stone in Mainz-Kostheim.", "The reference point is the center of the lock or lock group.", "* '''Distance between locks:''' length in km of impoundment (between adjacent locks).", "* '''Altitude:''' height in meters above mean sea level of the upper water at normal levels.", "* '''Height:''' Height of the dam in meters (the height of the Kostheim lock depends on the water level of the Rhine).", "* '''Lock length:''' Usable length of the lock chamber in meters.", "* '''Lock width:''' Usable width of the lock chamber in meters.", "No.", "Name Location Year built Main-km Distance between locks (km) Altitude (m) Height (m) Lock length (m) Lock width (m) 1 Viereth Viereth-Trunstadt 1925 380.699 230.86 6.00 289.80 12.00 2 Limbach Eltmann 1951 367.176 224.86 5.36 299.10 12.00 3 Knetzgau Knetzgau (Haßfurt) 1958 359.781 219.50 4.24 298.85 12.00 4 Ottendorf Gädheim 1962 345.263 215.26 7.59 301.60 12.00 5 Schweinfurt Schweinfurt 1963 332.037 207.67 4.67 300.60 12.00 6 Garstadt Bergrheinfeld 1956 323.503 203.00 4.69 299.75 12.00 7 Wipfeld Wipfeld 1950 316.289 198.31 4.31 300.15 12.00 8 Gerlachshausen mit Volkach Volkach (Schwarzach am Main) 1957 300.506 194.00 6.30 300.00 12.00 9 Dettelbach Dettelbach 1959 295.398 187.70 5.50 299.35 12.00 10 Kitzingen Kitzingen 1956 283.979 182.20 3.66 299.80 12.00 11 Marktbreit Marktbreit (Frickenhausen am Main) 1955 275.681 178.54 3.31 296.40 12.00 12 Goßmannsdorf Ochsenfurt 1952 269.028 175.23 3.40 296.90 12.00 13 Randersacker Würzburg (Randersacker) 1950 258.885 171.83 3.30 299.60 12.00 14 Würzburg Würzburg 1954 252.512 168.53 2.75 293.10 12.00 15 Erlabrunn Erlabrunn (Thüngersheim) 1935 241.204 165.78 4.15 299.20 12.00 16 Himmelstadt Himmelstadt 1939 232.290 161.63 4.30 299.50 12.00 17 Harrbach Karlstadt (Gemünden am Main) 1939 219.466 157.33 4.90 299.45 12.00 18 Steinbach Lohr am Main 1939 200.673 152.43 5.14 299.10 12.00 19 Rothenfels Rothenfels (Marktheidenfeld) 1937 185.887 147.29 5.26 298.45 12.00 20 Lengfurt Triefenstein 1937 174.508 142.03 3.99 300.08 11.98 21 Eichel Wertheim 1937 160.467 138.04 4.50 299.92 12.00 22 Faulbach Wertheim (Faulbach) 1935 147.065 133.54 4.51 299.80 12.10 23 Freudenberg Collenberg (Freudenberg) 1934 133.948 129.03 4.51 300.00 12.00 24 Heubach Großheubach (Miltenberg) 1932 122.360 124.52 4.00 300.00 12.00 25 Klingenberg Klingenberg am Main 1930 113.050 120.52 4.00 300.71 12.05 26 Wallstadt Kleinwallstadt (Großwallstadt) 1930 101.203 116.52 4.00 299.93 12.00 27 Obernau Niedernberg (Aschaffenburg) 1930 92.909 112.52 4.01 299.18 12.00 28 Kleinostheim Kleinostheim (Stockstadt am Main) 1920 1972 77.905 108.51 6.80 298.36298.22 12.0412.02 29 Krotzenburg Hainburg (Großkrotzenburg) 19201983 63.850 101.71 2.74 302.30300.01 12.0012.00 30 Mühlheim (formerly Kesselstadt) Maintal (Mühlheim am Main) 19201980 53.185 98.97 3.77 299.90 12.04 31 Offenbach Frankfurt am Main (Offenbach am Main) 19011957 38.514 95.20 3.18 344.03230.07 12.0913.05 32 Griesheim Frankfurt am Main 1934 28.687 92.02 4.49 344.05344.38 12.0015.00 33 Eddersheim Hattersheim am Main (Kelsterbach) 1934 15.551 87.53 3.61 345.46344.26 12.0515.05 34 Kostheim Hochheim am Main (Ginsheim-Gustavsburg) 18861934 3.209 83.92 2.36(MW Rhine) 341.90339.02 15.00Door: 12.00Chamber: 20.00=== Hydroelectric power generation ===Most of the weirs or dams along the Main also have turbines for power generation.", "* '''No.", ":''' Number of the dam/weir (from upstream to downstream).", "* '''Name:''' Name of the dam/weir.", "* '''Height:''' Height of the dam/weir in meters (the height of the Kostheim dam depends on the water level of the Rhine).", "* '''Power:''' Maximum power generation capacity in megawatts.", "* '''Turbines:''' Type and number of turbines.", "* '''Operator:''' Operator of the hydroelectric plant.", "No.", "Name Height (m) Power (MW) Turbines Operator 1 Viereth 6.00 6.20 Francis(3), Kaplan(1) E.ON Wasserkraft 2 Limbach 5.36 3.70 Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 3 Knetzgau 4.24 2.90 Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 4 Ottendorf 7.59 6.30 Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 5 Schweinfurt 4.67 3.80 Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 6 Garstadt 4.69 3.90Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 7 Wipfeld 4.31 2.90Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 8 Gerlachshausen mit Volkach 6.30 3.90Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 9 Dettelbach 5.50 4.20Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 10 Kitzingen 3.66 3.00Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 11 Marktbreit 3.31 2.10Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 12 Goßmannsdorf 3.40 2.00Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 13 Randersacker 3.30 2.00Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 14 Würzburg 2.75 0.90Kaplan(3) E.ON Wasserkraft 15 Erlabrunn 4.15 2.70Kaplan(1) E.ON Wasserkraft 16 Himmelstadt 4.30 2.50Kaplan(1) E.ON Wasserkraft 17 Harrbach 4.90 3.00Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 18 Steinbach 5.14 4.20Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 19 Rothenfels 5.26 4.20Kaplan(2) E.ON Wasserkraft 20 Lengfurt 3.99 2.60 E.ON Wasserkraft 21 Eichel 4.50 3.10 E.ON Wasserkraft 22 Faulbach 4.51 4.10 E.ON Wasserkraft 23 Freudenberg 4.51 4.30 E.ON Wasserkraft 24 Heubach 4.00 3.40 E.ON Wasserkraft 25 Klingenberg 4.00 3.00 E.ON Wasserkraft 26 Wallstadt 4.00 3.40 E.ON Wasserkraft 27 Obernau 4.01 3.20 E.ON Wasserkraft 28 Kleinostheim 6.80 9.70 E.ON Wasserkraft 29 Krotzenburg 2.74 30 Mühlheim 3.77 4.80 E.ON Wasserkraft 31 Offenbach 3.18 4.10 E.ON Wasserkraft 32 Griesheim 4.49 4.90 Kaplan(3) Wasser- und Schifffahrtsamt Aschaffenburg 33 Eddersheim 3.61 3.84 Kaplan(3) Wasser- und Schifffahrtsamt Aschaffenburg 34 Kostheim 2.36 4.9 Kaplan Pit-Rohrturbinen(2) WKW Staustufe Kostheim/Main GmbH & Co. KG (Gebaut und Betrieben von Stadtwerke Ulm/Neu-Ulm)" ], [ "Tributaries", "The Main and its main tributariesTributaries from source to mouth:Left* Regnitz* Tauber* MümlingRight* Rodach (Main)* Itz* Franconian Saale* Aschaff* Kahl* Kinzig* NiddaFile:Mainfest Frankfurt.jpg|The Main in Frankfurt at nightImage:Offenbach 4.jpg|Main in Offenbach am MainImage:Mainspitze fg01.JPG|Confluence into the Rhine at Mainz-Kostheim" ], [ "Ports and municipalities", "Around Frankfurt are several large inland ports.", "Because the river is rather narrow on many of the upper reaches, navigation with larger vessels and push convoys requires great skill.The largest cities along the Main are Frankfurt am Main, Offenbach am Main and Würzburg.", "The Main also passes the following towns: Burgkunstadt, Lichtenfels, Bad Staffelstein, Eltmann, Haßfurt, Schweinfurt, Volkach, Kitzingen, Marktbreit, Ochsenfurt, Karlstadt, Gemünden, Lohr, Marktheidenfeld, Wertheim, Miltenberg, Obernburg, Erlenbach/Main, Aschaffenburg, Seligenstadt, Hainburg, Hanau, Hattersheim, Flörsheim, and Rüsselsheim.The river has gained enormous importance as a vital part of European \"Corridor VII\", the inland waterway link from the North Sea to the Black Sea." ], [ "Main line", "In a historical and political sense, the Main line is referred to as the northern border of Southern Germany, with its predominantly Catholic population.", "The river roughly marked the southern border of the North German Federation, established in 1867 under Prussian leadership as the predecessor of the German Empire.The river course also corresponds with the Speyer line isogloss between Central and Upper German dialects, sometimes mocked as ''Weißwurstäquator''." ], [ "Recreation", "The Main-Radweg is a major German bicycle path alongside the river.", "Approximately , it is the first long-distance instance awarded 5 stars by the General German Bicycle Club (ADFC) in 2008.It starts from Creußen or Bischofsgrün and ends in Mainz." ], [ "Sights", "* Roman camp at Marktbreit" ], [ "See also", "* Krassach (River)" ], [ "Notes and references", ";Footnotes;Citations" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Haus der Bayerischen Geschichte (ed.", "), Main und Meer - Porträt eines Flusses.", "Exhibition Catalogue to the Bayerische Landesausstellung 2013 (German).", "WBG.", "." ], [ "External links", "* ''Main River'' Website on the River Main by the Tourist Board of Franconia.", "* * * * Water levels of Bavarian rivers* Wasser- und Schifffahrtsdirektion Süd* Main Cycleway* Historical map of the Main confluence at Steinenhausen from ''BayernAtlas''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa''' (; BC – 12 BC) was a Roman general, statesman and architect who was a close friend, son-in-law and lieutenant to the Roman emperor Augustus.", "Agrippa is well known for his important military victories, notably the Battle of Actium in 31 BC against the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra.", "He was also responsible for the construction of some of the most notable buildings of his era, including the original Pantheon.Born to a plebeian family , in an uncertain location in Roman Italy, he met the future emperor Augustus, then known as Octavian, at Apollonia, in Illyria.", "Following the assassination of Octavian's great-uncle Julius Caesar in 44 BC, Octavian returned to Italy.", "Around this time, Agrippa was elected tribune of the plebs.", "He served as a military commander, fighting alongside Octavian and Caesar's former general and right-hand man Mark Antony in the Battle of Philippi.", "In 40 BC, he was ''praetor urbanus'' and played a major role in the Perusine war against Lucius Antonius and Fulvia, respectively the brother and wife of Mark Antony.", "In 39 or 38 BC, Agrippa was appointed governor of Transalpine Gaul.", "In 38 BC, he put down a rising of the Aquitanians and fought the Germanic tribes.", "He was consul for 37 BC, well below the usual minimum age of 43, to oversee the preparations for warfare against Sextus Pompey, who had cut off grain shipments to Rome.Agrippa defeated Pompey in the battles of Mylae and Naulochus in 36 BC.", "In 33 BC, he served as ''curule aedile''.", "Agrippa commanded the victorious Octavian's fleet at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC.", "Following the victory at Actium, Octavian became emperor and took the title of Princeps, while Agrippa remained as his close friend and lieutenant.", "Agrippa assisted Augustus in making Rome \"a city of marble\".", "Agrippa renovated aqueducts to provide Roman citizens from every social class access to the highest quality public services, and was responsible for the creation of many baths, porticoes, and gardens.", "He was also awarded powers almost as great as those of Augustus.", "He had veto power over the acts of the Senate and the power to present laws for approval by the People.", "He died in 12 BC at the age of 50–51.Augustus honored his memory with a magnificent funeral and spent over a month in mourning.", "His remains were placed in Augustus' own mausoleum.Agrippa was also known as a writer, especially on geography.", "Under his supervision, Julius Caesar's design of having a complete survey of the empire made was accomplished.", "From the materials at hand he constructed a circular chart, which was engraved on marble by Augustus and afterwards placed in the colonnade built by his sister Vipsania Polla.", "Agrippa was also husband to Julia the Elder (who had later married the second Emperor Tiberius), and was the maternal grandfather of Caligula and the maternal great-grandfather of the Emperor Nero." ], [ "Early life, family, and early career", "=== Early life and family ===Agrippa was born , in an uncertain location.", "His father was called Lucius Vipsanius.", "His mother's name is not known and Pliny the Elder claimed that his cognomen \"Agrippa\" derived from him having been born breech so it is possible that she died in childbirth.", "Pliny also stated that he suffered from lameness as a child.", "He had an elder brother whose name was also Lucius Vipsanius, and a sister named Vipsania Polla.", "His family originated in the Italian countryside, and was of humble and plebeian origins.", "They had not been prominent in Roman public life.", "According to some scholars, including Victor Gardthausen, R. E. A. Palmer, and David Ridgway, Agrippa's family was originally from Pisa in Etruria.=== Early career ===Agrippa was the same age as Octavian (the future emperor Augustus), and the two were educated together and became close friends.", "Despite Agrippa's association with the family of Julius Caesar, his elder brother chose another side in the civil wars of the 40s BC, fighting under Cato against Caesar in Africa.", "When Cato's forces were defeated, Agrippa's brother was taken prisoner but freed after Octavian interceded on his behalf.It is not known whether Agrippa fought against his brother in Africa, but he probably served in Caesar's campaign of 46 to 45 BC against Gnaeus Pompeius, which culminated in the Battle of Munda.", "Caesar regarded him highly enough to send him with Octavius in 45 BC to study in Apollonia (on the Illyrian coast) with the Macedonian legions, while Caesar consolidated his power in Rome.", "In the fourth month of their stay in Apollonia the news of Julius Caesar's assassination in March 44 BC reached them.", "Agrippa and another friend, Quintus Salvidienus Rufus, advised Octavius to march on Rome with the troops from Macedonia, but Octavius decided to sail to Italy with a small retinue.", "After his arrival, he learned that Caesar had adopted him as his legal heir.", "Octavius at this time took Caesar's name, but modern historians refer to him as \"Octavian\" during this period." ], [ "Rise to power", "=== Friend to Octavian ===After Octavian's return to Rome, he and his supporters realised they needed the support of legions.", "Agrippa helped Octavian to levy troops in Campania.", "Once Octavian had his legions, he made a pact with Mark Antony and Lepidus, legally established in 43 BC as the Second Triumvirate.", "Octavian and his consular colleague Quintus Pedius arranged for Caesar's assassins to be prosecuted in their absence, and Agrippa was entrusted with the case against Gaius Cassius Longinus.", "It may have been in the same year that Agrippa began his political career, holding the position of tribune of the plebs, which granted him entry to the Senate.In 42 BC, Agrippa probably fought alongside Octavian and Antony in the Battle of Philippi.", "After their return to Rome, he played a major role in Octavian's war against Lucius Antonius and Fulvia, respectively the brother and wife of Mark Antony, which began in 41 BC and ended in the capture of Perusia in 40 BC.", "However, Salvidienus remained Octavian's main general at this time.", "After the Perusine war, Octavian departed for Gaul, leaving Agrippa as urban praetor in Rome with instructions to defend Italy against Sextus Pompeius, an opponent of the Triumvirate who was now occupying Sicily.", "In July 40 BC, while Agrippa was occupied with the Ludi Apollinares that were the praetor's responsibility, Sextus began a raid in southern Italy.", "Agrippa advanced on him, forcing him to withdraw.", "However, the Triumvirate proved unstable, and in August 40 BC both Sextus and Antony invaded Italy (but not in an organized alliance).", "Agrippa's success in retaking Sipontum from Antony helped bring an end to the conflict.", "Agrippa was among the intermediaries through whom Antony and Octavian agreed once more upon peace.", "During the discussions Octavian learned that Salvidienus had offered to betray him to Antony, with the result that Salvidienus was prosecuted and either executed or committed suicide.", "Agrippa was now Octavian's leading general.=== Governor of Transalpine Gaul ===Bust of Agrippa, Pushkin MuseumIn 39 or 38 BC, Octavian appointed Agrippa governor of Transalpine Gaul, where in 38 BC he put down a rising of the Aquitanians.", "He also fought the Germanic tribes, becoming the next Roman general to cross the Rhine after Julius Caesar.", "He was summoned back to Rome by Octavian to assume the consulship for 37 BC.", "He was well below the usual minimum age of 43, but Octavian had suffered a humiliating naval defeat against Sextus Pompey and needed his friend to oversee the preparations for further warfare.", "Agrippa refused the offer of a triumph for his exploits in Gaul – on the grounds, says Dio, that he thought it improper to celebrate during a time of trouble for Octavian.", "Since Sextus Pompeius had command of the sea on the coasts of Italy, Agrippa's first care was to provide a safe harbour for Octavian's ships.", "He accomplished this by cutting through the strips of land which separated the Lacus Lucrinus from the sea, thus forming an outer harbour, while joining the lake Avernus to the Lucrinus to serve as an inner harbor.", "The new harbor-complex was named Portus Julius in Octavian's honour.", "Agrippa was also responsible for technological improvements, including larger ships and an improved form of grappling hook.", "About this time, he married Caecilia Pomponia Attica, daughter of Cicero's friend Titus Pomponius Atticus.=== War with Sextus Pompeius ===In 36 BC, Octavian and Agrippa set sail against Sextus.", "The fleet was badly damaged by storms and had to withdraw; Agrippa was left in charge of the second attempt.", "Thanks to superior technology and training, Agrippa and his men won decisive victories at Mylae and Naulochus, destroying all but seventeen of Sextus' ships and compelling most of his forces to surrender.", "Octavian, with his power increased, forced the triumvir Lepidus into retirement and entered Rome in triumph.", "Agrippa received the unprecedented honour of a ''corona navalis'' decorated with the beaks of ships; as Dio remarks, this was \"a decoration given to nobody before or since\"." ], [ "Public service", "Agrippa participated in smaller military campaigns in 35 and 34 BC, but by the autumn of 34 BC he had returned to Rome.", "He rapidly set out on a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of the aqueduct known as the Aqua Marcia and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city.", "He became the first Curator Aquarum of Rome in 33 BC.", "Through his actions after being elected in 33 BC as one of the aediles (officials responsible for Rome's buildings and festivals), the streets were repaired and the sewers were cleaned out, and lavish public spectacles were held.", "Agrippa signalled his tenure of office by effecting great improvements in the city of Rome, restoring and building aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing the Cloaca Maxima, constructing baths and porticos, and laying out gardens.", "He also gave a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art.", "It was unusual for an ex-consul to hold the lower-ranking position of ''aedile'', but Agrippa's success bore out that break with tradition.", "As emperor, Augustus would later boast that \"he had found the city of brick but left it of marble\" in part because of the great services provided by Agrippa under his reign.===Battle of Actium===Agrippa was again called away to take command of the fleet when the war with Antony and Cleopatra broke out.", "He captured the strategically important city of Methone at the southwest of the Peloponnese, then sailed north, raiding the Greek coast and capturing Corcyra (modern Corfu).", "Octavian then brought his forces to Corcyra, occupying it as a naval base.", "Antony drew up his ships and troops at Actium, where Octavian moved to meet him.", "Agrippa meanwhile defeated Antony's supporter Quintus Nasidius in a naval battle at Patrae.", "Dio relates that as Agrippa moved to join Octavian near Actium, he encountered Gaius Sosius, one of Antony's lieutenants, who was making a surprise attack on the squadron of Lucius Tarius, a supporter of Octavian.", "Agrippa's unexpected arrival turned the battle around.As the decisive battle approached, according to Dio, Octavian received intelligence that Antony and Cleopatra planned to break past his naval blockade and escape.", "At first he wished to allow the flagships past, arguing that he could overtake them with his lighter vessels and that the other opposing ships would surrender when they saw their leaders' cowardice.", "Agrippa objected, saying that Antony's ships, although larger, could outrun Octavian's if they hoisted sails, and that Octavian ought to fight now because Antony's fleet had just been struck by storms.", "Octavian followed his friend's advice.On 2 September 31 BC, the Battle of Actium was fought.", "Octavian's victory, which gave him the mastery of Rome and the empire, was mainly due to Agrippa.", "Octavian then bestowed upon him the hand of his niece Claudia Marcella Major in 28 BC.", "He also served a second consulship with Octavian the same year.", "In 27 BC, Agrippa held a third consulship with Octavian, and in that year, the Senate also bestowed upon Octavian the imperial title of ''Augustus''.In commemoration of the Battle of Actium, Agrippa built and dedicated the building that served as the Roman Pantheon before its destruction in AD 80.Emperor Hadrian used Agrippa's design to build his own Pantheon, which survives in Rome.", "The inscription of the later building, which was built , preserves the text of the inscription from Agrippa's building during his third consulship.", "The years following his third consulship, Agrippa spent in Gaul, reforming the provincial administration and taxation system, along with building an effective road system and aqueducts." ], [ "Later life", "The theatre at Merida, Spain; it was promoted by Agrippa, built between 16 and 15 BC.Agrippa's friendship with Augustus seems to have been clouded by the jealousy of Augustus's nephew and son-in-law Marcus Claudius Marcellus.", "Traditionally it is said the result of such jealousy was that Agrippa left Rome, ostensibly to take over the governorship of eastern provinces – a sort of honourable exile, but he only sent his legate to Syria, while he himself remained at Lesbos and governed by proxy, though he may have been on a secret mission to negotiate with the Parthians about the return of the Roman legions' standards which they held.", "On the death of Marcellus, which took place within a year of his exile, he was recalled to Rome by Augustus, who found he could not dispense with his services.", "However, if one places the events in the context of the crisis of 23 BC it seems unlikely that, when facing significant opposition and about to make a major political climb down, the emperor Augustus would place a man in exile in charge of the largest body of Roman troops.", "What is far more likely is that Agrippa's 'exile' was actually the careful political positioning of a loyal lieutenant in command of a significant army as a backup plan in case the settlement plans of 23 BC failed and Augustus needed military support.Moreover, after 23 BC, as part of what became known as Augustus's ''Second Constitutional Settlement'', Agrippa's constitutional powers were greatly increased to provide the Principate of Augustus with greater constitutional stability by providing for a political heir or replacement for Augustus if he were to succumb to his habitual ill health or was assassinated.", "In the course of the year, proconsular imperium, similar to Augustus's power, was conferred upon Agrippa for five years.", "The exact nature of the grant is uncertain but it probably covered Augustus's imperial provinces, east and west, perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate.", "That was to come later, as was the jealously guarded ''tribunicia potestas'', or powers of a tribune of the plebeians.", "These great powers of state are not usually heaped upon a former exile.", "It is said that Maecenas advised Augustus to attach Agrippa still more closely to him by making him his son-in-law.", "Accordingly, by 21 BC, he induced Agrippa to divorce Marcella and marry his daughter, Julia the Elder—the widow of Marcellus, equally celebrated for her beauty, abilities, and her shameless extravagance.", "In 19 BC, Agrippa was employed in putting down a rising of the Cantabrians in Hispania (Cantabrian Wars).In 18 BC, Agrippa's powers were even further increased to almost match those of Augustus.", "That year his proconsular imperium was augmented to cover the senatorial provinces.", "More than that, he was finally granted ''tribunicia potestas'', or powers of a tribune of the plebeians.", "As was the case with Augustus, Agrippa's grant of tribunician powers was conferred without his having to actually hold that office.", "These powers were considerable, giving him veto power over the acts of the Senate or other magistracies, including those of other tribunes, and the power to present laws for approval by the People.", "Just as important, a tribune's person was sacred, meaning that any person who harmfully touched them or impeded their actions, including political acts, could lawfully be killed.", "After the grant of these powers Agrippa was, on paper, almost as powerful as Augustus was.", "However, there was no doubt that Augustus was the man in charge.Agrippa was appointed governor of the eastern provinces a second time in 17 BC, where his just and prudent administration won him the respect and good-will of the provincials, especially from the Jewish population.", "Agrippa also restored effective Roman control over the Cimmerian Chersonnese (Crimean Peninsula) during his governorship.=== Death ===Agrippa's last public service was his beginning of the conquest of the upper Danube River region, which would become the Roman province of Pannonia in 13 BC.", "He died at Campania in 12 BC at the age of 50–51.His posthumous son, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus, was named in his honor.", "Augustus honoured his memory by a magnificent funeral and spent over a month in mourning.", "Augustus personally oversaw all of Agrippa's children's educations.", "Although Agrippa had built a tomb for himself, Augustus had Agrippa's remains placed in his own mausoleum." ], [ "Legacy", "The Maison Carrée at Nîmes, modern France, built in 19 BC; Agrippa was its patron.|leftAgrippa was not only Augustus' most skilled subordinate commander but also his closest companion, serving him faithfully for over three decades.", "Historian Glen Bowersock says of Agrippa:Agrippa deserved the honours Augustus heaped upon him.", "It is conceivable that without Agrippa, Octavian would never have become emperor.", "Rome would remember Agrippa for his generosity in attending to aqueducts, sewers, and baths.Agrippa was also a writer, especially on the subject of geography.", "Under his supervision, Julius Caesar's dream of having a complete survey of the Empire made was carried out.", "Agrippa constructed a circular chart, which was later engraved on marble by Augustus, and afterwards placed in the colonnade built by his sister Polla.", "Amongst his writings, an autobiography, now lost, is referenced.Agrippa established a standard for the Roman foot in 29 BC, and thus a definition of a pace as 5 feet.", "An imperial Roman mile denotes 5,000 Roman feet.", "The term Via Agrippa is used for any part of the network of roadways in Gaul built by Agrippa.", "Some of these still exist as paths or even as highways.The Roman tribe Agrippia was named in his honor.===In popular culture===An Audience at Agrippa's, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema====Drama====* Agrippa is a character in William Shakespeare's play ''Antony and Cleopatra''.", "* A fictional version of Agrippa in his later life played a prominent role in the 1976 BBC Television series ''I, Claudius''.", "Agrippa was portrayed as a much older man though he would have been only 39 years old at the time of the first episode (24/23 BC).", "He was played by John Paul.", "* Agrippa is the main character in Paul Naschy's 1980 film ''Los cántabros'', played by Naschy himself.", "It is a highly fictionalized version of the Cantabrian Wars in which Agrippa is depicted as the lover of the sister of Cantabrian leader Corocotta.", "* Agrippa appears in several film versions of the life of Cleopatra.", "He is normally portrayed as an old man, rather than a young one.", "Among the actors to portray him are Philip Locke, Alan Rowe, and Andrew Keir, as well as Francis de Wolff in the 1964 film ''Carry on Cleo''.", "* Agrippa is also one of the principal characters in the British/Italian joint project ''Imperium: Augustus'' (2003) featuring flashbacks between Augustus and Julia about Agrippa, which shows him in his youth on serving in Caesar's army up until his victory at Actium and the defeat of Cleopatra.", "He is portrayed by Ken Duken.", "* In the 2005 series ''Empire'' the young Agrippa (played by Christopher Egan) becomes Octavian's sidekick after saving him from an attempted poisoning.", "* Marcus Agrippa, a highly fictional character based on Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa's early life, is part of the BBC-HBO-RAI television series ''Rome''.", "He is played by Allen Leech.", "He describes himself as the grandson of a slave.", "The series creates a romantic relationship between Agrippa and Octavian's sister Octavia Minor, for which there is no historical evidence.", "* In the TV series ''Domina'' (2021), Agrippa was played by Oliver Huntingdon and Ben Batt.====Literature====* Agrippa is mentioned by name in book VIII of Virgil's ''The Aeneid'', where Aeneas sees an image of Agrippa leading ships in the Battle of Actium on the shield forged for him by Vulcan and given to him by his mother, Venus.", "* Agrippa is a main character in the early part of Robert Graves' novel ''I, Claudius''.", "*He is a main character in the later two novels of Colleen McCullough's ''Masters of Rome'' series.", "*He is a featured character of prominence and importance in the historical fiction novel ''Cleopatra's Daughter'' by Michelle Moran.", "*He also features prominently in John Edward Williams' historical novel ''Augustus''.", "*In the backstory of ''Gunpowder Empire'', the first volume in Harry Turtledove's Crosstime Traffic alternate history series, Agrippa lived until AD 26, conquering all of Germania for the Empire and becoming the second Emperor when Augustus died in AD 14." ], [ "Marriages and issue", "Agrippa married three times: * Cecilia Pomponia Attica.", "They married in 37 BC and divorced before 28 BC.", "By her he had two daughters: ** Vipsania Agrippina.", "She was the first wife of Tiberius.", "** Vipsania Attica.", "She married the orator Quintus Haterius.", "* Claudia Marcella Maior.", "Daughter of Octavia Minor and niece of Augustus.", "They married in 28 BC and divorced in 21 BC.", "By her he had at least two daughters:** Vipsania Marcella.", "She married the general Publius Quinctilius Varus.", "** Vipsania Marcellina.", "She married Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, consul in 6.", "* Julia the Elder.", "Daughter of Augustus.", "They married in 21 BC.", "By her he had three sons and two daughters:** Gaius Caesar.", "He was adopted by Augustus as heir, but died prematurely.", "** Julia the Younger.", "She married Lucius Aemilius Paullus, consul in 1.", "** Lucius Caesar.", "He was adopted by Augustus as heir, but died prematurely.", "** Vipsania Agrippina Maior.", "She married Germanicus Julius Caesar and was the mother of emperor Caligula and grandmother of Nero.", "** Agrippa Postumus.", "Born after his father's death, he was killed soon after the death of Augustus.", "The motive and instigator of his killing are disputed.Through his numerous children, Agrippa would become ancestor to many subsequent members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, whose position he helped to attain, as well as many other distinguished Romans." ], [ "See also", "* Vipsania gens* Julio-Claudian family tree" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * ." ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Geoffrey Mottershead, ''The Constructions of Marcus Agrippa in the West'', University of Melbourne, 2005* Augustus' Funeral Oration for Agrippa* Marcus Agrippa, article in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mariotto Albertinelli" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mariotto di Bindo di Biagio Albertinelli''' (13 October 1474 – 5 November 1515) was an Italian Renaissance painter active in Florence.", "He was a close friend and collaborator of Fra Bartolomeo.Some of his works have been described as \"archaic\" or \"conservative\"; others are considered exemplary of the grandiose classicism of High Renaissance art." ], [ "Life and work", "Albertinelli was born in Florence to a local gold beater.", "He was a pupil of Cosimo Rosselli, in whose workshop he met Baccio della Porta, later known as Fra Bartolomeo.", "The two were so close that in 1494 they formed a \"compagnia,\" or partnership, in which they operating a joint studio and divided the profits of anything produced within it.", "The partnership lasted until 1500, when Baccio joined the Dominican order and spent two years in cloister.", "''Madonna and Child with Saints Jerome and Zenobius'', 1508.Paris, Louvre.At the beginning of his career Albertinelli was placed on retainer by Alfonsina Orsini, the wife of Piero II de’ Medici and mother of Lorenzo II de' Medici.", "His works from this period all small-scale works executed in a minute, delicate technique and a style derived from the works of Rosselli's main pupil Piero di Cosimo as well as Lorenzo di Credi and Perugino.", "Like many Florentine painters, Albertinelli was also receptive to the influence of contemporary Flemish painting.Albertinelli's earliest works include a small triptych of the ''Madonna and Child with Saints Catherine and Barbara'' (1500) at the Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan, and another triptych of the Madonna and Child with Saints, Angels and Various Religious Scenes at the Musée des Beaux-Arts in Chartres.", "The several panels with ''Scenes from Genesis,'' at the Courtauld Institute in London, Strossmayer Gallery in Zagreb, Accademia Carrara in Bergamo and Harvard Art Museums in Cambridge, probably also date from this period.In 1503 Albertinelli signed and dated his best-known work, an altarpiece for the chapel of Sant'Elisabetta della congrega dei Preti in San Michele alle Trombe, Florence (now in the Uffizi).", "The central panel of this work depicts the Visitation and the predella the Annunciation, Nativity, and Circumcision of Christ.", "The pyramidal composition, classical background architecture and pronounced contrasts of light and dark make the painting a quintessential example of High Renaissance art.", "''Creation and Fall of Man,'' 1490s.", "London, Courtauld Gallery.Also in 1503 Albertinelli entered a new partnership with Giuliano Bugiardini, which lasted until 1509, when Albertinelli resumed his partnership with Fra Bartolomeo.", "At this point Fra Bartolomeo and Albertinelli practiced similar styles and occasionally collaborated.", "For example, the ''Kress Tondo'', now in the Columbia Museum of Art, was previously attributed to Fra Bartolomeo but is now thought to be the work of Albertinelli using Fra Bartolomeo's cartoon, or scaled-preparatory drawing.", "The ''Annunciation'' at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire in Geneva is signed and dated (1511) by both artists.", "The partnership was terminated in January 1513, as reported in a document stipulating the division of the workshop's properties.According to Giorgio Vasari's ''Life'' of Albertinelli, the painter lived as a libertine and was fond of good living and women.", "Albertinelli reportedly had experienced financial problems and operated a tavern to supplement his income as a painter.", "At the end of his life he was unable to repay some of his debts, including one to Raphael.", "His wife Antonia, whom he married in 1506, repaid some of his loans.", "Among his many students were Franciabigio, Jacopo da Pontormo, and Innocenzo da Imola." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Beijing cuisine" ], [ "Introduction", "Beijing cuisine in Menkuang Hutong, which is a century-old restaurant'''Beijing cuisine''', also known as '''Jing cuisine''', '''Mandarin cuisine''' and '''Peking cuisine''' and formerly as '''Beiping cuisine''', is the local cuisine of Beijing, the national capital of China." ], [ "Background", "As Beijing has been the capital of China for centuries, its cuisine is influenced by culinary traditions from all over China, but the style that has the greatest influence on Beijing cuisine is that of the eastern coastal province of Shandong.", "Beijing cuisine has itself, in turn, also greatly influenced other Chinese cuisines, particularly the cuisine of Liaoning, the Chinese imperial cuisine and the Chinese aristocrat cuisine.Another tradition that influenced Beijing cuisine (as well as influenced by the latter itself) is the Chinese imperial cuisine that originated from the \"Emperor's Kitchen\" (), which referred to the cooking facilities inside the Forbidden City, where thousands of cooks from different parts of China showed their best culinary skills to please the imperial family and officials.", "Therefore, it is sometimes difficult to determine the actual origin of a dish as the term \"Mandarin\" is generalised and refers not only to Beijing, but other provinces as well.", "However, some generalisation of Beijing cuisine can be characterised as follows: Foods that originated in Beijing are often snacks rather than main courses, and they are typically sold by small shops or street vendors.", "There is emphasis on dark soy paste, sesame paste, sesame oil and scallions, and fermented tofu is often served as a condiment.", "In terms of cooking techniques, methods relating to different ways of frying are often used.", "There is less emphasis on rice as an accompaniment as compared to many other regions in China, as local rice production in Beijing is limited by the relatively dry climate.Many dishes in Beijing cuisine that are served as main courses are derived from a variety of Chinese Halal foods, particularly lamb and beef dishes, as well as from Huaiyang cuisine.Huaiyang cuisine has been praised since ancient times in China and it was a general practice for an official travelling to Beijing to take up a new post to bring along with him a chef specialising in Huaiyang cuisine.", "When these officials had completed their terms in the capital and returned to their native provinces, most of the chefs they brought along often remained in Beijing.", "They opened their own restaurants or were hired by wealthy locals.", "The imperial clan of the Ming dynasty, the House of Zhu, who had ancestry from Jiangsu Province, also contributed greatly in introducing Huaiyang cuisine to Beijing when the capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing in the 15th century, because the imperial kitchen was mainly Huaiyang style.", "The element of traditional Beijing culinary and gastronomical cultures of enjoying artistic performances such as Beijing opera while dining directly developed from the similar practice in the culture of Jiangsu and Huaiyang cuisines.Chinese Islamic cuisine is another important component of Beijing cuisine and was first prominently introduced when Beijing became the capital of the Yuan dynasty.", "However, the most significant contribution to the formation of Beijing cuisine came from Shandong cuisine, as most chefs from Shandong Province came to Beijing en masse during the Qing dynasty.", "Unlike the earlier two cuisines, which were brought by the ruling class such as nobles, aristocrats and bureaucrats and then spread to the general populace, the introduction of Shandong cuisine begun with serving the general populace, with much wider market segment, from wealthy merchants to the working class." ], [ "History", "The Qing dynasty was a major period in the formation of Beijing cuisine.", "Before the Boxer Rebellion, the foodservice establishments in Beijing were strictly stratified by the foodservice guild.", "Each category of the establishment was specifically based on its ability to provide for a particular segment of the market.", "The top ranking establishments served nobles, aristocrats, and wealthy merchants and landlords, while lower ranking establishments served the populace of lower financial and social status.", "It was during this period when Beijing cuisine gained fame and became recognised by the Chinese culinary society, and the stratification of the foodservice was one of its most obvious characteristics as part of its culinary and gastronomic cultures during this first peak of its formation.The official stratification was an integral part of the local culture of Beijing and it was not finally abolished officially after the end of the Qing dynasty, which resulted in the second peak in the formation of Beijing cuisine.", "Meals previously offered to nobles and aristocrats were made available to anyone who could afford them instead of being restricted only to the upper class.", "As chefs freely switched between jobs offered by different establishments, they brought their skills that further enriched and developed Beijing cuisine.", "Though the stratification of food services in Beijing was no longer effected by imperial laws, the structure more or less remained despite continuous weakening due to the financial background of the local clientele.", "The different classes are listed in the following subsections.=== Zhuang ===''Zhuang'' (), or ''zhuang zihao'' () were the top-ranking foodservice establishments, not only in providing foods, but entertainment as well.", "The form of entertainment provided was usually Beijing opera, and establishments of this class always had long-term contracts with an opera troupe to perform onsite or contracts with famous performers, such as national-treasure-class performers, to perform onsite, though not on a daily basis.", "Establishments of this category only accepted customers who came as a group and ordered banquets by appointment, and the banquets provided by establishments of this category often included most, if not all tables, at the site.", "The bulk foodservice business was catering at customers' homes or other locations, often for birthdays, marriages, funerals, promotions and other important celebrations and festivals.", "When catering, these establishments not only provided what was on the menu, but fulfilled customers' requests.", "''Leng zhuangzi'' () lacked any rooms to host banquets, and thus their business was purely catering.=== Tang ===''Tang'' (), or ''tang zihao'' (), are similar to ''zhuang'' establishments, but the business of these second-class establishments were generally evenly divided among onsite banquet hosting and catering (at customers' homes).", "Establishments of this class would also have long-term contracts with Beijing opera troupes to perform onsite, but they did not have long-term contracts with famous performers, such as national-treasure-class performers, to perform onsite on regular basis; however these top performers would still perform at establishments of this category occasionally.", "In terms of catering at the customers' sites, establishments of this category often only provided dishes strictly according to their menu.=== Ting ===''Ting'' (), or ''ting zihao'' () are foodservice establishments which had more business in onsite banquet hosting than catering at customers' homes.", "For onsite banquet hosting, entertainment was still provided, but establishments of this category did not have long-term contracts with Beijing opera troupes, so that performers varied from time to time, and top performers usually did not perform here or at any lower-ranking establishments.", "For catering, different establishments of this category were incapable of handling significant catering on their own, but generally had to combine resources with other establishments of the same ranking (or lower) to do the job.=== Yuan ===Beihai, circa 1879.", "''Yuan'' (), or ''yuan zihao'' () did nearly all their business in hosting banquets onsite.", "Entertainment was not provided on a regular basis, but there were stages built onsite for Beijing opera performers.", "Instead of being hired by the establishments like in the previous three categories, performers at establishments of this category were usually contractors who paid the establishment to perform and split the earnings according to a certain percentage.", "Occasionally, establishments of this category would be called upon to help cater at customers' homes, but had to work with others, never taking the lead as establishments like the ''ting''.=== Lou ===''Lou'' (), or ''lou zihao'' () did the bulk of their business hosting banquets onsite by appointment.", "In addition, a smaller portion of the business was in serving different customers onsite on a walk-in basis.", "Occasionally, when catering at customers' homes, establishments of this category would only provide the few specialty dishes they were famous for.=== Ju ===''Ju'' (), or ''ju zihao'' () generally divided their business evenly into two areas: serving different customers onsite on a walk-in basis, and hosting banquets by appointment for customers who came as one group.", "Occasionally, when catering at the customers' homes, establishments of this category would only provide the few specialty dishes they were famous for, just like the ''lou''.", "However, unlike those establishments, which always cooked their specialty dishes on location, establishment of this category would either cook on location or simply bring the already-cooked food to the location.=== Zhai ===''Zhai'' (), or ''zhai zihao'' () were mainly in the business of serving different customers onsite on a walk-in basis, but a small portion of their income did come from hosting banquets by appointment for customers who came as one group.", "Similar to the ''ju'', when catering at customers’ homes, establishments of this category would also only provide the few specialty dishes they are famous for, but they would mostly bring the already-cooked dishes to the location, and would only cook on location occasionally.=== Fang ===''Fang'' (), or ''fang zihao'' ().", "Foodservice establishments of this category generally did not offer the service of hosting banquets made by appointment for customers who came as one group, but instead, often only offered to serve different customers onsite on a walk-in basis.", "Establishments of this category or lower would not be called upon to perform catering at the customers' homes for special events.=== Guan ===''Guan'' (), or ''guan zihao'' ().", "Foodservice establishments of this category mainly served different customers onsite on a walk-in basis, and in addition, a portion of the income would be earned from selling to-goes.=== Dian ===''Dian'' (), or ''dian zihao'' ().", "Foodservice establishments of this category had their own place, like all previous categories, but serving different customers to dine onsite on a walk-in basis only provided half of the overall income, while the other half came from selling to-goes.=== Pu ===''Pu'' (), or ''pu zihao'' ().", "Foodservice establishments of this category ranked next to the last, and they were often named after the owners' last names.", "Establishments of this category had fixed spots of business for having their own places, but smaller than ''dian'', and thus did not have tables, but only seats for customers.", "As a result, the bulk of the income of establishments of this category was from selling to-goes, while income earned from customers dining onsite only provided a small portion of the overall income.=== Tan ===''Tan'' (), or ''tan zihao'' ().", "The lowest ranking foodservice establishments without any tables, and selling to-goes was the only form of business.", "In addition to name the food stand after the owners' last name or the food sold, these food stands were also often named after the owners' nicknames." ], [ "Notable dishes and street foods", "===Meat and poultry dishes===Bao du ''(top)''Hot and sour soupJing jiang rou siLǔzhǔ huǒshāoMoo shu porkPrepared and sliced Peking duckShao yang rou, a mutton dishStir-fried tomato and scrambled eggs English Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin Notes Beef wrapped in pancake Beggar's Chicken The dish's name literally means \"rich chicken\" or \"wealthy chicken\".", "It is also known as '''' ().", "Cold pig's ears in sauce Dried soy milk cream in tight roll with beef fillings Fried dry soybean cream with diced meat filling Fried meatballs Fried pig's liver wrapped in Chinese small iris Fried triangle Fried wheaten pancake with meat and sea cucumber fillings Glazed fried egg cake Goat/sheep's intestine filled with blood Hot and sour soup Instant-boiled mutton A variant of hot pot which usually features boiled water as base (no additional spices) and mutton as the main type of meat.", "Lard with flour wrapping glazed in honey Lotus ham Lotus-shaped cake with chicken Meatball soup Meat in sauce Meat wrapped in thin mung bean flour pancake Moo shu pork Literally \"wood shavings meat\" Napa Cabbage Hot pot A variant of hot pot of Northeast China origin.", "Its main ingredients are pickled Napa cabbage, cooked pork belly and other meats, and other typical dishes include leaf vegetables, mushrooms, wontons, egg dumplings, tofu, and seafood.", "The cooked food is usually eaten with a dipping sauce.", "Peking barbecue Peking duck Usually served with pancakes Peking dumpling Peking wonton Pickled Chinese cabbage with blood-filled pig's intestines Pickled meat in sauce Plain boiled pork Pork in broth Pork shoulder Quick-fried tripe Roasted meat Could be either beef, pork or mutton Shredded mung bean skin salad Soft fried tenderloin Stewed pig's organs Stir-fried tomato and scrambled eggs Sweet and sour spare ribs Sweet stir-fried mutton / lamb Wheaten cake boiled in meat broth Pea Flour Cake ===Fish and seafood dishes=== English Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin Notes Abalone with peas and fish paste The dish's name literally means \"toad abalone\".", "Boiled fish in household-style Braised fish Egg and shrimp wrapped in corn flour pancake Fish cooked with five kinds of sliced vegetable Fish cooked with five-spice powder Fish in vinegar and pepper Fish soaked in soup Sea cucumber with quail egg The dish's name literally means \"the black dragon spits out pearls\".", "Shrimp chips with egg The dish's name literally means \"the goldfish playing with the lotus\".", "Soft fried fish ===Noodles (both vegetarian and non-vegetarian)=== English Image Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin Notes Naked oats noodle Noodles with thick gravy 120px Sesame Sauce Noodles 120px A popular noodle dish in Northern China.", "The sesame sauce is mainly made of sesame paste and sesame oil.", "In American cooking, the sesame paste is often substituted by peanut butter.", "Zhajiangmian 120px ===Pastries=== English Image Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin Notes Fried sesame egg cake | The dish's name literally means \"open mouth and laugh/smile\".", "''Jiaoquan'' 120px Shaped like a fried doughnut, but has a crispier texture Sachima | 沙琪瑪 沙琪玛 Chinese pastry of Manchu origin similar looking to Rice Krispies Treats but different in taste===Vegetarian===BingtanghuluA bowl of douzhi ''(left)'' with breakfast itemsNai lao (Beijing yogurt)LiangfenShaobingtangyuan with a sweet sesame fillingWotouXi gua laoZongzi both ready to eat (left) and still wrapped in a bamboo leaf (right) English Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin Notes Baked sesame seed cake Baked wheaten cake Bean jelly Bean paste cake Beijing yoghurt Buckwheat cake Cake with bean paste filling Candied fruit Chatang / Miancha / Youcha Chestnut broth Chestnut cake with bean paste Chinese cabbage in mustard Crisp fritter Crisp fritter with sesame Crisp noodle Crisp thin fritter twist Deep-fried dough cake Dried fermented mung bean juice Dried soy milk cream in tight rolls Fermented mung bean juice Freshwater snail-shaped cake Fried cake Fried cake glazed in malt sugar Fried dough twist Fried ring Fried sugar cake Fuling pancake sandwich Glazed / candied Chinese yam Glazed steamed glutinous rice cake Glazed thin pancake with Chinese yam and jujube stuffing Glutinous rice ball Glutinous rice cake Glutinous rice cake roll Hawthorn cake Honeycomb cake Iced fruit Jellied beancurd Kidney bean roll Lama cake Millet zongzi Mung bean cake Noodle roll Pancake Pease pudding Preserved fruit Purple vine cake Rice and jujube cake Rice and white kidney bean cake with jujube Rice cake with bean paste Shortening cake Soybean flour cake Stir fried hawthorn Stir-fried starch knots Suncake Not to be confused with Taiwanese suncake, whose name in Chinese is () translates more literally as \"sun cookie\".", "Sweet flour cake Sweet hard flour cake Sweet potato starch jelly Sweetened baked wheaten cake Tanghulu Tangyuan Thin millet flour pancake Thin pancake Thin pancake of lard Thousand-layered cake Veggie roll Not to be confused with spring rolls.", "Watermelon jelly Wotou Xing ren cha Xingren doufu Yellow cake ===Beijing Delicacies===* Deep-Fried Pie* Soy Bean Curd" ], [ "Restaurants known for Beijing cuisine", "Numerous traditional restaurants in Beijing are credited with great contributions in the formation of Beijing cuisine, but many of them have gone out of business.", "However, some of them managed to survive until today, and some of them are:The introduction board at the Bianyifang describes the restaurant's history*Bai Kui (白魁): established in 1780*Bao Du Feng (爆肚冯): established in 1881, also known as Ji Sheng Long (金生隆)*Bianyifang: established in 1416, the oldest surviving restaurant in Beijing*Cha Tang Li (茶汤李), established in 1858*Dao Xiang Chun (稻香春): established in 1916*Dao Xian Cun (稻香村): established in 1895*De Shun Zhai (大顺斋): established in the early 1870s*Dong Lai Shun (东来顺): established in 1903*Dong Xin Shun (东兴顺): also known as Bao Du Zhang (爆肚张), established in 1883*Du Yi Chu (都一处): established in 1738*Dou Fu Nao Bai (豆腐脑白): established in 1877, also known as Xi Yu Zhai (西域斋)*En Yuan Ju (恩元居), established in 1929*Fang Sheng Zhai (芳生斋), also known as Nai Lao Wei (奶酪魏), established in 1857*Hong Bin Lou (鸿宾楼): established in 1853 in Tianjin, relocated to Beijing in 1955.", "*Jin Sheng Long (金生隆): established in 1846*Kao Rou Ji (烤肉季): established in 1828*Kao Rou Wan (烤肉宛): established in 1686*Liu Bi Ju (六必居) established in 1530*Liu Quan Ju (柳泉居): established in the late 1560s, the second oldest surviving restaurant in Beijing*Nan Lai Shun (南来顺): established in 1937*Nian Gao Qian (年糕钱): established in early 1880s*Quanjude (全聚德): established in 1864*Rui Bin Lou (瑞宾楼): originally established in 1876*Sha Guoo Ju (砂锅居), established in 1741*Tian Fu Hao (天福号): established in 1738*Tian Xing Ju (天兴居):, established in 1862*Tian Yuan Jian Yuan (天源酱园): established in 1869*Wang Zhi He (王致和): established in 1669*Wonton Hou (馄饨侯): established in 1949*Xi De Shun (西德顺): also known as Bao Du Wang (爆肚王), established in 1904*Xi Lai Shun (西来顺): established in 1930*Xian Bing Zhou (馅饼周): established in 1910s, also known as Tong Ju Guan (同聚馆)*Xiao Chang Chen (小肠陈): established in the late 19th century*Xin Yuan Zhai (信远斋), established in 1740*Yang Tou Man (羊头马): established in the late 1830s*Yi Tiao Long (壹条龙): established in 1785" ], [ "See also", "* Chinese cuisine" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Beijing Odyssey Tours: Authentic Food Tour of Beijing" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Manichaeism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Manichaeism''' (; in New Persian ; ) is a former major world religion, founded in the 3rd century CE by the Parthian prophet Mani (216–274 CE), in the Sasanian Empire.Manichaeism teaches an elaborate dualistic cosmology describing the struggle between a good, spiritual world of light, and an evil, material world of darkness.", "Through an ongoing process that takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light, whence it came.", "Mani's teaching was intended to \"combine\", succeed, and surpass the teachings of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Marcionism, Hellenistic and Rabbinic Judaism, Gnostic movements, Ancient Greek religion, Babylonian and other Mesopotamian religions, and mystery cults.", "It reveres Mani as the final prophet after Zoroaster, the Gautama Buddha and Jesus Christ.Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread far through Aramaic-speaking regions.", "It thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world.", "Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as the Han Dynasty and as far west as the Roman Empire.", "It was briefly the main rival to early Christianity in the competition to replace classical polytheism before the spread of Islam.", "Under the Roman Dominate, Manichaeism was persecuted by the Roman state and was eventually stamped out in the Roman Empire.Manichaeism has survived longer in the east than it did in the west.", "Although it was thought to have finally faded away after the 14th century in South China, contemporary to the decline of the Church of the East in Ming China, there is a growing corpus of evidence that shows Manichaeism persists in some areas of China, especially in Fujian, where numerous Manichaean relics have been discovered over time.", "The currently known sects are notably secretive and protective of their belief system, in an effort to remain undetected.", "This stems from fears relating to persecution and suppression during various periods of Chinese history.While most of Manichaeism's original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.An adherent of Manichaeism is called a ''Manichaean'', ''Manichean'', or ''Manichee'', the last especially in older sources." ], [ "History", "=== Life of Mani ===Manichaean priests, writing at their desks.", "Eighth or ninth century manuscript from Gaochang, Tarim Basin, China.Yuan Chinese silk painting ''Mani's Birth''.Mani was an Iranian born in 216 CE in or near Seleucia-Ctesiphon (now al-Mada'in, Iraq) in the Parthian Empire.", "According to the ''Cologne Mani-Codex'', Mani's parents were members of the Jewish Christian Gnostic sect known as the Elcesaites.Mani composed seven works; six of which were written in the late-Aramaic Syriac language.", "The seventh, the ''Shabuhragan'', was written by Mani in Middle Persian and presented by him to Sasanian emperor Shapur I.", "Although there is no proof Shapur I was a Manichaean, he tolerated the spread of Manichaeism and refrained from persecuting it within his empire's boundaries.According to one tradition, Mani invented the unique version of the Syriac script known as the Manichaean alphabet that was used in all of the Manichaean works written within the Sasanian Empire, whether they were in Syriac or Middle Persian, as well as most of the works written within the Uyghur Khaganate.", "The primary language of Babylon (and the administrative and cultural language of the Empire) at that time was Eastern Middle Aramaic, which included three main dialects: Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (the language of the Babylonian Talmud), Mandaean (the language of Mandaeism), and Syriac, which was the language of Mani as well as the Syriac Christians.ManiWhile Manichaeism was spreading, existing religions such as Zoroastrianism were still popular and Christianity was gaining social and political influence.", "Although having fewer adherents, Manichaeism won the support of many high-ranking political figures.", "With the assistance of the Sasanian Empire, Mani began missionary expeditions.", "After failing to win the favour of the next generation of Persian royalty and incurring the disapproval of the Zoroastrian clergy, Mani is reported to have died in prison awaiting execution by Persian emperor Bahram I.", "The date of his death is estimated at 276–277 CE.=== Influences ===''Sermon on Mani's Teaching of Salvation'', 13th-century Chinese Manichaean silk painting.Mani believed that the teachings of Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus were incomplete, and that his revelations were for the entire world, calling his teachings the \"Religion of Light\".", "Manichaean writings indicate that Mani received revelations when he was twelve years old and again when he was 24, and over this period he grew dissatisfied with the Elcesaites, the Jewish Christian Gnostic sect he was born into.", "Some researchers also point to an important Jain influence on Mani as extreme degrees of asceticism and some specific features of Jain doctrine made the influence of Mahāvīra’s religious community more plausible than even the Buddha.Mani wore colorful clothing abnormal for the time that reminded some Romans of a stereotypical Persian magus or warlord, earning him ire from the Greco-Roman world because of it.Mani taught how the soul of a righteous individual returns to Paradise upon dying, but \"the soul of the person who persisted in things of the flesh – fornication, procreation, possessions, cultivation, harvesting, eating of meat, drinking of wine – is condemned to rebirth in a succession of bodies.", "\"Mani began preaching at an early age and was possibly influenced by contemporary Babylonian-Aramaic movements such as Mandaeism, Aramaic translations of Jewish apocalyptic works similar to those found at Qumran (e.g., the Book of Enoch literature), and by the Syriac dualist-Gnostic writer Bardaisan (who lived a generation before Mani).", "With the discovery of the Mani-Codex, it also became clear that he was raised in the Jewish Christian sect of the Elcasaites and possibly influenced by their writings.According to biographies preserved by ibn al-Nadim and the Persian polymath al-Biruni, Mani received a revelation as a youth from a spirit, whom he would later call his \"Twin\" ( , from which is also derived the Greek name of Thomas the Apostle, ''Didymus; ''the \"twin\"), ''Syzygos'' ( \"spouse, partner\", in the ''Cologne Mani-Codex''), \"Double,\" \"Protective Angel,\" or \"Divine Self.\"", "This spirit taught him wisdom that he then developed into a religion.", "It was his \"Twin\" who brought Mani to self-realization.", "Mani claimed to be the ''Paraclete of the Truth'' promised by Jesus in the New Testament.", "''Manichaean Painting of the Buddha Jesus'' depicts Jesus Christ as a Manichaean prophet.", "The figure can be identified as a representation of Jesus Christ by the small gold cross that sits on the red lotus throne in His left hand.Manichaeism's views on Jesus are described by historians:Augustine of Hippo also noted that Mani declared himself to be an \"apostle of Jesus Christ\".", "Manichaean tradition is also noted to have claimed that Mani was the reincarnation of religious figures from previous eras such as the Buddha, Krishna, and Zoroaster in addition to Jesus himself.Academics note that much of what is known about Manichaeism comes from later 10th- and 11th-century Muslim historians like al-Biruni and ibn al-Nadim in his ''al-Fihrist''; the latter \"ascribed to Mani the claim to be the Seal of the Prophets.\"", "However, given the Islamic milieu of Arabia and Persia at the time, it stands to reason that Manichaens would regularly assert in their evangelism that Mani, not Muhammad, was the \"Seal of the Prophets\".", "In reality, for Mani the metaphorical expression \"Seal of Prophets\" is not a reference to his finality in a long succession of prophets as it is used in Islam, but rather as final to his followers (who testify or attest to his message as a \"seal\").10th century Manichaean Electae in Gaochang (Khocho), China.Other sources of Mani's scripture were the Aramaic originals of the Book of Enoch, 2 Enoch, and an otherwise unknown section of the Book of Enoch entitled ''The Book of Giants''.", "The latter was quoted directly and expanded upon by Mani, and became one of the original six Syriac writings of the Manichaean Church.", "Beside brief references by non-Manichaean authors through the centuries, no original sources of ''The Book of Giants'' (which is actually part six of the Book of Enoch) were available until the 20th century.Scattered fragments of both the original Aramaic Book of Giants (which were analyzed and published by Józef Milik in 1976) and the Manichaean version of the same name (analyzed and published by Walter Bruno Henning in 1943) were discovered along with the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Judaean desert in the 20th century and the Manichaean writings of the Uyghur Manichaean kingdom in Turpan.", "Henning wrote in his analysis of them:By comparing the cosmology of the books of Enoch to the Book of Giants, as well as the description of the Manichaean myth, scholars have observed that the Manichaean cosmology can be described as being based, in part, on the description of the cosmology developed in detail within the Enochic literature.", "This literature describes the being that the prophets saw in their ascent to Heaven as a king who sits on a throne at the highest of the heavens.", "In the Manichaean description, this being, the \"Great King of Honor\", becomes a deity who guards the entrance to the World of Light placed at the seventh of ten heavens.", "In the Aramaic Book of Enoch, the Qumran writings, in general, and in the original Syriac section of Manichaean scriptures quoted by Theodore bar Konai, he is called ''malkā rabbā d-iqārā'' (\"the Great King of Honor\").Mani was also influenced by writings of the gnostic Bardaisan (154–222 CE), who, like Mani, wrote in Syriac and presented a dualistic interpretation of the world in terms of light and darkness in combination with elements from Christianity.Mani was heavily inspired by Iranian Zoroastrian theology.Akshobhya in the abhirati with the Cross of Light, a symbol of Manichaeism.Noting Mani's travels to the Kushan Empire (several religious paintings in Bamyan are attributed to him) at the beginning of his proselytizing career, Richard Foltz postulates Buddhist influences in Manichaeism:The Kushan monk Lokakṣema began translating Pure Land Buddhist texts into Chinese in the century prior to Mani arriving there, and the Chinese texts of Manichaeism are full of uniquely Buddhist terms taken directly from these Chinese Pure Land scriptures, including the term \"pure land\" () itself.", "However, the central object of veneration in Pure Land Buddhism, Amitābha, the Buddha of Infinite Light, does not appear in Chinese Manichaeism, and seems to have been replaced by another deity.=== Spread =======Roman Empire====A map of the spread of Manichaeism (300–500).", "''World History Atlas'', Dorling Kindersly.Manichaeism reached Rome through the apostle Psattiq by 280, who was also in Egypt in 244 and 251.It was flourishing in the Faiyum in 290.Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 during the time of Pope Miltiades.In 291, persecution arose in the Sasanian Empire with the murder of the apostle Sisin by Emperor Bahram II and the slaughter of many Manichaeans.", "Then, in 302, the first official reaction and legislation against Manichaeism from the Roman state was issued under Diocletian.", "In an official edict called the ''De Maleficiis et Manichaeis'' compiled in the ''Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum'' and addressed to the proconsul of Africa, Diocletian wrote:By 354, Hilary of Poitiers wrote that Manichaeism was a significant force in Roman Gaul.", "In 381, Christians requested Theodosius I to strip Manichaeans of their civil rights.", "Starting in 382, the emperor issued a series of edicts to suppress Manichaeism and punish its followers.Augustine of Hippo was once a Manichaean.Augustine of Hippo (354–430) converted to Christianity from Manichaeism in the year 387.This was shortly after the Roman emperor Theodosius I had issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 and shortly before he declared Christianity to be the only legitimate religion for the Roman Empire in 391.Due to the heavy persecution, the religion almost disappeared from western Europe in the fifth century and from the eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century.According to his ''Confessions'', after nine or ten years of adhering to the Manichaean faith as a member of the group of \"hearers\", Augustine of Hippo became a Christian and a potent adversary of Manichaeism (which he expressed in writing against his Manichaean opponent Faustus of Mileve), seeing their beliefs that knowledge was the key to salvation as too passive and not able to effect any change in one's life.Some modern scholars have suggested that Manichaean ways of thinking influenced the development of some of Augustine's ideas, such as the nature of good and evil, the idea of hell, the separation of groups into elect, hearers, and sinners, and the hostility to the flesh and sexual activity, and his dualistic theology.Confessions'' criticizing Manichaeism.====Central Asia====Amitābha in his Western Paradise with Indians, Tibetans, and Central Asians, with two symbols of Manichaeism: Sun and Cross.Some Sogdians in Central Asia believed in the religion.", "Uyghur khagan Boku Tekin (759–780) converted to the religion in 763 after a three-day discussion with its preachers, the Babylonian headquarters sent high rank clerics to Uyghur, and Manichaeism remained the state religion for about a century before the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840.====China====In the east it spread along trade routes as far as Chang'an, the capital of Tang China.After the Tang dynasty, some Manichaean groups participated in peasant movements.", "The religion was used by many rebel leaders to mobilise followers.", "In Song and Yuan China, remnants of Manichaeism continued to leave a legacy contributing to sects such as the Red Turbans.", "During the Song dynasty, the Manichaeans were derogatorily referred by the Chinese as ''Chīcài shìmó'' (, meaning that they \"abstain from meat and worship demons\").An account in ''Fozu Tongji'', an important historiography of Buddhism in China compiled by Buddhist scholars during 1258–1269, says that the Manichaeans worshipped the \"White Buddha\" and their leader wore a violet headgear, while the followers wore white costumes.", "Many Manichaeans took part in rebellions against the Song government and were eventually quelled.", "After that, all governments were suppressive against Manichaeism and its followers and the religion was banned in Ming China in 1370.While it had long been thought that Manichaeism arrived in China only at the end of the seventh century, a recent archaeological discovery demonstrated that it was already known there in the second half of the 6th century.The nomadic Uyghur Khaganate lasted for less than a century (744- 840) in the southern Siberian steppe, with the fortified city of Ordu-Baliq on the Upper Orkhon River as its capital.", "Before the end of the year (763), Manichaeism was declared the official religion of the Uyghur state.", "Boku Tekin banned all the shamanistic rituals that had previously been in use.", "It is likely that his decision was accepted by his subjects.", "That much results from a report that the proclamation of Manichaeism as the state religion was met with enthusiasm in Ordu-Baliq.", "In an inscription in which the Kaghan speaks for himself, he promised to the Manichaen high priests (the \"Elect\") that if they would give orders, he would promptly follow them and respond to their requests.", "A fragmentary manuscript found in the Turfan Oasis gives Boku Tekin the title of ''zahag-i Mani'' (\"Emanation of Mani\" or \"Descendant of Mani\"), a title of majestic prestige among the Manichaeans of Central Asia.Nonetheless, and despite the apparently willing conversion of the Uyghurs to Manichaeanism, traces and signs of the previous shamanistic practices persisted.", "For instance, in 765, only two years after the official conversion, during a military campaign in China, the Uyghur troops called forth magicians to perform a number of specific rituals.", "Manichaean Uyghurs continued to treat with great respect a sacred forest in Otuken.", "The conversion to Manichaeism led to an explosion of manuscript production in the Tarim Basin and Gansu (the region between the Tibetan and the Huangtu plateaus), which lasted well into the early 11th century.", "In 840 the Uyghur Khaghanate collapsed under the attacks of the Yenisei Kyrgyz, and the new Uyghur state of Qocho was established with a capital in the city of Qocho.Al-Jahiz (776–868 or 869) believed that the peaceful lifestyle that Manicheism brought to the Uyghurs was responsible for their later lack of military skills, and eventual decline.", "This, however, is contradicted by the political and military consequences of the conversion.", "After the migration of the Uyghurs to Turfan in ninth century, the nobility maintained Manichaean beliefs for a while, before converting to Buddhism.", "Traces of Manicheism among the Uyghurs in Turfan maybe detected in fragments of Uyghur Manichaean manuscripts.", "In fact, Manicheism continued to rival the influence of Buddhism among the Uyghurs until the 13th century.", "It was the Mongols that gave the final blow to the Manichaeism among the Uyghurs.====Tibet====Manichaeism spread to Tibet during the Tibetan Empire.", "There was a serious attempt made to introduce the religion to the Tibetans as the text ''Criteria of the Authentic Scriptures'' (a text attributed to Tibetan Emperor Trisong Detsen) makes a great effort to attack Manichaeism by stating that Mani was a heretic who engaged in religious syncretism into a deviating and inauthentic form.====Iran====Manichaeans in Iran tried to assimilate their religion along with Islam in the Muslim caliphates.", "Relatively little is known about the religion during the first century of Islamic rule.", "During the early caliphates, Manichaeism attracted many followers.", "It had a significant appeal among the Muslim society, especially among the elites.", "A part of Manichaeism that specifically appealed to the Sasanians was the names of the Manichaean gods.", "The names Mani had assigned to the gods of his religion show identification with those of the Zoroastrian pantheon, even though some divine beings he incorporates are non-Iranian.", "For example, Jesus, Adam or Eve were, respectively, given the names Xradesahr, Gehmurd or Murdiyanag.", "Because of these familiar names, Manichaeism did not feel completely foreign to the Zoroastrians.", "Due to the appeal of its teachings, many Sasanians adopted the ideas of its theology and some even became dualists.Not only were the citizens of the Sasanian Empire intrigued by Manichaeism, but so was the ruler at the time of its introduction, Sabuhr l. As the Denkard states, Sabuhr, the first king of kings, was very well known for gaining and seeking knowledge of any kind.", "Because of this knowledge, Mani knew that Sabuhr would lend an ear to his teachings and accept him.", "Mani had specifically stated, while introducing his teachings to Sabuhr, that his religion should be seen as a reform of Zarathrusta's ancient teachings.", "This was of great fascination to the king, as it perfectly fit Sabuhr's dream of creating a large empire that incorporated all people and their different creeds.", "Thus, Manichaeism became popular and flourished throughout the Sasanian Empire for thirty years.", "An apologia for Manichaeism ascribed to ibn al-Muqaffa' defended its phantasmagorical cosmogony and attacked the fideism of Islam and other monotheistic religions.", "The Manichaeans had sufficient structure to have a head of their community.Tolerance towards Manichaeism decreased after the death of Sabuhr I.", "His son, Ohrmazd, who became king, still allowed for Manichaeism in the empire, but he also greatly trusted the Zoroastrian priest, Kirdir.", "After Ohrmazd's short reign, his oldest brother, Wahram I, became king.", "Wahram I held Kirdir in high esteem as well, and he also held much different religious ideals than Ohrmazd, and his father, Sabuhr I.", "Due to influence from Kirdir, Zoroastrianism was strengthened throughout the empire, which in turn caused Manichaeism to be diminished and weakened.", "Wahram sentenced Mani to prison, and he died there.====Arab world====Under the eighth-century Abbasid Caliphate, Arabic and the adjectival term could denote many different things, though it seems primarily (or at least initially) to have signified a follower of Manichaeism, however its true meaning is not known.", "In the ninth century, it is reported that Caliph al-Ma'mun tolerated a community of Manichaeans.During the early Abbasid period, the Manichaeans underwent persecution.", "The third Abbasid caliph, al-Mahdi, persecuted the Manichaeans, establishing an inquisition against dualists who if being found guilty of heresy refused to renounce their beliefs, were executed.", "Their persecution was finally ended in 780s by Harun al-Rashid.", "During the reign of the Caliph al-Muqtadir, many Manichaeans fled from Mesopotamia to Khorasan from fear of persecution and the base of the religion was later shifted to Samarkand.==== Bactria ====The first indications and signs of Manichaeism in Bactria were actually during Mani's lifetime.", "While he never physically traveled there, he did send a disciple, by the name of Mar Ammo, to spread his word.", "Mani \"called (upon) Mar Ammo, the teacher, who knew the Parthian language and script, and was well acquainted with lords and ladies and with many nobles in those places...\"Mar Ammo indeed did travel to the old Parthian lands of eastern Iran, which bordered Bactria.", "A translation of Persian texts state the following from the perspective of Mar Ammo: \"They had arrived at the watch post of Kushān (Bactria), then the spirit of the border of the eastern province appeared in the shape of a girl, and he (the spirit) asked me 'Ammo what do you intend?", "From where have you come?'", "I said, 'I am a believer, a disciple of Mani, the Apostle.'", "That spirit said 'I do not receive you.", "Return from where you have come.", "'\"Despite the initial rejection Mar Ammo faced, we are told in these same Persian texts that Mani's spirit appeared to Mar Ammo in a spirit form and requested him to persevere and read the chapter, \"The Collecting of the Gates\" from ''The Treasure of the Living''.", "Once he did this, spirit returned, converted, and said, \"I am Bag Ard, the frontier guard of the Eastern Province.", "When I receive you, then the gate of the whole East will be opened in front of you.\"", "It seemed that this \"border spirit\" was a reference to the local Eastern Iranian goddess, Ard-oxsho, who was incredibly prevalent in Bactria.The four primary prophets of Manichaeism in the ''Manichaean Diagram of the Universe'', from left to right: Mani, Zoroaster, Buddha and Jesus.=== Syncretism and translation ===Manichaeism claimed to present the complete version of teachings that were corrupted and misinterpreted by the followers of its predecessors Adam, Abraham, Noah, Zoroaster, the Buddha, and Jesus.", "Accordingly, as it spread, it adapted new deities from other religions into forms it could use for its scriptures.", "Its original Eastern Middle Aramaic texts already contained stories of Jesus.When they moved eastward and were translated into Iranian languages, the names of the Manichaean deities (or angels) were often transformed into the names of Zoroastrian yazatas.", "Thus ''Abbā ḏəRabbūṯā'' (\"The Father of Greatness\", the highest Manichaean deity of Light), in Middle Persian texts might either be translated literally as ''pīd ī wuzurgīh'', or substituted with the name of the deity ''Zurwān''.Similarly, the Manichaean primal figure ''Nāšā Qaḏmāyā'' \"The Original Man\" was rendered ''Ohrmazd Bay'' after the Zoroastrian god Ohrmazd.", "This process continued in Manichaeism's meeting with Chinese Buddhism, where, for example, the original Aramaic ''qaryā'' (the \"call\" from the World of Light to those seeking rescue from the World of Darkness) is identified in the Chinese-language scriptures with Guanyin ( or Avalokiteśvara in Sanskrit, literally, \"watching/perceiving sounds of the world\", the bodhisattva of Compassion).Manichaeism influenced some writing and traditions of proto-orthodox and other forms of Christianity, as well as doing the same for branches of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Buddhism, and Islam.=== Persecution and suppression ===Manichaeism was repressed by the Sasanian Empire.", "In 291, persecution arose in the Persian empire with the murder of the apostle Sisin by Bahram II, and the slaughter of many Manichaeans.", "In 296, the Roman emperor Diocletian decreed all the Manichaean leaders to be burnt alive along with the Manichaean scriptures and many Manichaeans in Europe and North Africa were killed.", "It was not until 372 with Valentinian I and Valens that Manichaeism was legislated against again.Theodosius I issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 AD.", "The religion was vigorously attacked and persecuted by both the Christian Church and the Roman state, and the religion almost disappeared from western Europe in the fifth century and from the eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century.Conversion of Bögü Qaghan, third Khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate, to Manicheism in 762: detail of Bögü Qaghan in a suit of armour, kneeling to a Manichean high priest.", "8th century Manichean manuscript (MIK III 4979).In 732, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang banned any Chinese from converting to the religion, saying it was a heretic religion that was confusing people by claiming to be Buddhism.", "However, the foreigners who followed the religion were allowed to practice it without punishment.", "After the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840, which was the chief patron of Manichaeism (which was also the state religion of the Khaganate) in China, all Manichaean temples in China except in the two capitals and Taiyuan were closed down and never reopened since these temples were viewed as a symbol of foreign arrogance by the Chinese (see Cao'an).", "Even those that were allowed to remain open did not for long.The Manichaean temples were attacked by Chinese people who burned the images and idols of these temples.", "Manichaean priests were ordered to wear hanfu instead of their traditional clothing, which was viewed as un-Chinese.", "In 843, Emperor Wuzong of Tang gave the order to kill all Manichaean clerics as part of the Huichang persecution of Buddhism, and over half died.", "They were made to look like Buddhists by the authorities, their heads were shaved, they were made to dress like Buddhist monks and then killed.Although the religion was mostly forbidden and its followers persecuted thereafter in China, it survives within syncretic sects throughout Fujian in a form of Chinese Manichaeism also called Mingjiao.", "Under the Song dynasty, its followers were derogatorily referred to with the chengyu () \"vegetarian demon-worshippers\".Many Manichaeans took part in rebellions against the Song dynasty.", "They were quelled by Song China and were suppressed and persecuted by all successive governments before the Mongol Yuan dynasty.", "In 1370, the religion was banned through an edict of the Ming dynasty, whose Hongwu Emperor had a personal dislike for the religion.", "Its core teaching influences many religious sects in China, including the White Lotus movement.According to Wendy Doniger, Manichaeism may have continued to exist in the modern-East Turkestan region until the Mongol conquest in the 13th century.Manicheans also suffered persecution for some time under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad.", "In 780, the third Abbasid Caliph, al-Mahdi, started a campaign of inquisition against those who were \"dualist heretics\" or \"Manichaeans\" called the ''zindīq''.", "He appointed a \"master of the heretics\" ( ), an official whose task was to pursue and investigate suspected dualists, who were then examined by the Caliph.", "Those found guilty who refused to abjure their beliefs were executed.This persecution continued under his successor, Caliph al-Hadi, and continued for some time during reign of Harun al-Rashid, who finally abolished it and ended it.", "During the reign of the 18th Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir, many Manichaeans fled from Mesopotamia to Khorasan from fear of persecution by him and about 500 of them assembled in Samarkand.", "The base of the religion was later shifted to this city, which became their new Patriarchate.Manichaean pamphlets were still in circulation in Greek in 9th-century Byzantine Constantinople, as the patriarch Photios summarizes and discusses one that he has read by Agapius in his ''Bibliotheca''.=== Later movements associated with Manichaeism ===During the Middle Ages, several movements emerged that were collectively described as \"Manichaean\" by the Catholic Church, and persecuted as Christian heresies through the establishment of the Inquisition in 1184.They included the Cathar churches of Western Europe.", "Other groups sometimes referred to as \"neo-Manichaean\" were the Paulician movement, which arose in Armenia, and the Bogomils in Bulgaria and Serbia.", "An example of this usage can be found in the published edition of the Latin Cathar text, the ''Liber de duobus principiis'' (''Book of the Two Principles''), which was described as \"Neo-Manichaean\" by its publishers.", "As there is no presence of Manichaean mythology or church terminology in the writings of these groups, there has been some dispute among historians as to whether these groups were descendants of Manichaeism.Manichaeism could have influenced the Bogomils, Paulicians, and Cathars.", "However, these groups left few records, and the link between them and Manichaeans is tenuous.", "Regardless of its accuracy, the charge of Manichaeism was leveled at them by contemporary orthodox opponents, who often tried to make contemporary heresies conform to those combatted by the church fathers.Whether the dualism of the Paulicians, Bogomils, and Cathars and their belief that the world was created by a Satanic demiurge were due to influence from Manichaeism is impossible to determine.", "The Cathars apparently adopted the Manichaean principles of church organization.", "Priscillian and his followers may also have been influenced by Manichaeism.", "The Manichaeans preserved many apocryphal Christian works, such as the Acts of Thomas, that would otherwise have been lost.==== Legacy in present-day ====Some sites are preserved in Xinjiang, Zhejiang, and Fujian in China.", "The Cao'an temple is the most widely known, and best preserved Manichaean building, though it later became associated with Buddhism.", "Other temples in China, solely associated with Manichaeism also exist, such as the Xuanzhen Temple noted for its stele.Chinese Manichaeans continue to practice the faith, mainly in Fujian and Zhejiang.", "Some platforms on the internet and social media are trying to spread some of its teachings.", "Some people are registered in these electronic sources, and some scholars and students in the field of religious studies and the arts continue to study Manichaeism." ], [ "Teachings and beliefs", "Uyghur Manichaean clergymen, wall painting from the Khocho ruins, 10th/11th century CE.", "Located in the Museum für Asiatische Kunst, Humboldt Forum, Berlin.Worship of the Tree of Life in the World of Light; a Manichaean picture from the Bezeklik Caves=== General ===Mani's teaching dealt with the origin of evil, by addressing a theoretical part of the problem of evil by denying the omnipotence of God and postulating two opposite powers.", "Manichaean theology teaches a dualistic view of good and evil.", "A key belief in Manichaeism is that the powerful, though not omnipotent good power (God), was opposed by the eternal evil power (devil).", "Humanity, the world, and the soul are seen as the by-product of the battle between God's proxy, Primal Man, and the devil.The human person is seen as a battle-ground for these powers: the soul defines the person, but it is under the influence of both light and dark.", "This contention plays out over the world as well as the human body—neither the Earth nor the flesh were seen as intrinsically evil, but rather possessed portions of both light and dark.", "Natural phenomena (such as rain) were seen as the physical manifestation of this spiritual contention.", "Therefore, the Manichaean view explained the existence of evil by positing a flawed creation in the formation of which God took no part and which constituted rather the product of a battle by the devil against God.=== Cosmogony ===''Manichaean Diagram of the Universe'' depicts the Manichaean cosmology.Manichaeism presents an elaborate description of the conflict between the spiritual world of light and the material world of darkness.", "The beings of both the world of darkness and the world of light have names.", "There are numerous sources for the details of the Manichaean belief.", "These two portions of the scriptures are probably the closest thing to the original writings in their original languages that will ever be available.", "These are the Syriac quotation by the Church of the East Christian Theodore bar Konai in his 8th century Syriac scholion, the Ketba de-Skolion, and the Middle Persian sections of Mani's Shabuhragan discovered at Turpan (a summary of Mani's teachings prepared for Shapur I).From these and other sources, it is possible to derive an almost complete description of the detailed Manichaean vision (a complete list of Manichaean deities is outlined below).", "According to Mani, the unfolding of the universe takes place with three creations:; The First Creation: Originally, good and evil existed in two completely separate realms, one the World of Light (), ruled by the Father of Greatness together with his five Shekhinas (divine attributes of light), and the other the World of Darkness, ruled by the King of Darkness.", "At a certain point, the Kingdom of Darkness notices the World of Light, becomes greedy for it, and attacks it.", "The Father of Greatness, in the first of three \"creations\" (or \"calls\"), calls to the Mother of Life, who sends her son Original Man () to battle with the attacking powers of Darkness, which include the Demon of Greed.The Original Man is armed with five different shields of light (reflections of the five Shekhinas), which he loses to the forces of darkness in the ensuing battle, described as a kind of \"bait\" to trick the forces of darkness, as the forces of darkness greedily consume as much light as they can.", "When the Original Man comes to, he is trapped among the forces of darkness.", "; The Second Creation: Then the Father of Greatness begins the Second Creation, calling to the Living Spirit, who calls to his five sons, and sends a call to the Original Man (Call then becomes a Manichaean deity).", "An answer (Answer becomes another Manichaean deity) then returns from the Original Man to the World of Light.", "The Mother of Life, the Living Spirit, and his five sons begin to create the universe from the bodies of the evil beings of the World of Darkness, together with the light that they have swallowed.", "Ten heavens and eight earths are created, all consisting of various mixtures of the evil material beings from the World of Darkness and the swallowed light.", "The sun, moon, and stars are all created from light recovered from the World of Darkness.", "The waxing and waning of the moon is described as the moon filling with light, which passes to the sun, then through the Milky Way, and eventually back to the World of Light.", "; The Third Creation: Great demons (called archons in bar-Konai's account) are hung out over the heavens, and then the Father of Greatness begins the Third Creation' Light is recovered from out of the material bodies of the male and female evil beings and demons, by causing them to become sexually aroused in greed towards beautiful images of the beings of light, such as the Third Messenger and the Virgins of Light.", "However, as soon as the light is expelled from their bodies and falls to the earth (some in the form of abortions – the source of fallen angels in the Manichaean myth), the evil beings continue to swallow up as much of it as they can to keep the light inside of them.", "This results eventually in the evil beings swallowing huge quantities of light, copulating, and producing Adam and Eve.", "The Father of Greatness then sends Jesus the Splendour to awaken Adam, and to enlighten him to the true source of the light that is trapped in his material body.", "Adam and Eve, however, eventually copulate, and produce more human beings, trapping the light in bodies of mankind throughout human history.", "The appearance of the Prophet Mani was another attempt by the World of Light to reveal to mankind the true source of the spiritual light imprisoned within their material bodies.==== Cosmology ====In the sixth century, many Manichaeans saw \"the earth\" as \"a rectangular parallelepiped enclosed by walls of crystal, above which three sky domes\" existed, with the other two being above and larger than the first one and second one, respectively.", "These represented the \"three heavens\" in Chaldean religion.=== Outline of the beings and events in the Manichaean mythology ===Beginning with the time of its creation by Mani, the Manichaean religion has had a detailed description of deities and events that took place within the Manichaean scheme of the universe.", "In every language and region that Manichaeism spread to, these same deities reappear, whether it is in the original Syriac quoted by Theodore bar Konai, or the Latin terminology given by Saint Augustine from Mani's ''Epistola Fundamenti'', or the Persian and Chinese translations found as Manichaeism spread eastward.", "While the original Syriac retained the original description that Mani created, the transformation of the deities through other languages and cultures produced incarnations of the deities not implied in the original Syriac writings.", "Chinese translations are especially syncretic, borrowing and adapting terminology common in Chinese Buddhism.==== The World of Light ====* ''The Father of Greatness'' (Syriac: ''Abbā dəRabbūṯā''; Middle Persian: ''pīd ī wuzurgīh'', or the Zoroastrian deity ''Zurwān''; Parthian: ''Pidar wuzurgift, Pidar roshn''; or )** ''His Four Faces'' (Greek: ; )*** ''Divinity'' (Middle Persian: ''yzd''; Parthian: ''bg'''; )*** ''Light'' (Middle Persian and Parthian: ''rwšn''; )*** ''Power'' (Middle Persian: ''zwr''; Parthian: ''z’wr'''; )*** ''Wisdom'' (Middle Persian: ''whyh''; Parthian: ''jyryft'''; )** ''His Five Shekhinas'' (Syriac: ''khamesh shkhinatei''; Chinese: ): Shekhina: Reason Mind Intelligence Thought UnderstandingSyriac ''hawnā'' ''maddeā'' ''reyānā'' ''maḥšavṯɑ'' ''tariṯā''Parthian''bām''''manohmēd''''uš''''andēšišn''''parmānag''Chinese TurkicqutögköngülsaqinçtuimaqGreekνοῦς (Nous)ἔννοια (Ennoia)φρόνησις (Phronēsis)ἐνθύμησις (Enthymēsis)λογισμός (Logismos)Latinmenssensusprudentiaintellectuscogitatio* ''The Great Spirit'' (Middle Persian: ''Waxsh zindag, Waxsh yozdahr''; Latin: ''Spiritus Potens'')==== The first creation ====* ''The Mother of Life'' ( ''imā dəḥayyē''; ; )* ''The First Man'' ( ''Nāšā Qaḏmāyā''; , the Zoroastrian god of light and goodness; Latin: ''Primus Homo'')** ''First Enthymesis'' (; )** ''His five Sons'' (the five Light Elements; ; ; )*** ''Ether'' (; ; )*** ''Wind'' (Parthian and ; )*** ''Light'' (Parthian and ; )*** ''Water'' (Parthian and ; )*** ''Fire'' (Parthian and ; )** His sixth Son, the ''Answer-God'' ( ''anyā''; Parthian and ; ''Shì Zhì'' \"The Power of Wisdom\", a Chinese bodhisattva).", "The answer sent by the ''First Man'' to the ''Call'' from the World of Light.", "* ''The Living Self'' (Parthian and , ; ) The ''anima mundi'' made up of the five Light Elements, identical with the Suffering Jesus who is crucified in the world.==== The second creation ====* ''The Friend of the Lights'' ( ''ḥaviv nehirē''; ) Calls to:* ''The Great Builder'' ( ''ban rabbā''; ) In charge of creating the new world that will separate the darkness from the light.", "He calls to:* ''The Living Spirit'' ( ''ruḥā ḥayyā''; ; ; ; ).", "Acts as a demiurge, creating the structure of the material world.", "** ''His five Sons'' ( ''ḥamšā benawhy''; )*** ''The Keeper of the Splendour'' ( ''ṣfat ziwā''; ; ).", "Holds up the ten heavens from above.", "*** ''The King of Glory'' ( ''mlex šuvḥā''; ; ''Dìzàng'' \"Earth Treasury\", a Chinese bodhisattva).", "*** ''The Adamas of Light'' ( ''adamus nuhrā''; ; ).", "Fights with and overcomes an evil being in the image of the King of Darkness.", "*** ''The Great King of Honour'' ( ''malkā rabbā dikkārā''; Dead Sea Scrolls ''malka raba de-ikara''; ; ).", "A being that plays a central role in The Book of Enoch (originally written in Aramaic), as well as Mani's Syriac version of it, the Book of Giants.", "Sits in the seventh heaven of the ten heavens (corresponding to the celestial spheres, the first seven of which house the classical planets) and guards the entrance to the world of light.", "*** ''Atlas'' ( ''sebblā''; ; ).", "Supports the eight worlds from below.", "** His sixth Son, the ''Call-God'' ( ''qaryā''; ; ''Guanyin'' \"watching/perceiving sounds of the world\", the Chinese Bodhisattva of Compassion).", "Sent from the Living Spirit to awaken the First Man from his battle with the forces of darkness.==== The third creation ====* ''The Third Messenger'' ( ''izgaddā''; , ; )* ''Jesus the Splendour'' ( ''Isho Ziwā''; or ).", "Sent to awaken Adam and Eve to the source of the spiritual light trapped within their physical bodies.", "* ''The Maiden of Light'' (Middle Persian and ; , a phonetic loan from Middle Persian)* ''The Twelve Virgins of Light'' ( ''tratesrā btultē''; ; ).", "Reflected in the twelve constellations of the Zodiac.", "* ''The Column of Glory'' ( ''esṭun šuvḥā''; ; and , '''', both phonetic from ).", "The path that souls take back to the World of Light; corresponds to the Milky Way.", "* ''The Great Nous''** ''His five Limbs'' () (See \"His Five Shekhinas\" above.", ")*** ''Reason''*** ''Mind''*** ''Intelligence''*** ''Thought''*** ''Understanding''* ''The Just Judge'' (; )* ''The Last God''==== The World of Darkness ====* ''The Prince of Darkness'' (Syriac: ''mlex ḥešoxā''; Middle Persian: ''Ahriman'', the Zoroastrian supreme evil being)** ''His five evil kingdoms'' Evil counterparts of the five elements of light, the lowest being the kingdom of Darkness.", "** ''His son'' (Syriac: ''Ashaklun''; Middle Persian: ''Az'', from the Zoroastrian demon, ''Aži Dahāka'')** ''His son's mate'' (Syriac: ''Nevro'el'')** Their offspring – ''Adam and Eve'' (Middle Persian: ''Gehmurd'' and ''Murdiyanag'')* ''Giants'' (Fallen Angels, also Abortions): (Syriac: ''yaḥtē'', \"abortions\" or \"those that fell\"; also: ; ''Egrēgoroi'', \"Giants\").", "Related to the story of the fallen angels in the Book of Enoch (which Mani used extensively in The Book of Giants), and the ''nephilim'' described in Genesis (6:1–4)." ], [ "The Manichaean Church", "=== Organization ===The Manichaean Church was divided into the Elect, who had taken upon themselves the vows of Manichaeism, and the Hearers, those who had not, but still participated in the Church.", "The Elect were forbidden to consume alcohol and meat, as well as to harvest crops or prepare food, due to Mani's claim that harvesting was a form of murder against plants.", "The Hearers would therefore commit the sin of preparing food, and would provide it to the Elect, who would in turn pray for the Hearers and cleanse them of these sins.The terms for these divisions were already common since the days of early Christianity, however, it had a different meaning in Christianity.", "In Chinese writings, the Middle Persian and Parthian terms are transcribed phonetically (instead of being translated into Chinese).", "These were recorded by Augustine of Hippo.", "* The Leader (Syriac: ܟܗܢܐ ; Parthian: ''yamag''; ), Mani's designated successor, seated as Patriarch at the head of the Church, originally in Ctesiphon, from the ninth century in Samarkand.", "Two notable leaders were Mār Sīsin (or Sisinnios), the first successor of Mani, and Abū Hilāl al-Dayhūri, an eighth-century leader.", "* 12 Apostles (Latin: ''magistrī''; Syriac: ܫܠܝܚܐ ; Middle Persian: ''možag''; ).", "Three of Mani's original apostles were Mār Pattī (Pattikios; Mani's father), Akouas and Mar Ammo.", "* 72 Bishops (Latin: ''episcopī''; Syriac: ܐܦܣܩܘܦܐ ; Middle Persian: ''aspasag'', ''aftadan''; or ; see also: seventy disciples).", "One of Mani's original disciples who was specifically referred to as a bishop was Mār Addā.", "* 360 Presbyters (Latin: ''presbyterī''; Syriac: ܩܫܝܫܐ ; Middle Persian: ''mahistan''; )* The general body of the Elect (Latin: ''ēlēctī''; Syriac: ܡܫܡܫܢܐ ; Middle Persian: ''ardawan'' or ''dēnāwar''; or )* The Hearers (Latin: ''audītōrēs''; Syriac: ܫܡܘܥܐ ; Middle Persian: ''niyoshagan''; )" ], [ "Religious practices", "=== Prayers ===Evidently from Manichaean sources, Manichaeans observed daily prayers, either four for the hearers or seven for the elect.", "The sources differ about the exact time of prayer.", "The ''Fihrist'' by al-Nadim, points them after noon, mid-afternoon, just after sunset and at nightfall.", "Al-Biruni places the prayers at dawn, sunrise, noon, and nightfall.", "The elect additionally pray at mid-afternoon, half an hour after nightfall and at midnight.", "Al-Nadim's account of daily prayers is probably adjusted to coincide with the public prayers for the Muslims, while Al-Birunis report may reflect an older tradition unaffected by Islam.When Al-Nadim's account of daily prayers had been the only detailed source available, there was a concern that these practises had been only adapted by Muslims during the Abbasid Caliphate.", "However, it is clear that the Arabic text provided by Al-Nadim corresponds with the descriptions of Egyptian texts from the fourth century.Every prayer started with an ablution with water or, if water was not available, with other substances comparable to ablution in Islam and consisted of several blessings to the apostles and spirits.", "The prayer consisted of prostrating oneself to the ground and rising again twelve times during every prayer.", "During day, Manichaeans turned towards the Sun and during night towards the Moon.", "If the Moon is not visible at night, they turned towards north.Evident from Faustus of Mileve, Celestial bodies are not the subject of worship themselves, but are \"ships\" carrying the light particles of the world to the supreme god, who can not be seen, since he exists beyond time and space, and also the dwelling places for emanations of the supreme deity, such as Jesus the Splendour.", "According to the writings of Augustine of Hippo, ten prayers were performed, the first devoted to the Father of Greatness, and the following to lesser deities, spirits and angels and finally towards the elect, in order to be freed from rebirth and pain and to attain peace in the realm of light.", "Comparably, in the Uyghur confession, four prayers are directed to the supreme God (''Äzrua''), the God of the Sun and the Moon, and fivefold God and the buddhas." ], [ "Primary sources", "An image of the Buddha as one of the primary prophets on a Manichaean pictorial roll fragment from Chotscho, 10th century.Mani wrote seven books, which contained the teachings of the religion.", "Only scattered fragments and translations of the originals remain, most having been discovered in Egypt and Turkistan during the 20th century.The original six Syriac writings are not preserved, although their Syriac names have been.", "There are also fragments and quotations from them.", "A long quotation, preserved by the eighth-century Nestorian Christian author Theodore Bar Konai, shows that in the original Syriac Aramaic writings of Mani there was no influence of Iranian or Zoroastrian terms.", "The terms for the Manichaean deities in the original Syriac writings are in Aramaic.", "The adaptation of Manichaeism to the Zoroastrian religion appears to have begun in Mani's lifetime however, with his writing of the Middle Persian ''Shabuhragan'', his book dedicated to the Sasanian emperor, Shapur I.In it, there are mentions of Zoroastrian divinities such as Ahura Mazda, Angra Mainyu, and Āz.", "Manichaeism is often presented as a Persian religion, mostly due to the vast number of Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian (as well as Turkish) texts discovered by German researchers near Turpan in what is now Xinjiang, China, during the early 1900s.", "However, from the vantage point of its original Syriac descriptions (as quoted by Theodore Bar Khonai and outlined above), Manichaeism may be better described as a unique phenomenon of Aramaic Babylonia, occurring in proximity to two other new Aramaic religious phenomena, Talmudic Judaism and Mandaeism, which also appeared in Babylonia in roughly the third century.The original, but now lost, six sacred books of Manichaeism were composed in Syriac Aramaic, and translated into other languages to help spread the religion.", "As they spread to the east, the Manichaean writings passed through Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, Tocharian, and ultimately Uyghur and Chinese translations.", "As they spread to the west, they were translated into Greek, Coptic, and Latin.", "Most Manichaean texts survived only as Coptic and Medieval Chinese translations of their original, lost versions.Buddha of Light\" in Cao'an Temple in Jinjiang, Fujian, \"a Manichaean temple in Buddhist disguise\", which is considered \"the only extant Manichean temple in China\"Henning describes how this translation process evolved and influenced the Manichaeans of Central Asia:=== Originally written in Syriac ===* the ''Gospel of Mani'' (Syriac: ܐܘܢܓܠܝܘܢ ; \"good news, gospel\").", "Quotations from the first chapter were brought in Arabic by ibn al-Nadim, who lived in Baghdad at a time when there were still Manichaeans living there, in his 938 book, the ''Fihrist'', a catalog of all written books known to him.", "* ''The Treasure of Life''* ''The Treatise'' (Coptic: πραγματεία, ''pragmateia'')* ''Secrets''* ''The Book of Giants'': Original fragments were discovered at Qumran (pre-Manichaean) and Turpan.", "* Epistles: Augustine brings quotations, in Latin, from Mani's ''Fundamental Epistle'' in some of his anti-Manichaean works.", "* Psalms and Prayers: A Coptic Manichaean Psalm Book, discovered in Egypt in the early 1900s, was edited and published by Charles Allberry from Manichaean manuscripts in the Chester Beatty collection and in the Berlin Academy, 1938–9.=== Originally written in Middle Persian ===* The ''Shabuhragan'', dedicated to Shapur I: Original Middle Persian fragments were discovered at Turpan, quotations were brought in Arabic by al-Biruni.=== Other books ===* The ''Ardahang'', the \"Picture Book\".", "In Iranian tradition, this was one of Mani's holy books that became remembered in later Persian history, and was also called ''Aržang'', a Parthian word meaning \"Worthy\", and was beautified with paintings.", "Therefore, Iranians gave him the title of \"The Painter\".", "* The Kephalaia of the Teacher (), \"Discourses\", found in Coptic translation.", "* ''On the Origin of His Body'', the title of the Cologne Mani-Codex, a Greek translation of an Aramaic book that describes the early life of Mani.===Non-Manichaean works preserved by the Manichaean Church===* Portions of the Book of Enoch literature such as the Book of Giants* Literature relating to the apostle Thomas (who by tradition went to India, and was also venerated in Syria), such as portions of the Syriac The Acts of Thomas, and the Psalms of Thomas.", "The Gospel of Thomas was also attributed to Manichaeans by Cyril of Jerusalem, a fourth-century Church Father.", "* The legend of Barlaam and Josaphat passed from an Indian story about the Buddha, through a Manichaean version, before it transformed into the story of a Christian Saint in the west.=== Later works ===摩尼教文獻 The Chinese Manichaean \"Compendium\"Two female musicians depicted in a Manichaean textIn later centuries, as Manichaeism passed through eastern Persian-speaking lands and arrived at the Uyghur Khaganate (回鶻帝國), and eventually the Uyghur kingdom of Turpan (destroyed around 1335), Middle Persian and Parthian prayers (''āfrīwan'' or ''āfurišn'') and the Parthian hymn-cycles (the ''Huwīdagmān'' and ''Angad Rōšnan'' created by Mar Ammo) were added to the Manichaean writings.", "A translation of a collection of these produced the ''Manichaean Chinese Hymnscroll'' (, which Lieu translates as \"Hymns for the Lower Section i.e.", "the Hearers of the Manichaean Religion\").In addition to containing hymns attributed to Mani, it contains prayers attributed to Mani's earliest disciples, including Mār Zaku, Mār Ammo and Mār Sīsin.", "Another Chinese work is a complete translation of the ''Sermon of the Light Nous'', presented as a discussion between Mani and his disciple Adda.=== Critical and polemic sources ===Until discoveries in the 1900s of original sources, the only sources for Manichaeism were descriptions and quotations from non-Manichaean authors, either Christian, Muslim, Buddhist, or Zoroastrian ones.", "While often criticizing Manichaeism, they also quoted directly from Manichaean scriptures.", "This enabled Isaac de Beausobre, writing in the 18th century, to create a comprehensive work on Manichaeism, relying solely on anti-Manichaean sources.", "Thus quotations and descriptions in Greek and Arabic have long been known to scholars, as have the long quotations in Latin by Saint Augustine, and the extremely important quotation in Syriac by Theodore Bar Konai.==== Patristic depictions of Mani and Manichaeism ====Eusebius commented as follows:==== ''Acta Archelai'' ====An example of how inaccurate some of these accounts could be can be seen in the account of the origins of Manichaeism contained in the ''Acta Archelai''.", "This was a Greek anti-Manichaean work written before 348, most well known in its Latin version, which was regarded as an accurate account of Manichaeism until refuted by Isaac de Beausobre in the 18th century:In the time of the Apostles there lived a man named Scythianus, who is described as coming \"from Scythia\", and also as being \"a Saracen by race\" (\"ex genere Saracenorum\").", "He settled in Egypt, where he became acquainted with \"the wisdom of the Egyptians\", and invented the religious system that was afterwards known as Manichaeism.", "Finally he emigrated to Palestine, and, when he died, his writings passed into the hands of his sole disciple, a certain Terebinthus.", "The latter betook himself to Babylonia, assumed the name of Budda, and endeavoured to propagate his master's teaching.", "But he, like Scythianus, gained only one disciple, who was an old woman.", "After a while he died, in consequence of a fall from the roof of a house, and the books that he had inherited from Scythianus became the property of the old woman, who, on her death, bequeathed them to a young man named Corbicius, who had been her slave.", "Corbicius thereupon changed his name to Manes, studied the writings of Scythianus, and began to teach the doctrines that they contained, with many additions of his own.", "He gained three disciples, named Thomas, Addas, and Hermas.", "About this time the son of the Persian king fell ill, and Manes undertook to cure him; the prince, however, died, whereupon Manes was thrown into prison.", "He succeeded in escaping, but eventually fell into the hands of the king, by whose order he was flayed, and his corpse was hung up at the city gate.A.", "A. Bevan, who quoted this story, commented that it \"has no claim to be considered historical\".====View of Judaism in the ''Acta Archelai'' ====According to Hegemonius' portrayal of Mani, the evil demiurge who created the world was the Jewish Jehovah.", "Hegemonius reports that Mani said,=== Central Asian and Iranian primary sources ===In the early 1900s, original Manichaean writings started to come to light when German scholars led by Albert Grünwedel, and then by Albert von Le Coq, began excavating at Gaochang, the ancient site of the Manichaean Uyghur Kingdom near Turpan, in Chinese Turkestan (destroyed around AD 1300).", "While most of the writings they uncovered were in very poor condition, there were still hundreds of pages of Manichaean scriptures, written in three Iranian languages (Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian) and old Uyghur.", "These writings were taken back to Germany and were analyzed and published at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, by Le Coq and others, such as Friedrich W. K. Müller and Walter Bruno Henning.", "While the vast majority of these writings were written in a version of the Syriac script known as Manichaean script, the German researchers, perhaps for lack of suitable fonts, published most of them using the Hebrew alphabet (which could easily be substituted for the 22 Syriac letters).Perhaps the most comprehensive of these publications was (''Manichaean Dogma from Chinese and Iranian texts''), by Ernst Waldschmidt and Wolfgang Lentz, published in Berlin in 1933.More than any other research work published before or since, this work printed, and then discussed, the original key Manichaean texts in the original scripts, and consists chiefly of sections from Chinese texts, and Middle Persian and Parthian texts transcribed with the Hebrew alphabet.", "After the Nazi Party gained power in Germany, the Manichaean writings continued to be published during the 1930s, but the publishers no longer used Hebrew letters, instead transliterating the texts into Latin letters.=== Coptic primary sources ===Additionally, in 1930, German researchers in Egypt found a large body of Manichaean works in Coptic.", "Though these were also damaged, hundreds of complete pages survived and, beginning in 1933, were analyzed and published in Berlin before World War II, by German scholars such as Hans Jakob Polotsky.", "Some of these Coptic Manichaean writings were lost during the war.=== Chinese primary sources ===After the success of the German researchers, French scholars visited China and discovered what is perhaps the most complete set of Manichaean writings, written in Chinese.", "These three Chinese writings, all found at the Mogao Caves among the Dunhuang manuscripts, and all written before the 9th century, are today kept in London, Paris, and Beijing.", "Some of the scholars involved with their initial discovery and publication were Édouard Chavannes, Paul Pelliot, and Aurel Stein.", "The original studies and analyses of these writings, along with their translations, first appeared in French, English, and German, before and after World War II.", "The complete Chinese texts themselves were first published in Tokyo, Japan in 1927, in the Taishō Tripiṭaka, volume 54.While in the last thirty years or so they have been republished in both Germany (with a complete translation into German, alongside the 1927 Japanese edition), and China, the Japanese publication remains the standard reference for the Chinese texts.=== Greek life of Mani, Cologne codex ===In Egypt, a small codex was found and became known through antique dealers in Cairo.", "It was purchased by the University of Cologne in 1969.Two of its scientists, Henrichs and Koenen, produced the first edition known since as the Cologne Mani-Codex, which was published in four articles in the .", "The ancient papyrus manuscript contained a Greek text describing the life of Mani.", "Thanks to this discovery, much more is known about the man who founded one of the most influential world religions of the past." ], [ "Figurative use", "The terms \"Manichaean\" and \"Manichaeism\" are sometimes used figuratively as a synonym of the more general term \"dualist\" with respect to a philosophy, outlook, or world-view.", "The terms are often used to suggest that the world-view in question simplistically reduces the world to a struggle between good and evil.", "For example, Zbigniew Brzezinski used the phrase \"Manichaean paranoia\" in reference to U.S. president George W. Bush's world-view (in ''The Daily Show with Jon Stewart'', 14 March 2007); Brzezinski elaborated that he meant \"the notion that he Bush is leading the forces of good against the 'Axis of evil.", "Author and journalist Glenn Greenwald followed up on the theme in describing Bush in his book ''A Tragic Legacy'' (2007).The term is frequently used by critics to describe the attitudes and foreign policies of the United States and its leaders.Philosopher Frantz Fanon frequently invoked the concept of Manicheanism in his discussions of violence between colonizers and the colonized.In ''My Secret History'', author Paul Theroux's protagonist defines the word Manichaean for the protagonist's son as \"seeing that good and evil are mingled.\"", "Before explaining the word to his son, the protagonist mentions Joseph Conrad's short story \"The Secret Sharer\" at least twice in the book, the plot of which also examines the idea of the duality of good and evil." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Baker-Brian, Nicholas J.", "(2011).", "''Manichaeism: An Ancient Faith Rediscovered.''", "London and New York.", "T&T Clark.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * (Cahiers D'Orientalism XVI) 1988a* (Cahiers D'Orientalism XVI) 1988b.", "*Grousset, Rene (1939), tr.", "Walford, Naomi (1970), ''The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia'', New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers..* (Original Manichaean manuscripts found since 1902 in China, Egypt, Turkestan to be seen in the Museum of Indian Art in Berlin.", ")* Heinrichs, Albert; Ludwig Koenen, ''Ein griechischer Mani-Kodex'', 1970 (ed.)", "''Der Kölner Mani-Codex'' ( P. Colon.", "Inv.", "nr.", "4780), 1975–1982.", "* La Vaissière, Etienne de, \"Mani en Chine au VIe siècle\", ''Journal Asiatique'', 293–1, 2005, p. 357–378.", "* reprinted in two volumes bound as one* * * Mani (216–276/7) and his 'biography': the Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis (CMC):* * * * Towers, Susanna (2019).", "''Constructions of Gender in Late Antique Manichaean Cosmological Narrative.''", "Brepols.", "Turnhout.", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*Scheftelowitz, J.", "Is Manicheism an Iranic Religion?", "Part I.", "1924." ], [ "External links", "=== Outside articles ===* Catholic Encyclopedia – Manichæism public domain, published 1917.", "* International Association of Manichaean Studies* Manichaean and Christian Remains in Zayton (Quanzhou, South China) * Religions of Iran: Manichaeism by I.J.S.", "Taraporewala* 专题研究–摩尼教研究 * 《光明皇帝》明尊教背景书(1)=== Manichaean sources in English translation ===* A summary of the Manichaean creation myth* Manichaean Writings* Manicheism.", "Complete bibliography and selection of Manichaean source texts in PDF format:** A thorough bibliography and outline of Manichaean Studies** A number of key Manichaean texts in English translation* The Book of the Giants by W.B.", "Henning, 1943* Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies (NHMS) series from Brill (various volumes containing English translations of Manichaean texts)=== Secondary Manichaean sources in English translation ===* St. Augustine Against the Fundamental Epistle of Manichaeus* Acta Archelai=== Manichaean sources in their original languages ===* Photos of the Entire Koeln Mani-Kodex (Greek).", "* The Syriac Manichaean work quoted by Theodor bar Khonai* Photos of the Original Middle Persian Manichaean Writings/Fragments Discovered at Turpan (The index of this German site can be searched for additional Manichaean material, including photos of the original Chinese Manichaean writings)* \"Sermon of the Soul\", in Parthian and Sogdian * Middle Persian and Parthian Texts* D. N. MacKenzie, ''Mani's Šābuhragān'', pt.", "1 (text and translation), BSOAS 42/3, 1979, pp.", "500–34, pt.", "2 (glossary and plates), BSOAS 43/2, 1980, pp.", "288–310 .", "* Chinese Manichaean Scriptures: 摩尼教殘經一 (\"Incomplete Sutra one of Manichaeism\") & 摩尼光佛教法儀略(\"The Mani Bright Buddha teaching plan\") & 下部讚(\"The Lower Part Praises\")=== Secondary Manichaean sources in their original languages ===* Augustine's Contra Epistolam Manichaei (Latin)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moroccan cuisine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Moroccan cuisine''' () is the cuisine of Morocco, fueled by interactions and exchanges with many cultures and nations over the centuries.", "Moroccan cuisine is usually a mix of Berber, Andalusi, Mediterranean, and Arab cuisines, with minimal European (French and Spanish) and sub-Saharan influences.", "Like the rest of the Maghrebi cuisine, Moroccan cuisine has more in common with Middle Eastern cuisine than with the rest of Africa.According to Moroccan chef and cuisine researcher Hossin Houari, the oldest traces of Moroccan cuisine that can still be observed today go back to the 7th century BC." ], [ "Ingredients", "Morocco produces a large range of Mediterranean fruits and vegetables, as well as tropical products like snails.", "Common meats include beef, goat, mutton and lamb, which, together with chicken and seafood, serve as a base for the cuisine.", "Characteristic flavorings include lemon pickle, argan oil, preserved butter (smen), olive oil, and dried fruits.The staple grains today are rice and wheat, used for bread and couscous, though until the mid-20th century, barley was an important staple, especially in the south.", "Grapes are mostly eaten fresh, as a dessert; wine consumption is only about 1 liter per capita per year.", "The traditional cooking fats are butter and animal fat, though olive oil is now replacing them.", "Butter is used both fresh, ''zebeda'', and preserved, ''smen''." ], [ "Flavorings", "Spices and ras el hanout are used extensively in Moroccan food.", "Although some spices have been imported to Morocco through the Arabs, introducing Persian and Arabic cooking influences, many ingredients—like saffron from Talaouine, mint and olives from Meknes, and oranges and lemons from Fes—are home-grown, and are being exported.", "After the Idrissids established Fes in 789, predominant in Arab culture, many spices were brought from the east.", "Common spices include cinnamon, cumin, turmeric, ginger, paprika, coriander, saffron, mace, cloves, fennel, anise, nutmeg, cayenne pepper, fenugreek, caraway, black pepper and sesame seeds.", "Twenty-seven spices are combined for the Moroccan spice mixture ''ras el hanout''.Common herbs in Moroccan cuisine include mint, parsley, coriander, oregano, peppermint, marjoram, verbena, sage and bay laurel." ], [ "Structure of meals", "''Khudenjal'', an herbal tea based on ''Alpinia officinarum,'' and two types of sellou at Jemaa el-Fnaa in Marrakesh.A typical lunch begins with a series of hot and cold salads, followed by a ''tagine'' or ''dwaz''.", "Often, for a formal meal, a lamb or chicken dish is next, or couscous topped with meat and vegetables.", "Traditionally, Moroccans eat with their hands and use bread.", "The consumption of pork and alcohol is uncommon due to religious restrictions." ], [ "Main dishes", "Couscous with vegetables, meat, and ''tfaya'', a confection of caramelized onions, raisins, sugar, butter, and cinnamon.The main Moroccan dish people are most familiar with is couscous; lamb is the most commonly eaten meat in Morocco, usually eaten in a ''tagine'' with a wide selection of vegetables.", "Chicken is also very commonly used in ''tagines'' or roasted.", "They also use additional ingredients such as plums, boiled eggs, and lemon.", "Like their national food, the ''tagine'' has a unique taste of popular spices such as saffron, cumin, cinnamon, ginger, and cilantro, as well as ground red pepper.Moroccan cuisine has ample seafood dishes.", "European pilchard is caught in large but declining quantities.", "Other fish species include mackerel, anchovy, sardinella, and horse mackerel.Other famous Moroccan dishes are ''pastilla'' (also spelled ''basteeya'' or ''bestilla''), ''tanjia'', and ''rfissa''.Tagine-cooked chicken and vegetables with mint tea and khobz el-dâr.|leftA big part of the daily meal is bread.", "Bread in Morocco is principally made from durum wheat semolina known as ''khobz''.", "Bakeries are very common throughout Morocco and fresh bread is a staple in every city, town, and village.", "The most common is whole-grain coarse ground or white-flour bread or baguettes.", "There are also a number of flat breads and pulled unleavened pan-fried breads.In addition, there are dried salted meats and salted preserved meats such as ''khlea'' and ''g'did'' (basically sheep bacon), which are used to flavor ''tagines'' or used in ''el rghaif'', a folded savory Moroccan pancake." ], [ "Soups", "''Harira'', a typical heavy soup, is eaten during winter to warm up and is usually served for dinner.", "It is typically eaten with plain bread or with dates during the month of Ramadan.", "''Bissara'' is a broad bean-based soup that is also consumed during the colder months of the year.Moroccan Snail Soup, also known as \"Beboush,\" is a traditional delicacy in Moroccan cuisine.", "This unique and flavorful dish is a beloved part of Moroccan street food culture and can be found in bustling marketplaces throughout the country.", "It is made by simmering tender snails in a fragrant broth infused with a medley of aromatic spices, including cumin, coriander, and mint.", "The result is a savory and slightly spicy soup that offers a true taste of Morocco.", "Moroccan Snail Soup is a testament to the rich and diverse culinary heritage of the country, enticing locals and adventurous travelers alike with its bold flavors and cultural significance." ], [ "Salads", "''Salad asorti'', served in Beni MellalSalads include both raw and cooked vegetables, served either hot or cold.", "include ''zaalouk,'' an aubergine and tomato mixture, and ''taktouka'' (a mixture of tomatoes, smoked green peppers, garlic, and spices) characteristic of the cities of Taza and Fes, in the Atlas.", "Another cold salad is called ''bakoula'', or ''khoubiza'', consisting of braised mallow leaves, but can also be made with spinach or arugula, with parsley, cilantro, lemon, olive oil, and olives." ], [ "Desserts", "Moroccan traditional cookies seller in the old Medina in MarrakechUsually, seasonal fruits rather than cooked desserts are served at the close of a meal.", "A common dessert is ''kaab el ghzal'' (, ''gazelle ankles''), a pastry stuffed with almond paste and topped with sugar.", "Another is ''halwa chebakia'', pretzel-shaped dough deep-fried, soaked in honey and sprinkled with sesame seeds; it is eaten during the month of Ramadan.", "''Jowhara'' is a delicacy typical of Fes, made with fried ''waraq'' pastry, cream, and toasted almond slices.", "Coconut fudge cakes, 'Zucre Coco', are popular also." ], [ "Seafood", "Morocco is endowed with over 3000 km of coastline.", "There is an abundance of fish in these coastal waters with the sardine being commercially significant as Morocco is the world's largest exporter.", "Sardines were used in the production of garum in Lixus.At Moroccan fish markets one can find sole, swordfish, tuna, turbot, mackerel, shrimp, conger eel, skate, red snapper, spider crab, lobster and a variety of mollusks.In Moroccan cuisine, seafood is incorporated into, among others, ''tajines'', ''bastilla'', ''briouat'', and ''paella''.Seafood for sale at Casablanca's Central Market" ], [ "Drinks", "Moroccan mint teacafé crème''), served at a café in Casablanca.The most popular drink is Moroccan mint tea, locally called ''atay''.", "Traditionally, making good mint tea in Morocco is considered an art form and the drinking of it with friends and family is often a daily tradition.", "The pouring technique is as crucial as the quality of the tea itself.", "Moroccan tea pots have long, curved pouring spouts and this allows the tea to be poured evenly into tiny glasses from a height.", "For the best taste, glasses are filled in two stages.", "The Moroccans traditionally like tea with bubbles, so while pouring they hold the teapot high above the glasses.", "Finally, the tea is accompanied with hard sugar cones or lumps.", "Morocco has an abundance of oranges and tangerines, so fresh orange juice is easily found and inexpensive." ], [ "Snacks and fast food", "Selling fast food in the street has long been a tradition, and the best example is Djemaa el Fna square in Marrakech.", "''Ma'quda'' is a potato fritter popular among students and people of modest means, particularly in Fes.", "Starting in the 1980s, new snack restaurants, primarily in the north, started serving ''bocadillos'' (a Spanish word for a sandwich).Dairy product shops locally called ''mhlaba'' (), are very prevalent all around the country.", "Those dairy stores generally offer all types of dairy products, juices, smoothies, and local fare such as bocadillos, ''msemmen'' and ''harcha''.The ''khanz u-bnīn'' ( \"stinky and delicious\") is a cheap and popular street sandwich.Another popular street food in Morocco is snails, served in their juices in small bowls, and eaten using a toothpick.In the late 1990s, several multinational fast-food franchises opened restaurants in major cities." ], [ "Chefs", "Among those who have brought Moroccan cuisine to a wider audience are TV chef Choumicha and Al-Amīn al-Hajj Mustafa an-Nakīr, chef to the former king of Morocco Hassan II." ], [ "See also", "* Arab cuisine* Beer in Morocco* Culture of Morocco* History of Morocco* List of Moroccan dishes* Tourism in Morocco* Languages in Morocco* Jewish cuisine* List of African cuisines* Mediterranean cuisine* Maghrebi cuisine" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*=== Recipe books ===* ''Connaître la cuisine marocaine'', by Liliane Otal, Editions SudOuest, 1999 (in French).", "* ''Cooking at the Kasbah: Recipes from My Moroccan Kitchen'', by Kitty Morse, Laurie Smith * ''Couscous and Other Good Food from Morocco'', by Paula Wolfert, Gael Greene * ''Cuisine des palais d'orient'', by Alain Mordelet * ''Food of Morocco: Authentic Recipes from the North African Coast'', by Fatema Hal * ''Scent of Orange Blossoms: Sephardic Cuisine from Morocco'', by Kitty Morse, Owen Morse * ''Traditional Moroccan Cooking: Recipes from Fez'', by Madame Guinaudeau" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Martin Van Buren" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Martin Van Buren''' ( ; ; December 5, 1782 – July 24, 1862) was an American lawyer, diplomat, and statesman who served as the eighth president of the United States from 1837 to 1841.A primary founder of the Democratic Party, he served as New York's attorney general and U.S. senator, then briefly as the ninth governor of New York before joining Andrew Jackson's administration as the tenth United States secretary of state, minister to Great Britain, and ultimately the eighth vice president when named Jackson's running mate for the 1832 election.", "Van Buren won the presidency in 1836 against divided Whig opponents, the first president of non-Anglo-Saxon heritage and so far the only speaking English as a second language.", "Van Buren lost re-election in 1840, and failed to win the Democratic nomination in 1844.Later in his life, Van Buren emerged as an elder statesman and an important anti-slavery leader who led the Free Soil Party ticket in the 1848 presidential election.Van Buren was born in Kinderhook, New York, where most residents were of Dutch descent and spoke Dutch as their primary language; he is the only president to have spoken English as a second language.", "Trained as a lawyer, he entered politics as a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, won a seat in the New York State Senate, and was elected to the United States Senate in 1821.As the leader of the Bucktails faction, Van Buren emerged as the most influential politician from New York in the 1820s and established a political machine known as the Albany Regency.", "He ran successfully for governor of New York to support Andrew Jackson's candidacy in the 1828 presidential election but resigned shortly after Jackson was inaugurated so he could accept appointment as Jackson's secretary of state.", "In the cabinet, Van Buren was a key Jackson advisor and built the organizational structure for the coalescing Democratic Party.", "He ultimately resigned to help resolve the Petticoat affair and briefly served as ambassador to Great Britain.", "At Jackson's behest, the 1832 Democratic National Convention nominated Van Buren for vice president, and he took office after the Democratic ticket won the 1832 presidential election.With Jackson's strong support and the organizational strength of the Democratic Party, Van Buren successfully ran for president in the 1836 presidential election.", "However, his popularity soon eroded because of his response to the Panic of 1837, which centered on his Independent Treasury system, a plan under which the federal government of the United States would store its funds in vaults rather than in banks; more conservative Democrats and Whigs in Congress ultimately delayed his plan from being implemented until 1840.His presidency was further marred by the costly Second Seminole War and his refusal to admit Texas to the Union as a slave state.", "In 1840, Van Buren lost his re-election bid to William Henry Harrison.", "While Van Buren is praised for anti-slavery stances, in historical rankings, historians and political scientists often rank Van Buren as an average or below-average U.S. president, due to his handling of the Panic of 1837.Van Buren was initially the leading candidate for the Democratic Party's nomination again in 1844, but his continued opposition to the annexation of Texas angered Southern Democrats, leading to the nomination of James K. Polk.", "Growing opposed to slavery, Van Buren was the newly formed Free Soil Party's presidential nominee in 1848, and his candidacy helped Whig nominee Zachary Taylor defeat Democrat Lewis Cass.", "Worried about sectional tensions, Van Buren returned to the Democratic Party after 1848 but was disappointed with the pro-southern presidencies of Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan.", "During the American Civil War, Van Buren was a War Democrat who supported the policies of President Abraham Lincoln, a Republican.", "He died of asthma at his home in Kinderhook in 1862, aged 79." ], [ "Early life and education", "Van Buren's birthplace by John Warner BarberBaptism record indicating the Dutch spelling of Van Buren's first name, \"Maarten\"Martin Van Buren was born on December 5, 1782, in Kinderhook, New York, about south of Albany in the Hudson River valley.His father, Abraham Van Buren, was a descendant of Cornelis Maessen, a native of Buurmalsen, Netherlands who had emigrated to New Netherland in 1631 and purchased a plot of land on Manhattan Island.", "Van Buren was the first U.S. president without any British ancestry.", "Abraham Van Buren had been a Patriot during the American Revolution, and he later joined the Democratic-Republican Party.", "He owned an inn and tavern in Kinderhook and served as Kinderhook's town clerk for several years.", "In 1776, he married Maria Hoes (or Goes) Van Alen (1746–1818) in the town of Kinderhook, also of Dutch extraction and the widow of Johannes Van Alen (1744-c. 1773).", "She had three children from her first marriage, including future U.S. Representative James I.", "Van Alen.", "Her second marriage produced five children, of which Martin was the third.Van Buren received a basic education at the village schoolhouse, and briefly studied Latin at the Kinderhook Academy and at Washington Seminary in Claverack.", "Van Buren was raised speaking primarily Dutch and learned English while attending school; he is the only president of the United States whose first language was not English.", "Also during his childhood, Van Buren learned at his father's inn how to interact with people from varied ethnic, income, and societal groups, which he used to his advantage as a political organizer.", "His formal education ended in 1796, when he began reading law at the office of Peter Silvester and his son Francis.Van Buren, at tall, was small in stature, and affectionately nicknamed \"Little Van\".", "When he began his legal studies he wore rough, homespun clothing, causing the Silvesters to admonish him to pay greater heed to his clothing and personal appearance as an aspiring lawyer.", "He accepted their advice, and subsequently emulated the Silvesters' clothing, appearance, bearing, and conduct.", "The lessons he learned from the Silvesters were reflected in his career as a lawyer and politician, in which Van Buren was known for his amiability and fastidious appearance.", "Despite Kinderhook's strong affiliation with the Federalist Party, of which the Silvesters were also strong supporters, Van Buren adopted his father's Democratic-Republican leanings.", "The Silvesters and Democratic-Republican political figure John Peter Van Ness suggested that Van Buren's political leanings constrained him to complete his education with a Democratic-Republican attorney, so he spent a final year of apprenticeship in the New York City office of John Van Ness's brother William P. Van Ness, a political lieutenant of Aaron Burr.", "Van Ness introduced Van Buren to the intricacies of New York state politics, and Van Buren observed Burr's battles for control of the state Democratic-Republican party against George Clinton and Robert R. Livingston.", "He returned to Kinderhook in 1803, after his admission to the New York bar.Hannah Van BurenVan Buren married Hannah Hoes (or Goes) in Catskill, New York, on February 21, 1807.She was his childhood sweetheart and a daughter of his maternal first cousin, Johannes Dircksen Hoes.", "She grew up in Valatie, and like Van Buren her home life was primarily Dutch; she spoke Dutch as her first language, and spoke English with a marked accent.", "The couple had six children, four of whom lived to adulthood: Abraham (1807–1873), unnamed daughter (stillborn around 1809), John (1810–1866), Martin Jr. (1812–1855), Winfield Scott (born and died in 1814), and Smith Thompson (1817–1876).", "Hannah contracted tuberculosis, and died in Kinderhook on February 5, 1819, at age 35.Van Buren never remarried." ], [ "Early political career", "Painting of Van Buren by Daniel Dickinson, Upon returning to Kinderhook in 1803, Van Buren formed a law partnership with his half-brother, James Van Alen, and became financially secure enough to increase his focus on politics.", "Van Buren had been active in politics from age 18, if not before.", "In 1801, he attended a Democratic-Republican Party convention in Troy, New York, where he worked successfully to secure for John Peter Van Ness the party nomination in a special election for the 6th Congressional District seat.", "Upon returning to Kinderhook, Van Buren broke with the Burr faction, becoming an ally of both DeWitt Clinton and Daniel D. Tompkins.", "After the faction led by Clinton and Tompkins dominated the 1807 elections, Van Buren was appointed Surrogate of Columbia County, New York.", "Seeking a better base for his political and legal career, Van Buren and his family moved to the town of Hudson, the seat of Columbia County, in 1808.Van Buren's legal practice continued to flourish, and he traveled all over the state to represent various clients.In 1812, Van Buren won his party's nomination for a seat in the New York State Senate.", "Though several Democratic-Republicans, including John Peter Van Ness, joined with the Federalists to oppose his candidacy, Van Buren won election to the state senate in mid-1812.Later in the year, the United States entered the War of 1812 against Great Britain, while Clinton launched an unsuccessful bid to defeat President James Madison in the 1812 presidential election.", "After the election, Van Buren became suspicious that Clinton was working with the Federalist Party, and he broke from his former political ally.During the War of 1812, Van Buren worked with Clinton, Governor Tompkins, and Ambrose Spencer to support the Madison administration's prosecution of the war.", "In addition, he was a special judge advocate appointed to serve as a prosecutor of William Hull during Hull's court-martial following the surrender of Detroit.", "Anticipating another military campaign, he collaborated with Winfield Scott on ways to reorganize the New York Militia in the winter of 1814–1815, but the end of the war halted their work in early 1815.Van Buren was so favorably impressed by Scott that he named his fourth son after him.", "Van Buren's strong support for the war boosted his standing, and in 1815, he was elected to the position of New York Attorney General.", "Van Buren moved from Hudson to the state capital of Albany, where he established a legal partnership with Benjamin Butler, and shared a house with political ally Roger Skinner.", "In 1816, Van Buren won re-election to the state senate, and he would continue to simultaneously serve as both state senator and as the state's attorney general.", "In 1819, he played an active part in prosecuting the accused murderers of Richard Jennings, the first murder-for-hire case in the state of New York.===Albany regency===After Tompkins was elected as vice president in the 1816 presidential election, Clinton defeated Van Buren's preferred candidate, Peter Buell Porter, in the 1817 New York gubernatorial election.", "Clinton threw his influence behind the construction of the Erie Canal, an ambitious project designed to connect Lake Erie to the Atlantic Ocean.", "Though many of Van Buren's allies urged him to block Clinton's Erie Canal bill, Van Buren believed that the canal would benefit the state.", "His support for the bill helped it win approval from the New York legislature.", "Despite his support for the Erie Canal, Van Buren became the leader of an anti-Clintonian faction in New York known as the \"Bucktails\".The Bucktails succeeded in emphasizing party loyalty and used it to capture and control many patronage posts throughout New York.", "Through his use of patronage, loyal newspapers, and connections with local party officials and leaders, Van Buren established what became known as the \"Albany Regency\", a political machine that emerged as an important factor in New York politics.", "The Regency relied on a coalition of small farmers, but also enjoyed support from the Tammany Hall machine in New York City.", "During this era, Van Buren largely determined Tammany Hall's political policy for New York's Democratic-Republicans.A New York state referendum that expanded state voting rights to all white men in 1821, and which further increased the power of Tammany Hall, was guided by Van Buren.", "Although Governor Clinton remained in office until late 1822, Van Buren emerged as the leader of the state's Democratic-Republicans after the 1820 elections.", "Van Buren was a member of the 1820 state constitutional convention, where he favored expanded voting rights, but opposed universal suffrage and tried to maintain property requirements for voting.===Entry into national politics===In February 1821, the state legislature elected Van Buren to represent New York in the United States Senate.", "Van Buren arrived in Washington during the \"Era of Good Feelings\", a period in which partisan distinctions at the national level had faded.", "Van Buren quickly became a prominent figure in Washington, D.C., befriending Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford, among others.", "Though not an exceptional orator, Van Buren frequently spoke on the Senate floor, usually after extensively researching the subject at hand.", "Despite his commitments as a father and state party leader, Van Buren remained closely engaged in his legislative duties, and during his time in the Senate he served as the chairman of the Senate Finance Committee and the Senate Judiciary Committee.", "As he gained renown, Van Buren earned monikers like \"Little Magician\" and \"Sly Fox\".Van Buren chose to back Crawford over John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, and Henry Clay in the presidential election of 1824.Crawford shared Van Buren's affinity for Jeffersonian principles of states' rights and limited government, and Van Buren believed that Crawford was the ideal figure to lead a coalition of New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia's \"Richmond Junto\".", "Van Buren's support for Crawford aroused strong opposition in New York in the form of the People's party, which drew support from Clintonians, Federalists, and others opposed to Van Buren.", "Nonetheless, Van Buren helped Crawford win the Democratic-Republican party's presidential nomination at the February 1824 congressional nominating caucus.", "The other Democratic-Republican candidates in the race refused to accept the poorly attended caucus's decision, and as the Federalist Party had all but ceased to function as a national party, the 1824 campaign became a competition among four candidates of the same party.", "Though Crawford suffered a severe stroke that left him in poor health, Van Buren continued to support his chosen candidate.", "Van Buren met with Thomas Jefferson in May 1824 in an attempt to bolster Crawford's candidacy, and though he was unsuccessful in gaining a public endorsement for Crawford, he nonetheless cherished the chance to meet with his political hero.The 1824 elections dealt a severe blow to the Albany Regency, as Clinton returned to the governorship with the support of the People's party.", "By the time the state legislature convened to choose the state's presidential electors, results from other states had made it clear that no individual would win a majority of the electoral vote, necessitating a contingent election in the United States House of Representatives.", "While Adams and Jackson finished in the top three and were eligible for selection in the contingent election, New York's electors would help determine whether Clay or Crawford would finish third.", "Though most of the state's electoral votes went to Adams, Crawford won one more electoral vote than Clay in the state, and Clay's defeat in Louisiana left Crawford in third place.", "With Crawford still in the running, Van Buren lobbied members of the House to support him.", "He hoped to engineer a Crawford victory on the second ballot of the contingent election, but Adams won on the first ballot with the help of Clay and Stephen Van Rensselaer, a Congressman from New York.", "Despite his close ties with Van Buren, Van Rensselaer cast his vote for Adams, thus giving Adams a narrow majority of New York's delegation and a victory in the contingent election.After the House contest, Van Buren shrewdly kept out of the controversy which followed, and began looking forward to 1828.Jackson was angered to see the presidency go to Adams despite Jackson having won more popular votes than Adams had, and he eagerly looked forward to a rematch.", "Jackson's supporters accused Adams and Clay of having made a \"corrupt bargain\" in which Clay helped Adams win the contingent election in return for Clay's appointment as Secretary of State.", "Van Buren was always courteous in his treatment of opponents and showed no bitterness toward either Adams or Clay, and he voted to confirm Clay's nomination to the cabinet.", "At the same time, Van Buren opposed the Adams-Clay plans for internal improvements like roads and canals and declined to support U.S. participation in the Congress of Panama.", "Van Buren considered Adams's proposals to represent a return to the Hamiltonian economic model favored by Federalists, which he strongly opposed.", "Despite his opposition to Adams's public policies, Van Buren easily secured re-election in his divided home state in 1827.===1828 elections===Van Buren's overarching goal at the national level was to restore a two-party system with party cleavages based on philosophical differences, and he viewed the old divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans as beneficial to the nation.", "Van Buren believed that these national parties helped ensure that elections were decided on national, rather than sectional or local, issues; as he put it, \"party attachment in former times furnished a complete antidote for sectional prejudices\".", "After the 1824 election, Van Buren was initially somewhat skeptical of Jackson, who had not taken strong positions on most policy issues.", "Nonetheless, he settled on Jackson as the one candidate who could beat Adams in the 1828 presidential election, and he worked to bring Crawford's former backers into line behind Jackson.He also forged alliances with other members of Congress opposed to Adams, including Vice President John C. Calhoun, Senator Thomas Hart Benton, and Senator John Randolph.", "Seeking to solidify his standing in New York and bolster Jackson's campaign, Van Buren helped arrange the passage of the Tariff of 1828, which opponents labeled as the \"Tariff of Abominations\".", "The tariff was intended to protect northern and western agricultural products from foreign competition, but the resulting tax on imports cut into the profits of New England businessmen, who imported raw materials including iron to make into finished goods for subsequent resale, as well as finished goods including clothing for distribution and resale throughout the United States.", "The tariff also raised the cost of living in the South, because Southern states had little manufacturing capacity, which required them to export raw materials including cotton or sell them to Northern manufacturers, then import higher-priced finished goods or purchase them from the North.", "The tariff thus satisfied many who sought protection from foreign competition, but angered Southern cotton interests and New England importers and manufacturers.", "Because Van Buren believed the South would never support Adams, and New England would never support Jackson, he was willing to alienate both regions through passage of the tariff.Meanwhile, Clinton's death from a heart attack in 1828 dramatically shook up the politics of Van Buren's home state, while the Anti-Masonic Party emerged as an increasingly important factor.", "After some initial reluctance, Van Buren chose to run for Governor of New York in the 1828 election.", "Hoping that a Jackson victory would lead to his elevation to Secretary of State or Secretary of the Treasury, Van Buren chose Enos T. Throop as his running mate and preferred successor.", "Van Buren's candidacy was aided by the split between supporters of Adams, who had adopted the label of National Republicans, and the Anti-Masonic Party.Reflecting his public association with Jackson, Van Buren accepted the gubernatorial nomination on a ticket that called itself \"Jacksonian-Democrat\".", "He campaigned on local as well as national issues, emphasizing his opposition to the policies of the Adams administration.", "Van Buren ran ahead of Jackson, winning the state by 30,000 votes compared to a margin of 5,000 for Jackson.", "Nationally, Jackson defeated Adams by a wide margin, winning nearly every state outside of New England.", "After the election, Van Buren resigned from the Senate to start his term as governor, which began on January 1, 1829.While his term as governor was short, he did manage to pass the Bank Safety Fund Law, an early form of deposit insurance, through the legislature.", "He also appointed several key supporters, including William L. Marcy and Silas Wright, to important state positions." ], [ "Jackson administration (1829–1837)", "===Secretary of State===Mrs Floride Calhoun, a leader of the \"petticoats\"In February 1829, Jackson wrote to Van Buren to ask him to become Secretary of State.", "Van Buren quickly agreed, and he resigned as governor the following month; his tenure of forty-three days is the shortest of any Governor of New York.", "No serious diplomatic crises arose during Van Buren's tenure as Secretary of State, but he achieved several notable successes, such as settling long-standing claims against France and winning reparations for property that had been seized during the Napoleonic Wars.", "He reached an agreement with the British to open trade with the British West Indies colonies and concluded a treaty with the Ottoman Empire that gained American merchants access to the Black Sea.", "Items on which he did not achieve success included settling the Maine-New Brunswick boundary dispute with Great Britain, gaining settlement of the U.S. claim to the Oregon Country, concluding a commercial treaty with Russia, and persuading Mexico to sell Texas.In addition to his foreign policy duties, Van Buren quickly emerged as an important advisor to Jackson on major domestic issues like the tariff and internal improvements.", "The Secretary of State was instrumental in convincing Jackson to issue the Maysville Road veto, which both reaffirmed limited government principles and also helped prevent the construction of infrastructure projects that could potentially compete with New York's Erie Canal.", "He also became involved in a power struggle with Calhoun over appointments and other issues, including the Petticoat Affair.", "The Petticoat Affair arose because Peggy Eaton, wife of Secretary of War John H. Eaton, was ostracized by the other cabinet wives due to the circumstances of her marriage.Led by Floride Calhoun, wife of Vice President John Calhoun, the other cabinet wives refused to pay courtesy calls to the Eatons, receive them as visitors, or invite them to social events.", "As a widower, Van Buren was unaffected by the position of the cabinet wives.", "Van Buren initially sought to mend the divide in the cabinet, but most of the leading citizens in Washington continued to snub the Eatons.", "Jackson was close to Eaton, and he came to the conclusion that the allegations against Eaton arose from a plot against his administration led by Henry Clay.", "The Petticoat Affair, combined with a contentious debate over the tariff and Calhoun's decade-old criticisms of Jackson's actions in the First Seminole War, contributed to a split between Jackson and Calhoun.", "As the debate over the tariff and the proposed ability of South Carolina to nullify federal law consumed Washington, Van Buren, not Calhoun, increasingly emerged as Jackson's likely successor.The Petticoat affair was finally resolved when Van Buren offered to resign.", "In April 1831, Jackson accepted and reorganized his cabinet by asking for the resignations of the anti-Eaton cabinet members.", "Postmaster General William T. Barry, who had sided with the Eatons in the Petticoat Affair, was the lone cabinet member to remain in office.", "The cabinet reorganization removed Calhoun's allies from the Jackson administration, and Van Buren had a major role in shaping the new cabinet.", "After leaving office, Van Buren continued to play a part in the Kitchen Cabinet, Jackson's informal circle of advisors.===Ambassador to Britain and vice presidency===A painting of Van Buren by Francis Alexander,  1830In August 1831, Jackson gave Van Buren a recess appointment as the ambassador to Britain, and Van Buren arrived in London in September.", "He was cordially received, but in February 1832, he learned that the Senate had rejected his nomination.", "The rejection of Van Buren was essentially the work of Calhoun.", "When the vote on Van Buren's nomination was taken, enough pro-Calhoun Jacksonians refrained from voting to produce a tie, which allowed Calhoun to cast the deciding vote against Van Buren.Calhoun was elated, convinced that he had ended Van Buren's career.", "\"It will kill him dead, sir, kill him dead.", "He will never kick, sir, never kick\", Calhoun exclaimed to a friend.", "Calhoun's move backfired; by making Van Buren appear the victim of petty politics, Calhoun raised Van Buren in both Jackson's regard and the esteem of others in the Democratic Party.", "Far from ending Van Buren's career, Calhoun's action gave greater impetus to Van Buren's candidacy for vice president.Seeking to ensure that Van Buren would replace Calhoun as his running mate, Jackson had arranged for a national convention of his supporters.", "The May 1832 Democratic National Convention subsequently nominated Van Buren to serve as the party's vice presidential nominee.", "Van Buren won the nomination over Philip P. Barbour (Calhoun's favored candidate) and Richard Mentor Johnson due to the support of Jackson and the strength of the Albany Regency.", "Upon Van Buren's return from Europe in July 1832, he became involved in the Bank War, a struggle over the renewal of the charter of the Second Bank of the United States.Van Buren had long been distrustful of banks, and he viewed the bank as an extension of the Hamiltonian economic program, so he supported Jackson's veto of the bank's re-charter.", "Henry Clay, the presidential nominee of the National Republicans, made the struggle over the bank the key issue of the presidential election of 1832.The Jackson–Van Buren ticket won the 1832 election by a landslide, and Van Buren took office as vice president in March 1833.During the Nullification Crisis, Van Buren counseled Jackson to pursue a policy of conciliation with South Carolina leaders.", "He played little direct role in the passage of the Tariff of 1833, but he quietly hoped that the tariff would help bring an end to the Nullification Crisis, which it did.As vice president, Van Buren continued to be one of Jackson's primary advisors and confidants, and accompanied Jackson on his tour of the northeastern United States in 1833.Jackson's struggle with the Second Bank of the United States continued, as the president sought to remove federal funds from the bank.", "Though initially apprehensive of the removal due to congressional support for the bank, Van Buren eventually came to support Jackson's policy.", "He also helped undermine a fledgling alliance between Jackson and Daniel Webster, a senator from Massachusetts who could have potentially threatened Van Buren's project to create two parties separated by policy differences rather than personalities.", "During Jackson's second term, the president's supporters began to refer to themselves as members of the Democratic Party.", "Meanwhile, those opposed to Jackson, including Clay's National Republicans, followers of Calhoun and Webster, and many members of the Anti-Masonic Party, coalesced into the Whig Party.===Presidential election of 1836===President Andrew Jackson declined to seek another term in the 1836 presidential election, but he remained influential within the Democratic Party as his second term came to an end.", "Jackson was determined to help elect Van Buren in 1836 so that the latter could continue the Jackson administration's policies.", "The two men—the charismatic \"Old Hickory\" and the efficient \"Sly Fox\"—had entirely different personalities but had become an effective team in eight years in office together.", "With Jackson's support, Van Buren won the presidential nomination of the 1835 Democratic National Convention without opposition.", "Two names were put forward for the vice-presidential nomination: Representative Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky, and former Senator William Cabell Rives of Virginia.", "Southern Democrats, and Van Buren himself, strongly preferred Rives.", "Jackson, on the other hand, strongly preferred Johnson.", "Again, Jackson's considerable influence prevailed, and Johnson received the required two-thirds vote after New York Senator Silas Wright prevailed upon non-delegate Edward Rucker to cast the 15 votes of the absent Tennessee delegation in Johnson's favor.1836 electoral vote resultsVan Buren's competitors in the election of 1836 were three members of the Whig Party, which remained a loose coalition bound by mutual opposition to Jackson's anti-bank policies.", "Lacking the party unity or organizational strength to field a single ticket or define a single platform, the Whigs ran several regional candidates in hopes of sending the election to the House of Representatives.", "The three candidates were Hugh Lawson White of Tennessee, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, and William Henry Harrison of Indiana.", "Besides endorsing internal improvements and a national bank, the Whigs tried to tie Democrats to abolitionism and sectional tension, and attacked Jackson for \"acts of aggression and usurpation of power\".Southern voters represented the biggest potential impediment to Van Buren's quest for the presidency, as many were apprehensive at the prospect of a Northern president.", "Van Buren moved to obtain their support by assuring them that he opposed abolitionism and supported maintaining slavery in states where it already existed.", "To demonstrate consistency regarding his opinions on slavery, Van Buren cast the tie-breaking Senate vote for a bill to subject abolitionist mail to state laws, thus ensuring that its circulation would be prohibited in the South.", "Van Buren considered slavery to be immoral but sanctioned by the Constitution.Van Buren won the election with 764,198 popular votes, 50.9% of the total, and 170 electoral votes.", "Harrison led the Whigs with 73 electoral votes, White receiving 26, and Webster 14.Willie Person Mangum received South Carolina's 11 electoral votes, which were awarded by the state legislature.", "Van Buren's victory resulted from a combination of his attractive political and personal qualities, Jackson's popularity and endorsement, the organizational power of the Democratic Party, and the inability of the Whig Party to muster an effective candidate and campaign.", "Despite their lack of organization, the Whigs came close to their goal of forcing the election into the House of Representatives, with Van Buren winning the decisive state of Pennsylvania by a little over 4,000 voters, indicating the fragility of the voting coalition that Van Buren had inherited from Jackson.", "Virginia's presidential electors voted for Van Buren for president, but voted for William Smith for vice president, leaving Johnson one electoral vote short of election.", "In accordance with the Twelfth Amendment, the Senate elected Johnson vice president in a contingent vote.The election of 1836 marked an important turning point in American political history because it saw the establishment of the Second Party System.", "In the early 1830s, the political party structure was still changing, rapidly, and factional and personal leaders continued to play a major role in politics.", "By the end of the campaign of 1836, the new Second Party System was almost complete, as nearly every faction had been absorbed by either the Democrats or the Whigs." ], [ "Presidency (1837–1841)", "===Cabinet===Van Buren retained much of Jackson's cabinet and lower-level appointees, as he hoped that the retention of Jackson's appointees would stop Whig momentum in the South and restore confidence in the Democrats as a party of sectional unity.", "The cabinet holdovers represented the different regions of the country: Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury came from New England, Attorney General Benjamin Franklin Butler and Secretary of the Navy Mahlon Dickerson hailed from New York and New Jersey, respectively, Secretary of State John Forsyth of Georgia represented the South, and Postmaster General Amos Kendall of Kentucky represented the West.For the lone open position of Secretary of War, Van Buren first approached William Cabell Rives, who had sought the vice presidency in 1836.After Rives declined to join the cabinet, Van Buren appointed Joel Roberts Poinsett, a South Carolinian who had opposed secession during the Nullification Crisis.", "Van Buren's cabinet choices were criticized by Pennsylvanians such as James Buchanan, who argued that their state deserved a cabinet position as well as some Democrats who argued that Van Buren should have used his patronage powers to augment his power.", "However, Van Buren saw value in avoiding contentious patronage battles, and his decision to retain Jackson's cabinet made it clear that he intended to continue the policies of his predecessor.", "Additionally, Van Buren had helped select Jackson's cabinet appointees and enjoyed strong working relationships with them.Van Buren held regular formal cabinet meetings and discontinued the informal gatherings of advisors that had attracted so much attention during Jackson's presidency.", "He solicited advice from department heads, tolerated open and even frank exchanges between cabinet members, perceiving himself as \"a mediator, and to some extent an umpire between the conflicting opinions\" of his counselors.", "Such detachment allowed the president to reserve judgment and protect his prerogative for making final decisions.", "These open discussions gave cabinet members a sense of participation and made them feel part of a functioning entity, rather than isolated executive agents.", "Van Buren was closely involved in foreign affairs and matters pertaining to the Treasury Department; but the Post Office, War Department, and Navy Department had significant autonomy under their respective cabinet secretaries.===Panic of 1837===Henry Inman, ''The modern balaam and his ass'', an 1837 caricature placing the blame for the Panic of 1837 and the perilous state of the banking system on outgoing President Andrew Jackson, shown riding a donkey, while President Martin Van Buren comments approvinglyWhen Van Buren entered office, the nation's economic health had taken a turn for the worse and the prosperity of the early 1830s was over.", "Two months into his presidency, on May 10, 1837, some important state banks in New York, running out of hard currency reserves, refused to convert paper money into gold or silver, and other financial institutions throughout the nation quickly followed suit.", "This financial crisis would become known as the Panic of 1837.The Panic was followed by a five-year depression in which banks failed and unemployment reached record highs.Van Buren blamed the economic collapse on greedy American and foreign business and financial institutions, as well as the over-extension of credit by U.S. banks.", "Whig leaders in Congress blamed the Democrats, along with Andrew Jackson's economic policies, specifically his 1836 Specie Circular.", "Cries of \"rescind the circular!\"", "went up and former president Jackson sent word to Van Buren asking him not to rescind the order, believing that it had to be given enough time to work.", "Others, like Nicholas Biddle, believed that Jackson's dismantling of the Bank of the United States was directly responsible for the irresponsible creation of paper money by the state banks which had precipitated this panic.", "The Panic of 1837 loomed large over the 1838 election cycle, as the carryover effects of the economic downturn led to Whig gains in both the U.S. House and Senate.", "The state elections in 1837 and 1838 were also disastrous for the Democrats, and the partial economic recovery in 1838 was offset by a second commercial crisis later that year.To address the crisis, the Whigs proposed rechartering the national bank.", "The president countered by proposing the establishment of an independent U.S. treasury, which he contended would take the politics out of the nation's money supply.", "Under the plan, the government would hold its money in gold or silver, and would be restricted from printing paper money at will; both measures were designed to prevent inflation.", "The plan would permanently separate the government from private banks by storing government funds in government vaults rather than in private banks.", "Van Buren announced his proposal in September 1837, but an alliance of conservative Democrats and Whigs prevented it from becoming law until 1840.As the debate continued, conservative Democrats like Rives defected to the Whig Party, which itself grew more unified in its opposition to Van Buren.", "The Whigs would abolish the Independent Treasury system in 1841, but it was revived in 1846, and remained in place until the passage of the Federal Reserve Act in 1913.More important for Van Buren's immediate future, the depression would be a major issue in his upcoming re-election campaign.===Indian removal===Federal policy under Jackson had sought to move Indian tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River through the Indian Removal Act of 1830, and the federal government negotiated 19 treaties with Indian tribes during Van Buren's presidency.", "The 1835 Treaty of New Echota signed by government officials and representatives of the Cherokee tribe had established terms under which the Cherokees ceded their territory in the southeast and agreed to move west to Oklahoma.", "In 1838, Van Buren directed General Winfield Scott to forcibly move all those who had not yet complied with the treaty.The Cherokees were herded violently into internment camps where they were kept for the summer of 1838.The actual transportation west was delayed by intense heat and drought, but in the fall, the Cherokee reluctantly agreed to transport themselves west.", "Some 20,000 people were relocated against their will during the Cherokee removal, part of the Trail of Tears.", "Notably, Ralph Waldo Emerson, who would go on to become America's foremost man of letters, wrote Van Buren a letter protesting his treatment of the Cherokee.A United States Marine Corps boat expedition searching the Everglades during the Second Seminole WarPresident Jackson used the army to force Seminole Indians in Florida to move to the west.", "Many did surrender but they then escaped from detention camps.", "In December 1837, in the Second Seminole War the army launched a massive offensive, leading to the Battle of Lake Okeechobee and a new phase of attrition.", "Realizing it was almost impossible to remove the remaining Seminoles from Florida, the administration negotiated a compromise allowing them to remain in southwest Florida.===Texas===Just before leaving office in March 1837, Andrew Jackson extended diplomatic recognition to the Republic of Texas, which had won independence from Mexico in the Texas Revolution.", "By suggesting the prospect of quick annexation, Jackson raised the danger of war with Mexico and heightened sectional tensions at home.", "New England abolitionists charged that there was a \"slaveholding conspiracy to acquire Texas\", and Daniel Webster eloquently denounced annexation.", "Many Southern leaders, meanwhile, strongly desired the expansion of slave-holding territory in the United States.Boldly reversing Jackson's policies, Van Buren sought peace abroad and harmony at home.", "He proposed a diplomatic solution to a long-standing financial dispute between American citizens and the Mexican government, rejecting Jackson's threat to settle it by force.", "Likewise, when the Texas minister at Washington, D.C., proposed annexation to the administration in August 1837, he was told that the proposition could not be entertained.", "Constitutional scruples and fear of war with Mexico were the reasons given for the rejection, but concern that it would precipitate a clash over the extension of slavery undoubtedly influenced Van Buren and continued to be the chief obstacle to annexation.", "Northern and Southern Democrats followed an unspoken rule: Northerners helped quash anti-slavery proposals and Southerners refrained from agitating for the annexation of Texas.", "Texas withdrew the annexation offer in 1838.===Border violence with Canada===\"Destruction of the ''Caroline''\", illustration by John Charles Dent (1881)====Caroline episode====British subjects in Lower Canada (now Quebec) and Upper Canada (now Ontario) rose in rebellion in 1837 and 1838, protesting their lack of responsible government.", "While the initial insurrection in Upper Canada ended quickly (following the December 1837 Battle of Montgomery's Tavern), many of the rebels fled across the Niagara River into New York, and Upper Canadian rebel leader William Lyon Mackenzie began recruiting volunteers in Buffalo.", "Mackenzie declared the establishment of the Republic of Canada and put into motion a plan whereby volunteers would invade Upper Canada from Navy Island on the Canadian side of the Niagara River.", "Several hundred volunteers traveled to Navy Island in the weeks that followed.", "They procured the steamboat ''Caroline'' to deliver supplies to Navy Island from Fort Schlosser.", "Seeking to deter an imminent invasion, British forces crossed to the American bank of the river in late December 1837, and they burned and sank the ''Caroline''.", "In the melee, one American was killed and others were wounded.Considerable sentiment arose within the United States to declare war, and a British ship was burned in revenge.", "Van Buren, looking to avoid a war with Great Britain, sent General Winfield Scott to the Canada–United States border with large discretionary powers for its protection and its peace.", "Scott impressed upon American citizens the need for a peaceful resolution to the crisis, and made it clear that the U.S. government would not support adventuresome Americans attacking the British.", "In early January 1838, the president proclaimed neutrality in the Canadian independence issue, a declaration which Congress endorsed by passing a neutrality law designed to discourage the participation of American citizens in foreign conflicts.====Patriot War of 1837–1838====During the Canadian rebellions, Charles Duncombe and Robert Nelson created an armed secret society in Vermont, the Hunters' Lodge.", "It carried out several small attacks in Upper Canada between December 1837 and December 1838, collectively known as the Patriot War.", "Washington responded using the Neutrality Act.", "It prosecuted the leaders and actively deterred Americans from subversive activities abroad.", "In the long term, Van Buren's opposition to the Patriot War contributed to the construction of healthy Anglo-American and Canada–United States relations;.", "It also led, more immediately, to a backlash among citizens regarding the seeming overreach of federal authority, which hurt congressional Democrats in the 1838 midterm elections.Rival claims in yellow.", "The diplomats split the difference along the dotted line.====Northern Maine: the Aroostook \"War\"====A new crisis surfaced in late 1838, in the disputed territory on the thinly settled Maine–New Brunswick frontier.", "Americans were settling on long-disputed land claimed by the United States and Great Britain.", "The British considered possession of the area vital to the defense of Canada.", "Both American and New Brunswick lumberjack cut timber in the disputed territory during the winter of 1838–1839.On December 29, New Brunswick lumbermen were spotted cutting down trees on an American estate near the Aroostook River.", "When American woodcutters rushed to stand guard, a shouting match, known as the Battle of Caribou, ensued.", "Tensions escalated with officials from both Maine and New Brunswick arresting each other's citizens.", "British troops began to gather along the Saint John River.", "Maine Governor John Fairfield mobilized the state militia.The American press clamored for war; \"Maine and her soil, or BLOOD!\"", "screamed one editorial.", "\"Let the sword be drawn and the scabbard thrown away!\"", "In June, Congress authorized 50,000 troops and a $10 million budget in the event foreign military troops crossed into United States territory.Van Buren wanted peace and met with the British minister to the United States.", "The two men agreed to resolve the border issue diplomatically.", "Van Buren sent General Scott to the scene to lower the tensions.", "Scott successfully convinced all sides to submit the border issue to arbitration.", "The border dispute was put to rest a few years later, with the signing of the 1842 Webster–Ashburton Treaty.===''Amistad'' case: victory for the ex-slaves===The Amistad case was a freedom suit that involved international issues and was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court.", "It resulted from the successful rebellion of African slaves on board the Spanish schooner ''La Amistad'' in 1839.The ship ended up in American waters and was seized by the predecessor agency of the Coast Guard.", "Van Buren viewed abolitionism as the greatest threat to the nation's unity, and he resisted the slightest interference with slavery in the states where it existed.", "His administration supported the Spanish government's demand that the ship and its cargo (including the Africans) be turned over to Spain.", "However abolitionist lawyers intervened.", "A federal district court judge ruled that the Africans were legally free and should be transported home, but Van Buren's administration appealed the case to the Supreme Court.In the Supreme Court in February, 1840, John Quincy Adams argued passionately for the Africans' right to freedom.", "Van Buren's Attorney General Henry D. Gilpin presented the government's case.", "In March 1841, the Supreme Court issued its final verdict: the ''Amistad'' Africans were free people and should be allowed to return home.", "The unique nature of the case heightened public interest in the saga, including the participation of former president Adams, Africans testifying in federal court, and their representation by prominent lawyers.", "Van Buren's administration lost its case and the ex-slaves won.", "The episode case drew attention to the personal tragedies of slavery and attracted new support for the growing abolition movement in the North.", "It also transformed the courts into the principal forum for a national debate on the legal foundations of slavery.===Judicial appointments===Van Buren appointed two Associate Justices to the Supreme Court: John McKinley, confirmed September 25, 1837, and Peter Vivian Daniel, confirmed March 2, 1841.He also appointed eight other federal judges, all to United States district courts.===White House hostess===For the first half of his presidency, Van Buren, who had been a widower for many years, did not have a specific person to act as White House hostess at administration social events, but tried to assume such duties himself.", "When his eldest son Abraham Van Buren married Angelica Singleton in 1838, he quickly acted to install his daughter-in-law as his hostess.", "She solicited the advice of her distant relative, Dolley Madison, who had moved back to Washington after her husband's death, and soon the president's parties livened up.", "After the 1839 New Year's Eve reception, ''The Boston Post'' raved: \"Angelica Van Buren is a lady of rare accomplishments, very modest yet perfectly easy and graceful in her manners and free and vivacious in her conversation ... universally admired.", "\"As the nation endured a deep economic depression, Angelica Van Buren's receiving style at receptions was influenced by her heavy reading about European court life (and her naive delight in being received as the ''Queen of the United States'' when she visited the royal courts of England and France after her marriage).", "Newspaper coverage of this, and the claim that she intended to re-landscape the White House grounds to resemble the royal gardens of Europe, was used in a political attack on her father-in-law by a Pennsylvania Whig Congressman Charles Ogle.", "He referred obliquely to her as part of the presidential \"household\" in his famous Gold Spoon Oration.", "The attack was delivered in Congress and the depiction of the president as living a royal lifestyle was a primary factor in his defeat for re-election.===Presidential election of 1840===1840 electoral vote resultsVan Buren easily won renomination for a second term at the 1840 Democratic National Convention in Baltimore, Maryland, but he and his party faced a difficult election in 1840.Van Buren's presidency had been a difficult affair, with the U.S. economy mired in a severe downturn, and other divisive issues, such as slavery, western expansion, and tensions with Great Britain, providing opportunities for Van Buren's political opponents—including some of his fellow Democrats—to criticize his actions.", "Although Van Buren's renomination was never in doubt, Democratic strategists began to question the wisdom of keeping Johnson on the ticket.", "Even former president Jackson conceded that Johnson was a liability and insisted on former House Speaker James K. Polk of Tennessee as Van Buren's new running mate.", "Van Buren was reluctant to drop Johnson, who was popular with workers and radicals in the North and added military experience to the ticket, which might prove important against likely Whig nominee William Henry Harrison.", "Rather than re-nominating Johnson, the Democratic convention decided to allow state Democratic Party leaders to select the vice-presidential candidates for their states.Van Buren hoped that the Whigs would nominate Clay for president, which would allow Van Buren to cast the 1840 campaign as a clash between Van Buren's Independent Treasury system and Clay's support for a national bank.", "However, rather than nominating longtime party spokesmen like Clay and Daniel Webster, the 1839 Whig National Convention nominated Harrison, who had served in various governmental positions during his career and had earned fame for his military leadership in the Battle of Tippecanoe and the War of 1812.Whig leaders like William Seward and Thaddeus Stevens believed that Harrison's war record would effectively counter the popular appeals of the Democratic Party.", "For vice president, the Whigs nominated former Senator John Tyler of Virginia.", "Clay was deeply disappointed by his defeat at the convention, but he nonetheless threw his support behind Harrison.Whigs presented Harrison as the antithesis of the president, whom they derided as ineffective, corrupt, and effete.", "Whigs also depicted Van Buren as an aristocrat living in high style in the White House, while they used images of Harrison in a log cabin sipping cider to convince voters that he was a man of the people.", "They threw such jabs as \"Van, Van, is a used-up man\" and \"Martin Van Ruin\" and ridiculed him in newspapers and cartoons.", "Issues of policy were not absent from the campaign; the Whigs derided the alleged executive overreaches of Jackson and Van Buren, while also calling for a national bank and higher tariffs.", "Democrats attempted to campaign on the Independent Treasury system, but the onset of deflation undercut these arguments.", "The enthusiasm for \"Tippecanoe and Tyler Too\", coupled with the country's severe economic crisis, made it impossible for Van Buren to win a second term.", "Harrison won by a popular vote of 1,275,612 to 1,130,033, and an electoral vote margin of 234 to 60.An astonishing 80% of eligible voters went to the polls on election day.", "Van Buren actually won more votes than he had in 1836, but the Whig success in attracting new voters more than canceled out Democratic gains.", "Additionally, Whigs won majorities for the first time in both the House of Representatives and the Senate." ], [ "Post-presidency (1841–1862)", "===Election of 1844===On the expiration of his term, Van Buren returned to his estate of Lindenwald in Kinderhook.", "He continued to closely watch political developments, including the battle between the Whig alliance of the Great Triumvirate and President John Tyler, who took office after Harrison's death in April 1841.Though undecided on another presidential run, Van Buren made several moves calculated to maintain his support, including a trip to the Southern United States and the Western United States during which he met with Jackson, former Speaker of the House James K. Polk, and others.", "President Tyler, James Buchanan, Levi Woodbury, and others loomed as potential challengers for the 1844 Democratic nomination, but it was Calhoun who posed the most formidable obstacle.Van Buren remained silent on major public issues like the debate over the Tariff of 1842, hoping to arrange for the appearance of a draft movement for his presidential candidacy.", "Tyler made the annexation of Texas his chief foreign policy goal, and many Democrats, particularly in the South, were anxious to quickly complete it.", "After an explosion on the killed Secretary of State Abel P. Upshur in February 1844, Tyler brought Calhoun into his cabinet to direct foreign affairs.", "Like Tyler, Calhoun pursued the annexation of Texas to upend the presidential race and to extend slavery into new territories.Shortly after taking office, Calhoun negotiated an annexation treaty between the United States and Texas.", "Van Buren had hoped he would not have to take a public stand on annexation, but as the Texas question came to dominate U.S. politics, he decided to make his views on the issue public.", "Though he believed that his public acceptance of annexation would likely help him win the 1844 Democratic nomination, Van Buren thought that annexation would inevitably lead to an unjust war with Mexico.", "In a public letter published shortly after Henry Clay also announced his opposition to the annexation treaty, Van Buren articulated his views on the Texas question.Van Buren's opposition to immediate annexation cost him the support of many pro-slavery Democrats.", "In the weeks before the 1844 Democratic National Convention, Van Buren's supporters anticipated that he would win a majority of the delegates on the first presidential ballot, but would not be able to win the support of the required two-thirds of delegates.", "Van Buren's supporters attempted to prevent the adoption of the two-thirds rule, but several Northern delegates joined with Southern delegates in implementing the two-thirds rule for the 1844 convention.", "Van Buren won 146 of the 266 votes on the first presidential ballot, with only 12 of his votes coming from Southern states.Senator Lewis Cass won much of the remaining vote, and he gradually picked up support on subsequent ballots until the convention adjourned for the day.", "When the convention reconvened and held another ballot, James K. Polk, who shared many of Van Buren's views but favored immediate annexation, won 44 votes.", "On the ninth ballot, Van Buren's supporters withdrew his name from consideration, and Polk won the nomination.", "Although angered that his opponents had denied him the nomination, Van Buren endorsed Polk in the interest of party unity.", "He also convinced Silas Wright to run for Governor of New York so that the popular Wright could help boost Polk in the state.", "Wright narrowly defeated Whig nominee Millard Fillmore in the 1844 gubernatorial election, and Wright's victory in the state helped Polk narrowly defeat Henry Clay in the 1844 presidential election.After taking office, Polk used George Bancroft as an intermediary to offer Van Buren the ambassadorship to London.", "Van Buren declined, partly because he was upset with Polk over the treatment the Van Buren delegates had received at the 1844 convention, and partly because he was content in his retirement.", "Polk also consulted Van Buren in the formation of his cabinet, but offended Van Buren by offering to appoint a New Yorker only to the lesser post of Secretary of War, rather than as Secretary of State or Secretary of the Treasury.", "Other patronage decisions also angered Van Buren and Wright, and they became permanently alienated from the Polk administration.===Election of 1848===Daguerreotype of Van Buren by Mathew Brady, Though he had previously helped maintain a balance between the Barnburners and Hunkers, the two factions of the New York Democratic Party, Van Buren moved closer to the Barnburners after the 1844 Democratic National Convention.", "The split in the state party worsened during Polk's presidency, as his administration lavished patronage on the Hunkers.", "In his retirement, Van Buren also grew increasingly opposed to slavery.As the Mexican–American War brought the debate over slavery in the territories to the forefront of American politics, Van Buren published an anti-slavery manifesto.", "In it, he refuted the notion that Congress did not have the power to regulate slavery in the territories, and argued the Founding Fathers had favored the eventual abolition of slavery.", "The document, which became known as the \"Barnburner Manifesto\", was edited at Van Buren's request by John Van Buren and Samuel Tilden, both of whom were leaders of the Barnburner faction.", "After the publication of the Barnburner Manifesto, many Barnburners urged the former president to seek his old office in the 1848 presidential election.", "The 1848 Democratic National Convention seated competing Barnburner and Hunker delegations from New York, but the Barnburners walked out of the convention when Lewis Cass, who opposed congressional regulation of slavery in the territories, was nominated on the fourth ballot.In response to the nomination of Cass, the Barnburners began to organize as a third party.", "At a convention held in June 1848, in Utica, New York, the Barnburners nominated Van Buren for president.", "Though reluctant to bolt from the Democratic Party, Van Buren accepted the nomination to show the power of the anti-slavery movement, help defeat Cass, and weaken the Hunkers.", "At a convention held in Buffalo, New York in August 1848, a group of anti-slavery Democrats, Whigs, and members of the abolitionist Liberty Party met in the first national convention of what became known as the Free Soil Party.The convention unanimously nominated Van Buren, and chose Charles Francis Adams as Van Buren's running mate.", "In a public message accepting the nomination, Van Buren gave his full support for the Wilmot Proviso, a proposed law that would ban slavery in all territories acquired from Mexico in the Mexican–American War.", "Anti-slavery Whig orator Daniel Webster, in his \"Marshfield Speech\", expressed skepticism, in terms that may have influenced Whig voters, about the sincerity of Van Buren's espousal of the anti-slavery cause:Van Buren won no electoral votes, but finished second to Whig nominee Zachary Taylor in New York, taking enough votes from Cass to give the state—and perhaps the election—to Taylor.", "Nationwide, Van Buren won 10.1% of the popular vote, the strongest showing by a third-party presidential nominee up to that point in U.S. history.===Retirement===Daguerreotype of Martin Van Buren, circa 1855Van Buren never sought public office again after the 1848 election, but he continued to closely follow national politics.", "He was deeply troubled by the stirrings of secessionism in the South and welcomed the Compromise of 1850 as a necessary conciliatory measure despite his opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850.Van Buren also worked on a history of American political parties and embarked on a tour of Europe, becoming the first former U.S. president to visit Britain.", "Though still concerned about slavery, Van Buren and his followers returned to the Democratic fold, partly out of the fear that a continuing Democratic split would help the Whig Party.", "He also attempted to reconcile the Barnburners and the Hunkers, with mixed results.Van Buren supported Franklin Pierce for president in 1852, James Buchanan in 1856, and Stephen A. Douglas in 1860.Van Buren viewed the fledgling Know Nothing movement with contempt and felt that the anti-slavery Republican Party exacerbated sectional tensions.", "He considered Chief Justice Roger Taney's ruling in the 1857 case of ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'' to be a \"grievous mistake\" since it overturned the Missouri Compromise.", "He assessed that the Buchanan administration handled the issue of Bleeding Kansas poorly, and saw the Lecompton Constitution as a sop to Southern extremists.GPA Healy, on display at the White HouseAfter the election of Abraham Lincoln and the secession of several Southern states in 1860, Van Buren unsuccessfully sought to call a constitutional convention.", "In April 1861, former president Pierce wrote to the other living former presidents and asked them to consider meeting to use their stature and influence to propose a negotiated end to the war.", "Pierce asked Van Buren to use his role as the senior living ex-president to issue a formal call.", "Van Buren's reply suggested that Buchanan should be the one to call the meeting, since he was the former president who had served most recently, or that Pierce should issue the call himself if he strongly believed in the merit of his proposal.", "Neither Buchanan nor Pierce was willing to make Pierce's proposal public, and nothing more resulted from it.", "Once the American Civil War began, Van Buren made public his support for the Union cause.===Death===Van Buren's grave in KinderhookVan Buren's health began to fail later in 1861, and he was bedridden with pneumonia during the fall and winter of 1861–1862.He died of bronchial asthma and heart failure at his Lindenwald estate at 2:00 a.m. on Thursday, July 24, 1862.He was 79 years old.", "He is buried in the Kinderhook Reformed Dutch Church Cemetery, as are his wife Hannah, his parents, and his son Martin Van Buren Jr.Van Buren outlived all four of his immediate successors: Harrison, Tyler, Polk, and Taylor.", "In addition, he saw more successors ascend to the presidency than anyone else (eight), living to see Abraham Lincoln elected as the 16th President before his death." ], [ "Legacy", "===Historical reputation===Van Buren's most lasting achievement was as a political organizer who built the Democratic Party and guided it to dominance in the Second Party System, and historians have come to regard Van Buren as integral to the development of the American political system.", "According to historian Robert V. Remini:Van Buren's creative contribution to the political development of the nation was enormous, and as such he earned his way to the presidency.", "After gaining control of New York's Republican Party he organized the Albany Regency to run the state in his absence while he pursued a national career in Washington.", "The Regency was a governing council in Albany consisting of a group of politically astute and highly intelligent men.", "It was one of the first statewide political machines in the country whose success resulted from its professional use of patronage, the legislative caucus, and the official party newspaper.....In Washington he labored to bring about the reorganization of the Republican Party through an alliance between what he called \"the planters of the South and the plain Republicans of the North.\"...", "His Democratic emphasized the importance of building popular majorities and it perfected political techniques which would appeal to the masses....Heretofore parties were regarded as evils to be tolerated; Van Buren argued that the party system was the most sensible and intelligent way the affairs of the nation could be democratically conducted, a viewpoint that eventually won national approval.Gubernatorial portrait of Martin Van Buren by Daniel Huntington in The Civil WarHowever, his presidency is considered to be average, at best, by historians.", "He was blamed for the Panic of 1837 and defeated for reelection.", "His tenure was dominated by the economic conditions caused by the panic, and historians have split on the adequacy of the Independent Treasury as a response.", "Some historians disagree with these negative assessments.", "For example, libertarian writer Ivan Eland, in his 2009 book ''Recarving Rushmore'', ranked Van Buren as the third greatest president.", "He argues that Van Buren handled the Panic of 1837 well, and praised Van Buren for reducing government spending, balancing the budget, and avoiding potential wars with Canada and Mexico.", "Historian Jeffrey Rogers Hummel states that Van Buren was America's greatest president, arguing that \"historians have grossly underrated his many remarkable accomplishments in the face of heavy odds\".Several writers have portrayed Van Buren as among the nation's most obscure presidents.", "As noted in a 2014 ''Time'' magazine article on the \"Top 10 Forgettable Presidents\":===Memorials===Van Buren's home in Kinderhook, New York, which he called Lindenwald, is now the Martin Van Buren National Historic Site.", "Counties are named for Van Buren in Michigan, Iowa, Arkansas, and Tennessee.", "Mount Van Buren, , three state parks and numerous towns were named after him.=== Popular culture =======Books====In Gore Vidal's 1973 novel ''Burr'', a major plot theme is an attempt to prevent Van Buren's election as president by proving he is the illegitimate son of Aaron Burr.==== Cartoons ====During the 1988 presidential campaign, George H. W. Bush, a Yale University graduate and member of the Skull and Bones secret society, was attempting to become the first incumbent vice president to win election to the presidency since Van Buren.", "In the comic strip ''Doonesbury'', artist Garry Trudeau depicted members of Skull and Bones as attempting to rob Van Buren's grave, apparently intending to use the relics in a ritual that would aid Bush in the election.==== Currency ====Martin Van Buren appeared in the Presidential dollar coins series in 2008.The U.S. Mint has also made commemorative silver medals for Van Buren, released for sale on February 1, 2021.==== Film and TV ====Van Buren is portrayed by Nigel Hawthorne in the 1997 film ''Amistad''.", "The film depicts the legal battle surrounding the status of slaves who in 1839 rebelled against their transporters on ''La Amistad'' slave ship.On the television show ''Seinfeld'', the 1997 episode \"The Van Buren Boys\" is about a fictional street gang that admires Van Buren and bases its rituals and symbols on him, including the hand sign of eight fingers pointing up.In an episode of ''The Monkees'', \"Dance, Monkee, Dance\", a dance instruction studio offers free lessons to anyone who can answer the question, \"Who was the eighth President of the United States?\"", "Martin Van Buren, portrayed by Stephen Coit, appears at the studio to claim the prize.==== Music ====At least two bands have incorporated Van Buren as part of their name: the Illinois-based The Van Buren Boys and The Van Burens from Quincy, Massachusetts." ], [ "See also", "* Charlotte Dupuy, a slave who worked for Van Buren at Decatur House, while her suit for freedom against Henry Clay proceeded* List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves* Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * online* * * * online* * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* ; online* * Ceaser, James W. \"III.", "Martin Van Buren and the Case for Electoral Restraint.\"", "in ''Presidential Selection'' (Princeton University Press, 2020).", "123–169.", "* * Curtis, James C. \"In the Shadow of Old Hickory: The Political Travail of Martin Van Buren.\"", "''Journal of the Early Republic'' 1.3 (1981): 249-267 online.", "* Duncan, Jason K. \" 'Plain Catholics of the North': Martin Van Buren and the Politics of Religion, 1807–1836.\"", "''U.S.", "Catholic Historian'' 38.1 (2020): 25–48.", "* * online* Lucas, M. Philip.", "\"Martin Van Buren as Party Leader and at Andrew Jackson's Right Hand.\"", "in ''A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents 1837–1861'' (2014): 107–129* McBride, Spencer W. \"When Joseph Smith Met Martin Van Buren: Mormonism and the Politics of Religious Liberty in Nineteenth-Century America.\"", "''Church History'' 85.1 (2016).", "* * Mushkat, Jerome.", "''Martin Van Buren: law, politics, and the shaping of Republican ideology'' (1997) online* * Remini, Robert V. \"The Albany Regency.\"", "''New York History'' 39.4 (1958): 341+.", "* * ; online* * * ===Books by Van Buren===* *" ], [ "External links", "* * Martin Van Buren: A Resource Guide at the Library of Congress* The Papers of Martin Van Buren at Cumberland University; when completed, this website will feature 13,000 transcribed Van Burn papers.", "* The American Presidency Project – The Papers of Martin Van Buren (Online Collection) at University of California, Santa Barbara* American President: Martin Van Buren (1782–1862) at the Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia* Inaugural Address (March 4, 1837), at the Miller Center* Martin Van Buren National Historic Site (Lindenwald), National Park Service* * \"Life Portrait of Martin Van Buren\", from C-SPAN's ''American Presidents: Life Portraits'', May 3, 1999* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Melbourne Cricket Ground" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Melbourne Cricket Ground''' ('''MCG'''), also known locally as '''The 'G''', is an Australian sports stadium located in Yarra Park, Melbourne, Victoria.", "Founded and managed by the Melbourne Cricket Club, it is the largest stadium in the Southern Hemisphere, the 11th largest globally, and the second-largest cricket ground by capacity, after the Narendra Modi Stadium.", "The MCG is within walking distance of the city centre and is served by Richmond and Jolimont railway stations, as well as the route 70, route 75, and route 48 trams.", "It is adjacent to Melbourne Park and is part of the Melbourne Sports and Entertainment Precinct.Since it was built in 1853, the MCG has undergone numerous renovations.", "It served as the centrepiece stadium of the 1956 Summer Olympics, the 2006 Commonwealth Games and two Cricket World Cups: 1992 and 2015.Noted for its role in the development of international cricket, the MCG hosted both the first Test match and the first One Day International, played between Australia and England in 1877 and 1971, respectively.", "It has also maintained strong ties with Australian rules football since its codification in 1859, and has become the principal venue for Australian Football League (AFL) matches, including the AFL Grand Final, the world's highest attended league championship event.", "It hosted the Final for the 2022 T20 World Cup.Home to the Australian Sports Museum, the MCG has hosted other major sporting events, including international rules football matches between Australia and Ireland, international rugby union matches, State of Origin (rugby league) games, and FIFA World Cup qualifiers.", "Concerts and other cultural events are also held at the venue with the record attendance standing at 143,750 for a Billy Graham evangelistic crusade in 1959.Grandstand redevelopments and occupational health and safety legislation have limited the maximum seating capacity to approximately 95,000 with an additional 5,000 standing room capacity, bringing the total capacity to 100,024.The MCG is listed on the Victorian Heritage Register and was included on the Australian National Heritage List in 2005.In 2003, journalist Greg Baum called it \"a shrine, a citadel, a landmark, a totem\" that \"symbolises Melbourne to the world\"." ], [ "Early history", "Aboriginal cricket team with captain-coach Tom Wills, December 1866.In the background is the original MCC pavilion, built in 1854.The MCG is built atop a Wurundjeri camping ground and site of numerous corroborees.", "Founded in November 1838 the Melbourne Cricket Club (MCC) selected the current MCG site in 1853 after previously playing at several grounds around Melbourne.", "The club's first game was against a military team at the Old Mint site, at the corner of William and La Trobe Streets.", "Burial Hill (now Flagstaff Gardens) became its home ground in January 1839, but the area was already set aside for Botanical Gardens and the club was moved on in October 1846, to an area on the south bank of the Yarra about where the Herald & Weekly Times building is today.", "The area was subject to flooding, forcing the club to move again, this time to a ground in South Melbourne.It was not long before the club was forced out again, this time because of the expansion of the railway.", "The South Melbourne ground was in the path of Victoria's first steam railway line from Melbourne to Sandridge (now Port Melbourne).", "Governor La Trobe offered the MCC a choice of three sites; an area adjacent to the existing ground, a site at the junction of Flinders and Spring Streets or a ten-acre (about 4 hectares) section of the Government Paddock at Richmond next to Richmond Park.Between European settlement in 1835 and the early 1860s, this last option, which is now Yarra Park, was known as the Government or Police Paddock and served as a large agistment area for the horses of the Mounted Police, Border Police and Native Police.", "The north-eastern section also housed the main barracks for the Mounted Police in the Port Phillip district.", "In 1850 it was part of a stretch set aside for public recreation extending from Governor La Trobe's Jolimont Estate to the Yarra River.", "By 1853 it had become a busy promenade for Melbourne residents.An MCC sub-committee chose the Richmond Park option because it was level enough for cricket but sloped enough to prevent inundation.", "That ground was located where the Richmond, or outer, end of the current MCG is now.At the same time the Richmond Cricket Club was given occupancy rights to for another cricket ground on the eastern side of the Government Paddock.In 1861, a board of trustees was appointed to be responsible for the ground.", "Over the first forty years, most of the trustees were appointed by the MCC, giving the cricket club relative autonomy over the use of the ground.", "In 1906, the state governments' Lands ministry appointed five new trustees, putting the government-appointed trustees in the majority; and the government has appointed and overseen the trust since.", "This gives the state government, via the trust, a level of control over the ground's use.At the time of the land grant, the Government stipulated that the ground was to be used for cricket and cricket only.", "This condition technically remained until 1933 when the Melbourne Cricket Ground Act 1933 widened its allowable uses.", "The 1933 act has been replaced by separate acts in 1989 and 2009.In 1863, a corridor of land running diagonally across Yarra Park was granted to the Melbourne & Hobson's Bay Railway Company and divided Yarra Park from the river.", "The Mounted Police barracks were operational until the 1880s when it was subdivided into the current residential precinct bordered by Vale Street.", "The area closest to the river was also developed for sporting purposes in later years including Olympic venues in 1956." ], [ "Stadium development", "English cricket team's 1877 visitThe first grandstand at the MCG was the original wooden members' stand built in 1854, while the first public grandstand was a 200-metre long 6000-seat temporary structure built in 1861.Another grandstand seating 2000, facing one way to the cricket ground and the other way to the park where football was played, was built in 1876 for the 1877 visit of James Lillywhite's English cricket team.", "It was during this tour that the MCG hosted the world's first Test match.In 1881, the original members' stand was sold to the Richmond Cricket Club for £55.A new brick stand, considered at the time to be the world's finest cricket facility, was built in its place.", "The foundation stone was laid by Prince George of Wales and Prince Albert Victor on 4 July and the stand opened in December that year.", "It was also in 1881 that a telephone was installed at the ground, and the wickets and goal posts were changed from an east–west orientation to north–south.", "In 1882 a scoreboard was built which showed details of the batsman's name and how he was dismissed.When the Lillywhite tour stand burned down in 1884 it was replaced by a new stand which seated 450 members and 4500 public.", "In 1897, second-storey wings were added to 'The Grandstand', as it was known, increasing capacity to 9,000.In 1900 it was lit with electric light.MCG, ca.", "1914.The 1881 members' stand is the smaller building on the leftMore stands were built in the early 20th century.", "An open wooden stand was on the south side of the ground in 1904 and the 2084-seat Grey Smith Stand (known as the New Stand until 1912) was erected for members in 1906.The 4000-seat Harrison Stand on the ground's southern side was built in 1908 followed by the 8000-seat Wardill Stand in 1912.In the 15 years after 1897 the grandstand capacity at the ground increased to nearly 20,000, while the full ground capacity was almost 60,000.In 1927, the second brick members' stand was replaced at a cost of £60,000.The Harrison and Wardill Stands were demolished in 1936 to make way for the Southern Stand which was completed in 1937.The Southern Stand, which spanned almost half of the field's circumference, seated 18,200 under cover and 13,000 in the open and was the main public area of the MCG.", "The maximum capacity of the ground under this configuration, as advised by the Health Department, was 84,000 seated and 94,000 standing.The Northern Stand, also known as the Olympic Stand, was built to replace the old Grandstand for the 1956 Olympic Games.", "By Health Department regulations, this was to increase the stadium's capacity to 120,000; although this was revised down after the 1956 VFL Grand Final, which could not comfortably accommodate its crowd of 115,802.Ten years later, the Grey Smith Stand and the open concrete stand next to it were replaced by the Western Stand; the Duke of Edinburgh laid a foundation stone for the Western Stand on 3 March 1967, and it was completed in 1968; in 1986, it was renamed the W.H.", "Ponsford Stand in honour of Victorian batsman Bill Ponsford.", "This was the stadium's highest capacity configuration, and the all-time record crowd for a sporting event at the venue of 121,696 was set under this configuration in the 1970 VFL Grand Final.The MCG was the home of Australia's first full colour video scoreboard, which replaced the old scoreboard in 1982, located on Level 4 of the Western Stand, which notably caught fire in 1999 and was replaced in 2000.A second video screen added in 1994 almost directly opposite, on Level 4 of the Olympic stand.", "In 1985, light towers were installed at the ground, allowing for night football and day-night cricket games.During the 1980s, the Olympic Stand had corporate suites installed which led to the reduction of seating and standing capacity in the stand, the Ponsford Stand had seats installed on the ground level replacing the standing room and both the Southern Stand and Olympic Stand had their wooden bench seats removed and replaced with plastic bucket seats.View of the Great Southern Stand during the 1998 Boxing Day Test match.", "The Olympic Stand is visible at the bottom left of the photo.In 1988, inspections of the old Southern Stand found concrete cancer and provided the opportunity to replace the increasingly run-down 50-year-old facility.", "The projected cost of $100 million was outside what the Melbourne Cricket Club could afford so the Victorian Football League took the opportunity to part fund the project in return for a 30-year deal to share the ground.", "The new Great Southern Stand was completed in 1992, in time for the 1992 Cricket World Cup, at a final cost of $150 million.", "It was renamed the Shane Warne Stand after Victorian bowler Shane Warne in 2022 shortly after his death.The W.H.", "Ponsford Stand undergoing reconstruction in 2003.Australia vs South Africa Boxing Day Test in 2022.The 1928 Members' stand, the 1956 Olympic stand and the 1968 W.H.", "Ponsford stand were demolished one by one between late 2003 to 2005 and replaced with a new structure in time for the 2006 Commonwealth Games.", "Despite now standing as a single unbroken stand, the individual sections retain the names of W.H.", "Ponsford, Olympic and Members Stands.", "The redevelopment cost exceeded 400 million and pushed the ground's capacity to just above 100,000.Since redevelopment, the highest attendance has been 100,024 at the 2022 and 2023 AFL grand finals.From 2011 until 2013, the Victoria State Government and the Melbourne Cricket Club funded a $55 million refurbishment of the facilities in the Great Southern Stand, including renovations to entrance gates and ticket outlets, food and beverage outlets, etc., without significantly modifying the stand.", "New scoreboards, more than twice the size of the original ones, were installed in the same positions in late 2013.From November 2019 until February 2020 all the playing field lights, including those in the light towers, were replaced with LED sports lighting with the lighting under the roof and in two of the light towers completed in time for the Boxing Day Test against New Zealand." ], [ "Cricket", "===Early years===The first cricket match at the venue was played on 30 September 1854, while the first inter-colonial cricket match to be played at the MCG was between Victoria and New South Wales in March 1856.Victoria had played Tasmania (then known as Van Diemen's Land) as early as 1851 but the Victorians had included two professionals in the 1853 team upsetting the Tasmanians and causing a cooling of relations between the two colonies.", "To replace the disgruntled Tasmanians the Melbourne Cricket Club issued a challenge to play any team in the colonies for £1000.Sydney publican William Tunks accepted the challenge on behalf of New South Wales although the Victorians were criticised for playing for money.", "Ethics aside, New South Wales could not afford the £1000 and only managed to travel to Melbourne after half the team's travel cost of £181 was put up by Sydney barrister Richard Driver.The game eventually got under way on 26 March 1856.The Victorians, stung by criticism over the £1000 stake, argued over just about everything; the toss, who should bat first, whether different pitches should be used for the different innings and even what the umpires should wear.Victoria won the toss but New South Wales captain George Gilbert successfully argued that the visiting team should decide who bats first.", "The MCG was a grassless desert and Gilbert, considering players fielded without boots, promptly sent Victoria into bat.", "Needing only 16 to win in the final innings, New South Wales collapsed to be 5 for 5 before Gilbert's batting saved the game and the visitors won by three wickets.In subsequent years conditions at the MCG improved but the ever-ambitious Melburnians were always on the lookout for more than the usual diet of club and inter-colonial games.", "In 1861, Felix William Spiers and Christopher Pond, the proprietors of the Cafe de Paris in Bourke Street and caterers to the MCC, sent their agent, W.B.", "Mallam, to England to arrange for a cricket team to visit Australia.Mallam found a team and, captained by Heathfield Stephenson, it arrived in Australia on Christmas Eve 1861 to be met by a crowd of more than 3000 people.", "The team was taken on a parade through the streets wearing white-trimmed hats with blue ribbons given to them for the occasion.", "Wherever they went they were mobbed and cheered by crowds to the point where the tour sponsors had to take them out of Melbourne so that they could train undisturbed.Their first game was at the MCG on New Year's Day 1862, against a Victorian XVIII.", "The Englishmen also wore coloured sashes around their waists to identify each player and were presented with hats to shade them from the sun.", "Some estimates put the crowd at the MCG that day at 25,000.It must have been quite a picture with a new 6000 seat grandstand, coloured marquees ringing the ground and a carnival outside.", "Stephenson said that the ground was better than any in England.", "The Victorians however, were no match for the English at cricket and the visitors won by an innings and 96 runs.Victoria and George Parr's touring All-England ElevenOver the four days of the 'test' more than 45,000 people attended and the profits for Speirs and Pond from this game alone was enough to fund the whole tour.", "At that time it was the largest number of people to ever watch a cricket match anywhere in the world.", "Local cricket authorities went out of their way to cater for the needs of the team and the sponsors.", "They provided grounds and sponsors booths without charge and let the sponsors keep the gate takings.", "The sponsors however, were not so generous in return.", "They quibbled with the Melbourne Cricket Club about paying £175 for damages to the MCG despite a prior arrangement to do so.The last match of the tour was against a Victorian XXII at the MCG after which the English team planted an elm tree outside the ground.Following the success of this tour, a number of other English teams also visited in subsequent years.", "George Parr's side came out in 1863–64 and there were two tours by sides led by William Gilbert Grace.", "The fourth tour was led by James Lillywhite.On Boxing Day 1866 an Indigenous Australian cricket team played at the MCG with 11,000 spectators against an MCC team.", "A few players in that match were in a later team that toured England in 1868.Some also played in three other matches at the ground before 1869.===First Test match===The MCG in 1878.The first Test cricket match was played at the MCG in 1877Up until the fourth tour in 1877, led by James Lillywhite, touring teams had played first-class games against the individual colonial sides, but Lillywhite felt that his side had done well enough against New South Wales to warrant a game against an All Australian team.When Lillywhite headed off to New Zealand he left Melbourne cricketer John Conway to arrange the match for their return.", "Conway ignored the cricket associations in each colony and selected his own Australian team, negotiating directly with the players.", "Not only was the team he selected of doubtful representation but it was also probably not the strongest available as some players had declined to take part for various reasons.", "Demon bowler Fred Spofforth refused to play because wicket-keeper Billy Murdoch was not selected.", "Paceman Frank Allan was at Warrnambool Agricultural Show and Australia's best all-rounder Edwin Evans could not get away from work.", "In the end only five Australian-born players were selected.The same could be said for Lillywhite's team which, being selected from only four counties, meant that some of England's best players did not take part.", "In addition, the team had a rough voyage back across the Tasman Sea and many members had been seasick.", "The game was due to be played on 15 March, the day after their arrival, but most had not yet fully recovered.", "On top of that, wicket-keeper Ted Pooley was still in a New Zealand prison after a brawl in a Christchurch pub.England was nonetheless favourite to win the game and the first ever Test match began with a crowd of only 1000 watching.", "The Australians elected Dave Gregory from New South Wales as Australia's first ever captain and on winning the toss he decided to bat.Charles Bannerman scored an unbeaten 165 before retiring hurt.", "Sydney Cricket Ground curator, Ned Gregory, playing in his one and only Test for Australia, scored Test cricket's first duck.", "Australia racked up 245 and 104 while England scored 196 and 108 giving Australia victory by 45 runs.", "The win hinged on Bannerman's century and a superb bowling performance by Tom Kendall who took 7 for 55 in England's second innings.A fortnight later there was a return game, although it was really more of a benefit for the English team.", "Australia included Spofforth, Murdoch and T.J.D.", "Cooper in the side but this time the honours went to England who won by four wickets.Two years later Lord Harris brought another England team out and during England's first innings in the Test at the MCG, Fred Spofforth took the first hat-trick in Test cricket.", "He bagged two hauls of 6 for 48 and 7 for 62 in Australia's ten wicket win.===Cricket uses===Through most of the 20th century, the Melbourne Cricket Ground was one of the two major Test venues in Australia (along with the Sydney Cricket Ground), and it would host one or two Tests in each summer in which Tests were played; since 1982, the Melbourne Cricket Ground has hosted one Test match each summer.", "Until 1979, the ground almost always hosted its match or one of its matches over the New Year, with the first day's play falling somewhere between 29 December and 1 January; in most years since 1980 and every year since 1995, its test has begun on Boxing Day, and it is now a standard fixture in the Australian cricket calendar and is known as the Boxing Day Test.", "The venue also hosts one-day international matches each year, and Twenty20 international matches most years.", "No other venue in Melbourne has hosted a Test, and Docklands Stadium is the only other venue to have hosted a limited-overs international.The Victorian first-class team plays Sheffield Shield cricket at the venue during the season.", "Prior to Test cricket being played on Boxing Day, it was a long-standing tradition for Victoria to host New South Wales in a first-class match on Boxing Day.", "Victoria also played its limited overs matches at the ground.", "Since the introduction of the domestic Twenty20 Big Bash League (BBL) in 2011, the Melbourne Stars club has played its home matches at the ground.", "It is also the home ground of the Melbourne Stars Women team, which plays in the Women's Big Bash League (WBBL).By the 1980s, the integral MCG pitch – grown from Merri Creek black soil – was considered the worst in Australia, in some matches exhibiting wildly inconsistent bounce which could see balls pass through as grubbers or rear dangerously high – a phenomenon which was put down to damage caused by footballers in winter and increased use for cricket during the summers of the 1970s.", "The integral pitch has since been removed and drop-in pitches have been cultivated and used since 1996, generally offering consistent bounce and a fair balance between bat and ball.", "The decade-and-a-half-old pitches degraded again through the late 2010s, seeing the pitch receive the first official International Cricket Council 'poor' rating by an Australian pitch in 2017, and saw another Sheffield Shield match abandoned in 2019; a new set of drop-in pitches will be grown and ready for use by the early 2020s.===Highlights and lowlights===The highest first class team score in history was posted at the MCG in the Boxing Day match against New South Wales in 1926–27.Victoria scored 1107 in two days, with Bill Ponsford scoring 352 and Jack Ryder scoring 295.One of the most sensational incidents in Test cricket occurred at the MCG during the Melbourne test of the 1954–55 England tour of Australia.", "Big cracks had appeared in the pitch during a very hot Saturday's play and on the rest day Sunday, groundsman Jack House watered the pitch to close them up.", "This was illegal and the story was leaked by ''The Age'' newspaper.", "The teams agreed to finish the match and England won by 128 runs after Frank Tyson took 7 for 27 in the final innings.An incident in the second Test of the 1960–61 series involved the West Indies player Joe Solomon being given out after his hat fell on the stumps after being bowled at by Richie Benaud.", "The crowd sided with the West Indies over the Australians.Not only was the first Test match played at the MCG, the first One Day International match was also played there, on 5 January 1971, between Australia and England.", "The match was played on what was originally scheduled to have been the fifth day of a Test match, but the Test was abandoned after the first three days were washed out.", "Australia won the 40-over match by 5 wickets.", "The next ODI was played in August 1972, some 19 months later.In March 1977, a Centenary Test Match was held between Australia and England to mark the 100th anniversary of the first Test match.", "The match was the idea of former Australian bowler and MCC committee member Hans Ebeling who had been responsible for developing the cricket museum at the MCG.", "England's Derek Randall scored 174, Australia's Rod Marsh also got a century, Dennis Lillee took 11 wickets, and David Hookes, in his first Test, hit five fours in a row off England captain Tony Greig's bowling.", "Rick McCosker opened the batting for Australia and suffered a fractured jaw after being hit by a sharply rising delivery.", "He left the field but came back in the second innings with his head swathed in bandages.", "Australia won the match by 45 runs, exactly the same margin as the first Test in 1877.The second day of the 2006 Boxing Day Test matchAnother incident occurred on 1 February 1981 at the end of a one-day match between Australia and New Zealand.", "New Zealand, batting second, needed six runs off the last ball of the day to tie the game.", "Australian captain, Greg Chappell instructed his brother Trevor, who was bowling the last over, to send the last ball down underarm to prevent the New Zealand batsman, Brian McKechnie, from hitting the ball for six.", "Although not in the spirit of the game, an underarm delivery was quite legal, so long as the arm was kept straight.", "The Laws of cricket have since been changed to prevent such a thing happening again.", "The incident has long been a sore point between Australia and New Zealand.In February and March 1985 the Benson & Hedges World Championship of Cricket was played at the MCG, a One Day International tournament involving all of the then Test match playing countries to celebrate 150 years of the Australian state of Victoria.", "Some matches were also played at Sydney Cricket Ground.The MCG hosted the 1992 Cricket World Cup Final between Pakistan and England with a crowd of more than 87,000.Pakistan won the match after an all-round performance by Wasim Akram who scored 33 runs and took 3 wickets to make Pakistan cricket world champions for the first and, to date, only time.During the 1995 Boxing Day Test at the MCG, Australian umpire Darrell Hair called Sri Lankan spin bowler Muttiah Muralitharan for throwing the ball, rather than bowling it, seven times during the match.", "The other umpire did not call him once and this caused a controversy, although Muralitharan was later called for throwing by other umpires in different matches.The MCG is known for its great atmosphere, much of which is generated in the infamous Bay 13, situated almost directly opposite to the members stand.", "In the late 1980s, the crowd at Bay 13 would often mimic the warm up stretches performed by Merv Hughes.", "In a 1999 One-Day International, the behaviour of Bay 13 was so bad that Shane Warne, donning a helmet for protection, asked the crowd to settle down at the request of opposing England captain Alec Stewart.MCG during the 2015 Cricket World Cup Final with 93,013 in attendanceThe MCG hosted three pool games as part of the 2015 ICC Cricket World Cup as well as a quarter-final, and then the final on 29 March.", "Australia comfortably defeated New Zealand by seven wickets in front of an Australian record cricket crowd of 93,013.The 2020 ICC Women's T20 World Cup Final was held on International Women's Day between Australia and India.", "Australia won by 85 runs in front of a record crowd for women's cricket of 86,174.+ Attendance records for cricket matches at the MCG Number Teams Match type Attendance Date 1 Australia v New Zealand2015 Cricket World Cup Final (ODI) 93,013 29 March 2015 2 Australia v EnglandTest 91,112 26 December 2013 3 Australia v West IndiesTest 90,800 11 February 1961 4 India v Pakistan2022 Men's T20 World Cup (Super 12) 90,293 23 October 20225Australia v EnglandTest89,15526 December 20066Australia v EnglandTest88,17226 December 20177Australia v EnglandTest87,7894 January 19378England v Pakistan1992 Cricket World Cup Final (ODI)87,18225 March 19929India v South Africa2015 Cricket World Cup Group match86,876 22 February 201510Australia v India2020 ICC Women's T20 World Cup Final86,1748 March 2020" ], [ "Australian rules football", "===Origins===1879 Australian rules football match played under electric lightsCrowd during a VFL football match, early 1900sDespite being called the Melbourne Cricket Ground, the stadium has been and continues to be used much more often for Australian rules football.", "Spectator numbers for football are larger than for any other sport in Australia, and it makes more money for the MCG than any of the other sports played there.Although the Melbourne Cricket Club members were instrumental in founding Australian Rules Football, there were understandable concerns in the early days about the damage that might be done to the playing surface if football was allowed to be played at the MCG.", "Therefore, football games were often played in the parklands next to the cricket ground, and this was the case for the first documented football match to be played at the ground.", "The match which today is considered to be the first Australian rules football, played between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College over three Saturdays beginning 7 August 1858 was played in this area.It wasn't until 1869 that football was played on the MCG proper, a trial game involving a police team.", "It was not for another ten years, in 1879, after the formation of the Victorian Football Association, that the first official match was played on the MCG and the cricket ground itself became a regular venue for football.", "Two night matches were played on the ground during the year under the newly invented electric light.In the early years, the MCG was the home ground of Melbourne Football Club, Australia's oldest club, established in 1858 by the founder of the game itself, Thomas Wills.", "Melbourne won five premierships during the 1870s using the MCG as its home ground.The first of nearly 3000 Victorian Football League/Australian Football League games to be played at the MCG was on 15 May 1897, with beating 64 to 19.Melbourne used the venue as its training base until 1984, before being required to move to preserve the venue's surface when North Melbourne began playing there.===Finals and grand finals===The VFL/AFL grand final has been played at the MCG every season since 1902, except for between 1942 and 1945, when the ground was used by the military during World War II; in 1991 as the construction of the Great Southern Stand had temporarily reduced the ground's capacity below that of Waverley Park; and both 2020 and 2021, when restrictions in Victoria due to the COVID-19 pandemic prompted the games to be moved to the Gabba in Queensland and Perth Stadium in Western Australia respectively.", "All three grand final replays have been played at the MCG.A sold out MCG during the 2007 AFL Grand FinalBefore the MCG was fully seated, a grand final could draw attendances above 110,000.The record for the highest attendance in the history of the sport was set in the 1970 VFL Grand Final, with 121,696 in attendance.Since being fully seated, grand final attendances are typically between 95,000 and 100,000, with the record of 100,024 at the 2022 AFL Grand Final and the 2023 AFL Grand Final, followed by 100,022 at the 2018 AFL Grand Final and 100,021 at the 2017 AFL Grand Final.In the modern era, most finals games held in Melbourne have been played at the MCG.", "Under the current contract, 10 finals (excluding the grand final) must be played at the MCG over a five-year period.", "Under previous contracts, the MCG was entitled to host at least one match in each week of the finals, which on several occasions required non-Victorian clubs to play \"home\" finals in Victoria.", "The MCG is contracted to host the grand final every year until 2059.All Melbourne-based teams (and most of the time Geelong) play their \"home\" finals at the MCG unless if four Victorian teams win the right to host a final in the first week of the finals.===MCG and the VFL/AFL===For many years the VFL had an uneasy relationship with the MCG trustees and the Melbourne Cricket Club.", "Both needed the other, but resented the dependence.", "The VFL made the first move which brought things to a head by beginning the development of VFL Park at Mulgrave in the 1960s as its own home ground and as a potential venue for future grand finals.", "Then in 1983, president of the VFL, Allen Aylett started to pressure the MCG Trust to give the VFL a greater share of the money it made from using the ground for football.After negotiations with the MCC in 1964, joined Melbourne playing their home games at the MCG from 1965.In March 1983 the MCG trustees met to consider a submission from Aylett.", "Aylett said he wanted the Melbourne Cricket Club's share of revenue cut from 15 per cent to 10 per cent.", "He threatened to take the following day's opening game of the season, Collingwood vs Melbourne, away from the MCG.", "The money was held aside until an agreement could be reached.Different deals, half deals and possible deals were done over the years, with the Premier of Victoria, John Cain, Jr., even becoming involved.", "Cain was said to have promised the VFL it could use the MCG for six months of the year and then hand it back to the MCC, but this never eventuated, as the MCG Trust did not approve it.", "In the mid-1980s, a deal was done where the VFL was given its own members area in the Southern Stand.Against this background of political maneuvering, in 1985 became the third club to make the MCG its home ground.", "In the same year, North played in the first night football match at the MCG for almost 110 years, against Collingwood on 29 March 1985.In 1986, only a month after Ross Oakley had taken over as VFL Commissioner, VFL executives met with the MCC and took a big step towards resolving their differences.", "Changes in the personnel at the MCC also helped.", "In 1983 John Lill was appointed secretary and Don Cordner its president.Shortly after the Southern Stand opened in 1992, the Australian Football League moved its headquarters into the complex.", "The AFL assisted with financing the new stand and came to an agreement that ensures at least 45 AFL games are played at the MCG each year, including the Grand Final in September.", "Another 45 days of cricket are also played there each year and more than 3.5 million spectators come to watch every year.", "Also in 1992, became the fourth AFL club to call the MCG home with staging the majority of their home games at the MCG from 1994 onwards before fully moving from Victoria Park to the MCG in 2000.have also used the ground for up to five home games a year since 1992.After the closure of Waverley Park, moved their home games to the MCG in 2000.As of the end of 2011, Matthew Richardson holds the records for having scored the most goals on the MCG and as of 2021 Scott Pendlebury holds the record for playing the most matches.", "Two players have scored 14 goals for an AFL or VFL game in one match at the MCG, Gary Ablett Sr. in 1989 and 1993 and John Longmire in 1990.Before an AFL match between and on 27 August 1999, the city end scoreboard caught on fire due to an electrical fault, causing the start of play to be delayed by half an hour." ], [ "World War II", "During World War II, the government requisitioned the MCG for military use.", "From 1942 until 1945 it was occupied by (in order): the United States Army Air Forces, the Royal Australian Air Force, the United States Marine Corps and again the RAAF.", "Over the course of the war, more than 200,000 personnel were barracked at the MCG.", "From April to October 1942, the US Army's Fifth Air Force occupied the ground, naming it \"Camp Murphy\", in honour of officer Colonel William Murphy, a senior USAAF officer killed in Java.", "In 1943 the MCG was home to the legendary First Regiment of the First Division of the United States Marine Corps.", "The First Marine Division were the heroes of the Guadalcanal campaign and used the \"cricket grounds\", as the marines referred to it, to rest and recuperate.", "On 14 March 1943 the marines hosted a giant \"get together\" of American and Australian troops on the arena.In 1977, Melbourne Cricket Club president Sir Albert Chadwick and Medal of Honor recipient, Colonel Mitchell Paige, unveiled a commemorative plaque recognizing the Americans' time at the ground.In episode 3 of the 2010 TV miniseries, ''The Pacific'', members of the US Marines are shown to be camped in the war-era MCG." ], [ "Olympic Games", "The MCG's most famous moment in history was as the main stadium for the 1956 Olympic Games, hosting the opening and closing ceremonies, track and field events, and the finals in field hockey and soccer.", "The MCG was only one of seven possible venues, including the Melbourne Showgrounds, for the Games' main arena.", "The MCG was the Federal Government's preferred venue but there was resistance from the MCC.", "The inability to decide on the central venue nearly caused the Games to be moved from Melbourne.", "Prime Minister Robert Menzies recognised the potential embarrassment to Australia if this happened and organised a three-day summit meeting to thrash things out.", "Attending was Victorian Premier John Cain, Sr., the Prime Minister, deputy opposition leader Arthur Calwell, all State political leaders, civic leaders, Olympic officials and trustees and officials of the MCC.", "Convening the meeting was no small effort considering the calibre of those attending and that many of the sports officials were only part-time amateurs.As 22 November, the date of the opening ceremony, drew closer, Melbourne was gripped ever more tightly by Olympic fever.", "At 3 pm the day before the opening ceremony, people began to line up outside the MCG gates.", "That night the city was paralysed by a quarter of a million people who had come to celebrate.The MCG's capacity was increased by the new Olympic (or Northern) Stand, and on the day itself 103,000 people filled the stadium to capacity.", "A young up and coming distance runner was chosen to carry the Olympic torch into the stadium for the opening ceremony.Although Ron Clarke had a number of junior world records for distances of 1500 m, one mile (1.6 km) and two miles (3 km), he was relatively unknown in 1956.Perhaps the opportunity to carry the torch inspired him because he went on to have a career of exceptional brilliance and was without doubt the most outstanding runner of his day.", "At one stage he held the world record for every distance from two miles (3 km) to 20 km.", "His few failures came in Olympic and Commonwealth Games competition.", "Although favourite for the gold at Tokyo in 1964 he was placed ninth in the 5,000 metres race and the marathon and third in the 10,000 metres.", "He lost again in the 1966 Commonwealth Games and in 1968 at altitude in Mexico he collapsed at the end of the 10 km race.", "Ron Clarke carrying the Olympic Torch through the MCG at the 1956 Olympic Games' opening ceremony.On that famous day in Melbourne in 1956 the torch spluttered and sparked, showering Clarke with hot magnesium, burning holes in his shirt.", "When he dipped the torch into the cauldron it burst into flame singeing him further.", "In the centre of the ground, John Landy, the fastest miler in the world, took the Olympic oath and sculler Merv Wood carried the Australian flag.The Melbourne Games also saw the high point of Australian female sprinting with Betty Cuthbert winning three gold medals at the MCG.", "She won the 100 m and 200 m and anchored the winning 4 x 100 m team.", "Born in Merrylands in Sydney's west she was a champion schoolgirl athlete and had already broken the world record for the 200 m just before the 1956 Games.", "She was to be overshadowed by her Western Suburbs club member, the Marlene Matthews.", "When they got to the Games, Matthews was the overwhelming favourite especially for the 100 m a distance over which Cuthbert had beaten her just once.Both Matthews and Cuthbert won their heats with Matthews setting an Olympic record of 11.5 seconds in hers.", "Cuthbert broke that record in the following heat with a time of 11.4 seconds.", "The world record of 11.3 was held by another Australian, Shirley Strickland who was eliminated in her heat.", "In the final Matthews felt she got a bad start and was last at the 50 metre mark.", "Cuthbert sensed Isabella Daniels from the USA close behind her and pulled out a little extra to win Australia's first gold at the Games in a time of 11.5 seconds, Matthews was third.", "The result was repeated in the 200 m final.", "Cuthbert won her second gold breaking Marjorie Jackson's Olympic record.", "Matthews was third again.By the time the 1956 Olympics came around, Shirley Strickland was a mother of 31 years of age but managed to defend her 80 m title, which she had won in Helsinki four years before, winning gold and setting a new Olympic record.The sensational incident of the track events was the non-selection of Marlene Matthews in the 4 x 100 m relay.", "Matthews trained with the relay team up until the selection was made but Cuthbert, Strickland, Fleur Mellor and Norma Croker were picked for the team.", "There was outrage at the selection which increased when Matthews went on to run third in both the 100 m and 200 m finals.", "Personally she was devastated and felt that she had been overlooked for her poor baton change.", "Strickland was disappointed with the way Matthews was treated and maintained it was an opinion held in New South Wales that she had baton problems.", "One of the selectors, Doris Magee from NSW, said that selecting Matthews increased the risk of disqualification at the change.", "But Cuthbert maintained that the selectors made the right choice saying that Fleur Mellor was fresh, a specialist relay runner and was better around the curves than Matthews.The men did not fare so well.", "The 4 x 400 m relay team, including later IOC Committee member Kevan Gosper, won silver.", "Charles Porter also won silver in the high jump.", "Hec Hogan won bronze in the 100 m to become the first Australian man to win a medal in a sprint since the turn of the century and despite injury John Landy won bronze in the 1500 m. Allan Lawrence won bronze in the 10,000 m event.Apart from athletics, the stadium was also used for the soccer finals, the hockey finals, the Opening and Closing Ceremonies, and an exhibition game of baseball between the Australian National Team and a US armed services team at which an estimated crowd of 114,000 attended.", "This was the Guinness World Record for the largest attendance for any baseball game, which stood until a 29 March 2008 exhibition game between the Boston Red Sox and Los Angeles Dodgers at the Los Angeles Coliseum (also a former Olympic venue in 1932 and 1984) drawing 115,300.The MCG was also used for another demonstration sport, Australian Rules.", "The Olympics being an amateur competition meant that only amateurs could play in the demonstration game.", "A combined team of amateurs from the VFL and VFA were selected to play a state team from the Victorian Amateur Football Association (VAFA).", "The game was played 7 December 1956 with the VAFA side, wearing white jumpers, green collars and the Olympic rings on their chests, winning easily 81 to 55.One of the players chosen for the VFA side was Lindsay Gaze (although he never got off the bench) who would go on to make his mark in another sport, basketball, rather than Australian Rules.The MCG's link with its Olympic past continues to this day.", "Within its walls is the IOC-endorsed Australian Gallery of Sport and Olympic Museum.Forty-four years later at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the ground hosted several soccer preliminaries, making it one of a few venues ever used for more than one Olympics." ], [ "Commonwealth Games", "Melbourne Cricket Ground during the 2006 Commonwealth GamesThe Opening and Closing Ceremonies of the 2006 Commonwealth Games were held at the MCG, as well as athletics events during the games.", "The games began on 15 March and ended on 26 March.The seating capacity of the stadium during the games was 80,000.A total of 47 events were contested, of which 24 by male and 23 by female athletes.", "Furthermore, three men's and three women's disability events were held within the programme.", "All athletics events took place within the Melbourne Cricket Ground, while the marathon and racewalking events took place on the streets of Melbourne and finished at the main stadium.The hosts Australia easily won the medals table with 16 golds and 41 medals in total.", "Jamaica came second with 10 golds and 22 medals, while Kenya and England were the next best performers.", "A total of eleven Games records were broken over the course of the seven-day competition.", "Six of the records were broken by Australian athletes." ], [ "Rugby union", "The first game of Rugby Union to be played on the ground was on Saturday, 29 June 1878, when the Waratah Club of Sydney played Carlton Football Club in a return of the previous year's contests in Sydney where the clubs had competed in both codes of football.", "The match, watched by a crowd of between 6,000 and 7,000 resulted in a draw; one goal and one try being awarded to each team.The next Rugby match was held on Wednesday 29 June 1881, when the Wanderers, a team organised under the auspices of the Melbourne Cricket Club, played a team representing a detached Royal Navy squadron then visiting Melbourne.", "The squadron team won by one goal and one try to nil.It was not until 19 August 1899 that the MCG was again the venue for a Union match, this time Victoria v the British Lions (as they were later to be called).", "During the preceding week the Victorians had held several trial and practice matches there, as well as several training sessions, despite which they were defeated30–0 on the day before a crowd of some 7,000.Nine years later, on Monday, 10 August 1908, Victoria was again the host, this time to the Australian team en route to Great Britain and soon to be dubbed the First Wallabies.", "Despite being held on a working day some 1,500 spectators attended to see the visitors win by 26–6.On Saturday, 6 July 1912 the MCG was the venue, for the only time ever, of a match between two Victorian Rugby Union clubs, Melbourne and East Melbourne, the former winning 9–5 in what was reported to be '... one of the finest exhibitions of the Rugby game ever seen in Victoria.'", "It was played before a large crowd as a curtain raiser to a State Rules match against South Australia.On Saturday 18 June 1921, in another curtain raiser, this time to a Melbourne-Fitzroy League game, a team representing Victoria was soundly beaten 51–0 by the South African Springboks in front of a crowd of 11,214.It was nine years later, on Saturday 13 September 1930, that the British Lions returned to play Victoria, again before a crowd of 7,000, this time defeating the home side 41–36, a surprisingly narrow winning margin.The first post war match at the MCG was on 21 May 1949 when the NZ Maoris outclassed a Southern States side 35–8 before a crowd of close to 10,000.A year later, on 29 July 1950, for the first and only time, Queensland travelled to Victoria to play an interstate match, defeating their hosts 31–12 before a crowd of 7,479.In the following year the MCG was the venue for a contest between the New Zealand All Blacks and an Australian XV.", "This was on 30 June 1951 before some 9,000 spectators and resulted in a convincing 56–11 win for the visitors.Union did not return to the MCG until the late 1990s, for several night time Test matches, both Australia v New Zealand All Blacks as part of the Tri Nations Series.", "The first, on Saturday 26 July 1997, being notable for an attendance of 90,119, the visitors decisively winning 33–18 and the second, on Saturday 11 July 1998, for a victory to Australia of 24–16.Australia and New Zealand met again at the MCG during the 2007 Tri Nations Series on 30 June, the hosts again winning, this time by 20 points to 15 in front of a crowd of 79,322.Australia returned to the MCG as part of the 2023 Rugby Championship.", "They were defeated by New Zealand 38–7 in front of a crowd of 83,944." ], [ "Rugby league", "Rugby league was first played at the ground on 15 August 1914, with the New South Wales team losing to England 15–21.The first ever State of Origin match at the MCG (and second in Melbourne) was Game II of the 1994 series, and the attendance of 87,161 set a new record rugby league crowd in Australia.", "The MCG was also the venue for Game II of the 1995 State of Origin series and drew 52,994, the most of any game that series.", "The second game of the 1997 State of Origin series, which, due to the Super League war only featured Australian Rugby League-signed players, was played there too, but only attracted 25,105, the lowest in a series that failed to attract over 35,000 to any game.The Melbourne Storm played two marquee games at the MCG in 2000.This was the first time that they had played outside of their normal home ground of Olympic Park Stadium which held 18,500 people.", "Their first game was held on 3 March 2000 against the St. George Illawarra Dragons in a rematch of the infamous 1999 NRL Grand Final.", "Dragons player Anthony Mundine said the Storm were 'not worthy premiers' and they responded by running in 12 tries to two, winning 70–10 in front of 23,239 fans.", "This was their biggest crowd they had played against until 33,427 turned up to the 2007 Preliminary Final at Docklands Stadium which saw Melbourne defeat the Parramatta Eels 26–10.The record home and away crowd record has also been overhauled, when a match at Docklands in 2010 against St George attracted 25,480 spectators.", "Their second game attracted only 15,535 spectators and was up against the Cronulla Sharks on 24 June 2000.Once again, the Storm won 22–16.It was announced in June 2014 that the ground would host its first State of Origin match since 1997.Game II of the 2015 series was played at the venue, with an all-time record State of Origin crowd of 91,513 attending the match.", "The attendance is 19th on the all time rugby league attendance list and the 4th highest rugby league attendance in Australia.The MCG hosted its fifth State of Origin match on 6 June 2018.In front of a crowd of 87,122, the third largest State of Origin crowd in Victoria, New South Wales defeated Queensland 22–12." ], [ "Soccer", "On 9 February 2006 Victorian premier Steve Bracks and Football Federation Australia chairman Frank Lowy announced that the MCG would host a world class soccer event each year from 2006 until 2009 inclusive.Australia and Greece playing an International Friendly at the MCG on 25 May 2006.The agreement sees an annual fixture at the MCG, beginning with a clash between Australia and European champions Greece on 25 May 2006 in front of a sell-out crowd of 95,103, before Australia left to contest in the World Cup finals.", "Australia beat Greece 1–0.The Socceroos also hosted a match in 2007 against Argentina, losing 1–0, as well as 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification matches in 2009 against Japan, which attracted 81,872 fans as Australia beat Japan 2–1 via 2 Tim Cahill headers after falling behind 1–0 late in the 1st half.", "In 2010 it was announced that as a warm up to the 2010 FIFA World Cup which the Australians had qualified for, they would play fellow qualified nation New Zealand on 24 May at the MCG.Other matches played at the MCG include the following:* The Olympic final played between USSR and Yugoslavia on 8 December 1956* An exhibition match between Australia and Juventus played on 13 June 1984* A 1998 FIFA World Cup qualifier between Australia and Iran on Saturday 29 November 1997 with 95,000 in attendance.", "The match was drawn 2–2, with Iran progressing on the away goals rule.", "* An exhibition match between Manchester United and Australia on 15 July 1999 with 60,000 people in attendance.", "* A friendly match between Brazil B and Australia on 17 November 1999 with 70,795 in attendance.", "* An Olympic Tournament group match between Italy and the Olyroos on 13 September 2000 with 93,252 in attendance.", "Plus other preliminary matches during the Olympics which also included quarter final and the Semi final between Chile and Cameroon who went on to win the gold medal.", "* A 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifier between the Australia and Uruguay on 20 November 2001 with 84,656 in attendance.", "The Socceroos won 1–0, however Uruguay progressed after later winning the second leg 3–0.", "* A friendly match between Australia and the then European champions, Greece – which was played as a warmup to the 2006 FIFA World Cup.", "* A friendly match between Australia and Argentina with 70,171 in attendance – Argentina had a full strength side with superstars such as Lionel Messi and Carlos Tevez* A friendly match between Australia and the All Whites as a warm up before the 2010 FIFA World Cup in which Australia won in the last play of the game.", "* A pre-season friendly in July 2013 between A-League outfit Melbourne Victory and Premier League side Liverpool, as part of Liverpool's pre-season tour of Australia and South East Asia drawing a crowd of 95,446.", "* The final match of the 2015 International Champions Cup in Australia, between Real Madrid and Manchester City, which drew a soccer MCG record crowd of 99,382* Brasil Global Tour matches between Argentina and Brazil, and Australia and Brazil in June 2017.", "* A friendly between Melbourne Victory and Manchester United on July 15, 2022." ], [ "Concerts", "The MCG is a popular venue for concert acts, with the first rock concert to be held at the ground was one by David Cassidy in 1974, In 1978 David Bowie held a concert there.", "In 1993, Paul McCartney, U2 and Madonna held three concerts, with the highest attendances for a music concert at MCG, with ''147,241'' tickets sold.", "The Rolling Stones held concerts in 1995, Michael Jackson in 1996, the Three Tenors in 1997, Elton John and Billy Joel in 1998.The MCG hosted the Police with Special Guests Fergie & Fiction Plane on Australia Day 2008; the first MCG concert in 10 years.The MCG hosted Sound Relief, a concert donating all revenues to the Red Cross Victorian Bushfire Appeal with performances from Kings of Leon, Midnight Oil, Split Enz, Paul Kelly, Hunters & Collectors, Wolfmother, Jet and Bliss N Eso, among others.", "It was held on 14 March 2009 with 80,518 in attendance.The MCG held a Guns N' Roses concert on 14 February 2017 with 73,756 in attendance.The MCG held a free The Killers concert on 30 September 2017, after the 2017 AFL Grand Final.On 3 December 2022, the MCG held a Guns N' Roses concert as part of the Guns N' Roses 2020 Tour.On 10 December 2022, the MCG held a Billy Joel concert as part of the Billy Joel in Concert tour.The MCG held an Eminem concert on 24 February 2019 with 80,708 tickets sold, at the time the highest attendance for a single concert at the MCG.", "The concert also marked the highest attended show of Eminem's career.The MCG hosted two Ed Sheeran concerts on 2 and 3 March 2023 as part of the +–=÷x Tour.", "Playing in-the-round, the attendance on 2 March was 108,000, Sheeran's biggest concert and 3 March was 109,500, exceeding the previous concert attendance record set by Eminem.The MCG hosted three Taylor Swift concerts on 16, 17, and 18 February 2024 as part of The Eras Tour.", "The three concerts were attended by 96,000 people each night, drawing a collective audience of 288,000.The shows broke the MCG's record for the most tickets sold by one artist at the venue, according to the promoter Frontier Touring." ], [ "Other uses", "=== Tennis ===In 1878 the Melbourne Cricket Club's Lawn Tennis Committee laid an asphalt court at the MCG and Victoria's first game of tennis was played there.", "A second court of grass was laid in 1879 and the first Victorian Championship played on it in 1880.The first inter-colonial championship was played in 1883 and the first formal inter-state match between NSW and Victoria played in 1884 with Victoria winning.In 1889 the MCC arranged for tennis to be played at the Warehousemen's Cricket Ground (now known as the Albert Cricket Ground), at Albert Park, rather than at the MCG.=== Cycling ===It was at the MCG in 1869 that one of Australia's first bicycle races was held.", "The event was for velocipedes, crude wooden machines with pedals on the front wheels.", "In 1898 the Austral Wheel Race was held at the MCG attracting a crowd of 30,000 to see cyclists race for a total of £400 in prize money, with 1st, 2nd, and 3rd place winning £240, £120, and £40 respectively.=== Miscellaneous ===* Queen Elizabeth II visited the MCG in 1954 twice for an assembly and display.", "She attended a Richmond versus Fitzroy match on 5 April 1970, and also attended the Commonwealth Games Opening Ceremony at the ground on 15 March 2006.", "* A record for attendance at the grounds was set by religious leader Billy Graham whose event in 1959 was attended by at least 143,000 people.", "* The first .", "* Pope John Paul II held a service at the MCG on 27 November 1986, and a celebration there of the Polish community the next day* On 5 November 2010, the MCG hosted the Starting Line and opening challenge for ''The Amazing Race Australia 1''.", "This episode aired on 16 May 2011.", "* On 6 October 2018, the MCG hosted WWE Super Show-Down.", "* On 30 March 2022, the MCG hosted the state memorial service for Shane Warne." ], [ "General records", "MCG from a city building.===Sporting records===* First ever Test Cricket match (Australia v England) – 1877* First ever One day international Cricket match – 1971* Highest first class cricket score – 1107 (Victoria v NSW, 1926)* Australia's first international Lacrosse match (Australia v Canada, 1907, 30,000)* Fastest ball bowled in a Cricket match in Australia, 3rd fastest in the world – 160.7 km/h (Shaun Tait, Australia v Pakistan, 5 February 2010)===Attendance records===All-time highest attendance records at the MCGNumberAttendanceEventDate1143,000Billy Graham, Crusade15 March 19592121,696VFL Grand Final, v 26 September 19703120,00040th Eucharistic Congress25 February 19734119,195VFL Grand Final, v 27 September 19695118,192VFL Grand Final, v 25 September 1971* Highest Australian religious event attendance – 143,750 (Billy Graham crusade, 1959)* Highest VFL/AFL attendance at a home-and-away match – 99,256 (Melbourne v Collingwood, 1958).", "* Highest VFL/AFL attendance at a final and highest Australian sporting event attendance – 121,696 (Collingwood v Carlton, 1970)* Highest soccer crowd at MCG (Clubs International Friendly) – 99,382 (International Champions Cup, Manchester City v Real Madrid, 24 July 2015)* Highest soccer crowd at MCG (National Team vs National Team) – 97,103 (Australia v Greece, 2006)* Highest single-day attendance in Test Cricket history – 91,092 (2013 Boxing Day Test, Day 1 – Australia v England)* Highest One Day International Cricket crowd – 93,013 (2015 Cricket World Cup Final, Australia v New Zealand)* Highest Twenty20 International Cricket crowd – 90,293 (2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup, Super 12 round – India v Pakistan, 23 October 2022)* Highest Twenty20 Domestic Cricket crowd – 80,883 (Melbourne Stars v Melbourne Renegades, 2015–16 Big Bash League season)* Highest women's cricket crowd - 86,174 (2020 ICC Women's T20 World Cup Final, Australia Women v India Women)* Highest State of Origin rugby league crowd – 91,513 (Game II, 17 June 2015)===Stadium records===* World's first all colour cricket scoreboard with instant replays* World's first electronic sight screens* World's first super sopper* World's first scrolling signage at an oval-shaped ground* First time an international Cricket match was played on a one-piece portable pitch, Boxing Day Test, 2000* World's tallest floodlights" ], [ "Test cricket records", "Don Bradman still holds the record for most runs at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.Jack Hobbs scored 1,178 runs in 18 innings at the ground; a record for non-Australians.Matthew Hayden scored six centuries, second only to Bradman with nine.=== Batting ===+Most career runsRunsPlayerPeriod'''1,671''' (17 innings) Don Bradman1928–1948'''1,338''' (28 innings) Ricky Ponting1995–2011'''1,284''' (30 innings) Steve Waugh1985–2003'''1,272''' (36 innings) Allan Border1978–1993'''1,257''' (31 innings) Greg Chappell1971–1983+Most career runs (non-Australia)RunsPlayerPeriod'''1,178''' (18 innings) Jack Hobbs1908–1929'''724''' (7 innings) Herbert Sutcliffe1925–1933'''661''' (15 innings) Colin Cowdrey1954–1975'''606''' (11 innings) Viv Richards1975–1988'''505''' (12 innings) Wally Hammond1928–1947+Highest individual scoresRunsPlayerDate'''307''' v. England Bob Cowper11 Feb 1966'''270''' v. England Don Bradman1 Jan 1937'''268''' v. Pakistan Graham Yallop26 Dec 1983'''257''' v. India Ricky Ponting26 Dec 2003'''250''' v. England Justin Langer26 Dec 2002+Most centuriesCenturiesPlayerPeriod'''9''' (17 innings) Don Bradman1928–1948'''6''' (19 innings) Matthew Hayden1996–2008'''5''' (18 innings) Jack Hobbs1908–1929'''4''' (7 innings) Herbert Sutcliffe1925–1933'''4''' (13 innings) Bill Lawry1962–1971'''4''' (14 innings) Steve Smith2010–2021'''4''' (28 innings) Ricky Ponting1995–2011'''4''' (31 innings) Greg Chappell1971–1983'''4''' (36 innings) Allan Border1978–1993+Highest batting average (5+ innings)AveragePlayerPeriod'''128.53''' (17 innings, 4 NO) Don Bradman1928–1948'''103.42''' (7 innings, 0 NO) Herbert Sutcliffe1925–1933'''101.20''' (5 innings, 0 NO) Bob Cowper1964–1968'''87.00''' (6 innings, 1 NO) Alastair Cook2006–2017'''84.72''' (15 innings, 4 NO) Steve Smith2010–2021=== Bowling ===Dennis Lillee has taken the most wickets at the ground, with 82.Statue at the MCG pictured.+Most career wicketsWicketsPlayerPeriod'''82''' (26 innings) Dennis Lillee1972–1983'''56''' (21 innings) Shane Warne1992–2006'''46''' (13 innings) Hugh Trumble1894–1904'''45''' (14 innings) Graham McKenzie1962–1968'''42''' (22 innings) Glenn McGrath1995–2006Sydney Barnes took 35 wickets in ten innings; the most of any non-Australian.+Most career wickets (non-Australia)WicketsPlayerPeriod'''35''' (10 innings) Sydney Barnes1902–1912'''27''' (8 innings) Bobby Peel1885–1895'''22''' (8 innings) Billy Bates1881–1885'''22''' (8 innings) Alec Bedser1947–1951'''22''' (8 innings) Sarfraz Nawaz1972–1983+Best innings figuresFiguresPlayerDate'''9/86''' v. Australia Sarfraz Nawaz10 Mar 1979'''9/121''' v. England Arthur Mailey11 Feb 1921'''8/68''' v. Australia Wilfred Rhodes1 Jan 1904'''8/71''' v. West Indies Graham McKenzie26 Dec 1968'''8/81''' v. Australia Len Braund5 Mar 1904'''8/143''' v. England Max Walker8 Feb 1975+Best match figuresFiguresPlayerDate'''15/124''' v. Australia Wilfred Rhodes1 Jan 1904'''14/102''' v. Australia Billy Bates19 Jan 1883'''13/77''' v. England Monty Noble1 Jan 1902'''13/110''' v. England Fred Spofforth2 Jan 1879'''13/148''' v. England Bruce Reid26 Dec 1990'''13/163''' v. Australia Sydney Barnes1 Jan 1902'''13/165''' v. Australia Hugh Tayfield24 Dec 1952'''13/236''' v. England Arthur Mailey11 Feb 1921+Lowest strike rate (4+ innings)Strike ratePlayerPeriod'''22.6''' (6 wickets) John Hodges1877–1877'''31.1''' (10 wickets) Laurie Nash1932–1937'''31.1''' (15 wickets) Jasprit Bumrah2018–2020'''32.6''' (35 wickets) Bruce Reid1985–1991'''32.7''' (18 wickets) Michael Holding1976–1981Steve Smith made 165*, as Australia totalled 8/624 declared in 2016.=== Team records ===+Highest innings scoresScoreTeamDate'''8/624d''' Australia v. Pakistan26 Dec 2016'''604''' Australia v. England26 Feb 1937'''600''' Australia v. England1 Jan 1925'''589''' England v. Australia9 Feb 1912'''578''' Australia v. South Africa17 Feb 1911+Lowest completed inningsScoreTeamDate'''36''' South Africa v. Australia12 Feb 1932'''45''' South Africa v. Australia12 Feb 1932'''61''' England v. Australia1 Jan 1902'''61''' England v. Australia5 Mar 1904'''67''' India v. Australia6 Feb 1948=== Partnership records ===+Highest partnershipsRunsWicketPlayersMatchDate'''346'''6thDon Bradman (270) & Jack Fingleton (136) Australia v. England1 Jan 1937'''323'''1stWilfred Rhodes (179) & Jack Hobbs (178) England v. Australia9 Feb 1912'''298'''2ndBill Lawry (205) & Ian Chappell (165) Australia v. West Indies26 Dec 1968'''283'''1stHerbert Sutcliffe (176) & Jack Hobbs (154) England v. Australia1 Jan 1925'''279'''6thAndrew Symonds (156) & Matthew Hayden (153) Australia v. England26 Dec 2006+Highest partnerships by wicketRunsWicketPlayersMatchDate'''323'''1stWilfred Rhodes (179) & Jack Hobbs (178) England v. Australia9 Feb 1912'''298'''2ndBill Lawry (205) & Ian Chappell (165) Australia v. West Indies26 Dec 1968'''249'''3rdDon Bradman (169) & Stan McCabe (112) Australia v. England26 Feb 1937'''262'''4thVirat Kohli (169) & Ajinkya Rahane (147) India v. Australia26 Dec 2014'''223*'''5thDon Bradman (127*) & Arthur Morris (100*) Australia v. India1 Jan 1948'''346'''6thDon Bradman (270) & Jack Fingleton (136) Australia v. England1 Jan 1937'''185'''7thGraham Yallop (268) & Greg Matthews (75) Australia v. Pakistan26 Dec 1983'''173'''8thNip Pellew (116) & Jack Gregory (100) Australia v. England31 Dec 1920'''180'''9thJP Duminy (166) & Dale Steyn (76) South Africa v. Australia26 Dec 2008'''120'''10thReggie Duff (104) & Warwick Armstrong (45*) Australia v. England1 Jan 1902All records correct as of 8 July 2021." ], [ "ODI records", "* '''Highest ODI Total:''' 5/355 – Australia vs. England, 22 November 2022* '''Highest Individual ODI Score:''' 180 (151) – Jason Roy, England vs Australia, 14 January 2018* '''Best ODI Innings Bowling Figures:''' 6/42 – Ajit Agarkar, India vs. Australia, 9 January 2004 and Yuzvendra Chahal, India vs. Australia, 18 January 2019* '''Highest ODI Partnership:''' 269 (for the first wicket) – Travis Head & David Warner, Australia vs. England, 22 November 2022Last updated 26 December 2022." ], [ "Twenty20 International records", "* '''Highest Twenty20 Total:''' 5/186 – India vs. Zimbabwe, 6 November 2022* '''Highest Individual Twenty20 Score:''' 89 (43) – David Warner, Australia vs. South Africa, 11 January 2009* '''Best Twenty20 Innings Bowling Figures:''' 4/30 – Josh Hazlewood, Australia vs. England, 31 January 2014* '''Highest Twenty20 Partnership:''' 113 (for the fifth wicket) – Virat Kohli & Hardik Pandya, India vs. Pakistan, 23 October 2022Last updated 26 December 2022." ], [ "VFL/AFL records", "* '''Highest Team Score:'''** 32.24 (216) – vs. , 1 August 1992** 31.25 (211) – vs. , 13 April 1985** 32.19 (211) – vs. , 27 May 1989** 32.17 (209) – vs. , 6 April 1990** 31.19 (205) – vs. , 30 April 1988* '''Largest Winning Margin:'''** 165 pts – (197) def.", "(32), 13 August 2011** 162 pts – (193) def.", "(31), 8 July 2012** 160 pts – (216) def.", "(56), 1 August 1992** 151 pts – (187) def.", "(36), 25 August 1996** 148 pts – (184) def.", "(36), 6 April 2013* '''Lowest Team Score:'''** 0.8 (8) – vs. , 13 July 1912** 1.2 (8) – vs. , 8 June 1903** 0.9 (9) – vs. , 13 May 1911** 0.9 (9) – vs. , 19 August 1911** 1.6 (12) – vs. , 27 June 1908* '''Most Goals in a Game:'''** 14 – Gary Ablett Sr., vs. , 1 May 1993** 14 – Gary Ablett Sr., vs. , 27 May 1989** 14 – John Longmire, vs. , 7 July 1990** 13 – Matthew Lloyd, vs. , 10 April 1999** 12 – Jason Dunstall, vs. , 15 August 1992* '''Most Disposals in a Game:'''** 54 – Tom Mitchell, vs. , 24 March 2018** 53 – Gary Ablett, Jr., vs. , 3 June 2012** 51 – Lachie Neale, vs. , 25 August 2019** 50 – Tom Mitchell, vs. , 20 May 2017** 49 – Dane Swan, vs. , 21 July 2012* '''Most Games Played:'''**200 – Kevin Bartlett ()**193 – Scott Pendlebury ()**186 – Dustin Fletcher ()**169 – David Neitz ()**165 – Nathan Jones ()* '''Most Goals Kicked:'''** 464 – Matthew Richardson ()** 461 – Matthew Lloyd ()** 386 – David Neitz ()** 380 – Wayne Carey (, )** 379 – Kevin Bartlett ()All records correct as of 26 August 2019." ], [ "Statues", "===Founding statue===Statue of cricketer and Australian rules football pioneer Tom Wills umpiring an 1858 football match Statue Sport Unveiled Location Link Tom Wills''Commemorative sculpture for the first game of Australian rules football'' ''Cricket andAustralian rules football'' 2001 Outside MCG (between Gates 2 and 3) Non-MCGFile:Ron barassi statue.jpg|Ron BarassiFile:Leigh matthews statue.jpg|Leigh MatthewsFile:Dick reynolds statue.jpg|Dick ReynoldsFile:Bradmanstatue.jpg|Don BradmanFile:DennisLilleeStatue.JPG|Dennis Lillee===Tattersall's Parade of Champions===The Tattersall's Parade of the Champions undertaking is a gift to the people of Australia by Tattersall's and is a focal point of the Yarra Park precinct.The MCG is a magnet for tourists worldwide and the statues reinforce the association between the elite sportsmen and women who have competed here and the stadium that rejoiced in their performances.", "Statue Sport Unveiled Location Link Sir Donald Bradman ''Cricket'' 2003, May Outside gate 5 MCG Betty Cuthbert ''Track and field'' 2003, August Outside gate 3 MCG Ron Barassi ''Australian rules football'' 2003, September Outside gate 4 MCG Keith Miller ''Cricket'' 2004, February Outside gate 5 MCG Dick Reynolds ''Australian rules football'' 2004, June Outside gate 6 MCG Shirley Strickland ''Track and field'' 2004, November Outside gate 3 MCG Haydn Bunton, Sr. ''Australian rules football'' 2005, April Outside gate 6 MCG Leigh Matthews ''Australian rules football'' 2005, August Outside gate 4 MCG Bill Ponsford ''Cricket'' 2005, December Outside gate 1 MCG Dennis Lillee ''Cricket'' 2006, December Outside gate 1 MCG===Australia Post Avenue of Legends===The statue of Shane Warne in 2022.The statue became a makeshift memorial to Warne shortly after his deathIn 2010, the Melbourne Cricket Club (MCC) announced an expansion to the list of sporting statues placed around the MCG precinct in partnership with Australia Post.The Australia Post Avenue of Legends project aimed to place a minimum of five statues in Yarra Park, extending from the gate 2 MCC members entrance up the avenue towards Wellington Parade.", "The most recent addition of Kevin Bartlett was unveiled in March 2017.Statue Sport Unveiled Location Link Shane Warne ''Cricket'' 2011, December Outside gate 2 MCG Norm Smith ''Australian rules football'' 2012, September Near Jolimont Station MCG John Coleman ''Australian rules football'' 2013, September Outside gate 2 MCG Neil Harvey ''Cricket'' 2014, January Near Jolimont Station MCG Jim Stynes ''Australian rules football'' 2014, September Outside gate 2 MCG Kevin Bartlett ''Australian rules football'' 2017, March Near Jolimont Station MCG" ], [ "See also", "* Australian landmarks* History of Test cricket (to 1883)* History of Test cricket (1884 to 1889)* History of Test cricket (1890 to 1900)* List of Test cricket grounds* List of international cricket centuries at the Melbourne Cricket Ground* List of international cricket five-wicket hauls at the Melbourne Cricket Ground* National Sports Museum, a museum dedicated to Australian sport, located within the Melbourne Cricket Ground* List of Australian rules football statues, a list of Australian rules football-related statues across Australia* Narendra Modi Stadium, the Indian stadium that surpassed MCG to be the largest cricket stadium.", "* List of national stadiums* Lists of stadiums" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Cashman, Richard (1995) ''Paradise of Sport'' Melbourne: Oxford University Press* Cuthbert, Betty (1966) ''Golden Girl''* Gordon, Harry (1994) ''Australia and the Olympic Games'' Brisbane: University of Queensland Press* Hinds, Richard (1997) ''Low blows.", "Sport’s top 10'' Sydney Morning Herald 1 November* Linnell, Garry (1995) ''Football Ltd'' Sydney: Ironbark Pan Macmillan Australia* Pollard, Jack (1990) ''Australia'' Test Match Grounds London: Willow Books* ''Plan of the Town and Suburbs of Melbourne 1843''* Vamplew, Wray; Moore, Katharine; O’Hara, John; Cashman, Richard; and Jobling, Ian editors (1997) ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Sport'' Second Edition Melbourne: Oxford University Press" ], [ "External links", "* * Virtual tour of the Melbourne Cricket Ground* Description at sportsvenue-technology.com* * \"Around the Grounds\" – Web Documentary – MCG" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marshall Plan" ], [ "Introduction", "The labeling used on aid packages created and sent under the Marshall Plan.General George C. Marshall, the 50th U.S. Secretary of StateThe '''Marshall Plan''' (officially the '''European Recovery Program''', '''ERP''') was an American initiative enacted in 1948 to provide foreign aid to Western Europe.", "The United States transferred $13.3 billion (equivalent to $173 billion in 2023) in economic recovery programs to Western European economies after the end of World War II.", "Replacing an earlier proposal for a Morgenthau Plan, it operated for four years beginning on April 3, 1948, though in 1951, the Marshall Plan was largely replaced by the Mutual Security Act.", "The goals of the United States were to rebuild war-torn regions, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, improve European prosperity and prevent the spread of communism.", "The Marshall Plan proposed the reduction of interstate barriers and the economic integration of the European Continent while also encouraging an increase in productivity as well as the adoption of modern business procedures.The Marshall Plan aid was divided among the participant states roughly on a per capita basis.", "A larger amount was given to the major industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for the general European revival.", "Somewhat more aid per capita was also directed toward the Allied nations, with less for those that had been part of the Axis or remained neutral.", "The largest recipient of Marshall Plan money was the United Kingdom (receiving about 26% of the total).", "The next highest contributions went to France (18%) and West Germany (11%).", "Some eighteen European countries received Plan benefits.", "Although offered participation, the Soviet Union refused Plan benefits and also blocked benefits to Eastern Bloc countries, such as Romania and Poland.", "The United States provided similar aid programs in Asia, but they were not part of the Marshall Plan.Its role in rapid recovery has been debated.", "The Marshall Plan's accounting reflects that aid accounted for about 3% of the combined national income of the recipient countries between 1948 and 1951, which means an increase in GDP growth of less than half a percent.Graham T. Allison states that \"the Marshall Plan has become a favorite analogy for policy-makers.", "Yet few know much about it.\"", "Some new studies highlight not only the role of economic cooperation but approach the Marshall Plan as a case concerning strategic thinking to face some typical challenges in policy, as problem definition, risk analysis, decision support to policy formulation, and program implementation.In 1947, two years after the end of the war, industrialist Lewis H. Brown wrote, at the request of General Lucius D. Clay, ''A Report on Germany'', which served as a detailed recommendation for the reconstruction of post-war Germany and served as a basis for the Marshall Plan.", "The initiative was named after United States Secretary of State George C. Marshall.", "The plan had bipartisan support in Washington, where the Republicans controlled Congress and the Democrats controlled the White House with Harry S. Truman as president.", "Businessmen, too, feared the Marshall Plan.", "many felt unsure whether reconstructing European economies and encouraging foreign competition was in the US' best interests.", "The plan was largely the creation of State Department officials, especially William L. Clayton and George F. Kennan, with help from the Brookings Institution, as requested by Senator Arthur Vandenberg, chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.", "Marshall spoke of an urgent need to help the European recovery in his address at Harvard University in June 1947.The purpose of the Marshall Plan was to aid in the economic recovery of nations after World War II and secure US geopolitical influence over Western Europe.", "To combat the effects of the Marshall Plan, the USSR developed its own economic recovery program, known as the Molotov Plan.", "However, the plan was said to have not worked as well due to the USSR particularly having been hit hard by the effects of World War II.The phrase \"equivalent of the Marshall Plan\" is often used to describe a proposed large-scale economic rescue program." ], [ "Development and deployment", "The reconstruction plan, developed at a meeting of the participating European states, was drafted on June 5, 1947.It offered the same aid to the Soviet Union and its allies, but they refused to accept it, under Soviet pressure (as was the case for Finland's rejection) as doing so would allow a degree of US control over the communist economies.", "Secretary Marshall became convinced Stalin had no interest in helping restore economic health in Western Europe.European Recovery Program expenditures by country.", "The Eastern Bloc is not included.President Harry Truman signed the Marshall Plan on April 3, 1948, granting $5 billion in aid to 16 European nations.", "During the four years that the plan was in effect, the United States donated $17 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ) in economic and technical assistance to help the recovery of the European countries that joined the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation.", "The $17 billion was in the context of a US GDP of $258 billion in 1948, and on top of $17 billion in American aid to Europe between the end of the war and the start of the plan that is counted separately from the Marshall Plan.", "The Marshall Plan was replaced by the Mutual Security Plan at the end of 1951; that new plan gave away about $7.5 billion annually until 1961 when it was replaced by another program.The ERP addressed each of the obstacles to postwar recovery.", "The plan looked to the future and did not focus on the destruction caused by the war.", "Much more important were efforts to modernize European industrial and business practices using high-efficiency American models, reducing artificial trade barriers, and instilling a sense of hope and self-reliance.By 1952, as the funding ended, the economy of every participant state had surpassed pre-war levels; for all Marshall Plan recipients, output in 1951 was at least 35% higher than in 1938.Over the next two decades, Western Europe enjoyed unprecedented growth and prosperity, but economists are not sure what proportion was due directly to the ERP, what proportion indirectly, and how much would have happened without it.A common American interpretation of the program's role in European recovery was expressed by Paul Hoffman, head of the Economic Cooperation Administration, in 1949 when he told Congress Marshall aid had provided the \"critical margin\" on which other investment needed for European recovery depended.", "The Marshall Plan was one of the first elements of European integration, as it erased trade barriers and set up institutions to coordinate the economy on a continental level—that is, it stimulated the total political reconstruction of Western Europe.Belgian economic historian Herman Van der Wee concludes the Marshall Plan was a \"great success\":" ], [ "Wartime destruction", "By the end of World War II, much of Europe was devastated.", "Sustained aerial bombardment during the war had badly damaged most major cities, and industrial facilities were especially hard-hit.", "Millions of refugees were in temporary camps.", "The region's trade flows had been thoroughly disrupted; millions were in refugee camps living on aid from the United States, which was provided by the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and other agencies.", "Food shortages were severe, especially in the harsh winter of 1946–47.From July 1945 through June 1946, the United States shipped 16.5 million tons of food, primarily wheat, to Europe and Japan.", "It amounted to one-sixth of the American food supply and provided 35 trillion calories, enough to provide 400 calories a day for one year to 300 million people.Especially damaged was transportation infrastructure, as railways, bridges, and docks had been specifically targeted by airstrikes, while much merchant shipping had been sunk.", "Although most small towns and villages had not suffered as much damage, the destruction of transportation left them economically isolated.", "None of these problems could be easily remedied, as most nations engaged in the war had exhausted their treasuries in the process.The only major powers whose infrastructure had not been significantly harmed in World War II were the United States and Canada.", "They were much more prosperous than before the war, but exports were a small factor in their economy.", "Much of the Marshall Plan aid would be used by the Europeans to buy manufactured goods and raw materials from the United States and Canada." ], [ "Initial post-war events", "===Slow recovery===Most of Europe's economies were recovering slowly, as unemployment and food shortages led to strikes and unrest in several nations.", "Agricultural production was 83% of 1938 levels, industrial production was 88%, and exports 59%.", "Exceptions were the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and France, whereby the end of 1947 production had already been restored to pre-war levels before the Marshall Plan.", "Italy and Belgium would follow by the end of 1948.In Germany in 1945–46 housing and food conditions were bad, as the disruption of transport, markets, and finances slowed a return to normality.", "In the West, the bombing had destroyed 5,000,000 houses and apartments, and 12,000,000 refugees from the east had crowded in.Food production was two-thirds of the pre-war level in 1946–48, while normal grain and meat shipments no longer arrived from the East.", "The drop in food production can be attributed to a drought that killed a major portion of the wheat crop while a severe winter destroyed the majority of the wheat crop the following year.", "This caused most Europeans to rely on a 1,500 calorie per day diet.", "Furthermore, the large shipments of food stolen from occupied nations during the war no longer reached Germany.", "Industrial production fell more than half and reached pre-war levels at the end of 1949.While Germany struggled to recover from the destruction of the War, the recovery effort began in June 1948, moving on from emergency relief.", "The currency reform in 1948 was headed by the military government and helped Germany to restore stability by encouraging production.", "The reform revalued old currency and deposits and introduced a new currency.", "Taxes were also reduced and Germany prepared to remove economic barriers.During the first three years of occupation of Germany, the Allied occupational authorities vigorously pursued a military disarmament program in Germany, partly by removal of equipment but mainly through an import embargo on raw materials, part of the Morgenthau Plan approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.", "Historian Nicholas Balabkins concluded that \"as long as German industrial capacity was kept idle the economic recovery of Europe was delayed.\"", "By July 1947, Washington realized that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base, deciding that an \"orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany.\"", "In addition, the strength of Moscow-controlled communist parties in France and Italy worried Washington.In the view of the State Department under President Harry S Truman, the United States needed to adopt a definite position on the world scene or fear losing credibility.", "The emerging doctrine of containment (as opposed to rollback) argued that the United States needed to substantially aid non-communist countries to stop the spread of Soviet influence.", "There was also some hope that the Eastern Bloc nations would join the plan, and thus be pulled out of the emerging Soviet bloc, but that did not happen.hunger-winter of 1947, thousands protest in West Germany against the disastrous food situation (March 31, 1947).", "The sign says: ''We want coal, we want bread''====Need to rebuild Germany====In January 1947, Truman appointed retired General George Marshall as Secretary of State.", "In July 1947 Marshall scrapped Joint Chiefs of Staff Directive 1067, which was based on the Morgenthau Plan which had decreed \"take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany or designed to maintain or strengthen the German economy.\"", "The new plan JCS 1779 stated that \"an orderly and prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany.\"", "The restrictions placed on German heavy industry production were partly ameliorated; permitted steel production levels were raised from 25% of pre-war capacity to a new limit placed at 50% of pre-war capacity.With a communist, although non-Soviet, insurgency threatening Greece, and Britain financially unable to continue its aid, the President announced his Truman Doctrine on March 12, 1947, \"to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures\", with an aid request for consideration and decision, concerning Greece and Turkey.", "Herbert Hoover noted that \"The whole economy of Europe is interlinked with the German economy through the exchange of raw materials and manufactured goods.", "The productivity of Europe cannot be restored without the restoration of Germany as a contributor to that productivity.\"", "Hoover's report led to a realization in Washington that a new policy was needed; \"almost any action would be an improvement on current policy.\"", "In Washington, the Joint Chiefs declared that the \"complete revival of German industry, particularly coal mining\" was now of \"primary importance\" to American security.The United States was already spending a great deal to help Europe recover.", "Over $14 billion was spent or loaned during the postwar period through the end of 1947 and is not counted as part of the Marshall Plan.", "Much of this aid was designed to restore infrastructure and help refugees.", "Britain, for example, received an emergency loan of $3.75 billion.The United Nations also launched a series of humanitarian and relief efforts almost wholly funded by the United States.", "These efforts had important effects, but they lacked any central organization and planning, and failed to meet many of Europe's more fundamental needs.", "Already in 1943, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) was founded to provide relief to areas liberated from Germany.", "UNRRA provided billions of dollars of rehabilitation aid and helped about 8 million refugees.", "It ceased the operation of displaced persons camps in Europe in 1947; many of its functions were transferred to several UN agencies." ], [ "Soviet negotiations", "After Marshall's appointment in January 1947, administration officials met with Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov and others to press for an economically self-sufficient Germany, including a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets in their occupied zone.", "Molotov refrained from supplying accounts of Soviet assets.", "The Soviets took a punitive approach, pressing for a delay rather than an acceleration in economic rehabilitation, demanding unconditional fulfillment of all prior reparation claims, and pressing for progress toward nationwide socioeconomic transformation.After six weeks of negotiations, Molotov rejected all of the American and British proposals.", "Molotov also rejected the counteroffer to scrap the British-American \"Bizonia\" and to include the Soviet zone within the newly constructed Germany.", "Marshall was particularly discouraged after personally meeting with Stalin to explain that the United States could not possibly abandon its position on Germany, while Stalin expressed little interest in a solution to German economic problems." ], [ "Marshall's speech", "After the adjournment of the Moscow conference following six weeks of failed discussions with the Soviets regarding a potential German reconstruction, the United States concluded that a solution could not wait any longer.", "To clarify the American position, a major address by Secretary of State George Marshall was planned.", "Marshall gave the address at Harvard University on June 5, 1947.He offered American aid to promote European recovery and reconstruction.", "The speech described the dysfunction of the European economy and presented a rationale for US aid:The modern system of the division of labor upon which the exchange of products is based is in danger of breaking down. ...", "Aside from the demoralizing effect on the world at large and the possibilities of disturbances arising as a result of the desperation of the people concerned, the consequences to the economy of the United States should be apparent to all.", "It is logical that the United States should do whatever it is able to do to assist in the return of normal economic health to the world, without which there can be no political stability and no assured peace.", "Our policy is not directed against any country, but against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos.", "Any government that is willing to assist in recovery will find full co-operation on the part of the United States.", "Its purpose should be the revival of a working economy in the world so as to permit the emergence of political and social conditions in which free institutions can exist.Marshall was convinced that economic stability would provide political stability in Europe.", "He offered aid, but the European countries had to organize the program themselves.The speech, written at Marshall's request and guidance by Charles Bohlen contained virtually no details and no numbers.", "More a proposal than a plan, it was a challenge to European leaders to cooperate and coordinate.", "It asked Europeans to create their own plan for rebuilding Europe, indicating the United States would then fund this plan.", "The administration felt that the plan would likely be unpopular among many Americans, and the speech was mainly directed at a European audience.", "In an attempt to keep the speech out of American papers, journalists were not contacted, and on the same day, Truman called a press conference to take away headlines.", "In contrast, Dean Acheson, an Under Secretary of State, was dispatched to contact the European media, especially the British media, and the speech was read in its entirety on the BBC.In the audience at Harvard was International Law and Diplomacy graduate student Malcolm Crawford, who had just written his Master's thesis entitled \"A Blueprint for the Financing of Post-War Business and Industry in the United Kingdom and Republic of France.\"", "Crawford's thesis was read by future Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas and presented to President Truman as the solution for Marshall's proposal.", "It was Crawford's thesis which provided the key to selling the Marshall Plan to Congress by laying out the idea of \"strategic partnerships.\"", "Instead of the Federal government granting money directly to Europe, American businesses would provide technology, expertise, and materials to Europe as a strategic partner, and in exchange, the Federal government would purchase stock in the US businesses to reimburse them.", "In this way, Europe would receive the aid it needed, American businesses would receive capital investment, and the federal government would make a profit when the stock was sold." ], [ "Rejection by Stalin", "British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin heard Marshall's radio broadcast speech and immediately contacted French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault to begin preparing a quick European response to (and acceptance of) the offer, which led to the creation of the Committee of European Economic Co-operation.", "The two agreed that it would be necessary to invite the Soviets as the other major allied power.", "Marshall's speech had explicitly included an invitation to the Soviets, feeling that excluding them would have been a sign of distrust.", "State Department officials, however, knew that Stalin would almost certainly not participate and that any plan that would send large amounts of aid to the Soviets was unlikely to get Congressional approval.===Initial reactions===Speaking at the Paris Peace Conference on October 10, 1946, Molotov had already stated Soviet fears: \"If American capital was given a free hand in the small states ruined and enfeebled by the war it would buy up the local industries, appropriate the more attractive Romanian, Yugoslav ... enterprises and would become the master in these small states.\"", "While the Soviet ambassador in Washington suspected that the Marshall Plan could lead to the creation of an anti-Soviet bloc, Stalin was open to the offer.", "He directed that—in negotiations to be held in Paris regarding the aid—countries in the Eastern Bloc should not reject economic conditions being placed upon them.", "Stalin only changed his outlook when he learned that (a) credit would only be extended under conditions of economic cooperation, and (b) aid would also be extended to Germany in total, an eventuality which Stalin thought would hamper the Soviets' ability to exercise influence in western Germany.Initially, Stalin maneuvered to kill the plan, or at least hamper it using destructive participation in the Paris talks regarding conditions.", "He quickly realized, however, that this would be impossible after Molotov reported—following his arrival in Paris in July 1947—that conditions for the credit were non-negotiable.", "Looming as just as large a concern was the Czechoslovak eagerness to accept the aid, as well as indications of a similar Polish attitude.===Compulsory Eastern Bloc rejection===Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov left Paris, rejecting the plan.", "After that, statements were made suggesting a future confrontation with the West, calling the United States both a \"fascizing\" power and the \"center of worldwide reaction and anti-Soviet activity\", with all U.S.-aligned countries branded as enemies.", "The Soviets blamed the United States for communist losses in elections in Belgium, France, and Italy months earlier, in the spring of 1947.It claimed that \"marshallization\" must be resisted and prevented by any means and that French and Italian communist parties were to make maximum efforts to sabotage the implementation of the plan.", "In addition, Western embassies in Moscow were isolated, with their personnel being denied contact with Soviet officials.On July 12, a larger meeting was convened in Paris.", "Every country in Europe was invited, with the exceptions of Spain (a World War II neutral that had sympathized with the Axis powers) and the small states of Andorra, San Marino, Monaco, and Liechtenstein.", "The Soviet Union was invited with the understanding that it would likely refuse.", "The states of the future Eastern Bloc were also approached, and Czechoslovakia and Poland agreed to attend.", "In one of the most evident signs and reflections of tight Soviet control and domination over the region, Jan Masaryk, the foreign minister of Czechoslovakia, was summoned to Moscow and berated by Stalin for considering Czechoslovakia's possible involvement with and joining of the Marshall Plan.", "The prime minister of Poland, Józef Cyrankiewicz, was rewarded by Stalin for his country's rejection of the plan which came in the form of the Soviet Union's offer of a lucrative trade agreement lasting for five years, a grant amounting to the approximate equivalent of $450 million (in 1948; the sum would have been $4.4 billion in 2014 ) in the form of long-term credit and loans and the provision of 200,000 tonnes of grain, heavy and manufacturing machinery and factories and heavy industries to Poland.The Marshall Plan participants were not surprised when the Czechoslovakian and Polish delegations were prevented from attending the Paris meeting.", "The other Eastern Bloc states immediately rejected the offer.", "Finland also declined, to avoid antagonizing the Soviets (see also Finlandization).", "The Soviet Union's \"alternative\" to the Marshall plan which was purported to involve Soviet subsidies and trade with western Europe, became known as the Molotov Plan, and later, the Comecon.", "In a 1947 speech to the United Nations, Soviet deputy foreign minister Andrei Vyshinsky said that the Marshall Plan violated the principles of the United Nations.", "He accused the United States of attempting to impose its will on other independent states while at the same time using economic resources distributed as a relief to needy nations as an instrument of political pressure.===Yugoslavia===Although all other communist European countries had deferred to Stalin and rejected the aid, the Yugoslavs, led by Josip Broz (Tito), initially went along and rejected the Marshall Plan.", "However, in 1948 Tito broke decisively with Stalin on other issues.", "Yugoslavia requested American aid.", "American leaders were internally divided, but finally agreed and began sending money on a small scale in 1949 and on a much larger scale in 1950–53.The American aid was not part of the Marshall Plan.===Szklarska Poręba meeting===In late September, the Soviet Union called a meeting of nine European communist parties at the resort town of Szklarska Poręba in southwest Poland.", "A Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) report was read at the outset to set the heavily anti-Western tone, stating now that \"international politics is dominated by the ruling clique of the American imperialists\" which have embarked upon the \"enslavement of the weakened capitalist countries of Europe\".Communist parties were to struggle against the US presence in Europe by any means necessary, including sabotage.", "The report further claimed that \"reactionary imperialist elements throughout the world, particularly in the United States, in Britain and France, had put particular hope on Germany and Japan, primarily on Hitlerite Germany—first as a force most capable of striking a blow at the Soviet Union\".Referring to the Eastern Bloc, the report stated that \"the Red Army's liberating role was complemented by an upsurge of the freedom-loving peoples' liberation struggle against the fascist predators and their hirelings.", "\"It argued that \"the bosses of Wall Street\" were \"taking the place of Germany, Japan, and Italy\".", "The Marshall Plan was described as \"the American plan for the enslavement of Europe\".", "It described the world now breaking down \"into basically two camps—the imperialist and antidemocratic camp on the one hand, and the anti-imperialist and democratic camp on the other\".Although the Eastern Bloc countries, except Czechoslovakia, had immediately rejected Marshall Plan aid, Eastern Bloc communist parties were blamed for permitting even minor influence by non-communists in their respective countries during the run-up to the Marshall Plan.", "The meeting's chair, Andrei Zhdanov, who was in permanent radio contact with the Kremlin from whom he received instructions, also castigated communist parties in France and Italy for collaboration with those countries' domestic agendas.", "Zhdanov warned that if they continued to fail to maintain international contact with Moscow to consult on all matters, \"extremely harmful consequences for the development of the brother parties' work\" would result.Party rules prevented Italian and French communist leaders from pointing out that it was Stalin who had directed them not to take opposition stances in 1944.The French communist party, like others, was then to redirect its mission to \"destroy capitalist economy\" and that the Soviet Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) would take control of the French Communist Party's activities to oppose the Marshall Plan.", "When they asked Zhdanov if they should prepare for armed revolt when they returned home, he did not answer.", "In a follow-up conversation with Stalin, he explained that an armed struggle would be impossible and that the struggle against the Marshall Plan was to be waged under the slogan of national independence." ], [ "Passage in Congress", "Congress, under the control of conservative Republicans, agreed to the program for multiple reasons.", "The 20-member conservative isolationist Senate wing of the party, based in the rural Midwest and led by Senator Kenneth S. Wherry (R-Nebraska), was outmaneuvered by the emerging internationalist wing, led by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg (R-Michigan).", "The opposition argued that it made no sense to oppose communism by supporting the socialist governments in Western Europe; and that American goods would reach Russia and increase its war potential.", "They called it \"a wasteful 'operation rat-hole'\" Vandenberg, assisted by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. (R-Massachusetts) admitted there was no certainty that the plan would succeed, but said it would halt economic chaos, sustain Western civilization, and stop further Soviet expansion.", "Senator Robert A. Taft (R-Ohio) hedged on the issue.", "He said it was without economic justification; however, it was \"absolutely necessary\" in \"the world battle against communism.\"", "In the end, only 17 senators voted against it on March 13, 1948 A bill granting an initial $5 billion passed Congress with strong bipartisan support.", "Congress eventually allocated $12.4 billion in aid over the four years of the plan.Congress reflected public opinion, which resonated with the ideological argument that communism flourishes in poverty.", "Across America, multiple interest groups, including business, labor, farming, philanthropy, ethnic groups, and religious groups, saw the Marshall Plan as an inexpensive solution to a massive problem, noting it would also help American exports and stimulate the American economy as well.", "Major newspapers were highly supportive, including such conservative outlets as ''Time'' magazine.", "Vandenberg made sure of bipartisan support on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.", "The Solid Democratic South was highly supportive, the upper Midwest was dubious, but heavily outnumbered.", "The plan was opposed by conservatives in the rural Midwest, who opposed any major government spending program and were highly suspicious of Europeans.", "The plan also had some opponents on the left, led by Henry A. Wallace, the former vice president.", "He said the plan was hostile to the Soviet Union, a subsidy for American exporters, and sure to polarize the world between East and West.", "However, opposition against the Marshall Plan was greatly reduced by the shock of the communist coup in Czechoslovakia in February 1948.The appointment of the prominent businessman Paul G. Hoffman as director reassured conservative businessmen that the gigantic sums of money would be handled efficiently." ], [ "Negotiations", "Turning the plan into reality required negotiations among the participating nations.", "Sixteen nations met in Paris to determine what form the American aid would take, and how it would be divided.", "The negotiations were long and complex, with each nation having its own interests.", "France's major concern was that Germany not be rebuilt to its previous level of might.", "The Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg), despite also suffering under the Nazis, had long been closely linked to the German economy and felt their prosperity depended on its revival.", "The Scandinavian nations, especially Sweden, insisted that their long-standing trading relationships with the Eastern Bloc nations not be disrupted and that their neutrality not be infringed.The United Kingdom insisted on special status as a longstanding belligerent during the war, concerned that if it were treated equally with the devastated continental powers, it would receive virtually no aid.", "The Americans were pushing the importance of free trade and European unity to form a bulwark against communism.", "The Truman administration, represented by William L. Clayton, promised the Europeans that they would be free to structure the plan themselves, but the administration also reminded the Europeans that implementation depended on the plan's passage through Congress.", "A majority of Congress members were committed to free trade and European integration and were hesitant to spend too much of the money on Germany.", "However, before the Marshall Plan was in effect, France, Austria, and Italy needed immediate aid.", "On December 17, 1947, the United States agreed to give $40 million to France, Austria, China, and Italy.Agreement was eventually reached, and the Europeans sent a reconstruction plan to Washington, which was formulated and agreed upon by the Committee of European Economic Co-operation in 1947.In the document, the Europeans asked for $22 billion in aid.", "Truman cut this to $17 billion in the bill he put to Congress.On March 17, 1948, Truman addressed European security and condemned the Soviet Union before a hastily convened Joint Session of Congress.", "Attempting to contain spreading Soviet influence in the Eastern Bloc, Truman asked Congress to restore a peacetime military draft and to swiftly pass the '''Economic Cooperation Act''', the name given to the Marshall Plan.", "Of the Soviet Union Truman said, \"The situation in the world today is not primarily the result of the natural difficulties which follow a great war.", "It is chiefly due to the fact that one nation has not only refused to cooperate in the establishment of a just and honorable peace but—even worse—has actively sought to prevent it.Members of the Republican-controlled 80th Congress (1947–1949) were skeptical.", "\"In effect, he told the Nation that we have lost the peace, that our whole war effort was in vain.", "\", noted Representative Frederick Smith of Ohio.", "Others thought he had not been forceful enough to contain the USSR.", "\"What Truman said fell short of being tough\", noted Representative Eugene Cox, a Democrat from Georgia, \"there is no prospect of ever winning Russian cooperation.\"", "Despite its reservations, the 80th Congress implemented Truman's requests, further escalating the Cold War with the USSR.Truman signed the Economic Cooperation Act into law on April 3, 1948; the Act established the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) to administer the program.", "ECA was headed by economic cooperation administrator Paul G. Hoffman.", "In the same year, the participating countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, West Germany, the United Kingdom, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and the United States) signed an accord establishing a master financial-aid-coordinating agency, the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (later called the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development or OECD), which was headed by Frenchman Robert Marjolin." ], [ "Implementation", "First page of the Marshall PlanAccording to Armin Grünbacher:The ECA's official mission statement was to give a boost to the European economy: to promote European production, to bolster European currency, and to facilitate international trade, especially with the United States, whose economic interest required Europe to become wealthy enough to import US goods.", "Another unofficial goal of ECA (and of the Marshall Plan) was the containment of growing Soviet influence in Europe, evident especially in the growing strength of communist parties in France, and Italy.The Marshall Plan money was transferred to the governments of the European nations.", "The funds were jointly administered by the local governments and the ECA.", "Each European capital had an ECA envoy, generally a prominent American businessman who would advise on the process.", "The cooperative allocation of funds was encouraged, and panels of government, business and labor leaders were convened to examine the economy and see where aid was needed.", "The recipient nations were represented collectively by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), headed by British statesman Oliver Franks.The Marshall Plan aid was mostly used for goods from the United States.", "The European nations had all but exhausted their foreign-exchange reserves during the war, and the Marshall Plan aid represented almost their sole means of importing goods from abroad.", "At the start of the plan, these imports were mainly much-needed staples such as food and fuel, but later the purchases turned toward reconstruction needs as was originally intended.", "In the latter years, under pressure from the United States Congress and with the outbreak of the Korean War, an increasing amount of the aid was spent on rebuilding the militaries of Western Europe.", "Of the some $13 billion allotted by mid-1951, $3.4 billion had been spent on imports of raw materials and semi-manufactured products; $3.2 billion on food, feed, and fertilizer; $1.9 billion on machines, vehicles and equipment; and $1.6 billion on fuel.Also established were counterpart funds, which used Marshall Plan aid to establish funds in the local currency.", "According to ECA rules, recipients had to invest 60% of these funds in industry.", "This was prominent in Germany where these government-administered funds played a crucial role in lending money to private enterprises which would spend the money rebuilding.", "These funds played a central role in the reindustrialization of Germany.", "In 1949–50, for instance, 40% of the investment in the German coal industry was by these funds.The companies were obligated to repay the loans to the government, and the money would then be lent out to another group of businesses.", "This process has continued to this day in the guise of the state-owned KfW bank, (Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau, meaning Reconstruction Credit Institute).", "The Special Fund, then supervised by the Federal Economics Ministry, was worth over DM 10 billion in 1971.In 1997 it was worth DM 23 billion.", "Through the revolving loan system, the Fund had by the end of 1995 made low-interest loans to German citizens amounting to around DM 140 billion.", "The other 40% of the counterpart funds were used to pay down the debt, stabilize the currency, or invest in non-industrial projects.", "France made the most extensive use of counterpart funds, using them to reduce the budget deficit.", "In France, and most other countries, the counterpart fund money was absorbed into general government revenues, and not recycled as in Germany.The Netherlands received US aid for economic recovery in the Netherlands Indies.", "However, in January 1949, the American government suspended this aid in response to the Dutch efforts to restore colonial rule in Indonesia during the Indonesian National Revolution, and it implicitly threatened to suspend Marshall aid to the Netherlands if the Dutch government continued to oppose the independence of Indonesia.At the time the United States was a significant oil producing nation—one of the goals of the Marshall Plan was for Europe to use oil in place of coal, but the Europeans wanted to buy crude oil and use the Marshall Plan funds to build refineries instead.", "However, when independent American oil companies complained, the ECA denied funds for European refinery construction.===Technical Assistance Program===Construction in West Berlin with the help of the Marshall Plan after 1948.The plaque reads: \"Emergency Program Berlin – with the help of the Marshall Plan\"US aid to Greece under the Marshall PlanA high priority was increasing industrial productivity in Europe, which proved one of the more successful aspects of the Marshall Plan.", "The US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) contributed heavily to the success of the Technical Assistance Program.", "The United States Congress passed a law on June 7, 1940, that allowed the BLS to \"make continuing studies of labor productivity\" and appropriated funds for the creation of a Productivity and Technological Development Division.", "The BLS could then use its expertise in the field of productive efficiency to implement a productivity drive in each Western European country receiving Marshall Plan aid.", "Counterpart funds were used to finance large-scale tours of American industry.", "France, for example, sent 500 missions with 4700 businessmen and experts to tour American factories, farms, stores, and offices.", "They were especially impressed with the prosperity of American workers, and how they could purchase an inexpensive new automobile for nine months work, compared to 30 months in France.By implementing technological literature surveys and organized plant visits, American economists, statisticians, and engineers were able to educate European manufacturers in statistical measurement.", "The goal of the statistical and technical assistance from the Americans was to increase productive efficiency of European manufacturers in all industries.To conduct this analysis, the BLS performed two types of productivity calculations.", "First, they used existing data to calculate how much a worker produces per hour of work—the average output rate.", "Second, they compared the existing output rates in a particular country to output rates in other nations.", "By performing these calculations across all industries, the BLS was able to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each country's manufacturing and industrial production.", "From that, the BLS could recommend technologies (especially statistical) that each individual nation could implement.", "Often, these technologies came from the United States; by the time the Technical Assistance Program began, the United States used statistical technologies \"more than a generation ahead of what the Europeans were using\".The BLS used these statistical technologies to create Factory Performance Reports for Western European nations.", "The American government sent hundreds of technical advisers to Europe to observe workers in the field.", "This on-site analysis made the Factory Performance Reports especially helpful to the manufacturers.", "In addition, the Technical Assistance Program funded 24,000 European engineers, leaders, and industrialists to visit America and tour America's factories, mines, and manufacturing plants.", "This way, the European visitors would be able to return to their home countries and implement the technologies used in the United States.", "The analyses in the Factory Performance Reports and the \"hands-on\" experience had by the European productivity teams effectively identified productivity deficiencies in European industries; from there, it became clearer how to make European production more effective.Before the Technical Assistance Program even went into effect, United States Secretary of Labor Maurice Tobin expressed his confidence in American productivity and technology to both American and European economic leaders.", "He urged that the United States play a large role in improving European productive efficiency by providing four recommendations for the program's administrators:# That BLS productivity personnel should serve on American-European councils for productivity;# that productivity targets (based on American productivity standards) can and should be implemented to increase productivity;# that there should be a general exchange and publication of information; and# that the \"technical abstract\" service should be the central source of information.The effects of the Technical Assistance Program were not limited to improvements in productive efficiency.", "While the thousands of European leaders took their work/study trips to the United States, they were able to observe a number of aspects of American society as well.", "The Europeans could watch local, state, and federal governments work together with citizens in a pluralist society.", "They observed a democratic society with open universities and civic societies in addition to more advanced factories and manufacturing plants.", "The Technical Assistance Program allowed Europeans to bring home many types of American ideas.Another important aspect of the Technical Assistance Program was its low cost.", "While $19.4 billion was allocated for capital costs in the Marshall Plan, the Technical Assistance Program only required $300 million.", "Only one-third of that $300 million cost was paid by the United States.===United Kingdom===In the aftermath of the war Britain faced a deep financial crisis, whereas the United States enjoyed an economic boom.", "The United States continued to finance the British treasury after the war.", "Much of this aid was designed to restore infrastructure and help refugees.", "Britain received an emergency loan of $3.75 billion in 1946; it was a 50-year loan with a low 2% interest rate.", "The Marshall Plan provided a more permanent solution as it gave $3.3 billion to Britain.", "The Marshall money was a gift and carried requirements that Britain balance its budget, control tariffs and maintain adequate currency reserves.", "The British Labour government under Prime Minister Clement Attlee was an enthusiastic participant.The American goals for the Marshall plan were to help rebuild the postwar British economy, help modernize the economy, and minimize trade barriers.", "When the Soviet Union refused to participate or allow its satellites to participate, the Marshall plan became an element of the emerging Cold War.There were political tensions between the two nations regarding Marshall plan requirements.", "London was dubious about Washington's emphasis on European economic integration as the solution to postwar recovery.", "Integration with Europe at this point would mean cutting close ties to the emerging Commonwealth.", "London tried to convince Washington that that American economic aid, especially to the sterling currency area, was necessary to solve the dollar shortage.", "British economists argued that their position was validated by 1950 as European industrial production exceeded prewar levels.", "Washington demanded convertibility of sterling currency on 15 July 1947, which produced a severe financial crisis for Britain.", "Convertibility was suspended on 20 August 1947.However, by 1950, American rearmament and heavy spending on the Korean War and Cold War finally ended the dollar shortage.", "The balance of payment problems the trouble the postwar government was caused less by economic decline and more by political overreach, according to Jim Tomlinson.===West Germany and Austria===1960 West German stamp honoring George MarshallThe Marshall Plan was implemented in West Germany (1948–1950), as a way to modernize business procedures and utilize the best practices.", "The Marshall Plan made it possible for West Germany to return quickly to its traditional pattern of industrial production with a strong export sector.", "Without the plan, agriculture would have played a larger role in the recovery period, which itself would have been longer.", "With respect to Austria, Günter Bischof has noted that \"the Austrian economy, injected with an overabundance of European Recovery Program funds, produced \"miracle\" growth figures that matched and at times surpassed the German ones.", "\"Marshall Aid in general and the counterpart funds in particular had a significant impact in Cold-War propaganda and economic matters in Western Europe, which most likely contributed to the declining appeal of domestic communist parties." ], [ "Expenditures", "The Marshall Plan aid was divided among the participant states on a roughly per capita basis.", "A larger amount was given to the major industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for general European revival.", "Somewhat more aid per capita was also directed toward the Allied nations, with less for those that had been part of the Axis or remained neutral.", "The exception was Iceland, which had been neutral during the war, but received far more on a per capita basis than the second highest recipient.The table below shows Marshall Plan aid by country and year (in millions of dollars) from ''The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later.''", "There is no clear consensus on exact amounts, as different scholars differ on exactly what elements of American aid during this period were part of the Marshall Plan.Country1948/49($ millions)1949/50($ millions)1950/51($ millions)Cumulative($ millions)23216670468 and 195222360777103871953851,0856915202,2965104385001,44817515645376622154388450133 and 5944052051,2044713023551,12882902003720070703948260347002502502859501371,3169211,0603,297Totals4,9243,6524,15512,731" ], [ "Loans and grants", "The Marshall Plan, just as GARIOA, consisted of aid both in the form of grants and in the form of loans.", "Out of the total, US$1.2 billion were loan-aid.Ireland which received US$146.2 million through the Marshall Plan, received US$128.2 million as loans, and the remaining US$18 million as grants.", "By 1969 the Irish Marshall Plan debt, which was still being repaid, amounted to 31 million pounds, out of a total Irish foreign debt of 50 million pounds.", "The UK received US$385 million of its Marshall Plan aid in the form of loans.", "Unconnected to the Marshall Plan the UK also received direct loans from the US amounting to US$4.6 billion.", "The proportion of Marshall Plan loans versus Marshall Plan grants was roughly 15% to 85% for both the UK and France.Germany, which up until the 1953 debt agreement had to work on the assumption that all the Marshall Plan aid was to be repaid, spent its funds very carefully.", "Payment for Marshall Plan goods, \"counterpart funds\", were administered by the Reconstruction Credit Institute, which used the funds for loans inside Germany.", "In the 1953 debt agreement, the amount of Marshall Plan aid that Germany was to repay was reduced to less than US$1 billion.", "This made the proportion of loans versus grants to Germany similar to that of France and the UK.", "The final German loan repayment was made in 1971.Since Germany chose to repay the aid debt out of the German Federal budget, leaving the German ERP fund intact, the fund was able to continue its reconstruction work.", "By 1996 it had accumulated a value of 23 billion Deutsche Mark.+ Economic aid from 3 April 1948 to 30 June 1952 Countries Total (m$.)", "Grants (m$.)", "Loans (m$.", ")Austria 677.8677.8/Belgium-Luxembourg 559.3491.368.0Denmark 273.0239.733.3France 2,713.62,488.0255.6Germany (FRG) 1,390.61,173.7216.9Greece 706.7706.7/Iceland 29.324.05.3Ireland 147.519.3128.2Italy (incl.", "Trieste) 1,208.81,113.295.6Netherlands (*Indonesia) 1,083.5916.8166.7Norway 255.3216.139.2Portugal 51.215.136.1Sweden 107.386.920.4Turkey 225.1140.185.0United Kingdom 3,189.82,895.0384.8Regional 407.0407.0/Total for all countries 13,325.811,820.71,505.1" ], [ "Funding for CIA fronts", "The Central Intelligence Agency received 5% of the Marshall Plan funds (about $685 million spread over six years), which it used to finance secret operations abroad.", "Through the Office of Policy Coordination money was directed toward support for labor unions, newspapers, student groups, artists and intellectuals, who were countering the anti-American counterparts subsidized by the communists.", "The largest sum went to the Congress for Cultural Freedom.", "There were no agents working among the Soviets or their satellite states.", "The founding conference of the Congress for Cultural Freedom was held in Berlin in June 1950.Among the leading intellectuals from the US and Western Europe were writers, philosophers, critics and historians: Franz Borkenau, Karl Jaspers, John Dewey, Ignazio Silone, James Burnham, Hugh Trevor-Roper, Arthur Schlesinger Jr., Bertrand Russell, Ernst Reuter, Raymond Aron, Alfred Ayer, Benedetto Croce, Arthur Koestler, Richard Löwenthal, Melvin J. Lasky, Tennessee Williams, Irving Brown, and Sidney Hook.", "There were conservatives among the participants, but non-communist (or former communist) leftists were more numerous." ], [ "Effects and legacy", "Trieste flag with the UN blue rather than the traditional red.The Marshall Plan was originally scheduled to end in 1953.Any effort to extend it was halted by the growing cost of the Korean War and rearmament.", "American Republicans hostile to the plan had also gained seats in the 1950 Congressional elections, and conservative opposition to the plan was revived.", "Thus the plan ended in 1951, though various other forms of American aid to Europe continued afterward.The years 1948 to 1952 saw the fastest period of growth in European history.", "Industrial production increased by 35%.", "Agricultural production substantially surpassed pre-war levels.", "The poverty and starvation of the immediate postwar years disappeared, and Western Europe embarked upon an unprecedented two decades of growth that saw standards of living increase dramatically.", "Additionally, the long-term effect of economic integration raised European income levels substantially, by nearly 20 percent by the mid-1970s.", "There is some debate among historians over how much this should be credited to the Marshall Plan.", "Most reject the idea that it alone miraculously revived Europe, as evidence shows that a general recovery was already underway.", "Most believe that the Marshall Plan sped this recovery, but did not initiate it.", "Many argue that the structural adjustments that it forced were of great importance.", "Economic historians J. Bradford DeLong and Barry Eichengreen call it \"history's most successful structural adjustment program.\"", "One effect of the plan was that it subtly \"Americanized\" European countries, especially Austria, through new exposure to American popular culture, including the growth in influence of Hollywood movies and rock n' roll.The political effects of the Marshall Plan may have been just as important as the economic ones.", "Marshall Plan aid allowed the nations of Western Europe to relax austerity measures and rationing, reducing discontent and bringing political stability.", "The communist influence on Western Europe was greatly reduced, and throughout the region, communist parties faded in popularity in the years after the Marshall Plan.", "The trade relations fostered by the Marshall Plan helped forge the North Atlantic alliance that would persist throughout the Cold War in the form of NATO.", "At the same time, the nonparticipation of the states of the Eastern Bloc was one of the first clear signs that the continent was now divided.The Marshall Plan also played an important role in European integration.", "Both the Americans and many of the European leaders felt that European integration was necessary to secure the peace and prosperity of Europe, and thus used Marshall Plan guidelines to foster integration.", "In some ways, this effort failed, as the OEEC never grew to be more than an agent of economic cooperation.", "Rather, it was the separate European Coal and Steel Community, which did not include Britain, that would eventually grow into the European Union.", "However, the OEEC served as both a testing and training ground for the structures that would later be used by the European Economic Community.", "The Marshall Plan, linked into the Bretton Woods system, also mandated free trade throughout the region.10 guilder coin commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Marshall Plan, 1997.While some historians today feel some of the praise for the Marshall Plan is exaggerated, it is still viewed favorably and many thus feel that a similar project would help other areas of the world.", "The events of 1947 are thus part and parcel of the larger story of the Cold War.", "These events played a major role, but it would be a mistake to exaggerate their significance.", "The bloc system in Europe took years to develop, and the Marshall Plan was just one part of the story.After the fall of communism, several proposed a \"Marshall Plan for Eastern Europe\" that would help revive that region.", "Others have proposed a Marshall Plan for Africa to help that continent, and US Vice President Al Gore suggested a Global Marshall Plan.", "\"Marshall Plan\" has become a metaphor for any very large-scale government program that is designed to solve a specific social problem.", "It is usually used when calling for federal spending to correct a perceived failure of the private sector.Nicholas Shaxson comments: \"It is widely believed that the plan worked by offsetting European countries' yawning deficits.", "But its real importance ... was simply to compensate for the US failure to institute controls on inflows of hot money from Europe.", "... American post-war aid was less than the money flowing in the other direction.\"", "European hot money inflated the US dollar, to the disadvantage of US exporters." ], [ "Repayment", "The Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) took the leading role in allocating funds, and the OEEC arranged for the transfer of the goods.", "The American supplier was paid in dollars, which were credited against the appropriate European Recovery Program funds.", "The European recipient, however, was not given the goods as a gift but had to pay for them (usually on credit) in local currency.", "These payments were kept by the European government involved in a special '''counterpart fund.'''", "This counterpart money, in turn, could be used by the government for further investment projects.", "Five percent of the counterpart money was paid to the US to cover the administrative costs of the ERP.", "In addition to ERP grants, the Export-Import Bank (an agency of the US government) at the same time made long-term loans at low interest rates to finance major purchases in the US, all of which were repaid.In the case of Germany, there also were 16 billion marks of debts from the 1920s which had defaulted in the 1930s, but which Germany decided to repay to restore its reputation.", "This money was owed to government and private banks in the US, France, and Britain.", "Another 16 billion marks represented postwar loans by the US.", "Under the London Debts Agreement of 1953, the repayable amount was reduced by 50% to about 15 billion marks and stretched out over 30 years, and compared to the fast-growing German economy were of minor impact." ], [ "Areas excluded", "Large parts of the world devastated by World War II did not benefit from the Marshall Plan.", "The only major Western European nation excluded was Francisco Franco's Spain, which was highly unpopular in Washington.", "With the escalation of the Cold War, the United States reconsidered its position and in 1951 embraced Spain as an ally since it was encouraged by Franco's aggressive anti-communist policies.", "Over the next decade, a considerable amount of American aid would go to Spain but less than its neighbors had received under the Marshall Plan.The Soviet Union had been as badly affected as any other part of the world by the war.", "The Soviets imposed large reparations payments on the Axis allies that were in its sphere of influence.", "Austria, Finland, Hungary, Romania, and especially East Germany were forced to pay vast sums and ship large amounts of supplies to the Soviet Union.", "Those reparation payments meant the Soviet Union itself received about the same as 16 European countries received in total from Marshall Plan aid.In accordance with the agreements with the Soviet Union, shipment of dismantled German industrial installations from the west began on March 31, 1946.Under the terms of the agreement, the Soviet Union would in return ship raw materials such as food and timber to the western zones.", "In view of the Soviet failure to do so, the western zones halted the shipments east, ostensibly on a temporary basis, although they were never resumed.", "It was later shown that the main reason for halting shipments east was not the behavior of the Soviet Union but rather the recalcitrant behavior of France.", "Examples of material received by the Soviets were equipment from the Kugel-Fischer ballbearing plant at Schweinfurt, the Daimler-Benz underground aircraft-engine plant at Obrigheim, the Deschimag shipyards at Bremen-Weser, and the Gendorf powerplant.The Soviets established COMECON as a riposte to the Marshall Plan to deliver aid for Eastern Bloc countries, but that was complicated by the Soviet efforts to manage their own recovery from the war.", "The members of Comecon looked to the Soviet Union for oil and in turn provided machinery, equipment, agricultural goods, industrial goods, and consumer goods to the Soviet Union.", "Economic recovery in the East was much slower than in the West, resulting in the formation of the shortage economies and a gap in wealth between East and West.", "Finland, which the Soviets forbade from joining the Marshall Plan and was required to give large reparations to the Soviets, saw its economy recover to pre-war levels in 1947.France, which received billions of dollars through the Marshall Plan, similarly saw its average income per person return to almost pre-war level by 1949.By mid-1948 industrial production in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia had recovered to a level somewhat above pre-war level.===Aid to Asia===From the end of the war to the end of 1953, the US provided grants and credits amounting to $5.9 billion to Asian countries, especially Rep. Of China (Taiwan) ($1.051 billion), India ($255 million), Indonesia ($215 million), Japan ($2.444 billion), South Korea ($894 million), Pakistan ($98 million) and the Philippines ($803 million).", "In addition, another $282 million went to Israel and $196 million to the rest of the Middle East.", "All this aid was separate from the Marshall Plan.===Canada===Canada's infrastructure was damaged little by the war, as most of the war was fought in Europe, Asia, and the Pacific.", "In 1948, the US allowed ERP aid to be used to buy goods from Canada.", "In its first two years of operation, ERP funded over a billion dollars worth of trade with Canada===World total===The total of American grants and loans to the world from 1945 to 1953 came to $44.3 billion." ], [ "Opinion", "German sign indicating \"agriculture counseling supported by the overseas aid program of the U.S.A.\"Bradford DeLong and Barry Eichengreen conclude it was \"History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program.\"", "They state:It was not large enough to have significantly accelerated recovery by financing investment, aiding the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, or easing commodity bottlenecks.", "We argue, however, that the Marshall Plan did play a major role in setting the stage for post-World War II Western Europe's rapid growth.", "The conditions attached to Marshall Plan aid pushed European political economy in a direction that left its post World War II \"mixed economies\" with more \"market\" and less \"controls\" in the mix.===Domestic campaign for support===Prior to passing and enacting the Marshall Plan, President Truman and George Marshall started a domestic overhaul of public opinion from coast to coast.", "The purpose of this campaign was to sway public opinion in their direction and to inform the common person of what the Marshall Plan was and what the plan would ultimately do.", "They spent months attempting to convince Americans that their cause was just and that they should embrace the higher taxes that would come in the foreseeable future.", "The Great Depression left Americans acutely aware of the psychological and political effects of poverty.", "Though the Marshall Plan is seen as an act of compassion or sympathy for countries struggling after WWII, it is likely fear of slipping into another depression at home caused the United States to invest in diplomacy and pivot away from another economic calamity.A copious amount of propaganda ended up being highly effective in swaying public opinion toward supporting the Marshall Plan.", "During the nationwide campaign for support, \"more than a million pieces of pro-Marshall Plan publications-booklets, leaflets, reprints, and fact sheets\", were disseminated.", "Truman's and Marshall's efforts proved to be effective.", "A Gallup Poll taken between the months of July and December 1947 shows the percentage of Americans unaware of the Marshall Plan fell from 51% to 36% nationwide.", "By the time the Marshall Plan was ready to be implemented, there was a general consensus throughout the American public that this was the right policy for both America, and the countries who would be receiving aid.===Change in American ideology===During the period leading up to World War II, Americans were highly isolationist, and many called The Marshall Plan a \"milestone\" for American ideology.", "By looking at polling data over time from pre-World War II to post-World War II, one would find that there was a change in public opinion in regards to ideology.", "Americans swapped their isolationist ideals for a much more global internationalist ideology after World War II.===Polling data===In a National Opinion Research Center (NORC) poll taken in April 1945, a cross-section of Americans were asked, \"If our government keeps on sending lendlease materials, which we may not get paid for, to friendly countries for about three years after the war, do you think this will mean more jobs or fewer jobs for most Americans, or won't it make any difference?\"", "75% said the same or more jobs; 10% said fewer.Before proposing anything to Congress in 1947, the Truman administration made an elaborate effort to organize public opinion in favor of the Marshall Plan spending, reaching out to numerous national organizations representing business, labor, farmers, women, and other interest groups.", "Political scientist Ralph Levering points out that:Mounting large public relations campaigns and supporting private groups such as the Citizens Committee for the Marshall Plan, the administration carefully built public and bipartisan Congressional support before bringing these measures to a vote.Public opinion polls in 1947 consistently showed strong support for the Marshall plan among Americans.", "Furthermore, Gallup polls in England, France, and Italy showed favorable majorities over 60%." ], [ "Criticism", "The 1953 Spanish comedy film ''Welcome Mr.", "Marshall!''", "depicts Castilian villagers preparing for a visit of the American authorities and hoping they will fulfill their desires.When the American motorcade arrives, it speeds through the village and the villagers themselves have to pay for the preparations.Underneath the surface, the film is an anti-Francoist satire despite receiving approval because the censorship board understood it to be an anti-American satire.===Laissez-faire criticism===Laissez-faire criticism of the Marshall Plan came from a number of economists.", "Wilhelm Röpke, who influenced German Minister for Economy Ludwig Erhard in his economic recovery program, believed recovery would be found in eliminating central planning and restoring a market economy in Europe, especially in those countries which had adopted more fascist and corporatist economic policies.", "Röpke criticized the Marshall Plan for forestalling the transition to the free market by subsidizing the current, failing systems.", "Erhard put Röpke's theory into practice and would later credit Röpke's influence for West Germany's preeminent success.Henry Hazlitt criticized the Marshall Plan in his 1947 book ''Will Dollars Save the World?", "'', arguing that economic recovery comes through savings, capital accumulation, and private enterprise, and not through large cash subsidies.", "Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises criticized the Marshall Plan in 1951, believing that \"the American subsidies make it possible for Europe's governments to conceal partially the disastrous effects of the various socialist measures they have adopted\".===Modern criticism===The Marshall Plan's role in the rapid recovery of Western Europe has been debated.", "Most reject the idea that it alone miraculously revived Europe since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already underway.", "The Marshall Plan grants were provided at a rate that was not much higher in terms of flow than the previous UNRRA aid and represented less than 3% of the combined national income of the recipient countries between 1948 and 1951, which would mean an increase in GDP growth of only 0.3%.", "In addition, there is no correlation between the amount of aid received and the speed of recovery: both France and the United Kingdom received more aid, but West Germany recovered significantly faster.Criticism of the Marshall Plan became prominent among historians of the revisionist school, such as Walter LaFeber, during the 1960s and 1970s.", "They argued that the plan was American economic imperialism and that it was an attempt to gain control over Western Europe just as the Soviets controlled Eastern Europe economically through the Comecon.", "In a review of West Germany's economy from 1945 to 1951, German analyst Werner Abelshauser concluded that \"foreign aid was not crucial in starting the recovery or in keeping it going\".", "The economic recoveries of France, Italy, and Belgium, Cowen argues, began a few months before the flow of US money.", "Belgium, the country that relied earliest and most heavily on free-market economic policies after its liberation in 1944, experienced swift recovery and avoided the severe housing and food shortages seen in the rest of continental Europe.Former US Chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank Alan Greenspan gives most credit to German Chancellor Ludwig Erhard for Europe's economic recovery.", "Greenspan writes in his memoir ''The Age of Turbulence'' that Erhard's economic policies were the most important aspect of postwar Western European recovery, even outweighing the contributions of the Marshall Plan.", "He states that it was Erhard's reductions in economic regulations that permitted Germany's miraculous recovery, and that these policies also contributed to the recoveries of many other European countries.", "Its recovery is attributed to traditional economic stimuli, such as increases in investment, fueled by a high savings rate and low taxes.", "Japan saw a large infusion of US investment during the Korean War.The Marshall Plan has been recently reinterpreted as a public policy approach to complex and multi-causal problems (wicked problems) in search of building integrated solutions with multilevel governance." ], [ "See also", "* Dulles' Plan* Foreign policy of the United States* Timeline of United States diplomatic history* Milton Katz* GITP (example of a company that was built with Marshall aid)* ''The Basket of Bread'', a 1945 painting by Salvador Dalí used to illustrate the plan." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Arkes, Hadley.", "''Bureaucracy, the Marshall Plan, and the National Interest'' (1972), ISBN 0691646236.", "* Bischof, Günter, and Hans Petschar.", "''The Marshall Plan: Saving Europe, Rebuilding Austria'' (U of New Orleans Publishing, 2017) 336 pp.", "Online review* Bonds, John Bledsoe.", "''Bipartisan Strategy: Selling the Marshall Plan'' (2002) online version* Bryan, Ferald J.", "\"George C. Marshall at Harvard: A Study of the Origins and Construction of the 'Marshall Plan' Speech.\"", "''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' (1991): 489–502.Online * Djelic, Marie-Laure A.", "''Exporting the American Model: The Post-War Transformation of European Business'' (1998) online version* Elwood, David, \"Was the Marshall Plan Necessary?\"", "in ''Alan S. Milward and a Century of European Change,'' ed.", "Fernando Guirao, Frances M. B. Lynch, and Sigfrido M. Ramírez Pérez, 179–98.", "(Routledge, 2012) ISBN 1138107530* Esposito, Chiarella.", "''America's Feeble Weapon: Funding the Marshall Plan in France and Italy, 1948–1950'' (1994) online version* Fossedal, Gregory A.", "''Our Finest Hour: Will Clayton, the Marshall Plan, and the Triumph of Democracy.''", "(1993).", "ISBN 0817992014* Gimbel, John, ''The origins of the Marshall plan'' (1976) ( reviewed)* Jackson, Scott.", "\"Prologue to the Marshall Plan: The Origins of the American Commitment for a European Recovery Program,\" ''Journal of American History'' 65#4 (1979), pp.", "1043–68 in JSTOR* Kipping, Matthias and Bjarnar, Ove.", "''The Americanisation of European Business: The Marshall Plan and the Transfer of Us Management Models'' (1998) online version* Reynolds, David.", "\"Marshall Plan Commemorative Section: The European Response: Primacy of Politics\" ''Foreign Affairs'' (May/June 1997) online* Vickers, Rhiannon.", "''Manipulating Hegemony: State Power, Labour and the Marshall Plan in Britain'' (2000) online edition* Wallich, Henry Christopher.", "''Mainsprings of the German Revival'' (1955) ISBN 0837190177* Wend, Henry Burke.", "''Recovery and Restoration: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Politics of Reconstruction of West Germany's Shipbuilding Industry, 1945–1955'' (2001) online version* Weissman, Alexander D. \"Pivotal politics – The Marshall Plan: A turning point in foreign aid and the struggle for democracy.\"", "''History Teacher'' 47.1 (2013): 111–29.online, for middle and high school students" ], [ "External links", "* * Marshall Plan from the National Archives* George C. Marshall Foundation* The German Marshall Fund of the United States* Excerpts from book by Allen W. Dulles* Speech by J.F.", "Byrnes, United States Secretary of State, Restatement of Policy on Germany, Stuttgart, September 6, 1946.The speech marked the turning point away from the Morgenthau Plan philosophy of economic dismantlement of Germany and toward a policy of economic reconstruction.", "* Marshall Plan Commemorative Section: Lessons of the Plan: Looking Forward to the Next Century* Truman Presidential Library online collection of original Marshall Plan documents from the year 1946 onward * \"The Tragedy of American Diplomacy?", "Rethinking the Marshall Plan\" by Michael Cox and Caroline Kennedy-Pipe and Response by Marc Trachtenberg, both published in the Journal of Cold War Studies, vol.", "7, no.", "1 (Winter 2005)* '''Speech''' by George Marshall on June 5, 1947 at Harvard University (original recording)* As delivered transcript of Marshall Plan speech on June 5, 1947 at Harvard University" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mariculture" ], [ "Introduction", "Salmon pens off Vestmanna in the Faroe IslandsFish cages containing salmon in Loch Ailort, Scotland.", "'''Mariculture''', sometimes called '''marine farming''' or '''marine aquaculture''', is a specialized branch of aquaculture (which includes freshwater aquaculture) involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other animal products, in enclosed sections of the open ocean (offshore mariculture), fish farms built on littoral waters (inshore mariculture), or in artificial tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater (onshore mariculture).", "An example of the latter is the farming of marine fish, including finfish and shellfish like prawns, or oysters and seaweed in saltwater ponds.", "Non-food products produced by mariculture include: fish meal, nutrient agar, jewellery (e.g.", "cultured pearls), and cosmetics." ], [ "Methods", "Extensive aquaculture off the coast of Euboea island, Greece===Algae======Shellfish===Similar to algae cultivation, shellfish can be farmed in multiple ways: on ropes, in bags or cages, or directly on (or within) the intertidal substrate.", "Shellfish mariculture does not require feed or fertilizer inputs, nor insecticides or antibiotics, making shellfish aquaculture (or 'mariculture') a self-supporting system.", "Shellfish can also be used in multi-species cultivation techniques, where shellfish can utilize waste generated by higher trophic level organisms.===Artificial reefs===After trials in 2012, a commercial \"sea ranch\" was set up in Flinders Bay, Western Australia to raise abalone.", "The ranch is based on an artificial reef made up of 5000 () separate concrete units called ''abitats'' (abalone habitats).", "The abitats can host 400 abalone each.", "The reef is seeded with young abalone from an onshore hatchery.The abalone feed on seaweed that has grown naturally on the habitats; with the ecosystem enrichment of the bay also resulting in growing numbers of dhufish, pink snapper, wrasse, Samson fish among other species.Brad Adams, from the company, has emphasised the similarity to wild abalone and the difference from shore based aquaculture.", "\"We're not aquaculture, we're ranching, because once they're in the water they look after themselves.", "\"=== Sea ranching ===One of the methods of mariculture that is used widely throughout the industry is sea ranching.", "Sea ranching gained popularity within the industry around 1974.When looking at the effectiveness of this method of fish production, it needs to be set up within the right environment.", "When sea ranching is done within the right environment for the species, it can prove itself to be a profitable method to produce the crop if the right growth conditions are met.", "Many species have been studied through the use of sea ranching, which include salmon, cod, scallops, certain species of prawn, European lobsters, abalone and sea cucumbers.", "Species that are grown within the methods of sea ranching do not have any additional artificial feed requirements because they are living off of the naturally occurring nutrients within the body of water that the sea pen is set up.", "Typical practice involving the use of sea ranching and sea pens calls for the juveniles of the crop species to be planted on the bottom of the body of water within the pen, and as they grow and develop, they start to utilize more of the water column within their sea pen.===Open ocean===Raising marine organisms under controlled conditions in exposed, high-energy ocean environments beyond significant coastal influence, is a relatively new approach to mariculture.", "Some attention has been paid to how open ocean mariculture can combine with offshore energy installation systems, such as wind-farms, to enable a more effective use of ocean space.", "Open ocean aquaculture (OOA) uses cages, nets, or long-line arrays that are moored, towed or float freely.", "Research and commercial open ocean aquaculture facilities are in operation or under development in Panama, Australia, Chile, China, France, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, and Norway.", ", two commercial open ocean facilities were operating in U.S. waters, raising Threadfin near Hawaii and cobia near Puerto Rico.", "An operation targeting bigeye tuna recently received final approval.", "All U.S. commercial facilities are currently sited in waters under state or territorial jurisdiction.", "The largest deep water open ocean farm in the world is raising cobia 12 km off the northern coast of Panama in highly exposed sites.There has been considerable discussion as to how mariculture of seaweeds can be conducted in the open ocean as a means to regenerate decimated fish populations by providing both habitat and the basis of a trophic pyramid for marine life.", "It has been proposed that natural seaweed ecosystems can be replicated in the open ocean by creating the conditions for their growth through artificial upwelling and through submerged tubing that provide substrate.", "Proponents and permaculture experts recognise that such approaches correspond to the core principles of permaculture and thereby constitute marine permaculture.", "The concept envisions using artificial upwelling and floating, submerged platforms as substrate to replicate natural seaweed ecosystems that provide habitat and the basis of a trophic pyramid for marine life.", "Following the principles of permaculture, seaweeds and fish from marine permaculture arrays can be sustainably harvested with the potential of also sequestering atmospheric carbon, should seaweeds be sunk below a depth of one kilometer.", "As of 2020, a number of successful trials have taken place in Hawaii, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Tasmania.", "The idea has received substantial public attention, notably featuring as a key solution covered by Damon Gameau’s documentary 2040 and in the book Drawdown: The Most Comprehensive Plan Ever Proposed to Reverse Global Warming edited by Paul Hawken.===Enhanced stocking===Enhanced Stocking (also known as sea ranching) is a Japanese principle based on operant conditioning and the migratory nature of certain species.", "The fishermen raise hatchlings in a closely knitted net in a harbor, sounding an underwater horn before each feeding.", "When the fish are old enough they are freed from the net to mature in the open sea.", "During spawning season, about 80% of these fish return to their birthplace.", "The fishermen sound the horn and then net those fish that respond.===Seawater ponds===In seawater pond mariculture, fish are raised in ponds which receive water from the sea.", "This has the benefit that the nutrition (e.g.", "microorganisms) present in the seawater can be used.", "This is a great advantage over traditional fish farms (e.g.", "sweet water farms) for which the farmers buy feed (which is expensive).", "Other advantages are that water purification plants may be planted in the ponds to eliminate the buildup of nitrogen, from fecal and other contamination.", "Also, the ponds can be left unprotected from natural predators, providing another kind of filtering." ], [ "Environmental effects", "Mariculture has rapidly expanded over the last two decades due to new technology, improvements in formulated feeds, greater biological understanding of farmed species, increased water quality within closed farm systems, greater demand for seafood products, site expansion and government interest.", "As a consequence, mariculture has been subject to some controversy regarding its social and environmental impacts.", "Commonly identified environmental impacts from marine farms are:# Wastes from cage cultures;# Farm escapees and invasives;# Genetic pollution and disease and parasite transfer;# Habitat modification.As with most farming practices, the degree of environmental impact depends on the size of the farm, the cultured species, stock density, type of feed, hydrography of the site, and husbandry methods.", "The adjacent diagram connects these causes and effects.===Wastes from cage cultures===Mariculture of finfish can require a significant amount of fishmeal or other high protein food sources.", "Originally, a lot of fishmeal went to waste due to inefficient feeding regimes and poor digestibility of formulated feeds which resulted in poor feed conversion ratios.In cage culture, several different methods are used for feeding farmed fish – from simple hand feeding to sophisticated computer-controlled systems with automated food dispensers coupled with ''in situ'' uptake sensors that detect consumption rates.", "In coastal fish farms, overfeeding primarily leads to increased disposition of detritus on the seafloor (potentially smothering seafloor dwelling invertebrates and altering the physical environment), while in hatcheries and land-based farms, excess food goes to waste and can potentially impact the surrounding catchment and local coastal environment.", "This impact is usually highly local, and depends significantly on the settling velocity of waste feed and the current velocity (which varies both spatially and temporally) and depth.===Farm escapees and invasives===The impact of escapees from aquaculture operations depends on whether or not there are wild conspecifics or close relatives in the receiving environment, and whether or not the escapee is reproductively capable.", "Several different mitigation/prevention strategies are currently employed, from the development of infertile triploids to land-based farms which are completely isolated from any marine environment.", "Escapees can adversely impact local ecosystems through hybridization and loss of genetic diversity in native stocks, increase negative interactions within an ecosystem (such as predation and competition), disease transmission and habitat changes (from trophic cascades and ecosystem shifts to varying sediment regimes and thus turbidity).The accidental introduction of invasive species is also of concern.", "Aquaculture is one of the main vectors for invasives following accidental releases of farmed stocks into the wild.", "One example is the Siberian sturgeon (''Acipenser baerii'') which accidentally escaped from a fish farm into the Gironde Estuary (Southwest France) following a severe storm in December 1999 (5,000 individual fish escaped into the estuary which had never hosted this species before).", "Molluscan farming is another example whereby species can be introduced to new environments by ‘hitchhiking’ on farmed molluscs.", "Also, farmed molluscs themselves can become dominate predators and/or competitors, as well as potentially spread pathogens and parasites.===Genetic pollution, disease, and parasite transfer===One of the primary concerns with mariculture is the potential for disease and parasite transfer.", "Farmed stocks are often selectively bred to increase disease and parasite resistance, as well as improving growth rates and quality of products.", "As a consequence, the genetic diversity within reared stocks decreases with every generation – meaning they can potentially reduce the genetic diversity within wild populations if they escape into those wild populations.", "Such genetic pollution from escaped aquaculture stock can reduce the wild population's ability to adjust to the changing natural environment.", "Species grown by mariculture can also harbour diseases and parasites (e.g., lice) which can be introduced to wild populations upon their escape.", "An example of this is the parasitic sea lice on wild and farmed Atlantic salmon in Canada.", "Also, non-indigenous species which are farmed may have resistance to, or carry, particular diseases (which they picked up in their native habitats) which could be spread through wild populations if they escape into those wild populations.", "Such ‘new’ diseases would be devastating for those wild populations because they would have no immunity to them.===Habitat modification===With the exception of benthic habitats directly beneath marine farms, most mariculture causes minimal destruction to habitats.", "However, the destruction of mangrove forests from the farming of shrimps is of concern.", "Globally, shrimp farming activity is a small contributor to the destruction of mangrove forests; however, locally it can be devastating.", "Mangrove forests provide rich matrices which support a great deal of biodiversity – predominately juvenile fish and crustaceans.", "Furthermore, they act as buffering systems whereby they reduce coastal erosion, and improve water quality for in situ animals by processing material and ‘filtering’ sediments.===Others===In addition, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds from food and waste may lead to blooms of phytoplankton, whose subsequent degradation can drastically reduce oxygen levels.", "If the algae are toxic, fish are killed and shellfish contaminated.", "These algal blooms are sometimes referred to as harmful algal blooms, which are caused by a high influx of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, into the water due to run-off from land based human operations.Over the course of rearing various species, the sediment on bottom of the specific body of water becomes highly metallic with influx of copper, zinc and lead that is being introduced to the area.", "This influx of these heavy metals is likely due to the buildup of fish waste, uneaten fish feed, and the paint that comes off the boats and floats that are used in the mariculture operations." ], [ "Sustainability", "Mariculture development may be sustained by basic and applied research and development in major fields such as nutrition, genetics, system management, product handling, and socioeconomics.", "One approach uses closed systems that have no direct interaction with the local environment.However, investment and operational cost are currently significantly higher than with open cages, limiting closed systems to their current role as hatcheries.", "Many studies have estimated that seafood will run out by 2048.Farmed fish will also become crucial to feeding the growing human population that will potentially reach 9.8 billion by 2050." ], [ "Benefits", "Sustainable mariculture promises economic and environmental benefits.", "Economies of scale imply that ranching can produce fish at lower cost than industrial fishing, leading to better human diets and the gradual elimination of unsustainable fisheries.", "Consistent supply and quality control has enabled integration in food market channels." ], [ "Species farmed", ";Fish* European sea bass* Bigeye tuna* Cobia* Grouper* Snapper* Pompano* Salmon* Pearlspot* Yellowtail jack* Mullet* Pomfret* Barramundi;Shellfish/Crustaceans* Abalone* Oysters* Prawn* Mussels;Plants* Seaweeds" ], [ "Scientific literature", "Scientific literature on mariculture can be found in the following journals:* ''Applied and Environmental Microbiology''* ''Aquaculture''* ''Aquaculture Research''* ''Journal of Marine Science''* ''Marine Resource Economics''* ''Ocean Shoreline Management''* ''Journal of Applied Phycology''* ''Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology''* ''Journal of Phycology''* ''Journal of Shellfish Research''* ''Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries''* ''Reviews in Fisheries Science''" ], [ "See also", "* Aquaculture* Fish farming* Hydroponics* Algaculture* Oyster farming* Aquaponics* Copper alloys in aquaculture* Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture* Saltwater aquaponics* Seaweed farming" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Longline Environment* Worldfishcenter -provides info on cultivating certain marine organisms* Web based aquaculture simulations for shellfish in estuaries and coastal systems: Simulation modelling for mussels, oysters and clams.", "* Mariculture guidelines and best practices: A coastal management perspective on mariculture development by the University of Rhode Island Coastal Resources Center.", "* Mariculture ''Marine Science''.", "Retrieved 14 January 2010.", "* Flotilla Online – Apocalyptic fiction novel about a mariculture enterprise in the near-future and hub for mariculture topics." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Memetics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Memetics''' is a theory of the evolution of culture based on Darwinian principles with the meme as the unit of culture.", "The term \"meme\" was coined by biologist Richard Dawkins in his 1976 book ''The Selfish Gene'', to illustrate the principle that he later called \"Universal Darwinism\".", "All evolutionary processes depend on information being copied, varied, and selected, a process also known as variation with selective retention.", "The information that is copied is called the replicator, and genes are the replicator for biological evolution.", "Dawkins proposed that the same process drives cultural evolution, and he called this second replicator the \"meme\".", "He gave as examples, tunes, catchphrases, fashions, and technologies.", "Like genes, memes are selfish replicators and have causal efficacy; in other words, their properties influence their chances of being copied and passed on.", "Some succeed because they are valuable or useful to their human hosts while others are more like viruses.Just as genes can work together to form co-adapted gene complexes, so groups of memes acting together form co-adapted meme complexes or memeplexes.", "Memeplexes include (among many other things) languages, traditions, scientific theories, financial institutions, and religions.", "Dawkins famously referred to religions as \"viruses of the mind\".Among proponents of memetics are psychologist Susan Blackmore, author of ''The Meme Machine'', who argues that when our ancestors began imitating behaviours, they let loose a second replicator and co-evolved to become the \"meme machines\" that copy, vary, and select memes in culture.", "Philosopher Daniel Dennett develops memetics extensively, notably in his books ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'', and ''From Bacteria to Bach and Back''.", "He describes the units of memes as \"the smallest elements that replicate themselves with reliability and fecundity.\"", "and claims that \"Human consciousness is itself a huge complex of memes.\"", "In ''The Beginning of Infinity'', physicist David Deutsch contrasts static societies that depend on anti-rational memes suppressing innovation and creativity, with dynamic societies based on rational memes that encourage enlightenment values, scientific curiosity, and progress.Criticisms of memetics include claims that memes do not exist, that the analogy with genes is false, that the units cannot be specified, that culture does not evolve through imitation, and that the sources of variation are intelligently designed rather than random.", "Critics of memetics include biologist Stephen Jay Gould who calls memetics a \"meaningless metaphor\".", "Philosopher Dan Sperber argues against memetics as a viable approach to cultural evolution because cultural items are not directly copied or imitated but are reproduced.", "Anthropologist Robert Boyd and biologist Peter Richerson work within the alternative, and more mainstream, field of cultural evolution theory and gene-culture coevolution.", "Dual inheritance theory has much in common with memetics but rejects the idea that memes are replicators.", "From this perspective, memetics is seen as just one of several approaches to cultural evolution and one that is generally considered less useful than the alternatives of gene-culture coevolution or dual inheritance theory.", "The main difference is that dual inheritance theory ultimately depends on biological advantage to genes, whereas memetics treats memes as a second replicator in its own right.", "Memetics also extends to the analysis of Internet culture and Internet memes." ], [ "History", "In his book ''The Selfish Gene'' (1976), the evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins used the term ''meme'' to describe a unit of human cultural transmission analogous to the gene, arguing that replication also happens in culture, albeit in a different sense.", "While cultural evolution itself is a much older topic, with a history that dates back at least as far as Darwin's era, Dawkins (1976) proposed that the meme is a unit of culture residing in the brain and is the mutating replicator in human cultural evolution.", "After Dawkins, many discussed this unit of culture as evolutionary \"information\" which replicates with rules analogous to Darwinian selection.", "A replicator is a pattern that can influence its surroundings – that is, it has causal agency – and can propagate.", "This proposal resulted in debate among anthropologists, sociologists, biologists, and scientists of other disciplines.", "Dawkins himself did not provide a sufficient explanation of how the replication of units of information in the brain controls human behaviour and ultimately culture (the principal topic of the book was genetics).", "Dawkins apparently did not intend to present a comprehensive theory of ''memetics'' in ''The Selfish Gene'', but rather coined the term ''meme'' in a speculative spirit.", "Accordingly, different researchers came to define the term \"unit of information\" in different ways.The evolutionary model of cultural information transfer is based on the concept that memes—units of information—have an independent existence, are self-replicating, and are subject to selective evolution through environmental forces.", "Starting from a proposition put forward in the writings of Dawkins, this model has formed the basis of a new area of study, one that looks at the self-replicating units of culture.", "It has been proposed that just as memes are analogous to genes, memetics is analogous to genetics.The modern memetics movement dates from the mid-1980s.", "A January 1983 \"Metamagical Themas\" column by Douglas Hofstadter, in ''Scientific American'', was influential – as was his 1985 book of the same name.", "\"Memeticist\" was coined as analogous to \"geneticist\" – originally in ''The Selfish Gene.''", "Later Arel Lucas suggested that the discipline that studies memes and their connections to human and other carriers of them be known as \"memetics\" by analogy with \"genetics\".", "Dawkins' ''The Selfish Gene'' has been a factor in attracting the attention of people of disparate intellectual backgrounds.", "Another stimulus was the publication in 1991 of ''Consciousness Explained'' by Tufts University philosopher Daniel Dennett, which incorporated the meme concept into a theory of the mind.", "In his 1991 essay \"Viruses of the Mind\", Richard Dawkins used memetics to explain the phenomenon of religious belief and the various characteristics of organised religions.", "By then, memetics had also become a theme appearing in fiction (e.g.", "Neal Stephenson's ''Snow Crash'').The idea of ''language as a virus'' had already been introduced by William S. Burroughs as early as 1962 in his fictional book ''The Ticket That Exploded'', and continued in ''The Electronic Revolution'', published in 1970 in ''The Job''.The foundation of memetics in its full modern incarnation was launched by Douglas Rushkoff's ''Media Virus: Hidden Agendas in Popular Culture'' in 1995, and was accelerated with the publication in 1996 of two more books by authors outside the academic mainstream: ''Virus of the Mind: The New Science of the Meme'' by former Microsoft executive turned motivational speaker and professional poker-player Richard Brodie, and ''Thought Contagion: How Belief Spreads Through Society'' by Aaron Lynch, a mathematician and philosopher who worked for many years as an engineer at Fermilab.", "Lynch claimed to have conceived his theory totally independently of any contact with academics in the cultural evolutionary sphere, and apparently was not aware of ''The Selfish Gene'' until his book was very close to publication.Around the same time as the publication of the books by Lynch and Brodie the e-journal ''Journal of Memetics – Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission'' (published electronically from 1997 to 2005) first appeared.", "It was first hosted by the Centre for Policy Modelling at Manchester Metropolitan University.", "The e-journal soon became the central point for publication and debate within the nascent memeticist community.", "(There had been a short-lived paper-based memetics publication starting in 1990, the ''Journal of Ideas'' edited by Elan Moritz.)", "In 1999, Susan Blackmore, a psychologist at the University of the West of England, published ''The Meme Machine'', which more fully worked out the ideas of Dennett, Lynch, and Brodie and attempted to compare and contrast them with various approaches from the cultural evolutionary mainstream, as well as providing novel (and controversial) memetics-based theories for the evolution of language and the human sense of individual selfhood.=== Etymology ===The term ''meme'' derives from the Ancient Greek μιμητής (''mimētḗs''), meaning \"imitator, pretender\".", "The similar term ''mneme'' was used in 1904, by the German evolutionary biologist Richard Semon, best known for his development of the engram theory of memory, in his work ''Die mnemischen Empfindungen in ihren Beziehungen zu den Originalempfindungen'', translated into English in 1921 as ''The Mneme''.", "Until Daniel Schacter published ''Forgotten Ideas, Neglected Pioneers: Richard Semon and the Story of Memory'' in 2000, Semon's work had little influence, though it was quoted extensively in Erwin Schrödinger’s 1956 Tarner Lecture “Mind and Matter”.", "Richard Dawkins (1976) apparently coined the word ''meme'' independently of Semon, writing this:Mimeme' comes from a suitable Greek root, but I want a monosyllable that sounds a bit like 'gene'.", "I hope my classicist friends will forgive me if I abbreviate mimeme to meme.", "If it is any consolation, it could alternatively be thought of as being related to 'memory', or to the French word même.", "\"David Hull (2001) pointed out Dawkins's oversight of Semon's work.", "Hull suggests this early work as an alternative origin to memetics by which Dawkins's memetic theory and classicist connection to the concept can be negotiated.", "\"Why not date the beginnings of memetics (or mnemetics) as 1904 or at the very least 1914?", "If Semon's two publications are taken as the beginnings of memetics, then the development of memetics ... has been around for almost a hundred years without much in the way of conceptual or empirical advance!", "\"Despite this, Semon's work remains mostly understood as distinct to memetic origins even with the overt similarities accounted for by Hull.===Internalists and externalists===The memetics movement split almost immediately into two.", "The first group were those who wanted to stick to Dawkins' definition of a meme as \"a unit of cultural transmission\".", "Gibron Burchett, a memeticist responsible for helping to research and co-coin the term memetic engineering, along with Leveious Rolando and Larry Lottman, has stated that a meme can be defined, more precisely, as \"a unit of cultural information that can be copied, located in the brain\".", "This thinking is more in line with Dawkins' second definition of the meme in his book ''The Extended Phenotype''.", "The second group wants to redefine memes as observable cultural artifacts and behaviors.", "However, in contrast to those two positions, the article \"Consciousness in meme machines\" by Susan Blackmore rejects neither movement.These two schools became known as the \"internalists\" and the \"externalists.\"", "Prominent internalists included both Lynch and Brodie; the most vocal externalists included Derek Gatherer, a geneticist from Liverpool John Moores University, and William Benzon, a writer on cultural evolution and music.", "The main rationale for externalism was that internal brain entities are not observable, and memetics cannot advance as a science, especially a quantitative science, unless it moves its emphasis onto the directly quantifiable aspects of culture.", "Internalists countered with various arguments: that brain states will eventually be directly observable with advanced technology, that most cultural anthropologists agree that culture is about beliefs and not artifacts, or that artifacts cannot be replicators in the same sense as mental entities (or DNA) are replicators.", "The debate became so heated that a 1998 Symposium on Memetics, organised as part of the 15th International Conference on Cybernetics, passed a motion calling for an end to definitional debates.", "McNamara demonstrated in 2011 that functional connectivity profiling using neuroimaging tools enables the observation of the processing of internal memes, \"i-memes\", in response to external \"e-memes\".This was developed further in a paper \"Memetics and Neural Models of Conspiracy Theories\" by Duch, where a model of memes as a quasi-stable neural associative memory attractor network is proposed, and a formation of Memeplex leading to conspiracy theories illustrated with the simulation of a self-organizing network.An advanced statement of the internalist school came in 2002 with the publication of ''The Electric Meme'', by Robert Aunger, an anthropologist from the University of Cambridge.", "Aunger also organised a conference in Cambridge in 1999, at which prominent sociologists and anthropologists were able to give their assessment of the progress made in memetics to that date.", "This resulted in the publication of ''Darwinizing Culture: The Status of Memetics as a Science'', edited by Aunger and with a foreword by Dennett, in 2001.===Decline===In 2005, the ''Journal of Memetics'' ceased publication and published a set of articles on the future of memetics.", "The website states that although \"there was to be a relaunch... after several years nothing has happened\".", "Susan Blackmore left the University of the West of England to become a freelance science-writer and now concentrates more on the field of consciousness and cognitive science.", "Derek Gatherer moved to work as a computer programmer in the pharmaceutical industry, although he still occasionally publishes on memetics-related matters.", "Richard Brodie is now climbing the world professional poker rankings.", "Aaron Lynch disowned the memetics community and the words \"meme\" and \"memetics\" (without disowning the ideas in his book), adopting the self-description \"thought contagionist\".", "He died in 2005.Susan Blackmore (2002) re-stated the definition of meme as: whatever is copied from one person to another person, whether habits, skills, songs, stories, or any other kind of information.", "Further she said that memes, like genes, are replicators in the sense as defined by Dawkins.That is, they are information that is copied.", "Memes are copied by imitation, teaching and other methods.", "The copies are not perfect: memes are copied with variation; moreover, they compete for space in our memories and for the chance to be copied again.", "Only some of the variants can survive.", "The combination of these three elements (copies; variation; competition for survival) forms precisely the condition for Darwinian evolution, and so memes (and hence human cultures) evolve.", "Large groups of memes that are copied and passed on together are called co-adapted meme complexes, or ''memeplexes''.", "In Blackmore's definition, the way that a meme replicates is through imitation.", "This requires brain capacity to generally imitate a model or selectively imitate the model.", "Since the process of social learning varies from one person to another, the imitation process cannot be said to be completely imitated.", "The sameness of an idea may be expressed with different memes supporting it.", "This is to say that the mutation rate in memetic evolution is extremely high, and mutations are even possible within each and every iteration of the imitation process.", "It becomes very interesting when we see that a social system composed of a complex network of microinteractions exists, but at the macro level an order emerges to create culture.Many researchers of cultural evolution regard memetic theory of this time a failed paradigm superseded by dual inheritance theory.", "Others instead suggest it is not superseded but rather holds a small but distinct intellectual space in cultural evolutionary theory.=== \"Internet Memetics\" ===A new framework of ''Internet Memetics'' initially borrowed Blackmore's conceptual developments but is effectively a data-driven approach, focusing on digital artifacts.", "This was led primarily by conceptual developments Colin Lankshear and Michele Knobel (2006) and Limor Shifman and Mike Thelwall (2009).", "Shiman, in particular, followed Susan Blackmore in rejecting the internalist and externalist debate, however did not offer a clear connection to prior evolutionary frameworks.", "Later in 2014, she rejected the historical relevance of \"information\" to memetics.", "Instead of memes being ''units of cultural information'', she argued information is exclusively delegated to be \"the ways in which addressers position themselves in relation to a meme instance's text, its linguistic codes, the addressees, and other potential speakers.\"", "This is what she called ''stance,'' which is analytically distinguished from the ''content'' and ''form'' of her meme.", "As such, Shifman's developments can be seen as critical to Dawkins's meme, but also as a somewhat distinct conceptualization of the meme as a communicative system dependent on the internet and social media platforms.", "By introducing memetics as an internet study there has been a rise in empirical research.", "That is, memetics in this conceptualization has been notably testable by the application of social science methodologies.", "It has been popular enough that following Lankshear and Knobel's (2019) review of empirical trends, they warn those interested in memetics that theoretical development should not be ignored, concluding that, \"Right now would be a good time for anyone seriously interested in memes to revisit Dawkins’ work in light of how internet memes have evolved over the past three decades and reflect on what most merits careful and conscientious research attention.", "\"As Lankshear and Knobel show, the Internet Memetic reconceptualization is limited in addressing long-standing memetic theory concerns.", "It is not clear that existing Internet Memetic theory's departure from conceptual dichotomies between internalist and externalist debate are compatible with most earlier concerns of memetics.", "Internet Memetics might be understood as a study without an agreed upon theory, as present research tends to focus on empirical developments answering theories of other areas of cultural research.", "It exists more as a set of distributed studies than a methodology, theory, field, or discipline, with a few exceptions such as Shifman and those closely following her motivating framework." ], [ "Criticisms<!--This section is linked from [[Meme#Criticism of meme theory]]: do not rename without fixing incoming link or including an anchor to previous name ([[MOS:HEAD]])-->", "Critics contend that some of the proponents' assertions are \"untested, unsupported or incorrect.\"", "Most of the history of memetic criticism has been directed at Dawkins' earlier theory of memetics framed in ''The Selfish Gene.''", "There have been some serious criticisms of memetics.", "Namely, there are a few key points on which most criticisms focus: mentalism, cultural determinism, Darwinian reduction, a lack of academic novelty, and a lack of empirical evidence of memetic mechanisms.Luis Benitez-Bribiesca points to the lack of memetic mechanisms.", "He refers to the lack of a ''code script'' for memes which would suggest a genuine analogy to DNA in genes.", "He also suggests the meme mutation mechanism is too unstable which would render the evolutionary process chaotic.", "That is to say that the \"unit of information\" which traverses across minds is perhaps too flexible in meaning to be a realistic unit.", "As such, he calls memetics \"a pseudoscientific dogma\" and \"a dangerous idea that poses a threat to the serious study of consciousness and cultural evolution\" among other things.Another criticism points to memetic triviality.", "That is, some have argued memetics is derivative of more rich areas of study.", "One of these cases comes from Peircian semiotics, (e.g., Deacon, Kull) stating that the concept of meme is a less developed Sign.", "Meme is thus described in memetics as a sign without its triadic nature.", "Charles Sanders Peirce's semiotic theory involves a triadic structure: a sign (a reference to an object), an object (the thing being referred to), and an interpretant (the interpreting actor of a sign).", "For Deacon and Kull, the meme is a degenerate sign, which includes only its ability of being copied.", "Accordingly, in the broadest sense, the objects of copying are memes, whereas the objects of translation and interpretation are signs.Others have pointed to the fact that memetics reduces genuine social and communicative activity to genetic arguments, and this cannot adequately describe cultural interactions between people.", "For example, Henry Jenkins, Joshua Green, and Sam Ford, in their book ''Spreadable Media'' (2013), criticize Dawkins' idea of the meme, writing that \"while the idea of the meme is a compelling one, it may not adequately account for how content circulates through participatory culture.\"", "The three authors also criticize other interpretations of memetics, especially those which describe memes as \"self-replicating\", because they ignore the fact that \"culture is a human product and replicates through human agency.\"", "In doing so, they align more closely with Shifman's notion of Internet Memetics and her addition of the human agency of ''stance'' to describe participatory structure.Mary Midgley criticizes memetics for at least two reasons: Like other critics, Maria Kronfeldner has criticized memetics for being based on an allegedly inaccurate analogy with the gene; alternately, she claims it is \"heuristically trivial\", being a mere redescription of what is already known without offering any useful novelty." ], [ "New developments", "===Alternative definitions===*Dawkins, in ''A Devil's Chaplain'', expanded his definition of meme by saying there are actually two different types of memetic processes (controversial and informative).", "The first is a type of cultural idea, action, or expression, which does have high variance; for instance, a student of his who had inherited some of the mannerisms of Wittgenstein.", "The second type is a self-correcting meme that is highly resistant to mutation.", "As an example of this, he gives origami patterns taught to elementary students– the meme is either passed on in the exact sequence of instructions, or (in the case of a forgetful child) terminates.", "The self-correcting meme tends to not evolve, and to experience profound mutations in the rare event that it does.", "*Another definition, given by Hokky Situngkir, tried to offer a more rigorous formalism for the meme, ''memeplexes'', and the ''deme'', seeing the meme as a cultural unit in a cultural complex system.", "It is based on the Darwinian genetic algorithm with some modifications to account for the different patterns of evolution seen in genes and memes.", "In the method of memetics as the way to see culture as a complex adaptive system, he describes a way to see memetics as an alternative methodology of cultural evolution.", "*DiCarlo (2010) developed the definition of meme further to include the idea of 'memetic equilibrium', which describe a culturally compatible state with biological equilibrium.", "In \"How Problem Solving and Neurotransmission in the Upper Paleolithic led to The Emergence and Maintenance of Memetic Equilibrium in Contemporary World Religions\", DiCarlo argues that as human consciousness evolved and developed, so too did our ancestors' capacity to consider and attempt to solve environmental problems in more conceptually sophisticated ways.", "When a satisfactory solution is found, the feeling of environmental stability, or memetic equilibrium, is achieved.", "The relationship between a gradually emerging conscious awareness and sophisticated languages in which to formulate representations combined with the desire to maintain biological equilibrium, generated the necessity for equilibrium to fill in conceptual gaps in terms of understanding three very important aspects in the Upper Paleolithic: causality, morality, and mortality.", "The desire to explain phenomena in relation to maintaining survival and reproductive stasis, generated a normative stance in the minds of our ancestors—Survival/Reproductive Value (or S-R Value).", "*Limor Shifman (2014) defines ''Internet memes'', memes in digitally mediated contexts, to be (a) a group of digital items sharing common characteristics of content, form, and/or stance, which (b) were created with awareness of each other, and (c) were circulated, imitated, and/or transformed via the Internet by many users.", "Further, she outlines ''content'' as \"both ideas and ideologies\", ''form'' as \"the physical incarnation of the message\", and ''stance'' as \"the information memes convey about their own communication''.\"''", "Stance is about how actors (e.g.", "people) position themselves in relation to content and form of the media as well as those who might be addressed by the message.", "*Over a decade after Kull's and Deacon's semiotic critique, Sara Cannizzaro offered her own development to redeem memes as fully formed cybersemiotic signs which has had limited success among those adjacent to Internet Memetics.", "In particular, she translates many of the neo-Darwinian conceptualizations of evolution to biosemiotic evolutionary concepts.", "This approach was theoretically integrated with an empirical investigation of information in Alexander O. Smith and Jeff Hemsley's development.", "They suggested under the influence of Cannizzaro's work that memes are \"an information transmission network of documents connected through their differences among similarities and is interpreted as a semiotic system\".===Memetic analysis===*The possibility of quantitative analysis of memes using neuroimaging tools and the suggestion that such studies have already been done was given by McNamara (2011).", "This author proposes hyperscanning (concurrent scanning of two communicating individuals in two separate MRI machines) as a key tool in the future for investigating memetics.", "*Velikovsky (2013) proposed the \"holon\" as the structure of the meme, synthesizing the major theories on memes of Richard Dawkins, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, E. O. Wilson, Frederick Turner (poet) and Arthur Koestler.", "*Proponents of memetics as described in the ''Journal of Memetics'' (out of print since 2005) believe that 'memetics' has the potential to be an important and promising analysis of culture using the framework of evolutionary concepts.", "*Keith Henson in ''Memetics and the Modular-Mind'' (Analog Aug. 1987) makes the case that memetics needs to incorporate evolutionary psychology to understand the psychological traits of a meme's host.", "*The primary analytic approaches of internet memetics has been more in association with visual culture and communication methodologies.", "These researchers justify the existence of memes by way of culturally association, social networks or networked artifacts, most notably online image artifacts." ], [ "Applications", "Research methodologies that apply memetics go by many names: Viral marketing, cultural evolution, the history of ideas, social analytics, and more.", "Many of these applications do not make reference to the literature on memes directly but are built upon the evolutionary lens of idea propagation that treats semantic units of culture as self-replicating and mutating patterns of information that are assumed to be relevant for scientific study.", "For example, the field of public relations is filled with attempts to introduce new ideas and alter social discourse.", "One means of doing this is to design a meme and deploy it through various media channels.", "One historic example of applied memetics is the PR campaign conducted in 1991 as part of the build-up to the first Gulf War in the United States.The application of memetics to a difficult complex social system problem, environmental sustainability, has recently been attempted at thwink.org Using meme types and memetic infection in several stock and flow simulation models, Jack Harich has demonstrated several interesting phenomena that are best, and perhaps only, explained by memes.", "One model, The Dueling Loops of the Political Powerplace, argues that the fundamental reason corruption is the norm in politics is due to an inherent structural advantage of one feedback loop pitted against another.", "Another model, The Memetic Evolution of Solutions to Difficult Problems, uses memes, the evolutionary algorithm, and the scientific method to show how complex solutions evolve over time and how that process can be improved.", "The insights gained from these models are being used to engineer memetic solution elements to the sustainability problem.Another application of memetics in the sustainability space is the crowdfunded Climate Meme Project conducted by Joe Brewer and Balazs Laszlo Karafiath in the spring of 2013.This study was based on a collection of 1000 unique text-based expressions gathered from Twitter, Facebook, and structured interviews with climate activists.", "The major finding was that the global warming meme is not effective at spreading because it causes emotional duress in the minds of people who learn about it.", "Five central tensions were revealed in the discourse about climate change, each of which represents a resonance point through which dialogue can be engaged.", "The tensions were Harmony/Disharmony (whether or not humans are part of the natural world), Survival/Extinction (envisioning the future as either apocalyptic collapse of civilization or total extinction of the human race), Cooperation/Conflict (regarding whether or not humanity can come together to solve global problems), Momentum/Hesitation (about whether or not we are making progress at the collective scale to address climate change), and Elitism/Heretic (a general sentiment that each side of the debate considers the experts of its opposition to be untrustworthy).Ben Cullen, in his book ''Contagious Ideas'', brought the idea of the meme into the discipline of archaeology.", "He coined the term \"Cultural Virus Theory\", and used it to try to anchor archaeological theory in a neo-Darwinian paradigm.", "Archaeological memetics could assist the application of the meme concept to material culture in particular.Francis Heylighen of the Center Leo Apostel for Interdisciplinary Studies has postulated what he calls \"memetic selection criteria\".", "These criteria opened the way to a specialized field of ''applied memetics'' to find out if these selection criteria could stand the test of quantitative analyses.", "In 2003 Klaas Chielens carried out these tests in a Masters thesis project on the testability of the selection criteria.In ''Selfish Sounds and Linguistic Evolution'', Austrian linguist Nikolaus Ritt has attempted to operationalise memetic concepts and use them for the explanation of long term sound changes and change conspiracies in early English.", "It is argued that a generalised Darwinian framework for handling cultural change can provide explanations where established, speaker centred approaches fail to do so.", "The book makes comparatively concrete suggestions about the possible material structure of memes, and provides two empirically rich case studies.Australian academic S.J.", "Whitty has argued that project management is a memeplex with the language and stories of its practitioners at its core.", "This radical approach sees a project and its management as an illusion; a human construct about a collection of feelings, expectations, and sensations, which are created, fashioned, and labeled by the human brain.", "Whitty's approach requires project managers to consider that the reasons for using project management are not consciously driven to maximize profit, and are encouraged to consider project management as naturally occurring, self-serving, evolving process which shapes organizations for its own purpose.Swedish political scientist Mikael Sandberg argues against \"Lamarckian\" interpretations of institutional and technological evolution and studies creative innovation of information technologies in governmental and private organizations in Sweden in the 1990s from a memetic perspective.", "Comparing the effects of active (\"Lamarckian\") IT strategy versus user–producer interactivity (Darwinian co-evolution), evidence from Swedish organizations shows that co-evolutionary interactivity is almost four times as strong a factor behind IT creativity as the \"Lamarckian\" IT strategy." ], [ "Terminology", "* Memeplex – (an abbreviation of meme-complex) is a collection or grouping of memes that have evolved into a mutually supportive or symbiotic relationship.", "Simply put, a meme-complex is a set of ideas that reinforce each other.", "Meme-complexes are roughly analogous to the symbiotic collection of individual genes that make up the genetic codes of biological organisms.", "An example of a memeplex would be a religion.", "* Meme pool – a population of interbreeding memes.", "* Memetic engineering – The process of deliberately creating memes, using engineering principles.", "* Memetic algorithms – an approach to evolutionary computation that attempts to emulate cultural evolution in order to solve optimization problems.", "* Memotype – the actual information-content of a meme.", "* Memeoid – a neologism for people who have been taken over by a meme to the extent that their own survival becomes inconsequential.", "Examples include kamikazes, suicide bombers and cult members who commit mass suicide.", "The term was apparently coined by H. Keith Henson in \"Memes, L5 and the Religion of the Space Colonies,\" ''L5 News'', September 1985 pp.", "5–8, and referenced in the expanded second edition of Richard Dawkins' book ''The Selfish Gene'' (p. 330).", "In ''The Electronic Revolution'' William S. Burroughs writes: \"the word has not been recognised as a virus because it has achieved a state of stable symbiosis with the host.", "\"* Memetic equilibrium – the cultural equivalent of species biological equilibrium.", "It is that which humans strive for in terms of personal value with respect to cultural artefacts and ideas.", "The term was coined by Christopher diCarlo.", "* Metamemetic thinking - coined by Diego Fontanive, is the thinking skill & cognitive training capable of making individuals acknowledge illogical memes.", "* Eumemics - the belief and practice of deliberately improving the quality of the meme pool.", "* Memocide - intentional action to eradicate a meme or memeplex from the population, either by killing its carriers or by censorship." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Apter, Emily (2019).", "Alphabetic Memes: Caricature, Satire, and Political Literacy in the Age of Trump (PDF).", "OCTOBER Journal 170, Fall 2019, MIT Press Journal*Botz-Bornstein, Thorsten (2008).", "\"Can Memes Play Games?", "Memetics and the Problem of Space\" in T. Botz-Bornstein (ed.", "): ''Culture, Nature, Memes: Dynamic Cognitive Theories'' (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press), pp. 142–156.", "*Boyd, Robert & Richerson, Peter J.", "(1985).", "''Culture and the Evolutionary Process''.", "University of Chicago Press.", "* Boyd, Rob & Richerson, Peter J.", "(2005).", "''Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution''.", "Chicago University Press.", "* * DiCarlo, Christopher W.", "2010.", "\"How Problem Solving and Neurotransmission in the Upper Paleolithic led to The Emergence and Maintenance of Memetic Equilibrium in Contemporary World Religions.\"", "Politics and Culture.", "https://politicsandculture.org/2010/04/27/how-problem-solving-and-neurotransmission-in-the-upper-paleolithic-led-to-the-emergence-and-maintenance-of-memetic-equilibrium-in-contemporary-world-religions/ * * Edmonds, Bruce.", "2002.", "\"Three challenges for the survival of memetics.\"", "''Journal of Memetics - Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission'', 6.http://cfpm.org/jom-emit/2002/vol6/edmonds_b_letter.html * Edmonds, Bruce.", "2005.", "\"The revealed poverty of the gene-meme analogy – why memetics per se has failed.\"", "''Journal of Memetics - Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission'', 9.http://cfpm.org/jom-emit/2005/vol9/edmonds_b.html * Heylighen F. & Chielens K. (2009): Evolution of Culture, Memetics, in: Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science, ed.", "B. Meyers (Springer)* Houben, Jan E.M. \"Memetics of Vedic Ritual, Morphology of the Agnistoma.\"", "Powerpoint presentation first presented at the Third International Vedic Workshop, Leiden 2002 www.academia.edu/7090834* Houben, Jan E.M. \"A Tradição Sânscrita entre Memética Védica e Cultura Literária.\"", "(In Portuguese) Revista Linguagem & Ensino, vol.", "17 n. 2 (2014), p. 441-469.www.rle.ucpel.tche.br/index.php/rle/article/view/1089/783* ''The Selfish Gene'' by Richard Dawkins, Oxford University Press, 1976, 2nd edition, December 1989, hardcover, 352 pages, ; April 1992, ; trade paperback, September 1990, 352 pages, * Aunger, Robert.", "''The Electric Meme: A New Theory of How We Think''.", "New York: Free Press, 2002.", "* ''The Meme Machine'' by Susan Blackmore, Oxford University Press, 1999, hardcover , trade paperback , May 2000, * The Ideology of Cybernetic Totalist Intellectuals an essay by Jaron Lanier which is very strongly critical of \"meme totalists\" who assert memes over bodies.", "* '' Culture as Complex Adaptive System'' by Hokky Situngkir – formal interplays between memetics and cultural analysis.", "* ''Journal of Memetics – Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission''* Brodie, Richard.''", "Virus of the Mind: The New Science of the Meme''.", "Seattle, Wash: Integral Press, 1996.", "* '' Cultural Software: A Theory of Ideology'' by Jack Balkin which uses memetics to explain the growth and spread of ideology.", "* '' Can we Measure Memes?''", "by Adam McNamara which presents neuroimaging tools to measure memes.", "* ''Convivere con la memetica'' (in Italian) by Francesco Somigli, 2011 Lulu.com" ], [ "External links", "* \"What’s in a Meme?\"", "– Richard Dawkins Foundationde:Mem" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "March 25" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 410 – The Southern Yan capital of Guanggu falls to the Jin dynasty general Liu Yu, ending the Southern Yan dynasty.", "* 421 – Italian city Venice is founded with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo di Rialto on the islet of Rialto.", "* 708 – Pope Constantine becomes the 88th pope.", "He would be the last pope to visit Constantinople until 1967.", "* 717 – Theodosius III resigns the throne to the Byzantine Empire to enter the clergy.", "* 919 – Romanos Lekapenos seizes the Boukoleon Palace in Constantinople and becomes regent of the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII.", "*1000 – Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah assassinates the eunuch chief minister Barjawan and assumes control of the government.", "*1065 – The Great German Pilgrimage is attacked on Good Friday by Beduin bandits, suffering heavy losses.", "*1306 – Robert the Bruce becomes King of Scots (Scotland).", "*1409 – The Council of Pisa convenes, in an attempt to heal the Western Schism.", "*1410 – The Yongle Emperor of Ming China launches the first of his military campaigns against the Mongols, resulting in the fall of the Mongol khan Bunyashiri.", "*1519 – Hernando Cortes, entering province of Tabasco, defeats Tabascan Indians.", "*1576 – Jerome Savage takes out a sub-lease to start the Newington Butts Theatre outside London.", "*1584 – Sir Walter Raleigh is granted a patent to colonize Virginia.===1601–1900===*1655 – Saturn's largest moon, Titan, is discovered by Christiaan Huygens.", "*1708 – A French fleet anchors nears Fife Ness as part of the planned French invasion of Britain.", "*1725 – Bach's chorale cantata '''''Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern'', BWV 1''', is first performed on the Feast of the Annunciation, coinciding with Palm Sunday.", "*1770 – Daskalogiannis, leads the people of Sfakia in the first Greek uprising against the Ottoman rule *1802 – The Treaty of Amiens is signed as a \"Definitive Treaty of Peace\" between France and the United Kingdom.", "* 1807 – The Swansea and Mumbles Railway, then known as the Oystermouth Railway, becomes the first passenger-carrying railway in the world.", "*1811 – Percy Bysshe Shelley is expelled from the University of Oxford for publishing the pamphlet ''The Necessity of Atheism''.", "*1821 – Greek War of Independence: Traditional date of the start of the Greek War of Independence.", "The war had actually begun on 23 February 1821 (Julian calendar).", "*1845 – New Zealand Legislative Council pass the first Militia Act constituting the New Zealand Army.", "*1865 – American Civil War: In Virginia during the Siege of Petersburg, Confederate forces temporarily capture Fort Stedman from the Union before being repulsed.", "*1894 – Coxey's Army, the first significant American protest march, departs Massillon, Ohio for Washington, D.C.===1901–present===*1905 – The Greek football club P.A.E.", "G.S.", "Diagoras is founded in the city of Rhodes.", "*1911 – In New York City, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire kills 146 garment workers.", "* 1911 – Andrey Yushchinsky is murdered in Kiev, leading to the Beilis affair.", "*1914 – The Greek multi-sport club Aris Thessaloniki is founded in Thessaloniki.", "*1917 – The Georgian Orthodox Church restores its autocephaly abolished by Imperial Russia in 1811.", "*1918 – The Belarusian People's Republic is established.", "*1919 – The Tetiev pogrom occurs in Ukraine, becoming the prototype of mass murder during the Holocaust.", "*1924 – On the anniversary of Greek Independence, Alexandros Papanastasiou proclaims the Second Hellenic Republic.", "*1931 – The Scottsboro Boys are arrested in Alabama and charged with rape.", "*1932 – The famous Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is unveiled in Athens.", "*1941 – The Kingdom of Yugoslavia joins the Axis powers with the signing of the Tripartite Pact.", "*1947 – An explosion in a coal mine in Centralia, Illinois kills 111.", "*1948 – The first successful tornado forecast predicts that a tornado will strike Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma.", "*1949 – More than 92,000 kulaks are suddenly deported from the Baltic states to Siberia.", "*1957 – United States Customs seizes copies of Allen Ginsberg's poem \"Howl\" on obscenity grounds.", "* 1957 – The European Economic Community is established with West Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg as the first members.", "*1959 – Chain Island is sold by the State of California to Russell Gallaway III, a Sacramento businessman who plans to use it as a \"hunting and fishing retreat\", for $5,258.20 ($ in ).", "*1965 – Civil rights activists led by Martin Luther King Jr. successfully complete their 4-day march from Selma to the capitol in Montgomery, Alabama.", "*1971 – The Army of the Republic of Vietnam abandon an attempt to cut off the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos.", "*1975 – Faisal of Saudi Arabia is shot and killed by his nephew.", "*1979 – The first fully functional Space Shuttle orbiter, ''Columbia'', is delivered to the John F. Kennedy Space Center to be prepared for its first launch.", "*1988 – The Candle demonstration in Bratislava is the first mass demonstration of the 1980s against the communist regime in Czechoslovakia.", "*1995 – WikiWikiWeb, the world's first wiki, and part of the Portland Pattern Repository, is made public by Ward Cunningham.", "*1996 – The European Union's Veterinarian Committee bans the export of British beef and its by-products as a result of mad cow disease (Bovine spongiform encephalopathy).", "*2006 – Capitol Hill massacre: A gunman kills six people before taking his own life at a party in Seattle's Capitol Hill neighborhood.", "* 2006 – Protesters demanding a new election in Belarus, following the rigged 2006 Belarusian presidential election, clash with riot police.", "Opposition leader Aleksander Kozulin is among several protesters arrested.", "*2018 – Syrian civil war: Following the completion of the Afrin offensive, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) initiate an insurgency against the Turkish occupation of the Afrin District." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1252 – Conradin, Duke of Swabia (d. 1268)*1259 – Andronikos II Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (d. 1332)*1297 – Andronikos III Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (d. 1341)* 1297 – Arnošt of Pardubice, the first Bohemian archbishop (d. 1364)*1345 – Blanche of Lancaster (d. 1369)*1347 – Catherine of Siena, Italian philosopher, theologian, and saint (d. 1380)*1404 – John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, English military leader (d. 1444)*1414 – Thomas Clifford, 8th Baron de Clifford, English noble (d. 1455)*1434 – Eustochia Smeralda Calafato, Italian saint (d. 1485)*1479 – Vasili III of Russia (d. 1533)*1491 – Marie d'Albret, Countess of Rethel (d. 1549)*1510 – Guillaume Postel, French linguist (d. 1581)*1538 – Christopher Clavius, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1612)*1541 – Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1587)*1545 – John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg (d. 1622)*1546 – Giacomo Castelvetro, Italian writer (d. 1616)*1593 – Jean de Brébeuf, French-Canadian missionary and saint (d. 1649)===1601–1900===*1611 – Evliya Çelebi, Ottoman Turk traveller and writer (d. 1682)*1636 – Henric Piccardt, Dutch lawyer (d. 1712)*1643 – Louis Moréri, French priest and scholar (d. 1680)*1661 – Paul de Rapin, French soldier and historian (d. 1725)*1699 – Johann Adolph Hasse, German singer and composer (d. 1783)*1741 – Jean-Antoine Houdon, French sculptor and educator (d. 1828)*1745 – John Barry, American naval officer and father of the American navy (d. 1803)*1767 – Joachim Murat, French general (d. 1815)*1782 – Caroline Bonaparte, French daughter of Carlo Buonaparte (d. 1839)*1800 – Ernst Heinrich Karl von Dechen, German geologist and academic (d. 1889)*1808 – José de Espronceda, Spanish poet and author (d. 1842)*1824 – Clinton L. Merriam, American banker and politician (d. 1900)*1840 – Myles Keogh, Irish-American colonel (d. 1876)*1863 – Simon Flexner, American physician and academic (d. 1946)*1867 – Gutzon Borglum, American sculptor, designed Mount Rushmore (d. 1941)* 1867 – Arturo Toscanini, Italian-American cellist and conductor (d. 1957)*1868 – Bill Lockwood, English cricketer (d. 1932)*1871 – Louis Perrée, French fencer (d. 1924)*1872 – Horatio Nelson Jackson, American race car driver and physician (d. 1955)*1873 – Rudolf Rocker, German-American author and activist (d. 1958)*1874 – Selim Sırrı Tarcan, Turkish educator and politician (d. 1957)*1876 – Irving Baxter, American high jumper and pole vaulter (d. 1957)*1877 – Walter Little, Canadian politician (d. 1961)*1878 – František Janda-Suk, Czech discus thrower and shot putter (d. 1955)*1879 – Amedee Reyburn, American swimmer and water polo player (d. 1920)*1881 – Béla Bartók, Hungarian pianist and composer (d. 1945)* 1881 – Patrick Henry Bruce, American painter and educator (d. 1936)* 1881 – Mary Webb, English author and poet (d. 1927)*1893 – Johannes Villemson, Estonian runner (d. 1971)*1895 – Siegfried Handloser, German general and physician (d. 1954)* 1885 – Jimmy Seed, English international footballer and manager (d. 1966)*1897 – Leslie Averill, New Zealand doctor and soldier (d. 1981)*1899 – François Rozet, French-Canadian actor (d. 1994)*1900 – George Carstairs, Australian rugby league player (d. 1966)===1901–present===*1901 – Ed Begley, American actor (d. 1970)*1903 – Binnie Barnes, English-American actress (d. 1998)* 1903 – Frankie Carle, American pianist and bandleader (d. 2001)* 1903 – Nahum Norbert Glatzer, Ukrainian-American theologian and scholar (d. 1990)*1904 – Pete Johnson, American boogie-woogie and jazz pianist (d. 1967)*1905 – Albrecht Mertz von Quirnheim, German colonel (d. 1944)*1906 – Jean Sablon, French singer and actor (d. 1994)* 1906 – A. J. P. Taylor, English historian and academic (d. 1990)*1908 – David Lean, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1991)*1910 – Magda Olivero, Italian soprano (d. 2014)* 1910 – Benzion Netanyahu, Polish-Israeli historian and academic (d. 2012)*1912 – Melita Norwood, English civil servant and spy (d. 2005)* 1912 – Jean Vilar, French actor and director (d. 1971)*1913 – Reo Stakis, Cypriot-Scottish businessman, founded Stakis Hotels (d. 2001)*1914 – Norman Borlaug, American agronomist and humanitarian, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2009)* 1914 – Tassos, Greek engraver, etcher and sculptor (d. 1985) *1915 – Dorothy Squires, Welsh singer (d. 1998)*1916 – S. M. Pandit, Indian painter and educator (d. 1993)*1918 – Howard Cosell, American soldier, journalist, and author (d. 1995)*1920 – Paul Scott, English author, poet, and playwright (d. 1978)* 1920 – Patrick Troughton, English actor (d. 1987)* 1920 – Usha Mehta, Gandhian and freedom fighter of India (d. 2000) *1921 – Nancy Kelly, American actress (d. 1995)* 1921 – Simone Signoret, French actress (d. 1985)* 1921 – Alexandra of Yugoslavia, the last Queen of Yugoslavia (d. 1993)*1922 – Eileen Ford, American businesswoman, co-founded Ford Models (d. 2014)*1923 – Bonnie Guitar, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2019)* 1923 – Wim van Est, Dutch cyclist (d. 2003)*1924 – Roberts Blossom, American actor (d. 2011)* 1924 – Machiko Kyō, Japanese actress (d. 2019)*1925 – Flannery O'Connor, American short story writer and novelist (d. 1964)* 1925 – Anthony Quinton, Baron Quinton, English physician and philosopher (d. 2010)* 1925 – Kishori Sinha, Indian politician, social activist and advocate (d. 2016)*1926 – Riz Ortolani, Italian composer and conductor (d. 2014)* 1926 – László Papp, Hungarian boxer (d. 2003)* 1926 – Shirley Jean Rickert, American actress (d. 2009)* 1926 – Jaime Sabines, Mexican poet and politician (d. 1999)* 1926 – Gene Shalit, American journalist and critic*1927 – P. Shanmugam, Indian politician, 13th Chief Minister of Puducherry (d. 2013)*1928 – Jim Lovell, American captain, pilot, and astronaut* 1928 – Gunnar Nielsen, Danish runner and typographer (d. 1985)* 1928 – Peter O'Brien, Australian rugby league player (d. 2016)* 1928 – Hans Steinbrenner, German sculptor (d. 2008)*1929 – Cecil Taylor, American pianist and composer (d. 2018)*1930 – David Burge, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2013)* 1930 – Carlo Mauri, Italian mountaineer and explorer (d. 1982)* 1930 – Rudy Minarcin, American baseball player and coach (d. 2013)*1931 – Humphrey Burton, English radio and television host*1932 – Penelope Gilliatt, English novelist, short story writer, and critic (d. 1993)* 1932 – Wes Santee, American runner (d. 2010)*1934 – Johnny Burnette, American singer-songwriter (d. 1964)* 1934 – Bernard King, Australian actor and chef (d. 2002)* 1934 – Karlheinz Schreiber, German-Canadian businessman* 1934 – Gloria Steinem, American feminist activist, co-founded the Women's Media Center*1935 – Gabriel Elorde, Filipino boxer (d. 1985)*1936 – Carl Kaufmann, American-German sprinter (d. 2008)*1937 – Tom Monaghan, American businessman, founded Domino's Pizza*1938 – Hoyt Axton, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1999)* 1938 – Daniel Buren, French sculptor and painter* 1938 – Fritz d'Orey, Brazilian racing driver (d. 2020)*1939 – Toni Cade Bambara, American author, academic, and activist (d. 1995)* 1939 – D. C. Fontana, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2019)*1941 – Gudmund Hernes, Norwegian sociologist and politician, Norwegian Minister of Education and Research*1942 – Aretha Franklin, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2018)* 1942 – Richard O'Brien, English actor and screenwriter* 1942 – Kim Woodburn, English television host*1943 – Paul Michael Glaser, American actor and director*1945 – Leila Diniz, Brazilian actress (d. 1972)*1946 – Cliff Balsom, English footballer* 1946 – Daniel Bensaïd, French philosopher and author (d. 2010)* 1946 – Stephen Hunter, American author and critic* 1946 – Maurice Krafft, French volcanologist (d. 1991)*1947 – Richard Cork, English historian and critic* 1947 – Elton John, English singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor*1948 – Bonnie Bedelia, American actress* 1948 – Michael Stanley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2021)*1949 – Ronnie Flanagan, Northern Irish Chief Constable (Royal Irish Constabulary, Police Service of Northern Ireland) * 1949 – Sue Klebold, American activist*1950 – Chuck Greenberg, American saxophonist, songwriter, and producer (d. 1995)* 1950 – Ronnie McDowell, American singer-songwriter * 1950 – David Paquette, American-New Zealander pianist*1951 – Jumbo Tsuruta, Japanese wrestler (d. 2000)*1952 – Stephen Dorrell, English soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Health* 1952 – Antanas Mockus, Colombian mathematician, philosopher, and politician, Mayor of Bogotá*1953 – Christos Ardizoglou, Greek footballer * 1953 – Robert Fox, English producer and manager* 1953 – Vesna Pusić, Croatian sociologist and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Croatia* 1953 – Haroon Rasheed, Pakistani cricketer and coach *1954 – Thom Loverro, American journalist and author*1955 – Daniel Boulud, French chef and author* 1955 – Lee Mazzilli, American baseball player, coach, and manager*1957 – Christina Boxer, English runner and journalist* 1957 – Kanellos Kanellopoulos, Greek cyclist * 1957 – Jonathan Michie, English economist and academic* 1957 – Aleksandr Puchkov, Russian hurdler* 1957 – Jim Uhls, American screenwriter and producer*1958 – Susie Bright, American journalist, author, and critic* 1958 – Lorna Brown, Canadian artist, curator, and writer* 1958 – Sisy Chen, Taiwanese journalist and politician* 1958 – María Caridad Colón, Cuban javelin thrower and shot putter* 1958 – John Ensign, American physician and politician* 1958 – Ray Tanner, American baseball player and coach* 1958 – Åsa Torstensson, Swedish politician, 3rd Swedish Minister for Infrastructure*1960 – Steve Norman, English saxophonist, songwriter, and producer* 1960 – Peter O'Brien, Australian actor* 1960 – Brenda Strong, American actress*1961 – Mark Brooks, American golfer*1962 – Marcia Cross, American actress* 1962 – David Nuttall, English lawyer and politician*1963 – Karen Bruce, English dancer and choreographer* 1963 – Velle Kadalipp, Estonian architect* 1963 – Andrew O'Connor, British actor, comedian, magician, television presenter and executive producer*1964 – René Meulensteen, Dutch footballer and coach* 1964 – Ken Wregget, Canadian ice hockey player* 1964 – Norm Duke, American bowler*1965 – Avery Johnson, American basketball player and coach* 1965 – Stefka Kostadinova, Bulgarian high jumper* 1965 – Sarah Jessica Parker, American actress, producer, and designer*1966 – Tom Glavine, American baseball player* 1966 – Humberto Gonzalez, Mexican boxer* 1966 – Jeff Healey, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2008)* 1966 – Anton Rogan, Northern Irish footballer*1967 – Matthew Barney, American sculptor and photographer* 1967 – Doug Stanhope, American comedian and actor* 1967 – Debi Thomas, American figure skater and physician*1969 – George Chlitsios, Greek conductor and composer* 1969 – Dale Davis, American basketball player* 1969 – Cathy Dennis, English singer-songwriter, record producer and actress* 1969 – Jeffrey Walker, English singer-songwriter and bass player *1970 – Magnus Larsson, Swedish golfer*1971 – Stacy Dragila, American pole vaulter and coach* 1971 – Cammi Granato, American ice hockey player and sportscaster* 1971 – Sheryl Swoopes, American basketball player and coach*1972 – Naftali Bennett, Israeli politician, 13th Prime Minister of Israel* 1972 – Giniel de Villiers, South African racing driver* 1972 – Phil O'Donnell, Scottish footballer (d. 2007)*1973 – Michaela Dorfmeister, Austrian skier* 1973 – Anders Fridén, Swedish singer-songwriter and producer * 1973 – Bob Sura, American basketball player*1974 – Serge Betsen, Cameroonian-French rugby player* 1974 – Lark Voorhies, American actress and singer*1975 – Ladislav Benýšek, Czech ice hockey player* 1975 – Melanie Blatt, English singer-songwriter and actress * 1975 – Erika Heynatz, Papua New Guinean-Australian model and actress*1976 – Francie Bellew, Irish footballer* 1976 – Lars Figura, German sprinter* 1976 – Wladimir Klitschko, Ukrainian boxer* 1976 – Rima Wakarua, New Zealand-Italian rugby player*1977 – Natalie Clein, English cellist and educator* 1977 – Andrew Lindsay, Scottish rower*1978 – Gennaro Delvecchio, Italian footballer*1979 – Muriel Hurtis-Houairi, French sprinter*1980 – Kathrine Sørland, Norwegian fashion model and television presenter*1981 – Casey Neistat, American YouTube personality*1982 – Danica Patrick, American race car driver* 1982 – Álvaro Saborío, Costa Rican footballer* 1982 – Jenny Slate, American comedian, actress and author*1983 – Mickaël Hanany, French high jumper*1984 – Katharine McPhee, American singer-songwriter and actress* 1984 – Liam Messam, New Zealand rugby player*1985 – Carmen Rasmusen, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and actress* 1985 – Diana Rennik, Estonian figure skater*1986 – Marco Belinelli, Italian basketball player* 1986 – Megan Gibson, American softball player* 1986 – Kyle Lowry, American basketball player* 1986 – Mickey Paea, Australian rugby league player*1987 – Jacob Bagersted, Danish handball player* 1987 – Victor Obinna, Nigerian footballer* 1987 – Nobunari Oda, Japanese figure skater* 1987 – Hyun-jin Ryu, South Korean baseball player*1988 – Big Sean, American rapper, singer and songwriter* 1988 – Ryan Lewis, American music producer* 1988 – Mitchell Watt, Australian long jumper* 1988 – Arthur Zeiler, German rugby player*1989 – Aly Michalka, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1989 – Scott Sinclair, English footballer*1990 – Mehmet Ekici, Turkish footballer* 1990 – Alexander Esswein, German footballer*1991 – Scott Malone, English footballer*1992 – Meg Lanning, Australian cricketer*1993 – Jacob Gagan, Australian rugby league player* 1993 – Sam Johnstone, English footballer*1994 – Justine Dufour-Lapointe, Canadian skier*2000 – Ozan Kabak, Turkish footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 908 – Li Kening, Chinese general* 940 – Taira no Masakado, Japanese samurai* 990 – Nicodemus of Mammola, Italian monk and saint*1005 – Kenneth III, king of Scotland*1051 – Hugh IV, French nobleman*1189 – Frederick, duke of Bohemia*1223 – Alfonso II, king of Portugal (b.", "1185)*1351 – Kō no Moronao, Japanese samurai * 1351 – Kō no Moroyasu, Japanese samurai*1392 – Hosokawa Yoriyuki, Japanese samurai*1458 – Íñigo López de Mendoza, 1st Marquis of Santillana, Spanish poet and politician (b.", "1398)*1558 – Marcos de Niza, French friar and explorer (b.", "1495)===1601–1900===*1603 – Ikoma Chikamasa, Japanese daimyō (b.", "1526)*1609 – Olaus Martini, Swedish archbishop (b.", "1557)* 1609 – Isabelle de Limeuil, French noble (b.", "1535)*1620 – Johannes Nucius, German composer and theorist (b.", "1556)*1625 – Giambattista Marino, Italian poet and author (b.", "1569)*1658 – Herman IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg, German nobleman (b.", "1607)*1677 – Wenceslaus Hollar, Czech-English painter and etcher (b.", "1607)*1701 – Jean Regnault de Segrais, French poet and novelist (b.", "1624)*1712 – Nehemiah Grew, English anatomist and physiologist (b.", "1641)*1732 – Lucy Filippini, Italian teacher and saint (b.", "1672)*1736 – Nicholas Hawksmoor, English architect, designed Easton Neston and Christ Church (b.", "1661)*1738 – Turlough O'Carolan, Irish harp player and composer (b.", "1670)*1801 – Novalis, German poet and author (b.", "1772)*1818 – Caspar Wessel, Norwegian-Danish mathematician and cartographer (b.", "1745)*1857 – William Colgate, English-American businessman and philanthropist, founded Colgate-Palmolive (b.", "1783)*1860 – James Braid, Scottish surgeon (b.", "1795)*1869 – Edward Bates, American politician and lawyer (b.", "1793)*1873 – Wilhelm Marstrand, Danish painter and illustrator (b.", "1810)===1901–present===*1907 – Ernst von Bergmann, Latvian-German surgeon and academic (b.", "1836)*1908 – Durham Stevens, American diplomat (b.", "1851)*1914 – Frédéric Mistral, French lexicographer and poet, 1904 Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1830)*1917 – Elizabeth Storrs Mead, American academic (b.", "1832)*1918 – Claude Debussy, French composer (b.", "1862)* 1918 – Peter Martin, Australian footballer and soldier (b.", "1875)*1927 – Marie-Alphonsine Danil Ghattas, Palestinian Roman Catholic nun; later canonized (b.", "1843)*1931 – Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi, Indian journalist and politician (b.", "1890)* 1931 – Ida B.", "Wells, American journalist and activist (b.", "1862)*1932 – Harriet Backer, Norwegian painter (b.1845)*1942 – William Carr, American rower (b.", "1876)*1951 – Eddie Collins, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1887)*1956 – Lou Moore, American race car driver (b.", "1904)* 1956 – Robert Newton, English actor (b.", "1905)*1958 – Tom Brown, American trombonist (b.", "1888)*1964 – Charles Benjamin Howard, Canadian businessman and politician (b.", "1885)*1965 – Viola Liuzzo, American civil rights activist (b.", "1925)*1969 – Billy Cotton, English singer, drummer, and bandleader (b.", "1899)* 1969 – Max Eastman, American poet and activist (b.", "1883)*1973 – Jakob Sildnik, Estonian photographer and director (b.", "1883)* 1973 – Edward Steichen, Luxembourgian-American photographer, painter, and curator (b.", "1879)*1975 – Juan Gaudino, Argentinian race car driver (b.", "1893)* 1975 – Faisal of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Arabian king (b.", "1906)* 1975 – Deiva Zivarattinam, Indian lawyer and politician (b.", "1894)*1976 – Josef Albers, German-American painter and educator (b.", "1888)*1976 – Benjamin Miessner, American radio engineer and inventor (b.", "1890)*1979 – Robert Madgwick, Australian colonel and academic (b.", "1905)* 1979 – Akinoumi Setsuo, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 37th Yokozuna (b.", "1914)*1980 – Milton H. Erickson, American psychiatrist and psychologist (b.", "1901)* 1980 – Walter Susskind, Czech-English conductor and educator (b.", "1913)*1982 – Goodman Ace, American comedian and writer (b.", "1899)*1983 – Bob Waterfield, American football player and coach (b.", "1920)*1986 – Gloria Blondell, American actress (b.", "1910)*1987 – A. W. Mailvaganam, Sri Lankan physicist and academic (b.", "1906)*1988 – Robert Joffrey, American dancer, choreographer, and director, co-founded the Joffrey Ballet (b.", "1930)*1991 – Marcel Lefebvre, French-Swiss archbishop (b.", "1905)*1992 – Nancy Walker, American actress, singer, and director (b.", "1922)*1994 – Angelines Fernández, Spanish-Mexican actress (b.", "1922)* 1994 – Bernard Kangro, Estonian poet and journalist (b.", "1910)* 1994 – Max Petitpierre, Swiss jurist and politician (b.", "1899)*1995 – James Samuel Coleman, American sociologist and academic (b.", "1926)* 1995 – John Hugenholtz, Dutch engineer (b.", "1914)*1998 – Max Green, Australian lawyer (b.", "1952)* 1998 – Steven Schiff, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1947)*1999 – Cal Ripken, Sr., American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1936)*2000 – Helen Martin, American actress (b.", "1909)*2001 – Brian Trubshaw, English cricketer and pilot (b.", "1924)*2002 – Kenneth Wolstenholme, English journalist and sportscaster (b.", "1920)*2005 – Paul Henning, American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1911)*2006 – Bob Carlos Clarke, Irish photographer (b.", "1950)* 2006 – Rocío Dúrcal, Spanish singer and actress (b.", "1944)* 2006 – Richard Fleischer, American film director (b.", "1916)* 2006 – Buck Owens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1929)*2007 – Andranik Margaryan, Armenian engineer and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Armenia (b.", "1951)*2008 – Ben Carnevale, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1915)* 2008 – Thierry Gilardi, French journalist and sportscaster (b.", "1958)* 2008 – Abby Mann, American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1927)* 2008 – Herb Peterson, American businessman, created the McMuffin (b.", "1919)*2009 – Johnny Blanchard, American baseball player (b.", "1933)* 2009 – Kosuke Koyama, Japanese-American theologian and academic (b.", "1929)* 2009 – Dan Seals, American musician (b.", "1948)* 2009 – Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu, Turkish politician and member of the Parliament of Turkey (b.", "1954)*2012 – Priscilla Buckley, American journalist and author (b.", "1921)* 2012 – Hal E. Chester, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1921)* 2012 – John Crosfield, English businessman, founded Crosfield Electronics (b.", "1915)* 2012 – Edd Gould, English animator and voice actor, founded Eddsworld (b.", "1988)* 2012 – Antonio Tabucchi, Italian author and academic (b.", "1943)*2013 – Léonce Bernard, Canadian politician, 26th Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island (b.", "1943)* 2013 – Ben Goldfaden, American basketball player and educator (b.", "1913)* 2013 – Anthony Lewis, American journalist and academic (b.", "1927)* 2013 – Jean Pickering, English runner and long jumper (b.", "1929)* 2013 – Jean-Marc Roberts, French author and screenwriter (b.", "1954)* 2013 – John F. Wiley, American lieutenant, football player, and coach (b.", "1920)*2014 – Lorna Arnold, English historian and author (b.", "1915)* 2014 – Hank Lauricella, American football player and politician (b.", "1930)* 2014 – Jon Lord, Canadian businessman and politician (b.", "1956)* 2014 – Sonny Ruberto, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1946)* 2014 – Jonathan Schell, American journalist and author (b.", "1943)* 2014 – Ralph Wilson, American businessman, founded the Buffalo Bills (b.", "1918)*2015 – George Fischbeck, American journalist and educator (b.", "1922)*2016 – Shannon Bolin, American actress and singer (b.", "1917)*2017 – Cuthbert Sebastian, St. Kitts and Nevis politician (b.", "1921)*2019 – Barrie Hole, Welsh footballer (b.", "1942)*2020 – Floyd Cardoz, Indian-born American chef (b.", "1960)*2021 – Beverly Cleary, American author (b.", "1916)*2022 – Taylor Hawkins, American drummer and singer (b.", "1972)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Anniversary of the Arengo and the Feast of the Militants (San Marino)*Christian feast days:**Feast of the Annunciation**March 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Christian Saints' days**Ælfwold II of Sherborne**Barontius and Desiderius**Blessed Marie-Alphonsine Danil Ghattas**Omelyan Kovch (Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church)**Dismas, the \"Good Thief\"**Humbert of Maroilles**Quirinus of Tegernsee*Commemoration Day for the Victims of Communist Genocide (Latvia)*Cultural Workers Day (Russia)*Empress Menen's Birthday (Rastafari)*EU Talent Day (European Union)*Freedom Day (Belarus)*Independence Day, celebrates the start of Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, in 1821.", "(Greece)*International Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Slavery and the Transatlantic Slave Trade (international)*International Day of Solidarity with Detained and Missing Staff Members (United Nations General Assembly)*International Day of the Unborn Child (international)*Maryland Day (Maryland, United States)*Medal of Honor Day (United States)*Mother's Day (Slovenia)*New Year's Day (Lady Day) in England, Wales, Ireland, and some of the future United States and Canada from 1155 through 1751, until the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 moved it to 1 January (and adopted the Gregorian calendar.", "(The year 1751 began on 25 March; the year 1752 began on 1 January.)", "*NZ Army Day*Quarter day (first of four) in Ireland and England.", "*Struggle for Human Rights Day (Slovakia)*Tolkien Reading Day*''Vårfrudagen'' or ''Våffeldagen'', \"Waffle Day\" (Sweden, Norway & Denmark)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day** Historical Events on March 25" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of islands of Michigan" ], [ "Introduction", "The following is a '''list of islands of Michigan'''.", "Michigan has the second longest coastline of any state after Alaska.", "Being bordered by four of the five Great Lakes—Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Superior—Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, as well as innumerable rivers, that may contain their own islands included in this list.", "The majority of the islands are within the Great Lakes.", "Other islands can also be found within other waterways of the Great Lake system, including Lake St. Clair, St. Clair River, Detroit River, and St. Marys River.The largest of all the islands is Isle Royale in Lake Superior, which, in addition to its waters and other surrounding islands, is organized as Isle Royale National Park.", "Isle Royale itself is .", "The most populated island is Grosse Ile with approximately 10,000 residents, located in the Detroit River about south of Detroit.", "The majority of Michigan's islands are uninhabited and very small.", "Some of these otherwise unusable islands have been used for the large number of Michigan's lighthouses to aid in shipping throughout the Great Lakes, while others have been set aside as nature reserves.", "Many islands in Michigan have the same name, even some that are in the same municipality and body of water, such as Gull, Long, or Round islands." ], [ "Lake Erie", "Lake ErieOnly Monroe County and a very small portion of Wayne County have boundaries within the westernmost portion of Lake Erie.", "The lake has a mean surface elevation of .", "The islands in the southern portion of the county are part of the North Maumee Bay Archeological District of the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge, while northern islands are part of Pointe Mouillee State Game Area at the mouth of the Huron River and Detroit River.", "Turtle Island is the only island in the state of Michigan that is shared by another state, as it is divided with the state of Ohio.", "Island Municipality County CoordinatesDalhka Island Brownstown Township Wayne Gard Island Erie Township Monroe Indian Island Erie Township Monroe Rat Island Brownstown Township Wayne Smiths Island Monroe Township Monroe Turtle Island Erie Township Monroe Waterman Island Berlin Township Monroe" ], [ "Lake Huron", "Lake HuronLake Huron is the second largest of the Great Lakes (after Lake Superior) with a surface area of .", "Michigan is the only state to border Lake Huron, while the portion of the lake on the other side of the international border belongs to the province of Ontario.", "The vast majority of Michigan's islands in Lake Huron are centered around Drummond Island in the northernmost portion of the state's lake territory.", "Another large group of islands is the Les Cheneaux Islands archipelago, which itself contains dozens of small islands.", "Many of the lake's islands are very small and uninhabited.As the most popular tourist destination in the state, Mackinac Island is the most well known of Lake Huron's islands.", "Drummond Island is the state's second-largest island (after Isle Royale) and is the most populous of Michigan's islands in Lake Huron, with a population of 1,058 at the 2010 census.", "While Mackinac Island had a population of 492, there are thousands more seasonal workers and tourists during the summer months." ], [ "Lake Michigan", "Lake MichiganMichigan only has islands in Lake Michigan in the northern portion of the lake.", "There are no islands in the southern half of Lake Michigan.", "The largest and most populated of Michigan's islands in Lake Michigan is Beaver Island at and 551 residents.", "Some of the smaller islands surrounding Beaver Island are part of the larger Michigan Islands National Wildlife Refuge.", "Island Municipality County Coordinates Bassett Island Peninsula Township Grand Traverse Beaver Island Peaine / St. James Charlevoix Bellow Island Leelanau Township Leelanau Butlers Island Gladstone Delta Epoufette Island Hendricks Township Mackinac Fisherman Island Norwood Township Charlevoix Garden Island St. James Township Charlevoix Grape Island St. James Township Charlevoix Gravel Island Hudson Township Mackinac Gravelly Island Fairbanks Township Delta Green Island St. Ignace Mackinac Gull Island Fairbanks Township Delta Gull Island St. James Township Charlevoix Hat Island St. James Township Charlevoix High Island St. James Township Charlevoix Hog Island St. James Township Charlevoix Horseshoe Island St. James Township Charlevoix Ile Aux Galets Cross Village Township Emmet Little Gull Island Fairbanks Township Delta Little Hog Island Hudson Township Mackinac Little Island St. James Township Charlevoix Little Summer Island Fairbanks Township Delta Naubinway Island Garfield Township Mackinac North Fox Island Leelanau Township Leelanau North Manitou Island Leland Township Leelanau Pismire Island St. James Township Charlevoix Poverty Island Fairbanks Township Delta Power IslandPeninsula TownshipGrand Traverse Rocky Island Fairbanks Township Delta Round Island Ford River Township Delta Round Island Bay de Noc Township Delta Sand Island Escanaba Delta Shoe Island St. James Township Charlevoix Snake Island Fairbanks Township Delta South Fox Island Leelanau Township Leelanau South Manitou Island Glen Arbor Township Leelanau Squaw Island St. James Township Charlevoix Stroughbury Island Rapid River Township Delta St. Helena Island Moran Township Mackinac St. Martin Island Fairbanks Township Delta St. Vital Island Bay de Noc Township Delta Summer Island Fairbanks Township Delta Temperance Island Bliss Township Emmet Trout Island St.James Township Charlevoix Waugoshance Island Bliss Township Emmet Whiskey Island St. James Township Charlevoix" ], [ "Lake Superior", "Lake SuperiorLake Superior is the largest of the Great Lakes, and the coastline is sparsely populated.", "At , Isle Royale is the largest Michigan island and is the center of Isle Royale National Park, which itself contains over 450 islands.", "The following is a list of islands in Lake Superior that are ''not'' part of Isle Royale National Park.", "For those islands, see the list of islands in Isle Royale National Park.", "Island Municipality County Coordinates Au Train Island Onota Township Alger Garlic Island Powell Township Marquette Grand Island Grand Island Township Alger Granite Island Powell Township Marquette Gull Island Powell Township Marquette Huron Islands Powell Township Marquette Iroquois Island Bay Mills Township Chippewa Larus Island Marquette Township Marquette Lighthouse Island Powell Township Marquette Little Presque Island Marquette Township Marquette Manitou Island Grant Township Keweenaw McIntyre Island Powell Township Marquette Middle Island Marquette Township Marquette Naomikong Island Whitefish Township Chippewa Partridge Island Marquette Township Marquette Picnic Rocks Marquette Marquette Porters Island Grant Township Keweenaw Presque Isle Marquette Marquette Presque Isle Point Rocks Marquette Marquette Ripley Rock Marquette Marquette Tahquamenom Island Whitefish Township Chippewa Traverse Island Houghton Township Houghton Williams Island Grand Island Township Alger Wood Island Grand Island Township Alger" ], [ "Lake St. Clair", "Lake St. ClairLake St. Clair connects Lake Huron and Lake Erie through the St. Clair River in the north and the Detroit River in the south.", "At , it is one of the largest non-Great Lakes in the United States, but it only contains a small number of islands near the mouth of the St. Clair River, where all of the following islands are located.", "The largest of these islands is Harsens Island, and all the islands are in Clay Township in St. Clair County.IslandMunicipalityCounty Coordinates Bruckner Island Clay Township St. Clair Club Island Clay Township St. Clair Dickinson Island Clay Township St. Clair Green Island Clay Township St. Clair Gull Island Clay Township St. Clair Harsens Island Clay Township St. Clair McDonald Island Clay Township St. Clair Middle Island Clay Township St. Clair Muscamoot Ridge Clay Township St. Clair North Island Clay Township St. Clair Russell Island Clay Township St. Clair Sand Island Clay Township St. Clair Strawberry Island Clay Township St. Clair" ], [ "Detroit River", "Detroit RiverThe Detroit River runs for and connects Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie.", "For its entire length, it carries the international border between the United States and Canada.", "Some islands belong to Ontario in Canada and are not included in the list below.", "All islands on the American side belong to Wayne County.", "Portions of the southern portion of the river serve as wildlife refuges as part of the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge.", "The largest and most populous island is Grosse Ile.", "Most of the islands are around and closely connected to Grosse Ile.", "Island Municipality County CoordinatesBelle Isle Detroit Wayne Calf Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Celeron Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Cherry Island Brownstown Township Wayne Edmond Island Gibraltar Wayne Elba Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Elizabeth Park Trenton Wayne Fox Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Grassy Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Grosse Ile Grosse Ile Township Wayne Hall Island Gibraltar Wayne Humbug Island Gibraltar Wayne Hickory Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Horse Island Gibraltar Wayne Main Island Gibraltar Wayne Mamajuda Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Meso Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Mud Island Ecorse Wayne Powder House Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Round Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Stony Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Sturgeon Bar Brownstown Township Wayne Sugar Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Swan Island Grosse Ile Township Wayne Zug Island River Rouge Wayne" ], [ "St. Marys River", "St. Marys RiverThe St. Marys River connects Lake Superior and Lake Huron at the easternmost point of the Upper Peninsula.", "It carries the international border throughout its length, and some of the islands belong to neighboring Ontario.", "The largest of Michigan's islands in the river are Sugar Island and Neebish Island.", "Wider portions of the river are designated as Lake George, Lake Nicolet, and the Munuscong Lake.", "The whole length of the Michigan portion of the river is part of Chippewa County.", "Island Municipality County Coordinates Advance Island Sugar Island Township Chippewa Bass Reef Island Raber Township Chippewa Chicken Islands Soo Township Chippewa Cook Island Sugar Island Township Chippewa Duck Island Sugar Island Township Chippewa Edward Island Raber Township Chippewa Gem Island Sugar Island Township Chippewa Gull Island Raber Township Chippewa Hart Island Soo Township Chippewa Hen Island Soo Township Chippewa Hog Island Sugar Island Township Chippewa Island Number Four Soo Township Chippewa Island Number One Soo Township Chippewa Island Number Three Soo Township Chippewa Island Number Two Soo Township Chippewa Lime Island Raber Township Chippewa Love Island Raber Township Chippewa Moon Island Raber Township Chippewa Munuscong Island Pickford Township Chippewa Neebish Island Soo Township Chippewa Pilot Island Raber Township Chippewa Pine Island Raber Township Chippewa Pipe Island Raber Township Chippewa Rains Island Soo Township Chippewa Rock Island Sugar Island Township Chippewa Round Island Superior Township Chippewa Round Island Raber Township Chippewa Sand Island Soo Township Chippewa Steamboat Island Raber Township Chippewa Sugar Island Sugar Island Township Chippewa Twin Island Raber Township Chippewa Two Tree Island Raber Township Chippewa" ], [ "Inland islands", "Michigan has numerous inland lakes and rivers that also contain their own islands.", "The following also lists the body of water in which these islands are located.", "Five islands below ( and highlighted in green) are actually islands within an island; they are contained within inland lakes in Isle Royale.", "Island Body of water Municipality County Coordinates Apple Island Orchard Lake Orchard Lake Village Oakland Batchelors Island St. Joseph River Buchanan Township Berrien Bellevue Island Lake Orion Orion Township Oakland Birch Island Tippy Dam Pond Norman Township Manistee Birch Isle Lake Richie Houghton Township Keweenaw Bird Island Lake Oakland Independence Township Oakland Blackbird Island Gun Lake Yankee Springs Barry Blain Island Lotus Lake Springfield Township Oakland Blue Gill Island Lobdell Lake Argentine Township Genesee Brush Island Long Lake Long Lake Township Grand Traverse Burnt Island Manistique Lake Portage Township Mackinac Carrollton Bar Saginaw River Carrollton Township Saginaw Case Island Lake Fenton Fenton Township Genesee Cedar Island Orchard Lake Norman Township Manistee Cedar Island Tippy Dam Pond Norman Township Oakland Clark Island Goguac Lake Battle Creek Calhoun Dam Island Tippy Dam Pond Norman Township Manistee Dawsons Island White Lake Highland Township Oakland Debs Island St. Joseph River Buchanan Township Berrien Dermo Island Grand River Grand Haven Ottawa Diamond Island Diamond Lake Cassopolis Cass Dornbos Island Grand River Grand Haven Ottawa Draper Island Lac Vieux Desert Watersmeet Township Gogebic Eagle Island Bald Eagle Lake Brandon Township Oakland Eagle Nest Island Siskiwit Lake Houghton Township Keweenaw Eastmans Island Grand River Grand Haven Ottawa Fitch Island Tippy Dam Pond Norman Township Manistee Florence Island Fife Lake Fife Lake Township Grand Traverse Flynn Island Higgins Lake Gerrish Township Roscommon Foleys Island River Raisin Monroe Monroe Foster Island Manistique Lake Lakefield Township Luce Fordson Island River Rouge Dearborn Wayne Fox Island Long Lake Long Lake Township Grand Traverse Goat Island Center Lake Leoni Township Jackson Government Island Tippy Dam Pond Norman Township Manistee Green Point Saginaw River Saginaw Saginaw Gull Island Manistique Lake Portage Township Mackinac Happy Island Sage Lake Hill Township Ogemaw Harbor Island Grand River Grand Haven Ottawa Harrington Island Portage Lake Stanton Township Houghton Hastings Island Lake Richie Houghton Township Keweenaw Helen Island Fife Lake Fife Lake Township Grand Traverse Holy Island Lake Charlevoix Eveline Township Charlevoix Hubbels Island White Lake Highland Township Oakland Iyopawa Island Coldwater Lake Kinderhook Township Branch Joys Island Tahquamenon River McMillan Township Luce Kauslers Island River Raisin Monroe Monroe Long Island Bass Lake Long Lake Township Grand Traverse Long Island Long Lake Long Lake Township Grand Traverse Loud Island Van Etten Lake Oscoda Township Iosco Maple Island Maple Lake Paw Paw Van Buren Maple Island Center Lake Leoni Township Jackson Marina Island St. Joseph River St. Joseph Berrien Martinique Island Grand River Grand Haven Ottawa Memory Isle Rocky River Three Rivers St. Joseph Merryman Island Rosebush Lake Holmes Township Menominee Middle Ground Island Saginaw River Bay City Bay Middle Island Sage Lake Hill Township Ogemaw Millman Island Huron River Berlin Township Monroe Near Island Lac Vieux Desert Watersmeet Township Gogebic Norton Island South Manistique Lake Newton Township Mackinac Oden Island Crooked Lake Little Traverse Emmet Ojibway Island Saginaw River Saginaw Saginaw Orangeville Island Gun Lake Yankee Springs Barry Pardee Island Lake Chapin Berrien Springs Berrien Park Island Round Lake Charlevoix Charlevoix Park Island Lake Orion Orion Township Oakland Pells Island Douglas Lake Munro Township Cheboygan Picnic Island Long Lake Long Lake Township Grand Traverse Ramsay Island Lake Michigamme Michigamme Township Marquette Reimers Island Duck Lake Watersmeet Township Gogebic Rowe Island Morrow Lake Comstock Township Kalamazoo Ryan Island Siskiwit Lake Houghton Township Keweenaw Scaddens Island Fortune Lake Crystal Falls Iron Sisters Island River Raisin Monroe Monroe Skull Island Saginaw River Bay City Bay South Island Long Lake Long Lake Township Grand Traverse Stage Island Lobdell Lake Argentine Township Genesee Sterling Island River Raisin Monroe Monroe Stony Island Saginaw River Bay City Bay Stony Point Island Stony Point Frenchtown Township Monroe Sundstrum Island Lake Michigamme Michigamme Township Marquette Teakettle Island Siskiwit Lake Houghton Township Keweenaw Troque Island Muskegon River Bridgeton Township Newaygo Victoria Island Lake Orion Orion Township Oakland Vince Island Goguac Lake Battle Creek Calhoun Virgin Island Tippy Dam Pond Dickson Township Manistee Ward Island Goguac Lake Battle Creek Calhoun Windmill Island Lake Macatawa Holland Ottawa Yankee Spring Island Gun Lake Yankee Springs Barry Zerons Island Sage Lake Hill Township Ogemaw ===Grand Lake===Grand LakeGrand Lake is a large lake in Presque Isle County.", "While it is not the largest inland lake in Michigan, it does contain the most inland islands that are officially named.", "At its shortest distance, it is located less than from Lake Huron, but the two are not connected.", "Grand Lake contains 14 islands, of which Grand Island is by far the largest.Island MunicipalityCounty Coordinates Allen Island Krakow Township Presque Isle Applegate Island Krakow Township Presque Isle Bear Island Krakow Township Presque Isle Brown Island Presque Isle Township Presque Isle Burnt Island Presque Isle Township Presque Isle Cedar Island Presque Isle Township Presque Isle Crescent Island Presque Isle Township Presque Isle Grand Island Presque Isle Township Presque Isle Horseshoe Island Presque Isle Township Presque Isle Indian Island Presque Isle Township Presque Isle Macombers Island Krakow / Presque Isle Presque Isle Round Island Presque Isle Township Presque Isle Tanglewood Island Presque Isle Township Presque Isle Three Sisters Island Presque Isle Township Presque Isle" ], [ "See also", "*Geography of Michigan*Great Lakes*Islands of the Great Lakes*Populated islands of the Great Lakes*Islands of the Midwest*List of islands in Isle Royale National Park*List of islands in the Detroit River*List of Michigan islands in Lake Huron*Ferries in Michigan" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Michigan place names* Michigan municipality boundaries" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of governors of Michigan" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''governor of Michigan''', is the head of government of the U.S. state of Michigan as well as the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces.", "The governor has a duty to enforce state laws; the power to either approve or veto appropriation bills passed by the Michigan Legislature; the power to convene the legislature; and the power to grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment.", "The governor is also empowered to reorganize the executive branch of the state government.In the 17th and 18th century, Michigan was part of French and then British holdings, and administered by their colonial governors.", "After becoming part of the United States, areas of what is today Michigan were part of the Northwest Territory, Indiana Territory and Illinois Territory, and administered by territorial governors.", "In 1805, the Michigan Territory was created, and five men served as territorial governors, until Michigan was granted statehood in 1837.Forty-seven individuals have held the position of state governor.", "The first female governor, Jennifer Granholm, served from 2003 to 2011.After Michigan gained statehood, governors held the office for a 2-year term, until the 1963 Michigan Constitution changed the term to 4 years.", "The number of times an individual could hold the office was unlimited until a 1992 constitutional amendment imposed a lifetime term limit of two 4-year governorships.", "The longest-serving governor in Michigan's history was William Milliken, who was promoted from lieutenant governor after Governor George W. Romney resigned to become Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, then was elected to three further successive terms.", "The only governors to serve non-consecutive terms were John S. Barry and Frank Fitzgerald." ], [ "List of governors", "===Territory of Michigan===Michigan Territory was organized on June 30, 1805, from the north half of Indiana Territory.", "It had three governors appointed by the president of the United States, including the longest-serving governor of any territory, Lewis Cass, who served for 18 years.+ Governors of Michigan Territory GovernorTerm in officeAppointed by175px'''William Hull'''–October 29, 1813275px'''Lewis Cass'''–August 1, 1831375px'''George Bryan Porter'''–July 6, 1834—75px'''Stevens T. Mason'''–September 21, 1835—75px'''John S. Horner'''–July 3, 1836===State of Michigan===Michigan was admitted to the Union on January 26, 1837.The original 1835 Constitution of Michigan provided for the election of a governor and a lieutenant governor every 2 years.", "The current constitution of 1963 increased this term to four years.", "There was no term limit on governors until a 1993 constitutional amendment limited governors to two terms.Should the office of governor become vacant, the lieutenant governor becomes governor, followed in order of succession by the secretary of state and the attorney general.", "Prior to the current constitution, the duties of the office would devolve upon the lieutenant governor, without that person actually becoming governor.", "Beginning in 1850, the term begins at noon on January 1 of the year following the election; before, it had no set start date, and terms would last until when their successor was inaugurated, which would be at least the first Monday in January following their election.", "Prior to the 1963 constitution, the governor and lieutenant governor were elected through separate votes, allowing them to be from different parties.", "In 1963, this was changed, so that votes are cast jointly for a governor and lieutenant governor of the same party.+ Governors of the State of MichiganGovernorTerm in officePartyElectionLt.", "Governor175px '''Stevens T. Mason'''–January 7, 1840Democratic1835 1837275px'''William Woodbridge'''–February 24, 1841Whig1839375px'''James Wright Gordon'''–January 3, 1842Whig475px'''John S. Barry'''–January 5, 1846Democratic18411843575px'''Alpheus Felch'''–March 3, 1847Democratic1845675px'''William L. Greenly'''–January 3, 1848Democratic775px'''Epaphroditus Ransom'''–January 7, 1850Democratic1847875px'''John S. Barry'''–January 1, 1852Democratic1849975px'''Robert McClelland'''–March 7, 1853Democratic185118521075px'''Andrew Parsons'''–January 3, 1855Democratic1175px'''Kinsley S. Bingham'''–January 5, 1859Republican185418561275px'''Moses Wisner'''–January 2, 1861Republican18581375px'''Austin Blair'''–January 4, 1865Republican186018621475px'''Henry H. Crapo'''–January 1, 1869Republican186418661575px'''Henry P. Baldwin'''–January 1, 1873Republican186818701675px'''John J. Bagley'''–January 3, 1877Republican187218741775px'''Charles Croswell'''–January 1, 1881Republican187618781875px'''David Jerome'''–January 1, 1883Republican18801975px'''Josiah Begole'''–January 1, 1885Democratic18822075px'''Russell A. Alger'''–January 1, 1887Republican18842175px'''Cyrus G. Luce'''–January 1, 1891Republican188618882275px'''Edwin B. Winans'''–January 1, 1893Democratic18902375px'''John Treadway Rich'''–January 1, 1897Republican189218942475px'''Hazen S. Pingree'''–January 1, 1901Republican189618982575px'''Aaron T. Bliss'''–January 2, 1905Republican190019022675px'''Fred M. Warner'''–January 1, 1911Republican1904190619082775px'''Chase Osborn'''–January 1, 1913Republican19102875px'''Woodbridge N. Ferris'''–January 1, 1917Democratic191219142975px'''Albert Sleeper'''–January 1, 1921Republican191619183075px'''Alex J. Groesbeck'''–January 1, 1927Republican1920192219243175px'''Fred W. Green'''–January 1, 1931Republican192619283275px'''Wilber M. Brucker'''–January 1, 1933Republican19303375px'''William Comstock'''–January 1, 1935Democratic19323475px'''Frank Fitzgerald'''–January 1, 1937Republican19343575px'''Frank Murphy'''–January 1, 1939Democratic19363675px'''Frank Fitzgerald'''–March 16, 1939Republican19383775px'''Luren Dickinson'''–January 1, 1941Republican3875px'''Murray Van Wagoner'''–January 1, 1943Democratic19403975px'''Harry Kelly'''–January 1, 1947Republican194219444075px'''Kim Sigler'''–January 1, 1949Republican19464175px'''G.", "Mennen Williams'''–January 1, 1961Democratic1948195019521954195619584275px'''John Swainson'''–January 1, 1963Democratic19604375px'''George W. Romney'''–January 22, 1969Republican1962196419664475px'''William Milliken'''–January 1, 1983Republican1970197419784575px'''James Blanchard'''–January 1, 1991Democratic198219864675px'''John Engler'''–January 1, 2003Republican1990199419984775px'''Jennifer Granholm'''–January 1, 2011Democratic200220064875px'''Rick Snyder'''–January 1, 2019Republican201020144975px'''Gretchen Whitmer'''–IncumbentDemocratic20182022" ], [ "See also", "*Gubernatorial lines of succession in the United States#Michigan" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "; General* * * ** *** ; Constitutions****; Specific" ], [ "External links", "* Office of the Governor of Michigan" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moses Amyraut" ], [ "Introduction", "Moïse Amyraut'''Moïse Amyraut''', Latin '''Moyses Amyraldus''' (September 1596 – 8 January 1664), in English texts often '''Moses Amyraut''', was a French Huguenot, Reformed theologian and metaphysician.", "He was the architect of Amyraldism, a Calvinist doctrine that made modifications to Calvinist theology regarding the nature of Christ's atonement and covenant theology." ], [ "Life", "Amyraut was born at Bourgueil, in the valley of the Changeon in the province of Anjou.", "His father was a lawyer, and, preparing Moses for the same profession, sent him, on the completion of his study of the humanities at Orléans, to the university of Poitiers.At the university he took the degree of licentiate (BA) of laws.", "On his way home from the university he passed through Saumur, and, having visited the pastor of the Protestant church there, was introduced by him to Philippe de Mornay, governor of the city.", "Struck with young Amyraut's ability and culture, they both urged him to change from law to theology.", "His father advised him to revise his philological and philosophical studies, and read over Calvin's ''Institutions,'' before finally determining a course.", "He did so, and decided for theology.He moved to the Academy of Saumur and studied under John Cameron, who ultimately regarded him as his greatest scholar.", "He had a brilliant course, and was in due time licensed as a minister of the French Protestant Church.", "The contemporary civil wars and excitements hindered his advancement.", "His first church was in Saint-Aignan, in the province of Maine.", "There he remained two years.", "Jean Daillé, who moved to Paris, advised the church at Saumur to secure Amyraut as his successor, praising him \"as above himself.\"", "The university of Saumur at the same time had fixed its eyes on him as professor of theology.", "The great churches of Paris and Rouen also contended for him, and to win him sent their deputies to the provincial synod of Anjou.Amyraut had left the choice to the synod.", "He was appointed to Saumur in 1633, and to the professor's chair along with the pastorate.", "On the occasion of his inauguration he maintained for thesis ''De Sacerdotio Christi''.", "His co-professors were Louis Cappel and Josué de la Place, who also were Cameron's pupils and lifelong friends, who collaborated in the ''Theses Salmurienses'', a collection of theses propounded by candidates in theology prefaced by the inaugural addresses of the three professors.", "Amyraut soon gave to French Protestantism a new direction.In 1631 he published his ''Traité des religions''; and from this year onward he was a foremost man in the church.", "Chosen to represent the provincial synod of Anjou, Touraine and Maine at the 1631 , he was appointed as orator to present to the king ''The Copy of their Complaints and Grievances for the Infractions and Violations of the Edict of Nantes''.Previous deputies had addressed the king on their bent knees, whereas the representatives of the Catholics had been permitted to stand.", "Amyraut consented to be orator only if the assembly authorized him to stand.", "There was intense resistance.", "Cardinal Richelieu himself, preceded by lesser dignitaries, condescended to visit Amyraut privately, to persuade him to kneel; but Amyraut held resolutely to his point and carried it.", "His \"oration\" on this occasion, which was immediately published in the French ''Mercure'', remains a striking landmark in the history of French Protestantism.", "During his absence on this matter the assembly debated \"whether the Lutherans who desired it, might be admitted into communion with the Reformed Churches of France at the Lord's Table.\"", "It was decided in the affirmative previous to his return; but he approved with astonishing eloquence, and thereafter was ever in the front rank in maintaining intercommunion between all churches holding the main doctrines of the Reformation.Pierre Bayle recounts the title-pages of no fewer than thirty-two books of which Amyraut was the author.", "These show that he took part in all the great controversies on predestination and Arminianism which then so agitated and harassed all Europe.", "Substantially he held fast the Calvinism of his preceptor Cameron; but, like Richard Baxter in England, by his breadth and charity he exposed himself to all manner of misconstruction.", "In 1634 he published his ''Traité de la predestination'', in which he tried to mitigate the harsh features of predestination by his ''Universalismus hypotheticus''.", "God, he taught, predestines all men to happiness on condition of their having faith.", "This gave rise to a charge of heresy, of which he was acquitted at the national synod held at Alençon in 1637, and presided over by Benjamin Basnage (1580–1652).", "The charge was brought up again at the national synod of Charenton in 1644, when he was again acquitted.", "A third attack at the synod of Loudun in 1659 met with no better success.", "The university of Saumur became the university of French Protestantism.Amyraut had as many as a hundred students in attendance upon his lectures.", "One of these was William Penn, who would later go on to found the Province of Pennsylvania in America based in part on Amyraut's notions of religious freedom .", "Another historic part filled by Amyraut was in the negotiations originated by Pierre le Gouz de la Berchère (1600–1653), first president of the ''parlement'' of Grenoble, when exiled to Saumur, for a reconciliation and reunion of the Catholics of France with the French Protestants.", "Very large were the concessions made by Richelieu in his personal interviews with Amyraut; but, as with the Worcester House negotiations in England between the Church of England and nonconformists, they inevitably fell through.", "On all sides the statesmanship and eloquence of Amyraut were conceded.", "His ''De l'elevation de la foy et de l'abaissement de la raison en la creance des mysteres de la religion'' (1641) gave him early a high place as a metaphysician.", "Exclusive of his controversial writings, he left behind him a very voluminous series of practical evangelical books, which have long remained the \"fireside\" favourites of the peasantry of French Protestantism.", "Amongst these are ''Estat des fideles apres la mort''; ''Sur l'oraison dominicale''; ''Du merite des oeuvres''; ''Traité de la justification''; and paraphrases of books of the Old and New Testament.", "His closing years were weakened by a severe fall he met with in 1657.He died on 18 January 1664." ], [ "Seventeenth century opponents", "There were a number of theologians who defended Calvinistic orthodoxy against Amyraut and Saumur, including Friedrich Spanheim (1600–1649) and Francis Turretin (1623–1687).", "Ultimately, the Helvetic Consensus was drafted to counteract the theology of Saumur and Amyraldism." ], [ "See also", "* Amyraldism* Richard Baxter" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Edm.", "Saigey, ''Moses Amyraut, sa vie et ses écrits'' (1849)* Alex.", "Schweizer in ''Tüb.", "theol.", "Jahrbb.", "'', 1852, pp.", "41 ff.", "155 ff., Protestant.", "* Central-Dogmen (1854 ff.", "), ii.", "225 ff., and in Herzog-Hauck, ''Realencyklopädie''* Pierre Bayle, s.v.", "; ''Biog.", "Univ.", "'', s.v.", "* John Quick, ''Synodicon in Gallia Reformata'', pp.", "352–357* John Quick (MS).", "''Icones Sacrae Gallicanae: Life of Cameron''*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Murray River" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Murray River''' (in South Australia: '''River Murray''') (Ngarrindjeri: ''Millewa'', Yorta Yorta: ''Dhungala'' (''Tongala'')) is a river in Southeastern Australia.", "It is Australia's longest river at extent.", "Its tributaries include five of the next six longest rivers of Australia (the Murrumbidgee, Darling, Lachlan, Warrego and Paroo Rivers).", "Together with that of the Murray, the catchments of these rivers form the Murray–Darling basin, which covers about one-seventh the area of Australia.", "It is widely considered Australia's most important irrigated region.The Murray rises in the Australian Alps, draining the western side of Australia's highest mountains, then meanders northwest across Australia's inland plains, forming the border between the states of New South Wales and Victoria as it flows into South Australia.", "From an east–west direction it turns south at Morgan for its final , reaching the eastern edge of Lake Alexandrina, which fluctuates in salinity.", "The water then flows through several channels around Hindmarsh Island and Mundoo Island.", "There it is joined by lagoon water from The Coorong to the south-east before emptying into the Great Australian Bight (often referenced on Australian maps as the Southern Ocean) through the Murray Mouth, east of Goolwa South.", "Despite discharging considerable volumes of water at times, particularly before the advent of large-scale river regulation, the waters at the Murray Mouth are almost invariably slow and shallow., the Murray River system received 58 per cent of its natural flow; the figure varies considerably.The border between Victoria and New South Wales (NSW) lies along the top of the southern or left bank ofthe Murray River." ], [ "Geography", "Murray BridgeThe confluence of the Murray River and Murrumbidgee River near the town of Boundary BendThe Murray forms part of the long combined Murray–Darling river system that drains most of the inland of Victoria, New South Wales and the southern part of Queensland.", "The Murray carries only a small fraction of the water of comparably sized rivers in other parts of the world, and with great annual variability of its flow.", "It has dried up completely during extreme droughts on three occasions since official record-keeping began.", "More often, a sandbar formed at the mouth and stopped the flow.The Murray is the border between New South Wales and Victoria – specifically at the top of the bank of the Victorian side of the river.", "In a 1980 judgement, the High Court of Australia ruled on the question as to which state had jurisdiction in the unlawful death of a man who was fishing by the river's edge on the Victorian side of the river.", "This boundary definition can be ambiguous, since the river changes its course over time, and some of the river banks have been modified.For west of the line of longitude 141°E, the border is between Victoria and South Australia, in the middle of the river.", "The discrepancy was caused during the 1840s, when the border was originally surveyed, by an east–west miscalculation of 3.72 kilometres (2.31 miles).", "West of this sector, the Murray is entirely within the state of South Australia.===Major settlements===Major settlements along the course of the river, from its source to the Southern Ocean, and their populations from the 2016 Australian census are as follows.", "Town Population Datasource Albury-Wodonga 89,007 Yarrawonga–Mulwala 9,810 Echuca–Moama 18,526 Swan Hill 10,905 Mildura and Merbein 35,451 Renmark–Paringa 9,475Berri 4,088Loxton 4,568Waikerie 1,632Mannum 1,632 Murray Bridge16,804" ], [ "River life", "The Murray and its tributaries support a variety of river life adapted to its vagaries.", "This includes native fish such as the famous Murray cod, trout cod, golden perch, Macquarie perch, silver perch, eel-tailed catfish, Australian smelt and western carp gudgeon, as well as other aquatic species such as the Murray short-necked turtle, broad-clawed yabbies and the large-clawed ''Macrobrachium'' shrimp, in addition to aquatic species more widely distributed through Southeastern Australia such as common long-necked turtles, common yabbies, the small claw-less ''paratya'' shrimp, water rats and platypus.", "The Murray crayfish, an endangered species, was able to increase its numbers thanks to scientists.", "The Murray also supports fringeing corridors and forests of the river red gum.The health of the Murray has declined significantly since European settlement, particularly through regulation of its flows.", "Extreme droughts between 2000 and 2007 put significant stress on river red gum forests, leading to mounting concern over their long-term survival.", "The Murray has also flooded on occasion.", "The most significant was the flood of 1956: lasting for up to six months, it inundated many towns on its lower reaches in South Australia." ], [ "Ancient history", "===Lake Bungunnia===Between 2.5 and 0.5 million years ago, the Murray terminated in a vast freshwater lake – Lake Bungunnia – formed by earth movements that blocked the river near Swan Reach.", "At its maximum extent, Lake Bungunnia covered , extending to near the Menindee Lakes in the north and to near Boundary Bend in the south.", "The draining of Lake Bungunnia occurred approximately 600,000 years ago.Deep clays deposited by the lake are evident in cliffs around Chowilla in South Australia.", "Considerably higher rainfall would have been required to keep such a lake full; the draining of Lake Bungunnia appears to have marked the end of a wet phase in the history of the Murray–Darling Basin and the onset of widespread arid conditions similar to today.", "A species of ''Neoceratodus'' lungfish existed in Lake Bungunnia; today ''Neoceratodus'' lungfish are only found in several Queensland rivers.=== Cadell Fault and formation of the Barmah red gum forests ===The noted Barmah River red gum forests owe their existence to the Cadell Fault.", "About 25,000 years ago, displacement occurred along this fault, raising its eastern edge, which runs north–south, above the floodplain.", "This created a complex series of events.", "A section of the original Murray River channel immediately behind the fault was rendered abandoned (it exists today as an empty channel known as Green Gully).", "The Goulburn River was dammed by the southern end of the fault to create a natural lake.The Murray River flowed to the north around the Cadell Fault, creating the channel of the Edward River which exists today and through which much of the Murray's waters still flow.", "Then the natural dam on the Goulburn River failed, the lake drained, and the Murray changed its course to the south and started to flow through the smaller Goulburn River channel, creating \"The Barmah Choke\" and \"The Narrows\" (where the river channel is unusually narrow), before entering into the proper Murray River channel again.The primary result of the Cadell Fault – that the west-flowing water of the Murray River strikes the north-south fault and diverts both north and south around the fault in the two main channels (Edward and ancestral Goulburn) in addition to a fan of small streams, and regularly floods a large amount of low-lying country in the area.", "These conditions are perfect for River Red Gums, which rapidly formed forests in the area.", "Thus the displacement of the Cadell Fault 25,000 BP led directly to the formation of the famous Barmah River Red Gum Forests.The Barmah Choke and The Narrows restrict the amount of water that can travel down this part of the Murray.", "In times of flood and high irrigation flows the majority of the water, in addition to flooding the Red Gum forests, actually travels through the Edward River channel.", "The Murray has not had enough flow power to naturally enlarge The Barmah Choke and The Narrows to increase the amount of water they can carry.The Cadell Fault is quite noticeable as a continuous, low, earthen embankment as one drives into Barmah from the west, although to the untrained eye it may appear man-made.The confluence of the Darling and Murray Rivers at Wentworth, New South Wales" ], [ "Murray mouth", "Murray Mouth viewed from Hindmarsh IslandThe Murray Mouth is the point at which the Murray River empties into the sea, and the interaction between its shallow, shifting and variable currents and the open sea can be complex and unpredictable.", "During the peak period of Murray River commerce (roughly 1855 to 1920), it presented a major impediment to the passage of goods and produce between Adelaide and the Murray settlements, and many vessels foundered or were wrecked there.Since the early 2000s, dredging machines have operated at the Murray Mouth for 24 hours a day, moving sand from the channel to maintain a minimal flow from the sea and into the Coorong's lagoon system.", "Without the dredging, the mouth would silt up and close, cutting the supply of fresh sea-water into the Coorong National Park, which would then warm up, stagnate and die." ], [ "Mythology", "Being one of the major river systems on one of the driest continents on Earth, the Murray has significant cultural relevance to Aboriginal Australians.", "According to the people of Lake Alexandrina, the Murray was created by the tracks of the Great Ancestor, Ngurunderi, as he pursued Pondi, the Murray Cod.", "The chase originated in the interior of New South Wales.", "Ngurunderi pursued the fish (who, like many totem animals in Aboriginal myths, is often portrayed as a man) on rafts (or ''lala'') made from red gums and continually launched spears at his target.", "But Pondi was a wily prey and carved a weaving path, carving out the river's various tributaries.", "Ngurunderi was forced to beach his rafts, and often create new ones as he changed from reach to reach of the river.At Kobathatang, Ngurunderi finally got lucky and struck Pondi in the tail with a spear.", "However, the shock to the fish was so great it launched him forward in a straight line to a place called Peindjalang, near Tailem Bend.", "Eager to rectify his failure to catch his prey, the hunter and his two wives (sometimes the escaped sibling wives of Waku and Kanu) hurried on, and took positions high on the cliff on which Tailem Bend now stands.", "They sprung an ambush on Pondi only to fail again.", "Ngurunderi set off in pursuit again but lost his prey as Pondi dived into Lake Alexandrina.", "Ngurunderi and the women settled on the shore, only to suffer bad luck with fishing, being plagued by a water fiend known as Muldjewangk.", "They later moved to a more suitable spot at the site of present-day Ashville.", "The twin summits of Mount Misery are said to be the remnants of his rafts; they are known as ''Lalangengall'' or ''the two watercraft''.This story of a hunter pursuing a Murray cod that carved out the Murray persists in numerous forms in various language groups that inhabit the enormous area spanned by the Murray system.", "The Wotojobaluk people of Victoria tell of Totyerguil from the area now known as Swan Hill, who ran out of spears while chasing Otchtout the cod." ], [ "History", "Roonka Flat, near Blanchetown, was a site of occupation since at least 7000BC.===European exploration===The first Europeans to encounter the river were Hamilton Hume and William Hovell, who crossed the river where Albury now stands in 1824: Hume named it the ''Hume River'' after his father.", "In 1830, Captain Charles Sturt reached the river after travelling down its tributary the Murrumbidgee River and named it the ''Murray River'' in honour of the then British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, Sir George Murray, not realising it was the same river that Hume and Hovell had encountered further upstream.Sturt continued down the remaining length of the Murray to finally reach Lake Alexandrina and the river's mouth.", "The vicinity of the Murray Mouth was explored more thoroughly by Captain Collet Barker in 1831.The first three settlers on the Murray River are known to have been James Collins Hawker (explorer and surveyor) along with Edward John Eyre (explorer and later Governor of Jamaica) plus E.B.", "Scott (onetime superintendent of Yatala Labour Prison).", "Hawker is known to have sold his share in the Bungaree Station, which he founded with his brothers, and relocated alongside the Murray at a site near Moorundie.In 1852, Francis Cadell, in preparation for the launch of his steamer service, explored the river in a canvas boat, travelling downstream from Swan Hill.In 1858, while acting as Minister of Land and Works for New South Wales, Irish nationalist and founder of Young Ireland, Charles Gavan Duffy, founded Carlyle Township on the Murray River, after his close friend, Scottish historian and essayist Thomas Carlyle.", "Included in the township were \"Jane Street,\" named in honour of Carlyle's wife Jane Carlyle and \"Stuart-Mill Street\" in honour of political philosopher John Stuart MillIn 1858, the Government Zoologist, William Blandowski, together with Gerard Krefft, explored the lower reaches of the Murray and Darling rivers, compiling a list of birds and mammals.George \"Chinese\" Morrison, then aged 18, navigated the river by canoe from Wodonga to its mouth, in 65 days, completing the 1,555-mile (2,503 km) journey in January 1881." ], [ "River transport", "PS ''Murray Princess'' is the largest paddlewheeler operating on the Murray River.The PS Melbourne passing through Lock 11 at MilduraShipping cannot enter the Murray from the sea because it does not have an estuary.", "However, in the 19th century the river supported a substantial commercial trade using shallow-draft paddle steamers, the first trips being made by two boats from South Australia on the spring flood of 1853.The ''Lady Augusta'', captained by Francis Cadell, reached Swan Hill while another, ''Mary Ann'', captained by William Randell, reached Moama (near Echuca).", "In 1855 a steamer carrying gold-mining supplies reached Albury but Echuca was the usual turn-around point, though small boats continued to link with up-river ports such as Tocumwal, Wahgunyah and Albury.The arrival of steamboat transport was welcomed by pastoralists who had been suffering from a shortage of transport due to the demands of the gold fields.", "By 1860 a dozen steamers were operating in the high water season along the Murray and its tributaries.", "Once the railway reached Echuca in 1864, the bulk of the woolclip from the Riverina was transported via river to Echuca and then south to Melbourne.The steam paddleship ''Etona'' was launched as a mission steamer, replacing an earlier steam launch, also named ''Etona'', which had been operating on the Murray since 1891.The vessel was based at Murray Bridge, and operated between Goolwa and the Victorian border, stopping at towns such as Mannum, Morgan and Renmark as well as isolated settlements and workcamps.", "The forepart of the vessel was used a chapel fitted with an altar and organ, with a capacity of 20 people.", "There was also a cabin.", "The minister onboard, Rev.", "William Bussell, doubled as captain.", "On 16 August 1898, ''Etona'' arrived at Renmark, where the Bishop of Adelaide, Rev.", "Dr. John Harmer, held services the following Sunday with the assistance of Rev H M Wylie.", "In September of the same year, the service due in Holder on the 18th was suspended due to the vessel grounding on a sandbank.", "During its year of launch, the boiler of ''Etona'' gave way, being replaced at a cost of £87.The Murray was plagued by \"snags\", fallen trees submerged in the water, and considerable efforts were made to clear the river of these threats to shipping by using barges equipped with steam-driven winches.", "In recent times, efforts have been made to restore many of these snags by placing dead gum trees back into the river.", "The primary purpose of this is to provide habitat for fish species whose breeding grounds and shelter were eradicated by the removal of the snags.Author E.J.", "Brady chronicled an eventful journey downriver in a small motor boat from Albury to the coast in 1911 in ''River Rovers.", "'''''A paddle steamer passing another on the Murray at night, about 1880The volume and value of river trade made Echuca Victoria's second port and in the decade from 1874 it underwent considerable expansion.", "By this time up to thirty steamers and a similar number of barges were working the river in season.", "River transport began to decline once the railways touched the Murray at numerous points.", "The unreliable levels made it impossible for boats to compete with the rail and later road transport.", "However, the river still carries pleasure boats along its entire length.Today, most traffic on the river is recreational.", "Small private boats are used for water skiing and fishing.", "Houseboats are common, both commercial for hire and privately owned.", "There are a number of both historic paddle steamers and newer boats offering cruises ranging from half an hour to five days.===River crossings===The Murray River has been a significant barrier to land-based travel and trade.", "Many of the ports for transport of goods along the Murray have also developed as places to cross the river, either by bridge or ferry.", "The first bridge to cross the Murray, which was built in 1869, is in the town of Murray Bridge, formerly called Edwards Crossing.", "To distinguish this bridge from the many others that span the Murray River, this bridge is known as Murray River road bridge, Murray Bridge Tolls applied on South Australian ferries until abolished in November 1961." ], [ "Water storage and irrigation", "A branch of the Murray in its middle reaches, near HowlongSmall-scale pumping plants began drawing water from the Murray in the 1850s and the first high-volume plant was constructed at Mildura in 1887.The introduction of pumping stations along the river promoted an expansion of farming and led ultimately to the development of irrigation areas (including the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area).In 1915, the three Murray states – New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia – signed the River Murray Agreement which proposed the construction of storage reservoirs in the river's headwaters as well as at Lake Victoria near the South Australian border.", "Along the intervening stretch of the river a series of locks and weirs were built.", "These were originally proposed to support navigation even in times of low water, but riverborne transport was already declining due to improved highway and railway systems.The disruption of the river's natural flow, run-off from agriculture, and the introduction of pest species such as the European carp has led to serious environmental damage along the river's length.", "There are widespread concerns that the river will be unusably salty in the medium to long term – a serious problem given that the Murray supplies 40 per cent of the water supply for Adelaide.", "Efforts to alleviate the problems have proceeded but disagreement between various groups has hampered progress.Introduced fish species such as carp, ''gambusia'', weather loach, redfin perch, brown trout, and rainbow trout have also had serious negative effects on native fish.", "The most pernicious are carp, which have contributed to environmental degradation of the Murray and its tributaries by destroying aquatic plants and permanently raising turbidity.", "Carp is the most common species, and can be found in all segments of the river.===Reservoirs===Four large reservoirs were built along the Murray.", "In addition to Lake Victoria (completed late 1920s), these are Lake Hume near Albury-Wodonga (completed 1936), Lake Mulwala at Yarrawonga (completed 1939), and Lake Dartmouth, which is actually on the Mitta Mitta River upstream of Lake Hume (completed 1979).", "The Murray also receives water from the complex dam and pipeline system of the Snowy Mountains Scheme.", "An additional reservoir was proposed in the 1960s at Chowilla Dam, which was to have been built in South Australia and would have flooded land mostly in Victoria and New South Wales.", "It was cancelled in favour of building Dartmouth Dam due to costs and concerns relating to increased salinity.===Barrages===Locations of the barrages at the mouth of the MurrayGoolwa Barrage viewed from the freshwater sideFrom 1935 to 1940 a series of barrages was built near the Murray Mouth to stop seawater entering the lower part of the river during low flow periods.", "They are the Goolwa Barrage, with a length of ; Mundoo Channel Barragel ; Boundary Creek Barragel ; Ewe Island Barrage, ; and Tauwitchere Barrage, .River Red Gums on the lower Murray near Berri, South AustraliaThese dams inverted the patterns of the river's natural flow from the original winter-spring flood and summer-autumn dry to the present low level through winter and higher during summer.", "These changes ensured the availability of water for irrigation and made the Murray Valley Australia's most productive agricultural region, but have seriously disrupted the life cycles of many ecosystems both inside and outside the river, and the irrigation has led to dryland salinity that now threatens the agricultural industries.In 2006, the Government of South Australia released a plan to investigate the construction of controversial Wellington Weir.===Locks===Lock 1 was completed near Blanchetown in 1922.Torrumbarry weir downstream of Echuca began operating in December 1923.Of the several locks that were proposed, only thirteen were completed; Locks 1 to 11 on the stretch downstream of Mildura, Lock 15 at Euston and Lock 26 at Torrumbarry.", "Construction of the remaining weirs purely for navigation purposes was abandoned in 1934.The last lock to be completed was Lock 15, in 1937.Lock 11, just downstream of Mildura, creates a long lock pool that aided irrigation pumping from Mildura and Red Cliffs.Each lock has a navigable passage next to it through the weir, which is opened during periods of high river flow, when there is too much water for the lock.", "The weirs can be completely removed, and the locks completely covered by water during flood conditions.", "Lock 11 is unique in that the lock was built inside a bend of the river, with the weir in the bend itself.", "A channel was dug to the lock, creating an island between it and the weir.", "The weir is also of a different design, being dragged out of the river during high flow, rather than lifted out.+ Name No.", "River distance Elevation Com-pletedBlanchetown 1922Waikerie 1928Overland Corner 1925Bookpurnong 1929Renmark1927Murtho1930Rufus River1934Wangumma1935Kulnine1926Wentworth1929Mildura1927Euston1937Torrumbarry261638 km (1020 mi) 86.05 m (280 ft) 1924Yarrawonga Weirn/a1992 km (1238 mi) 124.9 m (410 ft)1939 Distance is from the Murray Mouth.", "Elevation is above sea level, at full supply level (i.e., maximum capacity).", "nonenone Lock 1 and weir at Blanchetown Lock 5 at Renmark, about 1935 none Lock 11, Mildura" ], [ "See also", "* River Murray International Dark Sky Reserve'''Major tributaries'''* Darling River* Murrumbidgee River* Goulburn River* Mitta Mitta River* Ovens River* Campaspe River* Kiewa River* Lachlan River'''Population centres'''* Albury-Wodonga* Echuca* Swan Hill* Mildura* Renmark* Murray Bridge* Goolwa South" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "**Frankel, David.", "(2017).", "''Between the Murray and the Sea: Aboriginal Archaeology in South-eastern Australia.''", "Sydney: Sydney University Press.", ".", "***'''Online audio and other'''* * Down the River Murray An ABC Radio National 5-part series on the river and its people* Murray Region Tourist Information - VisitNSW" ], [ "External links", "* Murray River™ - Official Murray River travel website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Project Mercury" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Project Mercury''' was the first human spaceflight program of the United States, running from 1958 through 1963.An early highlight of the Space Race, its goal was to put a man into Earth orbit and return him safely, ideally before the Soviet Union.", "Taken over from the US Air Force by the newly created civilian space agency NASA, it conducted 20 uncrewed developmental flights (some using animals), and six successful flights by astronauts.", "The program, which took its name from Roman mythology, cost $ (adjusted for inflation).", "The astronauts were collectively known as the \"Mercury Seven\", and each spacecraft was given a name ending with a \"7\" by its pilot.The Space Race began with the 1957 launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik 1.This came as a shock to the American public, and led to the creation of NASA to expedite existing US space exploration efforts, and place most of them under civilian control.", "After the successful launch of the Explorer 1 satellite in 1958, crewed spaceflight became the next goal.", "The Soviet Union put the first human, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, into a single orbit aboard Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961.Shortly after this, on May 5, the US launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard, on a suborbital flight.", "Soviet Gherman Titov followed with a day-long orbital flight in August 1961.The US reached its orbital goal on February 20, 1962, when John Glenn made three orbits around the Earth.", "When Mercury ended in May 1963, both nations had sent six people into space, but the Soviets led the US in total time spent in space.The Mercury space capsule was produced by McDonnell Aircraft, and carried supplies of water, food and oxygen for about one day in a pressurized cabin.", "Mercury flights were launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, on launch vehicles modified from the Redstone and Atlas D missiles.", "The capsule was fitted with a launch escape rocket to carry it safely away from the launch vehicle in case of a failure.", "The flight was designed to be controlled from the ground via the Manned Space Flight Network, a system of tracking and communications stations; back-up controls were outfitted on board.", "Small retrorockets were used to bring the spacecraft out of its orbit, after which an ablative heat shield protected it from the heat of atmospheric reentry.", "Finally, a parachute slowed the craft for a water landing.", "Both astronaut and capsule were recovered by helicopters deployed from a US Navy ship.The Mercury project gained popularity, and its missions were followed by millions on radio and TV around the world.", "Its success laid the groundwork for Project Gemini, which carried two astronauts in each capsule and perfected space docking maneuvers essential for crewed lunar landings in the subsequent Apollo program announced a few weeks after the first crewed Mercury flight." ], [ "Creation", "Project Mercury was officially approved on October 7, 1958, and publicly announced on December 17.Originally called Project Astronaut, President Dwight Eisenhower felt that gave too much attention to the pilot.", "Instead, the name ''Mercury'' was chosen from classical mythology, which had already lent names to rockets like the Greek ''Atlas'' and Roman ''Jupiter'' for the SM-65 and PGM-19 missiles.", "It absorbed military projects with the same aim, such as the Air Force Man in Space Soonest.=== Background ===Following the end of World War II, a nuclear arms race evolved between the US and the Soviet Union (USSR).", "Since the USSR did not have bases in the western hemisphere from which to deploy bomber planes, Joseph Stalin decided to develop intercontinental ballistic missiles, which drove a missile race.", "The rocket technology in turn enabled both sides to develop Earth-orbiting satellites for communications, and gathering weather data and intelligence.", "Americans were shocked when the Soviet Union placed the first satellite into orbit in October 1957, leading to a growing fear that the US was falling into a \"missile gap\".", "A month later, the Soviets launched Sputnik 2, carrying a dog into orbit.", "Though the animal was not recovered alive, it was obvious their goal was human spaceflight.", "Unable to disclose details of military space projects, President Eisenhower ordered the creation of a civilian space agency in charge of civilian and scientific space exploration.", "Based on the federal research agency National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), it was named the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).", "It achieved its first goal, an American satellite in space, in 1958.The next goal was to put a man there.The limit of space (also known as the Kármán line) was defined at the time as a minimum altitude of , and the only way to reach it was by using rocket-powered boosters.", "This created risks for the pilot, including explosion, high g-forces and vibrations during lift off through a dense atmosphere, and temperatures of more than from air compression during reentry.In space, pilots would require pressurized chambers or space suits to supply fresh air.", "While there, they would experience weightlessness, which could potentially cause disorientation.", "Further potential risks included radiation and micrometeoroid strikes, both of which would normally be absorbed in the atmosphere.", "All seemed possible to overcome: experience from satellites suggested micrometeoroid risk was negligible, and experiments in the early 1950s with simulated weightlessness, high g-forces on humans, and sending animals to the limit of space, all suggested potential problems could be overcome by known technologies.", "Finally, reentry was studied using the nuclear warheads of ballistic missiles, which demonstrated a blunt, forward-facing heat shield could solve the problem of heating.===Organization===T.", "Keith Glennan had been appointed the first Administrator of NASA, with Hugh L. Dryden (last Director of NACA) as his Deputy, at the creation of the agency on October 1, 1958.Glennan would report to the president through the National Aeronautics and Space Council.", "The group responsible for Project Mercury was NASA's Space Task Group, and the goals of the program were to orbit a crewed spacecraft around Earth, investigate the pilot's ability to function in space, and to recover both pilot and spacecraft safely.", "Existing technology and off-the-shelf equipment would be used wherever practical, the simplest and most reliable approach to system design would be followed, and an existing launch vehicle would be employed, together with a progressive test program.", "Spacecraft requirements included: a launch escape system to separate the spacecraft and its occupant from the launch vehicle in case of impending failure; attitude control for orientation of the spacecraft in orbit; a retrorocket system to bring the spacecraft out of orbit; drag braking blunt body for atmospheric reentry; and landing on water.", "To communicate with the spacecraft during an orbital mission, an extensive communications network had to be built.", "In keeping with his desire to keep from giving the US space program an overtly military flavor, President Eisenhower at first hesitated to give the project top national priority (DX rating under the Defense Production Act), which meant that Mercury had to wait in line behind military projects for materials; however, this rating was granted in May 1959, a little more than a year and a half after Sputnik was launched.===Contractors and facilities===Twelve companies bid to build the Mercury spacecraft on a $20 million ($ adjusted for inflation) contract.", "In January 1959, McDonnell Aircraft Corporation was chosen to be prime contractor for the spacecraft.", "Two weeks earlier, North American Aviation, based in Los Angeles, was awarded a contract for Little Joe, a small rocket to be used for development of the launch escape system.", "The World Wide Tracking Network for communication between the ground and spacecraft during a flight was awarded to the Western Electric Company.", "Redstone rockets for suborbital launches were manufactured in Huntsville, Alabama, by the Chrysler Corporation and Atlas rockets by Convair in San Diego, California.", "For crewed launches, the Atlantic Missile Range at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida was made available by the USAF.", "This was also the site of the Mercury Control Center while the computing center of the communication network was in Goddard Space Center, Maryland.", "Little Joe rockets were launched from Wallops Island, Virginia.", "Astronaut training took place at Langley Research Center in Virginia, Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio, and Naval Air Development Center Johnsville in Warminster, PA. Langley wind tunnels together with a rocket sled track at Holloman Air Force Base at Alamogordo, New Mexico were used for aerodynamic studies.", "Both Navy and Air Force aircraft were made available for the development of the spacecraft's landing system, and Navy ships and Navy and Marine Corps helicopters were made available for recovery.", "South of Cape Canaveral the town of Cocoa Beach boomed.", "From here, 75,000 people watched the first American orbital flight being launched in 1962.File:Wallops Island - GPN-2000-001888.jpg|Wallops Island test facility, 1961File:Mercury control center 4june1963.jpg|Mercury Control Center, Cape Canaveral, 1963File:Project-Mercury-facility-map.png|Location of production and operational facilities of Project Mercury" ], [ "Spacecraft", "The Mercury spacecraft's principal designer was Maxime Faget, who started research for human spaceflight during the time of the NACA.", "It was long and wide; with the launch escape system added, the overall length was .", "With of habitable volume, the capsule was just large enough for a single crew member.", "Inside were 120 controls: 55 electrical switches, 30 fuses and 35 mechanical levers.", "The heaviest spacecraft, Mercury-Atlas 9, weighed fully loaded.", "Its outer skin was made of René 41, a nickel alloy able to withstand high temperatures.The spacecraft was cone shaped, with a neck at the narrow end.", "It had a convex base, which carried a heat shield (Item '''2''' in the diagram below) consisting of an aluminum honeycomb covered with multiple layers of fiberglass.", "Strapped to it was a retropack ('''1''') consisting of three rockets deployed to brake the spacecraft during reentry.", "Between these were three minor rockets for separating the spacecraft from the launch vehicle at orbital insertion.", "The straps that held the package could be severed when it was no longer needed.", "Next to the heat shield was the pressurized crew compartment ('''3''').", "Inside, an astronaut would be strapped to a form-fitting seat with instruments in front of him and with his back to the heat shield.", "Underneath the seat was the environmental control system supplying oxygen and heat, scrubbing the air of CO2, vapor and odors, and (on orbital flights) collecting urine.", "The recovery compartment ('''4''') at the narrow end of the spacecraft contained three parachutes: a drogue to stabilize free fall and two main chutes, a primary and reserve.", "Between the heat shield and inner wall of the crew compartment was a landing skirt, deployed by letting down the heat shield before landing.", "On top of the recovery compartment was the antenna section ('''5''') containing both antennas for communication and scanners for guiding spacecraft orientation.", "Attached was a flap used to ensure the spacecraft was faced heat shield first during reentry.", "A launch escape system ('''6''') was mounted to the narrow end of the spacecraft containing three small solid-fueled rockets which could be fired briefly in a launch failure to separate the capsule safely from its booster.", "It would deploy the capsule's parachute for a landing nearby at sea.", "(See also Mission profile for details.", ")The Mercury spacecraft did not have an on-board computer, instead relying on all computation for reentry to be calculated by computers on the ground, with their results (retrofire times and firing attitude) then transmitted to the spacecraft by radio while in flight.", "All computer systems used in the Mercury space program were housed in NASA facilities on Earth.", "(See Ground control for details.)Mercury-spacecraft-color.png|1.Retropack.", "2.Heatshield.", "3.Crew compartment.", "4.Recovery compartment.", "5.Antenna section.", "6.Launch escape system.McDonnellMercuryCapsule1.jpg|Retropack: Retrorockets with red posigrade rocketsLanding-skirt.jpg|Landing skirt (or bag) deployment: skirt is inflated; on impact the air is pressed out (like an airbag)===Pilot accommodations===John Glenn wearing his Mercury space suitThe astronaut lay in a sitting position with his back to the heat shield, which was found to be the position that best enabled a human to withstand the high g-forces of launch and reentry.", "A fiberglass seat was custom-molded from each astronaut's space-suited body for maximum support.", "Near his left hand was a manual abort handle to activate the launch escape system if necessary prior to or during liftoff, in case the automatic trigger failed.To supplement the onboard environmental control system, he wore a pressure suit with its own oxygen supply, which would also cool him.", "A cabin atmosphere of pure oxygen at a low pressure of (equivalent to an altitude of ) was chosen, rather than one with the same composition as air (nitrogen/oxygen) at sea level.", "This was easier to control, avoided the risk of decompression sickness (\"the bends\"), and also saved on spacecraft weight.", "Fires (which never occurred during the course of Project Mercury) would have to be extinguished by emptying the cabin of oxygen.", "In such case, or failure of the cabin pressure for any reason, the astronaut could make an emergency return to Earth, relying on his suit for survival.", "The astronauts normally flew with their visor up, which meant that the suit was not inflated.", "With the visor down and the suit inflated, the astronaut could only reach the side and bottom panels, where vital buttons and handles were placed.The astronaut also wore electrodes on his chest to record his heart rhythm, a cuff that could take his blood pressure, and a rectal thermometer to record his temperature (this was replaced by an oral thermometer on the last flight).", "Data from these was sent to the ground during the flight.", "The astronaut normally drank water and ate food pellets.Despite the lessons learnt from the U2 program, which also utilized a pressure suit, initially no urine collection device was included for the Mercury astronauts.", "An inquiry on the subject was made in February 1961 by a student, but NASA responded by stating that \"the first space man is not expected to have 'to go\".", "The expected short flight times meant that this was overlooked, although after Alan Shepard had a launch delay of four hours, he was forced to urinate in his suit, short-circuiting some of the electrodes monitoring his vital signs.", "Gus Grissom wore two rubber pants on the second Mercury flight as a crude workaround.", "It would take until the third flight in February 1962 before a dedicated urine collection device was installed.Once in orbit, the spacecraft could be rotated in yaw, pitch, and roll: along its longitudinal axis (roll), left to right from the astronaut's point of view (yaw), and up or down (pitch).", "Movement was created by rocket-propelled thrusters which used hydrogen peroxide as a fuel.", "For orientation, the pilot could look through the window in front of him or he could look at a screen connected to a periscope with a camera which could be turned 360°.The Mercury astronauts had taken part in the development of their spacecraft, and insisted that manual control, and a window, be elements of its design.", "As a result, spacecraft movement and other functions could be controlled three ways: remotely from the ground when passing over a ground station, automatically guided by onboard instruments, or manually by the astronaut, who could replace or override the two other methods.", "Experience validated the astronauts' insistence on manual controls.", "Without them, Gordon Cooper's manual reentry during the last flight would not have been possible.", ";Spacecraft cutawayMercury Spacecraft.png|Interior of spacecraftMercury-spacecraft-control.png|The three axes of rotation for the spacecraft: yaw, pitch and rollMercury-spacecraft-temperature-profile.png|Temperature profile for spacecraft in Fahrenheit;Control panels and handleControl panels mercury atlas 6.png|The control panels of ''Friendship 7''.", "The panels changed between flights, among others the periscope screen that dominates the center of these panels was dropped for the final flight together with the periscope itself.Three-axis hand controller mercury project.jpg|3-axis handle for attitude control===Development and production===Spacecraft production in clean room at McDonnell Aircraft, St. Louis, 1960The Mercury spacecraft design was modified three times by NASA between 1958 and 1959.After bidding by potential contractors had been completed, NASA selected the design submitted as \"C\" in November 1958.After it failed a test flight in July 1959, a final configuration, \"D\", emerged.", "The heat shield shape had been developed earlier in the 1950s through experiments with ballistic missiles, which had shown a blunt profile would create a shock wave that would lead most of the heat around the spacecraft.", "To further protect against heat, either a heat sink, or an ablative material, could be added to the shield.", "The heat sink would remove heat by the flow of the air inside the shock wave, whereas the ablative heat shield would remove heat by a controlled evaporation of the ablative material.", "After uncrewed tests, the latter was chosen for crewed flights.", "Apart from the capsule design, a rocket plane similar to the existing X-15 was considered.", "This approach was still too far from being able to make a spaceflight, and was consequently dropped.", "The heat shield and the stability of the spacecraft were tested in wind tunnels, and later in flight.", "The launch escape system was developed through uncrewed flights.", "During a period of problems with development of the landing parachutes, alternative landing systems such as the Rogallo glider wing were considered, but ultimately scrapped.The spacecraft were produced at McDonnell Aircraft, St. Louis, Missouri, in clean rooms and tested in vacuum chambers at the McDonnell plant.", "The spacecraft had close to 600 subcontractors, such as Garrett AiResearch which built the spacecraft's environmental control system.", "Final quality control and preparations of the spacecraft were made at Hangar S at Cape Canaveral.", "NASA ordered 20 production spacecraft, numbered 1 through 20.Five of the 20, Nos.", "10, 12, 15, 17, and 19, were not flown.", "Spacecraft No.", "3 and No.", "4 were destroyed during uncrewed test flights.", "Spacecraft No.", "11 sank and was recovered from the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean after 38 years.", "Some spacecraft were modified after initial production (refurbished after launch abort, modified for longer missions, etc.).", "A number of Mercury boilerplate spacecraft (made from non-flight materials or lacking production spacecraft systems) were also made by NASA and McDonnell.", "They were designed and used to test spacecraft recovery systems and the escape tower.", "McDonnell also built the spacecraft simulators used by the astronauts during training, and adopted the motto \"First Free Man in Space\".Heatshield-test3.jpg|Shadowgraph of the reentry shock wave simulated in a wind tunnel, 1957Mercury-design.png|Evolution of capsule design, 1958–59Mercury Space Capsule-wind-tunnel.jpg|Experiment with boilerplate spacecraft, 1959Mercury-project-earth-landing-system-test.png|Drop of boilerplate spacecraft in training of landing and recovery.", "56 such qualification tests were made together with tests of individual steps of the system." ], [ "Launch vehicles", "Launch vehicles: 1.Mercury-Atlas (orbital flights).", "2.Mercury-Redstone (suborbital flights).", "3.Little Joe (uncrewed tests)===Launch escape system testing===A launch vehicle called Little Joe was used for uncrewed tests of the launch escape system, using a Mercury capsule with an escape tower mounted on it.", "Its main purpose was to test the system at max q, when aerodynamic forces against the spacecraft peaked, making separation of the launch vehicle and spacecraft most difficult.", "It was also the point at which the astronaut was subjected to the heaviest vibrations.", "The Little Joe rocket used solid-fuel propellant and was originally designed in 1958 by NACA for suborbital crewed flights, but was redesigned for Project Mercury to simulate an Atlas-D launch.", "It was produced by North American Aviation.", "It was not able to change direction; instead its flight depended on the angle from which it was launched.", "Its maximum altitude was fully loaded.", "A Scout launch vehicle was used for a single flight intended to evaluate the tracking network; however, it failed and was destroyed from the ground shortly after launch.===Suborbital flight===The Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle was an (with capsule and escape system) single-stage launch vehicle used for suborbital (ballistic) flights.", "It had a liquid-fueled engine that burned alcohol and liquid oxygen producing about of thrust, which was not enough for orbital missions.", "It was a descendant of the German V-2, and developed for the U.S. Army during the early 1950s.", "It was modified for Project Mercury by removing the warhead and adding a collar for supporting the spacecraft together with material for damping vibrations during launch.", "Its rocket motor was produced by North American Aviation and its direction could be altered during flight by its fins.", "They worked in two ways: by directing the air around them, or by directing the thrust by their inner parts (or both at the same time).", "Both the Atlas-D and Redstone launch vehicles contained an automatic abort sensing system which allowed them to abort a launch by firing the launch escape system if something went wrong.", "The Jupiter rocket, also developed by Von Braun's team at the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, was considered as well for intermediate Mercury suborbital flights at a higher speed and altitude than Redstone, but this plan was dropped when it turned out that man-rating Jupiter for the Mercury program would actually cost more than flying an Atlas due to economics of scale.", "Jupiter's only use other than as a missile system was for the short-lived Juno II launch vehicle, and keeping a full staff of technical personnel around solely to fly a few Mercury capsules would result in excessively high costs.===Orbital flight===Orbital missions required use of the Atlas LV-3B, a man-rated version of the Atlas D which was originally developed as the United States' first operational intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) by Convair for the Air Force during the mid-1950s.", "The Atlas was a \"one-and-one-half-stage\" rocket fueled by kerosene and liquid oxygen (LOX).", "The rocket by itself stood high; total height of the Atlas-Mercury space vehicle at launch was .The Atlas first stage was a booster skirt with two engines burning liquid fuel.", "This, together with the larger sustainer second stage, gave it sufficient power to launch a Mercury spacecraft into orbit.", "Both stages fired from lift-off with the thrust from the second stage sustainer engine passing through an opening in the first stage.", "After separation from the first stage, the sustainer stage continued alone.", "The sustainer also steered the rocket by thrusters guided by gyroscopes.", "Smaller vernier rockets were added on its sides for precise control of maneuvers.===Gallery===Little Joe 5B capsule mating.jpg|Little Joe assembling at Wallops IslandMercury-Redstone 4 booster erectionWB.jpg|Erection of Redstone at Launch Complex 5Unloading Atlas Launch Vehicle - GPN-2003-00041.jpg|Unloading Atlas at Cape CanaveralLaunch Complex 14-MA-9.jpg|Atlas - with spacecraft mounted - on launch pad at Launch Complex 14" ], [ "Astronauts", "Grissom, Shepard, Carpenter, Schirra, Slayton, Glenn and Cooper, 1962NASA announced the following seven astronauts – known as the Mercury Seven – on April 9, 1959: Name Launch Rank Unit Born Died M. Scott Carpenter 1962/5/24 Lieutenant USN 1925 2013L.", "Gordon Cooper 1963/5/15 Captain USAF 1927 2004John H. Glenn, Jr. 1962/2/20 Major USMC 1921 2016Virgil I. Grissom 1961/7/21 Captain USAF 1926 1967Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 1962/10/3 Lt Commander USN 1923 2007Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 1961/5/5 Lt Commander USN 1923 1998Donald K. Slayton Major USAF 1924 1993Alan Shepard became the first American in space by making a suborbital flight on May 5, 1961.Mercury-Redstone 3, Shepard's 15 minute and 28 second flight of the ''Freedom 7'' capsule demonstrated the ability to withstand the high g-forces of launch and atmospheric re-entry.", "Shepard later went on to fly in the Apollo program and became the only Mercury astronaut to walk on the Moon on Apollo 14.Gus Grissom became the second American in space on Mercury-Redstone 4 on July 21, 1961.After the splashdown of ''Liberty Bell 7'', the side hatch opened and caused the capsule to sink although Grissom was able to be safely recovered.", "His flight also gave NASA the confidence to move on to orbital flights.", "Grissom went on to participate in the Gemini and Apollo programs, but died in January 1967 during a pre-launch test for Apollo 1.John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth on Mercury-Atlas 6 February 20, 1962.During the flight, the spacecraft ''Friendship 7'' experienced issues with its automatic control system but Glenn was able to manually control the spacecraft's attitude.", "He quit NASA in 1964, when he came to the conclusion that he likely would not be selected for any Apollo missions, and was later elected to the US Senate, serving from 1974 to 1999.During his tenure, he returned to space in 1998 as a Payload Specialist aboard STS-95.Scott Carpenter was the second astronaut in orbit and flew on Mercury-Atlas 7 on May 24, 1962.The spaceflight was essentially a repeat of Mercury-Atlas 6, but a targeting error during re-entry took ''Aurora 7'' 250 miles (400 km) off-course, delaying recovery.", "Afterwards, he joined the Navy's \"Man in the Sea\" program and is the only American to be both an astronaut and an aquanaut.", "Carpenter's Mercury flight was his only trip into space.Wally Schirra flew aboard ''Sigma 7'' on Mercury-Atlas 8 on October 3, 1962.The mission's main goal was to show development of environmental controls or life-support systems that would allow for safety in space, thus being a flight mainly focused on technical evaluation, rather than scientific experimentation.", "The mission lasted 9 hours and 13 minutes, setting a new U.S. flight duration record.", "In December 1965, Schirra flew on Gemini 6A, achieving the first ever space rendezvous with sister spacecraft Gemini 7.Three years later, he commanded the first crewed Apollo mission, Apollo 7, becoming the first astronaut to fly three times and the only person to fly in the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs.Gordon Cooper made the last flight of Project Mercury with Mercury-Atlas 9 on May 15, 1963.His flight onboard ''Faith 7'' set another U.S. endurance record with a 34-hour and 19 minute flight duration, and 22 completed orbits.", "This mission marks the last time an American was launched alone to conduct an entirely solo orbital mission.", "Cooper later went on to participate in Project Gemini where he once again beat the endurance record during Gemini 5.Deke Slayton was grounded in 1962 due to a heart condition, but remained with NASA and was appointed senior manager of the Astronaut Office and later additionally assistant director of Flight Crew Operations at the beginning of Project Gemini.", "On March 13, 1972, after doctors confirmed he no longer had a coronary condition, Slayton returned to flight status and the next year was assigned to the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, which successfully flew in 1975 with Slayton as the docking module pilot.", "After the ASTP, he managed the Space Shuttle Program's Approach and Landing Tests (ALT) and Orbital Flight Tests (OFT) before retiring from NASA in 1982.One of the astronauts' tasks was publicity; they gave interviews to the press and visited project manufacturing facilities to speak with those who worked on Project Mercury.", "The press was especially fond of John Glenn, who was considered the best speaker of the seven.", "They sold their personal stories to ''Life'' magazine which portrayed them as 'patriotic, God-fearing family men.'", "''Life'' was also allowed to be at home with the families while the astronauts were in space.", "During the project, Grissom, Carpenter, Cooper, Schirra and Slayton stayed with their families at or near Langley Air Force Base; Glenn lived at the base and visited his family in Washington DC on weekends.", "Shepard lived with his family at Naval Air Station Oceana in Virginia.Other than Grissom, who was killed in the 1967 Apollo 1 fire, the other six survived past retirement and died between 1993 and 2016.AstronautAssignmentsChart-Mercury7.PNG|Mercury 7 astronaut assignments.", "Schirra had the most flights with three; Glenn, though being the first to leave NASA, had the last with a Space Shuttle mission in 1998.Shepard was the only one to walk on the Moon.===Selection and training===Prior to Project Mercury, there was no protocol for selecting astronauts, so NASA would set a far-reaching precedent with both their selection process and initial choices for astronauts.", "At the end of 1958, various ideas for the selection pool were discussed privately within the national government and the civilian space program, and also among the public at large.", "Initially, there was the idea to issue a widespread public call to volunteers.", "Thrill-seekers such as rock climbers and acrobats would have been allowed to apply, but this idea was quickly shot down by NASA officials who understood that an undertaking such as space flight required individuals with professional training and education in flight engineering.", "By late 1958, NASA officials decided to move forward with test pilots being the heart of their selection pool.", "On President Eisenhower's insistence, the group was further narrowed down to active duty military test pilots, which set the number of candidates at 508.These candidates were USN or USMC naval aviation pilots (NAPs), or USAF pilots of Senior or Command rating.", "These aviators had long military records, which would give NASA officials more background information on which to base their decisions.", "Furthermore, these aviators were skilled in flying the most advanced aircraft to date, giving them the best qualifications for the new position of astronaut.", "During this time, women were banned from flying in the military and so could not successfully qualify as test pilots.", "This meant that no female candidates could earn consideration for the title of astronaut.", "Civilian NASA X-15 pilot Neil Armstrong was also disqualified, though he had been selected by the US Air Force in 1958 for its Man in Space Soonest program, which was replaced by Mercury.", "Although Armstrong had been a combat-experienced NAP during the Korean War, he left active duty in 1952.Armstrong became NASA's first civilian astronaut in 1962 when he was selected for NASA's second group, and became the first man on the Moon in 1969.It was further stipulated that candidates should be between 25 and 40 years old, no taller than , and hold a college degree in a STEM subject.", "The college degree requirement excluded the USAF's X-1 pilot, then-Lt Col (later Brig Gen) Chuck Yeager, the first person to exceed the speed of sound.", "He later became a critic of the project, ridiculing the civilian space program, labeling astronauts as \"spam in a can.\"", "John Glenn did not have a college degree either, but used influential friends to make the selection committee accept him.", "USAF Capt.", "(later Col.) Joseph Kittinger, a USAF fighter pilot and stratosphere balloonist, met all the requirements but preferred to stay in his contemporary project.", "Other potential candidates declined because they did not believe that human spaceflight had a future beyond Project Mercury.", "From the original 508, 110 candidates were selected for an interview, and from the interviews, 32 were selected for further physical and mental testing.", "Their health, vision, and hearing were examined, together with their tolerance to noise, vibrations, g-forces, personal isolation, and heat.", "In a special chamber, they were tested to see if they could perform their tasks under confusing conditions.", "The candidates had to answer more than 500 questions about themselves and describe what they saw in different images.", "Navy Lt (later Capt) Jim Lovell, who was later an astronaut in the Gemini and Apollo programs, did not pass the physical tests.", "After these tests it was intended to narrow the group down to six astronauts, but in the end it was decided to keep seven.The astronauts went through a training program covering some of the same exercises that were used in their selection.", "They simulated the g-force profiles of launch and reentry in a centrifuge at the Naval Air Development Center, and were taught special breathing techniques necessary when subjected to more than 6 g. Weightlessness training took place in aircraft, first on the rear seat of a two-seater fighter and later inside converted and padded cargo aircraft.", "They practiced gaining control of a spinning spacecraft in a machine at the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory called the Multi-Axis Spin-Test Inertia Facility (MASTIF), by using an attitude controller handle simulating the one in the spacecraft.", "A further measure for finding the right attitude in orbit was star and Earth recognition training in planetaria and simulators.", "Communication and flight procedures were practiced in flight simulators, first together with a single person assisting them and later with the Mission Control Center.", "Recovery was practiced in pools at Langley, and later at sea with frogmen and helicopter crews.Astronaut Walter M. Schirra Prepares to Test Gravitational Stress.jpg|G-force training, Johnsville, 1960Mercury Astronauts in Weightless Flight on C-131 Aircraft - GPN-2002-000039.jpg|Weightlessness simulation in a C-131Project Mercury AWT Gimbaling Rig close.jpg|MASTIF at Lewis Research CenterShepard in trainer before launch.jpg|Flight trainer at Cape CanaveralB60 285b.jpg|Egress training at Langley" ], [ "Mission profile", "===Suborbital missions===Profile.", "See timetable for explanation.", "Dashed line: region of weightlessness.A Redstone rocket was used to boost the capsule for 2 minutes and 30 seconds to an altitude of ; the capsule continued ascending on a ballistic curve after booster separation.", "The launch escape system was jettisoned at the same time.", "At the top of the curve, the spacecraft's retrorockets were fired for testing purposes; they were not necessary for reentry because orbital speed had not been attained.", "The spacecraft landed in the Atlantic Ocean.", "The suborbital mission took about 15 minutes, had an apogee altitude of , and a downrange distance of .", "From the time of booster-spacecraft separation until reentry where air started to slow down the spacecraft, the pilot would experience weightlessness as shown on the image.", "The recovery procedure would be the same as an orbital mission.AS Timetable (mm:ss)0:00 Launch 2:22 Launch vehicle cut-off and tower separation 2:32 Spacecraft separation 2:37 Turnaround 5:14 Retrofire 6:14 Retropack jettisoned 7:48 Reentry 9:38 Drogue deployed 10:15 Main chute deployed 15:22 Landing===Orbital missions===Launch Complex 14 just before launch (service tower rolled aside).", "Preparations for launch were made in the blockhouse.Preparations for a mission started a month in advance with the selection of the primary and back-up astronaut; they would practice together for the mission.", "For three days prior to launch, the astronaut went through a special diet to minimize his need for defecating during the flight.", "On the morning of the trip he typically ate a steak breakfast.", "After having sensors applied to his body and being dressed in the pressure suit, he started breathing pure oxygen to prepare him for the atmosphere of the spacecraft.", "He arrived at the launch pad, took the elevator up the launch tower and entered the spacecraft two hours before launch.", "Once the astronaut was secured inside, the hatch was bolted, the launch area evacuated and the mobile tower rolled back.", "After this, the launch vehicle was filled with liquid oxygen.", "The entire procedure of preparing for launch and launching the spacecraft followed a time table called the countdown.", "It started a day in advance with a pre-count, in which all systems of the launch vehicle and spacecraft were checked.", "After that followed a 15-hour hold, during which pyrotechnics were installed.", "Then came the main countdown which for orbital flights started 6½ hours before launch (T – 390 min), counted backwards to launch (T = 0) and then forward until orbital insertion (T + 5 min).Launch and reentry profiles: A-C: launch; D: orbital insertion; E-K: reentry and landingOn an orbital mission, the Atlas' rocket engines were ignited four seconds before lift-off.", "The launch vehicle was held to the ground by clamps and then released when sufficient thrust was built up at lift-off ('''A''').", "After 30 seconds of flight, the point of maximum dynamic pressure against the vehicle was reached, at which the astronaut felt heavy vibrations.", "After 2 minutes and 10 seconds, the two outboard booster engines shut down and were released with the aft skirt, leaving the center sustainer engine running ('''B''').", "At this point, the launch escape system was no longer needed, and was separated from the spacecraft by its jettison rocket ('''C''').", "The space vehicle moved gradually to a horizontal attitude until, at an altitude of , the sustainer engine shut down and the spacecraft was inserted into orbit ('''D''').", "This happened after 5 minutes and 10 seconds in a direction pointing east, whereby the spacecraft would gain speed from the rotation of the Earth.", "Here the spacecraft fired the three posigrade rockets for a second to separate it from the launch vehicle.", "Just before orbital insertion and sustainer engine cutoff, g-loads peaked at 8 g (6 g for a suborbital flight).", "In orbit, the spacecraft automatically turned 180°, pointed the retropackage forward and its nose 14.5° downward and kept this attitude for the rest of the orbital phase to facilitate communication with the ground.Once in orbit, it was not possible for the spacecraft to change its trajectory except by initiating reentry.", "Each orbit would typically take 88 minutes to complete.", "The lowest point of the orbit, called perigee, was at about altitude, and the highest point, called apogee, was about altitude.", "When leaving orbit ('''E'''), the angle of retrofire was 34° downward from the flight path angle.", "Retrorockets fired for 10 seconds each ('''F''') in a sequence where one started 5 seconds after the other.", "During reentry ('''G'''), the astronaut would experience about 8 g (11–12 g on a suborbital mission).", "The temperature around the heat shield rose to and at the same time, there was a two-minute radio blackout due to ionization of the air around the spacecraft.After reentry, a small, drogue parachute ('''H''') was deployed at for stabilizing the spacecraft's descent.", "The main parachute ('''I''') was deployed at starting with a narrow opening that opened fully in a few seconds to lessen the strain on the lines.", "Just before hitting the water, the landing bag inflated from behind the heat shield to reduce the force of impact ('''J''').", "Upon landing the parachutes were released.", "An antenna ('''K''') was raised and sent out signals that could be traced by ships and helicopters.", "Further, a green marker dye was spread around the spacecraft to make its location more visible from the air.", "Frogmen brought in by helicopters inflated a collar around the craft to keep it upright in the water.", "The recovery helicopter hooked onto the spacecraft and the astronaut blew the escape hatch to exit the capsule.", "He was then hoisted aboard the helicopter that finally brought both him and the spacecraft to the ship.Mercury profile.jpg|Mercury crewed launchesGlenn62.jpg|John Glenn in orbit, 1962 (Mercury-Atlas 6)Shepard Hoisted into Recovery Helicopter - GPN-2000-001361-crop.jpg|Alan Shepard's 1961 recovery seen from helicopter (Mercury-Redstone 3)" ], [ "Ground control", "Inside Control Center at Cape Canaveral (Mercury-Atlas 8)The number of personnel supporting a Mercury mission was typically around 18,000, with about 15,000 people associated with recovery.", "Most of the others followed the spacecraft from the World Wide Tracking Network, a chain of 18 stations placed around the equator, which was based on a network used for satellites and made ready in 1960.It collected data from the spacecraft and provided two-way communication between the astronaut and the ground.", "Each station had a range of and a pass typically lasted 7 minutes.", "Mercury astronauts on the ground would take the role of Capsule Communicator, or CAPCOM, who communicated with the astronaut in orbit.", "Data from the spacecraft were sent to the ground, processed at the Goddard Space Center by a redundant pair of transistorized IBM 7090 computers and relayed to the Mercury Control Center at Cape Canaveral.", "In the Control Center, the data were displayed on boards on each side of a world map, which showed the position of the spacecraft, its ground track and the place it could land in an emergency within the next 30 minutes.Other computers associated with ground control for Mercury included a vacuum-tube-based IBM 709 system in Cape Canaveral which determined whether a mid-launch abort might be needed and where an aborting capsule would land, another IBM 709 in Bermuda which served as backup for the two IBM 7090 transistor-based machines at Goddard, and a Burroughs-GE system which provided radio guidance for the Atlas during launch.The World Wide Tracking Network went on to serve subsequent space programs, until it was replaced by a satellite relay system in the 1980s.", "Mission Control Center was moved from Cape Canaveral to Houston in 1965.Mercury Tracking Network 2.png|Ground track and tracking stations for Mercury-Atlas 8.Spacecraft starts from Cape Canaveral in Florida and moves east; each new orbit-track is displaced to the left due to the rotation of the Earth.", "It moves between latitudes 32.5° north and 32.5° south.", "Key: 1–6: orbit number.", "Yellow: launch.", "Black dot: tracking station.", "Red: range of station; Blue: landing." ], [ "Flights", "Project Mercury landing sitesOn April 12, 1961, the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person in space on an orbital flight.", "He was not present in his spacecraft during landing thus technically his mission was not initially considered as the first complete human spaceflight by then World Air Sports Federation's definitions, although later it recognized that Gagarin was the first human to fly into space.", "Alan Shepard became the first American in space on a suborbital flight three weeks later, on May 5, 1961.John Glenn, the third Mercury astronaut to fly, became the first American to reach orbit on February 20, 1962, but only after the Soviets had launched a second cosmonaut, Gherman Titov, into a day-long flight in August 1961.Three more Mercury orbital flights were made, ending on May 16, 1963, with a day-long, 22 orbit flight.", "However, the Soviet Union ended its Vostok program the next month, with the human spaceflight endurance record set by the 82-orbit, almost 5-day Vostok 5 flight.===Crewed===All of the six crewed Mercury flights were successful, though some planned flights were canceled during the project (see below).", "The main medical problems encountered were simple personal hygiene, and post-flight symptoms of low blood pressure.", "The launch vehicles had been tested through uncrewed flights, therefore the numbering of crewed missions did not start with 1.Also, there were two separately numbered series: MR for \"Mercury-Redstone\" (suborbital flights), and MA for \"Mercury-Atlas\" (orbital flights).", "These names were not popularly used, since the astronauts followed a pilot tradition, each giving their spacecraft a name.", "They selected names ending with a \"7\" to commemorate the seven astronauts.", "Spacecraft production numbers don't match the mission order, with some capsules being reserved as backup or used in tests.", "Times given are Coordinated Universal Time, local time + 5 hours.", "MA = Mercury-Atlas, MR = Mercury-Redstone, LC = Launch Complex.", "MissionSpacecraft No.", "Call-sign Pilot Launch Duration Orbits Apogeemi (km) Perigeemi (km) Max.", "velocity mph (km/h) Missmi (km) timesite MR-37 ''Freedom 7'' Shepard14:34 on May 5, 1961LC-515 m 22 s0117 (188) — 3.5 (5.6) MR-411 ''Liberty Bell 7'' Grissom12:20 on Jul.", "21, 1961LC-515 m 37 s0118 (190)— 5.8 (9.3) MA-613 ''Friendship 7'' Glenn14:47 on Feb. 20, 1962LC-144 h 55 m 23 s3162 (261)100 (161) 46 (74) MA-718 ''Aurora 7'' Carpenter12:45 on May 24, 1962LC-144 h 56 m 5 s3167 (269)100 (161) 248 (400) MA-816 ''Sigma 7'' Schirra12:15 on Oct. 3, 1962LC-149 h 13 m 15 s6176 (283)100 (161) 4.6 (7.4) MA-920 ''Faith 7'' Cooper13:04 on May 15, 1963LC-141 d 10 h 19 m 49 s 22 166 (267) 100 (161) 5.0 (8.1) Remarks First American in space.", "Recovered by carrier USS ''Lake Champlain''.", "Mercury-Redstone 4 Spacecraft sank during recovery when hatch unexpectedly blew off.", "Astronaut recovered by carrier USS ''Randolph''.", "Mercury-Atlas 6 First American in orbit.", "Retropack retained during reentry.", "Recovered by destroyer USS ''Noa''.", "Mercury-Atlas 7 Carpenter replaced Deke Slayton.", "Recovered by destroyer USS ''Farragut''.", "Biggest miss.", "Mercury-Atlas 8 The flight closest to plan.", "Carried out maneuvering tests.", "Recovered by carrier USS ''Kearsarge''.", "Mercury-Atlas 9 First American in space for over a day.", "Last American solo mission.", "Recovered by USS ''Kearsarge''.", "Recovery variations MA6) spacecraft and astronaut hoist onboard directly; MA8) spacecraft and astronaut towed by boat to ship; MA9) spacecraft with astronaut inside flown to ship.Kennedy, Johnson, and others watching flight of Astronaut Shepard on television, 05 May 1961.png|Shepard's flight watched on TV in the White House.", "May 1961.Astronaut_John_Glenn_being_Honored_-_GPN-2000-000607.jpg|John Glenn honored by the President.", "February 1962USS Kearsarge (CVS-33) crew spells out 'Mercury 9' on the flight deck, 15 May 1963 (GPN-2000-001403).jpg|USS ''Kearsarge'' with crew spelling Mercury-9.May 1963.===Uncrewed and chimpanzee flights===The 20 uncrewed flights used Little Joe, Redstone, and Atlas launch vehicles.", "They were used to develop the launch vehicles, launch escape system, spacecraft and tracking network.", "One flight of a Scout rocket attempted to launch a specialized satellite equipped with Mercury communications components for testing the ground tracking network, but the booster failed soon after liftoff.", "The Little Joe program used seven airframes for eight flights, of which three were successful.", "The second Little Joe flight was named Little Joe 6, because it was inserted into the program after the first 5 airframes had been allocated.", "Production spacecraft and boilerplates were used for these test flights.", "MissionSpacecraft No.", "Launch Duration Purpose Result Little Joe 1BoilerplateAugust 21, 1959 20 s Test of launch escape system during flight.", "Failure Big Joe 1Big Joe BoilerplateSeptember 9, 195913 m 00 s Test of heat shield and Atlas/spacecraft interface.", "Partial success Little Joe 6BoilerplateOctober 4, 1959 5 m 10 s Test of spacecraft aerodynamics and integrity.", "Partial success Little Joe 1ABoilerplateNovember 4, 1959 8 m 11 sTest of launch escape system during flight with boiler plate capsule.", "Partial success Little Joe 2BoilerplateDecember 4, 195911 m 6 s Escape system test with primate at high altitude.", "Success Little Joe 1BBoilerplateJanuary 21, 19608 m 35 sMaximum-q abort and escape test with primate with boiler plate capsule.", "Success Beach Abort1May 9, 19601 m 31 s Test of the off-the-pad abort system.", "Success Mercury-Atlas 14July 29, 19603 m 18 s Test of spacecraft / Atlas combination.", "Failure Little Joe 53November 8, 19602 m 22 s First Little Joe escape system test with a production spacecraft, at max-q.", "Failure Mercury-Redstone 12November 21, 19602 s Qualification of spacecraft / Redstone combination.", "Failure Mercury-Redstone 1A2December 19, 196015 m 45 s Qualification of spacecraft / Redstone combination.", "Success Mercury-Redstone 25January 31, 196116 m 39 s Qualification of spacecraft with chimpanzee named Ham.", "Success Mercury-Atlas 26February 21, 196117 m 56 s Qualified Mercury/Atlas interface.", "Success Little Joe 5A14March 18, 19615 m 25 s Second test of escape system with a production Mercury spacecraft.", "Partial successMercury-Redstone BDBoilerplateMarch 24, 19618 m 23 s Final Redstone test flight.", "Success Mercury-Atlas 38April 25, 19617 m 19 s Orbital flight with robot astronaut.", "Failure Little Joe 5B14April 28, 19615 m 25 s Third test of escape system with a production spacecraft.", "Success Mercury-Atlas 48September 13, 19611 h 49 m 20 s Test of environmental control system with robot astronaut in orbit.", "Success Mercury-Scout 1 -November 1, 196144 s Special satellite to test Mercury tracking network.", "Failure Mercury-Atlas 59November 29, 19613 h 20 m 59 s Test of environmental control system in orbit with chimpanzee named Enos.", "SuccessRemarks Little Joe 1 Due to an electrical malfunction, the escape tower ignited ½ hour before launch and took the spacecraft with it, leaving the rocket on the ground.", "Big Joe 1 Actually the first Mercury-Atlas flight.", "Recovered by 2,407 km SE of Cape Canaveral.", "Altitude: Qualified ablative heatshield.", "Little Joe 6 No additional tests Little Joe 1AThe rescue tower rocket ignited 10 seconds too late.", "Recovered by SE of Wallops Island.", "Little Joe 2 Carried Sam, a rhesus macaque.", "Recovered by SE of Wallops Island, Virginia; altitude: 53 mi (85 km).", "Little Joe 1BCarried a female rhesus monkey named Miss Sam.", "Beach AbortA production spacecraft with minimal equipment was lifted from the ground by the launch escape system alone at Wallops Island.", "It reached an apogee of and was recovered after landing.", "Top velocity: .", "Total payload: 1,154 kg.", "Mercury-Atlas 1 Exploded while passing through max-q.", "To save weight, the airframe had been made thinner since Big Joe, which led to a collapse.", "The next Atlas was strengthened by a temporary solution while the rest were made from the same specifications as Big Joe.", "Little Joe 5 The clamp holding the spacecraft was deflected by air pressure; due to this and incorrect wiring, the escape tower ignited too early and further failed to separate spacecraft from launch vehicle.", "Altitude: Mercury-Redstone 1 Engine shutdown caused by improper separation of electrical cables; vehicle rose and settled back on the pad.", "Mercury-Redstone 1A First flight of Mercury / Redstone.", "Recovered by .", "Altitude: Mercury-Redstone 2 Carried the chimpanzee Ham on suborbital flight.", "Recovered by SE of Cape Canaveral; altitude: Mercury-Atlas 2 Recovered by USS ''Donner'' SE of Cape Canaveral.", "Little Joe 5A Tower fired 14 seconds too soon; it failed to separate the spacecraft from the rocket.Mercury-Redstone BD BD: Booster Development) Mercury-Atlas 3 Upgraded from suborbital flight.", "Was aborted when the Atlas continued to vertically climb instead of tilting toward orbit; escaping capsule was recovered and reused in Mercury-Atlas 4.Little Joe 5B Concluded Little Joe program.", "Mercury-Atlas 4 Completed one orbit and sent data to the ground; first orbital flight of the project.", "Recovery by east of Bermuda.", "Mercury-Scout 1 Was aborted after malfunction of booster's guidance system; results of Mercury-Atlas 4 and Mercury-Atlas 5 were used instead.", "Mercury-Atlas 5 Chimpanzee Enos completed a two-orbit flight, performing tasks to prove it possible for a person to function during a flight.", "Last Mercury-Atlas test flight.", "Recovery by SE of Bermuda.Launch of Little Joe 1B, January 21, 1960.jpg|Little Joe 1B at launch with Miss Sam, 1960Escape rocket of Mercury-Redstone 1-crop.jpg|Mercury-Redstone 1: launch escape system lift-off after 4 launch, 1960Chimpanzee Ham in Biopack Couch for MR-2 flight MSFC-6100114.jpg|Mercury-Redstone 2: Ham, 1961Chimpanzee Enos before the flight of Mercury-Atlas 5 (cropped).jpg|Mercury-Atlas 5: Enos, 1961===Canceled===Nine of the planned flights were canceled.", "Suborbital flights were planned for four other astronauts but the number of flights was cut down gradually and finally all remaining were canceled after Titov's flight.", "Mercury-Atlas 9 was intended to be followed by more one-day flights and even a three-day flight but with the coming of the Gemini Project it seemed unnecessary.", "The Jupiter booster was, as mentioned above, intended to be used for different purposes.", "MissionPilot Planned Launch Cancellation Mercury-Jupiter 1 July 1, 1959 Mercury-Jupiter 2 Chimpanzee First quarter, 1960 July 1, 1959 Mercury-Redstone 5 Glenn (likely) March 1960 August 1961 Mercury-Redstone 6 April 1960 July 1961 Mercury-Redstone 7May 1960Mercury-Redstone 8June 1960 Mercury-Atlas 10 Shepard October 1963 June 13, 1963 Mercury-Atlas 11 Grissom Fourth quarter, 1963 October 1962 Mercury-Atlas 12 Schirra Fourth quarter, 1963 October 1962" ], [ "Legacy", "Ticker tape parade for Gordon Cooper in New York City, May 1963Today the Mercury program is commemorated as the first American human space program.", "It did not win the race against the Soviet Union, but gave back national prestige and was scientifically a successful precursor of later programs such as Gemini, Apollo and Skylab.During the 1950s, some experts doubted that human spaceflight was possible.", "Still, when John F. Kennedy was elected president, many, including him, had doubts about the project.", "As president he chose to support the programs a few months before the launch of ''Freedom 7'', which became a public success.", "Afterwards, a majority of the American public supported human spaceflight, and, within a few weeks, Kennedy announced a plan for a crewed mission to land on the Moon and return safely to Earth before the end of the 1960s.The six astronauts who flew were awarded medals, driven in parades and two of them were invited to address a joint session of the US Congress.", "Seeing as no women previously met the qualifications for the astronaut program, the question was raised as to whether or not they could.", "This led to the development of a project named Mercury 13 by the media, in which thirteen American women successfully underwent the tests.", "The Mercury 13 program was not officially conducted by NASA.", "It was created by NASA physician William Randolph Lovelace, who developed the physical and psychological tests used to select NASA's first seven male astronauts for Project Mercury.", "The women completed physical and psychological tests, but were never required to complete the training as the privately funded program was quickly cancelled.", "No female candidates adequately met the qualifications for the astronaut program until 1978, when a few finally qualified for the Space Shuttle program.On February 25, 2011, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the world's largest technical professional society, awarded Boeing (the successor company to McDonnell Aircraft) a Milestone Award for important inventions which debuted on the Mercury spacecraft.===Depictions on film===A short documentary, ''The John Glenn Story'', was released in 1962.On film the program was portrayed in ''The Right Stuff'', a 1983 adaptation of Tom Wolfe's 1979 book of the same name, in the 1998 HBO miniseries ''From the Earth to the Moon'', in the 2016 film ''Hidden Figures'' and the 2020 Disney+ series ''The Right Stuff'' which is also based on the Tom Wolfe book.===Commemorations===In 1964, a monument commemorating Project Mercury was unveiled near Launch Complex 14 at Cape Canaveral, featuring a metal logo combining the symbol of Mercury with the number 7.In 1962, the United States Postal Service honored the Mercury-Atlas 6 flight with a Project Mercury commemorative stamp, the first US postal issue to depict a crewed spacecraft.", "Project Mercury Pad14.jpg|Mercury monument at Launch Complex 14, 1964Project_Mercury_4¢_US_Postage_stamp_February_20,_1962_FDC_Scott_-1193.jpg|Commemorative Project Mercury 4¢ US Postage stamp===Displays===The spacecraft that flew, together with some that did not, are on display in the United States.", "''Friendship 7'' (Spacecraft No.", "13) went on a global tour, popularly known as its \"fourth orbit\".File:20180320 Little Joe 5A Virginia Air and Space Center-1.jpg|''Little Joe 5B'' (Spacecraft No 14), Virginia Air and Space CenterFile:20180328 Big Joe Mercury capsule Udvar-Hazy.jpg|''Big Joe'' Boilerplate, Steven F. Udvar-Hazy CenterFile:Mercury1A.JPG|''MR-1'' & ''MR-1A'' (Spacecraft No 2), Kennedy Space CenterFile:Mercury-Redstone 2 Capsule.jpg|''Mercury-Redstone 2'' (Spacecraft No.", "5), California Science CenterFile:Freedom 7 U.S.", "Naval Academy.JPG|''Freedom 7 (Spacecraft No.", "7)'' at the United States Naval Academy, 2010, now exhibited at the John F. Kennedy Library and MuseumFile:Liberty Bell 7 The Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center.JPG|''Liberty Bell 7'' (Spacecraft No.", "11) at the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center, 2010File:Friendship 7 the National Air and Space Museum.JPG|''Friendship 7'' (Spacecraft No.", "13) at the National Air and Space Museum, 2009File:Aurora 7 the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago.JPG|''Aurora 7'' (Spacecraft No.", "18) at the Museum of Science and Industry, 2009File:MA-8 Sigma 7 Astronaut Hall of Fame, Titusville, FL.JPG|''Sigma 7'' (Spacecraft No.", "16) at the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame, 2011File:MA-9 Faith 7 Space Center Houston, Houston, TX.JPG|''Faith 7'' (Spacecraft No.", "20) at Space Center Houston, 2011File:Mercury Spacecraft - Capsule 15B ‘Freedom 7 II’ (51281910923).jpg|Unflown Freedom 7 II (Spacecraft No.", "15B) at Steven F. Udvar-Hazy CenterFile:Vasters 1679 (6586666405).jpg|Unflown (Spacecraft No.", "10), Evergreen Aviation & Space MuseumFile:Mercury Procedures Simulator.JPG|Mercury Procedures Trainer at the U.S. Space and Rocket Center, 2011===Patches===Commemorative patches were designed by entrepreneurs after the Mercury program to satisfy collectors.Mercury 3 - Patch.pngMercury 4 - Patch.pngMercury 6 - Patch.pngAurora 7 patch.pngMercury-8-patch.pngMercury 9 - Patch.png" ], [ "Videos", "MA-6.theora.ogv|John Glenn documentary from 50th Anniversary of ''Friendship 7'', 2012." ], [ "Space program comparison", "NASA spacecraft comparison.jpg|NASA illustration comparing boosters and spacecraft from Apollo (biggest), Gemini and Mercury (smallest)." ], [ "See also", "* List of crewed spacecraft* Julian Elvis Ward Jr." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* NASA Project Mercury images and videos* Space Medicine In Project Mercury* PDFs of historical Mercury documents including familiarization manuals.", "* Project Mercury Drawings and Technical Diagrams*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gaius Maecenas" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gaius Cilnius Maecenas''' ( 13 April 68 BC – 8 BC) was a friend and political advisor to Octavian (who later reigned as emperor Augustus).", "He was also an important patron for the new generation of Augustan poets, including both Horace and Virgil.", "During the reign of Augustus, Maecenas served as a quasi-culture minister to the Roman emperor but in spite of his wealth and power he chose not to enter the Senate, remaining of equestrian rank." ], [ "Biography", "Expressions in Propertius seem to imply that Maecenas had taken some part in the campaigns of Mutina, Philippi, and Perugia.", "He prided himself on his ancient Etruscan lineage, and claimed descent from the princely house of the Cilnii, who excited the jealousy of their townsmen by their preponderant wealth and influence at Arretium in the 4th century BC.", "Horace makes reference to this in his address to Maecenas at the opening of his first books of ''Odes'' with the expression \"atavis edite regibus\" (descendant of kings).", "Tacitus refers to him as \"Cilnius Maecenas\"; it is possible that \"Cilnius\" was his mother's nomen – or that Maecenas was in fact a cognomen.", "The Gaius Maecenas mentioned in Cicero as an influential member of the equestrian order in 91 BC may have been his grandfather, or even his father.", "The testimony of Horace and Maecenas's own literary tastes imply that he had profited from the highest education of his time.His great wealth may have been in part hereditary, but he owed his position and influence to his close connection with the emperor Augustus.", "He first appears in history in 40 BC, when he was employed by Octavian in arranging his marriage with Scribonia, and afterwards in assisting to negotiate the Treaty of Brundisium and the reconciliation with Mark Antony.", "As a close friend and advisor he had even acted as deputy for Augustus when he was abroad.It was in 38 BC that Horace was introduced to Maecenas, who had before this received Lucius Varius Rufus and Virgil into his intimacy.", "In the \"Journey to Brundisium\", in 37, Maecenas and Marcus Cocceius Nerva – great-grandfather of the future emperor Nerva – are described as having been sent on an important mission, and they were successful in patching up, by the Treaty of Tarentum, a reconciliation between the two claimants for supreme power.", "During the Sicilian war against Sextus Pompeius in 36, Maecenas was sent back to Rome, and was entrusted with supreme administrative control in the city and in Italy.", "He was vicegerent of Octavian during the campaign that led to the Battle of Actium, when, with great promptness and secrecy, he crushed the conspiracy of Lepidus the Younger; during the subsequent absences of his chief in the provinces he again held the same position.Bust of Maecenas' wife Terentia (1st century BC)During the latter years of his life as recorded by Suetonius he fell somewhat out of favour with his master.", "The historian attributes the loss of the imperial favour to Maecenas' having indiscreetly revealed to Terentia, his beautiful but difficult wife, the discovery of the conspiracy in which her brother Lucius Licinius Varro Murena was implicated, but according to Cassius Dio (writing in the early 3rd century AD) it was due to the emperor's relations with Terentia.", "Maecenas died in 8 BC, leaving the emperor sole heir to his wealth." ], [ "Reputation", "Opinions were much divided in ancient times as to his personal character; but the testimony as to his administrative and diplomatic ability was unanimous.", "He enjoyed the credit of sharing largely in the establishment of the new order of things, of reconciling parties, and of carrying the new empire safely through many dangers.", "To his influence especially were attributed the more humane policies of Octavian after his first alliance with Antony and Lepidus.", "The best summary of his character as a man and a statesman, by Marcus Velleius Paterculus, describes him as \"of sleepless vigilance in critical emergencies, far-seeing and knowing how to act, but in his relaxation from business more luxurious and effeminate than a woman.\"", "Expressions in the ''Odes of Horace'' seem to imply that Maecenas was deficient in the robustness of fibre which Romans liked to imagine was characteristic of their city." ], [ "''Maecenate'' (patronage)", "Stefan Bakałowicz: ''At Maecenas' Reception Room'', 1890Frog on an engraved gem: the seal-device of Mecaenas.Maecenas is most famous for his support of young poets; hence his name has become the eponym for a \"patron of arts\".", "He supported Virgil who wrote the ''Georgics'' in his honour.", "It was Virgil, impressed with examples of Horace's poetry, who introduced Horace to Maecenas.", "Indeed, Horace begins the first poem of his ''Odes'' (''Odes'' I.i) by addressing his new patron.", "Maecenas gave him full financial support as well as an estate in the Sabine Mountains.", "Propertius and the minor poets Varius Rufus, Plotius Tucca, Valgius Rufus, and Domitius Marsus also were his protégés.His character as a munificent patron of literature – which has made his name a household word – is gratefully acknowledged by the recipients of it and attested by the regrets of the men of letters of a later age, expressed by Martial and Juvenal.", "His patronage was exercised, not from vanity or a mere dilettante love of letters, but with a view to the higher interest of the state.", "He recognized in the genius of the poets of that time not only the truest ornament of the court, but the power of reconciling men's minds to the new order of things, and of investing the actual state of affairs with an ideal glory and majesty.", "The change in seriousness of purpose between the ''Eclogues'' and the ''Georgics'' of Virgil was in a great measure the result of the direction given by the statesman to the poet's genius.", "A similar change between the earlier odes of Horace, in which he declares his epicurean indifference to affairs of state, and the great national odes of the third book has been ascribed by some to the same guidance.", "However, since the organization of the Odes is not entirely chronological, and their composition followed both books of ''Satires'' and the ''Epodes'', this argument is plainly specious; but doubtless the milieu of Maecenas's circle influenced the writing of the Roman Odes (III.1–6) and others such as the ode to Pollio, Motum ex Metello (II.1).Maecenas endeavoured also to divert the less masculine genius of Propertius from harping continually on his love to themes of public interest, an effort which to some extent backfired in the ironic elegies of Book III.", "But if the motive of his patronage had been merely political, it never could have inspired the affection which it did in its recipients.", "The great charm of Maecenas in his relation to the men of genius who formed his circle was his simplicity, cordiality and sincerity.", "Although not particular in the choice of some of the associates of his pleasures, he admitted none but men of worth to his intimacy, and when once admitted they were treated like equals.", "Much of the wisdom of Maecenas probably lives in the ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' of Horace.", "It has fallen to the lot of no other patron of literature to have his name associated with works of such lasting interest as the ''Georgics'' of Virgil, the first three books of Horace's ''Odes'', and the first book of his ''Epistles.", "''Two poems in the ''Appendix Vergiliana'' are elegies to him.", "Virgil cannot have written them, as he died eleven years before Maecenas; they may have been written by Albinovanus Pedo." ], [ "Works", "Maecenas also wrote literature himself in both prose and verse, which are now lost literary work.", "The some twenty fragments that remain show that he was less successful as an author than as a judge and patron of literature.", "His prose works on various subjects – ''Prometheus'', dialogues like ''Symposium'' (a banquet at which Virgil, Horace, and Messalla were present), ''De cultu suo'' (on his manner of life), and a poem ''In Octaviam'' (\"Against Octavia\") of which the content is unclear – were ridiculed by Augustus, Seneca, and Quintilian for their strange style, the use of rare words and awkward transpositions.", "According to Dio Cassius, Maecenas was also the inventor of a system of shorthand." ], [ "Gardens of Maecenas", "Auditorium of Maecenas, EsquilineReconstruction of the Villa Maecenas in Tivoli, Italy, 1713Maecenas sited his famous gardens, the first gardens in the Hellenistic-Persian garden style in Rome, on the Esquiline Hill, atop the Servian Wall and its adjoining necropolis, near the gardens of Lamia.", "It contained terraces, libraries, and other aspects of Roman culture.", "Maecenas is said to have been the first to construct a swimming bath of hot water in Rome, which may have been in the gardens.", "The luxury of his gardens and villas incurred the displeasure of Seneca the Younger.", "Though the approximate site is known, it is not easy to reconcile literary indications to determine the gardens' exact location, whether or not they lay on both sides of the Servian ''ager'' and both north and south of the porta Esquilina.", "Common graves of the archaic Esquiline necropolis have been found near the north-west corner of the modern Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, that is, outside the Esquiline gate of antiquity and north of the ''via Tiburtina vetus''; most probably the ''horti Maecenatiani'' extended north from this gate and road on both sides of the ''ager''.", "The \"Auditorium of Maecenas\", a probable venue for dining and entertainment, may still be visited (upon reservation) on Largo Leopardi near Via Merulana.The gardens became imperial property after Maecenas's death, and Tiberius lived there after his return to Rome in 2 AD.", "Nero connected them with the Palatine Hill via his Domus Transitoria, and viewed the burning of that from the turris Maecenatiana.", "This turris was probably the \"molem propinquam nubibus arduis\" (\"the pile, among the clouds\") mentioned by Horace.Whether the ''horti Maecenatiani'' bought by Fronto actually were the former gardens of Maecenas is unknown, and the ''domus Frontoniana'' mentioned in the twelfth century by Magister Gregorius may also refer to the gardens of Maecenas." ], [ "Legacy", "Bust of Maecenas at Coole Park, IrelandHis name has become a byword in many languages for a well-connected and wealthy patron.", "For instance, John Dewey, in his lectures Art as Experience, said \"Economic patronage by wealthy and powerful individuals has at many times played a part in the encouragement of artistic production.", "Probably many a savage tribe had its Maecenas.\"", "He is celebrated for this role in two poems, the ''Elegiae in Maecenatem'', which were written after his death and collected in the ''Appendix Vergiliana''.", "In various languages, it has even been coined into a word for (private) patronage (mainly cultural, but sometimes wider, usually perceived as more altruistic than sponsorship).", "A verse of the student song \"Gaudeamus igitur\" wishes longevity upon the charity of the students' benefactors (\"Maecenatum\", genitive plural of \"Maecenas\").Phillis Wheatley, the 18th-century poet and the first African-American writer to publish a book, published a poem \"To Maecenas\" as the first poem in her 1773 book ''Poems on Various subjects, Religious and Moral''.In Poland and Western Ukraine, a lawyer would customarily be addressed with the honorific \"Pan Mecenas\", as lawyers were considered to be philanthropists and patrons of the arts.In ''The Great Gatsby'', along with Midas and J. P. Morgan, Maecenas is one of the three famous wealthy men whose secrets narrator Nick Carraway hopes to find in the books he buys for his home library." ], [ "Film and television portrayals", "Maecenas was portrayed by Alex Wyndham in the second season of the 2005 HBO television series ''Rome''.", "He was portrayed by Russell Barr in the made-for-TV movie ''Imperium: Augustus''.", "He is also featured in one episode of the second series of ''Plebs'' on ITV.", "In the 2021 TV series ''Domina'', he was portrayed by Youssef Kerkour." ], [ "See also", "*Cilnia gens*Maecenas-Ehrung, German Award to philanthropists" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Primary sources===*Dio Cassius*Tacitus, ''Annals''*Suetonius, ''Augustus''*Horace, ''Odes'' with ''Scholia''*Horace, ''Satires'' i.8.14 – \"nunc licet Esquiliis habitare salubribus atque / aggere in aprico spatiari, quo modo tristes / albis informem spectabant ossibus agrum,/cum mihi non tantum furesque feraeque suetae/hunc vexare locum curae sunt atque labori/quantum carminibus quae versant atque venenis/humanos animos: has nullo perdere possum/nec prohibere modo, simul ac vaga luna decorum/protulit os, quin ossa legant herbasque nocentis.", "\"*Acro, Porphyrio, and Comm.", "Cruq.", "ad loc.", "* Topographical Dictionary===Secondary sources===*V. Gardthausen, ''Augustus and seine Zeit'', i.", "762 seq.", "; ii.", "432 seq.", "** *The fragments of Maecenas' poetry have been collected and edited by J. Blänsdorf (ed.", "),* Philippe Le Doze, \"Mécène.", "Ombres et flamboyances\", Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014.::''Fragmenta poetarum Latinorum epicorum et lyricorum praeter Ennium et Lucilium'', 3rd ed., Stuttgart: Teubner, 1995, pp.", "243–48.*S.", "Lyons, ''Music in the Odes of Horace'', 2010, Oxford, Aris and Phillips ()." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Meander (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''meander''' is a bend in a river.", "'''Meander''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Geography", "===Municipalities or communities===* Meander, Mississippi, former name of Gholson, an unincorporated community in Noxubee County, Mississippi, U.S.* Meander, Tasmania, a rural town in Meander Valley Council area, Tasmania, Australia* Meander Valley Council, a rural local government area in Tasmania, Australia" ], [ "Geographical features", "* Meander Dam, a concrete gravity dam across the Upper Meander River, Tasmania, Australia* Meander Glacier, a large meandering tributary to Mariner Glacier in Victoria Land, Antarctica* Meander River (disambiguation), several rivers that share the name** Meander River (Tasmania), Australia" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "* ''Meander'' (album), 1995 album by the band Carbon Leaf* Meander (art), a decorative border constructed from a continuous line, shaped into a repeated motif* ''Meander'' (film), a 2020 French science fiction film" ], [ "Ships", "* ''Meander'' (1855), a passenger steamship built for James Moss & Co. of Liverpool* , the name of two ships of the Royal Navy" ], [ "Other uses", "* Meander (mathematics), a self-avoiding closed curve which intersects a line a number of times* Meander (mythology), a river god in Greek mythology and patron of the Maeander River in Turkey* Meander Prepona (''Archaeoprepona meander''), a butterfly in the family Nymphalida" ], [ "See also", "* Wandering (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "March 16" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 934 – Meng Zhixiang declares himself emperor and establishes the Later Shu as a new state independent of the Later Tang.", "*1190 – Massacre of Jews at Clifford's Tower, York.", "*1244 – Over 200 Cathars who refuse to recant are burnt to death after the Fall of Montségur.", "*1355 – Amidst the Red Turban Rebellions, Han Lin'er, a claimed descendant of Emperor Huizong of Song, is proclaimed emperor of the restored Song dynasty in Bozhou.===1601–1900===*1621 – Samoset, a Mohegan, visits the settlers of Plymouth Colony and greets them, \"Welcome, Englishmen!", "My name is Samoset.", "\"*1660 – The Long Parliament of England is dissolved so as to prepare for the new Convention Parliament.", "*1696 – The Dutch bombard Givet during the Nine Years' War.", "*1792 – King Gustav III of Sweden is shot; he dies on March 29.", "*1802 – The Army Corps of Engineers is established to found and operate the United States Military Academy at West Point.", "*1815 – Prince Willem proclaims himself King of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, the first constitutional monarch in the Netherlands.", "*1872 – The Wanderers F.C.", "win the first FA Cup, the oldest football competition in the world, beating Royal Engineers A.F.C.", "1–0 at The Oval in Kennington, London.", "*1898 – In Melbourne, the representatives of five colonies adopt a constitution, which would become the basis of the Commonwealth of Australia.===1901–present===*1916 – The 7th and 10th US cavalry regiments under John J. Pershing cross the US–Mexico border to join the hunt for Pancho Villa.", "*1918 – Finnish Civil War: Battle of Länkipohja is infamous for its bloody aftermath as the Whites execute 70–100 capitulated Reds.", "*1924 – In accordance with the Treaty of Rome, Fiume becomes annexed as part of Italy.", "*1925 – An earthquake (measuring around 7.0 magnitude) occurs in Dali, China, killing an estimated 5,000 people.", "*1926 – History of Rocketry: Robert Goddard launches the first liquid-fueled rocket, at Auburn, Massachusetts.", "*1935 – Adolf Hitler orders Germany to rearm herself in violation of the Treaty of Versailles.", "Conscription is reintroduced to form the Wehrmacht.", "*1936 – Warmer-than-normal temperatures rapidly melt snow and ice on the upper Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, leading to a major flood in Pittsburgh.", "*1939 – From Prague Castle, Hitler proclaims Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate.", "*1941 – Operation Appearance takes place to re-establish British Somaliland*1945 – World War II: The Battle of Iwo Jima ends, but small pockets of Japanese resistance persist.", "* 1945 – Ninety percent of Würzburg, Germany is destroyed in only 20 minutes by British bombers, resulting in at least 4,000 deaths.", "*1962 – Flying Tiger Line Flight 739 disappears in the western Pacific Ocean with all 107 aboard missing and presumed dead.", "*1966 – Launch of Gemini 8 with astronauts Neil Armstrong and David Scott.", "It would perform the first docking of two spacecraft in orbit.", "*1968 – Vietnam War: My Lai Massacre occurs; between 347 and 500 Vietnamese villagers are killed by American troops.", "*1969 – A Viasa McDonnell Douglas DC-9 crashes in Maracaibo, Venezuela, killing 155.", "*1977 – Assassination of Kamal Jumblatt, the main leader of the anti-government forces in the Lebanese Civil War.", "*1978 – Former Italian Prime Minister Aldo Moro is kidnapped; he is later murdered by his captors.", "* 1978 – A Balkan Bulgarian Airlines Tupolev Tu-134 crashes near Gabare, Bulgaria, killing 73.", "* 1978 – Supertanker ''Amoco Cadiz'' splits in two after running aground on the Portsall Rocks, three miles off the coast of Brittany, resulting in the largest oil spill in history at that time.", "*1979 – Sino-Vietnamese War: The People's Liberation Army crosses the border back into China, ending the war.", "*1984 – William Buckley, the CIA station chief in Lebanon, is kidnapped by Hezbollah; he later dies in captivity.", "*1985 – Associated Press newsman Terry Anderson is taken hostage in Beirut; he is not released until December 1991.", "*1988 – Iran–Contra affair: Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North and Vice Admiral John Poindexter are indicted on charges of conspiracy to defraud the United States.", "* 1988 – Halabja chemical attack: The Kurdish town of Halabja in Iraq is attacked with a mix of poison gas and nerve agents on the orders of Saddam Hussein, killing 5,000 people and injuring about 10,000 people.", "* 1988 – The Troubles: Ulster loyalist militant Michael Stone attacks a Provisional IRA funeral in Belfast with pistols and grenades.", "Three persons, one of them a member of PIRA are killed, and more than 60 others are wounded.", "*1995 – Mississippi formally ratifies the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, becoming the last state to approve the abolition of slavery.", "The Thirteenth Amendment was officially ratified in 1865.", "*2001 – A series of bomb blasts in the city of Shijiazhuang, China kill 108 people and injure 38 others, the biggest mass murder in China in decades.", "*2003 – American activist Rachel Corrie is killed in Rafah by being run over by an Israel Defense Forces bulldozer while trying to obstruct the demolition of a home.", "*2005 – Israel officially hands over Jericho to Palestinian control.", "*2010 – The Kasubi Tombs, Uganda's only cultural World Heritage Site, are destroyed in a fire.", "*2012 – Former Indian cricketer Sachin Tendulkar becomes the first batter in history to score 100 centuries in international cricket.", "*2014 – Crimea votes in a controversial referendum to secede from Ukraine to join Russia.", "*2016 – A bomb detonates in a bus carrying government employees in Peshawar, Pakistan, killing 15 and injuring at least 30.", "* 2016 – Two suicide bombers detonate their explosives at a mosque during morning prayer on the outskirts of Maiduguri, Nigeria, killing 24 and injuring 18.", "*2020 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average falls by 2,997.10, the single largest point drop in history and the second-largest percentage drop ever at 12.93%, an even greater crash than Black Monday (1929).", "This follows the U.S. Federal Reserve announcing that it will cut its target interest rate to 0–0.25%.", "*2021 – Atlanta spa shootings: Eight people are killed and one is injured in a trio of shootings at spas in and near Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. A suspect is arrested the same day.", "*2022 – A 7.4-magnitude earthquake occurs off the coast of Fukushima, Japan, killing 4 people and injuring 225." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1399 – The Xuande Emperor, ruler of Ming China (d. 1435)*1445 – Johann Geiler von Kaysersberg, Swiss priest and theologian (d. 1510)*1465 – Kunigunde of Austria, Duchess of Bavaria (d. 1520)*1473 – Henry IV, Duke of Saxony (d. 1541)*1559 – Amar Singh I, successor of Maharana Pratap of Mewar (d. 1620)*1581 – Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Dutch historian and poet (d. 1647)*1585 – Gerbrand Bredero, Dutch poet and playwright (d. 1618)*1590 – Ii Naotaka, Japanese daimyō (d. 1659)*1596 – Ebba Brahe, Swedish countess (d. 1674)===1601–1900===*1609 – Michael Franck, German poet and composer of hymns (d. 1667)* 1609 – Agostino Mitelli, Italian painter (d. 1660)*1621 – Georg Neumark, German poet and composer of hymns (d. 1681)*1631 – René Le Bossu, French literary critic (d. 1680)*1638 – François Crépieul, Jesuit missionary (d. 1702)*1654 – Andreas Acoluthus, German scholar (d. 1704)*1670 – François de Franquetot de Coigny, French general (d. 1759)*1673 – Jean Bouhier, French jurist and scholar (d. 1746)*1687 – Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, queen consort of Frederick William I (d. 1757)*1693 – Malhar Rao Holkar, Indian nobleman (d. 1766)*1701 – Daniel Lorenz Salthenius, Swedish theologian (d. 1750)*1729 – Maria Louise Albertine (d. 1818)*1741 – Carlo Amoretti, Italian scientist (d. 1816)*1744 – Nicolas-Germain Léonard, Guadeloupean poet and novelist (d. 1793)*1750 – Caroline Herschel, German-English astronomer (d. 1848)*1751 – James Madison, American academic and politician, 4th President of the United States (d. 1836)*1753 – François Amédée Doppet, French general (d. 1799)*1760 – Johann Heinrich Meyer, Swiss painter and writer (d. 1832)*1766 – Jean-Frédéric Waldeck, French antiquarian, cartographer, artist and explorer (d. 1875)*1771 – Antoine-Jean Gros, French painter (d. 1835)*1773 – Juan Ramón Balcarce, Argentinian general and politician, 6th Governor of Buenos Aires Province (d. 1836)*1774 – Matthew Flinders, English navigator and cartographer (d. 1814)*1789 – Francis Rawdon Chesney, English general and explorer (d. 1872)* 1789 – Georg Ohm, German physicist and mathematician (d. 1854)*1794 – Ami Boué, Austrian geologist and ethnographer (d. 1881)*1797 – Alaric Alexander Watts, English poet and journalist (d. 1864)*1799 – Anna Atkins, English botanist and photographer (d. 1871)*1800 – Emperor Ninkō of Japan (d. 1846)*1805 – Ernst von Lasaulx, German philologist and politician (d. 1861)*1806 – Félix De Vigne, Belgian painter (d. 1862)*1808 – Hannah T. King, British-born American writer and pioneer (d. 1886)*1813 – Gaëtan de Rochebouët, French prime minister (d. 1899)*1819 – José Paranhos, Brazilian politician (d. 1880)*1820 – Enrico Tamberlik, Italian tenor (d. 1889)*1821 – Eduard Heine, German mathematician and academic (d. 1881)*1822 – Rosa Bonheur, French painter and sculptor (d. 1899)* 1822 – John Pope, American general (d. 1892)*1823 – William Henry Monk, English organist and composer (d. 1889)*1825 – Camilo Castelo Branco, Portuguese writer (d. 1890)*1828 – Émile Deshayes de Marcère, French politician (d. 1918)*1834 – James Hector, Scottish geologist and surgeon (d. 1907)*1836 – Andrew Smith Hallidie, English-American engineer and inventor (d. 1900)*1839 – Sully Prudhomme, French poet and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1907)* 1839 – John Butler Yeats, Irish painter (d. 1922)*1840 – Shibusawa Eiichi, Japanese industrialist (d. 1931)* 1840 – Georg von der Gabelentz, German linguist and sinologist (d. 1893)*1845 – Umegatani Tōtarō I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 15th Yokozuna (d. 1928)*1846 – Gösta Mittag-Leffler, Swedish mathematician and academic (d. 1927)* 1846 – Rebecca Cole, American physician and social reformer (d. 1922) * 1846 – Jurgis Bielinis, Lithuanian book smuggler (d. 1918)*1848 – Axel Heiberg, Norwegian financier and diplomat (d. 1932)*1851 – Otto Bardenhewer, German theologian (d. 1935)* 1851 – Martinus Beijerinck, Dutch microbiologist and botanist (d. 1931)*1856 – Napoléon, Prince Imperial of France (d. 1879)*1857 – Charles Harding Firth, English historian (d. 1936)*1859 – Alexander Stepanovich Popov, Russian physicist and inventor (d. 1906)*1865 – Patsy Donovan, Irish-American baseball player and manager (d. 1953)*1869 – Willy Burmester, German violinist (d. 1933)*1871 – Hans Merensky, South African geologist and philanthropist (d. 1951)* 1871 – Frantz Reichel, French rugby player and hurdler (d. 1932)*1874 – Frédéric François-Marsal, French prime minister (d. 1958)*1877 – Léo-Ernest Ouimet, Canadian director and producer (d. 1972)*1878 – Clemens August Graf von Galen, German cardinal (d. 1946)* 1878 – Paul Jouve, French painter (d. 1973)*1881 – Fannie Charles Dillon, American composer (d. 1947)*1882 – James Lightbody, American runner (d. 1953)*1883 – Ethel Anderson, Australian poet, author, and painter (d. 1958)*1884 – Eric P. Kelly, American journalist and author (d. 1960)*1885 – Giacomo Benvenuti, Italian composer and musicologist (d. 1943)* 1885 – Sydney Chaplin, English actor (d. 1965)*1886 – Herbert Lindström, Swedish tug of war player (d. 1951)*1887 – Emilio Lunghi, Italian runner (d. 1925)* 1887 – S. Stillman Berry, American marine zoologist (1984)*1889 – Reggie Walker, South African athlete (d. 1951)*1892 – César Vallejo, Peruvian poet (d. 1938)*1895 – Ernest Labrousse, French historian (d. 1988)*1897 – Antonio Donghi, Italian painter (d. 1963)* 1897 – Conrad Nagel, American actor (d. 1970)*1900 – Cyril Hume, American novelist and screenwriter (d. 1966)* 1900 – Mencha Karnicheva, Macedonian revolutionary and assassin (d. 1964)===1901–present===*1901 – Alexis Chantraine, Belgian footballer (d. 1987)*1903 – Mike Mansfield, American politician and diplomat, 22nd United States Ambassador to Japan (d. 2001)*1906 – Francisco Ayala, Spanish sociologist, author, and translator (d. 2009)* 1906 – Maurice Turnbull, Welsh-English cricketer and rugby player (d. 1944)* 1906 – Henny Youngman, English-American violinist and comedian (d. 1998)*1908 – René Daumal, French author and poet (d. 1944)* 1908 – Ernest Rogez, French water polo player (d. 1986)* 1908 – Robert Rossen, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1966)*1909 – Don Raye, American songwriter (d. 1985)*1910 – Aladár Gerevich, Hungarian fencer (d. 1991)* 1910 – Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi, Indian-English cricketer and politician, 8th Nawab of Pataudi (d. 1952)*1911 – Pierre Harmel, former Prime Minister, later foreign minister of Belgium (d. 2009)* 1911 – Josef Mengele, German physician, captain and mass-murderer (d. 1979)* 1911 – Philip Pavia, American painter and sculptor (d. 2005)*1912 – Pat Nixon, First Lady of the United States (d. 1993)*1913 – Rémy Raffalli, French soldier (d. 1952)*1915 – Kunihiko Kodaira, Japanese mathematician (d. 1997)*1916 – Mercedes McCambridge, American actress (d. 2004)* 1916 – Tsutomu Yamaguchi, Japanese engineer and businessman (d. 2010)*1917 – Louis C. Wyman, American lawyer and politician (d. 2002)* 1917 – Laure Pillay, Mauritian lawyer and jurist (d. 2017) * 1917 – Mehrdad Pahlbod, Iranian politician (d. 2018)*1918 – Aldo van Eyck, Dutch architect (d. 1999)* 1918 – Frederick Reines, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)*1920 – John Addison, English-American soldier and composer (d. 1998)* 1920 – Sid Fleischman, American author and screenwriter (d. 2010)* 1920 – Traudl Junge, German secretary (d. 2002)* 1920 – Leo McKern, Australian-English actor (d. 2002)*1922 – Harding Lemay, American screenwriter and playwright (d. 2018)*1923 – Heinz Wallberg, German conductor (d. 2004)*1925 – Cornell Borchers, Lithuanian-German actress and singer (d. 2014)* 1925 – Mary Hinkson, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2014)* 1925 – Ervin Kassai, Hungarian basketball player and referee (d. 2012)* 1925 – Luis E. Miramontes, Mexican chemist and engineer (d. 2004)*1926 – Charles Goodell, American lawyer and politician (d. 1987)* 1926 – Jerry Lewis, American actor and comedian (d. 2017)*1927 – Vladimir Komarov, Russian pilot, engineer, and cosmonaut (d. 1967)* 1927 – Daniel Patrick Moynihan, American sociologist and politician, 12th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 2003)* 1927 – Olga San Juan, American actress and dancer (d. 2009)*1928 – Wakanohana Kanji I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 45th Yokozuna (d. 2010)* 1928 – Christa Ludwig, German opera singer (d. 2021)*1929 – Betty Johnson, American singer (d. 2022)* 1929 – Tihomir Novakov, Serbian-American physicist and academic (d. 2015)* 1929 – Nadja Tiller, Austrian actress (d. 2023)*1930 – Tommy Flanagan, American pianist and composer (d. 2001)* 1930 – Minoru Miki, Japanese composer (d. 2011)*1931 – Augusto Boal, Brazilian theatre director, writer and politician (d. 2009)* 1931 – Alan Heyman, American-South Korean musicologist and composer (d. 2014)* 1931 – Anthony Kenny, English philosopher and academic* 1931 – John Munro, Canadian lawyer and politician, 22nd Canadian Minister of Labour (d. 2003)*1932 – Don Blasingame, American baseball player and manager (d. 2005)* 1932 – Walter Cunningham, American astronaut (d. 2023)* 1932 – Kurt Diemberger, Austrian mountaineer and author* 1932 – Herbert Marx, Canadian politician (d. 2020)*1933 – Keith Critchlow, English architect and academic, co-founded Temenos Academy (d. 2020)* 1933 – Sanford I. Weill, American banker, financier, and philanthropist*1934 – Jean Cournoyer, Canadian politician* 1934 – Ray Hnatyshyn, Canadian lawyer and politician, 24th Governor General of Canada (d. 2002)* 1934 – Roger Norrington, English violinist and conductor* 1934 – Howard Schnellenberger, American football player and coach (d. 2021)*1935 – Teresa Berganza, Spanish soprano and actress (d. 2022)* 1935 – Pepe Cáceres, Colombian bullfighter (d. 1987)*1936 – Raymond Vahan Damadian, Armenian-American inventor, invented the MRI (d. 2022)* 1936 – Fred Neil, American folk singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001)*1937 – David Frith, English historian, journalist, and author* 1937 – Attilio Nicora, Italian cardinal (d. 2017)* 1937 – Amos Tversky, Israeli-American psychologist and academic (d. 1996)*1938 – Carlos Bilardo, Argentinian footballer and manager*1939 – Yvon Côté, Canadian politician and teacher*1940 – Vagif Mustafazadeh, Azerbaijani pianist and composer (d. 1979)* 1940 – Jan Pronk, Dutch academic and politician, Dutch Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment* 1940 – Keith Rowe, English guitarist *1941 – Bernardo Bertolucci, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 2018)* 1941 – Robert Guéï, Ivorian soldier and politician, 3rd President of Côte d'Ivoire (d. 2002)* 1941 – Chuck Woolery, American game show host and television personality*1942 – Roger Crozier, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 1996)* 1942 – Gijs van Lennep, Dutch race car driver* 1942 – Jean-Pierre Schosteck, French politician* 1942 – James Soong, Chinese-Taiwanese politician, Governor of Taiwan Province* 1942 – Jerry Jeff Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2020)*1943 – Ursula Goodenough, American biologist, zoologist, and author* 1943 – Hans Heyer, German race car driver* 1943 – Álvaro de Soto, Peruvian diplomat*1944 – Andrew S. Tanenbaum, American computer scientist and academic*1946 – Sigmund Groven, Norwegian harmonica player and composer* 1946 – Mary Kaldor, English economist and academic* 1946 – J.", "Z. Knight, American New Age teacher and author* 1946 – Guesch Patti, French singer*1948 – Michael Owen Bruce, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1948 – Richard Desjardins, Canadian singer-songwriter and director* 1948 – Catherine Quéré, French politician*1949 – Erik Estrada, American actor * 1949 – Victor Garber, Canadian actor and singer* 1949 – Elliott Murphy, American-French singer-songwriter and journalist*1950 – Peter Forster, English bishop* 1950 – Kate Nelligan, Canadian actress* 1950 – Edhem Šljivo, Bosnian footballer *1951 – Ray Benson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1951 – Abdelmajid Bourebbou, Algerian footballer* 1951 – Oddvar Brå, Norwegian skier* 1951 – Joe DeLamielleure, American football player* 1951 – Alexandre Gonzalez, French long-distance runner*1953 – Claus Peter Flor, German conductor* 1953 – Isabelle Huppert, French actress* 1953 – Rainer Knaak, German chess player* 1953 – Richard Stallman, American computer scientist and programmer*1954 – David Heath, English politician* 1954 – Colin Ireland, English serial killer (d. 2012)* 1954 – Jimmy Nail, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor* 1954 – Tim O'Brien, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1954 – Dav Whatmore, Sri Lankan-Australian cricketer and coach* 1954 – Nancy Wilson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actress *1955 – Svetlana Alexeeva, Russian ice dancer and coach* 1955 – Rimantas Astrauskas, Lithuanian physicist* 1955 – Bruno Barreto, Brazilian director, producer, and screenwriter* 1955 – Linda Lepomme, Belgian actress and singer* 1955 – Bob Ley, American sports anchor and reporter* 1955 – Andy Scott, Canadian politician (d. 2013)* 1955 – Jiro Watanabe, Japanese boxer*1956 – Ozzie Newsome, American football player and manager* 1956 – Clifton Powell, American actor, director, and producer* 1956 – Yoriko Shono, Japanese writer* 1956 – Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, Swiss lawyer and politician*1958 – Phillip Wilcher, Australian pianist and composer* 1958 – Kate Worley, American author (d. 2004)* 1958 – Jorge Ramos, Mexican-American journalist and author*1959 – Michael J. Bloomfield, American astronaut* 1959 – Sebastian Currier, American composer and educator* 1959 – Greg Dyer, Australian cricketer* 1959 – Flavor Flav, American rapper and actor* 1959 – Charles Hudson, American baseball player * 1959 – Steve Marker, American musician* 1959 – Jens Stoltenberg, Norwegian economist and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Norway, 13th Secretary General of NATO*1960 – John Hemming, English businessman and politician* 1960 – Duane Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1960 – Jenny Eclair, English comedian, actress and screenwriter*1961 – Brett Kenny, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1961 – Todd McFarlane, Canadian author, illustrator, and businessman, founded McFarlane Toys*1962 – Franck Fréon, French race car driver* 1962 – Liliane Gaschet, French athlete *1963 – Jerome Flynn, English actor and singer* 1963 – Kevin Smith, New Zealand actor and singer (d. 2002)*1964 – Patty Griffin, American singer-songwriter * 1964 – Jaclyn Jose, Filipino actress* 1964 – Pascal Richard, Swiss racing cyclist* 1964 – Gore Verbinski, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1965 – Steve Armstrong, American wrestler* 1965 – Cindy Brown, American basketball player* 1965 – Mark Carney, Canadian-English economist and banker* 1965 – Cristiana Reali, Italian-Brazilian actress*1966 – H.P.", "Baxxter, German musician* 1966 – Chrissy Redden, Canadian cross-country cyclist*1967 – Tracy Bonham, American singer and violinist* 1967 – John Darnielle, American musician and novelist* 1967 – Lauren Graham, American actress and producer* 1967 – Ronnie McCoury, American bluegrass mandolin player, singer and songwriter* 1967 – Heidi Zurbriggen, Swiss alpine skier*1968 – Trevor Wilson, American basketball player and police officer*1969 – Judah Friedlander, American comedian and actor* 1969 – Ottis Gibson, Barbadian cricketer and coach* 1969 – Alina Ivanova, Russian athlete* 1969 – Evangelos Koronios, Greek basketball player and coach*1970 – Joakim Berg, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist *1971 – Franck Comba, French rugby player* 1971 – Alan Tudyk, American actor*1972 – Ismaïl Sghyr, French-Moroccan long-distance runner*1973 – Andrey Mizurov, Kazakhstani road bicycle racer* 1973 – Vonda Ward, American boxer*1974 – Georgios Anatolakis, Greek footballer and politician* 1974 – Anne Charrier, French actress* 1974 – Heath Streak, Zimbabwean cricketer*1975 – Luciano Castro, Argentine actor * 1975 – Sienna Guillory, English model and actress* 1975 – Lionel Torres, French archer*1976 – Blu Cantrell, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1976 – Leila Lejeune, French handballer * 1976 – Susanne Ljungskog, Swedish cyclist* 1976 – Abraham Núñez, Dominican baseball player* 1976 – Zhu Chen, Qatari chess Grandmaster*1977 – Mónica Cruz, Spanish actress and dancer* 1977 – Thomas Rupprath, German swimmer*1978 – Brooke Burns, American fashion model, television personality, and actress* 1978 – Annett Renneberg, German actress and singer*1979 – Christina Liebherr, Swiss equestrian* 1979 – Rashad Moore, American football player* 1979 – Sébastien Ostertag, French handball player* 1979 – Leena Peisa, Finnish keyboard player and songwriter * 1979 – Andrei Stepanov, Estonian footballer*1980 – Todd Heap, American football player* 1980 – Felipe Reyes, Spanish basketball player*1981 – Andrew Bree, Irish swimmer* 1981 – Danny Brown, American rapper* 1981 – Curtis Granderson, American baseball player* 1981 – Julien Mazet, French road bicycle racer* 1981 – Fabiana Murer, Brazilian pole vaulter*1982 – Miguel Comminges, Guadeloupean footballer * 1982 – Riley Cote, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1982 – Jesús Del Nero, Spanish road bicycle racer * 1982 – Brian Wilson, American baseball player*1983 – Stephen Drew, American baseball player* 1983 – Brandon League, American baseball player* 1983 – Nicolas Rousseau, French road bicycle racer * 1983 – Tramon Williams, American football player*1984 – Levi Brown, American football player* 1984 – Aisling Bea, Irish comedienne and actress* 1984 – Sharon Cherop, Kenyan long-distance runner* 1984 – Michael Ennis, Australian rugby player* 1984 – Hosea Gear, New Zealand rugby player* 1984 – Brandon Prust, Canadian ice hockey player*1985 – Teddy Atine-Venel, French athlete * 1985 – Eddy Lover, Panamanian singer-songwriter* 1985 – Aleksei Sokirskiy, Russian hammer thrower*1986 – Alexandra Daddario, American actress* 1986 – Toney Douglas, American basketball player* 1986 – Kenny Dykstra, American wrestler* 1986 – T. J. Jordan, American basketball player* 1986 – Boaz Solossa, Indonesian footballer* 1986 – Daisuke Takahashi, Japanese figure skater*1987 – Fabien Lemoine, French football player*1988 – Jessica Gregg, Canadian speed skater* 1988 – Patrick Herrmann, German footballer*1989 – Blake Griffin, American basketball player* 1989 – Jung So-min, South Korean actress* 1989 – Magalie Pottier, French racing cyclist* 1989 – Theo Walcott, English footballer*1990 – Andre Young, American basketball player*1991 – Reggie Bullock, American basketball player* 1991 – Wolfgang Van Halen, American bassist*1993 – George Ford, English rugby union player* 1993 – Marine Lorphelin, Miss France*1994 – Joel Embiid, Cameroonian basketball player*1995 – Inga Janulevičiūtė, Lithuanian figure skater*1997 – Florian Neuhaus, German football player*1999 – Vladimir Guerrero Jr., Canadian baseball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*AD 37 – Tiberius, Roman emperor (b.", "42 BC)* 455 – Valentinian III, Roman emperor (assassinated; b.", "419)* 455 – Heraclius, Roman courtier (''primicerius sacri cubiculi '')* 842 – Xiao Mian, chancellor of the Tang dynasty* 933 – Takin al-Khazari, Egyptian commander and politician, Abbasid Governor of Egypt* 943 – Pi Guangye, Chinese official and chancellor (b.", "877)*1021 – Heribert of Cologne, German archbishop and saint (b.", "970).", "*1072 – Adalbert of Hamburg, German archbishop (b.", "1000)*1181 – Henry I, Count of Champagne*1185 – Baldwin IV of Jerusalem (b.", "1161)*1279 – Jeanne of Dammartin, Queen consort of Castile and León (b.", "1216)*1322 – Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, English general and politician, Lord High Constable of England (b.", "1276)*1405 – Margaret III, Countess of Flanders (b.", "1350)*1410 – John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset, French-English admiral and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b.", "1373)*1457 – Ladislaus Hunyadi, Hungarian politician (b.", "1433)*1485 – Anne Neville, queen of Richard III of England (b.", "1456)*1559 – Anthony St. Leger, English-Irish politician Lord Deputy of Ireland (b.", "1496)===1601–1900===*1649 – Jean de Brébeuf, French-Canadian missionary and saint (b.", "1593)*1679 – John Leverett, English general and politician, 19th Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (b.", "1616)*1698 – Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, Danish countess, author of ''Jammers Minde'' (b.", "1621)*1721 – James Craggs the Elder, English politician, Postmaster General of the United Kingdom (b.", "1657)*1736 – Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Italian composer (b.", "1710)*1737 – Benjamin Wadsworth, American minister and academic (b.", "1670)*1738 – George Bähr, German architect, designed the Dresden Frauenkirche (b.", "1666)*1747 – Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (b.", "1690)*1804 – Henrik Gabriel Porthan, Finnish professor and historian (b.", "1739)*1838 – Nathaniel Bowditch, American ocean navigator and mathematician (b.", "1773)*1841 – Félix Savart, French physicist and psychologist (b.", "1791)*1868 – David Wilmot, American politician, sponsor of Wilmot Proviso (b.", "1814)*1884 – Art Croft, American baseball player (b.", "1855)*1888 – Hippolyte Carnot, French politician (b.", "1801)*1892 – Samuel F. Miller, American politician (b.", "1827)*1898 – Aubrey Beardsley, English author and illustrator (b.", "1872)*1899 – Joseph Medill, American journalist and politician, 26th Mayor of Chicago (b.", "1823)===1901–present===*1903 – Roy Bean, American justice of the peace (b.", "1825)*1907 – John O'Leary, Irish republican and journalist (b.", "1830)*1912 – Max Burckhard, Austrian theater director (b.", "1854)*1914 – Gaston Calmette, French journalist (b.", "1858)* 1914 – Charles Albert Gobat, Swiss lawyer and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1843)* 1914 – John Murray, Scottish oceanographer, biologist, and limnologist (b.", "1841)*1925 – August von Wassermann, German bacteriologist and hygienist (b.", "1866)*1930 – Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish general and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (b.", "1870)*1935 – John Macleod, Scottish physician and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1876)* 1935 – Aron Nimzowitsch, Latvian-Danish chess player (b.", "1886)*1936 – Marguerite Durand, French actress, journalist, and activist (b.", "1864)*1937 – Austen Chamberlain, English politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1863)* 1937 – Alexander von Staël-Holstein, Estonian orientalist and sinologist (b.", "1877)*1940 – Selma Lagerlöf, Swedish author and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1858)*1945 – Börries von Münchhausen, German poet (b.", "1874)*1955 – Nicolas de Staël, French-Russian painter and illustrator (b.", "1914)*1957 – Constantin Brâncuși, Romanian-French sculptor, painter, and photographer (b.", "1876)*1958 – Leon Cadore, American baseball player (b.", "1891)*1961 – Chen Geng, Chinese general and politician (b.", "1903)* 1961 – Václav Talich, Czech violinist and conductor (b.", "1883)*1963 – Laura Adams Armer, American author and photographer (b.", "1874)*1965 – Alice Herz, German activist (b.", "1882)*1967 – Thomas MacGreevy, Irish poet (b.", "1893)*1968 – Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian-American pianist and composer (b.", "1895)* 1968 – Gunnar Ekelöf, Swedish poet and translator (b.", "1907)* 1970 – Tammi Terrell, American singer (b.", "1945)*1971 – Bebe Daniels, American actress (b.", "1901)* 1971 – Thomas E. Dewey, American lawyer and politician, 47th Governor of New York (b.", "1902)*1972 – Pie Traynor, American baseball player (b.", "1898)*1975 – T-Bone Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1910)*1977 – Kamal Jumblatt, Lebanese lawyer and politician (b.", "1917)*1979 – Jean Monnet, French economist and politician (b.", "1888)*1980 – Tamara de Lempicka, Polish-American painter (b.", "1898)*1983 – Arthur Godfrey, American actor and television host (b.", "1903)* 1983 – Fred Rose, Polish-Canadian politician (b.", "1907)*1985 – Roger Sessions, American composer, critic, and educator (b.", "1896)* 1985 – Eddie Shore, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b.", "1902)*1988 – Jigger Statz, American baseball player (b.1897)* 1988 – Mickey Thompson, American race car driver (b.", "1928)*1990 – Ernst Bacon, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1898)*1991 – Chris Austin, American country singer (b .1964)* 1991 – Jean Bellette, Australian artist (b.", "1908)*1992 – Yves Rocard, French physicist and engineer (b.", "1903)*1994 – Eric Show, American baseball player (b.", "1956)*1998 – Derek Barton, English-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1918)* 1998 – Esther Bubley, American photographer (b.", "1921)*1999 – Gratien Gélinas, Canadian actor, director, and playwright (b.", "1909)*2000 – Thomas Ferebee, American colonel and pilot (b.", "1918)* 2000 – Pavel Prudnikau, Belarusian poet and author (b.", "1911)* 2000 – Michael Starr, Canadian judge and politician, 16th Canadian Minister of Labour (b.", "1910)* 2000 – Carlos Velázquez, Puerto Rican pitcher (b.", "1948)*2001 – Bob Wollek, French race car driver (b.", "1943)*2003 – Rachel Corrie, American activist (b.", "1979)* 2003 – Ronald Ferguson, English captain, polo player, and manager (b.", "1931)*2004 – Vilém Tauský, Czech conductor and composer (b.", "1910)*2005 – Todd Bell, American football player (b.", "1958)* 2005 – Ralph Erskine, English architect, designed The London Ark (b.", "1914)* 2005 – Dick Radatz, American baseball player (b.", "1937)*2007 – Manjural Islam Rana, Bangladeshi cricketer (b.", "1984)*2008 – Bill Brown, Australian cricketer and soldier (b.", "1912)* 2008 – Ivan Dixon, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1931)* 2008 – Gary Hart, American wrestler and manager (b.", "1942)*2010 – Ksenija Pajčin, Serbian singer, dancer and model (b.", "1977)*2011 – Richard Wirthlin, American religious leader (b.", "1931)*2012 – Donald E. Hillman, American colonel and pilot (b.", "1918)* 2012 – Takaaki Yoshimoto, Japanese poet, philosopher, and critic (b.", "1924)*2013 – Jamal Nazrul Islam, Bangladeshi physicist and cosmologist (b.", "1939)* 2013 – José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz, Argentinian economist and politician, Minister of Economy of Argentina (b.", "1925)* 2013 – Yadier Pedroso, Cuban pitcher (b.", "1986)* 2013 – Ruchoma Shain, American-born teacher and author (b.", "1914)* 2013 – Marina Solodkin, Russian-Israeli academic and politician (b.", "1952)* 2013 – Frank Thornton, English actor (b.", "1921)*2014 – Gary Bettenhausen, American race car driver (b.", "1941)* 2014 – Donald Crothers, American chemist and academic (b.", "1937)* 2014 – Yulisa Pat Amadu Maddy, Sierra Leonean author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1936)* 2014 – Steve Moore, English author and illustrator (b.", "1949)* 2014 – Alexander Pochinok, Russian economist and politician (b.", "1958)*2015 – Jack Haley, American basketball player and sportscaster (b.", "1964)* 2015 – Don Robertson, American pianist and composer (b.", "1922)*2016 – Alexander Esenin-Volpin, Russian-American mathematician and poet (b.", "1924)* 2016 – Frank Sinatra Jr., American singer and actor (b.", "1944)*2017 – Lewis Rowland, American neurologist (b.", "1925)*2018 – Louise Slaughter, Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New York (b.", "1929)*2019 – Dick Dale, American surf-rock guitarist, singer, and songwriter (b.", "1937)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Saint Urho*Christian feast day:**Abbán**Finian Lobhar (Finian the Leper)**Heribert of Cologne.", "**Hilarius of Aquileia**Julian of Antioch**March 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Day of the Book Smugglers (Lithuania)*Remembrance day of the Latvian legionnaires (Latvia)*Saint Urho's Day (Finnish Americans and Finnish Canadians)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 16" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Tacitus (emperor)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marcus Claudius Tacitus''' ( ; died June 276) was Roman emperor from 275 to 276.During his short reign he campaigned against the Goths and the Heruli, for which he received the title ''Gothicus Maximus''." ], [ "Early life", "Antoninianus of Tacitus.", "Legend: IMPeratorCaesar Marcus CLavdius TACITVS AVGustus.His early life is largely unknown.", "An origin story which claimed Tacitus to be the heir of an old Umbrian family and one of the wealthiest men of the empire with a total wealth of 280 million sestertii circulated after his coronation.", "His faction distributed copies of the historian Publius Cornelius Tacitus' work, which was barely read at the time, perhaps contributing to its partial survival.", "Modern historiography rejects his alleged descent from the historian as a fabrication.", "It is more likely that he emerged from the Illyrian military, which made him a representative of the army in imperial politics.In the course of his long life he held various civil offices, including the consulship twice, once under Valerian and again in 273, earning universal respect." ], [ "Emperor", "After the assassination of Aurelian, the army, apparently showing remorse towards its role in the death of the beloved emperor, relinquished the right of choosing his successor to the Senate.", "After a few weeks, the throne was offered to the aged ''Princeps Senatus'', Tacitus.According to the ''Historia Augusta'', Tacitus, after ascertaining the sincerity of the Senate's regard for him, accepted their nomination on 25 September 275, and the choice was cordially ratified by the army.", "If true, Tacitus would have been the last emperor elected by the Senate.", "However, it's possible that much of this narrative is fictitious, as Zosimus and Zonaras report that Tacitus was actually proclaimed by the army without any intervention of the Senate.", "His proclamation as emperor should have happened in late November or early December.In older historiography, it was generally accepted that Aurelian's wife, Ulpia Severina, ruled in her own right before the election of Tacitus which could indicate an interregnum which lasted as long as six months.", "Contemporary bibliography considers that no interregnum may have existed between Aurelian's death and the coronation of the new Emperor.", "Tacitus had been living in Campania before his election, and returned only reluctantly to the assembly of the Senate in Rome, where he was elected.", "He immediately asked the Senators to deify Aurelian, before arresting and executing Aurelian's murderers.", "In ancient sources, he was described as very old at that time, but in reality he was possibly in his fifties.Amongst the highest concerns of the new reign was the restoration of the ancient Senatorial powers.", "He granted substantial prerogatives to the Senate, securing to them by law the appointment of the emperor, of the consuls, and the provincial governors, as well as supreme right of appeal from every court in the empire in its judicial function, and the direction of certain branches of the revenue in its long-abeyant administrative capacity.", "Probus respected these changes, but after the reforms of Diocletian in the succeeding decades not a vestige would be left of them.===Fighting barbarians===Next he moved against the barbarian mercenaries that had been gathered by Aurelian to supplement Roman forces for his Eastern campaign.", "These mercenaries had plundered several towns in the Eastern Roman provinces after Aurelian had been murdered and the campaign cancelled.", "His half-brother, the Praetorian Prefect Florian, and Tacitus himself won a victory against these tribes, among which were the Heruli, gaining the emperor the title ''Gothicus Maximus''.===Death===On his way back to the west to deal with a Frankish and Alamannic invasion of Gaul, according to Aurelius Victor, Eutropius and the Historia Augusta, Tacitus died of fever at Tyana in Cappadocia around June 276, after a rule of just over 6 months.", "In a contrary account, Zosimus claims he was assassinated, after appointing one of his relatives to an important command in Syria." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Ancient sources===* Historia Augusta, ''Vita Taciti'', English translation* Eutropius, ''Breviarium ab urbe condita'', ix.", "16, English translation* Aurelius Victor,'' \"Epitome de Caesaribus\"'', English translation* Zosimus, ''\"Historia Nova\"'', English translation* Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284===Secondary sources===* McMahon, Robin, \"Tacitus (275–276 A.D)\", ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''* *** Southern, Pat.", "The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001*Gibbon.", "Edward ''Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire'' (1888)*" ], [ "Further reading", "*Constantine P. Cavafy, ''The Complete Poems'', Harcourt, Brace & World (1961), p. 201*Alan Dugan, ''Poems 2'', Yale University Press (1963), p. 33" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MV Tampa" ], [ "Introduction", "'''MV ''Tampa''''' was a roll-on/roll-off container ship completed in 1984 by Hyundai Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. in South Korea for the Norway-based firm, Wilhelmsen Lines Shipowning.In 2001, the vessel was at the centre of the Tampa affair when its crew rescued 433 refugees in international waters, but the Australian government refused permission for them to disembark on Christmas Island." ], [ "Service history", "Tampa was launched in late 1983.It was a so-called ro-ro ship.", "Ro-ro is an abbreviation of roll-on/roll off.", "These ships are cargo ships designed to carry wheeled cargo, such as cars, motorcycles, trucks, semi-trailer trucks, buses, trailers, and railroad cars, that are driven on and off the ship on their own wheels or using a platform vehicle, such as a self-propelled modular transporter.", "This is in contrast to lift-on/lift-off (LoLo) vessels, which use a crane to load and unload cargo.===Tampa affair===ABC news report of the ''Tampa affair'' and its political context, October 2001.In August 2001, under Captain Arne Rinnan, a diplomatic dispute brewed between Australia, Norway, and Indonesia after ''Tampa'' rescued 433 Afghans from a distressed fishing vessel in international waters.", "The Afghans wanted passage to the nearby Christmas Island.", "The Australian government sought to prevent this by refusing ''Tampa'' entry into Australian waters, insisting on their disembarkment elsewhere, and deploying the Special Air Service Regiment to board the ship.At the time of the incident, ''Tampa'' carried cargo worth , and 27 crew.", "The crew of ''Tampa'' later received the Nansen Refugee Award for 2002 from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for their efforts to follow international principles of saving people in distress at sea.===Cocaine smuggling bust===In October 2006, ''Tampa'' was one of two Wilhelmsen ships involved in a cocaine-smuggling operation intercepted by the New Zealand Customs Service and the Australian Federal Police.", "of cocaine was allegedly attached to the side of the two cargo ships bound for Australia in purpose-built metal pods, although New Zealand authorities stated they did not believe the ship's crew or owners were involved." ], [ "See also", "* * Ruddock v Vadarlis" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* David Marr, Maria Wilkinson: ''Dark Victory - How a government lied its way to political triumph''.", "Allen & Unwin 2004, ." ], [ "Further reading", "* Decision of Justice North, Federal Court of Australia 11 September 2001* Decision of Full Court overturning decision of Justice North, 18 September 2001*David Marr & Marian Wilkinson ''Dark Victory''.", "** News.com.au: Reflections by Julian Burnside on Tampa with public comments published to coincide with 5-year anniversary of the event*Daniel Ross, ''Violent Democracy'', ch.", "5.", "* Mary Elzabeth Crock: ''In the Wake of the Tampa: Conflicting Visions of International Refugee Law in the Management of Refugee Flows''.", "Pacific Rim Journal of Law and Policy, Vol.", "12, No.", "1, pp.", "49–95, 2003.", "* Peter Mares: ''Borderline: Australia's Response to Refugees and Asylum Seekers in the Wake of the Tampa''.", "UNSW Press 2002, ." ], [ "External links", "* NauruWire, an Australia based site Update on status of detainees.", "Accessed 25 June 2005." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maya numerals" ], [ "Introduction", "Maya numerals400s 20s 1s 33 429 5125The '''Maya numeral system''' was the system to represent numbers and calendar dates in the Maya civilization.", "It was a vigesimal (base-20) positional numeral system.", "The numerals are made up of three symbols: zero (a sea shell), one (a dot) and five (a bar).", "For example, thirteen is written as three dots in a horizontal row above two horizontal bars; sometimes it is also written as three vertical dots to the left of two vertical bars.", "With these three symbols, each of the twenty vigesimal digits could be written.Numbers after 19 were written vertically in powers of twenty.", "The Maya used powers of twenty, just as the Hindu–Arabic numeral system uses powers of ten.", "For example, thirty-three would be written as one dot, above three dots atop two bars.", "The first dot represents \"one twenty\" or \"1×20\", which is added to three dots and two bars, or thirteen.", "Therefore, (1×20) + 13 = 33.Upon reaching 202 or 400, another row is started (203 or 8000, then 204 or 160,000, and so on).", "The number 429 would be written as one dot above one dot above four dots and a bar, or (1×202) + (1×201) + 9 = 429.Other than the bar and dot notation, Maya numerals were sometimes illustrated by face type glyphs or pictures.", "The face glyph for a number represents the deity associated with the number.", "These face number glyphs were rarely used, and are mostly seen on some of the most elaborate monumental carvings." ], [ "Addition and subtraction", "Adding and subtracting numbers below 20 using Maya numerals is very simple.Addition is performed by combining the numeric symbols at each level:210pxIf five or more dots result from the combination, five dots are removed and replaced by a bar.", "If four or more bars result, four bars are removed and a dot is added to the next higher row.", "This also means that the value of 1 bar is 5.Similarly with subtraction, remove the elements of the subtrahend symbol from the minuend symbol:210pxIf there are not enough dots in a minuend position, a bar is replaced by five dots.", "If there are not enough bars, a dot is removed from the next higher minuend symbol in the column and four bars are added to the minuend symbol which is being worked on." ], [ "Modified vigesimal system in the Maya calendar", "Detail showing in the right columns glyphs from La Mojarra Stela 1.The left column uses Maya numerals to show a Long Count date of 8.5.16.9.7 or 156 CE.", "The \"Long Count\" portion of the Maya calendar uses a variation on the strictly vigesimal numerals to show a Long Count date.", "In the second position, only the digits up to 17 are used, and the place value of the third position is not 20×20 = 400, as would otherwise be expected, but 18×20 = 360 so that one dot over two zeros signifies 360.Presumably, this is because 360 is roughly the number of days in a year.", "(The Maya had however a quite accurate estimation of 365.2422 days for the solar year at least since the early Classic era.)", "Subsequent positions use all twenty digits and the place values continue as 18×20×20 = 7,200 and 18×20×20×20 = 144,000, etc.Every known example of large numbers in the Maya system uses this 'modified vigesimal' system, with the third position representing multiples of 18×20.It is reasonable to assume, but not proven by any evidence, that the normal system in use was a pure base-20 system." ], [ "Origins", "Several Mesoamerican cultures used similar numerals and base-twenty systems and the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar requiring the use of zero as a place-holder.", "The earliest long count date (on Stela 2 at Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas) is from 36 BC.Since the eight earliest Long Count dates appear outside the Maya homeland, it is assumed that the use of zero and the Long Count calendar predated the Maya, and was possibly the invention of the Olmec.", "Indeed, many of the earliest Long Count dates were found within the Olmec heartland.", "However, the Olmec civilization had come to an end by the 4th century BC, several centuries before the earliest known Long Count dates—which suggests that zero was ''not'' an Olmec discovery." ], [ "Unicode", "Mayan numerals codes in Unicode comprise the block 1D2E0 to 1D2F3" ], [ "See also", "*Kaktovik numerals, a similar system from another culture, created in the late 20th century." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *Davidson, Luis J.", "“The Maya Numerals.” Mathematics in School, vol.", "3, no.", "4, 1974, pp.", "7–7*" ], [ "External links", "* Maya numerals converter - online converter from decimal numeration to Maya numeral notation.", "* Anthropomorphic Maya numbers - online story of number representations.", "* BabelStone Mayan Numerals - free font for Unicode Mayan numeral characters." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Michael Foot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Michael Mackintosh Foot''' (23 July 19133 March 2010) was a British politician who served as Leader of the Opposition and Leader of the Labour Party from 1980 to 1983.Foot began his career as a journalist on ''Tribune'' and the ''Evening Standard''.", "He co-wrote the 1940 polemic against appeasement of Hitler, ''Guilty Men'', under a pseudonym.Foot served as a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1945 to 1955 and again from 1960 until he retired in 1992.A passionate orator, and associated with the left wing of the Labour Party for most of his career, Foot was an ardent supporter of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) and of British withdrawal from the European Economic Community (EEC).", "He was appointed to the Cabinet as Secretary of State for Employment under Harold Wilson in 1974, and he later served as Leader of the House of Commons (1976–1979) under James Callaghan.", "He was also Deputy Leader of the Labour Party under Callaghan from 1976 to 1980.Elected as a compromise candidate, Foot served as Labour leader, and Leader of the Opposition, from 1980 to 1983.His strongly left-wing political positions and criticisms of his vacillating leadership made him an unpopular leader.", "Not particularly telegenic, he was nicknamed \"Worzel Gummidge\" for his rumpled appearance.", "A faction of the party broke away in 1981 to form the Social Democratic Party (SDP).", "Foot led Labour into the 1983 general election, when the party obtained its lowest share of the vote in 65 years and the fewest parliamentary seats since 1935, which remained the case until Labour's defeat at the 2019 general election.", "He resigned the party leadership following the election, and was succeeded as leader by Neil Kinnock.Books authored by Michael Foot include ''Guilty Men'' (1940); ''The Pen and the Sword'' (1957), a biography of Jonathan Swift; and a biography of Aneurin Bevan." ], [ "Family", "Foot was born in Lipson Terrace, Plymouth, Devon, the fourth son and fifth of seven children of Isaac Foot (1880–1960) and of the Scotswoman Eva (née Mackintosh, died 17 May 1946).Isaac Foot was a solicitor and founder of the Plymouth law firm Foot and Bowden (which amalgamated with another firm to become Foot Anstey).", "Isaac Foot, an active member of the Liberal Party, served as the Liberal Member of Parliament for Bodmin in Cornwall from 1922 to 1924 and again from 1929 to 1935, and as a Lord Mayor of Plymouth.Michael Foot's siblings included: Sir Dingle Foot MP (1905–78), a Liberal and subsequently Labour MP; Hugh Foot, Baron Caradon (1907–90), Governor of Cyprus (1957–60) and representative of the United Kingdom at the United Nations from 1964 to 1970; Liberal politician John Foot, later Baron Foot (1909–99); Margaret Elizabeth Foot (1911–65); Jennifer Mackintosh Highet (1916-2002); and Christopher Isaac Foot (1917–84).", "Michael Foot was the uncle of campaigning journalist Paul Foot (1937–2004) and of charity worker Oliver Foot (1946–2008)." ], [ "Early life", "Foot was educated at Plymouth College Preparatory School, Forres School in Swanage, and Leighton Park School in Reading.", "When he left Forres School, the headmaster sent a letter to his father in which he said \"he has been the leading boy in the school in every way\".", "He then went on to read Philosophy, Politics and Economics at Wadham College, Oxford.", "Foot was a president of the Oxford Union.", "He also took part in the ESU USA Tour (the debating tour of the United States run by the English-Speaking Union).Upon graduating with a second-class degree in 1934, he took a job as a shipping clerk in Birkenhead.", "Foot was profoundly influenced by the poverty and unemployment that he witnessed in Liverpool, which was on a different scale from anything he had seen in Plymouth.", "A Liberal up to this time, Foot was converted to socialism by Oxford University Labour Club president David Lewis, a Canadian Rhodes scholar, and others: \" I knew him at Oxford when I was a Liberal and Lewis played a part in converting me to socialism.", "\"Foot joined the Labour Party and first stood for parliament, aged 22, at the 1935 general election, where he contested Monmouth.", "During the election, Foot criticised the Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, for seeking rearmament.", "In his election address, Foot contended that \"the armaments race in Europe must be stopped now\".", "Foot also supported unilateral disarmament, after multilateral disarmament talks at Geneva had broken down in 1933.Foot became a journalist, working briefly on the ''New Statesman'', before joining the left-wing weekly ''Tribune'' when it was set up in early 1937 to support the Unity Campaign, an attempt to secure an anti-fascist united front between Labour and other left-wing parties.", "The campaign's members were Stafford Cripps's (Labour-affiliated) Socialist League, the Independent Labour Party and the Communist Party of Great Britain (CP).", "Foot resigned in 1938 after the paper's first editor, William Mellor, was sacked for refusing to adopt a new CP policy of backing a Popular Front, including non-socialist parties, against fascism and appeasement.", "In a 1955 interview, Foot ideologically identified as a libertarian socialist.He was an avid anti-imperialist and was heavily involved in the India League.", "As an Oxford graduate, he was influenced by the founder of the India League, Krishna Menon.", "The India League was the premier UK-based organisation that fought for the 'Liberation of India'.", "After Indian independence in 1947, Foot's interest in India continued, and he became Chair of the India League." ], [ "Journalism", "On the recommendation of Aneurin Bevan, Foot was soon hired by Lord Beaverbrook to work as a writer on his ''Evening Standard''.", "(Bevan is supposed to have told Beaverbrook on the phone: \"I've got a young bloody knight-errant here.", "They sacked his boss, so he resigned.", "Have a look at him.\")", "At the outbreak of the Second World War, Foot volunteered for military service, but was rejected because of his chronic asthma.", "It was suggested in 2009 that he was a member of the secret Auxiliary Units.In 1940, under the pen-name \"Cato\" he and two other Beaverbrook journalists (Frank Owen, editor of the ''Standard'', and Peter Howard of the ''Daily Express'') published ''Guilty Men'', which attacked the appeasement policy and slow pace of British re-armament under the National Governments of Ramsay MacDonald, Stanley Baldwin, and Neville Chamberlain; it became a runaway bestseller.", "(In so doing, Foot reversed his position of the 1935 election – when he had attacked the Conservatives as militaristic and demanded disarmament in the face of Nazi Germany.)", "Beaverbrook made Foot editor of the ''Evening Standard'' in 1942, when he was aged 28.During the war, Foot made a speech that was later featured in the documentary TV series ''The World at War'' broadcast in February 1974.Foot was speaking in defence of the ''Daily Mirror'', which had criticised the conduct of the war by the Churchill government.", "He mocked the notion that the Government would make no more territorial demands of other newspapers if they allowed the ''Mirror'' to be censored.Foot left the ''Standard'' in 1945 to join the ''Daily Herald'' as a columnist.", "The ''Daily Herald'' was jointly owned by the Trades Union Congress and Odhams Press, and was effectively an official Labour Party paper.", "He rejoined ''Tribune'' as editor from 1948 to 1952, and was again the paper's editor from 1955 to 1960.Throughout his political career he railed against the increasing corporate domination of the press." ], [ "Member of Parliament", "Foot fought the Plymouth Devonport constituency in the 1945 general election.", "His election agent was Labour activist and lifelong friend Ron Lemin.", "He won the seat for Labour for the first time, holding it until his surprise defeat by Dame Joan Vickers at the 1955 general election.", "Until 1957, he was the most prominent ally of Aneurin Bevan, who had taken Cripps's place as leader of the Labour left.", "He successfully urged Bevan to follow through with his threat to resign from the Cabinet in protest of the introduction of prescription charges at the National Health Service, leading to a split in the Labour Party between Bevanites and Gaitskellites.", "Foot and Bevan fell out after Bevan renounced unilateral nuclear disarmament at the 1957 Labour Party conference.Before the Cold War began in the late 1940s, Foot favoured a 'third way' foreign policy for Europe (he was joint author with Richard Crossman and Ian Mikardo of the pamphlet ''Keep Left'' in 1947), but in the wake of the communist seizure of power in Hungary and Czechoslovakia he and ''Tribune'' took a strongly anti-communist position, eventually embracing NATO.Foot was, however, a critic of the West's handling of the Korean War, an opponent of West German rearmament in the early 1950s and a founder member of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) in 1957.Under his editorship, ''Tribune'' opposed both the British government's Suez campaign and the Soviet crushing of the Hungarian Revolution in 1956.During this period, he made regular television appearances on the current-affairs programmes ''In The News'' (BBC Television) and subsequently ''Free Speech'' (ITV).", "\"There was certainly nothing wrong with his television technique in those days,\" reflected Anthony Howard shortly after Foot's death.Foot returned to parliament at a by-election in Ebbw Vale, Monmouthshire, in 1960, the seat having been left vacant by Bevan's death.", "He had the Labour whip withdrawn in March 1961 after rebelling against the Labour leadership over Royal Air Force estimates.", "He only returned to the Parliamentary Labour Group in 1963, when Harold Wilson became Leader of the Labour Party after the sudden death of Hugh Gaitskell.Harold Wilson — the subject of an enthusiastic campaign biography by Foot published by Robert Maxwell's Pergamon Press in 1964 – offered Foot a place in his first government, but Foot turned it down, instead becoming the leader of Labour's left opposition from the back benches.", "He opposed the government's moves to restrict immigration, join the European Communities (or \"Common Market\" as they were referred to) and reform the trade unions, was against the Vietnam War and Rhodesia's unilateral declaration of independence, and denounced the Soviet suppression of \"socialism with a human face\" in Czechoslovakia in 1968.He also famously allied with the Tory right-winger Enoch Powell to scupper the government's plan to abolish the voting rights of hereditary peers and create a House of Lords comprising only life peers – a \"seraglio of eunuchs\" as Foot put it.Foot challenged James Callaghan for the post of Treasurer of the Labour Party in 1967, but failed.===In government===After 1970, Labour moved to the left and Wilson came to an accommodation with Foot.", "Foot served in the Second Shadow Cabinet of Harold Wilson in various roles between 1970 and 1974.In April 1972, he stood for the Deputy Leadership of the party, along with Edward Short and Anthony Crosland.", "The first ballot saw Foot narrowly come second to Short winning 110 votes to the latter's 111.Crosland polled 61 votes and was eliminated.", "It was reported in the next day's ''Glasgow Herald'' that Short was the favourite to pick up most of Crosland's votes.", "The second ballot saw Short increase his total to 145 votes, while Foot's only rose to 116, giving Short victory by 29 votes.When, in 1974, Labour returned to office under Wilson, Foot became Secretary of State for Employment.", "According to Ben Pimlott, his appointment was intended to please the left of the party and the Trade Unions.", "In this role, he played the major part in the government's efforts to maintain the trade unions' support.", "He was also responsible for the Health and Safety at Work Act, as well as the Trade Union and Labour Relations Act that repealed the Heath ministry's trade union reforms, and the Employment Protection Act, which introduced legal protections against being sacked for becoming pregnant and legislated for maternity pay.", "His time as Employment Secretary also saw Acas adopt its current name and modern form as a body with independence from government.Foot was one of the mainstays of the \"no\" campaign in the 1975 referendum on British membership of the European Communities.", "When Wilson retired in 1976, Foot contested the party leadership and led in the first ballot, but was ultimately defeated by James Callaghan.", "Later that year Foot was elected Deputy Leader, and during the Callaghan government Foot took a seat in Cabinet as Leader of the House of Commons, which gave him the unenviable task of trying to maintain the survival of the Callaghan government as its majority evaporated.", "However, he was able to steer numerous government proposals through the Commons, often by very narrow majorities, including increases in pension and benefit rates, the creation of the Police Complaints Board, the expansion of comprehensive schools, the establishment of a statutory responsibility to provide housing for the homeless, universal Child Benefit, the nationalisation of shipbuilding, abolishing pay beds in NHS hospitals, and housing security for agricultural workers, before the government fell in a vote of no confidence by a single vote.", "Whilst Leader of the Commons, Foot simultaneously held the post of Lord President of the Council.In 1975, Foot, along with Jennie Lee and others, courted controversy when they supported Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India, after she prompted the declaration of a state of emergency.", "In December 1975, ''The Times'' ran an editorial titled 'Is Mr Foot a Fascist?'", "— their answer was that he was — after Norman Tebbit accused him of 'undiluted fascism' when Foot said that the Ferrybridge Six deserved dismissal for defying a closed shop." ], [ "Labour leadership", "Following Labour's 1979 general election defeat by Margaret Thatcher, James Callaghan remained as party leader for the next 18 months before he resigned.", "Foot was elected Labour leader on 10 November 1980, beating Denis Healey in the second round of the leadership election (the last leadership contest to involve only Labour MPs).", "Foot presented himself as a compromise candidate, capable – unlike Healey – of uniting the party, which at the time was riven by the grassroots left-wing insurgency centred around Tony Benn.The Bennites were demanding revenge for what they considered to be the betrayals of the Callaghan government.", "They called for MPs who had acquiesced in Callaghan's policies to be replaced by left-wingers who would support unilateral nuclear disarmament, withdrawal from the European Communities, and widespread nationalisation.", "Benn did not stand for the leadership; apart from Foot and Healey, the other candidates (both eliminated in the first round) were John Silkin, a Tribunite like Foot, and Peter Shore, a Eurosceptic.As Steve Richards notes in 1980 Healey, not Foot, was widely expected by the media and many political figures to be the next Labour leader.", "However, he notes that while \"Healey was widely seen as the obvious successor to Callaghan\", and that sections of the media ultimately reacted with \"disbelief\" at Labour not choosing him, the \"choice of Foot was not as perverse as it seemed\".", "He argues Labour MPs were looking for a figure from the left who could unite the wider party with the leadership, which Healey could not do.", "Richards states that despite being on the left of the party Foot was not a \"tribal politician\" and had proved he could work with those of different ideologies and had been a loyal deputy to Callaghan.", "Thus Foot \"was seen as the unity candidate\" and won the election.When he became leader, Foot was already 67 years old – and frail.", "Following the 1979 energy crisis, Britain went into recession in 1980, which was blamed on the Conservative government's controversial monetarist policy against inflation, which had the effect of increasing unemployment.", "As a result, Labour had moved ahead of the Conservatives in the opinion polls.", "Following Foot's election as leader, opinion polls showed a double-digit lead for Labour, boosting his hopes of becoming prime minister at the next general election, which had to be held by May 1984.When Foot became leader, the Conservative politician Kenneth Baker commented: \"Labour was led by Dixon of Dock Green under Jim Callaghan.", "Now it is led by Worzel Gummidge.\"", "Foot's nickname in the press gradually became \"Worzel Gummidge\", or \"Worzel\".", "This became particularly common after Remembrance Day 1981, when he attended the Cenotaph observance wearing a coat that some said resembled a donkey jacket.", "After his tenure as leader, Foot would be \"depicted as a scarecrow on ITV's satirical puppet show ''Spitting Image''.", "\"Almost immediately following his election as leader, he was faced with a serious crisis.", "On 25 January 1981, four senior politicians on the right-wing of the Labour Party (Roy Jenkins, Shirley Williams, David Owen and William Rodgers, the so-called \"Gang of Four\") left Labour and formed the Social Democratic Party, which was launched on 26 March 1981.This was largely seen as the consequence of the Labour Party's swing to the left, polarising divisions in an already divided party.The SDP won the support of large sections of the British media.", "For most of 1981 and early 1982, its opinion poll ratings suggested that the SDP could at least overtake Labour and possibly win a general election.", "The Conservatives were then unpopular because of the economic policies of Margaret Thatcher, which had seen unemployment reach a postwar high.The Labour left was still strong.", "In 1981, Benn decided to challenge Healey for the Deputy Leadership of the Labour Party, a contest Healey won, albeit narrowly.", "Foot struggled to make an impact, and was widely criticised for his ineffectiveness, though his performances in the Commons – most notably on the Falklands War of 1982 – won him widespread respect from other parliamentarians.", "He was criticised by some on the left for supporting Thatcher's immediate resort to military action.", "The right-wing newspapers nevertheless lambasted him consistently for what they saw as his bohemian eccentricity, attacking him for wearing what they described as a \"donkey jacket\" (actually he wore a type of duffel coat) at the wreath-laying ceremony at the Cenotaph on Remembrance Day in November 1981, for which he was likened to an \"out-of-work navvy\" by a fellow Labour MP.", "Foot did not make it generally known that the Queen Mother had described it as a \"sensible coat for a day like this\", which could be considered a slight or a compliment depending on whether irony was intended.", "He later donated the coat to the People's History Museum in Manchester, which holds a collection that spans Foot's entire political career from 1938 to 1990, and his personal papers dating back to 1926.The formation of the SDP – which formed an alliance with the Liberal Party in June 1981 – contributed to a fall in Labour support.", "The double-digit lead that had still been intact in opinion polls at the start of 1981 was swiftly wiped out, and by the end of October the opinion polls were showing the Alliance ahead of Labour.", "Labour briefly regained their lead of most opinion polls in early 1982, but when the Falklands conflict ended on 14 June 1982 with a British victory over Argentina, opinion polls showed the Conservatives firmly in the lead.", "Their position at the top of the polls was strengthened by the return to economic growth later in the year.", "It was looking certain that the Conservatives would be re-elected, and the only key issue that the media were still speculating by the end of 1982 was whether it would be Labour or the Alliance who formed the next opposition.Through late 1982 and early 1983, there was constant speculation that Labour MPs would replace Foot with Healey as leader.", "Such speculation increased after Labour lost the 1983 Bermondsey by-election, in which Peter Tatchell was Labour candidate, standing against a Conservative, a Liberal (eventual winner Simon Hughes) and John O'Grady, who had declared himself the Real Bermondsey Labour candidate.", "Critically, Labour held on in a subsequent by-election in Darlington, and Foot remained leader for the 1983 general election." ], [ "1983 general election", "The 1983 Labour manifesto, strongly socialist in tone, advocated unilateral nuclear disarmament, higher personal taxation and a return to a more interventionist industrial policy.", "The manifesto also pledged that a Labour government would abolish the House of Lords, nationalise banks and immediately withdraw from the then-European Economic Community.", "Gerald Kaufman, once Harold Wilson's press officer and during the 1980s a prominent figure on the Labour right-wing, described the 1983 Labour manifesto as \"the longest suicide note in history.", "\"As a statement on internal democracy, Foot passed the edict that the manifesto would consist of all resolutions arrived at conference.", "The party also failed to master the medium of television, while Foot addressed public meetings around the country, and made some radio broadcasts, in the same manner as Clement Attlee did in 1945.The ''Daily Mirror'' was the only major newspaper to back Foot and the Labour Party at the 1983 general election, urging its readers to vote Labour and \"Stop the waste of our nation, for your job your children and your future\" in response to the mass unemployment that followed Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's monetarist economic policies to reduce inflation.", "Most other newspapers urged their readers to vote Conservative.The Labour Party, led by Foot, lost to the Conservatives in a landslide – a result that had been widely predicted by the opinion polls since the previous summer.", "The only consolation for Foot and Labour was that they did not lose their place in opposition to the SDP–Liberal Alliance, who came close to them in terms of votes but were still a long way behind in terms of seats.", "Despite this, Foot was very critical of the Alliance, accusing them of \"siphoning\" Labour support and enabling the Tories to win more seats.Foot resigned days following the bitter election defeat, and was succeeded as leader on 2 October by Neil Kinnock; who had been tipped from the outset to be Labour's choice of new leader." ], [ "Backbenches and retirement", "Foot took a back seat in Labour politics following 1983 and retired from the House of Commons at the 1992 general election, when Labour lost to the Conservative Party (led by John Major) for the fourth election in succession, but remained politically active.", "From 1987 to 1992, he was the oldest sitting British MP (preceding former Prime Minister Sir Edward Heath).", "He defended Salman Rushdie, after Ayatollah Khomeini advocated killing the novelist in a fatwā, and took a strongly pro-interventionist position against Serbia and Montenegro during the Yugoslav Wars, supporting NATO forces whilst citing defence of civilian populations in Croatia and Bosnia.", "In addition, he was among the Patrons of the British-Croatian Society.", "''The Guardian''s political editor Michael White criticised Foot's \"overgenerous\" support for Croatian President Franjo Tuđman.Foot remained a high-profile member of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND).", "He wrote several books, including highly regarded biographies of Aneurin Bevan and H. G. Wells.", "Indeed, he was a distinguished Vice-president of the H. G. Wells Society.", "Many of his friends have said publicly that they regret that he ever gave up literature for politics.Michael Foot became a supporter of pro-Europeanism in the 1990s.Foot was an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society and a Distinguished Supporter of the British Humanist Association.", "In 1988, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.", "In a poll of Labour Party activists he was voted the worst post-war Labour Party leader.", "Though Foot is considered by many right-wingers to be a failure as Labour leader, his biographer Mervyn Jones strongly makes the case that no one else could have held Labour together at the time, particularly in the face of the controversy over the infiltration of the party by Militant.", "Foot is remembered with affection in Westminster as a great parliamentarian.", "He was widely liked, and admired for his integrity, habitual courtesy, and generosity of spirit, by both his colleagues and opponents.A portrait of Foot by the artist Robert Lenkiewicz now permanently hangs in Portcullis House, Westminster.===Gordievsky's KGB allegations===Oleg Gordievsky, a high-ranking KGB officer who defected from the Soviet Union to the UK in 1985, made allegations against Foot in his 1995 memoirs.", "Essentially, the allegations claimed that, up until 1968, Foot had spoken to KGB agents \"dozens of times\", passing information about politics and the trade unions, and Foot had been paid a total of around £1,500 for his information (said to be worth £37,000 in 2018).", "''The Sunday Times'', which serialised Gordievsky's book under the headline \"KGB: Michael Foot was our agent\", stated in an article of 19 February that the Soviet intelligence services regarded Foot as an \"agent of influence\" (and a \"useful idiot\"), codenamed \"Agent BOOT\", and that he was in the pay of the KGB for many years.", "Crucially, the newspaper used material from the original manuscript of the book that mentioned Foot by name, something excluded from the published book.At the time a leading article in ''The Independent'' newspaper asserted: \"It seems extraordinary that such an unreliable figure should now be allowed, given the lack of supporting evidence, to damage the reputation of figures such as Mr Foot.\"", "In a February 1992 interview, Gordievsky declared that he had no further revelations to make about the Labour Party.", "Foot successfully sued the ''Sunday Times'', winning \"substantial\" damages.Following Foot's death, Charles Moore writing in ''The Daily Telegraph'' in 2010 gave an account that he said had been provided to him by Gordievsky, containing additional uncorroborated information concerning his allegations.", "Moore said there was no evidence to show that Foot gave away state secrets." ], [ "Plymouth Argyle", "Foot was a passionate supporter of Plymouth Argyle Football Club from his childhood and once remarked that he was not going to die until he had seen them play in the Premier League.He served for several years as a director of the club, seeing two promotions under his tenure.For his 90th birthday, Foot was registered with the Football League as an honorary player and given the shirt number 90.This made him the oldest registered professional player in the history of football." ], [ "Personal life", "Foot was married to the film-maker, author and feminist historian Jill Craigie (1911–1999) from 1949 until her death fifty years later.", "He had no children.In February 2007, it was revealed that Foot had an extramarital affair with a woman around 35 years his junior in the early 1970s.", "The affair, which lasted nearly a year, put a considerable strain on his marriage.", "The affair is detailed in Foot's official biography, published in March 2007.On 23 July 2006, his 93rd birthday, Michael Foot became the longest-lived leader of a major British political party, passing Lord Callaghan's record of 92 years, 364 days.A staunch republican (though well liked by the Royal Family on a personal level), Foot rejected honours from the Queen and the government, including a knighthood and a peerage, on more than one occasion.He was also an atheist.", ", he was one of four leaders of the Labour Party to declare that they did not follow any religion." ], [ "Health", "Foot suffered from asthma (which disqualified him from service in the Second World War) and eczema.In October 1963, he was involved in a car crash, suffering pierced lungs, broken ribs, and a broken left leg.", "Foot used a walking stick for the rest of his life.", "According to former MP Tam Dalyell, Foot had, up until the accident, been a chain-smoker, but he gave up the habit thereafter.", "Jill Craigie also suffered a crushed hand in this car crash.In October 1976, Foot became blind in one eye following an attack of shingles." ], [ "Death", "Foot died at his Hampstead, north London home on the morning of 3 March 2010 at the age of 96 from congestive heart failure.", "The House of Commons was informed of the news later that day by Justice Secretary Jack Straw, who told the House: \"I am sure that this news will be received with great sadness not only in my own party but across the country as a whole.\"", "Foot's funeral was a non-religious service, held on 15 March 2010 at Golders Green Crematorium in North-West London." ], [ "Bibliography", "*Cato (pen name), ''Guilty Men'', Left Book Club (1940); by Foot, Peter Howard, and Frank Owen*Cassius (pen name), ''Brendan and Beverley'', Victor Gollancz (1940)*Cassius (pen name), ''The Trial of Mussolini: Being a Verbatim Report of the First Great Trial for War Criminals Held in London Sometime in 1944 or 1945'', Victor Gollancz (1943)* ''The Pen and the Sword'', MacGibbon and Kee (1957) ; 3rd printing (1966), ''The Pen & the Sword: A Year in the Life of Jonathan Swift'' * ''Guilty Men, 1957'', by Foot and Mervyn Jones, Gollancz (1957); US title, ''Guilty Men, 1957: Suez & Cyprus'' *''Aneurin Bevan'', MacGibbon and Kee (volume 1:1962) (volume 2:1973) *''Debts of Honour'', Harper and Row (1981) *''Another Heart and Other Pulses'', Collins (1984) .", "*''H.", "G.: The History of Mr Wells'', Doubleday (1985) *''Loyalists and Loners'', Collins (1986) *''Politics of Paradise'', HarperCollins (1989) *\"Introduction\" in Jonathan Swift's ''Gulliver's Travels'', Penguin (1967)*' \"Bevan's Message to the World\" ' in Geoffrey Goodman, ed., ''The State of the Nation: The Political Legacy of Aneurin Bevan'', Gollancz (1997)*\"Introduction\" in Bertrand Russell's ''Autobiography'', Routledge (1998)*''Dr Strangelove, I Presume'', Gollancz (1999)* ''The Uncollected Michael Foot'', by Foot and editor Brian Brivati, Politicos Publishing (2003) * \"Foreword\" in Greg Rosen's ''Old Labour to New'', Methuen Publishing (2005) *''Isaac Foot: A West Country Boy – Apostle of England'', Politicos Publishing (2006)" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Biographies", "*Hoggart, Simon; & david Leigh.", "''Michael Foot: a Portrait''.", "Hodder.", "1981.", "*Jones, Mervyn.", "''Michael Foot''.", "Gollancz.", "1993.", "*Morgan, Kenneth O.", "''Michael Foot: A Life''.", "HarperPress (HarperCollins) 2007." ], [ "External links", "* * * Michael Foot at 90 Johann Hari, 24 July 2003 – In-depth biographical interview marking Foot's 90th birthday* Michael Foot (1913–2010) slideshow at ''The First Post''* \"March 3: In 2010\" (fictitious obituary) at ''Today in Alternate History'' – \"what if the Falklands Task Force had been defeated?\"", "* The Labour History Archive and Study Centre hold Michael Foot's archive at: People's History Museum* \"Michael Foot 1913–2010\" at ''New Statesman'' – \"the last published interview 6 November 2008 with the former Labour leader\"* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Max and Moritz" ], [ "Introduction", "Max and Moritz.", "'''''Max and Moritz: A Story of Seven Boyish Pranks''''' (original: ''Max und Moritz – Eine Bubengeschichte in sieben Streichen'') is a German language illustrated story in verse.", "It was written and illustrated by Wilhelm Busch and published in 1865, and has since had significant cultural impact, both in German-speaking countries, where the story has been passed down through generations, but on the wider world, after translation into many languages.", "It has been adapted for film and television, as well as inspiring comic strips and children's TV characters and having things named after it." ], [ "Description", "''Max and Moritz: A Story of Seven Boyish Pranks'' is an inventive, blackly humorous tale, told entirely in rhymed couplets, was written and illustrated by Wilhelm Busch and published in 1865.It is among the early works of Busch, yet it already featured many substantial, effectually aesthetic and formal regularities, procedures and basic patterns of Busch's later works.", "Many familiar with comic strip history consider it to have been the direct inspiration for the ''Katzenjammer Kids'' and ''Quick & Flupke''.", "The German title satirises the German custom of giving a subtitle to the name of dramas in the form of \"Ein Drama in ... Akten\" (''A Drama in ... Acts''), which became dictum in colloquial usage for any event with an unpleasant or dramatic course, such as \"Bundespräsidentenwahl - Ein Drama in drei Akten\" (\"Federal Presidential Elections - A drama in three acts\").=== The pranks ===There have been several English translations of the original German verses over the years, but all have maintained the original trochaic tetrameter:==== Preface ====Ah, how oft we read or hear of Boys we almost stand in fear of!For example, take these storiesOf two youths, named Max and Moritz,Who, instead of early turningTheir young minds to useful learning,Often leered with horrid featuresAt their lessons and their teachers.The widow's four chickens (first trick)The widow's house (second trick)Look now at the empty head: heIs for mischief always ready.Teasing creatures - climbing fences,Stealing apples, pears, and quinces,Is, of course, a deal more pleasant,And far easier for the present,Than to sit in schools or churches,Fixed like roosters on their perchesBut O dear, O dear, O deary,When the end comes sad and dreary!", "'Tis a dreadful thing to tellThat on Max and Moritz fell!All they did this book rehearses,Both in pictures and in verses.==== First Trick: The Widow ====The boys tie several crusts of bread together with thread, and lay this trap in the chicken yard of Bolte (or \"Tibbets\" in the English version), an old widow, causing all the chickens to become fatally entangled.This prank is remarkably similar to the eighth history of the classic German prankster tales of Till Eulenspiegel.==== Second Trick: The Widow II ====As the widow cooks her chickens, the boys sneak onto her roof.", "When she leaves her kitchen momentarily, the boys steal the chickens using a fishing pole down the chimney.", "The widow hears her dog barking and hurries upstairs, finds the hearth empty and beats the dog.==== Third Trick: The Tailor ====Sawing through the bridge planks (third trick)The boys torment Böck (or \"Buck\" in the English version), a well-liked tailor who has a fast stream flowing in front of his house.", "They saw through the planks of his wooden bridgelet, making a precarious gap, then taunt him by making goat noises (a pun on his name being similar to the zoological expression 'buck'; in the English version they use his name for a straight pun), until he runs outside.", "The bridge breaks; the tailor is swept away and nearly drowns (but for two geese, which he grabs a hold of and which fly high to safety).Although Till removes the planks of the bridge instead of sawing them there are some similarities to Till Eulenspiegel (32nd History).==== Fourth Trick: The Teacher ====The teacher with his pipe (fourth trick)While their devout teacher, Lämpel, is busy at church, the boys invade his home and fill his favorite pipe with gunpowder.", "When he lights the pipe, the blast knocks him unconscious, blackens his skin and burns away all his hair.", "But: \"Time that comes will quick repair; yet the pipe retains its share.", "\"==== Fifth Trick: The Uncle ====The uncle and the May bugs (fifth trick)The boys collect bags full of May bugs, which they promptly deposit in their Uncle Fritz's bed.", "Uncle is nearly asleep when he feels the bugs walking on his nose.", "Horrified, he goes into a frenzy, killing them all before going back to sleep.==== Sixth Trick: The Baker ====The baker with Max and Moritz covered in dough (sixth trick)The boys invade a closed bakery to steal some Easter sweets.", "Attempting to steal pretzels, they fall into a vat of dough.", "The baker returns, catches the breaded pair, and bakes them.", "But they survive, and escape by gnawing through their crusts.==== Final Trick: The Farmer ====The fate of Max and Moritz (final trick)Hiding out in the grain storage area of a farmer, Mecke (unnamed in the English version), the boys slit some grain sacks.", "Carrying away one of the sacks, farmer Mecke immediately notices the problem.", "He puts the boys in the sack instead, then takes it to the mill.", "The boys are ground to bits and devoured by the miller's ducks.", "Later, no one expresses regret." ], [ "Legacy and cultural significance", "Busch's classic tale of the terrible duo (now in the public domain) has since become a proud part of the culture in German-speaking countries.", "Even today, parents usually read these tales to their not-yet-literate children.", "To this day in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, a certain familiarity with the story and its rhymes is still presumed, as it is often referenced in mass communication.", "The two leering faces are synonymous with mischief, and appear almost logo-like in advertising and even graffiti.", "''Max and Moritz'' is the first published original foreign children's book in Japan, translated into rōmaji by Shinjirō Shibutani and Kaname Oyaizu in 1887 as '''' (\"Naughty stories\").During World War I, the Red Baron, Manfred von Richthofen, named his dog Moritz, giving the name Max to another animal given to his friend.The two Sturer Emil vehicles produced in World War II were named Max and Moritz by their crews.", "After World War II, German-U.S. composer Richard Mohaupt, together with choreographer , created , a burlesque dance (), which premiered at Badisches Staatstheater Karlsruhe on 18 December 1949.Max and Moritz became the forerunners to the comic strip.", "The story inspired Rudolph Dirks to create The Katzenjammer Kids, which would in turn serve as inspiration for Art Clokey to create his antagonists for Gumby, the Blockheads.", "''Max and Moritz'' (along with ''The Katzenjammer Kids'') may have served as inspiration for Ragdoll Productions' British children's show ''Rosie and Jim'', Mike Judge's animated series ''Beavis and Butt-Head'', Terrence and Phillip of the Terrence and Phillip Show from ''South Park'' (the show's creators, Trey Parker and Matt Stone, having said South Park was inspired by ''Beavis and Butt-Head''), and George Beard and Harold Hutchins in the \"Captain Underpants\" series by Dav Pilkey.The Max & Moritz Prize is an award for comic books, comic strips, and other similar materials, awarded at each of the biennial International Comics Shows of Erlangen since 1984.", "''Der Fall Max und Moritz'' (), by Jörg M. Günther, published in 1988, is a satirical treatment in which the various misdeeds in the story – both by the protagonists and their surroundings – are analysed via the regulations of the German Strafgesetzbuch.In the early 2020s, the Efteling amusement park in the Netherlands opened a pair of rollercoasters named Max & Moritz.Max and Moritz are featured in ''The Defeated'', a streaming television series distributed by Netflix in 2021.Set in 1946, in post-war Berlin, the two main characters are brothers named \"Max\" and \"Moritz\", and the book also features prominently throughout the series." ], [ "Adaptations", "===Ballet===''Max und Moritz'' was adapted into a ballet by Richard Mohaupt and Alfredo Bortuluzzi.", "===Animated films and TV series===* ''Spuk mit Max und Moritz'' (1951), by Diehl Film, a production company lead by brothers , and * '''' (1978) by Halas and Batchelor* ''Max und Moritz'' (TV series, 39 episodes, 1999)===Live action films===* ''Max and Moritz'' (1956), by Norbert Schultze* '''' (1965)* '''' (2005)" ], [ "See also", "* ''Struwwelpeter''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * ''Max & Moritz'' (in German)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May Day" ], [ "Introduction", "'''May Day''' is a European festival of ancient origins marking the beginning of summer, usually celebrated on 1 May, around halfway between the spring equinox and summer solstice.", "Festivities may also be held the night before, known as '''May Eve'''.", "Traditions often include gathering wildflowers and green branches, weaving floral garlands, crowning a May Queen (sometimes with a male companion), and setting up a Maypole, May Tree or May Bush, around which people dance.", "Bonfires are also part of the festival in some regions.", "Regional varieties and related traditions include Walpurgis Night in central and northern Europe, the Gaelic festival Beltane, the Welsh festival Calan Mai, and May devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary.", "It has also been associated with the ancient Roman festival Floralia.International Workers' Day is also called \"May Day\" but the two are unrelated." ], [ "Origins and celebrations", "''Floralia'' by Antonio María Reyna Manescau (1888).Maypole dancing in the Netherlands, by Pieter Brueghel the Younger (16th century).The earliest known May celebrations appeared with the ''Floralia'', festival of Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers, held from 27 April–3 May during the Roman Republic era, and the ''Maiouma'' or ''Maiuma'', a festival celebrating Dionysus and Aphrodite held every three years during the month of May.", "The Floralia opened with theatrical performances.", "In the Floralia, Ovid says that hares and goats were released as part of the festivities.", "Persius writes that crowds were pelted with vetches, beans, and lupins.", "A ritual called the ''Florifertum'' was performed on either 27 April or 3 May, during which a bundle of wheat ears was carried into a shrine, though it is not clear if this devotion was made to Flora or Ceres.", "Floralia concluded with competitive events and spectacles, and a sacrifice to Flora.Maiouma was celebrated at least as early as the 2nd century AD, when records show expenses for the month-long festival were appropriated by Emperor Commodus.", "According to the 6th-century chronicles of John Malalas, the Maiouma was a \"nocturnal dramatic festival, held every three years and known as Orgies, that is, the Mysteries of Dionysus and Aphrodite\" and that it was \"known as the Maioumas because it is celebrated in the month of May-Artemisios\".", "During this time, enough money was set aside by the government for torches, lights, and other expenses to cover a 30-day festival of \"all-night revels.\"", "The Maiouma was celebrated with splendorous banquets and offerings.", "Its reputation for licentiousness caused it to be suppressed during the reign of Emperor Constantine, though a less debauched version of it was briefly restored during the reigns of Arcadius and Honorius, only to be suppressed again during the same period.A later May festival celebrated in Germanic countries, Walpurgis Night, commemorates the official canonization of Saint Walpurga on 1 May 870.In Gaelic culture, the evening of 30 April was the celebration of Beltane (which translates to \"lucky fire\") as well as the similar Welsh Calan Mai, and marks the start of the summer season.", "First attested in 900 AD, the celebration mainly focused on the symbolic use of fire to bless cattle and other livestock as they were moved to summer pastures.", "This custom continued into the early 19th century, during which time cattle would be made to jump over fires to protect their milk from being stolen by fairies.", "People would also leap over the fires for luck.Since the 18th century, many Roman Catholics have observed May – and May Day – with various May devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary.", "In works of art, school skits, and so forth, Mary's head will often be adorned with flowers in a May crowning.", "1 May is also one of two feast days of the Catholic patron saint of workers St Joseph the Worker, a carpenter, husband to Mother Mary, and foster father of Jesus.", "Replacing another feast to St. Joseph, this date was chosen by Pope Pius XII in 1955 as a counterpoint to the communist International Workers' Day celebrations on May Day.The best known modern May Day traditions, observed both in Europe and North America, include dancing around the maypole and crowning the Queen of May.", "Fading in popularity since the late 20th century is the tradition of giving of \"May baskets,\" small baskets of sweets or flowers, usually left anonymously on neighbours' doorsteps.In the late 20th century, many neopagans began reconstructing some of the older pagan festivals and combining them with more recently developed European secular and Catholic traditions, and celebrating May Day as a pagan religious festival." ], [ "Walpurgis-related traditions", "=== Germany ===''Maibaum'' in Munich, Germany''Maibaum'' in Bad Tölz, GermanyIn rural regions of Germany, especially the Harz Mountains, ''Walpurgisnacht'' celebrations of pagan origin are traditionally held on the night before May Day, including bonfires and the wrapping of a ''Maibaum'' (maypole).", "Young people use this opportunity to party, while the day itself is used by many families to get some fresh air.", "Motto: \"Tanz in den Mai\" (''\"Dance into May\"'').In the Rhineland, 1 May is also celebrated by the delivery of a maypole, a tree covered in streamers to the house of a girl the night before.", "The tree is typically from a love interest, though a tree wrapped only in white streamers is a sign of dislike.", "Women usually place roses or rice in the form of a heart at the house of their beloved one.", "It is common to stick the heart to a window or place it in front of the doormat.", "In leap years, it is the responsibility of the women to place the maypole.", "All the action is usually done secretly and it is an individual's choice whether to give a hint of their identity or stay anonymous.May Day was not established as a public holiday until Nazi Germany declared 1 May a \"national workers' day\" in 1933.As Labour Day, many political parties and unions host activities related to work and employment.=== Czech Republic ===In the Czech Republic, May Day is traditionally considered a holiday of love and May as a month of love.", "The celebrations of spring are held on 30 April when a maypole (\"májka\" in Czech) is erected—a tradition possibly connected to Beltane, since bonfires are also lit on the same day.", "The event is similar to German Walpurgisnacht, its public holiday on 30 April.On 31 May, the maypole is taken down in an event called Maypole Felling.On 1 May, couples in love kiss under a blooming tree.", "According to the ethnographer Klára Posekaná, this is not an old habit.", "It most likely originated around the beginning of the 20th century in an urban environment, perhaps in connection with Karel Hynek Mácha's poem Máj (which is often recited during these days) and Petřín.", "This is usually done under a cherry, an apple or a birch tree.=== Sweden ===The more traditional festivities have moved to the day before, Walpurgis Night (\"Valborgsmässoafton\"), known in some locales as simply \"Last of April\" and often celebrated with bonfires and a good bit of drinking.", "The first of May is instead celebrated as International Workers' Day." ], [ "Beltane-related traditions", "=== Ireland ===May Day has been celebrated in Ireland since pagan times as the feast of Beltane and in latter times as Mary's day.", "Traditionally, bonfires were lit to mark the coming of summer and to grant luck to people and livestock.", "Officially Irish May Day holiday is the first Monday in May.", "The tradition of a MayBush was reported as being suppressed by law and the magistrates in Dublin in the 18th century.", "Old traditions such as bonfires are no longer widely observed, though the practice still persists in some places across the country.", "Limerick, Clare and many other people in other counties still keep on this tradition, including areas in Dublin city such as Ringsend.===Scotland===May Day has been celebrated in Scotland for centuries.", "It was previously closely associated with the Beltane festival.", "Reference to this earlier celebration is found in poem 'Peblis to the Play', contained in the Maitland Manuscripts of 15th- and 16th-century Scots poetry:At Beltane, quhen ilk bodie bownisTo Peblis to the Play,To heir the singin and the soundis;The solace, suth to say,Be firth and forrest furth they foundThay graythis tham full gay;God wait that wald they do that stound,For it was their feast day the day they celebrate May Day,Thay said, ...The poem describes the celebration in the town of Peebles in the Scottish Borders, which continues to stage a parade and pageant each year, including the annual ‘Common Riding’, which takes place in many towns throughout the Borders.", "As well as the crowning of a Beltane Queen each year, it is custom to sing ‘The Beltane Song’.John Jamieson, in his ''Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language'' (1808) describes some of the May Day/Beltane customs which persisted in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in parts of Scotland, which he noted were beginning to die out.", "In the nineteenth century, folklorist Alexander Carmichael (1832–1912), collected the song ''Am Beannachadh Bealltain'' (''The Beltane Blessing'') in his ''Carmina Gadelica'', which he heard from a crofter in South Uist.Scottish May Day/Beltane celebrations have been somewhat revived since the late twentieth century.", "Both Edinburgh and Glasgow organise May Day festivals and rallies.", "In Edinburgh, the Beltane Fire Festival is held on the evening of May eve and into the early hours of May Day on the city's Calton Hill.", "An older Edinburgh tradition has it that young women who climb Arthur's Seat and wash their faces in the morning dew will have lifelong beauty.", "At the University of St Andrews, some of the students gather on the beach late on 30 April and run into the North Sea at sunrise on May Day, occasionally naked.", "This is accompanied by torchlit processions and much elated celebration.=== Wales ===In Wales the first day of May is known as ''Calan Mai'' or ''Calan Haf'', and parallels the festival of Beltane and other May Day traditions in Europe.Traditions would start the night before (''Nos Galan Haf'') with bonfires, and is considered a ''Ysbrydnos'' or ''spirit night'' when people would gather hawthorn (''draenen wen'') and flowers to decorate their houses, celebrating new growth and fertility.", "While on May Day celebrations would include summer dancing (''dawnsio haf'') and May carols (''carolau mai'' or ''carolau haf'') othertimes referred to as \"singing under the wall\" (''canu dan y pared),'' May Day was also a time for officially opening a village green (twmpath chwarae)." ], [ "Bulgaria", "On May Day, Bulgarians celebrate Irminden (or Yeremiya, Eremiya, Irima, Zamski den).", "The holiday is associated with snakes and lizards and rituals are made in order to protect people from them.", "The name of the holiday comes from the prophet Jeremiah, but its origins are most probably pagan.It is said that on the days of the Holy Forty or Annunciation snakes come out of their burrows, and on Irminden their king comes out.", "Old people believe that those working in the fields on this day will be bitten by a snake in summer.In western Bulgaria people light fires, jump over them and make noises to scare snakes.", "Another custom is to prepare \"podnici\" (special clay pots made for baking bread).This day is especially observed by pregnant women so that their offspring do not catch \"yeremiya\"—an illness due to evil powers." ], [ "England", "Melmerby, EnglandChildren dancing around a maypole as part of a May Day celebration in Welwyn, England''Punch or May Day'' (1829) by Benjamin Robert Haydon.Traditional English May Day rites and celebrations include crowning a May Queen and celebrations involving a maypole, around which dancers often circle with ribbons.", "Historically, Morris dancing has been linked to May Day celebrations.", "The earliest records of maypole celebrations date to the 14th century, and by the 15th century the maypole tradition was well established in southern Britain.", "The tradition persists into the 21st century in the Isle of Ely.", "Centenary Green part of the Octavia Hill Birthplace House, Wisbech has a flagpole which converts into a Maypole each year, used by local schools and other groups.", "Records from the early 1730s indicate that May Day was the date the new Mayor of Norwich was elected \"for the ensuring year\".", "The \"Day of Swearing\" occurred the following month - June - which saw the Mayor Elect receive his chains of office.", "The early May bank holiday on the first Monday in May was created in 1978; May Day itself1 Mayis not a public holiday in England (unless it falls on a Monday).", "In February 2011, the UK Parliament was reported to be considering scrapping the bank holiday associated with May Day, replacing it with a bank holiday in October, possibly coinciding with Trafalgar Day (celebrated on 21 October), to create a \"United Kingdom Day\".", "Similarly, attempts were made by the John Major government in 1993 to abolish the May Day holiday and replace it with Trafalgar Day.Unlike the other Bank Holidays and common law holidays, the first Monday in May is taken off from (state) schools by itself, and not as part of a half-term or end of term holiday.", "This is because it has no Christian significance and does not otherwise fit into the usual school holiday pattern.", "(By contrast, the Easter Holiday can start as late—relative to Easter—as Good Friday, if Easter falls early in the year; or finish as early—relative to Easter—as Easter Monday, if Easter falls late in the year, because of the supreme significance of Good Friday and Easter Day to Christianity.", ")May Day was abolished and its celebration banned by Puritan parliaments during the Interregnum, but reinstated with the restoration of Charles II in 1660.1 May 1707, was the day the Act of Union came into effect, joining the kingdoms of England (including Wales) and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain.In Cambridgeshire villages, young girls went May Dolling (going around the villages with dressed dolls and collecting pennies).", "This dressing of dolls and singing was said to have persisted into the 1960s in Swaffham PriorIn Oxford, it is a centuries-old tradition for May Morning revellers to gather below the Great Tower of Magdalen College at 6am to listen to the college choir sing traditional madrigals as a conclusion to the previous night's celebrations.", "Since the 1980s some people then jump off Magdalen Bridge into the River Cherwell.", "For some years, the bridge has been closed on 1 May to prevent people from jumping, as the water under the bridge is only deep and jumping from the bridge has resulted in serious injury in the past.", "There are still people who climb the barriers and leap into the water, causing themselves injury.In Durham, students of the University of Durham gather on Prebend's Bridge to see the sunrise and enjoy festivities, folk music, dancing, madrigal singing and a barbecue breakfast.", "This is an emerging Durham tradition, with patchy observance since 2001.Kingsbury Episcopi, Somerset, has seen its yearly May Day Festival celebrations on the May bank holiday Monday burgeon in popularity in the recent years.", "Since it was reinstated 21 years ago it has grown in size, and on 5 May 2014 thousands of revellers were attracted from all over the south-west to enjoy the festivities, with BBC Somerset covering the celebrations.", "These include traditional maypole dancing and morris dancing, as well as contemporary music acts.Whitstable, Kent, hosts a good example of more traditional May Day festivities, where the Jack in the Green festival was revived in 1976 and continues to lead an annual procession of morris dancers through the town on the May bank holiday.", "A separate revival occurred in Hastings in 1983 and has become a major event in the town calendar.", "A traditional sweeps festival is performed over the May bank holiday in Rochester, Kent, where the Jack in the Green is woken at dawn on 1 May by Morris dancers.At 7:15 p.m. on 1 May each year, the Kettle Bridge Clogs morris dancing side dance across Barming Bridge (otherwise known as the Kettle Bridge), which spans the River Medway near Maidstone, to mark the official start of their morris dancing season.The Maydayrun involves thousands of motorbikes taking a trip from Greater London (Locksbottom) to the Hastings seafront, East Sussex.", "The event has been taking place for almost 30 years now and has grown in interest from around the country, both commercially and publicly.", "The event is not officially organised; the police only manage the traffic, and volunteers manage the parking.===Cornwall===Padstow in Cornwall holds its annual Obby-Oss (Hobby Horse) day of festivities.", "This is believed to be one of the oldest fertility rites in the UK; revellers dance with the Oss through the streets of the town and even though the private gardens of the citizens, accompanied by accordion players and followers dressed in white with red or blue sashes who sing the traditional \"May Day\" song.", "The whole town is decorated with springtime greenery, and every year thousands of onlookers attend.", "Before the 19th century, distinctive May Day celebrations were widespread throughout West Cornwall, and are being revived in St Ives and Penzance.Kingsand, Cawsand and Millbrook in Cornwall celebrate Flower Boat Ritual on the May Day bank holiday.", "A model of the ship ''The Black Prince'' is covered in flowers and is taken in a procession from the Quay at Millbrook to the beach at Cawsand where it is cast adrift.", "The houses in the villages are decorated with flowers and people traditionally wear red and white clothes.", "There are further celebrations in Cawsand Square with Morris dancing and May pole dancing." ], [ "Estonia", "May Day or \"Spring Day\" (''Kevadpüha'') is a national holiday in Estonia celebrating the arrival of spring.More traditional festivities take place throughout the night before and into the early hours of 1 May, on the Walpurgis Night (''Volbriöö'')." ], [ "Finland", "May Day festivities in Tampere Central Square, Finland.In Finland, Walpurgis night ('''') (\"\") is one of the four biggest holidays along with Christmas Eve, New Year's Eve, and Midsummer ('''').", "Walpurgis witnesses the biggest carnival-style festival held in Finland's cities and towns.", "The celebrations, which begin on the evening of 30 April and continue on 1 May, typically centre on the consumption of sima, sparkling wine and other alcoholic beverages.", "Student traditions, particularly those of engineering students, are one of the main characteristics of ''''.", "Since the end of the 19th century, this traditional upper-class feast has been appropriated by university students.", "Many '''' (university-preparatory high school) alumni wear the black and white student cap and many higher education students wear student coveralls.", "One tradition is to drink sima, a home-made low-alcohol mead, along with freshly cooked funnel cakes." ], [ "France", "Lily of the valley On 1 May 1561, King Charles IX of France received a lily of the valley as a lucky charm.", "He decided to offer a lily of the valley each year to the ladies of the court.", "At the beginning of the 20th century, it became custom to give a sprig of lily of the valley, a symbol of springtime, on 1 May.", "The government permits individuals and workers' organisations to sell them tax-free on that single day.", "Nowadays, people may present loved ones either with bunches of lily of the valley or dog rose flowers." ], [ "Greece", "1 May is a day that celebrates Spring.Maios (Latin Maius), the month of May, took its name from the goddess Maia (Gr ), a Greek and Roman goddess of fertility.", "The day of Maios (Modern Greek Πρωτομαγιά) celebrates the final victory of the summer against winter as the victory of life against death.", "The celebration is similar to an ancient ritual associated with another minor demi-god Adonis which also celebrated the revival of nature.", "There is today some conflation with yet another tradition, the revival or marriage of Dionysus (the Greek God of theatre and wine-making).", "This event, however, was celebrated in ancient times not in May but in association with the Anthesteria, a festival held in February and dedicated to the goddess of agriculture Demeter and her daughter Persephone.", "Persephone emerged every year at the end of winter from the Underworld.", "The Anthesteria was a festival of souls, plants and flowers, and Persephone's coming to earth from Hades marked the rebirth of nature, a common theme in all these traditions.What remains of the customs today, echoes these traditions of antiquity.", "A common, until recently, May Day custom involved the annual revival of a youth called Adonis, or alternatively of Dionysus, or of Maios (in Modern Greek Μαγιόπουλο, the Son of Maia).", "In a simple theatrical ritual, the significance of which has long been forgotten, a chorus of young girls sang a song over a youth lying on the ground, representing Adonis, Dionysus or Maios.", "At the end of the song, the youth rose up and a flower wreath was placed on his head.The most common aspect of modern May Day celebrations is the preparation of a flower wreath from wild flowers, although as a result of urbanisation there is an increasing trend to buy wreaths from flower shops.", "The flowers are placed on the wreath against a background of green leaves and the wreath is hung either on the entrance to the family house/apartment or on a balcony.", "It remains there until midsummer night.", "On that night, the flower wreaths are set alight in bonfires known as Saint John's fires.", "Youths leap over the flames consuming the flower wreaths.", "This custom has also practically disappeared, like the theatrical revival of Adonis/Dionysus/Maios, as a result of rising urban traffic and with no alternative public grounds in most Greek city neighbourhoods." ], [ "Italy", "In Italy it is called ''Calendimaggio'' or ''cantar maggio'' a seasonal feast held to celebrate the arrival of spring.", "The event takes its name from the period in which it takes place, that is, the beginning of May, from the Latin ''calenda maia''.", "The Calendimaggio is a tradition still alive today in many regions of Italy as an allegory of the return to life and rebirth: among these Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna (for example, is celebrated in the area of the ''Quattro Province'' or Piacenza, Pavia, Alessandria and Genoa), Tuscany and Umbria.", "This magical-propitiatory ritual is often performed during an almsgiving in which, in exchange for gifts (traditionally eggs, wine, food or sweets), the Maggi (or maggerini) sing auspicious verses to the inhabitants of the houses they visit.", "Throughout the Italian peninsula these ''Il Maggio'' couplets are very diverse—most are love songs with a strong romantic theme, that young people sang to celebrate the arrival of spring.", "Roman families traditionally eat pecorino with fresh fava beans during an excursion in the Roman Campagna.", "Symbols of spring revival are the trees (alder, golden rain) and flowers (violets, roses), mentioned in the verses of the songs, and with which the maggerini adorn themselves.", "In particular the plant alder, which grows along the rivers, is considered the symbol of life and that's why it is often present in the ritual.Calendimaggio can be historically noted in Tuscany as a mythical character who had a predominant role and met many of the attributes of the god Belenus.", "In Lucania, the 'Maggi' have a clear auspicious character of pagan origin.", "In Syracuse, Sicily, the ''Albero della Cuccagna'' (cf.", "\"Greasy pole\") is held during the month of May, a feast celebrated to commemorate the victory over the Athenians led by Nicias.", "However, Angelo de Gubernatis, in his work ''Mythology of Plants'', believes that without doubt the festival was previous to that of said victory.It is a celebration that dates back to ancient peoples, and is very integrated with the rhythms of nature, such as the Celts (celebrating Beltane), Etruscans and Ligures, in which the arrival of summer was of great importance." ], [ "Portugal", "\"Maias\" is a superstition throughout Portugal, with special focus on the northern territories and rarely elsewhere.", "Maias is the dominant naming in Northern Portugal, but it may be referred to by other names, including Dia das Bruxas (Witches' day), O Burro (the Donkey, referring to an evil spirit) or the last of April, as the local traditions preserved to this day occur on that evening only.", "People put the yellow flowers of broom, the bushes are known as giestas.", "The flowers of the bush are known as Maias, which are placed on doors or gates and every doorway of houses, windows, granaries, currently also cars, which the populace collect on the evening of 30 April when the Portuguese brooms are blooming, to defend those places from bad spirits, witches and the evil eye.", "The placement of the May flower or bush in the doorway must be done before midnight.These festivities are a continuum of the \"Os Maios\" of Galiza.", "In ancient times, this was done while playing traditional night-music.", "In some places, children were dressed in these flowers and went from place to place begging for money or bread.", "On 1 May, people also used to sing \"Cantigas de Maio\", traditional songs related to this day and the whole month of May.The origin of this tradition can be traced to the Catholic Church story of Mary and Joseph fleeing to Egypt to protect Jesus from Herod.", "It was said that brooms could be found at the door of the house holding Jesus, but when Herod's soldiers arrived to the place they found every door decorated with brooms." ], [ "Romania", "On May Day, the Romanians celebrate the ''arminden'' (or ''armindeni''), the beginning of summer, symbolically tied with the protection of crops and farm animals.", "The name comes from Slavonic ''Jeremiinŭ dĭnĭ'', meaning prophet Jeremiah's day, but the celebration rites and habits of this day are apotropaic and pagan (possibly originating in the cult of the god Pan).The day is also called ''ziua pelinului'' (\"mugwort day\") or ''ziua bețivilor'' (\"drunkards' day\") and it is celebrated to ensure good wine in autumn and, for people and farm animals alike, good health and protection from the elements of nature (storms, hail, illness, pests).", "People would have parties in natural surroundings, with ''lăutari'' (fiddlers) for those who could afford it.", "Then it is customary to roast and eat lamb, along with new mutton cheese, and to drink mugwort-flavoured wine, or just red wine, to refresh the blood and get protection from diseases.", "On the way back, the men wear lilac or mugwort flowers on their hats.Other apotropaic rites include, in some areas of the country, people washing their faces with the morning dew (for good health) and adorning the gates for good luck and abundance with green branches or with birch saplings (for the houses with maiden girls).", "The entries to the animals' shelters are also adorned with green branches.", "All branches are left in place until the wheat harvest when they are used in the fire which will bake the first bread from the new wheat.On May Day eve, country women do not work in the field as well as in the house to avoid devastating storms and hail coming down on the village.", "''Arminden'' is also ''ziua boilor'' (oxen day) and thus the animals are not to be used for work, or else they could die or their owners could get ill.It is said that the weather is always good on May Day to allow people to celebrate." ], [ "Serbia", "\"Prvomajski uranak\" (Reveille on 1 May) is a folk tradition and feast that consists of the fact that on 1 May, people go in the nature or even leave the day before and spend the night with a camp fire.", "Most of the time, a dish is cooked in a kettle or in a barbecue.", "Among Serbs this holiday is widespread.", "Almost every town in Serbia has its own traditional first-of-may excursion sites, and most often these are green areas outside the city." ], [ "Spain", "May Day is celebrated throughout the country as ''Los Mayos'' (lit.", "\"the Mays\") often in a similar way to \"Fiesta de las Cruces\" in many parts of Hispanic America.", "One such example, in Galicia, is the festival \"Fiesta de los Mayos\" (or \"Festa dos Maios\" in Galician, the local language).", "It has a celtic origin (from the festivity of Beltane) and consists of different traditions, such as representations around a decorated tree or sculpture.", "People sing popular songs (also called ''maios'',) making mentions of social and political events during the past year, sometimes under the form of a converse, while they walk around the sculpture with the percussion of two sticks.", "In Lugo and in the village of Vilagarcía de Arousa it was usual to ask a tip to the attendees, which used to be a handful of dry chestnuts (''castañas maiolas''), walnuts or hazelnuts.", "Today the tradition became a competition where the best sculptures and songs receive a prize.In the Galician city of Ourense this day is celebrated traditionally on 3 May, the day of the Holy Cross, that in the Christian tradition replaced the tree \"where the health, life and resurrection are,\" according to the introit of that day's mass." ], [ "North America", "=== Canada ===May Day is celebrated in some parts of the provinces of British Columbia, Quebec, New Brunswick and Ontario.", "'''Toronto'''In Toronto, on the morning of 1 May, various Morris Dancing troops from Toronto and Hamilton gather on the road by Grenadier Cafe, in High Park to \"dance in the May\".", "The dancers and crowd then gather together and sing traditional May Day songs such as Hal-An-Tow and Padstow.", "'''British Columbia'''Celebrations often take place not on 1 May but during the Victoria Day long weekend, later in the month and when the weather is likely to be better.", "The longest continually observed May Day in the British Commonwealth is held in the city of New Westminster, BC.", "There, the first May Day celebration was held on 4 May 1870.=== United States ===''Main: Labor Day vs. May Day''May Day festivities at National Park Seminary in Maryland, 1907Longview Park in Rock Island, Illinois, c. 1907 – 1914May Day was also celebrated by some early European settlers of the American continent.", "In some parts of the United States, May baskets are made.", "These are small baskets usually filled with flowers or treats and left at someone's doorstep.", "The giver rings the bell and runs away.Modern May Day ceremonies in the U.S. vary greatly from region to region and many unite both the holiday's \"Green Root\" (pagan) and \"Red Root\" (labour) traditions.1876 May Day celebration at Central City Park, Macon, GeorgiaMay Day celebrations were common at women's colleges and academic institutions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, a tradition that continues at Bryn Mawr College and Brenau University to this day.In Minneapolis, the May Day Parade and Festival is presented annually by In the Heart of the Beast Puppet and Mask Theatre on the first Sunday in May, and draws around 50,000 people to Powderhorn Park.", "On 1 May itself, local Morris Dance sides converge on an overlook of the Mississippi River at dawn, and then spend the remainder of the day dancing around the metro area.", "'''Hawaii'''In Hawaii, May Day is also known as Lei Day, and it is normally set aside as a day to celebrate island culture in general and the culture of the Native Hawaiians in particular.", "Invented by poet and local newspaper columnist Don Blanding, the first Lei Day was celebrated on 1 May 1927 in Honolulu.", "Leonard \"Red\" and Ruth Hawk composed \"May Day Is Lei Day in Hawai'i,\" the traditional holiday song." ], [ "See also", "* Flores de Mayo, a similar holiday celebrated throughout the month of May in the Philippines* Beltane, the Gaelic May Day festival* Fiesta de las Cruces, a holiday celebrated 3 May in many parts of Spain and Hispanic America* List of films set around May Day* List of occasions known by their dates* May devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary* Maypole* May Queen* Dano, a holiday celebrated on the 5th day of the 5th lunar month in Korea" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution" ], [ "Introduction", "In physics (in particular in statistical mechanics), the '''Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution''', or '''Maxwell(ian) distribution''', is a particular probability distribution named after James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann.It was first defined and used for describing particle speeds in idealized gases, where the particles move freely inside a stationary container without interacting with one another, except for very brief collisions in which they exchange energy and momentum with each other or with their thermal environment.", "The term \"particle\" in this context refers to gaseous particles only (atoms or molecules), and the system of particles is assumed to have reached thermodynamic equilibrium.", "The energies of such particles follow what is known as Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics, and the statistical distribution of speeds is derived by equating particle energies with kinetic energy.Mathematically, the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is the chi distribution with three degrees of freedom (the components of the velocity vector in Euclidean space), with a scale parameter measuring speeds in units proportional to the square root of (the ratio of temperature and particle mass).The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is a result of the kinetic theory of gases, which provides a simplified explanation of many fundamental gaseous properties, including pressure and diffusion.", "The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution applies fundamentally to particle velocities in three dimensions, but turns out to depend only on the speed (the magnitude of the velocity) of the particles.", "A particle speed probability distribution indicates which speeds are more likely: a randomly chosen particle will have a speed selected randomly from the distribution, and is more likely to be within one range of speeds than another.", "The kinetic theory of gases applies to the classical ideal gas, which is an idealization of real gases.", "In real gases, there are various effects (e.g., van der Waals interactions, vortical flow, relativistic speed limits, and quantum exchange interactions) that can make their speed distribution different from the Maxwell–Boltzmann form.", "However, rarefied gases at ordinary temperatures behave very nearly like an ideal gas and the Maxwell speed distribution is an excellent approximation for such gases.", "This is also true for ideal plasmas, which are ionized gases of sufficiently low density.The distribution was first derived by Maxwell in 1860 on heuristic grounds.", "Boltzmann later, in the 1870s, carried out significant investigations into the physical origins of this distribution.", "The distribution can be derived on the ground that it maximizes the entropy of the system.", "A list of derivations are:# Maximum entropy probability distribution in the phase space, with the constraint of conservation of average energy # Canonical ensemble." ], [ "Distribution function", "For a system containing a large number of identical non-interacting, non-relativistic classical particles in thermodynamic equilibrium, the fraction of the particles within an infinitesimal element of the three-dimensional velocity space , centered on a velocity vector of magnitude , is given bywhere:* is the particle mass;* is the Boltzmann constant;* is thermodynamic temperature;* is a probability distribution function, properly normalized so that over all velocities is unity.The speed probability density functions of the speeds of a few noble gases at a temperature of 298.15 K (25 °C).", "The ''y''-axis is in s/m so that the area under any section of the curve (which represents the probability of the speed being in that range) is dimensionless.One can write the element of velocity space as , for velocities in a standard Cartesian coordinate system, or as in a standard spherical coordinate system, where is an element of solid angle and The Maxwellian distribution function for particles moving in only one direction, if this direction is , iswhich can be obtained by integrating the three-dimensional form given above over and .Recognizing the symmetry of , one can integrate over solid angle and write a probability distribution of speeds as the functionThis probability density function gives the probability, per unit speed, of finding the particle with a speed near .", "This equation is simply the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution (given in the infobox) with distribution parameter The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is equivalent to the chi distribution with three degrees of freedom and scale parameter The simplest ordinary differential equation satisfied by the distribution is:or in unitless presentation: With the Darwin–Fowler method of mean values, the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is obtained as an exact result.Simulation of a 2D gas relaxing towards a Maxwell–Boltzmann speed distribution" ], [ "Relaxation to the 2D Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution", "For particles confined to move in a plane, the speed distribution is given byThis distribution is used for describing systems in equilibrium.", "However, most systems do not start out in their equilibrium state.", "The evolution of a system towards its equilibrium state is governed by the Boltzmann equation.", "The equation predicts that for short range interactions, the equilibrium velocity distribution will follow a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution.", "To the right is a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation in which 900 hard sphere particles are constrained to move in a rectangle.", "They interact via perfectly elastic collisions.", "The system is initialized out of equilibrium, but the velocity distribution (in blue) quickly converges to the 2D Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution (in orange)." ], [ "Typical speeds", "The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution corresponding to the solar atmosphere.", "Particle masses are one proton mass, , and the temperature is the effective temperature of the Sun's photosphere, .", ", , and mark the most probable, mean, and root mean square velocities, respectively.", "Their values are ≈ , ≈ , and .The mean speed , most probable speed (mode) , and root-mean-square speed can be obtained from properties of the Maxwell distribution.This works well for nearly ideal, monatomic gases like helium, but also for molecular gases like diatomic oxygen.", "This is because despite the larger heat capacity (larger internal energy at the same temperature) due to their larger number of degrees of freedom, their translational kinetic energy (and thus their speed) is unchanged.", "* The most probable speed, , is the speed most likely to be possessed by any molecule (of the same mass ) in the system and corresponds to the maximum value or the mode of .", "To find it, we calculate the derivative set it to zero and solve for : with the solution: where:** is the gas constant;** is molar mass of the substance, and thus may be calculated as a product of particle mass, , and Avogadro constant, : For diatomic nitrogen (, the primary component of air) at room temperature (), this gives* The mean speed is the expected value of the speed distribution, setting : * The mean square speed is the second-order raw moment of the speed distribution.", "The \"root mean square speed\" is the square root of the mean square speed, corresponding to the speed of a particle with average kinetic energy, setting :In summary, the typical speeds are related as follows:The root mean square speed is directly related to the speed of sound in the gas, bywhere is the adiabatic index, is the number of degrees of freedom of the individual gas molecule.", "For the example above, diatomic nitrogen (approximating air) at , andthe true value for air can be approximated by using the average molar weight of air (), yielding at (corrections for variable humidity are of the order of 0.1% to 0.6%).The average relative velocitywhere the three-dimensional velocity distribution isThe integral can easily be done by changing to coordinates and" ], [ "Derivation and related distributions", "===Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics===The original derivation in 1860 by James Clerk Maxwell was an argument based on molecular collisions of the Kinetic theory of gases as well as certain symmetries in the speed distribution function; Maxwell also gave an early argument that these molecular collisions entail a tendency towards equilibrium.", "After Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann in 1872 also derived the distribution on mechanical grounds and argued that gases should over time tend toward this distribution, due to collisions (see H-theorem).", "He later (1877) derived the distribution again under the framework of statistical thermodynamics.", "The derivations in this section are along the lines of Boltzmann's 1877 derivation, starting with result known as Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics (from statistical thermodynamics).", "Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics gives the average number of particles found in a given single-particle microstate.", "Under certain assumptions, the logarithm of the fraction of particles in a given microstate is linear in the ratio of the energy of that state to the temperature of the system: there are constants and such that, for all ,The assumptions of this equation are that the particles do not interact, and that they are classical; this means that each particle's state can be considered independently from the other particles' states.", "Additionally, the particles are assumed to be in thermal equilibrium.This relation can be written as an equation by introducing a normalizing factor:where:* is the expected number of particles in the single-particle microstate ,* is the total number of particles in the system,* is the energy of microstate ,* the sum over index takes into account all microstates, * is the equilibrium temperature of the system,* is the Boltzmann constant.The denominator in Equation () is a normalizing factor so that the ratios add up to unity — in other words it is a kind of partition function (for the single-particle system, not the usual partition function of the entire system).Because velocity and speed are related to energy, Equation () can be used to derive relationships between temperature and the speeds of gas particles.", "All that is needed is to discover the density of microstates in energy, which is determined by dividing up momentum space into equal sized regions.===Distribution for the momentum vector===The potential energy is taken to be zero, so that all energy is in the form of kinetic energy.The relationship between kinetic energy and momentum for massive non-relativistic particles iswhere is the square of the momentum vector .", "We may therefore rewrite Equation () as:where:* is the partition function, corresponding to the denominator in Equation ();* is the molecular mass of the gas;* is the thermodynamic temperature;* is the Boltzmann constant.", "This distribution of is proportional to the probability density function for finding a molecule with these values of momentum components, so:The normalizing constant can be determined by recognizing that the probability of a molecule having ''some'' momentum must be 1.Integrating the exponential in () over all , , and yields a factor of So that the normalized distribution function is:The distribution is seen to be the product of three independent normally distributed variables , , and , with variance .", "Additionally, it can be seen that the magnitude of momentum will be distributed as a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, with .", "The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution for the momentum (or equally for the velocities) can be obtained more fundamentally using the H-theorem at equilibrium within the Kinetic theory of gases framework.===Distribution for the energy===The energy distribution is found imposingwhere is the infinitesimal phase-space volume of momenta corresponding to the energy interval .Making use of the spherical symmetry of the energy-momentum dispersion relation this can be expressed in terms of asUsing then () in (), and expressing everything in terms of the energy , we getand finallySince the energy is proportional to the sum of the squares of the three normally distributed momentum components, this energy distribution can be written equivalently as a gamma distribution, using a shape parameter, and a scale parameter, Using the equipartition theorem, given that the energy is evenly distributed among all three degrees of freedom in equilibrium, we can also split into a set of chi-squared distributions, where the energy per degree of freedom, is distributed as a chi-squared distribution with one degree of freedom,At equilibrium, this distribution will hold true for any number of degrees of freedom.", "For example, if the particles are rigid mass dipoles of fixed dipole moment, they will have three translational degrees of freedom and two additional rotational degrees of freedom.", "The energy in each degree of freedom will be described according to the above chi-squared distribution with one degree of freedom, and the total energy will be distributed according to a chi-squared distribution with five degrees of freedom.", "This has implications in the theory of the specific heat of a gas.===Distribution for the velocity vector===Recognizing that the velocity probability density is proportional to the momentum probability density function byand using we getwhich is the Maxwell–Boltzmann velocity distribution.", "The probability of finding a particle with velocity in the infinitesimal element about velocity isLike the momentum, this distribution is seen to be the product of three independent normally distributed variables , , and , but with variance .It can also be seen that the Maxwell–Boltzmann velocity distribution for the vector velocity is the product of the distributions for each of the three directions:where the distribution for a single direction isEach component of the velocity vector has a normal distribution with mean and standard deviation , so the vector has a 3-dimensional normal distribution, a particular kind of multivariate normal distribution, with mean and covariance , where is the identity matrix.===Distribution for the speed===The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution for the speed follows immediately from the distribution of the velocity vector, above.", "Note that the speed isand the volume element in spherical coordinates where and are the spherical coordinate angles of the velocity vector.", "Integration of the probability density function of the velocity over the solid angles yields an additional factor of .The speed distribution with substitution of the speed for the sum of the squares of the vector components:" ], [ "In ''n''-dimensional space", "In -dimensional space, Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution becomes:Speed distribution becomes:The following integral result is useful:where is the Gamma function.", "This result can be used to calculate the moments of speed distribution function:which is the mean speed itself which gives root-mean-square speed The derivative of speed distribution function:This yields the most probable speed (mode)" ], [ "See also", "* Quantum Boltzmann equation* Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics* Maxwell–Jüttner distribution* Boltzmann distribution * Rayleigh distribution* Kinetic theory of gases" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Physics for Scientists and Engineers – with Modern Physics'' (6th Edition), P. A. Tipler, G. Mosca, Freeman, 2008, * ''Thermodynamics, From Concepts to Applications'' (2nd Edition), A. Shavit, C. Gutfinger, CRC Press (Taylor and Francis Group, USA), 2009, * ''Chemical Thermodynamics'', D.J.G.", "Ives, University Chemistry, Macdonald Technical and Scientific, 1971, * ''Elements of Statistical Thermodynamics'' (2nd Edition), L.K.", "Nash, Principles of Chemistry, Addison-Wesley, 1974, * Ward, CA & Fang, G 1999, \"Expression for predicting liquid evaporation flux: Statistical rate theory approach\", ''Physical Review E'', vol.", "59, no.", "1, pp. 429–40.", "* Rahimi, P & Ward, CA 2005, \"Kinetics of Evaporation: Statistical Rate Theory Approach\", ''International Journal of Thermodynamics'', vol.", "8, no.", "9, pp.", "1–14." ], [ "External links", "* \"The Maxwell Speed Distribution\" from The Wolfram Demonstrations Project at Mathworld" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Margaret Thatcher" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher''' (; 13 October 19258 April 2013), was a British stateswoman and Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990.She was the longest-serving British prime minister of the 20th century and the first woman to hold the position.", "As prime minister, she implemented economic policies that became known as Thatcherism.", "A Soviet journalist dubbed her the \"'''Iron Lady'''\", a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style.Thatcher studied chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford, and worked briefly as a research chemist before becoming a barrister.", "She was elected Member of Parliament for Finchley in 1959.Edward Heath appointed her secretary of state for education and science in his 1970–1974 government.", "In 1975, she defeated Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election to become leader of the opposition, the first woman to lead a major political party in the UK.On becoming prime minister after winning the 1979 general election, Thatcher introduced a series of economic policies intended to reverse high inflation and Britain's struggles in the wake of the Winter of Discontent and an oncoming recession.", "Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised greater individual liberty, the privatisation of state-owned companies, and reducing the power and influence of trade unions.", "Her popularity in her first years in office waned amid recession and rising unemployment.", "Victory in the 1982 Falklands War and the recovering economy brought a resurgence of support, resulting in her landslide re-election in 1983.She survived an assassination attempt by the Provisional IRA in the 1984 Brighton hotel bombing and achieved a political victory against the National Union of Mineworkers in the 1984–85 miners' strike.", "In 1986, Thatcher oversaw the deregulation of UK financial markets, leading to an economic boom, in what came to be known as the Big Bang.Thatcher was re-elected for a third term with another landslide in 1987, but her subsequent support for the Community Charge (also known as the \"poll tax\") was widely unpopular, and her increasingly Eurosceptic views on the European Community were not shared by others in her cabinet.", "She resigned as prime minister and party leader in 1990, after a challenge was launched to her leadership, and was succeeded by John Major, the chancellor of the Exchequer.", "After retiring from the Commons in 1992, she was given a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher (of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire) which entitled her to sit in the House of Lords.", "In 2013, she died of a stroke at the Ritz Hotel, London, at the age of 87.A polarising figure in British politics, Thatcher is nonetheless viewed by historians as one of the greatest prime ministers in British history.", "Her tenure constituted a realignment towards neoliberal policies in Britain, and the complex legacy attributed to this shift continues to be debated into the 21st century." ], [ "Early life and education", "=== Family and childhood (1925–1943) ===Margaret Hilda Roberts was born on 13 October 1925 in Grantham, Lincolnshire.", "Her parents were Alfred Roberts (1892–1970), from Northamptonshire, and Beatrice Ethel Stephenson (1888–1960), from Lincolnshire.", "Her father's maternal grandmother, Catherine Sullivan, was born in County Kerry, Ireland.Roberts spent her childhood in Grantham, where her father owned a tobacconist's and a grocery shop.", "In 1938, before the Second World War, the Roberts family briefly gave sanctuary to a teenage Jewish girl who had escaped Nazi Germany.", "With her elder sister Muriel, Margaret saved pocket money to help pay for the teenager's journey.Alfred was an alderman and a Methodist local preacher.", "He brought up his daughter as a strict Wesleyan Methodist, attending the Finkin Street Methodist Church, but Margaret was more sceptical; the future scientist told a friend that she could not believe in angels, having calculated that they needed a breastbone long to support wings.", "Alfred came from a Liberal family but stood (as was then customary in local government) as an Independent.", "He served as Mayor of Grantham from 1945 to 1946 and lost his position as alderman in 1952 after the Labour Party won its first majority on Grantham Council in 1950.1938–39 portrait, aged 13Roberts attended Huntingtower Road Primary School and won a scholarship to Kesteven and Grantham Girls' School, a grammar school.", "Her school reports showed hard work and continual improvement; her extracurricular activities included the piano, field hockey, poetry recitals, swimming and walking.", "She was head girl in 1942–43, and outside school, while the Second World War was ongoing, she voluntarily worked as a fire watcher in the local ARP service.", "Other students thought of Roberts as the \"star scientist\", although mistaken advice regarding cleaning ink from parquetry almost caused chlorine gas poisoning.", "In her upper sixth year, Roberts was accepted for a scholarship to study chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford, a women's college, starting in 1944.After another candidate withdrew, Roberts entered Oxford in October 1943.===Oxford (1943–1947)===Roberts studied chemistry at Somerville College (''pictured'' from 1943 to 1947.Roberts arrived at Oxford in 1943 and graduated in 1947 with a second-class degree in chemistry, after specialising in X-ray crystallography under the supervision of Dorothy Hodgkin.", "Her dissertation was on the structure of the antibiotic gramicidin.", "She also received the degree of Master of Arts in 1950 (as an Oxford BA, she was entitled to the degree 21 terms after her matriculation).", "Later in life, she was reportedly prouder of becoming the first prime minister with a science degree than becoming the first female prime minister.", "While prime minister she attempted to preserve Somerville as a women's college.", "Twice a week outside study she worked in a local forces canteen.During her time at Oxford, Roberts was noted for her isolated and serious attitude.", "Her first boyfriend, Tony Bray (1926–2014), recalled that she was \"very thoughtful and a very good conversationalist.", "That's probably what interested me.", "She was good at general subjects\".Roberts did not only study chemistry, as she intended to be a chemist only for a short period of time, already thinking about law and politics.", "Her enthusiasm for politics as a girl made Bray think of her as \"unusual\" and her parents as \"slightly austere\" and \"very proper\".", "Roberts became President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946.She was influenced at university by political works such as Friedrich Hayek's ''The Road to Serfdom'' (1944), which condemned economic intervention by government as a precursor to an authoritarian state.===Post-Oxford career (1947–1951)===After graduating, Roberts moved to Colchester in Essex to work as a research chemist for BX Plastics.", "In 1948, she applied for a job at Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) but was rejected after the personnel department assessed her as \"headstrong, obstinate and dangerously self-opinionated\".", "Jon Agar in ''Notes and Records'' argues that her understanding of modern scientific research later impacted her views as prime minister.Roberts joined the local Conservative Association and attended the party conference at Llandudno, Wales, in 1948, as a representative of the University Graduate Conservative Association.", "Meanwhile, she became a high-ranking affiliate of the Vermin Club, a group of grassroots Conservatives formed in response to a derogatory comment made by Aneurin Bevan.", "One of her Oxford friends was also a friend of the Chair of the Dartford Conservative Association in Kent, who were looking for candidates.", "Officials of the association were so impressed by her that they asked her to apply, even though she was not on the party's approved list; she was selected in January 1950 (aged 24) and added to the approved list ''post ante''.At a dinner following her formal adoption as Conservative candidate for Dartford in February 1949, she met divorcé Denis Thatcher, a successful and wealthy businessman, who drove her to her Essex train.", "After their first meeting, she described him to Muriel as \"not a very attractive creature – very reserved but quite nice\".", "In preparation for the election, Roberts moved to Dartford, where she supported herself by working as a research chemist for J. Lyons and Co. in Hammersmith, part of a team developing emulsifiers for ice cream.", "She married at Wesley's Chapel and her children were baptised there, but she and her husband began attending Church of England services and would later convert to Anglicanism." ], [ "Early political career", "In the 1950 and 1951 general elections, Roberts was the Conservative candidate for the Labour seat of Dartford.", "The local party selected her as its candidate because, though not a dynamic public speaker, Roberts was well-prepared and fearless in her answers.", "A prospective candidate, Bill Deedes, recalled: \"Once she opened her mouth, the rest of us began to look rather second-rate.\"", "She attracted media attention as the youngest and the only female candidate; in 1950, she was the youngest Conservative candidate in the country.", "She lost on both occasions to Norman Dodds but reduced the Labour majority by 6,000 and then a further 1,000.During the campaigns, she was supported by her parents and by her future husband Denis Thatcher, whom she married in December 1951.Denis funded his wife's studies for the bar; she qualified as a barrister in 1953 and specialised in taxation.", "Later that same year their twins Carol and Mark were born, delivered prematurely by Caesarean section.===Member of Parliament (1959–1970)===In 1954, Thatcher was defeated when she sought selection to be the Conservative Party candidate for the Orpington by-election of January 1955.She chose not to stand as a candidate in the 1955 general election, in later years, stating: \"I really just felt the twins were ... only two, I really felt that it was too soon.", "I couldn't do that.\"", "Afterwards, Thatcher began looking for a Conservative safe seat and was selected as the candidate for Finchley in April 1958 (narrowly beating Ian Montagu Fraser).", "She was elected as MP for the seat after a hard campaign in the 1959 election.", "Benefiting from her fortunate result in a lottery for backbenchers to propose new legislation, Thatcher's maiden speech was, unusually, in support of her private member's bill, the Public Bodies (Admission to Meetings) Act 1960, requiring local authorities to hold their council meetings in public; the bill was successful and became law.", "In 1961 she went against the Conservative Party's official position by voting for the restoration of birching as a judicial corporal punishment.====On the frontbenches====Thatcher's talent and drive caused her to be mentioned as a future prime minister in her early 20s although she herself was more pessimistic, stating as late as 1970: \"There will not be a woman prime minister in my lifetime – the male population is too prejudiced.\"", "In October 1961 she was promoted to the frontbench as Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry for Pensions by Harold Macmillan.", "Thatcher was the youngest woman in history to receive such a post, and among the first MPs elected in 1959 to be promoted.", "After the Conservatives lost the 1964 election, she became spokeswoman on housing and land.", "In that position, she advocated her party's policy of giving tenants the right to buy their council houses.", "She moved to the Shadow Treasury team in 1966 and, as Treasury spokeswoman, opposed Labour's mandatory price and income controls, arguing they would unintentionally produce effects that would distort the economy.Jim Prior suggested Thatcher as a Shadow Cabinet member after the Conservatives' 1966 defeat, but party leader Edward Heath and Chief Whip William Whitelaw eventually chose Mervyn Pike as the Conservative shadow cabinet's sole woman member.", "At the 1966 Conservative Party conference, Thatcher criticised the high-tax policies of the Labour government as being steps \"not only towards Socialism, but towards Communism\", arguing that lower taxes served as an incentive to hard work.", "Thatcher was one of the few Conservative MPs to support Leo Abse's bill to decriminalise male homosexuality.", "She voted in favour of David Steel's bill to legalise abortion, as well as a ban on hare coursing.", "She supported the retention of capital punishment and voted against the relaxation of divorce laws.====In the Shadow Cabinet====In 1967, the United States Embassy chose Thatcher to take part in the International Visitor Leadership Program (then called the Foreign Leader Program), a professional exchange programme that allowed her to spend about six weeks visiting various US cities and political figures as well as institutions such as the International Monetary Fund.", "Although she was not yet a Shadow Cabinet member, the embassy reportedly described her to the State Department as a possible future prime minister.", "The description helped Thatcher meet with prominent people during a busy itinerary focused on economic issues, including Paul Samuelson, Walt Rostow, Pierre-Paul Schweitzer and Nelson Rockefeller.", "Following the visit, Heath appointed Thatcher to the Shadow Cabinet as fuel and power spokeswoman.", "Before the 1970 general election, she was promoted to shadow transport spokeswoman and later to education.In 1968, Enoch Powell delivered his \"Rivers of Blood\" speech in which he strongly criticised Commonwealth immigration to the United Kingdom and the then-proposed Race Relations Bill.", "When Heath telephoned Thatcher to inform her that he would sack Powell from the Shadow Cabinet, she recalled that she \"really thought that it was better to let things cool down for the present rather than heighten the crisis\".", "She believed that his main points about Commonwealth immigration were correct and that the selected quotations from his speech had been taken out of context.", "In a 1991 interview for ''Today'', Thatcher stated that she thought Powell had \"made a valid argument, if in sometimes regrettable terms\".Around this time, she gave her first Commons speech as a shadow transport minister and highlighted the need for investment in British Rail.", "She argued: \" we build bigger and better roads, they would soon be saturated with more vehicles and we would be no nearer solving the problem.\"", "Thatcher made her first visit to the Soviet Union in the summer of 1969 as the Opposition transport spokeswoman, and in October, delivered a speech celebrating her ten years in Parliament.", "In early 1970, she told ''The Finchley Press'' that she would like to see a \"reversal of the permissive society\".===Education Secretary (1970–1974)===her predecessor had done for older children in 1968.The Conservative Party, led by Edward Heath, won the 1970 general election, and Thatcher was appointed to the Cabinet as Secretary of State for Education and Science.", "Thatcher caused controversy when, after only a few days in office, she withdrew Labour's Circular 10/65, which attempted to force comprehensivisation, without going through a consultation process.", "She was highly criticised for the speed at which she carried this out.", "Consequently, she drafted her own new policy (Circular 10/70), which ensured that local authorities were not forced to go comprehensive.", "Her new policy was not meant to stop the development of new comprehensives; she said: \"We shall ... expect plans to be based on educational considerations rather than on the comprehensive principle.", "\"Thatcher supported Lord Rothschild's 1971 proposal for market forces to affect government funding of research.", "Although many scientists opposed the proposal, her research background probably made her sceptical of their claim that outsiders should not interfere with funding.", "The department evaluated proposals for more local education authorities to close grammar schools and to adopt comprehensive secondary education.", "Although Thatcher was committed to a tiered secondary modern-grammar school system of education and attempted to preserve grammar schools, during her tenure as education secretary, she turned down only 326 of 3,612 proposals (roughly 9 per cent) for schools to become comprehensives; the proportion of pupils attending comprehensive schools consequently rose from 32 per cent to 62 per cent.", "Nevertheless, she managed to save 94 grammar schools.During her first months in office, she attracted public attention due to the government's attempts to cut spending.", "She gave priority to academic needs in schools, while administering public expenditure cuts on the state education system, resulting in the abolition of free milk for schoolchildren aged seven to eleven.", "She held that few children would suffer if schools were charged for milk but agreed to provide younger children with daily for nutritional purposes.", "She also argued that she was simply carrying on with what the Labour government had started since they had stopped giving free milk to secondary schools.", "Milk would still be provided to those children that required it on medical grounds, and schools could still sell milk.", "The aftermath of the milk row hardened her determination; she told the editor-proprietor Harold Creighton of ''The Spectator'': \"Don't underestimate me, I saw how they broke Keith , but they won't break me.", "\"Cabinet papers later revealed that she opposed the policy but had been forced into it by the Treasury.", "Her decision provoked a storm of protest from Labour and the press, leading to her being notoriously nicknamed \"Margaret Thatcher, Milk Snatcher\".", "She reportedly considered leaving politics in the aftermath and later wrote in her autobiography: \"I learned a valuable lesson.", "I had incurred the maximum of political odium for the minimum of political benefit.", "\"===Leader of the Opposition (1975–1979)===The Heath government continued to experience difficulties with oil embargoes and union demands for wage increases in 1973, subsequently losing the February 1974 general election.", "Labour formed a minority government and went on to win a narrow majority in the October 1974 general election.", "Heath's leadership of the Conservative Party looked increasingly in doubt.", "Thatcher was not initially seen as the obvious replacement, but she eventually became the main challenger, promising a fresh start.", "Her main support came from the parliamentary 1922 Committee and ''The Spectator'', but Thatcher's time in office gave her the reputation of a pragmatist rather than that of an ideologue.", "She defeated Heath on the first ballot, and he resigned from the leadership.", "In the second ballot she defeated Whitelaw, Heath's preferred successor.", "Thatcher's election had a polarising effect on the party; her support was stronger among MPs on the right, and also among those from southern England, and those who had not attended public schools or Oxbridge.Thatcher became Conservative Party leader and Leader of the Opposition on 11 February 1975; she appointed Whitelaw as her deputy.", "Heath was never reconciled to Thatcher's leadership of the party.Television critic Clive James, writing in ''The Observer'' prior to her election as Conservative Party leader, compared her voice of 1973 to \"a cat sliding down a blackboard\".", "Thatcher had already begun to work on her presentation on the advice of Gordon Reece, a former television producer.", "By chance, Reece met the actor Laurence Olivier, who arranged lessons with the National Theatre's voice coach.Thatcher began attending lunches regularly at the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA), a think tank founded by poultry magnate Antony Fisher; she had been visiting the IEA and reading its publications since the early 1960s.", "There she was influenced by the ideas of Ralph Harris and Arthur Seldon and became the face of the ideological movement opposing the British welfare state.", "Keynesian economics, they believed, was weakening Britain.", "The institute's pamphlets proposed less government, lower taxes, and more freedom for business and consumers.Thatcher intended to promote neoliberal economic ideas at home and abroad.", "Despite setting the direction of her foreign policy for a Conservative government, Thatcher was distressed by her repeated failure to shine in the House of Commons.", "Consequently, Thatcher decided that as \"her voice was carrying little weight at home\", she would \"be heard in the wider world\".", "Thatcher undertook visits across the Atlantic, establishing an international profile and promoting her economic and foreign policies.", "She toured the United States in 1975 and met President Gerald Ford, visiting again in 1977, when she met President Jimmy Carter.", "Among other foreign trips, she met Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi during a visit to Iran in 1978.Thatcher chose to travel without being accompanied by her shadow foreign secretary, Reginald Maudling, in an attempt to make a bolder personal impact.In domestic affairs, Thatcher opposed Scottish devolution (home rule) and the creation of a Scottish Assembly.", "She instructed Conservative MPs to vote against the Scotland and Wales Bill in December 1976, which was successfully defeated, and then when new Bills were proposed, she supported amending the legislation to allow the English to vote in the 1979 referendum on Scottish devolution.Britain's economy during the 1970s was so weak that then Foreign Secretary James Callaghan warned his fellow Labour Cabinet members in 1974 of the possibility of \"a breakdown of democracy\", telling them: \"If I were a young man, I would emigrate.\"", "In mid-1978, the economy began to recover, and opinion polls showed Labour in the lead, with a general election being expected later that year and a Labour win a serious possibility.", "Now prime minister, Callaghan surprised many by announcing on 7 September that there would be no general election that year and that he would wait until 1979 before going to the polls.", "Thatcher reacted to this by branding the Labour government \"chickens\", and Liberal Party leader David Steel joined in, criticising Labour for \"running scared\".The Labour government then faced fresh public unease about the direction of the country and a damaging series of strikes during the winter of 1978–79, dubbed the \"Winter of Discontent\".", "The Conservatives attacked the Labour government's unemployment record, using advertising with the slogan \"Labour Isn't Working\".", "A general election was called after the Callaghan ministry lost a motion of no confidence in early 1979.The Conservatives won a 44-seat majority in the House of Commons, and Thatcher became the first female British prime minister.====\"Iron Lady\"====In 1976, Thatcher gave her \"Britain Awake\" foreign policy speech which lambasted the Soviet Union, saying it was \"bent on world dominance\".", "The Soviet Army journal ''Red Star'' reported her stance in a piece headlined \"Iron Lady Raises Fears\", alluding to her remarks on the Iron Curtain.", "''The Sunday Times'' covered the ''Red Star'' article the next day, and Thatcher embraced the epithet a week later; in a speech to Finchley Conservatives she likened it to the Duke of Wellington's nickname \"\".", "The \"Iron\" metaphor followed her throughout ever since, and would become a generic sobriquet for other strong-willed female politicians." ], [ "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1979–1990)", "Thatcher became prime minister on 4 May 1979.Arriving at Downing Street she said, paraphrasing the Prayer of Saint Francis:In office throughout the 1980s, Thatcher was frequently referred to as the most powerful woman in the world.===Domestic affairs=======Minorities====Thatcher was the Opposition leader and prime minister at a time of increased racial tension in Britain.", "During the 1977 local elections, ''The Economist'' commented: \"The Tory tide swamped the smaller partiesspecifically the National Front , which suffered a clear decline from last year.\"", "Her standing in the polls had risen by 11% after a 1978 interview for ''World in Action'' in which she said \"the British character has done so much for democracy, for law and done so much throughout the world that if there is any fear that it might be swamped people are going to react and be rather hostile to those coming in\", as well as \"in many ways add to the richness and variety of this country.", "The moment the minority threatens to become a big one, people get frightened\".", "In the 1979 general election, the Conservatives had attracted votes from the NF, whose support almost collapsed.", "In a July 1979 meeting with Foreign Secretary Lord Carrington and Home Secretary William Whitelaw, Thatcher objected to the number of Asian immigrants, in the context of limiting the total of Vietnamese boat people allowed to settle in the UK to fewer than 10,000 over two years.====The Queen====As prime minister, Thatcher met weekly with Queen Elizabeth II to discuss government business, and their relationship came under scrutiny.", "states:Michael Shea, the Queen's press secretary, in 1986 leaked stories of a deep rift to ''The Sunday Times''.", "He said that she felt Thatcher's policies were \"uncaring, confrontational and socially divisive\".", "Thatcher later wrote: \"I always found the Queen's attitude towards the work of the Government absolutely correct ... stories of clashes between 'two powerful women' were just too good not to make up.", "\"====Economy and taxation====Thatcher's economic policy was influenced by monetarist thinking and economists such as Milton Friedman and Alan Walters.", "Together with her first chancellor, Geoffrey Howe, she lowered direct taxes on income and increased indirect taxes.", "She increased interest rates to slow the growth of the money supply, and thereby lower inflation; introduced cash limits on public spending and reduced expenditure on social services such as education and housing.", "Cuts to higher education led to Thatcher being the first Oxonian post-war prime minister without an honorary doctorate from Oxford University after a 738–319 vote of the governing assembly and a student petition.Some Heathite Conservatives in the Cabinet, the so-called \"wets\", expressed doubt over Thatcher's policies.", "The 1981 England riots resulted in the British media discussing the need for a policy U-turn.", "At the 1980 Conservative Party conference, Thatcher addressed the issue directly with a speech written by the playwright Ronald Millar, that notably included the following lines:Thatcher's job approval rating fell to 23% by December 1980, lower than recorded for any previous prime minister.", "As the recession of the early 1980s deepened, she increased taxes, despite concerns expressed in a March 1981 statement signed by 364 leading economists, which argued there was \"no basis in economic theory ... for the Government's belief that by deflating demand they will bring inflation permanently under control\", adding that \"present policies will deepen the depression, erode the industrial base of our economy and threaten its social and political stability\".Visiting Salford University in 1982By 1982, the UK began to experience signs of economic recovery; inflation was down to 8.6% from a high of 18%, but unemployment was over 3 million for the first time since the 1930s.", "By 1983, overall economic growth was stronger, and inflation and mortgage rates had fallen to their lowest levels in 13 years, although manufacturing employment as a share of total employment fell to just over 30%, with total unemployment remaining high, peaking at 3.3 million in 1984.During the 1982 Conservative Party Conference, Thatcher said: \"We have done more to roll back the frontiers of socialism than any previous Conservative Government.\"", "She said at the Party Conference the following year that the British people had completely rejected state socialism and understood \"the state has no source of money other than money which people earn themselves ...", "There is no such thing as public money; there is only taxpayers' money.", "\"By 1987, unemployment was falling, the economy was stable and strong, and inflation was low.", "Opinion polls showed a comfortable Conservative lead, and local council election results had also been successful, prompting Thatcher to call a general election for 11 June that year, despite the deadline for an election still being 12 months away.", "The election saw Thatcher re-elected for a third successive term.Thatcher had been firmly opposed to British membership of the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM, a precursor to European Economic and Monetary Union), believing that it would constrain the British economy, despite the urging of both Chancellor of the Exchequer Nigel Lawson and Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe; in October 1990 she was persuaded by John Major, Lawson's successor as chancellor, to join the ERM at what proved to be too high a rate.Thatcher reformed local government taxes by replacing domestic rates (a tax based on the nominal rental value of a home) with the Community Charge (or poll tax) in which the same amount was charged to each adult resident.", "The new tax was introduced in Scotland in 1989 and in England and Wales the following year, and proved to be among the most unpopular policies of her premiership.", "Public disquiet culminated in a 70,000 to 200,000-strong demonstration in London in March 1990; the demonstration around Trafalgar Square deteriorated into riots, leaving 113 people injured and 340 under arrest.", "The Community Charge was abolished in 1991 by her successor, John Major.", "It has since transpired that Thatcher herself had failed to register for the tax and was threatened with financial penalties if she did not return her form.====Industrial relations====Thatcher believed that the trade unions were harmful to both ordinary trade unionists and the public.", "She was committed to reducing the power of the unions, whose leadership she accused of undermining parliamentary democracy and economic performance through strike action.", "Several unions launched strikes in response to legislation introduced to limit their power, but resistance eventually collapsed.", "Only 39% of union members voted Labour in the 1983 general election.", "According to the BBC's political correspondent in 2004, Thatcher \"managed to destroy the power of the trade unions for almost a generation\".", "The miners' strike of 1984–85 was the biggest and most devastating confrontation between the unions and the Thatcher government.Pro-strike rally in London, 1984In March 1984, the National Coal Board (NCB) proposed to close 20 of the 174 state-owned mines and cut 20,000 jobs out of 187,000.Two-thirds of the country's miners, led by the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) under Arthur Scargill, downed tools in protest.", "However, Scargill refused to hold a ballot on the strike, having previously lost three ballots on a national strike (in January and October 1982, and March 1983).", "This led to the strike being declared illegal by the High Court of Justice.Thatcher refused to meet the union's demands and compared the miners' dispute to the Falklands War, declaring in a speech in 1984: \"We had to fight the enemy without in the Falklands.", "We always have to be aware of the enemy within, which is much more difficult to fight and more dangerous to liberty.\"", "Thatcher's opponents misrepresented her words as indicating contempt for the working class and have been employed in criticism of her ever since.After a year out on strike in March 1985, the NUM leadership conceded without a deal.", "The cost to the economy was estimated to be at least £1.5 billion, and the strike was blamed for much of the pound's fall against the US dollar.", "Thatcher reflected on the end of the strike in her statement that \"if anyone has won\", it was \"the miners who stayed at work\" and all those \"that have kept Britain going\".The government closed 25 unprofitable coal mines in 1985, and by 1992 a total of 97 mines had been closed; those that remained were privatised in 1994.The resulting closure of 150 coal mines, some of which were not losing money, resulted in the loss of tens of thousands of jobs and had the effect of devastating entire communities.", "Strikes had helped bring down Heath's government, and Thatcher was determined to succeed where he had failed.", "Her strategy of preparing fuel stocks, appointing hardliner Ian MacGregor as NCB leader and ensuring that police were adequately trained and equipped with riot gear contributed to her triumph over the striking miners.The number of stoppages across the UK peaked at 4,583 in 1979, when more than 29 million working days had been lost.", "In 1984, the year of the miners' strike, there were 1,221, resulting in the loss of more than 27 million working days.", "Stoppages then fell steadily throughout the rest of Thatcher's premiership; in 1990, there were 630 and fewer than 2 million working days lost, and they continued to fall thereafter.", "Thatcher's tenure also witnessed a sharp decline in trade union density, with the percentage of workers belonging to a trade union falling from 57.3% in 1979 to 49.5% in 1985.In 1979 up until Thatcher's final year in office, trade union membership also fell, from 13.5 million in 1979 to fewer than 10 million.====Privatisation====The policy of privatisation has been called \"a crucial ingredient of Thatcherism\".", "After the 1983 election, the sale of state utilities accelerated; more than £29 billion was raised from the sale of nationalised industries, and another £18 billion from the sale of council houses.", "The process of privatisation, especially the preparation of nationalised industries for privatisation, was associated with marked improvements in performance, particularly in terms of labour productivity.Some of the privatised industries, including gas, water, and electricity, were natural monopolies for which privatisation involved little increase in competition.", "The privatised industries that demonstrated improvement sometimes did so while still under state ownership.", "British Steel Corporation had made great gains in profitability while still a nationalised industry under the government-appointed MacGregor chairmanship, which faced down trade-union opposition to close plants and halve the workforce.", "Regulation was also significantly expanded to compensate for the loss of direct government control, with the foundation of regulatory bodies such as Oftel (1984), Ofgas (1986), and the National Rivers Authority (1989).", "There was no clear pattern to the degree of competition, regulation, and performance among the privatised industries.In most cases, privatisation benefited consumers in terms of lower prices and improved efficiency but results overall have been mixed.", "Not all privatised companies have had successful share price trajectories in the longer term.", "A 2010 review by the IEA states: \" does seem to be the case that once competition and/or effective regulation was introduced, performance improved markedly ...", "But I hasten to emphasise again that the literature is not unanimous.", "\"Thatcher always resisted privatising British Rail and was said to have told Transport Secretary Nicholas Ridley: \"Railway privatisation will be the Waterloo of this government.", "Please never mention the railways to me again.\"", "Shortly before her resignation in 1990, she accepted the arguments for privatisation, which her successor John Major implemented in 1994.The privatisation of public assets was combined with financial deregulation to fuel economic growth.", "Chancellor Geoffrey Howe abolished the UK's exchange controls in 1979, which allowed more capital to be invested in foreign markets, and the Big Bang of 1986 removed many restrictions on the London Stock Exchange.====Northern Ireland====Visiting Northern Ireland in 1982In 1980 and 1981, Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) and Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) prisoners in Northern Ireland's Maze Prison carried out hunger strikes to regain the status of political prisoners that had been removed in 1976 by the preceding Labour government.", "Bobby Sands began the 1981 strike, saying that he would fast until death unless prison inmates won concessions over their living conditions.", "Thatcher refused to countenance a return to political status for the prisoners, having declared \"Crime is crime is crime; it is not political\".", "Nevertheless, the British government privately contacted republican leaders in a bid to bring the hunger strikes to an end.", "After the deaths of Sands and nine others, the strike ended.", "Some rights were restored to paramilitary prisoners, but not official recognition of political status.", "Violence in Northern Ireland escalated significantly during the hunger strikes.Thatcher narrowly escaped injury in an IRA assassination attempt at a Brighton hotel early in the morning on 12 October 1984.Five people were killed, including the wife of minister John Wakeham.", "Thatcher was staying at the hotel to prepare for the Conservative Party conference, which she insisted should open as scheduled the following day.", "She delivered her speech as planned, though rewritten from her original draft, in a move that was supported across the political spectrum and enhanced her popularity with the public.On 6 November 1981, Thatcher and Taoiseach (Irish prime minister) Garret FitzGerald had established the Anglo-Irish Inter-Governmental Council, a forum for meetings between the two governments.", "On 15 November 1985, Thatcher and FitzGerald signed the Hillsborough Anglo-Irish Agreement, which marked the first time a British government had given the Republic of Ireland an advisory role in the governance of Northern Ireland.", "In protest, the Ulster Says No movement led by Ian Paisley attracted 100,000 to a rally in Belfast, Ian Gow, later assassinated by the PIRA, resigned as Minister of State in HM Treasury, and all 15 Unionist MPs resigned their parliamentary seats; only one was not returned in the subsequent by-elections on 23 January 1986.===Environment===Thatcher supported an active climate protection policy; she was instrumental in the passing of the Environmental Protection Act 1990, the founding of the Hadley Centre for Climate Research and Prediction, the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and the ratification of the Montreal Protocol on preserving the ozone.Thatcher helped to put climate change, acid rain and general pollution in the British mainstream in the late 1980s, calling for a global treaty on climate change in 1989.Her speeches included one to the Royal Society in 1988, followed by another to the UN General Assembly in 1989.===Foreign affairs===Thatcher appointed Lord Carrington, an ennobled member of the party and former Secretary of State for Defence, to run the Foreign Office in 1979.Although considered a \"wet\", he avoided domestic affairs and got along well with Thatcher.", "One issue was what to do with Rhodesia, where the white minority had determined to rule the prosperous, black-majority breakaway colony in the face of overwhelming international criticism.", "With the 1975 Portuguese collapse in the continent, South Africa (which had been Rhodesia's chief supporter) realised that their ally was a liability; black rule was inevitable, and the Thatcher government brokered a peaceful solution to end the Rhodesian Bush War in December 1979 via the Lancaster House Agreement.", "The conference at Lancaster House was attended by Rhodesian prime minister Ian Smith, as well as by the key black leaders: Muzorewa, Mugabe, Nkomo and Tongogara.", "The result was the new Zimbabwean nation under black rule in 1980.====Cold War====Thatcher's first foreign-policy crisis came with the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.", "She condemned the invasion, said it showed the bankruptcy of a détente policy and helped convince some British athletes to boycott the 1980 Moscow Olympics.", "She gave weak support to US president Jimmy Carter who tried to punish the USSR with economic sanctions.", "Britain's economic situation was precarious, and most of NATO was reluctant to cut trade ties.", "Thatcher nevertheless gave the go-ahead for Whitehall to approve MI6 (along with the SAS) to undertake \"disruptive action\" in Afghanistan.", "As well working with the CIA in Operation Cyclone, they also supplied weapons, training and intelligence to the ''mujaheddin''.The ''Financial Times'' reported in 2011 that her government had secretly supplied Iraq under Saddam Hussein with \"non-lethal\" military equipment since 1981.Having withdrawn formal recognition from the Pol Pot regime in 1979, the Thatcher government backed the Khmer Rouge keeping their UN seat after they were ousted from power in Cambodia by the Cambodian–Vietnamese War.", "Although Thatcher denied it at the time, it was revealed in 1991 that, while not directly training any Khmer Rouge, from 1983 the Special Air Service (SAS) was sent to secretly train \"the armed forces of the Cambodian non-communist resistance\" that remained loyal to Prince Norodom Sihanouk and his former prime minister Son Sann in the fight against the Vietnamese-backed puppet regime.Thatcher was one of the first Western leaders to respond warmly to reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev.", "Following Reagan–Gorbachev summit meetings and reforms enacted by Gorbachev in the USSR, she declared in November 1988 that \" not in a Cold War now\" but rather in a \"new relationship much wider than the Cold War ever was\".", "She went on a state visit to the Soviet Union in 1984 and met with Gorbachev and Council of Ministers chairman Nikolai Ryzhkov.====Ties with the US====Meeting Reagan's cabinet with ministers in the White House Cabinet Room, 1981Despite opposite personalities, Thatcher bonded quickly with US president Ronald Reagan.", "She gave strong support to the Reagan administration's Cold War policies based on their shared distrust of communism.", "A sharp disagreement came in 1983 when Reagan did not consult with her on the invasion of Grenada.During her first year as prime minister, she supported NATO's decision to deploy US nuclear cruise and Pershing II missiles in Western Europe, permitting the US to station more than 160 cruise missiles at RAF Greenham Common, starting in November 1983 and triggering mass protests by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.", "She bought the Trident nuclear missile submarine system from the US to replace Polaris, tripling the UK's nuclear forces at an eventual cost of more than £12 billion (at 1996–97 prices).", "Thatcher's preference for defence ties with the US was demonstrated in the Westland affair of 1985–86 when she acted with colleagues to allow the struggling helicopter manufacturer Westland to refuse a takeover offer from the Italian firm Agusta in favour of the management's preferred option, a link with Sikorsky Aircraft.", "Defence Secretary Michael Heseltine, who had supported the Agusta deal, resigned from the government in protest.In April 1986 she permitted US F-111s to use Royal Air Force bases for the bombing of Libya in retaliation for the alleged Libyan bombing of a Berlin discothèque, citing the right of self-defence under Article 51 of the UN Charter.", "Polls suggested that fewer than one in three British citizens approved of her decision.Thatcher was in the US on a state visit when Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait in August 1990.During her talks with President George H. W. Bush, who succeeded Reagan in 1989, she recommended intervention, and put pressure on Bush to deploy troops in the Middle East to drive the Iraqi Army out of Kuwait.", "Bush was apprehensive about the plan, prompting Thatcher to remark to him during a telephone conversation: \"This was no time to go wobbly!\"", "Thatcher's government supplied military forces to the international coalition in the build-up to the Gulf War, but she had resigned by the time hostilities began on 17 January 1991.She applauded the coalition victory on the backbenches, while warning that \"the victories of peace will take longer than the battles of war\".", "It was disclosed in 2017 that Thatcher had suggested threatening Saddam with chemical weapons after the invasion of Kuwait.====Crisis in the South Atlantic====On 2 April 1982, the ruling military junta in Argentina ordered the invasion of the British possessions of the Falkland Islands and South Georgia, triggering the Falklands War.", "The subsequent crisis was \"a defining moment of premiership\".", "At the suggestion of Harold Macmillan and Robert Armstrong, she set up and chaired a small War Cabinet (formally called ODSA, Overseas and Defence committee, South Atlantic) to oversee the conduct of the war, which by 5–6 April had authorised and dispatched a naval task force to retake the islands.", "Argentina surrendered on 14 June and ''Operation Corporate'' was hailed a success, notwithstanding the deaths of 255 British servicemen and three Falkland Islanders.", "Argentine fatalities totalled 649, half of them after the nuclear-powered submarine torpedoed and sank the cruiser on 2 May.Thatcher was criticised for the neglect of the Falklands' defence that led to the war, and especially by Labour MP Tam Dalyell in Parliament for the decision to torpedo the ''General Belgrano'', but overall, she was considered a competent and committed war leader.", "The \"Falklands factor\", an economic recovery beginning early in 1982, and a bitterly divided opposition all contributed to Thatcher's second election victory in 1983.Thatcher frequently referred after the war to the \"Falklands spirit\"; suggests that this reflected her preference for the streamlined decision-making of her War Cabinet over the painstaking deal-making of peacetime cabinet government.====Negotiating Hong Kong====In September 1982, she visited China to discuss with Deng Xiaoping the sovereignty of Hong Kong after 1997.China was the first communist state Thatcher had visited as prime minister, and she was the first British prime minister to visit China.", "Throughout their meeting, she sought the PRC's agreement to a continued British presence in the territory.", "Deng insisted that the PRC's sovereignty over Hong Kong was non-negotiable but stated his willingness to settle the sovereignty issue with the British government through formal negotiations.", "Both governments promised to maintain Hong Kong's stability and prosperity.", "After the two-year negotiations, Thatcher conceded to the PRC government and signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration in Beijing in 1984, agreeing to hand over Hong Kong's sovereignty in 1997.====Apartheid in South Africa====Despite saying that she was in favour of \"peaceful negotiations\" to end apartheid, Thatcher opposed sanctions imposed on South Africa by the Commonwealth and the European Economic Community (EEC).", "She attempted to preserve trade with South Africa while persuading its government to abandon apartheid.", "This included \"casting herself as President Botha's candid friend\" and inviting him to visit the UK in 1984, despite the \"inevitable demonstrations\" against his government.", "Alan Merrydew of the Canadian broadcaster BCTV News asked Thatcher what her response was \"to a reported ANC statement that they will target British firms in South Africa?\"", "to which she later replied: \"... when the ANC says that they will target British companies ...", "This shows what a typical terrorist organisation it is.", "I fought terrorism all my life and if more people fought it, and we were all more successful, we should not have it and I hope that everyone in this hall will think it is right to go on fighting terrorism.\"", "During his visit to Britain five months after his release from prison, Nelson Mandela praised Thatcher: \"She is an enemy of apartheid ... We have much to thank her for.", "\"====Europe====Thatcher and her party supported British membership of the EEC in the 1975 national referendum and the Single European Act of 1986, and obtained the UK rebate on contributions, but she believed that the role of the organisation should be limited to ensuring free trade and effective competition, and feared that the EEC approach was at odds with her views on smaller government and deregulation.", "Believing that the single market would result in political integration, Thatcher's opposition to further European integration became more pronounced during her premiership and particularly after her third government in 1987.In her Bruges speech in 1988, Thatcher outlined her opposition to proposals from the EEC, forerunner of the European Union, for a federal structure and increased centralisation of decision-making:Sharing the concerns of French president François Mitterrand, Thatcher was initially opposed to German reunification, telling Gorbachev that it \"would lead to a change to postwar borders, and we cannot allow that because such a development would undermine the stability of the whole international situation and could endanger our security\".", "She expressed concern that a united Germany would align itself more closely with the Soviet Union and move away from NATO.In March 1990, Thatcher held a Chequers seminar on the subject of German reunification that was attended by members of her cabinet and historians such as Norman Stone, George Urban, Timothy Garton Ash and Gordon A. Craig.", "During the seminar, Thatcher described \"what Urban called 'saloon bar clichés' about the German character, including 'angst, aggressiveness, assertiveness, bullying, egotism, inferiority complex sentimentality.", "Those present were shocked to hear Thatcher's utterances and \"appalled\" at how she was \"apparently unaware\" about the post-war German collective guilt and Germans' attempts to work through their past.", "The words of the meeting were leaked by her foreign-policy advisor Charles Powell and, subsequently, her comments were met with fierce backlash and controversy.During the same month, German chancellor Helmut Kohl reassured Thatcher that he would keep her \"informed of all his intentions about unification\", and that he was prepared to disclose \"matters which even his cabinet would not know\".===Challenges to leadership and resignation===Reviewing the Royal Bermuda Regiment in 1990During her premiership, Thatcher had the second-lowest average approval rating (40%) of any post-war prime minister.", "Since Nigel Lawson's resignation as chancellor in October 1989, polls consistently showed that she was less popular than her party.", "A self-described conviction politician, Thatcher always insisted that she did not care about her poll ratings and pointed instead to her unbeaten election record.In December 1989, Thatcher was challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party by the little-known backbench MP Sir Anthony Meyer.", "Of the 374 Conservative MPs eligible to vote, 314 voted for Thatcher and 33 for Meyer.", "Her supporters in the party viewed the result as a success and rejected suggestions that there was discontent within the party.Opinion polls in September 1990 reported that Labour had established a 14% lead over the Conservatives, and by November, the Conservatives had been trailing Labour for 18 months.", "These ratings, together with Thatcher's combative personality and tendency to override collegiate opinion, contributed to further discontent within her party.In July 1989, Thatcher removed Geoffrey Howe as foreign secretary after he and Lawson had forced her to agree to a plan for Britain to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM).", "Britain joined the ERM in October 1990.On 1 November 1990, Howe, by then the last remaining member of Thatcher's original 1979 cabinet, resigned as deputy prime minister, ostensibly over her open hostility to moves towards European monetary union.", "In his resignation speech on 13 November, which was instrumental in Thatcher's downfall, Howe attacked Thatcher's openly dismissive attitude to the government's proposal for a new European currency competing against existing currencies (a \"hard ECU\"):On 14 November, Michael Heseltine mounted a challenge for the leadership of the Conservative Party.", "Opinion polls had indicated that he would give the Conservatives a national lead over Labour.", "Although Thatcher led on the first ballot with the votes of 204 Conservative MPs (54.8%) to 152 votes (40.9%) for Heseltine, with 16 abstentions, she was four votes short of the required 15% majority.", "A second ballot was therefore necessary.", "Thatcher initially declared her intention to \"fight on and fight to win\" the second ballot, but consultation with her cabinet persuaded her to withdraw.", "After holding an audience with the Queen, calling other world leaders, and making one final Commons speech, on 28 November she left Downing Street in tears.", "She reportedly regarded her ousting as a betrayal.", "Her resignation was a shock to many outside Britain, with such foreign observers as Henry Kissinger and Gorbachev expressing private consternation.Chancellor John Major replaced Thatcher as head of government and party leader, whose lead over Heseltine in the second ballot was sufficient for Heseltine to drop out.", "Major oversaw an upturn in Conservative support in the 17 months leading to the 1992 general election and led the party to a fourth successive victory on 9 April 1992.Thatcher had lobbied for Major in the leadership contest against Heseltine, but her support for him waned in later years." ], [ "Later life", "=== Return to backbenches (1990–1992) ===After leaving the premiership, Thatcher returned to the backbenches as a constituency parliamentarian.", "Her domestic approval rating recovered after her resignation, though public opinion remained divided on whether her government had been good for the country.", "Aged 66, she retired from the House of Commons at the 1992 general election, saying that leaving the Commons would allow her more freedom to speak her mind.===Post-Commons (1992–2003)===On leaving the Commons, Thatcher became the first former British prime minister to set up a foundation; the British wing of the Margaret Thatcher Foundation was dissolved in 2005 due to financial difficulties.", "She wrote two volumes of memoirs, ''The Downing Street Years'' (1993) and ''The Path to Power'' (1995).", "In 1991, she and her husband Denis moved to a house in Chester Square, a residential garden square in central London's Belgravia district.Thatcher was hired by the tobacco company Philip Morris as a \"geopolitical consultant\" in July 1992 for $250,000 per year and an annual contribution of $250,000 to her foundation.", "Thatcher earned $50,000 for each speech she delivered.Thatcher became an advocate of Croatian and Slovenian independence.", "Commenting on the Yugoslav Wars, in a 1991 interview for Croatian Radiotelevision, she was critical of Western governments for not recognising the breakaway republics of Croatia and Slovenia as independent and for not supplying them with arms after the Serbian-led Yugoslav Army attacked.In August 1992, she called for NATO to stop the Serbian assault on Goražde and Sarajevo to end ethnic cleansing during the Bosnian War, comparing the situation in Bosnia–Herzegovina to \"the barbarities of Hitler's and Stalin's\".She made a series of speeches in the Lords criticising the Maastricht Treaty, describing it as \"a treaty too far\" and stated: \"I could never have signed this treaty.\"", "She cited A. V. Dicey when arguing that, as all three main parties were in favour of the treaty, the people should have their say in a referendum.Thatcher served as honorary chancellor of the College of William & Mary in Virginia from 1993 to 2000, while also serving as chancellor of the private University of Buckingham from 1992 to 1998, a university she had formally opened in 1976 as the former education secretary.After Tony Blair's election as Labour Party leader in 1994, Thatcher praised Blair as \"probably the most formidable Labour leader since Hugh Gaitskell\", adding: \"I see a lot of socialism behind their front bench, but not in Mr Blair.", "I think he genuinely has moved.\"", "Blair responded in kind: \"She was a thoroughly determined person, and that is an admirable quality.", "\"In 1998, Thatcher called for the release of former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet when Spain had him arrested and sought to try him for human rights violations.", "She cited the help he gave Britain during the Falklands War.", "In 1999, she visited him while he was under house arrest near London.", "Pinochet was released in March 2000 on medical grounds by Home Secretary Jack Straw.Touring the Kennedy Space Center in 2001At the 2001 general election, Thatcher supported the Conservative campaign, as she had done in 1992 and 1997, and in the Conservative leadership election following its defeat, she endorsed Iain Duncan Smith over Kenneth Clarke.", "In 2002 she encouraged George W. Bush to aggressively tackle the \"unfinished business\" of Iraq under Saddam Hussein, and praised Blair for his \"strong, bold leadership\" in standing with Bush in the Iraq War.She broached the same subject in her ''Statecraft: Strategies for a Changing World'', which was published in April 2002 and dedicated to Ronald Reagan, writing that there would be no peace in the Middle East until Saddam was toppled.", "Her book also said that Israel must trade land for peace and that the European Union (EU) was a \"fundamentally unreformable\", \"classic utopian project, a monument to the vanity of intellectuals, a programme whose inevitable destiny is failure\".", "She argued that Britain should renegotiate its terms of membership or else leave the EU and join the North American Free Trade Area.Following several small strokes, her doctors advised her not to engage in further public speaking.", "In March 2002 she announced that, on doctors' advice, she would cancel all planned speaking engagements and accept no more.On 26 June 2003, Thatcher's husband, Sir Denis, died aged 88; his body was cremated on 3 July at Mortlake Crematorium in London.===Final years (2003–2013)===Arriving for the funeral of President Reagan in 2004On 11 June 2004, Thatcher (against doctors' orders) attended the state funeral service for Ronald Reagan.", "She delivered her eulogy via videotape; in view of her health, the message had been pre-recorded several months earlier.", "Thatcher flew to California with the Reagan entourage, and attended the memorial service and interment ceremony for the president at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library.In 2005, Thatcher criticised how Blair had decided to invade Iraq two years previously.", "Although she still supported the intervention to topple Saddam Hussein, she said that (as a scientist) she would always look for \"facts, evidence and proof\" before committing the armed forces.", "She celebrated her 80th birthday on 13 October at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Hyde Park, London; guests included the Queen, the Duke of Edinburgh, Princess Alexandra and Tony Blair.", "Geoffrey Howe, Baron Howe of Aberavon, was also in attendance and said of his former leader: \"Her real triumph was to have transformed not just one party but two, so that when Labour did eventually return, the great bulk of Thatcherism was accepted as irreversible.", "\"In 2006, Thatcher attended the official Washington memorial service to commemorate the fifth anniversary of the 9/11 attacks on the US.", "She was a guest of Vice President Dick Cheney and met Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice during her visit.", "In February 2007 Thatcher became the first living British prime minister to be honoured with a statue in the Houses of Parliament.", "The bronze statue stood opposite that of her political hero, Winston Churchill, and was unveiled on 21 February 2007 with Thatcher in attendance; she remarked in the Members' Lobby of the Commons: \"I might have preferred iron – but bronze will do ...", "It won't rust.", "\"Thatcher was a public supporter of the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism and the resulting Prague Process and sent a public letter of support to its preceding conference.After collapsing at a House of Lords dinner, Thatcher, suffering low blood pressure, was admitted to St Thomas' Hospital in central London on 7 March 2008 for tests.", "In 2009 she was hospitalised again when she fell and broke her arm.", "Thatcher returned to 10 Downing Street in late November 2009 for the unveiling of an official portrait by artist Richard Stone, an unusual honour for a living former prime minister.", "Stone was previously commissioned to paint portraits of the Queen and Queen Mother.On 4 July 2011, Thatcher was to attend a ceremony for the unveiling of a statue of Ronald Reagan outside the US embassy in London, but was unable to attend due to her frail health.", "She last attended a sitting of the House of Lords on 19 July 2010, and on 30 July 2011 it was announced that her office in the Lords had been closed.", "Earlier that month, Thatcher was named the most competent prime minister of the past 30 years in an Ipsos MORI poll.Thatcher's daughter Carol first revealed that her mother had dementia in 2005, saying \"Mum doesn't read much any more because of her memory loss\".", "In her 2008 memoir, Carol wrote that her mother \"could hardly remember the beginning of a sentence by the time she got to the end\".", "She later recounted how she was first struck by her mother's dementia when, in conversation, Thatcher confused the Falklands and Yugoslav conflicts; she recalled the pain of needing to tell her mother repeatedly that her husband Denis was dead.===Death and funeral (2013)===Thatcher died on 8 April 2013, at the age of 87, after suffering a stroke.", "She had been staying at a suite in the Ritz Hotel in London since December 2012 after having difficulty with stairs at her Chester Square home in Belgravia.", "Her death certificate listed the primary causes of death as a \"cerebrovascular accident\" and \"repeated transient ischaemic attack\"; secondary causes were listed as a \"carcinoma of the bladder\" and dementia.Reactions to the news of Thatcher's death were mixed across the UK, ranging from tributes lauding her as Britain's greatest-ever peacetime prime minister to public celebrations of her death and expressions of hatred and personalised vitriol.Details of Thatcher's funeral had been agreed upon with her in advance.", "She received a ceremonial funeral, including full military honours, with a church service at St Paul's Cathedral on 17 April.Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh attended her funeral, marking only the second and final time in the Queen's reign that she attended the funeral of any of her former prime ministers, after that of Churchill, who received a state funeral in 1965.After the service at St Paul's, Thatcher's body was cremated at Mortlake, where her husband's had been cremated.", "On 28 September, a service for Thatcher was held in the All Saints Chapel of the Royal Hospital Chelsea's Margaret Thatcher Infirmary.", "In a private ceremony, Thatcher's ashes were interred in the hospital's grounds, next to her husband's." ], [ "Legacy", "===Political impact===Thatcherism represented a systematic and decisive overhaul of the post-war consensus, whereby the major political parties largely agreed on the central themes of Keynesianism, the welfare state, nationalised industry, and close regulation of the economy, and high taxes.", "Thatcher generally supported the welfare state while proposing to rid it of abuses.She promised in 1982 that the highly popular National Health Service was \"safe in our hands\".", "At first, she ignored the question of privatising nationalised industries; heavily influenced by right-wing think tanks, and especially by Sir Keith Joseph, Thatcher broadened her attack.", "Thatcherism came to refer to her policies as well as aspects of her ethical outlook and personal style, including moral absolutism, nationalism, liberal individualism, and an uncompromising approach to achieving political goals.Thatcher defined her political philosophy, in a major and controversial break with the one-nation conservatism of her predecessor Edward Heath, in a 1987 interview published in ''Woman's Own'' magazine:====Overview====The number of adults owning shares rose from 7 per cent to 25 per cent during her tenure, and more than a million families bought their council houses, increasing from 55 per cent to 67 per cent in owner-occupiers from 1979 to 1990.The houses were sold at a discount of 33–55 per cent, leading to large profits for some new owners.", "Personal wealth rose by 80 per cent in real terms during the 1980s, mainly due to rising house prices and increased earnings.", "Shares in the privatised utilities were sold below their market value to ensure quick and wide sales rather than maximise national income.The \"Thatcher years\" were also marked by periods of high unemployment and social unrest, and many critics on the left of the political spectrum fault her economic policies for the unemployment level; many of the areas affected by mass unemployment as well as her monetarist economic policies remained blighted for decades, by such social problems as drug abuse and family breakdown.", "Unemployment did not fall below its May 1979 level during her tenure, only falling below its April 1979 level in 1990.The long-term effects of her policies on manufacturing remain contentious.Speaking in Scotland in 2009, Thatcher insisted she had no regrets and was right to introduce the poll tax and withdraw subsidies from \"outdated industries, whose markets were in terminal decline\", subsidies that created \"the culture of dependency, which had done such damage to Britain\".", "Political economist Susan Strange termed the neoliberal financial growth model \"casino capitalism\", reflecting her view that speculation and financial trading were becoming more important to the economy than industry.Critics on the left describe her as divisive and say she condoned greed and selfishness.", "Leading Welsh politician Rhodri Morgan, among others, characterised Thatcher as a \"Marmite\" figure.", "Journalist Michael White, writing in the aftermath of the 2007–08 financial crisis, challenged the view that her reforms were still a net benefit.", "Others consider her approach to have been \"a mixed bag\" and \" Curate's egg\".Thatcher did \"little to advance the political cause of women\" within her party or the government.", "Some British feminists regarded her as \"an enemy\".", "June Purvis of ''Women's History Review'' says that, although Thatcher had struggled laboriously against the sexist prejudices of her day to rise to the top, she made no effort to ease the path for other women.", "Thatcher did not regard women's rights as requiring particular attention as she did not, especially during her premiership, consider that women were being deprived of their rights.", "She had once suggested the shortlisting of women by default for all public appointments and proposed that those with young children should leave the workforce.Thatcher's stance on immigration in the late 1970s was perceived as part of a rising racist public discourse, which Martin Barker terms \"new racism\".", "In opposition, Thatcher believed that the National Front (NF) was winning over large numbers of Conservative voters with warnings against floods of immigrants.", "Her strategy was to undermine the NF narrative by acknowledging that many of their voters had serious concerns in need of addressing.", "In 1978 she criticised Labour's immigration policy to attract voters away from the NF to the Conservatives.", "Her rhetoric was followed by increased Conservative support at the expense of the NF.", "Critics on the left accused her of pandering to racism.Many Thatcherite policies influenced the Labour Party, which returned to power in 1997 under Tony Blair.", "Blair rebranded the party \"New Labour\" in 1994 with the aim of increasing its appeal beyond its traditional supporters, and to attract those who had supported Thatcher, such as the \"Essex man\".", "Thatcher is said to have regarded the \"New Labour\" rebranding as her greatest achievement.", "In contrast to Blair, the Conservative Party under William Hague attempted to distance himself and the party from Thatcher's economic policies in an attempt to gain public approval.Shortly after Thatcher died in 2013, Scottish first minister Alex Salmond argued that her policies had the \"unintended consequence\" of encouraging Scottish devolution.", "Lord Foulkes of Cumnock agreed on ''Scotland Tonight'' that she had provided \"the impetus\" for devolution.", "Writing for ''The Scotsman'' in 1997, Thatcher argued against devolution on the basis that it would eventually lead to Scottish independence.====Reputation====Thatcher's tenure of 11 years and 209 days as British prime minister was the longest since Lord Salisbury in the late 19th century (13 years and 252 days, in three spells) and the longest continuous period in office since Lord Liverpool in the early 19th century (14 years and 305 days).Having led the Conservative Party to victory in three consecutive general elections, twice in a landslide, she ranks among the most popular party leaders in British history regarding votes cast for the winning party; over 40 million ballots were cast in total for the party under her leadership.", "Her electoral successes were dubbed a \"historic hat trick\" by the British press in 1987.Thatcher ranked highest among living persons in the 2002 BBC poll ''100 Greatest Britons''.", "In 1999, ''Time'' deemed Thatcher one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century.", "In 2015 she topped a poll by ''Scottish Widows'', a major financial services company, as the most influential woman of the past 200 years; and in 2016 topped BBC Radio 4's ''Woman's Hour Power List'' of women judged to have had the biggest impact on female lives over the past 70 years.", "In 2020, ''Time'' magazine included Thatcher's name on its list of 100 Women of the Year.", "She was chosen as the Woman of the Year in 1982 when the Falklands War began under her command, resulting in the British victory.In contrast to her relatively poor average approval rating as prime minister, Thatcher has since ranked highly in retrospective opinion polling and, according to YouGov, is \"seen in overall positive terms\" by the British public.", "Just after her death in 2013, according to a poll by ''The Guardian'', about half of the public viewed her positively while one third viewed her negatively.", "In a 2019 opinion poll by YouGov, most Britons rated her as Britain's greatest post-war leader (with Churchill coming second).", "According to the poll, more than four in ten Britons (44%) think that Thatcher was a \"good\" or \"great\" prime minister, compared to 29% who think she was a \"poor\" or \"terrible\" one.", "She was voted the fourth-greatest British prime minister of the 20th century in a 2011 poll of 139 academics organised by MORI.", "In a 2016 University of Leeds survey of 82 academics specialising in post-1945 British history and politics, she was voted the second-greatest British prime minister after the Second World War.===Cultural depictions===According to theatre critic Michael Billington, Thatcher left an \"emphatic mark\" on the arts while prime minister.", "One of the earliest satires of Thatcher as prime minister involved satirist John Wells (as writer and performer), actress Janet Brown (voicing Thatcher) and future ''Spitting Image'' producer John Lloyd (as co-producer), who in 1979 were teamed up by producer Martin Lewis for the satirical audio album ''The Iron Lady'', which consisted of skits and songs satirising Thatcher's rise to power.", "The album was released in September 1979.Thatcher was heavily satirised on ''Spitting Image'', and ''The Independent'' labelled her \"every stand-up's dream\".Thatcher was the subject or the inspiration for 1980s protest songs.", "Musicians Billy Bragg and Paul Weller helped to form the Red Wedge collective to support Labour in opposition to Thatcher.", "Known as \"Maggie\" by supporters and opponents alike, the chant song \"Maggie Out\" became a signature rallying cry among the left during the latter half of her premiership.Wells parodied Thatcher in several media.", "He collaborated with Richard Ingrams on the spoof \"Dear Bill\" letters, which ran as a column in ''Private Eye'' magazine; they were also published in book form and became a West End stage revue titled ''Anyone for Denis?", "'', with Wells in the role of Thatcher's husband.", "It was followed by a 1982 TV special directed by Dick Clement, in which Thatcher was played by Angela Thorne.Since her premiership, Thatcher has been portrayed in a number of television programmes, documentaries, films and plays.", "She was portrayed by Patricia Hodge in Ian Curteis's long unproduced ''The Falklands Play'' (2002) and by Andrea Riseborough in the TV film ''The Long Walk to Finchley'' (2008).", "She is the protagonist in two films, played by Lindsay Duncan in ''Margaret'' (2009) and by Meryl Streep in ''The Iron Lady'' (2011), in which she is depicted as suffering from dementia or Alzheimer's disease.", "She is a main character in the fourth season of ''The Crown'', played by Gillian Anderson." ], [ "Titles, awards and honours", "Receiving the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1991Thatcher became a privy counsellor (PC) on becoming a secretary of state in 1970.She was the first woman entitled to full membership rights as an honorary member of the Carlton Club on becoming Conservative Party leader in 1975.As prime minister, Thatcher received two honorary distinctions:* * Two weeks after her resignation, Thatcher was appointed Member of the Order of Merit (OM) by the Queen.", "Her husband Denis was made a hereditary baronet at the same time; as his wife, Thatcher was entitled to use the honorific style \"Lady\", an automatically conferred title that she declined to use.", "She would be made Lady Thatcher in her own right on her subsequent ennoblement in the House of Lords.In the Falklands, Margaret Thatcher Day has been marked each 10 January since 1992, commemorating her first visit to the Islands in January 1983, six months after the end of the Falklands War in June 1982.Thatcher became a member of the House of Lords in 1992 with a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire.", "Subsequently, the College of Arms granted her use of a personal coat of arms; she was allowed to revise these arms on her appointment as Lady Companion of the Order of the Garter (LG) in 1995, the highest order of chivalry.", "Coats of arms of Baroness Thatcher Pre–Garter appointmentPost–Garter appointmentillustrationillustrationillustration of variant 1992–1995 Lozenge: 1995–2013 Escutcheon: 1995–2013In the US, Thatcher received the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award from the Reagan Presidential Foundation in 1998; she was designated a patron of the Heritage Foundation in 2006, where she established the Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom." ], [ "Published works", "* * *" ], [ "See also", "* Cadby Hall* Economic history of the United Kingdom* List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government* Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)* Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)" ], [ "References", "=== Explanatory notes ======Citations====== General bibliography ===* * *** * * * * * * * * * *** * *** ******* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ***** * * * * * * * * * * * * * *** * * * * * * * *** * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Metastability" ], [ "Introduction", "A metastable state of weaker bond (1), a transitional 'saddle' configuration (2) and a stable state of stronger bond (3).In chemistry and physics, '''metastability''' denotes an intermediate energetic state within a dynamical system other than the system's state of least energy.A ball resting in a hollow on a slope is a simple example of metastability.", "If the ball is only slightly pushed, it will settle back into its hollow, but a stronger push may start the ball rolling down the slope.", "Bowling pins show similar metastability by either merely wobbling for a moment or tipping over completely.", "A common example of metastability in science is isomerisation.", "Higher energy isomers are long lived because they are prevented from rearranging to their preferred ground state by (possibly large) barriers in the potential energy.During a metastable state of finite lifetime, all state-describing parameters reach and hold stationary values.", "In isolation:*the state of least energy is the only one the system will inhabit for an indefinite length of time, until more external energy is added to the system (unique \"absolutely stable\" state);*the system will spontaneously leave any other state (of higher energy) to eventually return (after a sequence of transitions) to the least energetic state.The metastability concept originated in the physics of first-order phase transitions.", "It then acquired new meaning in the study of aggregated subatomic particles (in atomic nuclei or in atoms) or in molecules, macromolecules or clusters of atoms and molecules.", "Later, it was borrowed for the study of decision-making and information transmission systems.Metastability is common in physics and chemistry – from an atom (many-body assembly) to statistical ensembles of molecules (viscous fluids, amorphous solids, liquid crystals, minerals, etc.)", "at molecular levels or as a whole (see Metastable states of matter and grain piles below).", "The abundance of states is more prevalent as the systems grow larger and/or if the forces of their mutual interaction are spatially less uniform or more diverse.In dynamic systems (with feedback) like electronic circuits, signal trafficking, decisional, neural and immune systems – the time-invariance of the active or reactive patterns with respect to the external influences defines stability and metastability (see brain metastability below).", "In these systems, the equivalent of thermal fluctuations in molecular systems is the \"white noise\" that affects signal propagation and the decision-making.==Statistical physics and thermodynamics==Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of physics that studies the dynamics of statistical ensembles of molecules via unstable states.", "Being \"stuck\" in a thermodynamic trough without being at the lowest energy state is known as having kinetic stability or being kinetically persistent.", "The particular motion or kinetics of the atoms involved has resulted in getting stuck, despite there being preferable (lower-energy) alternatives.===States of matter===Metastable states of matter (also referred as metastates) range from melting solids (or freezing liquids), boiling liquids (or condensing gases) and sublimating solids to supercooled liquids or superheated liquid-gas mixtures.", "Extremely pure, supercooled water stays liquid below 0 °C and remains so until applied vibrations or condensing seed doping initiates crystallization centers.", "This is a common situation for the droplets of atmospheric clouds.===Condensed matter and macromolecules===Metastable phases are common in condensed matter and crystallography.", "This is the case for anatase, a metastable polymorph of titanium dioxide, which despite commonly being the first phase to form in many synthesis processes due to its lower surface energy, is always metastable, with rutile being the most stable phase at all temperatures and pressures.As another example, diamond is a stable phase only at very high pressures, but is a metastable form of carbon at standard temperature and pressure.", "It can be converted to graphite (plus leftover kinetic energy), but only after overcoming an activation energy – an intervening hill.", "Martensite is a metastable phase used to control the hardness of most steel.", "Metastable polymorphs of silica are commonly observed.", "In some cases, such as in the allotropes of solid boron, acquiring a sample of the stable phase is difficult.The bonds between the building blocks of polymers such as DNA, RNA, and proteins are also metastable.", "Adenosine triphosphate is a highly metastable molecule, colloquially described as being \"full of energy\" that can be used in many ways in biology.Generally speaking, emulsions/colloidal systems and glasses are metastable.", "The metastability of silica glass, for example, is characterised by lifetimes on the order of 1098 years (as compared with the lifetime of the universe, which is thought to be around years).Sandpiles are one system which can exhibit metastability if a steep slope or tunnel is present.", "Sand grains form a pile due to friction.", "It is possible for an entire large sand pile to reach a point where it is stable, but the addition of a single grain causes large parts of it to collapse.The avalanche is a well-known problem with large piles of snow and ice crystals on steep slopes.", "In dry conditions, snow slopes act similarly to sandpiles.", "An entire mountainside of snow can suddenly slide due to the presence of a skier, or even a loud noise or vibration." ], [ "Quantum mechanics", "Aggregated systems of subatomic particles described by quantum mechanics (quarks inside nucleons, nucleons inside atomic nuclei, electrons inside atoms, molecules, or atomic clusters) are found to have many distinguishable states.", "Of these, one (or a small degenerate set) is indefinitely stable: the ground state or global minimum.All other states besides the ground state (or those degenerate with it) have higher energies.", "Of all these other states, the '''metastable''' states are the ones having lifetimes lasting at least 102 to 103 times longer than the shortest lived states of the set.A ''metastable state'' is then long-lived (locally stable with respect to configurations of 'neighbouring' energies) but not eternal (as the global minimum is).", "Being excited – of an energy above the ground state – it will eventually decay to a more stable state, releasing energy.", "Indeed, above absolute zero, all states of a system have a non-zero probability to decay; that is, to spontaneously fall into another state (usually lower in energy).", "One mechanism for this to happen is through tunnelling.===Nuclear physics===Some energetic states of an atomic nucleus (having distinct spatial mass, charge, spin, isospin distributions) are much longer-lived than others (nuclear isomers of the same isotope), e.g.", "technetium-99m.", "The isotope tantalum-180m, although being a metastable excited state, is long-lived enough that it has never been observed to decay, with a half-life calculated to be least years, over 3 million times the current age of the universe.===Atomic and molecular physics===Some atomic energy levels are metastable.", "Rydberg atoms are an example of metastable excited atomic states.", "Transitions from metastable excited levels are typically those forbidden by electric dipole selection rules.", "This means that any transitions from this level are relatively unlikely to occur.", "In a sense, an electron that happens to find itself in a metastable configuration is trapped there.", "Since transitions from a metastable state are not impossible (merely less likely), the electron will eventually decay to a less energetic state, typically by an electric quadrupole transition, or often by non-radiative de-excitation (e.g., collisional de-excitation).This slow-decay property of a metastable state is apparent in phosphorescence, the kind of photoluminescence seen in glow-in-the-dark toys that can be charged by first being exposed to bright light.", "Whereas spontaneous emission in atoms has a typical timescale on the order of 10−8 seconds, the decay of metastable states can typically take milliseconds to minutes, and so light emitted in phosphorescence is usually both weak and long-lasting.===Chemistry===In chemical systems, a system of atoms or molecules involving a change in chemical bond can be in a metastable state, which lasts for a relatively long period of time.", "Molecular vibrations and thermal motion make chemical species at the energetic equivalent of the top of a round hill very short-lived.", "Metastable states that persist for many seconds (or years) are found in energetic ''valleys'' which are not the lowest possible valley (point 1 in illustration).", "A common type of metastability is isomerism.The stability or metastability of a given chemical system depends on its environment, particularly temperature and pressure.", "The difference between producing a stable vs. metastable entity can have important consequences.", "For instances, having the wrong crystal polymorph can result in failure of a drug while in storage between manufacture and administration.", "The map of which state is the most stable as a function of pressure, temperature and/or composition is known as a phase diagram.", "In regions where a particular state is not the most stable, it may still be metastable.Reaction intermediates are relatively short-lived, and are usually thermodynamically unstable rather than metastable.", "The IUPAC recommends referring to these as ''transient'' rather than metastable.Metastability is also used to refer to specific situations in mass spectrometry and spectrochemistry." ], [ "Electronic circuits", "A digital circuit is supposed to be found in a small number of stable digital states within a certain amount of time after an input change.", "However if an input changes at the wrong moment a digital circuit which employs feedback (even a simple circuit such as a flip-flop) can enter a metastable state and take an unbounded length of time to finally settle into a fully stable digital state." ], [ "Computational neuroscience", "Metastability in the brain is a phenomenon studied in computational neuroscience to elucidate how the human brain recognizes patterns.", "Here, the term metastability is used rather loosely.", "There is no lower-energy state, but there are semi-transient signals in the brain that persist for a while and are different than the usual equilibrium state." ], [ "See also", "*False vacuum*Hysteresis*Metastate" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mary Wollstonecraft" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mary Wollstonecraft''' (, ; 27 April 1759 – 10 September 1797) was a British writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights.", "Until the late 20th century, Wollstonecraft's life, which encompassed several unconventional personal relationships at the time, received more attention than her writing.", "Today Wollstonecraft is regarded as one of the founding feminist philosophers, and feminists often cite both her life and her works as important influences.During her brief career she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book.", "Wollstonecraft is best known for ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'' (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men but appear to be only because they lack education.", "She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.After two ill-fated affairs, with Henry Fuseli and Gilbert Imlay (by whom she had a daughter, Fanny Imlay), Wollstonecraft married the philosopher William Godwin, one of the forefathers of the anarchist movement.", "Wollstonecraft died at the age of 38 leaving behind several unfinished manuscripts.", "She died 11 days after giving birth to her second daughter, Mary Shelley, who became an accomplished writer and the author of ''Frankenstein''.Wollstonecraft's widower published a ''Memoir'' (1798) of her life, revealing her unorthodox lifestyle, which inadvertently destroyed her reputation for almost a century.", "However, with the emergence of the feminist movement at the turn of the twentieth century, Wollstonecraft's advocacy of women's equality and critiques of conventional femininity became increasingly important." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Wollstonecraft was born on 27 April 1759 in Spitalfields, London.", "She was the second of the seven children of Elizabeth Dixon and Edward John Wollstonecraft.", "Although her family had a comfortable income when she was a child, her father gradually squandered it on speculative projects.", "Consequently, the family became financially unstable and they were frequently forced to move during Wollstonecraft's youth.", "The family's financial situation eventually became so dire that Wollstonecraft's father compelled her to turn over money that she would have inherited at her maturity.", "Moreover, he was apparently a violent man who would beat his wife in drunken rages.", "As a teenager, Wollstonecraft used to lie outside the door of her mother's bedroom to protect her.", "Wollstonecraft played a similar maternal role for her sisters, Everina and Eliza, throughout her life.", "In a defining moment in 1784, she persuaded Eliza, who was suffering from what was probably postpartum depression, to leave her husband and infant; Wollstonecraft made all of the arrangements for Eliza to flee, demonstrating her willingness to challenge social norms.", "The human costs, however, were severe: her sister suffered social condemnation and, because she could not remarry, was doomed to a life of poverty and hard work.Two friendships shaped Wollstonecraft's early life.", "The first was with Jane Arden in Beverley.", "The two frequently read books together and attended lectures presented by Arden's father, a self-styled philosopher and scientist.", "Wollstonecraft revelled in the intellectual atmosphere of the Arden household and valued her friendship with Arden greatly, sometimes to the point of being emotionally possessive.", "Wollstonecraft wrote to her: \"I have formed romantic notions of friendship ...", "I am a little singular in my thoughts of love and friendship; I must have the first place or none.\"", "In some of Wollstonecraft's letters to Arden, she reveals the volatile and depressive emotions that would haunt her throughout her life.", "The second and more important friendship was with Fanny (Frances) Blood, introduced to Wollstonecraft by the Clares, a couple in Hoxton who became parental figures to her; Wollstonecraft credited Blood with opening her mind.Unhappy with her home life, Wollstonecraft struck out on her own in 1778 and accepted a job as a lady's companion to Sarah Dawson, a widow living in Bath.", "However, Wollstonecraft had trouble getting along with the irascible woman (an experience she drew on when describing the drawbacks of such a position in ''Thoughts on the Education of Daughters'', 1787).", "In 1780 she returned home upon being called back to care for her dying mother.", "Rather than return to Dawson's employ after the death of her mother, Wollstonecraft moved in with the Bloods.", "She realised during the two years she spent with the family that she had idealised Blood, who was more invested in traditional feminine values than was Wollstonecraft.", "But Wollstonecraft remained dedicated to Fanny and her family throughout her life, frequently giving pecuniary assistance to Blood's brother.Wollstonecraft had envisioned living in a female utopia with Blood; they made plans to rent rooms together and support each other emotionally and financially, but this dream collapsed under economic realities.", "In order to make a living, Wollstonecraft, her sisters and Blood set up a school together in Newington Green, a Dissenting community.", "Blood soon became engaged and, after her marriage, moved to Lisbon, Portugal with her husband, Hugh Skeys, in hopes that it would improve her health which had always been precarious.", "Despite the change of surroundings Blood's health further deteriorated when she became pregnant, and in 1785 Wollstonecraft left the school and followed Blood to nurse her, but to no avail.", "Moreover, her abandonment of the school led to its failure.", "Blood's death devastated Wollstonecraft and was part of the inspiration for her first novel, ''Mary: A Fiction'' (1788).===\"The first of a new genus\"===Wollstonecraft in 1790–91, by John OpieFrontispiece to the 1791 edition of ''Original Stories from Real Life'' engraved by William BlakeAfter Blood's death in 1785, Wollstonecraft's friends helped her obtain a position as governess to the daughters of the Anglo-Irish Kingsborough family in Ireland.", "Although she could not get along with Lady Kingsborough, the children found her an inspiring instructor; one of the daughters, Margaret King, would later say she \"had freed her mind from all superstitions\".", "Some of Wollstonecraft's experiences during this year would make their way into her only children's book, ''Original Stories from Real Life'' (1788).Frustrated by the limited career options open to respectable yet poor women—an impediment which Wollstonecraft eloquently describes in the chapter of ''Thoughts on the Education of Daughters'' entitled \"Unfortunate Situation of Females, Fashionably Educated, and Left Without a Fortune\"—she decided, after only a year as a governess, to embark upon a career as an author.", "This was a radical choice, since, at the time, few women could support themselves by writing.", "As she wrote to her sister Everina in 1787, she was trying to become \"the first of a new genus\".", "She moved to London and, assisted by the liberal publisher Joseph Johnson, found a place to live and work to support herself.", "She learned French and German and translated texts, most notably ''Of the Importance of Religious Opinions'' by Jacques Necker and ''Elements of Morality, for the Use of Children'' by Christian Gotthilf Salzmann.", "She also wrote reviews, primarily of novels, for Johnson's periodical, the ''Analytical Review''.", "Wollstonecraft's intellectual universe expanded during this time, not only from the reading that she did for her reviews but also from the company she kept: she attended Johnson's famous dinners and met the radical pamphleteer Thomas Paine and the philosopher William Godwin.", "The first time Godwin and Wollstonecraft met, they were disappointed in each other.", "Godwin had come to hear Paine, but Wollstonecraft assailed him all night long, disagreeing with him on nearly every subject.", "Johnson himself, however, became much more than a friend; she described him in her letters as a father and a brother.In London, Wollstonecraft lived on Dolben Street, in Southwark; an up-and-coming area following the opening of the first Blackfriars Bridge in 1769.While in London, she formed connections with members of the Blue Stockings Society and pursued a relationship with the artist Henry Fuseli, even though he was already married.", "She was, she wrote, enraptured by his genius, \"the grandeur of his soul, that quickness of comprehension, and lovely sympathy\".", "She proposed a platonic living arrangement with Fuseli and his wife, but Fuseli's wife was appalled, and he broke off the relationship with Wollstonecraft.", "After Fuseli's rejection, Wollstonecraft decided to travel to France to escape the humiliation of the incident, and to participate in the revolutionary events that she had just celebrated in her recent ''Vindication of the Rights of Men'' (1790).", "She had written the ''Rights of Men'' in response to the Whig MP Edmund Burke's politically conservative critique of the French Revolution in ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' (1790) and it made her famous overnight.", "''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' was published on 1 November 1790, and so angered Wollstonecraft that she spent the rest of the month writing her rebuttal.", "''A Vindication of the Rights of Men, in a Letter to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke'' was published on 29 November 1790, initially anonymously; the second edition of ''A Vindication of the Rights of Men'' was published on 18 December, and this time the publisher revealed Wollstonecraft as the author.Wollstonecraft called the French Revolution a \"glorious ''chance'' to obtain more virtue and happiness than hitherto blessed our globe\".", "Against Burke's dismissal of the Third Estate as men of no account, Wollstonecraft wrote, \"Time may show, that this obscure throng knew more of the human heart and of legislation than the profligates of rank, emasculated by hereditary effeminacy\".", "About the events of 5–6 October 1789, when the royal family was marched from Versailles to Paris by a group of angry housewives, Burke praised Queen Marie Antoinette as a symbol of the refined elegance of the ''ancien régime'', who was surrounded by \"furies from hell, in the abused shape of the vilest of women\".", "Wollstonecraft by contrast wrote of the same event: \"Probably you Burke mean women who gained a livelihood by selling vegetables or fish, who never had any advantages of education\".Wollstonecraft was compared with such leading lights as the theologian and controversialist Joseph Priestley and Paine, whose ''Rights of Man'' (1791) would prove to be the most popular of the responses to Burke.", "She pursued the ideas she had outlined in ''Rights of Men'' in ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'' (1792), her most famous and influential work.", "Wollstonecraft's fame extended across the English channel, for when the French statesmen Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord visited London in 1792, he visited her, during which she asked that French girls be given the same right to an education that French boys were being offered by the new regime in France.===France===10 August attack on the Tuileries Palace; French revolutionary violence spreadsWollstonecraft left for Paris in December 1792 and arrived about a month before Louis XVI was guillotined.", "Britain and France were on the brink of war when she left for Paris, and many advised her not to go.", "France was in turmoil.", "She sought out other British visitors such as Helen Maria Williams and joined the circle of expatriates then in the city.", "During her time in Paris, Wollstonecraft associated mostly with the moderate Girondins rather than the more radical Jacobins.", "It was indicative that when Archibald Hamilton Rowan, the United Irishman, encountered her in the city in 1794 it was at a post-Terror festival in honour of the moderate revolutionary leader Mirabeau, who had been a great hero for Irish and English radicals before his death (from natural causes) in April 1791.On 26 December 1792, Wollstonecraft saw the former king, Louis XVI, being taken to be tried before the National Assembly, and much to her own surprise, found \"the tears flowing insensibly from my eyes, when I saw Louis sitting, with more dignity than I expected from his character, in a hackney coach going to meet death, where so many of his race have triumphed\".France declared war on Britain in February 1793.Wollstonecraft tried to leave France for Switzerland but was denied permission.", "The Jacobin faction increased in power, and in March the formation of the Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal were symptomatic of an increasingly totalitarian regime.", "Life became very difficult for foreigners in France.", "At first, they were put under police surveillance and, to get a residency permit, had to produce six written statements from Frenchmen testifying to their loyalty to the republic.", "Then, on 12 April 1793, all foreigners were forbidden to leave France.", "Despite her sympathy for the revolution, life for Wollstonecraft become very uncomfortable, all the more so as the Girondins had lost out to the Jacobins.", "Some of Wollstonecraft's French friends lost their heads to the guillotine as the Jacobins set out to annihilate their enemies.===Gilbert Imlay, the Reign of Terror, and her first child===Having just written the ''Rights of Woman'', Wollstonecraft was determined to put her ideas to the test, and in the stimulating intellectual atmosphere of the French Revolution, she attempted her most experimental romantic attachment yet: she met and fell passionately in love with Gilbert Imlay, an American adventurer.", "Wollstonecraft put her own principles in practice by sleeping with Imlay even though they were not married, which was unacceptable behaviour from a \"respectable\" British woman.", "Whether or not she was interested in marriage, he was not, and she appears to have fallen in love with an idealisation of the man.", "Despite her rejection of the sexual component of relationships in the ''Rights of Woman'', Wollstonecraft discovered that Imlay awakened her interest in sex.Wollstonecraft was to a certain extent disillusioned by what she saw in France, writing that the people under the republic still behaved slavishly to those who held power while the government remained \"venal\" and \"brutal\".", "Despite her disenchantment, Wollstonecraft wrote:I cannot yet give up the hope, that a fairer day is dawning on Europe, though I must hesitatingly observe, that little is to be expected from the narrow principle of commerce, which seems everywhere to be shoving aside ''the point of honour'' of the ''noblesse'' nobility.", "For the same pride of office, the same desire of power are still visible; with this aggravation, that, fearing to return to obscurity, after having but just acquired a relish for distinction, each hero, or philosopher, for all are dubbed with these new titles, endeavors to make hay while the sun shines.Wollstonecraft was offended by the Jacobins' treatment of women.", "They refused to grant women equal rights, denounced \"Amazons\", and made it clear that women were supposed to conform to Jean-Jacques Rousseau's ideal of helpers to men.", "On 16 October 1793, Marie Antoinette was guillotined; among her charges and convictions, she was found guilty of committing incest with her son.", "Though Wollstonecraft disliked the former queen, she was troubled that the Jacobins would make Marie Antoinette's alleged perverse sexual acts one of the central reasons for the French people to hate her.As the daily arrests and executions of the Reign of Terror began, Wollstonecraft came under suspicion.", "She was, after all, a British citizen known to be a friend of leading Girondins.", "On 31 October 1793, most of the Girondin leaders were guillotined; when Imlay broke the news to Wollstonecraft, she fainted.", "By this time, Imlay was taking advantage of the British blockade of France, which had caused shortages and worsened ever-growing inflation, by chartering ships to bring food and soap from America and dodge the British Royal Navy, goods that he could sell at a premium to Frenchmen who still had money.", "Imlay's blockade-running gained the respect and support of some Jacobins, ensuring, as he had hoped, his freedom during the Terror.", "To protect Wollstonecraft from arrest, Imlay made a false statement to the U.S. embassy in Paris that he had married her, automatically making her an American citizen.", "Some of her friends were not so lucky; many were arrested.", "Her sisters believed she had been imprisoned.Wollstonecraft called life under the Jacobins \"nightmarish\".", "There were gigantic daytime parades requiring everyone to show themselves and lustily cheer lest they be suspected of inadequate commitment to the republic, as well as nighttime police raids to arrest 'enemies of the republic'.", "In a March 1794 letter to her sister Everina, Wollstonecraft wrote:It is impossible for you to have any idea of the impression the sad scenes I have been a witness to have left on my mind ... death and misery, in every shape of terrour, haunts this devoted country—I certainly am glad that I came to France, because I never could have had else a just opinion of the most extraordinary event that has ever been recorded.Wollstonecraft soon became pregnant by Imlay, and on 14 May 1794 she gave birth to her first child, Fanny, naming her after perhaps her closest friend.", "Wollstonecraft was overjoyed; she wrote to a friend, \"My little Girl begins to suck so MANFULLY that her father reckons saucily on her writing the second part of the Rights of Woman\" (emphasis hers).", "She continued to write avidly, despite not only her pregnancy and the burdens of being a new mother alone in a foreign country, but also the growing tumult of the French Revolution.", "While at Le Havre in northern France, she wrote a history of the early revolution, ''An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution'', which was published in London in December 1794.Imlay, unhappy with the domestic-minded and maternal Wollstonecraft, eventually left her.", "He promised that he would return to her and Fanny at Le Havre, but his delays in writing to her and his long absences convinced Wollstonecraft that he had found another woman.", "Her letters to him are full of needy expostulations, which most critics explain as the expressions of a deeply depressed woman, while others say they resulted from her circumstances—a foreign woman alone with an infant in the middle of a revolution that had seen good friends imprisoned or executed.===The fall of the Jacobins and ''An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution''===In July 1794, Wollstonecraft welcomed the fall of the Jacobins, predicting it would be followed with a restoration of freedom of the press in France, which led her to return to Paris.", "In August 1794, Imlay departed for London and promised to return soon.", "In 1793, the British government had begun a crackdown on radicals, suspending civil liberties, imposing drastic censorship, and trying for treason anyone suspected of sympathy with the revolution, which led Wollstonecraft to fear she would be imprisoned if she returned.The winter of 1794–95 was the coldest winter in Europe for over a century, which reduced Wollstonecraft and her daughter Fanny to desperate circumstances.", "The river Seine froze that winter, which made it impossible for ships to bring food and coal to Paris, leading to widespread starvation and deaths from the cold in the city.", "Wollstonecraft continued to write to Imlay, asking him to return to France at once, declaring she still had faith in the revolution and did not wish to return to Britain.", "After she left France on 7 April 1795, she continued to refer to herself as \"Mrs. Imlay\", even to her sisters, in order to bestow legitimacy upon her child.The British historian Tom Furniss called ''An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution'' the most neglected of Wollstonecraft's books.", "It was first published in London in 1794, but a second edition did not appear until 1989.Later generations were more interested in her feminist writings than in her account of the French Revolution, which Furniss has called her \"best work\".", "Wollstonecraft was not trained as a historian, but she used all sorts of journals, letters and documents recounting how ordinary people in France reacted to the revolution.", "She was trying to counteract what Furniss called the \"hysterical\" anti-revolutionary mood in Britain, which depicted the revolution as due to the entire French nation's going mad.", "Wollstonecraft argued instead that the revolution arose from a set of social, economic and political conditions that left no other way out of the crisis that gripped France in 1789.", "''An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution'' was a difficult balancing act for Wollstonecraft.", "She condemned the Jacobin regime and the Reign of Terror, but at same time she argued that the revolution was a great achievement, which led her to stop her history in late 1789 rather than write about the Terror of 1793–94.Edmund Burke had ended his ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' with reference to the events of 5–6 October 1789, when a group of women from Paris forced the French royal family from the Palace of Versailles to Paris.", "Burke called the women \"furies from hell\", while Wollstonecraft defended them as ordinary housewives angry about the lack of bread to feed their families.", "Against Burke's idealised portrait of Marie Antoinette as a noble victim of a mob, Wollstonecraft portrayed the queen as a ''femme fatale'', a seductive, scheming and dangerous woman.", "Wollstonecraft argued that the values of the aristocracy corrupted women in a monarchy because women's main purpose in such a society was to bear sons to continue a dynasty, which essentially reduced a woman's value to only her womb.", "Moreover, Wollstonecraft pointed out that unless a queen was a queen regnant, most queens were queen consorts, which meant a woman had to exercise influence via her husband or son, encouraging her to become more and more manipulative.", "Wollstonecraft argued that aristocratic values, by emphasising a woman's body and her ability to be charming over her mind and character, had encouraged women like Marie Antoinette to be manipulative and ruthless, making the queen into a corrupted and corrupting product of the ''ancien régime''.In ''Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution'' (1799) the historian John Adolphus, F.S.A., condemned Wollstonecraft's work as a \"rhapsody of libellous declamations\" and took particular offense at her depiction of Louis XVI.===England and William Godwin===Seeking Imlay, Wollstonecraft returned to London in April 1795, but he rejected her.", "In May 1795 she attempted to commit suicide, probably with laudanum, but Imlay saved her life (although it is unclear how).", "In a last attempt to win back Imlay, she embarked upon some business negotiations for him in Scandinavia, trying to locate a Norwegian captain who had absconded with silver that Imlay was trying to get past the British blockade of France.", "Wollstonecraft undertook this hazardous trip with only her young daughter and Marguerite, her maid.", "She recounted her travels and thoughts in letters to Imlay, many of which were eventually published as ''Letters Written During a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark'' in 1796.When she returned to England and came to the full realisation that her relationship with Imlay was over, she attempted suicide for the second time, leaving a note for Imlay:James Northcote, oil on canvas, 1802She then went out on a rainy night and \"to make her clothes heavy with water, she walked up and down about half an hour\" before jumping into the River Thames, but a stranger saw her jump and rescued her.", "Wollstonecraft considered her suicide attempt deeply rational, writing after her rescue, I have only to lament, that, when the bitterness of death was past, I was inhumanly brought back to life and misery.", "But a fixed determination is not to be baffled by disappointment; nor will I allow that to be a frantic attempt, which was one of the calmest acts of reason.", "In this respect, I am only accountable to myself.", "Did I care for what is termed reputation, it is by other circumstances that I should be dishonoured.Gradually, Wollstonecraft returned to her literary life, becoming involved with Joseph Johnson's circle again, in particular with Mary Hays, Elizabeth Inchbald, and Sarah Siddons through William Godwin.", "Godwin and Wollstonecraft's unique courtship began slowly, but it eventually became a passionate love affair.", "Godwin had read her ''Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark'' and later wrote that \"If ever there was a book calculated to make a man in love with its author, this appears to me to be the book.", "She speaks of her sorrows, in a way that fills us with melancholy, and dissolves us in tenderness, at the same time that she displays a genius which commands all our admiration.\"", "Once Wollstonecraft became pregnant, they decided to marry so that their child would be legitimate.", "Their marriage revealed the fact that Wollstonecraft had never been married to Imlay, and as a result she and Godwin lost many friends.", "Godwin was further criticised because he had advocated the abolition of marriage in his philosophical treatise ''Political Justice''.", "After their marriage on 29 March 1797, Godwin and Wollstonecraft moved to 29 The Polygon, Somers Town.", "Godwin rented an apartment 20 doors away at 17 Evesham Buildings in Chalton Street as a study, so that they could both still retain their independence; they often communicated by letter.", "By all accounts, theirs was a happy and stable, though brief, relationship.===Birth of Mary, death===Godwin's ''Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'' (1798)On 30 August 1797, Wollstonecraft gave birth to her second daughter, Mary.", "Although the delivery seemed to go well initially, the placenta broke apart during the birth and became infected; childbed fever (post-partum infection) was a common and often fatal occurrence in the 18th century.", "After several days of agony, Wollstonecraft died of septicaemia on 10 September.", "Godwin was devastated: he wrote to his friend Thomas Holcroft, \"I firmly believe there does not exist her equal in the world.", "I know from experience we were formed to make each other happy.", "I have not the least expectation that I can now ever know happiness again.\"", "She was buried in the churchyard of St Pancras Old Church, where her tombstone reads \"Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, Author of ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'': Born 27 April 1759: Died 10 September 1797.\"" ], [ "Posthumous, Godwin's ''Memoirs''", "In January 1798 Godwin published his ''Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman''.", "Although Godwin felt that he was portraying his wife with love, compassion, and sincerity, many readers were shocked that he would reveal Wollstonecraft's illegitimate children, love affairs, and suicide attempts.", "The Romantic poet Robert Southey accused him of \"the want of all feeling in stripping his dead wife naked\" and vicious satires such as ''The Unsex'd Females'' were published.", "Godwin's ''Memoirs'' portrays Wollstonecraft as a woman deeply invested in feeling who was balanced by his reason and as more of a religious sceptic than her own writings suggest.", "Godwin's views of Wollstonecraft were perpetuated throughout the nineteenth century and resulted in poems such as \"Wollstonecraft and Fuseli\" by British poet Robert Browning and that by William Roscoe which includes the lines::Hard was thy fate in all the scenes of life:As daughter, sister, mother, friend, and wife;:But harder still, thy fate in death we own,:Thus mourn'd by Godwin with a heart of stone.In 1851, Wollstonecraft's remains were moved by her grandson Sir Percy Shelley, 3rd Baronet, to his family tomb in St Peter's Church, Bournemouth." ], [ "Legacy", "Green plaque on Newington Green Primary School, near the site of a school that Wollstonecraft, her sisters (Everina and Eliza), and Fanny Blood set up; the plaque was unveiled in 2011.Blue plaque at 45 Dolben Street, Southwark, where she lived from 1788; unveiled in 2004 by Claire TomalinSomers Town, LondonWollstonecraft has what scholar Cora Kaplan labelled in 2002 a 'curious' legacy that has evolved over time: \"for an author-activist adept in many genres ... up until the last quarter-century Wollstonecraft's life has been read much more closely than her writing\".", "After the devastating effect of Godwin's ''Memoirs'', Wollstonecraft's reputation lay in tatters for nearly a century; she was pilloried by such writers as Maria Edgeworth, who patterned the \"freakish\" Harriet Freke in ''Belinda'' (1801) after her.", "Other novelists such as Mary Hays, Charlotte Smith, Fanny Burney, and Jane West created similar figures, all to teach a \"moral lesson\" to their readers.", "(Hays had been a close friend, and helped nurse her in her dying days.", ")In contrast, there was one writer of the generation after Wollstonecraft who apparently did not share the judgmental views of her contemporaries.", "Jane Austen never mentioned the earlier woman by name, but several of her novels contain positive allusions to Wollstonecraft's work.", "The American literary scholar Anne K. Mellor notes several examples.", "In ''Pride and Prejudice'', Mr Wickham seems to be based upon the sort of man Wollstonecraft claimed that standing armies produce, while the sarcastic remarks of protagonist Elizabeth Bennet about \"female accomplishments\" closely echo Wollstonecraft's condemnation of these activities.", "The balance a woman must strike between feelings and reason in ''Sense and Sensibility'' follows what Wollstonecraft recommended in her novel ''Mary'', while the moral equivalence Austen drew in ''Mansfield Park'' between slavery and the treatment of women in society back home tracks one of Wollstonecraft's favourite arguments.", "In ''Persuasion'', Austen's characterisation of Anne Eliot (as well as her late mother before her) as better qualified than her father to manage the family estate also echoes a Wollstonecraft thesis.Scholar Virginia Sapiro states that few read Wollstonecraft's works during the nineteenth century as \"her attackers implied or stated that no self-respecting woman would read her work\".", "(Still, as Craciun points out, new editions of ''Rights of Woman'' appeared in the UK in the 1840s and in the US in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s.)", "If readers were few, then ''many'' were inspired; one such reader was Elizabeth Barrett Browning, who read ''Rights of Woman'' at age 12 and whose poem ''Aurora Leigh'' reflected Wollstonecraft's unwavering focus on education.", "Lucretia Mott, a Quaker minister, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Americans who met in 1840 at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, discovered they both had read Wollstonecraft, and they agreed upon the need for (what became) the Seneca Falls Convention, an influential women's rights meeting held in 1848.Another woman who read Wollstonecraft was George Eliot, a prolific writer of reviews, articles, novels, and translations.", "In 1855, she devoted an essay to the roles and rights of women, comparing Wollstonecraft and Margaret Fuller.", "Fuller was an American journalist, critic, and women's rights activist who, like Wollstonecraft, had travelled to the Continent and had been involved in the struggle for reform (in this case the 1849 Roman Republic)—and she had a child by a man without marrying him.", "Wollstonecraft's children's tales were adapted by Charlotte Mary Yonge in 1870.Wollstonecraft's work was exhumed with the rise of the women's suffrage movement in the United Kingdom.", "First was an attempt at rehabilitation in 1879 with the publication of Wollstonecraft's ''Letters to Imlay, with prefatory memoir'' by Charles Kegan Paul.", "Then followed the first full-length biography, which was by Elizabeth Robins Pennell; it appeared in 1884 as part of a series by the Roberts Brothers on famous women.", "Millicent Garrett Fawcett, a suffragist and later president of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, wrote the introduction to the centenary edition (i.e.", "1892) of the ''Rights of Woman''; it cleansed the memory of Wollstonecraft and claimed her as the foremother of the struggle for the vote.", "By 1898, Wollstonecraft was the subject of a first doctoral thesis and its resulting book.With the advent of the modern feminist movement, women as politically dissimilar from each other as Virginia Woolf and Emma Goldman embraced Wollstonecraft's life story.", "By 1929 Woolf described Wollstonecraft—her writing, arguments, and \"experiments in living\"—as immortal: \"she is alive and active, she argues and experiments, we hear her voice and trace her influence even now among the living\".", "Others, however, continued to decry Wollstonecraft's lifestyle.", "A biography published in 1932 refers to recent reprints of her works, incorporating new research, and to a \"study\" in 1911, a play in 1922, and another biography in 1924.Interest in her never completely died, with full-length biographies in 1937 and 1951.", "''A Sculpture for Mary Wollstonecraft'' in Newington Green, LondonWith the emergence of feminist criticism in academia in the 1960s and 1970s, Wollstonecraft's works returned to prominence.", "Their fortunes reflected that of the second wave of the North American feminist movement itself; for example, in the early 1970s, six major biographies of Wollstonecraft were published that presented her \"passionate life in apposition to her radical and rationalist agenda\".", "The feminist artwork ''The Dinner Party'', first exhibited in 1979, features a place setting for Wollstonecraft.Wollstonecraft's work has also had an effect on feminism outside academia.", "Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a political writer and former Muslim who is critical of Islam in general and its dictates regarding women in particular, cited the ''Rights of Woman'' in her autobiography ''Infidel'' and wrote that she was \"inspired by Mary Wollstonecraft, the pioneering feminist thinker who told women they had the same ability to reason as men did and deserved the same rights\".", "British writer Caitlin Moran, author of the best-selling ''How to Be a Woman'', described herself as \"half Wollstonecraft\" to the ''New Yorker''.", "She has also inspired more widely.", "Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen, the Indian economist and philosopher who first identified the missing women of Asia, draws repeatedly on Wollstonecraft as a political philosopher in ''The Idea of Justice''.In 2009, Wollstonecraft was selected by the Royal Mail for their \"Eminent Britons\" commemorative postage stamp issue.", "Several plaques have been erected to honour Wollstonecraft.", "A commemorative sculpture, ''A Sculpture for Mary Wollstonecraft'' by Maggi Hambling, was unveiled on 10 November 2020; it was criticised for its symbolic depiction rather than a lifelike representation of Wollstonecraft, which commentators felt represented stereotypical notions of beauty and the diminishing of women.", "In November 2020, it was announced that Trinity College Dublin, whose library had previously held forty busts, all of them of men, was commissioning four new busts of women, one of whom would be Wollstonecraft." ], [ "Major works", "===Educational works===First page of the first edition of ''Thoughts on the Education of Daughters'' (1787)The majority of Wollstonecraft's early productions are about education; she assembled an anthology of literary extracts \"for the improvement of young women\" entitled ''The Female Reader'' and she translated two children's works, Maria Geertruida van de Werken de Cambon's ''Young Grandison'' and Christian Gotthilf Salzmann's ''Elements of Morality''.", "Her own writings also addressed the topic.", "In both her conduct book ''Thoughts on the Education of Daughters'' (1787) and her children's book ''Original Stories from Real Life'' (1788), Wollstonecraft advocates educating children into the emerging middle-class ethos: self-discipline, honesty, frugality, and social contentment.", "Both books also emphasise the importance of teaching children to reason, revealing Wollstonecraft's intellectual debt to the educational views of seventeenth-century philosopher John Locke.", "However, the prominence she affords religious faith and innate feeling distinguishes her work from his and links it to the discourse of sensibility popular at the end of the eighteenth century.", "Both texts also advocate the education of women, a controversial topic at the time and one which she would return to throughout her career, most notably in ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman''.", "Wollstonecraft argues that well-educated women will be good wives and mothers and ultimately contribute positively to the nation.===''Vindications''=======''Vindication of the Rights of Men'' (1790)====Published in response to Edmund Burke's ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' (1790), which was a defence of constitutional monarchy, aristocracy, and the Church of England, and an attack on Wollstonecraft's friend, the Rev.", "Richard Price at the Newington Green Unitarian Church, Wollstonecraft's ''A Vindication of the Rights of Men'' (1790) attacks aristocracy and advocates republicanism.", "Hers was the first response in a pamphlet war that subsequently became known as the ''Revolution Controversy'', in which Thomas Paine's ''Rights of Man'' (1792) became the rallying cry for reformers and radicals.Wollstonecraft attacked not only monarchy and hereditary privilege but also the language that Burke used to defend and elevate it.", "In a famous passage in the ''Reflections'', Burke had lamented: \"I had thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her Marie Antoinette with insult.—But the age of chivalry is gone.\"", "Most of Burke's detractors deplored what they viewed as theatrical pity for the French queen—a pity they felt was at the expense of the people.", "Wollstonecraft was unique in her attack on Burke's gendered language.", "By redefining the sublime and the beautiful, terms first established by Burke himself in ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'' (1756), she undermined his rhetoric as well as his argument.", "Burke had associated the beautiful with weakness and femininity and the sublime with strength and masculinity; Wollstonecraft turns these definitions against him, arguing that his theatrical ''tableaux'' turn Burke's readers—the citizens—into weak women who are swayed by show.", "In her first unabashedly feminist critique, which Wollstonecraft scholar Claudia L. Johnson argues remains unsurpassed in its argumentative force, Wollstonecraft indicts Burke's defence of an unequal society founded on the passivity of women.In her arguments for republican virtue, Wollstonecraft invokes an emerging middle-class ethos in opposition to what she views as the vice-ridden aristocratic code of manners.", "Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers, she believed in progress and derides Burke for relying on tradition and custom.", "She argues for rationality, pointing out that Burke's system would lead to the continuation of slavery, simply because it had been an ancestral tradition.", "She describes an idyllic country life in which each family can have a farm that will just suit its needs.", "Wollstonecraft contrasts her utopian picture of society, drawn with what she says is genuine feeling, to Burke's false feeling.The ''Rights of Men'' was Wollstonecraft's first overtly political work, as well as her first feminist work; as Johnson contends, \"it seems that in the act of writing the later portions of ''Rights of Men'' she discovered the subject that would preoccupy her for the rest of her career.\"", "It was this text that made her a well-known writer.====''Vindication of the Rights of Woman'' (1792)====''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'' is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy.", "In it, Wollstonecraft argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society and then proceeds to redefine that position, claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be \"companions\" to their husbands rather than mere wives.", "Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men.", "Large sections of the ''Rights of Woman'' respond vitriolically to conduct book writers such as James Fordyce and John Gregory and educational philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who wanted to deny women an education.", "(Rousseau famously argues in ''Émile'' (1762) that women should be educated for the pleasure of men.", ")Title page from the first American edition of ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'' (1792)Wollstonecraft states that currently many women are silly and superficial (she refers to them, for example, as \"spaniels\" and \"toys\"), but argues that this is not because of an innate deficiency of mind but rather because men have denied them access to education.", "Wollstonecraft is intent on illustrating the limitations that women's deficient educations have placed on them; she writes: \"Taught from their infancy that beauty is woman's sceptre, the mind shapes itself to the body, and, roaming round its gilt cage, only seeks to adorn its prison.\"", "She implies that, without the encouragement young women receive from an early age to focus their attention on beauty and outward accomplishments, women could achieve much more.While Wollstonecraft does call for equality between the sexes in particular areas of life, such as morality, she does not explicitly state that men and women are equal.", "What she does claim is that men and women are equal in the eyes of God.", "However, such claims of equality stand in contrast to her statements respecting the superiority of masculine strength and valour.", "Wollstonecraft famously and ambiguously writes: \"Let it not be concluded that I wish to invert the order of things; I have already granted, that, from the constitution of their bodies, men seem to be designed by Providence to attain a greater degree of virtue.", "I speak collectively of the whole sex; but I see not the shadow of a reason to conclude that their virtues should differ in respect to their nature.", "In fact, how can they, if virtue has only one eternal standard?", "I must therefore, if I reason consequently, as strenuously maintain that they have the same simple direction, as that there is a God.\"", "Her ambiguous statements regarding the equality of the sexes have since made it difficult to classify Wollstonecraft as a modern feminist, particularly since the word did not come into existence until the 1890s.One of Wollstonecraft's most scathing critiques in the ''Rights of Woman'' is of false and excessive sensibility, particularly in women.", "She argues that women who succumb to sensibility are \"blown about by every momentary gust of feeling\" and because they are \"the prey of their senses\" they cannot think rationally.", "In fact, she claims, they do harm not only to themselves but to the entire civilisation: these are not women who can help refine a civilisation—a popular eighteenth-century idea—but women who will destroy it.", "Wollstonecraft does not argue that reason and feeling should act independently of each other; rather, she believes that they should inform each other.In addition to her larger philosophical arguments, Wollstonecraft also lays out a specific educational plan.", "In the twelfth chapter of the ''Rights of Woman'', \"On National Education\", she argues that all children should be sent to a \"country day school\" as well as given some education at home \"to inspire a love of home and domestic pleasures.\"", "She also maintains that schooling should be co-educational, arguing that men and women, whose marriages are \"the cement of society\", should be \"educated after the same model.", "\"Wollstonecraft addresses her text to the middle-class, which she describes as the \"most natural state\", and in many ways the ''Rights of Woman'' is inflected by a bourgeois view of the world.", "It encourages modesty and industry in its readers and attacks the uselessness of the aristocracy.", "But Wollstonecraft is not necessarily a friend to the poor; for example, in her national plan for education, she suggests that, after the age of nine, the poor, except for those who are brilliant, should be separated from the rich and taught in another school.===Novels===Otto Scholderer's ''Young Girl Reading'' (1883); in both ''Mary'' and ''The Wrongs of Woman'', Wollstonecraft criticises women who imagine themselves as sentimental heroines.Both of Wollstonecraft's novels criticise what she viewed as the patriarchal institution of marriage and its deleterious effects on women.", "In her first novel, ''Mary: A Fiction'' (1788), the eponymous heroine is forced into a loveless marriage for economic reasons; she fulfils her desire for love and affection outside marriage with two passionate romantic friendships, one with a woman and one with a man.", "''Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman'' (1798), an unfinished novel published posthumously and often considered Wollstonecraft's most radical feminist work, revolves around the story of a woman imprisoned in an insane asylum by her husband; like Mary, Maria also finds fulfilment outside of marriage, in an affair with a fellow inmate and a friendship with one of her keepers.", "Neither of Wollstonecraft's novels depict successful marriages, although she posits such relationships in the ''Rights of Woman''.", "At the end of ''Mary'', the heroine believes she is going \"to that world where there is neither marrying, nor giving in marriage\", presumably a positive state of affairs.Both of Wollstonecraft's novels also critique the discourse of sensibility, a moral philosophy and aesthetic that had become popular at the end of the eighteenth century.", "''Mary'' is itself a novel of sensibility and Wollstonecraft attempts to use the tropes of that genre to undermine sentimentalism itself, a philosophy she believed was damaging to women because it encouraged them to rely overmuch on their emotions.", "In ''The Wrongs of Woman'' the heroine's indulgence on romantic fantasies fostered by novels themselves is depicted as particularly detrimental.Female friendships are central to both of Wollstonecraft's novels, but it is the friendship between Maria and Jemima, the servant charged with watching over her in the insane asylum, that is the most historically significant.", "This friendship, based on a sympathetic bond of motherhood, between an upper-class woman and a lower-class woman is one of the first moments in the history of feminist literature that hints at a cross-class argument, that is, that women of different economic positions have the same interests because they are women.===''Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark'' (1796)===Wollstonecraft's ''Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark'' is a deeply personal travel narrative.", "The 25 letters cover a wide range of topics, from sociological reflections on Scandinavia and its peoples to philosophical questions regarding identity to musings on her relationship with Imlay (although he is not referred to by name in the text).", "Using the rhetoric of the sublime, Wollstonecraft explores the relationship between the self and society.", "Reflecting the strong influence of Rousseau, ''Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark'' shares the themes of the French philosopher's ''Reveries of a Solitary Walker'' (1782): \"the search for the source of human happiness, the stoic rejection of material goods, the ecstatic embrace of nature, and the essential role of sentiment in understanding\".", "While Rousseau ultimately rejects society, however, Wollstonecraft celebrates domestic scenes and industrial progress in her text.", "''The Icebergs'' (1861) by Frederic Edwin Church demonstrates the aesthetic of the sublime.Wollstonecraft promotes subjective experience, particularly in relation to nature, exploring the connections between the sublime and sensibility.", "Many of the letters describe the breathtaking scenery of Scandinavia and Wollstonecraft's desire to create an emotional connection to that natural world.", "In so doing, she gives greater value to the imagination than she had in previous works.", "As in her previous writings, she champions the liberation and education of women.", "In a change from her earlier works, however, she illustrates the detrimental effects of commerce on society, contrasting the imaginative connection to the world with a commercial and mercenary one, an attitude she associates with Imlay.", "''Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark'' was Wollstonecraft's most popular book in the 1790s.", "It sold well and was reviewed positively by most critics.", "Godwin wrote \"if ever there was a book calculated to make a man in love with its author, this appears to me to be the book.\"", "It influenced Romantic poets such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who drew on its themes and its aesthetic." ], [ "List of works", "This is a complete list of Mary Wollstonecraft's works; all works are the first edition unless otherwise noted.===Authored by Wollstonecraft===* ''Thoughts on the Education of Daughters: With Reflections on Female Conduct, in the More Important Duties of Life''.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1787.", "* ''Mary: A Fiction''.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1788.", "* ''Original Stories from Real Life: With Conversations Calculated to Regulate the Affections and Form the Mind to Truth and Goodness''.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1788.", "* ''The Female Reader: Or, Miscellaneous Pieces, in Prose and Verse; selected from the best writers, and disposed under proper heads; for the improvement of young women.", "By Mr. Cresswick, teacher of elocution Mary Wollstonecraft.", "To which is prefixed a preface, containing some hints on female education''.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1789.", "* ''A Vindication of the Rights of Men, in a Letter to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke''.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1790.", "* ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman with Strictures on Moral and Political Subjects''.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1792.", "* \"On the Prevailing Opinion of a Sexual Character in Women, with Strictures on Dr. Gregory's Legacy to His Daughters\".", "''New Annual Register'' (1792): 457–466.From ''Rights of Woman''* ''An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution; and the Effect It Has produced in Europe''.", "Volume the first.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1794.", "* ''Letters Written during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark''.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1796.", "* \"On Poetry, and Our Relish for the Beauties of Nature\".", "''Monthly Magazine'' (April 1797).", "* ''The Wrongs of Woman, or Maria''.", "''Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman''.", "Ed.", "William Godwin.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1798.Published posthumously; unfinished* \"The Cave of Fancy\".", "''Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman''.", "Ed.", "William Godwin.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1798.Published posthumously; fragment written in 1787* \"Letter on the Present Character of the French Nation\".", "''Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman''.", "Ed.", "William Godwin.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1798.Published posthumously; written in 1793* \"Fragment of Letters on the Management of Infants\".", "''Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman''.", "Ed.", "William Godwin.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1798.Published posthumously; unfinished* \"Lessons\".", "''Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman''.", "Ed.", "William Godwin.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1798.Published posthumously; unfinished* \"Hints\".", "''Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman''.", "Ed.", "William Godwin.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1798.Published posthumously; notes on the second volume of ''Rights of Woman'', never written* Contributions to the ''Analytical Review'' (1788–1797) published anonymously===Translated by Wollstonecraft===* Necker, Jacques.", "''Of the Importance of Religious Opinions''.", "Trans.", "Mary Wollstonecraft.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1788.", "* de Cambon, Maria Geertruida van de Werken.", "''Young Grandison.", "A Series of Letters from Young Persons to Their Friends''.", "Vol.", "I; Vol.", "II.", "Trans.", "Mary Wollstonecraft.", "London: Joseph Johnson, 1790.", "* Salzmann, Christian Gotthilf.", "''Elements of Morality, for the Use of Children; with an introductory address to parents''.", "Vol.", "I. Vol.", "II.", "Traduction Mary Wollstonecraft.", "Londen: Joseph Johnson, 1790-1793" ], [ "See also", "* 90481 Wollstonecraft, an asteroid* Godwin-Shelley family tree* Timeline of Mary Wollstonecraft* Edward Wollstonecraft, her nephew, significant in early colonial Australia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Primary works===* Butler, Marilyn, ed.", "''Burke, Paine, Godwin, and the Revolution Controversy''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002..* Wollstonecraft, Mary.", "''The Collected Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "Ed.", "Janet Todd.", "New York: Columbia University Press, 2003..* Wollstonecraft, Mary.", "''The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "Ed.", "Janet Todd and Marilyn Butler.", "7 vols.", "London: William Pickering, 1989..* Wollstonecraft, Mary.", "''The Vindications: The Rights of Men and The Rights of Woman''.", "Eds.", "D.L.", "Macdonald and Kathleen Scherf.", "Toronto: Broadview Press, 1997..* ===Biographies===* Franklin, Caroline.", "''Mary Wollstonecraft: A Literary Life''.", "Springer, 2004.", "* Flexner, Eleanor.", "''Mary Wollstonecraft: A Biography''.", "New York: Coward, McCann and Geoghegan, 1972..* Godwin, William.", "''Memoirs of the Author of a Vindication of the Rights of Woman''.", "1798.Eds.", "Pamela Clemit and Gina Luria Walker.", "Peterborough: Broadview Press Ltd., 2001..* Gordon, Charlotte.", "''Romantic Outlaws: The Extraordinary Lives of Mary Wollstonecraft and Mary Shelley''.", "Great Britain: Random House, 2015.. * Gordon, Lyndall.", "''Vindication: A Life of Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "Great Britain: Virago, 2005..* Hays, Mary.", "\"Memoirs of Mary Wollstonecraft\".", "''Annual Necrology'' (1797–98): 411–460.", "* Jacobs, Diane.", "''Her Own Woman: The Life of Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "US: Simon & Schuster, 2001..* Paul, Charles Kegan.", "''Letters to Imlay, with prefatory memoir by C. Kegan Paul''.", "London: C. Kegan Paul, 1879.", "* Pennell, Elizabeth Robins.", "''Life of Mary Wollstonecraft'' (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1884).", "* St Clair, William.", "''The Godwins and the Shelleys: The biography of a family''.", "New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1989..* Sunstein, Emily.", "''A Different Face: the Life of Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1975..* Todd, Janet.", "''Mary Wollstonecraft: A Revolutionary Life.''", "London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000..* Tomalin, Claire.", "''The Life and Death of Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "Rev.", "ed.", "1974.New York: Penguin, 1992..* Wardle, Ralph M. ''Mary Wollstonecraft: A Critical Biography''.", "Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1951.===Other secondary works===* Callender, Michelle \"The grand theatre of political changes \": Marie Antoinette, the republic, and the politics of spectacle in Mary Wollstonecraft's ''An historical and moral view of the French revolution''\", pp.", "375–392 from ''European Romantic Review'', Volume 11, Issue 4, Fall 2000.", "* Conger, Syndy McMillen.", "''Mary Wollstonecraft and the Language of Sensibility''.", "Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1994..* Detre, Jean.", "''A most extraordinary pair: Mary Wollstonecraft and William Godwin'', Garden City : Doubleday, 1975* Falco, Maria J., ed.", "''Feminist Interpretations of Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "University Park: Penn State Press, 1996..* Favret, Mary.", "''Romantic Correspondence: Women, politics and the fiction of letters''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993..* Furniss, Tom.", "\"Mary Wollstonecraft's French Revolution\".", "''The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "Ed.", "Claudia L. Johnson.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.pp. 59–81.", "* Halldenius, Lena.", "''Mary Wollstonecraft and Feminist Republicanism: Independence, Rights and the Experience of Unfreedom'', London: Pickering & Chatto, 2015..* Holmes, Richard.", "\"1968: Revolutions\", in ''Footsteps: Adventures of a Romantic Biographer''.", "Hodder & Stoughton, 1985..* Janes, R. M. \"On the Reception of Mary Wollstonecraft's ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman''\".", "''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 39 (1978): 293–302.", "* Johnson, Claudia L. ''Equivocal Beings: Politics, Gender, and Sentimentality in the 1790s''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995..* Jones, Chris.", "\"Mary Wollstonecraft's ''Vindications'' and Their Political Tradition\".", "''The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "Ed.", "Claudia L. Johnson.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002..* Jones, Vivien.", "\"Mary Wollstonecraft and the literature of advice and instruction\".", "''The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "Ed.", "Claudia Johnson.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002..* Kaplan, Cora.", "\"Mary Wollstonecraft's reception and legacies\".", "''The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft'' Ed.", "Claudia L. Johnson.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002..* —.", "\"Pandora's Box: Subjectivity, Class and Sexuality in Socialist Feminist Criticism\".", "''Sea Changes: Essays on Culture and Feminism''.", "London: Verso, 1986..* —.", "\"Wild Nights: Pleasure/Sexuality/Feminism\".", "''Sea Changes: Essays on Culture and Feminism''.", "London: Verso, 1986..* Kelly, Gary.", "''Revolutionary Feminism: The Mind and Career of Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "New York: St. Martin's, 1992..* * Mellor, Anne K. \"Mary Wollstonecraft's ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'' and the Women Writers of Her Day.\"", "In ''The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft'', edited by Claudia L. Johnson, 141–159.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002..* Myers, Mitzi.", "\"Impeccable Governess, Rational Dames, and Moral Mothers: Mary Wollstonecraft and the Female Tradition in Georgian Children's Books\".", "''Children's Literature'' 14 (1986):31–59.", "* —.", "\"Sensibility and the 'Walk of Reason': Mary Wollstonecraft's Literary Reviews as Cultural Critique\".", "''Sensibility in Transformation: Creative Resistance to Sentiment from the Augustans to the Romantics.''", "Ed.", "Syndy McMillen Conger.", "Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990..* —.", "\"Wollstonecraft's ''Letters Written ... in Sweden'': Towards Romantic Autobiography\".", "''Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture'' 8 (1979): 165–185.", "* Orr, Clarissa Campbell, ed.", "''Wollstonecraft's daughters: womanhood in England and France, 1780–1920''.", "Manchester: Manchester University Press ND, 1996.", "* Poovey, Mary.", "''The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley and Jane Austen''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984..* Richardson, Alan.", "\"Mary Wollstonecraft on education\".", "''The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "Ed.", "Claudia Johnson.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002..* Rossi, Alice.", "''The Feminist papers: from Adams to de Beauvoir''.", "Northeastern, 1988.", "* Sapiro, Virginia.", "''A Vindication of Political Virtue: The Political Theory of Mary Wollstonecraft''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992..* Taylor, Barbara.", "''Mary Wollstonecraft and the Feminist Imagination''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003..* Todd, Janet.", "''Women's Friendship in Literature''.", "New York: Columbia University Press, 1980.", "*Wolfson, Susan J.", "''On Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: The First of a New Genus.''", "Columbia University Press, 2023." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * Works at Open Library* \"Mary Wollstonecraft: A 'Speculative and Dissenting Spirit by Janet Todd at BBC History, 17 February 2011.", "* * Mary Wollstonecraft manuscript material, 1773–1797, held by the Carl H. Pforzheimer Collection of Shelley and His Circle, New York Public Library* * * Exhibits relating to Mary Wollstonecraft at the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Molecular mass" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''molecular mass''' (''m'') is the mass of a given molecule.", "The unit dalton (Da) is often used.", "Different molecules of the same compound may have different molecular masses because they contain different isotopes of an element.", "The derived quantity '''relative molecular mass''' is the unitless ratio of the mass of a molecule to the atomic mass constant (which is equal to one dalton).The molecular mass and relative molecular mass are distinct from but related to the ''molar mass''.", "The molar mass is defined as the mass of a given substance divided by the amount of a substance, is expressed in grams per mol (g/mol).", "That makes the molar mass an average of many particles or molecules, and the molecular mass the mass of one specific particle or molecule.", "The molar mass is usually the more appropriate quantity when dealing with macroscopic (weigh-able) quantities of a substance.The definition of '''molecular weight''' is most authoritatively synonymous with relative molecular mass; however, in common practice, use of this terminology is highly variable.", "When the molecular weight is given with the unit Da, it is frequently as a weighted average similar to the molar mass but with different units.", "In molecular biology, the mass of macromolecules is referred to as their molecular weight and is expressed in kDa, although the numerical value is often approximate and representative of an average.The terms \"molecular mass\", \"molecular weight\", and \"molar mass\" may be used interchangeably in less formal contexts where unit- and quantity-correctness is not needed.", "The molecular mass is more commonly used when referring to the mass of a single or specific well-defined molecule and less commonly than molecular weight when referring to a weighted average of a sample.", "Prior to the 2019 redefinition of SI base units quantities expressed in daltons (Da) were by definition numerically equivalent to molar mass expressed in the units g/mol and were thus strictly numerically interchangeable.", "After the 20 May 2019 redefinition of units, this relationship is only nearly equivalent, although the difference is negligible for all practical purposes.The molecular mass of small to medium size molecules, measured by mass spectrometry, can be used to determine the composition of elements in the molecule.", "The molecular masses of macromolecules, such as proteins, can also be determined by mass spectrometry; however, methods based on viscosity and light-scattering are also used to determine molecular mass when crystallographic or mass spectrometric data are not available." ], [ "Calculation", "Molecular masses are calculated from the atomic masses of each nuclide present in the molecule, while relative molecular masses are calculated from the standard atomic weights of each element.", "The standard atomic weight takes into account the isotopic distribution of the element in a given sample (usually assumed to be \"normal\").", "For example, water has a relative molecular mass of 18.0153(3), but individual water molecules have molecular masses which range between 18.010 564 6863(15) Da (1H16O) and 22.027 7364(9) Da (2H18O).Atomic and molecular masses are usually reported in daltons, which is defined in terms of the mass of the isotope 12C (carbon-12).", "Relative atomic and molecular masses as defined are dimensionless.", "However, the name ''unified atomic mass unit'' (u) is still used in common practice.", "For example, the relative molecular mass and molecular mass of methane, whose molecular formula is CH4, are calculated respectively as follows:Relative molecular mass of CH4 Standard atomic weight Number Total molecular weight (dimensionless) C 1 H 4 CH4 Molecular mass of 12C1H4 Nuclide mass Number Total molecular mass (Da or u) 12C 12.00 1 12.00 1H 1.007825 4 4.0313 CH4 16.0313The uncertainty in molecular mass reflects variance (error) in measurement not the natural variance in isotopic abundances across the globe.", "In high-resolution mass spectrometry the mass isotopomers 12C1H4 and 13C1H4 are observed as distinct molecules, with molecular masses of approximately 16.031 Da and 17.035 Da, respectively.", "The intensity of the mass-spectrometry peaks is proportional to the isotopic abundances in the molecular species.", "12C 2H 1H3 can also be observed with molecular mass of 17 Da." ], [ "Determination", "=== Mass spectrometry ===In mass spectrometry, the molecular mass of a small molecule is usually reported as the monoisotopic mass, that is, the mass of the molecule containing only the most common isotope of each element.", "This also differs subtly from the molecular mass in that the choice of isotopes is defined and thus is a single specific molecular mass of the many possibilities.", "The masses used to compute the monoisotopic molecular mass are found on a table of isotopic masses and are not found on a typical periodic table.", "The average molecular mass is often used for larger molecules since molecules with many atoms are unlikely to be composed exclusively of the most abundant isotope of each element.", "A theoretical average molecular mass can be calculated using the standard atomic weights found on a typical periodic table, since there is likely to be a statistical distribution of atoms representing the isotopes throughout the molecule.", "The average molecular mass of a sample, however, usually differs substantially from this since a single sample average is not the same as the average of many geographically distributed samples.=== Mass photometry ===Mass photometry (MP) is a rapid, in-solution, label-free method of obtaining the molecular mass of proteins, lipids, sugars & nucleic acids at the single-molecule level.", "The technique is based on interferometric scattered light microscopy.", "Contrast from scattered light by a single binding event at the interface between the protein solution and glass slide is detected and is linearly proportional to the mass of the molecule.", "This technique is also capable of measuring sample homogeneity, detecting protein oligomerisation state, characterisation of complex macromolecular assemblies (ribosomes, GroEL, AAV) and protein interactions such as protein-protein interactions.", "Mass photometry can measure molecular mass to an accurate degree over a wide range of molecular masses (40kDa – 5MDa).=== Hydrodynamic methods ===To a first approximation, the basis for determination of molecular mass according to Mark–Houwink relations is the fact that the intrinsic viscosity of solutions (or suspensions) of macromolecules depends on volumetric proportion of the dispersed particles in a particular solvent.", "Specifically, the hydrodynamic size as related to molecular mass depends on a conversion factor, describing the shape of a particular molecule.", "This allows the apparent molecular mass to be described from a range of techniques sensitive to hydrodynamic effects, including DLS, SEC (also known as GPC when the eluent is an organic solvent), viscometry, and diffusion ordered nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (DOSY).", "The apparent hydrodynamic size can then be used to approximate molecular mass using a series of macromolecule-specific standards.", "As this requires calibration, it's frequently described as a \"relative\" molecular mass determination method.=== Static light scattering ===It is also possible to determine absolute molecular mass directly from light scattering, traditionally using the Zimm method.", "This can be accomplished either via classical static light scattering or via multi-angle light scattering detectors.", "Molecular masses determined by this method do not require calibration, hence the term \"absolute\".", "The only external measurement required is refractive index increment, which describes the change in refractive index with concentration." ], [ "See also", "* Cryoscopy and cryoscopic constant* Ebullioscopy and ebullioscopic constant* Dumas method of molecular weight determination* François-Marie Raoult* Standard atomic weight* Mass number* Absolute molar mass* Molar mass distribution* Dalton (unit)* SDS-PAGE" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A Free Android application for molecular and reciprocal weight calculation of any chemical formula* Stoichiometry Add-In for Microsoft Excel for calculation of molecular weights, reaction coefficients and stoichiometry." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Metallic bonding" ], [ "Introduction", "An example showing metallic bonding.", "+ represents cations, - represents the free floating electrons.", "'''Metallic bonding''' is a type of chemical bonding that arises from the electrostatic attractive force between conduction electrons (in the form of an electron cloud of delocalized electrons) and positively charged metal ions.", "It may be described as the sharing of ''free'' electrons among a structure of positively charged ions (cations).", "Metallic bonding accounts for many physical properties of metals, such as strength, ductility, thermal and electrical resistivity and conductivity, opacity, and lustre.Metallic bonding is not the only type of chemical bonding a metal can exhibit, even as a pure substance.", "For example, elemental gallium consists of covalently-bound pairs of atoms in both liquid and solid-state—these pairs form a crystal structure with metallic bonding between them.", "Another example of a metal–metal covalent bond is the mercurous ion ()." ], [ "History", "As chemistry developed into a science, it became clear that metals formed the majority of the periodic table of the elements, and great progress was made in the description of the salts that can be formed in reactions with acids.", "With the advent of electrochemistry, it became clear that metals generally go into solution as positively charged ions, and the oxidation reactions of the metals became well understood in their electrochemical series.", "A picture emerged of metals as positive ions held together by an ocean of negative electrons.With the advent of quantum mechanics, this picture was given a more formal interpretation in the form of the free electron model and its further extension, the nearly free electron model.", "In both models, the electrons are seen as a gas traveling through the structure of the solid with an energy that is essentially isotropic, in that it depends on the square of the magnitude, ''not'' the direction of the momentum vector '''k'''.", "In three-dimensional k-space, the set of points of the highest filled levels (the Fermi surface) should therefore be a sphere.", "In the nearly-free model, box-like Brillouin zones are added to k-space by the periodic potential experienced from the (ionic) structure, thus mildly breaking the isotropy.The advent of X-ray diffraction and thermal analysis made it possible to study the structure of crystalline solids, including metals and their alloys; and phase diagrams were developed.", "Despite all this progress, the nature of intermetallic compounds and alloys largely remained a mystery and their study was often merely empirical.", "Chemists generally steered away from anything that did not seem to follow Dalton's laws of multiple proportions; and the problem was considered the domain of a different science, metallurgy.The nearly-free electron model was eagerly taken up by some researchers in metallurgy, notably Hume-Rothery, in an attempt to explain why intermetallic alloys with certain compositions would form and others would not.", "Initially Hume-Rothery's attempts were quite successful.", "His idea was to add electrons to inflate the spherical Fermi-balloon inside the series of Brillouin-boxes and determine when a certain box would be full.", "This predicted a fairly large number of alloy compositions that were later observed.", "As soon as cyclotron resonance became available and the shape of the balloon could be determined, it was found that the balloon was not spherical as the Hume-Rothery believed, except perhaps in the case of caesium.", "This revealed how a model can sometimes give a whole series of correct predictions, yet still be wrong in its basic assumptions.", "The nearly-free electron debacle compelled researchers to modify the assumpition that ions flowed in a sea of free electrons.", "A number of quantum mechanical models were developed, such as band structure calculations based on molecular orbitals, and the density functional theory.", "These models either depart from the atomic orbitals of neutral atoms that share their electrons, or (in the case of density functional theory) departs from the total electron density.", "The free-electron picture has, nevertheless, remained a dominant one in introductory courses on metallurgy.The electronic band structure model became a major focus for the study of metals and even more of semiconductors.", "Together with the electronic states, the vibrational states were also shown to form bands.", "Rudolf Peierls showed that, in the case of a one-dimensional row of metallic atoms—say, hydrogen—an inevitable instability would break such a chain into individual molecules.", "This sparked an interest in the general question: when is collective metallic bonding stable, and when will a localized bonding take its place?", "Much research went into the study of clustering of metal atoms.As powerful as the band structure model proved to be in describing metallic bonding, it remains a one-electron approximation of a many-body problem: the energy states of an individual electron are described as if all the other electrons form a homogeneous background.", "Researchers such as Mott and Hubbard realized that the one-electron treatment was perhaps appropriate for strongly delocalized '''s'''- and '''p'''-electrons; but for '''d'''-electrons, and even more for '''f'''-electrons, the interaction with nearby individual electrons (and atomic displacements) may become stronger than the delocalized interaction that leads to broad bands.", "This gave a better explanation for the transition from localized unpaired electrons to itinerant ones partaking in metallic bonding." ], [ "The nature of metallic bonding", "The combination of two phenomena gives rise to metallic bonding: delocalization of electrons and the availability of a far larger number of delocalized energy states than of delocalized electrons.", "The latter could be called electron deficiency.===In 2D===Graphene is an example of two-dimensional metallic bonding.", "Its metallic bonds are similar to aromatic bonding in benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, ovalene, etc.===In 3D===Metal aromaticity in metal clusters is another example of delocalization, this time often in three-dimensional arrangements.", "Metals take the delocalization principle to its extreme, and one could say that a crystal of a metal represents a single molecule over which all conduction electrons are delocalized in all three dimensions.", "This means that inside the metal one can generally not distinguish molecules, so that the metallic bonding is neither intra- nor inter-molecular.", "'Nonmolecular' would perhaps be a better term.", "Metallic bonding is mostly non-polar, because even in alloys there is little difference among the electronegativities of the atoms participating in the bonding interaction (and, in pure elemental metals, none at all).", "Thus, metallic bonding is an extremely delocalized communal form of covalent bonding.", "In a sense, metallic bonding is not a 'new' type of bonding at all.", "It describes the bonding only as present in a ''chunk'' of condensed matter: be it crystalline solid, liquid, or even glass.", "Metallic vapors, in contrast, are often atomic (Hg) or at times contain molecules, such as Na2, held together by a more conventional covalent bond.", "This is why it is not correct to speak of a single 'metallic bond'.Delocalization is most pronounced for '''s'''- and '''p'''-electrons.", "Delocalization in caesium is so strong that the electrons are virtually freed from the caesium atoms to form a gas constrained only by the surface of the metal.", "For caesium, therefore, the picture of Cs+ ions held together by a negatively charged electron gas is very close to accurate (though not perfectly so).", "For other elements the electrons are less free, in that they still experience the potential of the metal atoms, sometimes quite strongly.", "They require a more intricate quantum mechanical treatment (e.g., tight binding) in which the atoms are viewed as neutral, much like the carbon atoms in benzene.", "For '''d'''- and especially '''f'''-electrons the delocalization is not strong at all and this explains why these electrons are able to continue behaving as unpaired electrons that retain their spin, adding interesting magnetic properties to these metals.===Electron deficiency and mobility===Metal atoms contain few electrons in their valence shells relative to their periods or energy levels.", "They are electron-deficient elements and the communal sharing does not change that.", "There remain far more available energy states than there are shared electrons.", "Both requirements for conductivity are therefore fulfilled: strong delocalization and partly filled energy bands.", "Such electrons can therefore easily change from one energy state to a slightly different one.", "Thus, not only do they become delocalized, forming a sea of electrons permeating the structure, but they are also able to migrate through the structure when an external electrical field is applied, leading to electrical conductivity.", "Without the field, there are electrons moving equally in all directions.", "Within such a field, some electrons will adjust their state slightly, adopting a different wave vector.", "Consequently, there will be more moving one way than another and a net current will result.The freedom of electrons to migrate also gives metal atoms, or layers of them, the capacity to slide past each other.", "Locally, bonds can easily be broken and replaced by new ones after a deformation.", "This process does not affect the communal metallic bonding very much, which gives rise to metals' characteristic malleability and ductility.", "This is particularly true for pure elements.", "In the presence of dissolved impurities, the normally easily formed cleavages may be blocked and the material become harder.", "Gold, for example, is very soft in pure form (24-karat), which is why alloys are preferred in jewelry.Metals are typically also good conductors of heat, but the conduction electrons only contribute partly to this phenomenon.", "Collective (i.e., delocalized) vibrations of the atoms, known as phonons that travel through the solid as a wave, are bigger contributors.However, a substance such as diamond, which conducts heat quite well, is not an electrical conductor.", "This is not a consequence of delocalization being absent in diamond, but simply that carbon is not electron deficient.Electron deficiency is important in distinguishing metallic from more conventional covalent bonding.", "Thus, we should amend the expression given above to: ''Metallic bonding is an extremely delocalized communal form of electron-deficient covalent bonding''." ], [ "Metallic radius", "The metallic radius is defined as one-half of the distance between the two adjacent metal ions in the metallic structure.", "This radius depends on the nature of the atom as well as its environment—specifically, on the coordination number (CN), which in turn depends on the temperature and applied pressure.When comparing periodic trends in the size of atoms it is often desirable to apply the so-called Goldschmidt correction, which converts atomic radii to the values the atoms would have if they were 12-coordinated.", "Since metallic radii are largest for the highest coordination number, correction for less dense coordinations involves multiplying by , where 0 < < 1.Specifically, for CN = 4, = 0.88; for CN = 6, = 0.96, and for CN = 8, = 0.97.The correction is named after Victor Goldschmidt who obtained the numerical values quoted above.The radii follow general periodic trends: they decrease across the period due to the increase in the effective nuclear charge, which is not offset by the increased number of valence electrons; but the radii increase down the group due to an increase in the principal quantum number.", "Between the 4'''d''' and 5'''d''' elements, the lanthanide contraction is observed—there is very little increase of the radius down the group due to the presence of poorly shielding '''f''' orbitals." ], [ "Strength of the bond", "The atoms in metals have a strong attractive force between them.", "Much energy is required to overcome it.", "Therefore, metals often have high boiling points, with tungsten (5828 K) being extremely high.", "A remarkable exception is the elements of the zinc group: Zn, Cd, and Hg.", "Their electron configurations end in ...n'''s'''2, which resembles a noble gas configuration, like that of helium, more and more when going down the periodic table, because the energy differential to the empty n'''p''' orbitals becomes larger.", "These metals are therefore relatively volatile, and are avoided in ultra-high vacuum systems.Otherwise, metallic bonding can be very strong, even in molten metals, such as gallium.", "Even though gallium will melt from the heat of one's hand just above room temperature, its boiling point is not far from that of copper.", "Molten gallium is, therefore, a very nonvolatile liquid, thanks to its strong metallic bonding.The strong bonding of metals in liquid form demonstrates that the energy of a metallic bond is not highly dependent on the direction of the bond; this lack of bond directionality is a direct consequence of electron delocalization, and is best understood in contrast to the directional bonding of covalent bonds.", "The energy of a metallic bond is thus mostly a function of the number of electrons which surround the metallic atom, as exemplified by the embedded atom model.", "This typically results in metals assuming relatively simple, close-packed crystal structures, such as FCC, BCC, and HCP.Given high enough cooling rates and appropriate alloy composition, metallic bonding can occur even in glasses, which have amorphous structures.Much biochemistry is mediated by the weak interaction of metal ions and biomolecules.", "Such interactions, and their associated conformational changes, have been measured using dual polarisation interferometry." ], [ "Solubility and compound formation", "Metals are insoluble in water or organic solvents, unless they undergo a reaction with them.", "Typically, this is an oxidation reaction that robs the metal atoms of their itinerant electrons, destroying the metallic bonding.", "However metals are often readily soluble in each other while retaining the metallic character of their bonding.", "Gold, for example, dissolves easily in mercury, even at room temperature.", "Even in solid metals, the solubility can be extensive.", "If the structures of the two metals are the same, there can even be complete solid solubility, as in the case of electrum, an alloy of silver and gold.", "At times, however, two metals will form alloys with different structures than either of the two parents.", "One could call these materials metal compounds.", "But, because materials with metallic bonding are typically not molecular, Dalton's law of integral proportions is not valid; and often a range of stoichiometric ratios can be achieved.", "It is better to abandon such concepts as 'pure substance' or 'solute' in such cases and speak of phases instead.", "The study of such phases has traditionally been more the domain of metallurgy than of chemistry, although the two fields overlap considerably." ], [ "Localization and clustering: from bonding to bonds", "The metallic bonding in complex compounds does not necessarily involve all constituent elements equally.", "It is quite possible to have one or more elements that do not partake at all.", "One could picture the conduction electrons flowing around them like a river around an island or a big rock.", "It is possible to observe which elements do partake: e.g., by looking at the core levels in an X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectrum.", "If an element partakes, its peaks tend to be skewed.Some intermetallic materials, e.g., do exhibit metal clusters reminiscent of molecules; and these compounds are more a topic of chemistry than of metallurgy.", "The formation of the clusters could be seen as a way to 'condense out' (localize) the electron-deficient bonding into bonds of a more localized nature.", "Hydrogen is an extreme example of this form of condensation.", "At high pressures it is a metal.", "The core of the planet Jupiter could be said to be held together by a combination of metallic bonding and high pressure induced by gravity.", "At lower pressures, however, the bonding becomes entirely localized into a regular covalent bond.", "The localization is so complete that the (more familiar) H2 gas results.", "A similar argument holds for an element such as boron.", "Though it is electron-deficient compared to carbon, it does not form a metal.", "Instead it has a number of complex structures in which icosahedral B12 clusters dominate.", "Charge density waves are a related phenomenon.As these phenomena involve the movement of the atoms toward or away from each other, they can be interpreted as the coupling between the electronic and the vibrational states (i.e.", "the phonons) of the material.", "A different such electron-phonon interaction is thought to lead to a very different result at low temperatures, that of superconductivity.", "Rather than blocking the mobility of the charge carriers by forming electron pairs in localized bonds, Cooper pairs are formed that no longer experience any resistance to their mobility." ], [ "Optical properties", "The presence of an ocean of mobile charge carriers has profound effects on the optical properties of metals, which can only be understood by considering the electrons as a ''collective'', rather than considering the states of individual electrons involved in more conventional covalent bonds.Light consists of a combination of an electrical and a magnetic field.", "The electrical field is usually able to excite an elastic response from the electrons involved in the metallic bonding.", "The result is that photons cannot penetrate very far into the metal and are typically reflected, although some may also be absorbed.", "This holds equally for all photons in the visible spectrum, which is why metals are often silvery white or grayish with the characteristic specular reflection of metallic lustre.", "The balance between reflection and absorption determines how white or how gray a metal is, although surface tarnish can obscure the lustre.", "Silver, a metal with high conductivity, is one of the whitest.Notable exceptions are reddish copper and yellowish gold.", "The reason for their color is that there is an upper limit to the frequency of the light that metallic electrons can readily respond to: the plasmon frequency.", "At the plasmon frequency, the frequency-dependent dielectric function of the free electron gas goes from negative (reflecting) to positive (transmitting); higher frequency photons are not reflected at the surface, and do not contribute to the color of the metal.", "There are some materials, such as indium tin oxide (ITO), that are metallic conductors (actually degenerate semiconductors) for which this threshold is in the infrared, which is why they are transparent in the visible, but good reflectors in the infrared.For silver the limiting frequency is in the far ultraviolet, but for copper and gold it is closer to the visible.", "This explains the colors of these two metals.", "At the surface of a metal, resonance effects known as surface plasmons can result.", "They are collective oscillations of the conduction electrons, like a ripple in the electronic ocean.", "However, even if photons have enough energy, they usually do not have enough momentum to set the ripple in motion.", "Therefore, plasmons are hard to excite on a bulk metal.", "This is why gold and copper look like lustrous metals albeit with a dash of color.", "However, in colloidal gold the metallic bonding is confined to a tiny metallic particle, which prevents the oscillation wave of the plasmon from 'running away'.", "The momentum selection rule is therefore broken, and the plasmon resonance causes an extremely intense absorption in the green, with a resulting purple-red color.", "Such colors are orders of magnitude more intense than ordinary absorptions seen in dyes and the like, which involve individual electrons and their energy states." ], [ "See also", "* * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Methyl group" ], [ "Introduction", "Different ways of representing a methyl group (highlighted in '''blue''')In organic chemistry, a '''methyl group''' is an alkyl derived from methane, containing one carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms, having chemical formula (whereas normal methane has the formula ).", "In formulas, the group is often abbreviated as '''Me'''.", "This hydrocarbon group occurs in many organic compounds.", "It is a very stable group in most molecules.", "While the methyl group is usually part of a larger molecule, bounded to the rest of the molecule by a single covalent bond (), it can be found on its own in any of three forms: methanide anion (), methylium cation () or methyl radical ().", "The anion has eight valence electrons, the radical seven and the cation six.", "All three forms are highly reactive and rarely observed." ], [ "Methyl cation, anion, and radical", "===Methyl cation===The methylium cation () exists in the gas phase, but is otherwise not encountered.", "Some compounds are considered to be sources of the cation, and this simplification is used pervasively in organic chemistry.", "For example, protonation of methanol gives an electrophilic methylating reagent that reacts by the SN2 pathway::Similarly, methyl iodide and methyl triflate are viewed as the equivalent of the methyl cation because they readily undergo SN2 reactions by weak nucleophiles.The methyl cation has been detected in interstellar space.===Methyl anion===The methanide anion () exists only in rarefied gas phase or under exotic conditions.", "It can be produced by electrical discharge in ketene at low pressure (less than one torr) and its enthalpy of reaction is determined to be about 252.2 ± 3.3 kJ/mol.", "It is a powerful superbase; only the lithium monoxide anion () and the diethynylbenzene dianions are known to be stronger.In discussing mechanisms of organic reactions, methyl lithium and related Grignard reagents are often considered to be salts of ; and though the model may be useful for description and analysis, it is only a useful fiction.", "Such reagents are generally prepared from the methyl halides::where M is an alkali metal.===Methyl radical===The methyl radical has the formula .", "It exists in dilute gases, but in more concentrated form it readily dimerizes to ethane.", "It is routinely produced by various enzymes of the radical SAM and methylcobalamin varieties." ], [ "Reactivity", "The reactivity of a methyl group depends on the adjacent substituents.", "Methyl groups can be quite unreactive.", "For example, in organic compounds, the methyl group resists attack by even the strongest acids.===Oxidation===The oxidation of a methyl group occurs widely in nature and industry.", "The oxidation products derived from methyl are hydroxymethyl group , formyl group , and carboxyl group .", "For example, permanganate often converts a methyl group to a carboxyl () group, e.g.", "the conversion of toluene to benzoic acid.", "Ultimately oxidation of methyl groups gives protons and carbon dioxide, as seen in combustion.===Methylation===Demethylation (the transfer of the methyl group to another compound) is a common process, and reagents that undergo this reaction are called methylating agents.", "Common methylating agents are dimethyl sulfate, methyl iodide, and methyl triflate.", "Methanogenesis, the source of natural gas, arises via a demethylation reaction.", "Together with ubiquitin and phosphorylation, methylation is a major biochemical process for modifying protein function.", "The field of epigenetics focuses on the influence of methylation on gene expression.===Deprotonation===Certain methyl groups can be deprotonated.", "For example, the acidity of the methyl groups in acetone () is about 1020 times more acidic than methane.", "The resulting carbanions are key intermediates in many reactions in organic synthesis and biosynthesis.", "Fatty acids are produced in this way.===Free radical reactions===When placed in benzylic or allylic positions, the strength of the bond is decreased, and the reactivity of the methyl group increases.", "One manifestation of this enhanced reactivity is the photochemical chlorination of the methyl group in toluene to give benzyl chloride." ], [ "Chiral methyl", "In the special case where one hydrogen is replaced by deuterium (D) and another hydrogen by tritium (T), the methyl substituent becomes chiral.", "Methods exist to produce optically pure methyl compounds, e.g., chiral acetic acid (deuterotritoacetic acid ).", "Through the use of chiral methyl groups, the stereochemical course of several biochemical transformations have been analyzed." ], [ "Rotation", "A methyl group may rotate around the axis.", "This is a free rotation only in the simplest cases like gaseous methyl chloride .", "In most molecules, the remainder R breaks the ''C''∞ symmetry of the axis and creates a potential ''V''(''φ'') that restricts the free motion of the three protons.", "For the model case of ethane , this is discussed under the name ethane barrier.In condensed phases, neighbour molecules also contribute to the potential.", "Methyl group rotation can be experimentally studied using quasielastic neutron scattering." ], [ "Etymology", "French chemists Jean-Baptiste Dumas and Eugene Peligot, after determining methanol's chemical structure, introduced \"methylene\" from the Greek ''methy'' \"wine\" and ''hȳlē'' \"wood, patch of trees\" with the intention of highlighting its origins, \"alcohol made from wood (substance)\".", "The term \"methyl\" was derived in about 1840 by back-formation from \"methylene\", and was then applied to describe \"methyl alcohol\" (which since 1892 is called \"methanol\").", "''Methyl'' is the IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry term for an alkane (or alkyl) molecule, using the prefix \"meth-\" to indicate the presence of a single carbon." ], [ "See also", "*AdoMet" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mild ale" ], [ "Introduction", "A pint of mild'''Mild ale''' is a type of ale.", "Modern milds are mostly dark-coloured, with an alcohol by volume (ABV) of 3% to 3.6%, although there are lighter-hued as well as stronger milds, reaching 6% abv and higher.", "Mild originated in Britain in the 17th century or earlier, and originally meant a young ale, as opposed to a \"stale\" aged or old ale.Mild experienced a sharp decline in popularity in the 1960s, and was in danger of completely disappearing, but the increase of microbreweries has led to a modest renaissance and an increasing number of milds (sometimes labelled \"dark\") being brewed.The Campaign for Real Ale has designated May as Mild Month.", "In the United States, a group of beer bloggers organised the first American Mild Month for May 2015, with forty-five participating breweries across the country." ], [ "History", "\"Mild\" was originally used to designate any beer which was young, fresh or unaged and did not refer to a specific style of beer.", "Thus there was Mild Ale but also Mild Porter and even Mild Bitter Beer.", "These young beers were often blended with aged \"stale\" beer to improve their flavour.", "As the 19th century progressed public taste moved away from the aged taste; unblended young beer, mostly in the form of Mild Ale or Light Bitter Beer, began to dominate the market.In the 19th century a typical brewery produced three or four mild ales, usually designated by a number of X marks, the weakest being X, the strongest XXXX.", "They were considerably stronger than the milds of today, with the gravity ranging from around 1.055 to 1.072 (about 5.5% to 7% abv).", "Gravities dropped throughout the late 19th century and by 1914 the weakest milds were down to about 1.045, still considerably stronger than modern versions.The draconian measures applied to the brewing industry during the First World War had a particularly dramatic effect upon mild.", "As the biggest-selling beer, it suffered the largest cut in gravity when breweries had to limit the average OG of their beer to 1.030.In order to be able to produce some stronger beer - which was exempt from price controls and thus more profitable - mild was reduced to 1.025 or lower.Modern dark mild varies from dark amber to near-black in colour and is very light-bodied.", "Its flavour is dominated by malt, sometimes with roasty notes derived from the use of black malt, with a subdued hop character, though there are some quite bitter examples.", "Most are in the range 1.030–1.036 (3–3.6% abv).Light mild is generally similar, but paler in colour.", "Some dark milds are created by the addition of caramel to a pale beer.Until the 1960s mild was the most popular beer style in England.", "Pockets of demand remain, particularly in the West Midlands and North West England, but has been largely ousted by bitter and lager elsewhere.", "In 2002, only 1.3% of beer sold in pubs was Mild.", "Mild's popularity in Wales, in particular, persisted as a relatively low-alcohol, sweet drink for coal miners.", "Some brewers have continued to produce mild, but have found it sells better under a different name: for instance, Brains's mild was renamed Dark.", "Outside the United Kingdom mild is virtually unknown, with the exception of Old in New South Wales and some microbrewery recreations in North America and Scandinavia.", "Some notable examples of Milds are: Bank's Mild, Cain's Dark Mild, Highgate Dark Mild, Brain's Dark, Moorhouse's Black Cat and Theakston Traditional Mild." ], [ "Brown and mild", "A popular drink in the West Midlands, \"brown and mild\" (also known as a \"boilermaker\") is a half pint of draught mild served mixed with a half pint of bottled brown ale in a pint glass.", "In North West England, a mixture of half a pint of mild and half a pint of bitter is known as a \"mixed\".", "In Norfolk, the same mixture was called a pint of \"twos\", while the same drink in the West Midlands was called a \"Mickey Mouse\"." ], [ "Brewing", "Mild ales are generally based on mild malt or pale malt.", "Most milds contain, in addition, a quantity of crystal malt; dark milds, meanwhile, make use of chocolate malt, black malt or dark brewing sugars.", "Milds tend to be lightly hopped compared to pale ale and are usually low in alcohol; strong mild ales used to reach six or seven per cent abv, but very few such beers are still brewed.", "Sarah Hughes Dark Ruby Mild, brewed to a pre-World War I recipe, is a rare example of a strong Mild (6.0% ABV).As part of the first American Mild Month, the project organizers challenged participating breweries to create a new variation on the mild ale style by brewing with American malts and hops.", "They defined American Mild as \"a restrained, darkish ale, with gentle hopping and a clean finish so that the malt and what hops are present, shine through\"." ], [ "See also", "* Beer in England* Beer in Wales* Beer styles* Bock* Brown ale* Hvidtøl* Malt beer* Old ale* Seasonal beer" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mars Society" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Mars Society''' is a nonprofit organization that advocates for human Mars exploration and colonization.", "It was founded by Robert Zubrin in 1998 and its principles are based on Zubrin's Mars Direct philosophy, which aims to make human mission to Mars as lightweight and feasible as possible.", "The Mars Society aims to generate interest in the Mars program by garnering support from the public and through lobbying.", "Many Mars Society members and former members are influential in the wider spaceflight community, such as Buzz Aldrin and Elon Musk.", "Since its founding, the Mars Society has been active with a series of events and research activities.", "It has hosted its annual International Mars Society Convention and operated research projects such as the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station and the Mars Desert Research Station, both using Mars analog habitats.", "Both of the stations are placed in remote locations and aim to replicate a true Mars mission for research.", "Crew members in the stations must perform mock extravehicular activities, do research assignments and live on strictly rationed supplies.", "The organization also hosts robotics challenges with competing universities, called the University Rover Challenge and the European Rover Challenge." ], [ "Structure", "The Mars Society is a 501(c)(3)-eligible nonprofit organization that is funded by donations and operated by volunteers.", "Membership to the Mars Society is available for all with a small fee.", "The society's aims are garnering public support for human Mars missions, lobbying government and space agencies, and researching the effects on Martian crews via Mars analog habitats.The Mars Society's founder and current president is Robert Zubrin, and notable members and former members of the organization include Buzz Aldrin, Elon Musk, Gregory Benford, and Peter Smith.", "The society is a member of the Alliance for Space Development and has chapters in Canada, Australia, Japan, Europe, etc.", "Since its foundation in 1998, the society organizes the annual International Mars Society Convention, with presentations primarily about Mars exploration and colonization." ], [ "Philosophy and propositions", "The Mars Society's founding conference emphasizes its focus on the Mars Direct plan and efforts of lobbying the government, holding that there is no technical reason that would prevent a human mission to Mars within a decade.", "On the second day of the conference, there was an intense debate about the ethics of Mars terraforming, which science writer Oliver Morton described as 'rancorous'.", "The terms 'Lebensraum' and 'manifest destiny' used by the audience in the debate were prohibited in later conventions.Many of the Mars Society's members believe that a human mission to Mars is within reach in a decade (as laid out in Zubrin's Mars Direct) and such a mission would lay the foundation for the colonization of Mars.", "The Mars Direct philosophy has permeated through the society's lobbying efforts.", "During a testimony to the 2009 Augustine Commission, a panel made by the Obama administration to outline the future of the U.S. space program, Zubrin advocated initiating a lean human Mars program in a similar manner to Mars Direct.", "The testimony seems to not have influenced the committee; in the final report, the commission concluded that such a mission would \"demand decades of investment and carry considerable safety risk to humans\".Oliver Morton commented in 2003 that Mars Society is a fundamentally \"utopian and escapist organization\".", "He observed that many Mars Society convention participants were unhappy with government space programs.", "As a consequence, they favored alternatives that are often impractical, such as sponsorship deals, private philanthropy, and Martian bonds (on the basis of future resources and profits).At the Mars Society's 2015 convention, a debate was organized between two representatives of Mars One (CEO Bas Lansdorp and Barry Finger) and two researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Sydney Do and Andrew Owens).", "Mars One, a now-defunct non-profit organization founded in 2011, aimed to establish a human settlement on Mars through a one-way mission called Mars to Stay.", "The MIT researchers criticized the plan as infeasible and suicidal.", "According to Dwayne A.", "Day from ''The Space Review'', the Massachusetts Institute of Technology team won the debate by making specific and realistic arguments.", "He also noted that the popularity of Mars One had dwarfed the one of Mars Society and that the perceived absurdness of former's plan by the public was potentially detrimental to the later's reputation." ], [ "Background and founding", "The forerunner of the Mars Society was a small network of space enthusiasts colloquially known as the Mars Underground, which emerged around 1978.The members of this network were frustrated by the U.S. administration's lack of attention to Mars exploration.", "In April 1981, the Mars Underground organized the first Case for Mars conference about Mars exploration at the University of Colorado.", "The Case for Mars conferences were held every three years until the sixth and final one in 1996.At the now-defunct aerospace company Martin Marietta, Robert Zubrin – who had attended the third Case for Mars conference in 1987 – and engineer David Baker developed the human Mars mission plan, titled Mars Direct.", "They published their plan to NASA and the public around early 1990.The core tenet of the Mars Direct plan is to use existing technologies and eliminate the need for dangerous space rendezvous or an expensive space station.", "A modified Mars Direct plan (called NASA Design Reference Mission 3.0) was budgeted by NASA at $20 billion; one-twentieth the cost of the Mars mission plan in NASA's Space Exploration Initiative ($250–$500 billion).In 1996, Zubrin published ''The Case For Mars'', the same year as the sixth and last Case for Mars conference took place.", "The book criticized prior Mars exploration mission proposals for being too costly and complicated, proposed an alternative mission plan based on the Mars Direct plan, gave philosophical arguments for it and rebutted criticisms of the plan.The Mars Society was founded by Zubrin on 13 August 1998 during the Mars Society's first conference in Boulder, Colorado, the same place where the first Case for Mars conference had happened 17 years earlier.", "With a duration of four days, the conference was attended by 750 persons and can be seen as a spiritual successor to the prior Case for Mars conferences.", "Some of the invited were from the Mars Underground and those who had written to Zubrin about ''The Case For Mars''." ], [ "Earlier activities", "Construction of the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station, July 2000Musk giving details about Falcon 9 and Dragon spacecraft at the 2006 Mars Society conferenceAfter the first convention, the Mars Society decided to construct a Mars analog facility named Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS) on Devon Island.", "The FMARS is the second Mars analog facility in the world; the first one is the Haughton–Mars Project.", "Construction cost for FMARS is jointly shared by the Mars Society and the Haughton–Mars Project team.", "Part of the funding also came from commercial sponsorship such as the Discovery Channel.", "FMARS was first occupied in July and August 2000 and began its first simulated mission around 2001.The money that had been donated by Elon Musk was spent on the next Mars analog habitat, called the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS).", "In December 2001, the habitat's construction near Hanksville, Utah was completed.From 2001 to 2005, Mars mission simulations in FMARS were around 2–8 weeks long and consisted of ten rotated crews.", "The first four-month-long mock mission was done in 2007, which revealed cultural conflicts and inadequate coping strategies.", "Shorter missions were done in 2009 and 2013, before another long-duration mission called Mars 160 was conducted in 2017, in collaboration with the MDRS.", "The crew would stay for eighty days in MDRS before being transferred to FMARS, rotating the crew every month.", "As of April 2020, the MDRS had hosted nineteen field seasons totaling 236 crews,with each crew consisting of 6 to 7 members.The society also formulated plans to launch space-based experiments, which were never materialised though.", "In 2001, after a discussion between Zubrin, Musk and the board members, the Mars Society announced the Translife Mission, later renamed to Mars Gravity Biosatellite.", "The mission aimed to study the effect of Martian-level gravity on mice, with satellite construction supported by students from Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Georgia Tech.", "In August 2008, the Mars Society announced the project TEMPO3 after a preliminary selection of proposals.", "TEMPO3 was conceived as a system of two CubeSats attached to a tether and spun with carbon dioxide-powered thrusters, aimed to demonstrate rotationary artificial gravity system in space.", "Both of these proposals were never built: Mars Gravity Biosatellite was canceled in June 2009 due to a lack of funding and no further development on TEMPO3 has been done since the initial proposal.In mid-2001, the Mars Society received a $5000 check from Elon Musk for a fundraiser event.", "After briefly researching Mars concepts and missions, Musk joined the Mars Society's board of directors and gave it $100,000.In August 2001, Musk left the Mars Society after a meeting with its members and established a temporary foundation for his publicity projects.", "However, by April 2002, Musk had abandoned the temporary foundation entirely; instead, he founded SpaceX to build a low-cost rocket and invited aerospace engineers whom he had met beforehand at Mars Society-sponsored trips.", "Since then, Musk occasionally kept contact with the Mars Society, as evident by his presentation of the Falcon 1 rocket in 2008, his acceptance of the Mars Pioneer Award from the society in 2012 and his presentation at the society's 2020 convention." ], [ "Current projects", "The Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station, July 2009The Mars Society's premier project is the Mars Analog Research Station Program.", "The program aims to further the understanding of Mars missions' technical and human factors via its two Mars analog habitats: the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS) and the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS).", "The FMARS is located on Devon Island in Canada and near the Haughton impact crater, above the 75th parallel north where the island is not inhabited and vegetated.", "The MDRS is located near Hanksville, Utah, where the habitat is isolated from civilization.", "Both stations' locations are chosen for the landscape similarities with Mars.", "Because these stations are meant for research, both FMARS and MDRS are closed to public visits.The Mars Society has plans to build additional analog stations.", "The Euro-MARS, operated by the Mars Society's European chapter, was intended to have three decks and more extensive facilities.", "Unfortunately, during transport from the United Kingdom to Krafla, Iceland, where it was to be deployed, the Euro-MARS sustained damage.", "As of 2017, it is back in the planning phase.", "The Mars Society is also planning to build another Mars analog station in Arkaroola, Australia, as of October 2022.The station would replicate a spacecraft launching directly from the Earth's surface, featuring a mock propulsion module, heat shield and landing engines.A challenge in University Rover Challenge where rovers have to pour fuel into a generatorAside from research, the Mars Society organizes the Rover Challenge Series, a group of annual student university competitions for making mock Martian rovers.", "Around May and June each year, the three-day University Rover Challenge takes place in Utah's desert near the MDRS where teams compete in exploration tasks.", "The rover's operators must only use sensor data for navigation, similar to actual Martian rovers.", "Similar regional competitions that belong to the Rover Challenge Series include the European Rover Challenge, the Canadian International Rover Challenge and the Indian Rover Challenge.MarsVR Project aims to simulate living at the MDRS with real terrain data of one square mile around the base.", "In collaboration with a local virtual reality company, MarsVR is used to train MDRS's crews by simulating the use of spacesuits, airlocks, rovers and activities such as cooking.", "The software can also simulate playing sports on Mars such as soccer and mountaineering.", "The exploration portion of MarsVR is free to download on Steam, however the training part has an attached cost for the public.In 2023, the Mars Society established the non-profit Mars Technology Institute and the corresponding C corporation Mars Technology Lab to research solutions for labor, agriculture, and energy problems in the colonization of Mars.", "Initially, the Institute plans to outsource research to universities.", "Once funding have been established, the Institute will then build its own campus." ], [ "See also", "* National Space Society* SpaceX Mars program* The Planetary Society" ], [ "References", "===Primary sources======Other sources===" ], [ "External links", "* The Mars Society's official website* Founding Declaration on The Mars Society's website* The Mars Society on YouTube – collection of archived presentations and promotional materials" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Minerva" ], [ "Introduction", " Mosaic of the ''Minerva of Peace'' in the Library of Congress'''Minerva''' (; ; ) is the Roman goddess of wisdom, justice, law, victory, and the sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy.", "Minerva is not a patron of violence such as Mars, but of strategic war.", "From the second century BC onward, the Romans equated her with the Greek goddess Athena.", "Minerva is one of the three Roman deities in the Capitoline Triad, along with Jupiter and Juno.She was the virgin goddess of music, poetry, medicine, wisdom, commerce, weaving, and the crafts.", "She is often depicted with her sacred creature, an owl usually named the \"owl of Minerva\", which symbolised her association with wisdom and knowledge as well as, less frequently, the snake and the olive tree.", "Minerva is commonly depicted as tall with an athletic and muscular build, as well as wearing armour and carrying a spear.", "As the most important Roman goddess, she is highly revered, honored, and respected.", "Marcus Terentius Varro considered her to be ideal and the plan for the universe personified." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''Minerva'' stems from Proto-Italic (\"intelligent, understanding\"), and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) (\"thought\").", "Helmut Rix (1981) and Gerhard Meiser (1998) have proposed the PIE derivative (\"provided with a mind, intelligent\") as the transitional form." ], [ "Origin", "Following the Greek myths around Athena, she was born of Metis, who had been swallowed by Jupiter, and burst from her father's head, fully armed and clad in armour.", "Jupiter had sex with the titaness Metis, which resulted in her attempting to change shape (or shapeshift) to escape him.", "Jupiter then recalled the prophecy that his own child would overthrow him, as he had Saturn, and in turn, Saturn had Caelus.Fearing that their child would be male, and would grow stronger than he was and rule the Heavens in his place, Jupiter swallowed Metis whole after tricking her into turning herself into a fly.", "The Titaness gave birth to Minerva and forged weapons and armour for her child while within Jupiter's body.", "In some versions of the story, Metis continued to live inside of Jupiter's mind as the source of his wisdom.", "Others say she was simply a vessel for the birth of Minerva.", "The constant pounding and ringing left Jupiter with agonizing pain.", "To relieve the pain, Vulcan used a hammer to split Jupiter's head and, from the cleft, Minerva emerged, whole, adult, and in full battle armour." ], [ "Presence in mythology", "Minerva is a prominent figure in Roman mythology.", "She appears in many famous myths.", "Many of the stories of her Greek counterpart Athena are attributed to Minerva in Roman mythology, such as that of the naming of Athens resulting from a competition between Minerva and Neptune, in which Minerva created the olive tree.=== Minerva and Arachne ===Arachne was a mortal highly proficient in weaving and embroidery.", "Not only were her finished works that were beautiful, but also her process, so much so that nymphs would come out of their natural environments to watch her work.", "Arachne boasted that her skills could beat those of Minerva, and if she were wrong she would pay the price for it.", "This angered Minerva, and she took the form of an old woman to approach Arachne, offering her a chance to take back her challenge and ask forgiveness.", "When Arachne refused, Minerva rid herself of her disguise and took Arachne up on her challenge.", "Arachne began to weave a tapestry that showed the shortcomings of the gods, while Minerva depicted her competition with Neptune and the gods looking down with disgust on mortals who would dare to challenge them.", "Minerva's weaving was meant as a final warning to her foe to back down.", "Minerva was insulted by the scenes that Arachne was weaving, and destroyed it.", "She then touched Arachne on the forehead, which made her feel shame for what she had done, leading her to hang herself.", "Minerva then felt bad for the woman, and brought her back to life.", "However, Minerva transformed her into a spider as punishment for her actions, and hanging from a web would forever be a reminder to Arachne of her actions that offended the gods.", "This story also acted as a warning to mortals not to challenge the gods.=== Minerva and Medusa ===Medusa was once a beautiful human, a priestess of Minerva.", "Later on, Minerva found out that Neptune and Medusa were kissing in a temple dedicated to Minerva herself.", "Because of this Minerva turned her into a monster, replacing her hair with hissing snakes and removing her charm.", "Medusa turned any living creature she looked upon into stone.", "When Perseus approached Medusa he used her reflection in his shield to avoid contact with her eyes, and then beheaded her.", "He delivered the severed head to Minerva, who placed its image on her Aegis.=== Taming of Pegasus ===When Perseus beheaded Medusa some of the blood spilled onto the ground, and from it came Pegasus.", "Minerva caught the horse and tamed it before gifting the horse to the Muses.", "It was a kick from the hoof of Pegasus that opened the fountain Hippocrene.", "When Bellerophon later went to fight the Chimera he sought to use Pegasus in the fight.", "In order to do this he slept in Minerva's temple, and she came to him with a golden bridle.", "When Pegasus saw Bellerophon with the bridle the horse immediately allowed Bellerophon to mount, and they defeated the Chimera.Painting of Minerva visiting the Muses=== Turning Aglauros to stone ===Metamorphoses by Ovid tell the story of Minerva and Aglauros.", "When Mercury comes to seduce mortal virgin Herse, her sister Aglauros is driven by her greed to help him.", "Minerva discovers this and is furious with Aglauros.", "She seeks the assistance of Envy, who fills Aglauros with so much envy for the good fortune of others that she turns to stone.", "Mercury fails to seduce Herse.=== Minerva and Hercules ===Minerva assisted the hero Hercules.", "In Hyginus' ''Fabulae'' she is said to have helped him kill the Hydra (30.3).=== Minerva and Ulysses ===Minerva assisted the hero Ulysses.", "Hyginus describes in his work ''Fabulae'' that Minerva changes Odysseus' appearance in order to protect and assist him multiple times (126).=== Inventing the flute ===Minerva is thought to have invented the flute by piercing holes into boxwood.", "She enjoyed the music, but became embarrassed by how it made her face look when her cheeks puffed out to play.", "Because of this she threw it away and it landed on a riverbank where it was found by a satyr." ], [ "Worship in Rome and Italy", "Fresco of Minerva (helmeted figure on right) from the Villa San Marco, Stabiae (1st century AD)Raised-relief image of Minerva on a Roman gilt silver bowl, first century BCTemple of Minerva in Sbeitla, TunisiaRoman baths in BathSilver denarius of the Roman Emperor Domitianus (Domitian) featuring Minerva, dated , IMP CAES DOMIT AVG GERM P M TR P VIIII, laureate head right; IMP XXI COS XV CENS P P P, Minerva standing left, holding spear and thunderbolt, shield resting against back of leg; References: BMC 167, RIC 691, RSC 260, Paris 159, Cohen 260The Romans celebrated her festival from March 19 to March 23 during the day that is called, in the neuter plural, Quinquatria, the fifth day after the Ides of March, the nineteenth, an artisans' holiday.", "This festival was of deepest importance to artists and craftsmen as she was the patron goddess of crafting and arts.", "According to Ovid (Fasti 3.809) the festival was 5 days long, and the first day was said to be the anniversary of Minerva's birth, so no blood was to be shed.", "The following four days were full of games of \"drawn swords\" in honour of Minerva's military association.", "Suetonius tells us (Life of Domitian 4.4) that Domitian celebrated the Quinquatria by appointing a college of priests who were to stage plays and animal games in addition to poetry and oratory competitions.", "A lesser version, the ''Minusculae Quinquatria'', was held on the Ides of June, June 13, by the flute-players, as Minerva was thought to have invented the flute.", "In 207 BC, a guild of poets and actors was formed to meet and make votive offerings at the temple of Minerva on the Aventine Hill.", "Among others, its members included Livius Andronicus.", "The Aventine sanctuary of Minerva continued to be an important center of the arts for much of the middle Roman Republic.As ''Minerva Medica'', she was the goddess of medicine and physicians.", "As ''Minerva Achaea'', she was worshipped at Lucera in Apulia where votive gifts and arms said to be those of Diomedes were preserved in her temple.According to the Acta Arvalia, a cow was sacrificed to Minerva on October 13 58 AD along with many other sacrifices to celebrate the anniversary of Nero coming to power.", "On January 3 81 AD, as a part of the New Year vows, two cows were sacrificed to Minerva (among many others) to secure the well-being of the emperor Titus, Domitian Caesar, Julia Augusta, and their children.", "On January 3 87 AD there is again record of a cow being sacrificed to Minerva among the many sacrifices made as a part of the New Year vows.In ''Fasti'' III, Ovid called her the \"goddess of a thousand works\" due to all of the things she was associated with.", "Minerva was worshipped throughout Italy, and when she eventually became equated with the Greek goddess Athena, she also became a goddess of battle.", "Unlike Mars, god of war, she was sometimes portrayed with sword lowered, in sympathy for the recent dead, rather than raised in triumph and battle lust.", "In Rome her bellicose nature was emphasized less than elsewhere.According to Livy's ''History of Rome'' (7.3), the annual nail marking the year, a process where the praetor maximus drove a nail in to formally keep track of the current year, happened in the temple of Minerva because she was thought to have invented numbers.There is archaeological evidence to suggest that Minerva was worshipped not only in a formal civic fashion, but also by individuals on a more personal level.===Roman coinage===Minerva is featured on the coinage of different Roman emperors.", "She often is represented on the reverse side of a coin holding an owl and a spear among her attributes." ], [ "Worship in Roman Britain", "During the Roman occupation of Britain, it was common for carpenters to own tools ornamented with images of Minerva to invoke a greater amount of protection from the goddess of crafts.", "Some women would also have images of her on accessories such as hairpins or jewellery.", "She was even featured on some funerary art on coffins and signet rings.=== Bath ===During Roman rule, Minerva became equated with the Celtic goddess Sulis, to the degree where their names were used both together and interchangeably.", "She was believed to preside over the healing hot springs located in Bath.", "Though Minerva is not a water deity, her association with intellectual professions as ''Minerva Medica'' she could also be thought of as a healing goddess, the epigraphic evidence present makes it clear that this is how Minerva was thought of in Bath.Some of the archaeological evidence present in Bath leads scholars to believe that it was thought Minerva could provide full healing from things such as rheumatism via the hot springs if she was given full credit for the healing.The temple of Sulis Minerva was known for having a miraculous altar-fire that burned coal as opposed to the traditional wood.=== Carrawburgh ===There is evidence of worship of Minerva Medica in Carrawburgh due to archaeological evidence such as a relief depicting her and Aesculapius.=== Chester ===There is a shrine dedicated to Minerva in Edgar's Field built in the face of a quarry next to the River Dee." ], [ "Etruscan Menrva", "Stemming from an Italic moon goddess ('She who measures'), the Etruscans adopted the inherited Old Latin name, , thereby calling her Menrva.", "It is presumed that her Roman name, Minerva, is based on this Etruscan mythology.", "Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, war, art, schools, justice and commerce.", "She was the Etruscan counterpart to Greek Athena.", "Like Athena, Minerva burst from the head of her father, Jupiter (Greek Zeus), who had devoured her mother (Metis) in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent her birth.By a process of folk etymology, the Romans could have linked her foreign name to the root ''men-'' in Latin words such as ''mens'' meaning \"mind\", perhaps because one of her aspects as goddess pertained to the intellectual.", "The word ''mens'' is built from the Proto-Indo-European root ''*men-'' 'mind' (linked with memory as in Greek Mnemosyne/μνημοσύνη and /μνῆστις: memory, remembrance, recollection, in Sanskrit meaning mind).The Etruscan Menrva was part of a holy triad with Tinia and Uni, equivalent to the Roman Capitoline Triad of Jupiter-Juno-Minerva." ], [ "Modern depictions and references of Minerva", "===Universities and educational establishments===As a patron goddess of wisdom, Minerva frequently features in statuary, as an image on seals, and in other forms at educational institutions.", "Listings of this can be found on Minerva in the emblems of educational establishments.===Societies and governments===Minerva as depicted on the United States Army Medal of Honor* The Seal of California depicts the Goddess Minerva.", "Her birth fully-grown parallels California becoming a state without first being a territory.", "* The U.S Military Medal of Honor for the Army, Navy/Marine Corps, and Coast Guard depicts Minerva in the center of it.", "The Air Force uses the head of the Statue of Liberty instead.", "* According to John Robison's ''Proofs of a Conspiracy'' (1798), the third degree of the Bavarian Illuminati was called ''Minerval'' or ''Brother of Minerva'', in honor of the goddess of learning.", "Later, this title was adopted for the first initiation of Aleister Crowley's OTO rituals.", "* Minerva Hospital for Women and Children is a first-class hospital in Chengdu, China.", "* The Max Planck Society, association of research institutes mainly in Germany.", "* Minerva appears in the logo of Federal University of Rio de Janeiro and other educational institutions in Brazil.===Public monuments, and places===Frans Floris, Minerva, The Phoebus FoundationElizabeth Carter portrayed as Minerva* A statue of Minerva is the center of the Pioneer Monument in San Francisco's Civic Center created by Frank Happersberger in 1894.", "* A small Roman shrine to Minerva stands in Handbridge, Chester.", "It sits in a public park, overlooking the River Dee.", "* An imposing bronze statue of Minerva stands on the rooftop of the Círculo de Bellas Artes, Madrid, Spain.", "* A statue to Minerva was designed by John Charles Felix Rossi to adorn the Town Hall of Liverpool, where it has stood since 1799.It remains extant and was restored as part of the 2014 renovations conducted by the city.", "* The Minerva Roundabout in Guadalajara, Mexico, located at the crossing of the López Mateos, Vallarta, López Cotilla, Agustín Yáñez, and Golfo de Cortez avenues, features the goddess standing on a pedestal, surrounded by a large fountain, with an inscription that says \"Justice, wisdom and strength guard this loyal city\".", "* A bronze statue of Minerva stands in Monument Square (Portland, Maine).", "\"Our Lady of Victories Monument\" dedicated in 1891, features a 14-feet-tall bronze figure by Franklin Simmons atop a granite pedestal with smaller bronze sculptures by Richard Morris Hunt.", "* A sculpture of Minerva by Andy Scott, known as the Briggate Minerva, stands outside Trinity Leeds shopping centre.", "* Minerva is displayed as a statue in Pavia, Italy, near the train station, and is considered as an important landmark in the city.", "* Minerva is displayed as a cast bronze statue in the Minneapolis Central Library, rendered in 1889 by Jakob Fjelde.", "* Minerva is displayed as a bronze statue in Frederick Ruckstull's 1920 ''Altar to Liberty: Minerva'' monument near the top of Battle Hill, the highest point of Brooklyn, New York, in Green-Wood Cemetery.", "* Minerva is displayed as an 11-ft statue in Jean-Antonin Carlès's 1895 \"James Gordon Bennett Memorial\" in New York City's Herald Square.", "* A statue of Minerva is displayed at Wells College outside of Main Building.", "Each year, the senior class decorates Minerva at the beginning of the fall semester.", "Minerva remains decorated throughout the school year; then during the morning of the last day of classes and after singing around the Sycamore tree, the senior class takes turns kissing the feet of Minerva, believed to be good luck and bring success and prosperity to all graduation seniors.", "* A statue of Minerva stands atop the Ballaarat Mechanics' Institute in Ballarat, Victoria, Australia.", "There is also a mosaic tile of Minerva in the foyer of the building as well as a whole theatre name after her, called the 'Minerva Space'.", "* A bronze statue of Minerva stands on the campus of The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina.", "It was commissioned in 2003 by the Class of 1953 and created by sculptor James Barnhill.", "* A statue of Minerva releasing an owl stands at Manderson Landing Park in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.", "The statue was gifted by the University of Alabama to the community in 2019 as a commemoration of the City of Tuscaloosa's bicentennial year.", "Minerva also features on the University of Alabama's seal.=== Literature ===She is remembered in ''De Mulieribus Claris'', a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 136162.It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature.", "Poet Elizabeth Carter is famously portrayed in an outfit inspired by Minerva, and also wrote poems in her honour." ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===** See page 1090" ], [ "External links", "* Roman Mythology* The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Minerva)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mars Direct" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mars Direct''' is a proposal for a human mission to Mars which purports to be both cost-effective and possible with current technology.", "It was originally detailed in a research paper by Martin Marietta engineers Robert Zubrin and David Baker in 1990, and later expanded upon in Zubrin's 1996 book ''The Case for Mars''.", "It now serves as a staple of Zubrin's speaking engagements and general advocacy as head of the Mars Society, an organization devoted to the colonization of Mars.Artist depiction of the Habitat Unit and the Earth Return Vehicle on Mars." ], [ "History", "===Space Exploration Initiative===On July 20, 1989, US President George H. W. Bush announced plans for what came to be known as the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI).", "In a speech on the steps of the National Air and Space Museum he described long-term plans which would culminate in a human mission to the surface of Mars.By December 1990, a study to estimate the project's cost determined that long-term expenditure would total approximately 450 billion dollars spread over 20 to 30 years.", "The \"90 Day Study\" as it came to be known (also “90 Day Report” from people such as Zubrin), evoked a hostile Congressional reaction towards SEI given that it would have required the largest single government expenditure since World War II.", "Within a year, all funding requests for SEI had been denied.Dan Goldin became NASA Administrator on April 1, 1992, officially abandoning plans for near-term human exploration beyond Earth orbit with the shift towards a \"faster, better, cheaper\" strategy for robotic exploration.===Development===While working at Martin Marietta designing interplanetary mission architectures, Robert Zubrin perceived a fundamental flaw in the SEI program.", "Zubrin came to understand that if NASA's plan was to fully utilize as many technologies as possible in support of sending the mission to Mars, it would become politically untenable.", "In his own words:The exact opposite of the correct way to do engineering.Zubrin's alternative to this \"Battlestar Galactica\" mission strategy (dubbed so by its detractors for the large, nuclear powered spaceships that supposedly resembled the science-fiction spaceship of the same name) involved a longer surface stay, a faster flight-path in the form of a conjunction class mission, in situ resource utilization and craft launched directly from the surface of Earth to Mars as opposed to be being assembled in orbit or by a space-based drydock.", "After receiving approval from management at Marietta, a 12-man team within the company began to work out the details of the mission.", "While they focused primarily on more traditional mission architectures, Zubrin began to collaborate with colleague David Baker's extremely simple, stripped-down and robust strategy.", "Their goal to \"use local resources, travel light, and live off the land\" became the hallmark of Mars Direct." ], [ "Mission scenario", "===First launch===The first flight of the Ares rocket (not to be confused with the similarly named rocket of the now defunct Constellation program) would take an uncrewed '''Earth Return Vehicle''' to Mars after a 6-month cruise phase, with a supply of hydrogen, a chemical plant and a small nuclear reactor.", "Once there, a series of chemical reactions (the Sabatier reaction coupled with electrolysis) would be used to combine a small amount of hydrogen (8 tons) carried by the ''Earth Return Vehicle'' with the carbon dioxide of the Martian atmosphere to create up to 112 tonnes of methane and oxygen.", "This relatively simple chemical-engineering procedure was used regularly in the 19th and 20th centuries, and would ensure that only 7% of the return propellant would need to be carried to the surface of Mars.96 tonnes of methane and oxygen would be needed to send the ''Earth Return Vehicle'' on a trajectory back home at the conclusion of the surface stay; the rest would be available for Mars rovers.", "The process of generating fuel is expected to require approximately ten months to complete.===Second launch===Some 26 months after the ''Earth Return Vehicle'' is originally launched from Earth, a second vehicle, the '''Mars Habitat Unit''', would be launched on a 6-month long low-energy transfer trajectory to Mars, and would carry a crew of four astronauts (the minimum number required so that the team can be split in two without leaving anyone alone).", "The Habitat Unit would not be launched until the automated factory aboard the ERV had signaled the successful production of chemicals required for operation on the planet and the return trip to Earth.", "During the trip, artificial gravity would be generated by tethering the Habitat Unit to the spent upper stage of the booster, and setting them rotating about a common axis.", "This rotation would produce a comfortable 1 ''g'' working environment for the astronauts, freeing them of the debilitating effects of long-term exposure to weightlessness.====Landing and surface operations====Upon reaching Mars, the upper stage would be jettisoned, with the Habitat Unit aerobraking into Mars orbit before soft-landing in proximity to the ''Earth Return Vehicle''.", "Precise landing would be supported by a radar beacon started by the first lander.", "Once on Mars, the crew would spend 18 months on the surface, carrying out a range of scientific research, aided by a small rover vehicle carried aboard their Mars Habitat Unit, and powered by the methane produced by the Earth Return Vehicle.====Return and follow-up missions====To return, the crew would use the ''Earth Return Vehicle'', leaving the Mars Habitat Unit for the possible use of subsequent explorers.", "On the return trip to Earth, the propulsion stage of the Earth Return Vehicle would be used as a counterweight to generate artificial gravity for the trip back.Follow-up missions would be dispatched at 2 year intervals to Mars to ensure that a redundant ERV would be on the surface at all times, waiting to be used by the next crewed mission or the current crew in an emergency.", "In such an emergency scenario, the crew would trek hundreds of kilometers to the other ERV in their long-range vehicle." ], [ "Components", "The Mars Direct proposal includes a component for a Launch Vehicle \"Ares\", an Earth Return Vehicle (ERV) and a Mars Habitat Unit (MHU).===Launch Vehicle===The plan involves several launches making use of heavy-lift boosters of similar size to the Saturn V used for the Apollo missions, which would potentially be derived from Space Shuttle components.", "This proposed rocket is dubbed \"Ares\", which would use space shuttle Advanced Solid Rocket Boosters, a modified shuttle external tank, and a new Lox/LH2 third stage for the trans-Mars injection of the payload.", "Ares would put 121 tonnes into a 300 km circular orbit, and boost 47 tonnes toward Mars.===Earth Return Vehicle===The Earth Return Vehicle is a two-stage vehicle.", "The upper stage comprises the living accommodation for the crew during their six-month return trip to Earth from Mars.", "The lower stage contains the vehicle's rocket engines and a small chemical production plant.===Mars Habitat Unit===The Mars Habitat Unit is a 2- or 3-deck vehicle providing a comprehensive living and working environment for a Mars crew.", "In addition to individual sleeping quarters which provide a degree of privacy for each of the crew and a place for personal effects, the Mars Habitat Unit includes a communal living area, a small galley, exercise area, and hygiene facilities with closed-cycle water purification.", "The lower deck of the Mars Habitat Unit provides the primary working space for the crew: small laboratory areas for carrying out geology and life science research; storage space for samples, airlocks for reaching the surface of Mars, and a suiting-up area where crew members prepare for surface operations.", "Protection from harmful radiation while in space and on the surface of Mars (e.g.", "from solar flares) would be provided by a dedicated \"storm shelter\" in the core of the vehicle.The Mars Habitat Unit would also include a small pressurized rover that is stored in the lower deck area and assembled on the surface of Mars.", "Powered by a methane engine, it is designed to extend the range over which astronauts can explore the surface of Mars out to 320 km.Since it was first proposed as a part of Mars Direct, the Mars Habitat Unit has been adopted by NASA as a part of their Mars Design Reference Mission, which uses two Mars Habitat Units – one of which flies to Mars uncrewed, providing a dedicated laboratory facility on Mars, together with the capacity to carry a larger rover vehicle.", "The second Mars Habitat Unit flies to Mars with the crew, its interior given over completely to living and storage space.To prove the viability of the Mars Habitat Unit, the Mars Society has implemented the Mars Analogue Research Station Program (MARS), which has established a number of prototype Mars Habitat Units around the world." ], [ "Reception", "Baker pitched Mars Direct at the Marshall Spaceflight Center in April 1990, where reception was very positive.", "The engineers flew around the country to present their plan, which generated significant interest.", "When their tour culminated in a demonstration at the National Space Society they received a standing ovation.", "The plan gained rapid media attention shortly afterwards.Resistance to the plan came from teams within NASA working on the Space Station and advanced propulsion concepts.", "The NASA administration rejected Mars Direct.", "Zubrin remained committed to the strategy, and after parting with David Baker attempted to convince the new NASA administration of Mars Direct's merits in 1992.After being granted a small research fund at Martin Marietta, Zubrin and his colleagues successfully demonstrated an in-situ propellant generator which achieved an efficiency of 94%.", "No chemical engineers partook in the development of the demonstration hardware.", "After showing the positive results to the Johnson Space Center, the NASA administration still held several reservations about the plan.In November 2003, Zubrin was invited to speak to the U.S. Senate committee on the future of space exploration.", "Two months later the Bush administration announced the creation of the Constellation program, a human spaceflight initiative with the goal of sending humans to the Moon by 2020.While a Mars mission was not specifically detailed, a plan to reach Mars based on utilizing the Orion spacecraft was tentatively developed for implementation in the 2030s.", "In 2009 the Obama administration began a review of the Constellation program, and after budgetary concerns the program was cancelled in 2010.There are a variety of psychological and sociological issues that could affect long-duration expeditionary space missions.", "Early human spaceflight missions to Mars are expected by some to have significant psycho-social problems to overcome, as well as provide considerable data for refining mission design, mission planning, and crew selection for future missions." ], [ "Revisions", "Since Mars Direct was initially conceived, it has undergone regular review and development by Zubrin himself, the Mars Society, NASA, Stanford University and others.===Mars Semi-Direct===Artist's rendering of Mars Semi-Direct/DRA 1.0: The Manned Habitat Unit is \"docked\" alongside a pre placed habitat that was sent ahead of the Earth Return Vehicle.Zubrin and Weaver developed a modified version of Mars Direct, called Mars Semi-Direct, in response to some specific criticisms.", "This mission consists of three spacecraft and includes a \"Mars Ascent Vehicle\" (MAV).", "The ERV remains in Mars orbit for the return journey, while the uncrewed MAV lands and manufactures propellants for the ascent back up to Mars orbit.", "The Mars Semi-Direct architecture has been used as the basis of a number of studies, including the NASA Design Reference Missions.When subjected to the same cost-analysis as the 90-day report, Mars Semi-Direct was predicted to cost 55 billion dollars over 10 years, capable of fitting into the existing NASA budget.Mars Semi-Direct became the basis of the Design Reference Mission 1.0 of NASA, replacing the Space Exploration Initiative.===Design Reference Mission===The NASA model, referred to as the Design Reference Mission, on version 5.0 as of September 1, 2012, calls for a significant upgrade in hardware (at least three launches per mission, rather than two), and sends the ERV to Mars fully fueled, parking it in orbit above the planet for subsequent rendezvous with the MAV.===Mars Direct and SpaceX===With the potentially imminent advent of low-cost heavy lift capability, Zubrin has posited a dramatically lower cost human Mars mission using hardware developed by space transport company SpaceX.", "In this simpler plan, a crew of two would be sent to Mars by a single Falcon Heavy launch, the Dragon spacecraft acting as their interplanetary cruise habitat.", "Additional living space for the journey would be enabled through the use of inflatable add-on modules if required.", "The problems associated with long-term weightlessness would be addressed in the same manner as the baseline Mars Direct plan, a tether between the Dragon habitat and the TMI (Trans-Mars Injection) stage acting to allow rotation of the craft.The Dragon's heatshield characteristics could allow for a safe descent if landing rockets of sufficient power were made available.", "Research at NASA's Ames Research Center has demonstrated that a robotic Dragon would be capable of a fully propulsive landing on the Martian surface.", "On the surface, the crew would have at their disposal two Dragon spacecraft with inflatable modules as habitats, two ERVs, two Mars ascent vehicles and 8 tonnes of cargo.===Other Studies===The Mars Society and Stanford studies retain the original two-vehicle mission profile of Mars Direct, but increase the crew size to six.Mars Society Australia developed their own four-person ''Mars Oz'' reference mission, based on Mars Semi-Direct.", "This study uses horizontally landing, bent biconic shaped modules, and relies on solar power and chemical propulsion throughout, where Mars Direct and the DRMs used nuclear reactors for surface power and, in the case of the DRMs for propulsion as well.", "The Mars Oz reference mission also differs in assuming, based on space station experience, that spin gravity will not be required." ], [ "Mars Analogue Research Stations", "The Mars Society has argued the viability of the Mars Habitat Unit concept through their Mars Analogue Research Station program.", "These are two or three decked vertical cylinders ~8 m in diameter and 8 m high.", "Mars Society Australia plans to build its own station based on the Mars Oz design.", "The Mars Oz design features a horizontal cylinder 4.7 m in diameter and 18 m long, with a tapered nose.", "A second similar module will function as a garage and power and logistics module.Mars Direct was featured on a Discovery Channel programs ''Mars: The Next Frontier'' in which issues were discussed surrounding NASA funding of the project, and on ''Mars Underground'', where the plan is discussed more in-depth." ], [ "Alternatives", "\"Mars to Stay\" proposals involve not returning the first immigrant/explorers immediately, or ever.", "It has been suggested the cost of sending a four or six person team could be one fifth to one tenth the cost of returning that same four or six person team.", "Depending on the precise approach taken, a quite complete lab could be sent and landed for less than the cost of sending back even 50 kilos of Martian rocks.", "Twenty or more persons could be sent for the cost of returning four." ], [ "In fiction", "* Mars Direct is the mission mode used in Gregory Benford's novel ''The Martian Race'', Geoffrey A. Landis's novel ''Mars Crossing'', Larry Niven's novel ''Rainbow Mars'', Robert M. Blevins' novel ''The 13th Day of Christmas'', as well as Zubrin's own novel, ''First Landing''.", "* Mars Direct forms the basis for the 2000 film ''Mission to Mars''.", "* In the ''Futurama'' episode \"The Luck of the Fryrish\", a short clip shows the first man on Mars with a spacecraft that resembles the Mars Habitat Unit.", "* In the ''West Wing'' episode \"The Warfare of Genghis Khan\", a NASA staffer describes Mars Direct to the skeptical White House Deputy Chief of Staff Josh Lyman and is able to convince him of its merit.", "*Both Mars Direct and Mars for Less concepts figure prominently in Brian Enke's 2005 novel, ''Shadows of Medusa''." ], [ "See also", "* * * * List of crewed Mars mission plans*" ], [ "References", ";Further reading*Zubrin, Baker.", "(1990).", "\"Mars Direct, Humans to the Red Planet by 1999.\"", "41st Congress of the International Astronautical Federation" ], [ "External links", "* The Mars Society" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Max Planck" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck''' (, ; 23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a German theoretical physicist whose discovery of energy quanta won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.Planck made many substantial contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame as a physicist rests primarily on his role as the originator of quantum theory, which revolutionized human understanding of atomic and subatomic processes.", "He is known for Planck's constant, which is of foundational importance for quantum physics, and which he used to derive a set of units, today called Planck units, expressed only in terms of fundamental physical constants.Planck was twice president of the German scientific institution Kaiser Wilhelm Society.", "In 1948, it was renamed the Max Planck Society (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft) and nowadays includes 83 institutions representing a wide range of scientific directions." ], [ "Life and career", "Planck came from a traditional, intellectual family.", "His paternal great-grandfather and grandfather were both theology professors in Göttingen; his father was a law professor at the University of Kiel and Munich.", "One of his uncles was also a judge.Planck was born in 1858 in Kiel, Holstein, to Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck and his second wife, Emma Patzig.", "He was baptized with the name of ''Karl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck''; of his given names, ''Marx'' was indicated as the \"appellation name\".", "However, by the age of ten he signed with the name ''Max'' and used this for the rest of his life.He was the sixth child in the family, though two of his siblings were from his father's first marriage.", "War was common during Planck's early years and among his earliest memories was the marching of Prussian and Austrian troops into Kiel during the Second Schleswig War in 1864.In 1867 the family moved to Munich, and Planck enrolled in the Maximilians gymnasium school, where he came under the tutelage of Hermann Müller, a mathematician who took an interest in the youth, and taught him astronomy and mechanics as well as mathematics.", "It was from Müller that Planck first learned the principle of conservation of energy.", "Planck graduated early, at age 17.This is how Planck first came in contact with the field of physics.Planck was gifted when it came to music.", "He took singing lessons and played piano, organ and cello, and composed songs and operas.", "However, instead of music he chose to study physics.Planck circa 1910The Munich physics professor Philipp von Jolly advised Planck against going into physics, saying, \"In this field, almost everything is already discovered, and all that remains is to fill a few holes.\"", "Planck replied that he did not wish to discover new things, but only to understand the known fundamentals of the field, and so began his studies in 1874 at the University of Munich.", "Under Jolly's supervision, Planck performed the only experiments of his scientific career, studying the diffusion of hydrogen through heated platinum, but transferred to theoretical physics.In 1877, he went to the Friedrich Wilhelms University in Berlin for a year of study with physicists Hermann von Helmholtz and Gustav Kirchhoff and mathematician Karl Weierstrass.", "He wrote that Helmholtz was never quite prepared, spoke slowly, miscalculated endlessly, and bored his listeners, while Kirchhoff spoke in carefully prepared lectures which were dry and monotonous.", "He soon became close friends with Helmholtz.", "While there he undertook a program of mostly self-study of Clausius's writings, which led him to choose thermodynamics as his field.In October 1878, Planck passed his qualifying exams and in February 1879 defended his dissertation ''Über den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie'' (''On the Second Law of Mechanical Heat Theory'').", "He briefly taught mathematics and physics at his former school in Munich.By the year 1880, Planck had obtained the two highest academic degrees offered in Europe.", "The first was a doctorate degree after he completed his paper detailing his research and theory of thermodynamics.", "He then presented his thesis called ''Gleichgewichtszustände isotroper Körper in verschiedenen Temperaturen'' (''Equilibrium states of isotropic bodies at different temperatures''), which earned him a habilitation.=== Academic career ===With the completion of his habilitation thesis, Planck became an unpaid Privatdozent (German academic rank comparable to lecturer/assistant professor) in Munich, waiting until he was offered an academic position.", "Although he was initially ignored by the academic community, he furthered his work on the field of heat theory and discovered one after another the same thermodynamical formalism as Gibbs without realizing it.", "Clausius's ideas on entropy occupied a central role in his work.In April 1885, the University of Kiel appointed Planck as associate professor of theoretical physics.", "Further work on entropy and its treatment, especially as applied in physical chemistry, followed.", "He published his ''Treatise on Thermodynamics'' in 1897.He proposed a thermodynamic basis for Svante Arrhenius's theory of electrolytic dissociation.In 1889, he was named the successor to Kirchhoff's position at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin – presumably thanks to Helmholtz's intercession – and by 1892 became a full professor.", "In 1907 Planck was offered Boltzmann's position in Vienna, but turned it down to stay in Berlin.", "During 1909, as a University of Berlin professor, he was invited to become the Ernest Kempton Adams Lecturer in Theoretical Physics at Columbia University in New York City.", "A series of his lectures were translated and co-published by Columbia University professor A. P. Wills.", "He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1914.He retired from Berlin on 10 January 1926, and was succeeded by Erwin Schrödinger.", "He was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1926 and the American Philosophical Society in 1933.=== Family ===In March 1887, Planck married Marie Merck (1861–1909), sister of a school fellow, and moved with her into a sublet apartment in Kiel.", "They had four children: Karl (1888–1916), the twins Emma (1889–1919) and Grete (1889–1917), and Erwin (1893–1945).After the apartment in Berlin, the Planck family lived in a villa in Berlin-Grunewald, Wangenheimstrasse 21.Several other professors from University of Berlin lived nearby, among them theologian Adolf von Harnack, who became a close friend of Planck.", "Soon the Planck home became a social and cultural center.", "Numerous well-known scientists, such as Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner were frequent visitors.", "The tradition of jointly performing music had already been established in the home of Helmholtz.After several happy years, in July 1909 Marie Planck died, possibly from tuberculosis.", "In March 1911 Planck married his second wife, Marga von Hoesslin (1882–1948); in December his fifth child Hermann was born.During the First World War Planck's second son Erwin was taken prisoner by the French in 1914, while his oldest son Karl was killed in action at Verdun.", "Grete died in 1917 while giving birth to her first child.", "Her sister died the same way two years later, after having married Grete's widower.", "Both granddaughters survived and were named after their mothers.", "Planck endured these losses stoically.In January 1945, Erwin, to whom he had been particularly close, was sentenced to death by the Nazi Volksgerichtshof because of his participation in the failed attempt to assassinate Hitler in July 1944.Erwin was executed on 23 January 1945.=== Professor at Berlin University ===As a professor at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin, Planck joined the local Physical Society.", "He later wrote about this time: \"In those days I was essentially the only theoretical physicist there, whence things were not so easy for me, because I started mentioning entropy, but this was not quite fashionable, since it was regarded as a mathematical spook\".", "Thanks to his initiative, the various local Physical Societies of Germany merged in 1898 to form the German Physical Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG); from 1905 to 1909 Planck was the president.Plaque at the Humboldt University of Berlin: \"Max Planck, discoverer of the elementary quantum of action ''h'', taught in this building from 1889 to 1928.", "\"Planck started a six-semester course of lectures on theoretical physics, \"dry, somewhat impersonal\" according to Lise Meitner, \"using no notes, never making mistakes, never faltering; the best lecturer I ever heard\" according to an English participant, James R. Partington, who continues: \"There were always many standing around the room.", "As the lecture-room was well heated and rather close, some of the listeners would from time to time drop to the floor, but this did not disturb the lecture.\"", "Planck did not establish an actual \"school\"; the number of his graduate students was only about 20, among them:*1897 Max Abraham (1875–1922)*1903 Max von Laue (1879–1960)*1904 Moritz Schlick (1882–1936)*1906 Walther Meissner (1882–1974)*1907 Fritz Reiche (1883–1960)*1912 Walter Schottky (1886–1976)*1914 Walther Bothe (1891–1957)=== Black-body radiation ===In 1894, Planck turned his attention to the problem of black-body radiation.", "The problem had been stated by Kirchhoff in 1859: \"how does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body (a perfect absorber, also known as a cavity radiator) depend on the frequency of the radiation (i.e., the color of the light) and the temperature of the body?\".", "The question had been explored experimentally, but no theoretical treatment had agreed with the experimentally observed evidence.", "Wilhelm Wien proposed Wien's law, which correctly predicted the behaviour at high frequencies, but failed at low frequencies.", "The Rayleigh–Jeans law, another approach to the problem, agreed with experimental results at low frequencies, but created what was later known as the \"ultraviolet catastrophe\" at high frequencies, as predicted by classical physics.", "However, contrary to many textbooks, this was not a motivation for Planck.Planck's first proposed solution to the problem in 1899 followed from what he called the \"principle of elementary disorder\", which allowed him to derive Wien's law from a number of assumptions about the entropy of an ideal oscillator, creating what was referred to as the Wien–Planck law.", "Soon, however, it was found that experimental evidence did not confirm the new law at all, to Planck's frustration.", "He revised his approach and now derived the first version of the famous Planck black-body radiation law, which described clearly the experimentally observed black-body spectrum.", "It was first proposed in a meeting of the DPG on 19 October 1900 and published in 1901.", "(This first derivation did not include energy quantisation, and did not use statistical mechanics, to which he held an aversion.)", "In November 1900 Planck revised this first version, now relying on Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics as a way of gaining a more fundamental understanding of the principles behind his radiation law.", "Planck was deeply suspicious of the philosophical and physical implications of such an interpretation of Boltzmann's approach; thus his recourse to them was, as he later put it, \"an act of despair ...", "I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics\".The central assumption behind his new derivation, presented to the DPG on 14 December 1900, was the supposition, now known as the Planck postulate, that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form, in other words, the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit::where is Planck's constant, also known as Planck's action quantum (introduced already in 1899), and is the frequency of the radiation.", "Note that the elementary units of energy discussed here are represented by and not simply by .", "Physicists now call these quanta photons, and a photon of frequency will have its own specific and unique energy.", "The total energy at that frequency is then equal to multiplied by the number of photons at that frequency.Planck in 1918, the year he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on quantum theoryAt first Planck considered that quantisation was only \"a purely formal assumption ... actually I did not think much about it ...\"; nowadays this assumption, incompatible with classical physics, is regarded as the birth of quantum physics and the greatest intellectual accomplishment of Planck's career.", "(Ludwig Boltzmann had been discussing in a theoretical paper in 1877 the possibility that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete).", "The discovery of Planck's constant enabled him to define a new universal set of physical units (such as the Planck length and the Planck mass), all based on fundamental physical constants upon which much of quantum theory is based.", "In a discussion with his son in December 1918 Planck described his discovery as ‘a discovery of the first rank, comparable perhaps only to the discoveries of Newton’.", "In recognition of Planck's fundamental contribution to a new branch of physics, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918; (he only received the award in 1919).", "Subsequently, Planck tried to grasp the meaning of energy quanta, but to no avail.", "\"My unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble.\"", "Even several years later, other physicists such as Rayleigh, Jeans, and Lorentz set Planck's constant to zero in order to align with classical physics, but Planck knew well that this constant had a precise nonzero value.", "\"I am unable to understand Jeans' stubbornness – he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing, the same as Hegel was for philosophy.", "So much the worse for the facts if they don't fit.", "\"Max Born wrote about Planck: \"He was, by nature, a conservative mind; he had nothing of the revolutionary and was thoroughly skeptical about speculations.", "Yet his belief in the compelling force of logical reasoning from facts was so strong that he did not flinch from announcing the most revolutionary idea which ever has shaken physics.", "\"=== Einstein and the theory of relativity ===In 1905, the three epochal papers by Albert Einstein were published in the journal ''Annalen der Physik''.", "Planck was among the few who immediately recognized the significance of the special theory of relativity.", "Thanks to his influence, this theory was soon widely accepted in Germany.", "Planck also contributed considerably to extend the special theory of relativity.", "For example, he recast the theory in terms of classical action.Einstein's hypothesis of light ''quanta'' (photons), based on Heinrich Hertz's 1887 discovery (and further investigation by Philipp Lenard) of the photoelectric effect, was initially rejected by Planck.", "He was unwilling to discard completely Maxwell's theory of electrodynamics.", "\"The theory of light would be thrown back not by decades, but by centuries, into the age when Christiaan Huygens dared to fight against the mighty emission theory of Isaac Newton ...\"In 1910, Einstein pointed out the anomalous behavior of specific heat at low temperatures as another example of a phenomenon which defies explanation by classical physics.", "Planck and Nernst, seeking to clarify the increasing number of contradictions, organized the First Solvay Conference (Brussels 1911).", "At this meeting Einstein was able to convince Planck.Meanwhile, Planck had been appointed dean of Berlin University, whereby it was possible for him to call Einstein to Berlin and establish a new professorship for him (1914).", "Soon the two scientists became close friends and met frequently to play music together.=== First World War ===At the onset of the First World War Planck endorsed the general excitement of the public, writing that, \"Besides much that is horrible, there is also much that is unexpectedly great and beautiful: the smooth solution of the most difficult domestic political problems by the unification of all parties (and) ... the extolling of everything good and noble.\"", "Planck also signed the infamous \"Manifesto of the 93 intellectuals\", a pamphlet of polemic war propaganda (while Einstein retained a strictly pacifistic attitude which almost led to his imprisonment, only being spared thanks to his Swiss citizenship).In 1915, when Italy was still a neutral power, Planck voted successfully for a scientific paper from Italy, which received a prize from the Prussian Academy of Sciences, where Planck was one of four permanent presidents.=== Post-war and the Weimar Republic ===In the turbulent post-war years, Planck, now the highest authority of German physics, issued the slogan \"persevere and continue working\" to his colleagues.In October 1920, he and Fritz Haber established the ''Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft'' (Emergency Organization of German Science), aimed at providing financial support for scientific research.", "A considerable portion of the money the organization would distribute was raised abroad.Planck held leading positions at Berlin University, the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the German Physical Society, and the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (which became the Max Planck Society in 1948).", "During this time economic conditions in Germany were such that he was hardly able to conduct research.", "In 1926, Planck became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.During the interwar period, Planck became a member of the Deutsche Volks-Partei (German People's Party), the party of Nobel Peace Prize laureate Gustav Stresemann, which aspired to liberal aims for domestic policy and rather revisionistic aims for politics around the world.Planck disagreed with the introduction of universal suffrage and later expressed the view that the Nazi dictatorship resulted from \"the ascent of the rule of the crowds\".=== Quantum mechanics ===W.", "Nernst, A. Einstein, Planck, R. A. Millikan, and von Laue at a dinner given by von Laue in Berlin on 11 November 1931At the end of the 1920s, Bohr, Heisenberg, and Pauli had worked out the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, but it was rejected by Planck, and by Schrödinger, Laue, and Einstein as well.", "Planck expected that wave mechanics would soon render quantum theory his own child unnecessary.", "This was not to be the case, however.", "Further work only served to underscore the enduring central importance of quantum theory, even against his and Einstein's philosophical revulsions.", "Here Planck experienced the truth of his own earlier observation from his struggle with the older views during his younger years: \"A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it.", "\"=== Nazi dictatorship and the Second World War ===When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Planck was 74 years old.", "He witnessed many Jewish friends and colleagues expelled from their positions and humiliated, and hundreds of scientists emigrate from Nazi Germany.", "Again he tried to \"persevere and continue working\" and asked scientists who were considering emigration to remain in Germany.", "Nevertheless, he did help his nephew, the economist Hermann Kranold, to emigrate to London after his arrest.", "He hoped the crisis would abate soon and the political situation would improve.Otto Hahn asked Planck to gather well-known German professors in order to issue a public proclamation against the treatment of Jewish professors, but Planck replied, \"If you are able to gather today 30 such gentlemen, then tomorrow 150 others will come and speak against it, because they are eager to take over the positions of the others.\"", "Under Planck's leadership, the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (KWG) avoided open conflict with the Nazi regime, except concerning the Jewish Fritz Haber.", "In May of 1933 Planck requested and received an interview with the recently appointed Chancellor of Germany Adolf Hitler to discuss the issue, telling him that the \"forced immigration of Jews would kill German science and Jews could be good Germans,\" to which the chancellor replied \"but we don't have anything against the Jews, only against communists.\"", "Planck was therefore unsuccessful, since this reply \"took from him every basis for further negotiation,\" as to Hitler \"the Jews are all Communists, and these are my enemies.\"", "In the following year, 1934, Haber died in exile.One year later, Planck, having been the president of the KWG since 1930, organized in a somewhat provocative style an official commemorative meeting for Haber.", "He also succeeded in secretly enabling a number of Jewish scientists to continue working in institutes of the KWG for several years.", "In 1936, his term as president of the KWG ended, and the Nazi government pressured him to refrain from seeking another term.As the political climate in Germany gradually became more hostile, Johannes Stark, prominent exponent of Deutsche Physik (\"German Physics\", also called \"Aryan Physics\") attacked Planck, Sommerfeld, and Heisenberg for continuing to teach the theories of Einstein, calling them \"white Jews\".", "The \"Hauptamt Wissenschaft\" (Nazi government office for science) started an investigation of Planck's ancestry, claiming that he was \"1/16 Jewish\", but Planck denied it.In 1938, Planck celebrated his 80th birthday.", "The DPG held a celebration, during which the Max-Planck medal (founded as the highest medal by the DPG in 1928) was awarded to French physicist Louis de Broglie.", "At the end of 1938, the Prussian Academy lost its remaining independence and was taken over by Nazis (''Gleichschaltung'').", "Planck protested by resigning his presidency.", "He continued to travel frequently, giving numerous public talks, such as his talk on Religion and Science, and five years later he was sufficiently fit to climb 3,000-metre peaks in the Alps.During the Second World War the increasing number of Allied bombing missions against Berlin forced Planck and his wife to temporarily leave the city and live in the countryside.", "In 1942, he wrote: \"In me an ardent desire has grown to persevere this crisis and live long enough to be able to witness the turning point, the beginning of a new rise.\"", "In February 1944, his home in Berlin was completely destroyed by an air raid, annihilating all his scientific records and correspondence.", "His rural retreat was threatened by the rapid advance of the Allied armies from both sides.In 1944, Planck's son Erwin was arrested by the Gestapo following the attempted assassination of Hitler in the .", "He was tried and sentenced to death by the People's Court in October 1944.Erwin was hanged at Berlin's Plötzensee Prison in January 1945.The death of his son destroyed much of Planck's will to live.", "Planck's grave in GöttingenAfter the war ended, Planck, his second wife, and their son were brought to a relative in Göttingen, where Planck died on October 4, 1947.His grave is situated in the old Stadtfriedhof (City Cemetery) in Göttingen." ], [ "Religious views", "Planck was a member of the Lutheran Church in Germany.", "He was very tolerant toward alternative views and religions.In a lecture in 1937 entitled \"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\" (\"Religion and Natural Science\") he suggested the importance of these symbols and rituals related directly with a believer's ability to worship God, but that one must be mindful that the symbols provide an imperfect illustration of divinity.", "He criticized atheism for being focused on the derision of such symbols, while at the same time warned of the over-estimation of the importance of such symbols by believers.Planck was tolerant and favorable to all religions.", "Although he remained in the Lutheran Church, he did not promote Christian or Biblical views.", "He believed \"the faith in miracles must yield, step by step, before the steady and firm advance of the facts of science, and its total defeat is undoubtedly a matter of time.", "\"In \"Religion und Naturwissenschaft\", Planck expressed the view that God is present everywhere, and he held that \"the holiness of the unintelligible Godhead is conveyed by the holiness of symbols.\"", "Atheists, he thought, attach too much importance to what are merely symbols.", "He was a churchwarden from 1920 until his death, and believed in an almighty, all-knowing, beneficent God (although not necessarily a personal one).", "Both science and religion wage a \"tireless battle against skepticism and dogmatism, against unbelief and superstition\" with the goal \"toward God!", "\"Planck said in 1944, \"As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a result of my research about atoms this much: There is no matter as such.", "All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particle of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the atom together.", "We must assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent spirit orig.", "''geist''.", "This spirit is the matrix of all matter.", "\"Planck argued that the concept of God is important to both religion and science, but in different ways: \"Both religion and science require a belief in God.", "For believers, God is in the beginning, and for physicists He is at the end of all considerations … To the former He is the foundation, to the latter, the crown of the edifice of every generalized world view\".Furthermore, Planck wrote, ...\"to believe\" means \"to recognize as a truth\", and the knowledge of nature, continually advancing on incontestably safe tracks, has made it utterly impossible for a person possessing some training in natural science to recognize as founded on truth the many reports of extraordinary occurrences contradicting the laws of nature, of miracles which are still commonly regarded as essential supports and confirmations of religious doctrines, and which formerly used to be accepted as facts pure and simple, without doubt or criticism.", "The belief in miracles must retreat step by step before relentlessly and reliably progressing science and we cannot doubt that sooner or later it must vanish completely.Noted historian of science John L. Heilbron characterized Planck's views on God as deistic.", "Heilbron further relates that when asked about his religious affiliation, Planck replied that although he had always been deeply religious, he did not believe \"in a personal God, let alone a Christian God.\"" ], [ "Publications", "''Vorlesungen über die Theorie der Wärmestrahlung'', 1906* Translated in * Translated in *** Translated in ******" ], [ "See also", "*List of things named after Max Planck*German inventors and discoverers*Photon polarization*Statue of Max Planck*Zero-point energy" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Aczel, Amir D. ''Entanglement'', Chapter 4.", "(Penguin, 2003) * * Pickover, Clifford A.", "''Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them'', Oxford University Press, 2008, * * Rosenthal-Schneider, Ilse ''Reality and Scientific Truth: Discussions with Einstein, von Laue, and Planck'' (Wayne State University, 1980)" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Annotated bibliography for Max Planck from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues* Max Planck – Encyclopædia Britannica article* Max Planck Biography – www.nobel-prize-winners.com* Max Planck Institutes of Natural Science and Astrophysics* Max Planck – Selbstdarstellung im Filmportrait (1942), Cinematic self-portrait of Max Planck, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1942* including the Nobel Lecture, 2 June 1920 ''The Genesis and Present State of Development of the Quantum Theory''* Life–Work–Personality – Exhibition on the 50th anniversary of Planck's death*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "March 30" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 598 – Balkan Campaign: The Avars lift the siege at the Byzantine stronghold of Tomis.", "Their leader Bayan I retreats north of the Danube River after the Avaro-Slavic hordes are decimated by the plague.", "*1282 – The people of Sicily rebel against the Angevin king Charles I, in what becomes known as the Sicilian Vespers.", "*1296 – Edward I sacks Berwick-upon-Tweed, during armed conflict between Scotland and England.===1601–1900===*1699 – Guru Gobind Singh establishes the Khalsa in Anandpur Sahib, Punjab.", "*1815 – Joachim Murat issues the Rimini Proclamation, among the earliest calls for Italian unification.", "*1818 – Physicist Augustin Fresnel reads a memoir on optical rotation to the French Academy of Sciences, reporting that when polarized light is \"depolarized\" by a Fresnel rhomb, its properties are preserved in any subsequent passage through an optically-rotating crystal or liquid.", "*1822 – The Florida Territory is created in the United States.", "*1841 – The National Bank of Greece is founded in Athens.", "*1842 – Ether anesthesia is used for the first time, in an operation by the American surgeon Dr. Crawford Long.", "*1844 – One of the most important battles of the Dominican War of Independence from Haiti takes place near the city of Santiago de los Caballeros.", "*1855 – Origins of the American Civil War: \"Border Ruffians\" from Missouri invade Kansas and force election of a pro-slavery legislature.", "*1856 – The Treaty of Paris is signed, ending the Crimean War.", "*1861 – Discovery of the chemical elements: Sir William Crookes announces his discovery of thallium.", "*1863 – Danish prince Wilhelm Georg is chosen as King George of Greece.", "*1867 – Alaska is purchased from Russia for $7.2 million, about two cents/acre ($4.19/km2), by United States Secretary of State William H.", "Seward.", "*1870 – Texas is readmitted to the United States Congress following Reconstruction.", "*1885 – The Battle for Kushka triggers the Panjdeh Incident which nearly gives rise to war between the Russian and British Empires.", "*1899 – German Society of Chemistry issues an invitation to other national scientific organizations to appoint delegates to the International Committee on Atomic Weights.", "*1900 – Archaeologists in Knossos, Crete, discover the first clay tablet with hieroglyphic writing in a script later called Linear B.===1901–present===*1912 – Sultan Abd al-Hafid signs the Treaty of Fez, making Morocco a French protectorate.", "*1918 – Beginning of the bloody March Events in Baku and other locations of Baku Governorate.", "*1939 – The Heinkel He 100 fighter sets a world airspeed record of 463 mph (745 km/h).", "*1940 – Second Sino-Japanese War: Japan declares Nanking capital of a new Chinese puppet government, nominally controlled by Wang Jingwei.", "*1944 – World War II: Allied bombers conduct their most severe bombing run on Sofia, Bulgaria.", "* 1944 – Out of 795 Lancasters, Halifaxes and Mosquitos sent to attack Nuremberg, 95 bombers do not return, making it the largest RAF Bomber Command loss of the war.", "*1945 – World War II: Soviet forces invade Austria and capture Vienna.", "Polish and Soviet forces liberate Danzig.", "*1949 – Cold War: A riot breaks out in Austurvöllur square in Reykjavík, when Iceland joins NATO.", "*1959 – Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, flees Tibet for India.", "*1961 – The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is signed in New York City.", "*1965 – Vietnam War: A car bomb explodes in front of the United States Embassy, Saigon, killing 22 and wounding 183 others.", "*1967 – Delta Air Lines Flight 9877 crashes at Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport, killing 19.", "*1972 – Vietnam War: The Easter Offensive begins after North Vietnamese forces cross into the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) of South Vietnam.", "*1976 – Israeli-Palestinian conflict: in the first organized response against Israeli policies by a Palestinian collective since 1948, Palestinians create the first Land Day.", "*1979 – Airey Neave, a British Member of Parliament (MP), is killed by a car bomb as he exits the Palace of Westminster.", "The Irish National Liberation Army claims responsibility.", "*1981 – U.S. President Ronald Reagan is shot in the chest outside a Washington, D.C., hotel by John Hinckley Jr.; three others are wounded in the same incident.", "*1982 – Space Shuttle program: STS-3 mission is completed with the landing of ''Columbia'' at White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico.", "*2002 – The 2002 Lyon car attack takes place.", "*2006 – Cyclone Glenda, one of the strongest tropical cyclones in the Australian region makes landfall near Onslow, Western Australia.", "*2008 – Drolma Kyi arrested by Chinese authorities.", "*2009 – Twelve gunmen attack the Manawan Police Academy in Lahore, Pakistan.", "*2011 – Min Aung Hlaing is appointed as the Commander-in-Chief of Myanmar's armed forces.", "*2017 – SpaceX conducts the world's first reflight of an orbital class rocket.", "*2018 – The Israeli Army kills 17 Palestinians and wounds 1,400 in Gaza during Land Day protests.", "*2019 – Pope Francis visits Morocco.", "*2023 – Donald Trump becomes the first former United States president to be indicted by a grand jury." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 892 – Shi Jingtang, founder of the Later Jin Dynasty (d. 942)*1135 – Maimonides, Spanish rabbi and philosopher (April 6 also proposed, d. 1204)*1326 – Ivan II of Moscow (d. 1359)*1432 – Mehmed the Conqueror, Ottoman sultan (d. 1481)*1510 – Antonio de Cabezón, Spanish composer and organist (d. 1566)*1551 – Salomon Schweigger, German theologian (d. 1622)===1601–1900===*1606 – Vincentio Reinieri, Italian mathematician and astronomer (d. 1647)*1632 – John Proctor, farmer hanged for witchcraft in the Salem witch trials (d. 1692)*1640 – John Trenchard, English politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (d. 1695)*1727 – Tommaso Traetta, Italian composer and educator (d. 1779)*1746 – Francisco Goya, Spanish-French painter and sculptor (d. 1828)*1750 – John Stafford Smith, English organist and composer (d. 1836)*1793 – Juan Manuel de Rosas, Argentinian soldier and politician, 13th Governor of Buenos Aires Province (d. 1877)*1805 – Ferdinand Johann Wiedemann, German-Swedish linguist and botanist (d. 1887)*1811 – Robert Bunsen, German chemist and academic (d. 1899)*1820 – Anna Sewell, English author (d. 1878)* 1820 – James Whyte, Scottish-Australian politician, 6th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1882)*1844 – Paul Verlaine, French poet (d. 1896)*1853 – Vincent van Gogh, Dutch-French painter and illustrator (d. 1890)*1853 – Arnoldo Sartorio, German composer, pianist, and teacher (d. 1936)*1857 – Léon Charles Thévenin, French engineer (d. 1926)*1858 – Siegfried Alkan, German composer (d. 1941)*1863 – Mary Calkins, American philosopher and psychologist (d. 1930)*1864 – Franz Oppenheimer, German-American sociologist and economist (d. 1943)*1874 – Charles Lightoller, English 2nd officer on the RMS Titanic (d. 1952)* 1874 – Josiah McCracken, American hammer thrower, shot putter, and football player (d. 1962)* 1874 – Nicolae Rădescu, Romanian general and politician, Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1953)*1875 – Thomas Xenakis, Greek-American gymnast (d. 1942)*1879 – Coen de Koning, Dutch speed skater (d. 1954)*1880 – Seán O'Casey, Irish dramatist, playwright, and memoirist (d. 1964)*1882 – Melanie Klein, Austrian-English psychologist and author (d. 1960)*1888 – J. R. Williams, Canadian-born cartoonist (d. 1957)*1891 – Chunseong, Korean monk, writer and philosopher (d. 1977)*1892 – Stefan Banach, Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1945)* 1892 – Fortunato Depero, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1960)* 1892 – Erhard Milch, German field marshal (d. 1972)* 1892 – Johannes Pääsuke, Estonian photographer and director (d. 1918)* 1892 – Erwin Panofsky, German historian and academic (d. 1968)*1894 – Tommy Green, English race walker (d. 1975)* 1894 – Sergey Ilyushin, Russian engineer, founded Ilyushin Design Bureau (d. 1977)*1895 – Jean Giono, French author and poet (d. 1970)* 1895 – Carl Lutz, Swiss vice-consul to Hungary during WWII, credited with saving over 62,000 Jews (d. 1975)* 1895 – Charlie Wilson, English footballer (d. 1971)*1899 – Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay, Indian author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1970)===1901–present===*1902 – Brooke Astor, American socialite and philanthropist (d. 2007)* 1902 – Ted Heath, English trombonist and composer (d. 1969)*1903 – Joy Ridderhof, American missionary (d. 1984)*1904 – Ripper Collins, American baseball player and coach (d. 1970)*1905 – Archie Birkin, English motorcycle racer (d. 1927)* 1905 – Mikio Oda, Japanese triple jumper and academic (d. 1998)* 1905 – Albert Pierrepoint, English hangman (d. 1992)*1907 – Friedrich August Freiherr von der Heydte, German general (d. 1994)*1910 – Józef Marcinkiewicz, Polish soldier, mathematician, and academic (d. 1940)*1911 – Ekrem Akurgal, Turkish archaeologist and academic (d. 2002)*1912 – Jack Cowie, New Zealand cricketer (d. 1994)* 1912 – Alvin Hamilton, Canadian lieutenant and politician, 18th Canadian Minister of Agriculture (d. 2004)*1913 – Marc Davis, American animator (d. 2000)* 1913 – Richard Helms, American soldier and diplomat, 8th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 2002)* 1913 – Frankie Laine, American singer-songwriter (d. 2007)* 1913 – Ċensu Tabone, Maltese general, physician, and politician, 4th President of Malta (d. 2012)*1914 – Sonny Boy Williamson I, American singer-songwriter and harmonica player (d. 1948)*1915 – Pietro Ingrao, Italian journalist and politician (d. 2015)*1917 – Els Aarne, Ukrainian-Estonian pianist, composer, and educator (d. 1995)*1919 – McGeorge Bundy, American intelligence officer and diplomat, 6th United States National Security Advisor (d. 1996)* 1919 – Robin Williams, New Zealand mathematician, university administrator and public servant (d. 2013)*1921 – André Fontaine, French historian and journalist (d. 2013)*1922 – Turhan Bey, American actor (d. 2012)* 1922 – Arthur Wightman, American physicist and academic (d. 2013)*1923 – Milton Acorn, Canadian poet and playwright (d. 1986)*1926 – Ingvar Kamprad, Swedish businessman, founded IKEA (d. 2018)*1927 – Wally Grout, Australian cricketer (d. 1968)*1928 – Robert Badinter, French lawyer and politician, French Minister of Justice (d. 2024)* 1928 – Colin Egar, Australian cricket umpire (d. 2008)* 1928 – Tom Sharpe, English-Spanish author and educator (d. 2013)*1929 – Richard Dysart, American actor (d. 2015)* 1929 – Ray Musto, American soldier and politician (d. 2014)* 1929 – István Rózsavölgyi, Hungarian runner (d. 2012)*1930 – John Astin, American actor * 1930 – Rolf Harris, Australian singer-songwriter (d. 2023)*1933 – Jean-Claude Brialy, French actor and director (d. 2007)* 1933 – Joe Ruby, American animator (d. 2020)*1934 – Paul Crouch, American broadcaster, co-founded the Trinity Broadcasting Network (d. 2013)* 1934 – Hans Hollein, Austrian architect and academic, designed Haas House (d. 2014)*1935 – Karl Berger, German pianist and composer (d. 2023)* 1935 – Willie Galimore, American football player (d. 1964)* 1935 – Gordon Mumma, American composer*1937 – Warren Beatty, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter* 1937 – Ian MacLaurin, Baron MacLaurin of Knebworth, English businessman*1938 – John Barnhill, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013)* 1938 – Klaus Schwab, German economist and engineer, founded the World Economic Forum*1940 – Norman Gifford, English cricketer* 1940 – Jerry Lucas, American basketball player and educator* 1940 – Hans Ragnemalm, Swedish lawyer and judge (d. 2016)*1941 – Graeme Edge, English singer-songwriter and drummer (d. 2021)* 1941 – Ron Johnston, English geographer and academic (d. 2020)* 1941 – Wasim Sajjad, Pakistani lawyer and politician, President of Pakistan* 1941 – Bob Smith, American soldier and politician*1942 – Ruben Kun, Nauruan lawyer and politician, 14th President of Nauru (d. 2014)* 1942 – Tane Norton, New Zealand rugby player* 1942 – Kenneth Welsh, Canadian actor (d. 2022) *1943 – Jay Traynor, American pop and doo-wop singer (d. 2014)*1944 – Mark Wylea Erwin, American businessman and diplomat* 1944 – Brian Wilshire, Australian radio host *1945 – Eric Clapton, English guitarist and singer-songwriter *1947 – Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin, American activist, writer, and black anarchist* 1947 – Dick Roche, Irish politician, Minister of State for European Affairs* 1947 – Terje Venaas, Norwegian bassist*1948 – Nigel Jones, Baron Jones of Cheltenham, English computer programmer and politician* 1948 – Eddie Jordan, Irish racing driver and team owner, founded Jordan Grand Prix* 1948 – Mervyn King, English economist and academic* 1948 – Jim \"Dandy\" Mangrum, American rock singer*1949 – Liza Frulla, Canadian talk show host and politician, 3rd Minister of Canadian Heritage* 1949 – Dana Gillespie, English singer-songwriter and actress* 1949 – Naomi Sims, American model and author (d. 2009)*1950 – Janet Browne, English-American historian and academic* 1950 – Robbie Coltrane, Scottish actor (d. 2022)* 1950 – Grady Little, American baseball player, coach, and manager*1952 – Stuart Dryburgh, English-New Zealand cinematographer* 1952 – Peter Knights, Australian footballer and coach*1955 – Randy VanWarmer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2004)*1956 – Bill Butler, Scottish educator and politician* 1956 – Juanito Oiarzabal, Spanish mountaineer* 1956 – Paul Reiser, American actor and comedian* 1956 – Shahla Sherkat, Iranian journalist and author*1957 – Marie-Christine Koundja, Chadian author and diplomat*1958 – Maurice LaMarche, Canadian voice actor and stand-up comedian* 1958 – Joey Sindelar, American golfer*1959 – Martina Cole, English television host and author*1960 – Laurie Graham, Canadian skier* 1960 – Bill Johnson, American skier (d. 2016)*1961 – Mike Thackwell, New Zealand racing driver* 1961 – Doug Wickenheiser, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 1999)*1962 – Mark Begich, American politician* 1962 – MC Hammer, American rapper and actor* 1962 – Gary Stevens, English international footballer and manager *1963 – Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, Mongolian journalist and politician, 4th President of Mongolia * 1963 – Panagiotis Tsalouchidis, Greek footballer*1964 – Vlado Bozinovski, Macedonian-Australian footballer and manager* 1964 – Tracy Chapman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1965 – Piers Morgan, English journalist and talk show host *1966 – Efstratios Grivas, Greek chess player and author* 1966 – Dmitry Volkov, Russian swimmer* 1966 – Leonid Voloshin, Russian triple jumper*1967 – Christopher Bowman, American figure skater and coach (d. 2008)* 1967 – Richard Hutten, Dutch furniture designer* 1967 – Julie Richardson, New Zealand tennis player*1968 – Celine Dion, Canadian singer-songwriter*1969 – Troy Bayliss, Australian motorcycle racer*1970 – Tobias Hill, English poet and author* 1970 – Sylvain Charlebois, Canadian food/agriculture researcher and author*1971 – Mari Holden, American cyclist* 1971 – Mark Consuelos, American actor and television personality*1972 – Mili Avital, Israeli-American actress* 1972 – Emerson Thome, Brazilian footballer and scout* 1972 – Karel Poborský, Czech footballer*1973 – Adam Goldstein, American keyboard player, DJ, and producer (d. 2009)* 1973 – Jan Koller, Czech footballer* 1973 – Kareem Streete-Thompson, Caymanian-American long jumper*1974 – Martin Love, Australian cricketer*1975 – Paul Griffen, New Zealand-Italian rugby player*1976 – Ty Conklin, American ice hockey player* 1976 – Obadele Thompson, Barbadian sprinter* 1976 – Troels Lund Poulsen, Danish politician, Minister for Education of Denmark*1977 – Abhishek Chaubey, Indian director and screenwriter*1978 – Paweł Czapiewski, Polish runner* 1978 – Chris Paterson, Scottish rugby player and coach* 1978 – Bok van Blerk, South African singer-songwriter and actor*1979 – Norah Jones, American singer-songwriter and pianist * 1979 – Anatoliy Tymoshchuk, Ukrainian footballer*1980 – Ricardo Osorio, Mexican footballer*1981 – Jammal Brown, American football player* 1981 – Andrea Masi, Italian rugby player*1982 – Mark Hudson, English footballer* 1982 – Philippe Mexès, French footballer* 1982 – Javier Portillo, Spanish footballer* 1982 – Jason Dohring, American actor*1983 – Jérémie Aliadière, French footballer*1984 – Mario Ančić, Croatian tennis player* 1984 – Samantha Stosur, Australian tennis player*1985 – Giacomo Ricci, Italian racing driver *1986 – Sergio Ramos, Spanish footballer*1987 – Trent Barreta, American wrestler* 1987 – Calum Elliot, Scottish footballer* 1987 – Kwok Kin Pong, Hong Kong footballer* 1987 – Marc-Édouard Vlasic, Canadian ice hockey player*1988 – Will Matthews, Australian rugby league player* 1988 – Thanasis Papazoglou, Greek footballer* 1988 – Richard Sherman, American football player* 1988 – Larisa Yurkiw, Canadian alpine skier*1989 – Chris Sale, American baseball player* 1989 – João Sousa, Portuguese tennis player*1990 – Thomas Rhett, American country music singer and songwriter * 1990 – Michal Březina, Czech figure skater*1992 – Palak Muchhal, Indian playback singer*1993 – Anitta, Brazilian singer and entertainer*1994 – Alex Bregman, American baseball player* 1994 – Jetro Willems, Dutch footballer*1997 – Lee Dong-min, South Korean singer, actor, and model*1998 – Kalyn Ponga, Australian rugby league player*2000 – Colton Herta, American race car driver*2001 – Anastasia Potapova, Russian tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*116 – Quirinus of Neuss, Roman martyr and saint*365 – Ai of Jin, emperor of the Jin Dynasty (b.", "341)* 943 – Li Bian, emperor of Southern Tang (b.", "889)* 987 – Arnulf II, Count of Flanders (b.", "960)*1180 – Al-Mustadi, Caliph (b.", "1142)*1202 – Joachim of Fiore, Italian mystic and theologian (b.", "1135)*1465 – Isabella of Clermont, queen consort of Naples (b. c. 1424)*1472 – Amadeus IX, Duke of Savoy (b.", "1435)*1486 – Thomas Bourchier, English cardinal (b.", "1404)*1526 – Konrad Mutian, German humanist (b.", "1471)*1540 – Matthäus Lang von Wellenburg, German cardinal (b.", "1469)*1559 – Adam Ries, German mathematician and academic (b.", "1492)*1587 – Ralph Sadler, English politician, Secretary of State for England (b.", "1507)===1601–1900===*1662 – François le Métel de Boisrobert, French poet and playwright (b.", "1592)*1689 – Kazimierz Łyszczyński, Polish atheist and philosopher (b.", "1634)*1707 – Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, French general and engineer (b.", "1633)*1764 – Pietro Locatelli, Italian violinist and composer (b.", "1695)*1783 – William Hunter, Scottish anatomist and physician (b.", "1718)*1804 – Victor-François, 2nd duc de Broglie, French general and politician, French Secretary of State for War (b.", "1718)*1806 – Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire (b.", "1757)*1830 – Louis I, Grand Duke of Baden (b.", "1763)*1840 – Beau Brummell, English-French fashion designer (b.", "1778)*1842 – Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, French painter (b.", "1755)*1864 – Louis Schindelmeisser, German clarinet player, composer, and conductor (b.", "1811)*1873 – Bénédict Morel, Austrian-French psychiatrist and physician (b.", "1809)*1874 – Carl Julian (von) Graba, German lawyer and ornithologist who visited and studied the Faroe Islands (b.", "1799)*1879 – Thomas Couture, French painter and educator (b.", "1815)*1886 – Joseph-Alfred Mousseau, Canadian judge and politician, 6th Premier of Quebec (b.", "1838)*1896 – Charilaos Trikoupis, Greek politician, 55th Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1832)===1901–present===*1912 – Karl May, German author (b.", "1842)*1925 – Rudolf Steiner, Austrian philosopher and author (b.", "1861)*1935 – Romanos Melikian, Armenian composer (b.", "1883)*1936 – Conchita Supervía, Spanish soprano and actress (b.", "1895)*1940 – Sir John Gilmour, 2nd Baronet Scottish soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland (b.", "1876)*1943 – Jan Bytnar, Polish lieutenant; WWII resistance fighter (b.", "1921)* 1943 – Maciej Aleksy Dawidowski, Polish sergeant; WWII resistance fighter (b.", "1920)*1945 – Béla Balogh, Hungarian actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1885)*1949 – Friedrich Bergius, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1884)* 1949 – Dattaram Hindlekar, Indian cricketer (b.", "1909)*1950 – Léon Blum, French lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of France (b.", "1872)*1952 – Nikos Beloyannis, Greek resistance leader and politician (b.", "1915) * 1952 – Jigme Wangchuck, Bhutanese king (b.", "1905)*1955 – Harl McDonald, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1899)*1956 – Edmund Clerihew Bentley, English author and poet (b.", "1875)*1959 – Daniil Andreyev, Russian mystic and poet (b.", "1906)* 1959 – John Auden, English solicitor, deputy coroner and a territorial soldier (b.", "1894)* 1959 – Riccardo Zanella, Italian politician (b.", "1875)*1960 – Joseph Haas, German composer and educator (b.", "1879)*1961 – Philibert Jacques Melotte, English astronomer (b.", "1880)*1963 – Aleksandr Gauk, Russian conductor and composer (b.", "1893)*1964 – Nella Larsen, American nurse and author (b.", "1891)*1965 – Philip Showalter Hench, American physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1896)*1966 – Newbold Morris, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1902)* 1966 – Maxfield Parrish, American painter and illustrator (b.", "1870)* 1966 – Erwin Piscator, German director and producer (b.", "1893)*1967 – Frank Thorpe, Australian public servant (b.", "1885)* 1967 – Jean Toomer, American poet and novelist (b.", "1894)*1969 – Lucien Bianchi, Belgian racing driver (b.", "1934)*1970 – Heinrich Brüning, German economist and politician, Chancellor of Germany (b.", "1885)*1972 – Mahir Çayan, Turkish politician (b.", "1946)* 1972 – Gabriel Heatter, American radio commentator (b.", "1890)*1973 – Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, 14th Duke of Hamilton, Scottish pilot and politician (b.", "1903)* 1973 – Yves Giraud-Cabantous, French racing driver (b.", "1904)*1975 – Peter Bamm, German journalist and author (b.", "1897)*1977 – Levko Revutsky, Ukrainian composer and educator (b.", "1889)*1978 – George Paine, English cricketer and coach (b.", "1908)* 1978 – Memduh Tağmaç, Turkish general (b.", "1904)*1979 – Airey Neave, English colonel, lawyer, and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland (b.", "1916)* 1979 – Ray Ventura, French pianist and bandleader (b.", "1908)*1981 – DeWitt Wallace, American publisher, co-founded ''Reader's Digest'' (b.", "1889)*1984 – Karl Rahner, German-Austrian priest and theologian (b.", "1904)*1985 – Harold Peary, American actor and singer (b.", "1908)*1986 – James Cagney, American actor and dancer (b.", "1899)* 1986 – John Ciardi, American poet and etymologist (b.", "1916)*1988 – Edgar Faure, French historian and politician, Prime Minister of France (b.", "1908)*1990 – Harry Bridges, Australian-born American activist and trade union leader (b.", "1901)*1991 – Athanasios Ragazos, Greek long-distance runner (b.", "1913) *1992 – Manolis Andronikos, Greek archaeologist and academic (b.", "1919)*1993 – S. M. Pandit, Indian painter (b.", "1916)* 1993 – Richard Diebenkorn, American painter (b.", "1922)*1995 – Rozelle Claxton, American pianist (b.", "1913)* 1995 – Tony Lock, English-Australian cricketer and coach (b.", "1929)* 1995 – Paul A. Rothchild, American record producer (b.", "1935)*1996 – Hugh Falkus, English pilot and author (b.", "1917)* 1996 – Ryoei Saito, Japanese businessman (b.", "1916)*2000 – Rudolf Kirchschläger, Austrian judge and politician, 8th President of Austria (b.", "1915)*2002 – Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother of the United Kingdom (b.", "1900)* 2002 – Anand Bakshi, Indian poet and lyricist (b.", "1930)*2003 – Michael Jeter, American actor (b.", "1952)* 2003 – Valentin Pavlov, Russian banker and politician, 11th Prime Minister of the Soviet Union (b.", "1937)*2004 – Alistair Cooke, English-American journalist and author (b.", "1908)* 2004 – Michael King, New Zealand historian and author (b.", "1945)* 2004 – Timi Yuro, American singer and songwriter (b.", "1940)*2005 – Robert Creeley, American novelist, essayist, and poet (b.", "1926)* 2005 – Milton Green, American hurdler and soldier (b.", "1913)* 2005 – Fred Korematsu, American political activist (b.", "1919)* 2005 – Chrysanthos Theodoridis, Greek singer and songwriter (b.", "1934) * 2005 – O. V. Vijayan, Indian author and illustrator (b.", "1930)* 2005 – Mitch Hedberg, American stand-up comedian (b.", "1968)*2006 – Red Hickey, American football player and coach (b.", "1917)* 2006 – John McGahern, Irish author and educator (b.", "1934)*2007 – John Roberts, Canadian political scientist, academic, and politician, 46th Secretary of State for Canada (b.", "1933)*2008 – Roland Fraïssé, French mathematical logician (b.", "1920)* 2008 – David Leslie, Scottish racing driver (b.", "1953)* 2008 – Richard Lloyd, English racing driver (b.", "1945)* 2008 – Dith Pran, Cambodian-American photographer and journalist (b.", "1942)*2010 – Jaime Escalante, Bolivian-American educator (b.", "1930)* 2010 – Morris R. Jeppson, American lieutenant and physicist (b.", "1922)* 2010 – Martin Sandberger, German SS officer (b.", "1911)*2012 – Janet Anderson Perkin, Canadian baseball player and curler (b.", "1921)* 2012 – Aquila Berlas Kiani, Indian-Canadian sociologist and academic (b.", "1921)* 2012 – Francesco Mancini, Italian footballer and coach (b.", "1968)* 2012 – Granville Semmes, American businessman, founded 1-800-Flowers (b.", "1928)* 2012 – Leonid Shebarshin, Russian KGB officer (b.", "1935)*2013 – Daniel Hoffman, American poet and academic (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Bobby Parks, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1962)* 2013 – Phil Ramone, South African-American songwriter and producer, co-founded A & R Recording (b.", "1934)* 2013 – Edith Schaeffer, Chinese-Swiss religious leader and author, co-founded L'Abri (b.", "1914)* 2013 – Bob Turley, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1930)*2014 – Kate O'Mara, English actress (b.", "1939)*2015 – Helmut Dietl, German director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1944)* 2015 – Roger Slifer, American author, illustrator, screenwriter, and producer (b.", "1954)* 2015 – Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld, Dutch astronomer and academic (b.", "1921)*2018 – Bill Maynard, English actor (b.", "1928)*2020 – Manolis Glezos, Greek left-wing politician, journalist, author, and folk hero (b.", "1922) * 2020 – Bill Withers, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1938)*2021 – G. Gordon Liddy, chief operative in the Watergate scandal (b.", "1930)* 2021 – Myra Frances, British actress (b.", "1942)*2023 – Doug Mulray, Australian radio and television host (b.", "1951)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Blessed Amadeus IX, Duke of Savoy**Blessed Maria Restituta Kafka**John Climacus**Mamertinus of Auxerre**Quirinus of Neuss**Thomas Son Chasuhn, Marie-Nicolas-Antoine Daveluy (part of The Korean Martyrs)**Tola of Clonard**March 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Land Day (Palestine)*National Doctors' Day (United States)*Spiritual Baptist/Shouter Liberation Day (Trinidad and Tobago)*School Day of Non-violence and Peace (Spain)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 30" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Madhuri Dixit" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Madhuri Dixit Nene''' (née '''Dixit''', ; born 15 May 1967) is an Indian actress who primarily works in Hindi films.", "A leading actress of Indian cinema, she has appeared in over 70 films.", "Noted by critics for her beauty, dancing skills, and characters, Dixit was credited for singularly paralleling her male contemporaries and leading star vehicles in a male-dominated industry.", "She was among the country's highest-paid celebrities throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, and has featured in ''Forbes India'' Celebrity 100 list since its inception in 2012.Her accolades include six Filmfare Awards from a record 17 nominations.", "In 2008, the Government of India awarded her with Padma Shri, the fourth-highest civilian honour of the country.", "In 2023, she was awarded the Special Recognition for Contribution to Bharatiya Cinema Award at the 54th IFFI.Born and raised in Mumbai, Dixit made her acting debut in 1984 with a leading role in the drama ''Abodh''.", "After a few successive commercially failed films, she rose to prominence with the action drama ''Tezaab'' (1988), and established herself with starring roles in the top-grossing romantic dramas ''Dil'' (1990), ''Beta'' (1992), ''Hum Aapke Hain Koun..!''", "(1994), and ''Dil To Pagal Hai'' (1997).", "She won four Filmfare Awards for Best Actress for her performances in them.", "Her other commercially successful films during this period include ''Ram Lakhan'' (1989), ''Tridev'' (1989), ''Thanedaar'' (1990), ''Kishen Kanhaiya'' (1990), ''Saajan'' (1991), ''Khalnayak'' (1993), and ''Raja'' (1995).Apart from Dixit's mainstream success, she earned appreciation from critics for her performances in ''Prem Pratigyaa'' (1989), ''Parinda'' (1989), ''Anjaam'' (1994), ''Mrityudand'' (1997), ''Pukar'' (2000), and ''Lajja'' (2001).", "She received the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress for playing Chandramukhi in ''Devdas'' (2002).", "Following a hiatus, Dixit made a brief comeback by starring in the musical ''Aaja Nachle'' (2007), and acted intermittently over the next decades.", "Her highest-grossing release came with the adventure comedy ''Total Dhamaal'' (2019), and she continued to gain praise for starring in the black comedy ''Dedh Ishqiya'' (2014) and the Netflix drama series ''The Fame Game'' (2022).", "During this period, she primarily featured as a talent judge for dance reality shows, such as ''Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa''.In addition to acting in films, she has been engaged in philanthropic activities.", "She has worked with UNICEF since 2014 to advocate the rights of children and prevent child labour, participates in concert tours and stage shows, and is the co-founder of the production company RnM Moving Pictures.", "Since 1999, she has been married to Shriram Nene, with whom she has two sons Arin and Ryan." ], [ "Early life and background", "Madhuri Dixit was born on 15 May 1967 into a Marathi Kokanastha Brahmin family in Bombay (present-day Mumbai) to Shankar and Snehlata Dixit.", "She has two elder sisters and an elder brother.", "She kindled an interest in dance at an early age of three, and went on to train in Kathak for eight years; later on becoming a professionally trained Kathak dancer.Dixit received her education at Divine Child High School in Andheri.", "Apart from her studies, she participated in extra-curricular activities, such as dramatics.", "Aspiring to become a microbiologist, Dixit enrolled at the Sathaye college in Vile Parle (Mumbai) where she studied microbiology as one of her subjects in BSc.", "However, six months after she had commenced her course, Dixit decided to discontinue studies and pursue a full-time career in films." ], [ "Acting career", "=== 1980s: Early roles, breakthrough and recognition ===Dixit made her cinema debut in 1984 with Rajshri Productions' drama ''Abodh'', opposite Bengali actor, Tapas Paul.", "Upon release, the film failed commercially but Dixit's performance earned her positive reviews from critics.", "Aakash Barvalia of Gomolo wrote, \"Madhuri excels in her role as a young bride who acquits herself well as the naive village girl and does not realise what marriage actually entails.\"", "Her only release of 1985 – ''Awara Baap'' – flopped at the box office.", "During this time, a monochrome photograph of hers, shot by Gautam Rajadhyaksha was featured on the cover of the then-popular magazine ''Debonair'' and she appeared as the cover girl of Filmfare in April 1986.Dixit's next four releases were the dramas ''Swati'' (1986), ''Manav Hatya'' (1986), ''Hifazat'' (1987) and ''Uttar Dakshin'' (1987).", "None of these films performed well either critically or commercially.", "Hifazat marked Dixit's first of several collaborations with Anil Kapoor.", "In 1988, Dixit had film releases; two of them —''Mohre'', and ''Khatron Ke Khiladi'' —were commercial failures.In 1988, Dixit acted in ''Dayavan'', which was a commercially successful film.", "In her next movie from the same year she finally attained recognition when she played Mohini, an impoverished and miserable woman, who is forced to dance to make money for her father in N. Chandra's action drama ''Tezaab'' opposite Anil Kapoor.", "It went on to become the highest-grossing film of the year and she received her first Filmfare Award for Best Actress nomination; the film's success established Dixit as a leading actress of Hindi cinema, and marked a significant turning point in her career.", "Akshay Shah of ''Planet Bollywood'' wrote, \"Madhuri Dixit also gives a fine tuned performance.", "Though she is more remembered for her crowd pleasing dance act 'Ek Do Teen', her acting needs to be noted, specially in the scenes where she is pitted against Anupam Kher.", "\"Her first release of 1989, ''Vardi'', did fairly well at the box office.", "She next re-united with Anil Kapoor for Subhash Ghai's ''Ram Lakhan''.", "She played Radha Shastri, a girl who falls in love with her childhood friend, but finds it hard to convince her father.", "Finishing up as the second highest-grossing film of the year, ''Ram Lakhan'' emerged as a \"super-hit\" at the box office.", "Dixit's next release was the romantic drama ''Prem Pratigyaa'', in which she was paired opposite Mithun Chakraborty.", "Her portrayal of Laxmi Rao, a distraught woman who influences a local underworld don letting him give up his bad habits, earned her a second nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress.", "Dixit collaborated with Trimurti Films for the action thriller ''Tridev'' which featured an ensemble cast (Sunny Deol, Naseeruddin Shah, Jackie Shroff, Sangeeta Bijlani, Sonam and Amrish Puri).", "It finished up as one of the biggest hits and the third highest-grossing film of the year.Her next release of the year, Vidhu Vinod Chopra's drama ''Parinda'', co-starring Anil Kapoor, Jackie Shroff and Nana Patekar was another box office hit.", "She played Paro, a schoolteacher who is killed on her wedding night along with Karan (played by Kapoor) by a gangster (played by Patekar).", "A major critical success, the film was included in News18's 2013 list of the \"100 greatest Indian films of all time\".", "It was selected as the official Indian submission for the 1990 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film but was not nominated.", "Rediff.com opined that Dixit added \"touching vulnerability and soft focus appeal to the heavy duty proceedings\".", "Also that year, after ''Prem Pratigyaa'' she starred in ''Ilaaka'', ''Mujrim'' (both opposite Mithun Chakraborty) and all three were hits.", "Other films such as ''Paap Ka Ant'' (opposite Govinda) and ''Kanoon Apna Apna'' (opposite Sanjay Dutt) was an average grosser.=== 1990s: Rise to prominence and widespread success ===In 1990, Dixit appeared in nine films.", "Five of them—''Maha-Sangram'', ''Deewana Mujh Sa Nahin'', ''Jeevan Ek Sanghursh'', ''Sailaab'' and ''Jamai Raja''—were commercially unsuccessful.", "Her next release that year was Rakesh Roshan's action comedy ''Kishen Kanhaiya'' (alongside Anil Kapoor and Shilpa Shirodkar).", "It tells the story of twin brothers who are separated at birth and re-unite in their youth.", "Dixit and Shirodkar played the love interests of Kapoor's characters.", "It was the fourth-highest-grossing film of the year in India.", "Dixit next played a strong-willed woman in the box-office average action drama ''Izzatdaar''.", "She won her first Filmfare Award for Best Actress for portraying Madhu, a rich and arrogant girl who falls in love with a poorer boy, in Indra Kumar's romantic drama ''Dil'' opposite Aamir Khan.", "It emerged as the highest-grossing film of the year.", "Rediff.com hailed her performance, commenting \"..she showed her range as a performer.", "She breathed fire as the rebellious lover defying her family, or the forlorn estranged wife longing to be with her ailing better half.\"", "Dixit's final release of the year was the action drama ''Thanedaar'', opposite Dutt, which was another commercial hit.In 1991, Dixit had five film releases, the first of which was the romance ''Pyar Ka Devta''.", "She next starred alongside Jackie Shroff in the psychological thriller ''100 Days''.", "She played Devi, a clairvoyant woman who has a vision of a murder and sets out to uncover the truth.", "The film was a moderately successful.", "She next starred in ''Saajan'' opposite Dutt and Salman Khan.", "A major critical and commercial success, the film earned Dixit praise for her portrayal of Pooja Saxena, who is in love with her idol – Sagar.", "She received her fourth Best Actress nomination at Filmfare for her work in the film.", "T. Rama Rao's ''Pratikar'' and Nana Patekar's ''Prahaar'' were her other releases.In 1992, Dixit starred in Sudhir Mishra's ''Dharavi'' starring Om Puri, Shabana Azmi and Anil Kapoor.", "Dixit appears in the film as part of the lead character's (played by Puri) escapist dreams, portraying the fictional version of herself.", "The film was a joint NFDC-Doordarshan production and went on to win the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi.", "Dixit's next release of the year was Kumar's drama ''Beta'', co-starring Anil Kapoor and Aruna Irani.", "Dixit's portrayal of Saraswati, an educated woman who rebels against her manipulative mother-in-law, earned her critical acclaim.", "Sukanya Verma mentioned that Dixit delivered \"a powerhouse performance against an equally lethal looking Irani, even as Kapoor was overshadowed between the ladies.\"", "The film finished up as the biggest hit of the year and won her a second Filmfare Award for Best Actress.", "Following the film's success, Dixit became famously known as the \"Dhak Dhak Girl\".", "''Zindagi Ek Juaa'', ''Prem Deewane'', ''Khel'' and ''Sangeet'' were her other releases of the year.In 1993, Dixit appeared in Ramesh Talwar's ''Sahibaan'' which was commercially successful.", "Dixit next reunited with Sanjay Dutt and Jackie Shroff in Subhash Ghai's crime drama ''Khalnayak''.", "Her portrayal of Ganga, a police officer, who volunteers to go undercover, to trap an escaped criminal, garnered her critical acclaim.", "''India Today'' wrote, \"..she grinds and thrusts in her trademark dhak dhak style.", "The whistles grow deafening when she stares into the camera, looks at every man in the dark, and promises him her heart-and much more.", "In one Bangalore theatre, the police were kept on stand-by in case the crowds went berserk.\"", "Dixit's performance in ''Khalnayak'' earned her a sixth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress and became the second highest-grossing film of the year in India.", "Singeetam Srinivasa Rao's ''Phool'' and Lawrence D'Souza's ''Dil Tera Aashiq'' were her other releases of the year.In 1994, Dixit starred in Rahul Rawail's psychological thriller ''Anjaam'', which marked her first of many collaborations with Shah Rukh Khan.", "Dixit's portrayal of Shivani Chopra, a revenge-seeking wife and mother earned her a seventh nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress.", "The film performed moderately well at the box office.", "Her next release was Rajshri Productions' family drama ''Hum Aapke Hain Koun..!''", "opposite Salman Khan.", "The film emerged as one of the biggest hits in the history of Hindi cinema and made 1.35 billion worldwide, breaking the record of the film ''Sholay'' (1975).", "It became the highest grossing Bollywood film in Hindi cinema history after its theatrical run and held the record for 7 years till the release of ''Gadar: Ek Prem Katha'' (2001).", "Dixit's portrayal of Nisha, who falls in love with Prem (Khan's character) but their plans to be together are put in jeopardy when Nisha's sister dies, fetched her a third Filmfare Award for Best Actress and her first Screen Award for Best Actress.", "Critics believed the film to be \"too sweet\" but appreciated Dixit's performance.", "Tripat Narayanan of ''New Straits Times'' wrote \"The Madhuri magic looms large throughout the film.", "As she emotes through dance, you simply cannot take your eyes off her.\"", "In a retrospect review, ''Rediff'' wrote, \"Madhuri's Nisha was stunning, enthused, plucky and irresistible.\"", "Film critic K Hariharan noted, \"She is seducing every person on screen, but does it in ways that are so graceful, there is a good balance between profanity and the sacred.\"", "The film won two National Film Awards, including the Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment and in the Millennium Edition of the \"Guinness Book of World Records\", ''Hum Aapke Hain Koun'' became Bollywood's highest-grossing film.Dixit achieved further success when she reunited with Indra Kumar for the romantic drama ''Raja'' opposite Sanjay Kapoor.", "She portrayed Madhu, a rich girl who falls for her childhood friend (played by Kapoor), however, she finds it tough to convince her two brothers of this relationship.", "It emerged as the third highest-grossing film of the year and its success was attributed to Dixit's immense popularity.", "She won a second Screen Award for Best Actress for her performance.", "Her next release was David Dhawan's ''Yaraana'' opposite Rishi Kapoor, in which she played Lalita, a dancer on the run from her abusive lover.", "The film underperformed at the box office.", "Both the films earned her nominations for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress.The following year, both her films ''Prem Granth'' and ''Rajkumar'' flopped at the box office.", "In 1997, Dixit received critical acclaim for her portrayal of Ketki Singh, a village woman who struggles to confront and defeat the forces of oppression and male domination in Prakash Jha's ''Mrityudand'' alongside Shabana Azmi and Shilpa Shirodkar.", "In a review for India Today, Anupama Chopra wrote, \" Dixit gives her career's best performance.", "Simply dressed, she looks stunning and acts even better.", "She is by turns romantic, vulnerable, angry – the perfect foil to Azmi's long-suffering 'badi bahu'.\"", "''Screen'' magazine deemed her portrayal \"fiery\" and appreciated the lack of glamour in the part.", "For her performance, Dixit won a third Screen Award for Best Actress.", "She next starred in the dramas ''Koyla'', ''Mahaanta'' and ''Mohabbat''.", "With the exception of Koyla, none of these films performed well either critically or commercially.Dixit's fifth and final release of 1997 was Yash Chopra's musical romantic drama ''Dil To Pagal Hai''.", "Co-starring Shah Rukh Khan, Karisma Kapoor and Akshay Kumar, the film depicts the love stories of the dancers in a musical dance troupe.", "Her role of Pooja, a woman faced with a moral dilemma in a love quadrangle fetched her a fourth Filmfare Award for Best Actress and the Zee Cine Award for Best Actor – Female.", "''Dil To Pagal Hai'' emerged as a blockbuster at the box office and emerged as the highest-grossing film of the year in India.", "At the 45th National Film Awards, the film won three awards, including the Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment.She next starred in the N.Chandra-directed drama ''Wajood'' (1998) opposite Nana Patekar and Mukul Dev.", "She played Apoorva, a very rich girl who is misunderstood by Malhar, played by Patekar.", "Suparn Verma of ''Rediff'' commented: \"..She nevertheless shows that even a weak role cannot stifle her as she animates the screen like only she can.", "Truly, the coming together of Nana, Madhuri and Chandra in one film is a tour de force.\"", "The same year, she appeared in a cameo role in the comedy ''Bade Miyan Chote Miyan'', once again playing herself onscreen after ''Dharavi''.", "Her next and only release of 1999 was the romance ''Aarzoo'' (1999) opposite Akshay Kumar and Saif Ali Khan.", "Upon release, the film emerged commercially unsuccessful.=== 2000s: Further acclaim and sabbaticals ===In 2000, Dixit starred in Rajkumar Santoshi's ''Pukar'' opposite Anil Kapoor.", "A love story based on the backdrop of the Indian Army, the film was shot over a course of 350 days.", "Dixit's portrayal of Anjali, a heartbroken and jealous woman who swears revenge on Jai (played by Kapoor) for rejecting her, garnered her several Best Actress nominations at various award ceremonies, including Filmfare and Screen.", "A review in ''Filmfare'' said that both \"Anil Kapoor and Madhuri, veterans in their field, outdo themselves in the film\".", "It won two National Film Awards, including the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration.", "She then played the title character in ''Gaja Gamini'', the first feature film directed by painter M. F. Husain.", "Hussain got fixated with Dixit, and watched her movie ''Hum Aapke Hain Koun..!''", "several times, and was certain that he would make a film only with her.", "The film followed the story of Gaja Gamini, who appears in various incarnations as Mona Lisa, Shakuntala and others.", "''Pukar'' was an average grosser, while the latter underperformed at the box office.Dixit at a press meet for ''Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke'' in 2001In 2001, Dixit starred in Deepak Shivdasani's love triangle ''Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke'' opposite Ajay Devgan and Preity Zinta.", "Upon release, the film met with largely negative reviews.", "Critic Gautam Buragohain, however, described her as \"the saving grace of the film\", adding that \"she gives a delightful performance\".", "Commercially too, the film failed to do well.", "Subsequently, Dixit reunited with Rajkumar Santoshi for the social drama ''Lajja'' (2001).", "Dealing with the issue of gender inequality, Dixit played Janki, a theatre actress who gets pre-maritally pregnant.", "Anita Bora of Rediff.com wrote: \"Madhuri slips into her role as Janaki..with consummate ease..and..dazzles us with a class act.\"", "The film was a box-office failure in India but was an overseas success.", "Dixit's performance fetched her a Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination and won her the Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Female.", "Dixit's first release of 2002 was the love triangle ''Hum Tumhare Hain Sanam'' opposite Shah Rukh Khan and Salman Khan, where she played Radha whose married life blemishes when she gets obsessed with the career of her friend.", "A remake of director K. S. Adhiyaman's own Tamil film ''Thotta Chinungi'' (1995), the film took six years in making, with huge sabbaticals in between shoots due to several production problems.", "The film emerged moderately successful at the Indian box office.", "Few critics noted that the delay made the film look outdated.Dixit's next release was Sanjay Leela Bhansali's period romantic drama ''Devdas'', co-starring Shah Rukh Khan and Aishwarya Rai.", "It was based on Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay's novel of the same name.", "She portrayed Chandramukhi, a courtesan who is in love with the title character.", "Sita Menon of Rediff.com wrote: \"The most understated role and perhaps the one that is most lingering, in terms of virtuosity, is that played by Madhuri Dixit.", "As Chandramukhi, she is simply stunning, lending passion, fire and gentleness with such consummate ease that watching her perform is sheer delight.\"", "The film was screened at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival and was featured by ''Time'' in their listing of the \"10 Best Films of the Millennium\".", "The film emerged as a major commercial success with revenues of over .", "''Devdas'' was chosen as India's official entry for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and received a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language.", "At the 50th National Film Awards, the film won five awards, including the Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment.", "Dixit eventually won the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress and the Screen Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in the film.", "Post ''Devdas'', Dixit took a break from actively working in films to focus on her married life in Denver, Colorado.Dixit on the sets of ''Nach Baliye 3'' during promotions of ''Aaja Nachle'' in 2007In 2007, Dixit made her first comeback as an actress after five years with a leading role in cinematographer Anil Mehta's dance film ''Aaja Nachle''.", "She played Dia, a choreographer who returns to her town to save the endangered theatre where she learnt to dance.", "A box office failure, the film generated positive reviews for Dixit's portrayal.", "Rajeev Masand of ''CNN-IBN'' criticised the plot, while he wrote about Dixit's performance: \"It's hard to take your eyes off the screen when she's up there, dazzling you with her spontaneity, her easy charm and her 100-watt smile.\"", "Her performance earned her another nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress.=== 2010s: Comebacks and sporadic work ===Dixit relocated to India with her family in 2011 and was felicitated by Filmfare with a special jury recognition for completing 25 years in the Indian film industry.", "In 2013, Dixit made a special appearance in the romantic comedy-drama ''Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani'' as Mohini, a callback to her character from the 1988 film ''Tezaab''.", "Dixti appeared in the item song \"Ghagra\" alongside Ranbir Kapoor.In 2014, Dixit first starred in the black comedy ''Dedh Ishqiya'', a sequel to the 2010 film ''Ishqiya'' She played a con-woman, Begum Para, opposite Naseeruddin Shah, Arshad Warsi and Huma Qureshi and expressed that she agreed to do the film because of the \"unapologetic way\" director Abhishek Chaubey presented Vidya Balan's character in ''Ishqiya''.", "The film opened to positive response from critics who called it \"one of the year's most important releases\".", "Anupama Chopra called Dixit \"compelling\", while Deepanjana Pal of Firstpost wrote \"She's still capable of keeping an audience glued to their seats when the credits start rolling, all because she's dancing on screen.\".", "The film earned Dixit her fourteenth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress.", "''Dedh Ishqiya'' earned little at the box-office.Her next release of the year was debutant director Soumik Sen's ''Gulaab Gang'', alongside Juhi Chawla.", "Dixit portrayed Rajjo, the leader of a women's activist group, inspired by the real vigilante activist Sampat Pal Devi and her group Gulabi Gang.", "Pal filed a case against the film claiming that the makers did not take permission to make a film on her life, but the court later lifted the stay from the film.", "To prepare for her role, Dixit practised Shaolin Kung fu, stick training, and close combat.", "''Gulaab Gang'' failed at the box office, earning mixed reviews.", "Subhash K. Jha labelled Dixit's performance and demeanour \"inconsistent\".", "However, Sampat Pal claimed that in Dixit's character she finds a \"reflection of her own life so stark\" that it makes her feel \"it was she on screen\".", "The film was a box-office failure.Four years later, Dixit made her debut in Marathi Cinema with the comedy drama ''Bucket List''.", "She played Madhura Sane, a middle aged housewife who takes the initiative to complete the bucket list of her deceased teenage heart donor.", "Dixit garnered critical acclaim for her portrayal; Mihir Bhanage of The Times of Indiawrote \"Madhuri owns the film and sails through it with flying colours.\"", "Kunal Guha of Mumbai Mirror said, \"Madhuri Dixit long-overdue debut in Marathi cinema is a comfort watch even if a tad predictable and sappy.", "\"Dixit reunited with Anil Kapoor and Ajay Devgn in Indra Kumar's adventure comedy ''Total Dhamaal'' (2019).", "She portrayed Bindu Patel, who along with a group of people learns about a hidden treasure and then races to claim it.", "The film received mixed to negative reviews, however, Dixit's performance received a mixed-to-positive reception.", "Lakshana N Palat of ''India Today'' wrote: \"The little respite in this adventure-comedy is the pairing of Anil Kapoor and Madhuri Dixit, who prove that they still have the same impeccable chemistry and partnership almost two decades later.\"", "''Total Dhamaal'' emerged as a major commercial success at the box office, grossing more than worldwide, and ranks as the ninth highest-grossing Hindi film of the year.", "Dixit produced the Marathi Netflix drama ''15 August'' under her production company RnM Moving Pictures.", "In an interview with Scroll.in, Dixit said, \"The film is about the freedom to love, the freedom to choose your career and the freedom to die\".She next starred in Abhishek Varman's period romantic drama ''Kalank'', featuring an ensemble cast including Sonakshi Sinha, Alia Bhatt, Varun Dhawan, Aditya Roy Kapur and Sanjay Dutt.", "Set in the 1940s prior to the partition of India, the film featured her as Bahaar Begum, the madam of a brothel.", "Saibal Chatterjee of ''NDTV'' wrote, \"In the blinding glow of Dixit's presence as a nautch girl who can turn on the magic at will, the younger cast members pale somewhat in comparison.", "She lights up the screen as only she can, pushing the others to strive harder.\"", "It did not perform well at the box office; however, she earned a third nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in the film.Dixit was the lead actress in the 2022 Netflix series ''The Fame Game''." ], [ "Other ventures", "=== Television ===In 1985, Dixit made her television debut in the Rajshri Production's series ''Paying Guest'', in which she played Neena.In 2002, Dixit hosted Sony Entertainment's matrimonial show ''Kahi Na Kahi Koi Hai''.", "Dixit featured as a talent judge for five seasons of the dance reality show ''Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa'': alongside Remo D'Souza and Malaika Arora Khan for the fourth season, D'Souza and Karan Johar for the fifth, sixth, seventh seasons and alongside Johar and Nora Fatehi for the tenth season in 2022.In 2011, she featured as an anchor to launch a new entertainment channel, Life OK.", "The same year, she hosted a competitive cooking game show, ''Food Food Maha Challenge'' along with Sanjeev Kapoor.", "In 2016, Dixit featured as one of the jury of ''So You Think You Can Dance (India)'', an officially licensed version of the ''So You Think You Can Dance'' franchise, based on the original American production created by Dick Clark Productions.", "Dixit co-judged three seasons of Colors TV's ''Dance Deewane'', which gives an opportunity to contestants from three different generations.=== Dancing and stage performances ===Dixit has participated in several stage shows, concert tours and televised award ceremonies.", "Since the mid-1990s to early 2000s, she performed at the \"Madhuri Dixit Live\" concert in India, the Middle East and United States.", "In 2000, she performed at the Pepsi W2K Millennium Concert in Mumbai.Between July and August 2008, Dixit and actors Abhishek Bachchan, Preity Zinta, Ritesh Deshmukh and Aishwarya Rai starred in Amitabh Bachchan's \"Unforgettable World Tour\" stage production in a 40-day show staged in 11 cities across North America, Europe and the Caribbean.The same year, she joined the fourth instalment of \"Temptation Reloaded\" where she performed with Khan, Rani Mukerji, Fernandez and Meiyang Chang in Auckland, Perth, Sydney and Dubai; and in 2014 she performed in Malaysia with Khan, Mukerji and Arijit Singh.", "Dixit also performed in SLAM!", "The Tour which was held in the US, Canada, and London.In 2015, Dixit participated in the show Fusion in Houston, along with Akshay Kumar, Sonakshi Sinha and Prabhu Deva.", "In 2018, she performed at the inaugural ceremony of Men's Hockey World Cup.In 2013, Dixit launched her own online dance academy \"Dance With Madhuri\", where the users get an opportunity to learn to dance various dance styles and have one-on-one lessons.=== Music ===Dixit has sung small portions in a few songs from her films like \"Kaahe Chhed\" from ''Devdas'' and \"Soniye Mil Ja\" from ''Aaja Nachle'', composed by Birju Maharaj and Salim–Sulaiman respectively.", "For her 2014 film ''Gulaab Gang'', Dixit sang the traditional folk song \"Rangi Sari Gulaabi Chunariya\" alongside her mother Snehlata Dixit, composed and recreated for the film by its director Soumik Sen.Dixit made her official singing debut in 2020 with an English single, \"Candle\", dedicating it to frontline workers fighting the COVID-19 pandemic.", "She released a second single, \"Tu Hai Mera\", in 2022." ], [ "Social and humanitarian work", "During her years in the film industry, Dixit has been actively involved in promoting children's education and the safety of women.", "She featured in a series of one-minute telespots on preventing AIDS for the Maharashtra State AIDS Control Society in 2000.In 2001, Dixit won on Kaun Banega Crorepati, a game show then in its first season on the air.", "She donated her winnings for the welfare of the victims of 2001 Gujarat earthquake and to an orphanage in Pune.In 2009, Dixit performed for NDTV Toyota Greenathon—India's first-ever nationwide campaign for saving the environment and creating awareness about environmental issues.", "NDTV organised India's first 24-hour live telethon, a fund-raising event that brings in people to donate money to support TERI's initiative—Lighting a Billion Lives which aims at providing solar power to villages without electricity.On 3 February 2011, Dixit spent an evening with 75 orphanage kids of farmers at an ashram in Trimbakeshwar and participated in the birthdays of two children: Hrishikesh and Rani.", "\"We artists are ready to help such children.", "People from the higher society should come forward and stand firmly behind them,\" she said on the occasion.", "Dixit is a Goodwill Ambassador and a patron for \"Emeralds for Elephants\" – a charity project for the conservation of Asian elephants and other endangered species.", "The project has been designed to create awareness and raise vital funds for the protection of the critically endangered Asian elephant.", "A collaborative project between the World Land Trust (a UK based nonprofit environmental organisation) and the Wildlife Trust of India that is creating protected wildlife corridors connecting National Parks and protected areas to others.", "Speaking about the issue she said: \"Elephants are one of my favourite animals and I love them.", "So what we need to do today is to see how we can preserve our animals.", "I feel very strongly about this.\"", "Two years later, she made donations to the Uttarakhand flood relief.In June 2013, while shooting for the sixth season of ''Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa'', Dixit rescued seven puppies who were drenched in rain.", "Interrupting the shoot, Dixit, along with her husband Sriram Nene and the show's director Saahil Chhabria contacted PETA, waiting till the volunteers arrived.", "In response, Sachin Bangera of PETA India said, \"It's been raining cats and dogs and many puppies and kittens are now in need of good homes.", "Madhuri Dixit, Dr Nene and Saahil Chhabria's kind deed will inspire many to come forward to help animals in distress.", "\"In January 2014, Dixit and her husband, on behalf of PETA wrote letter to Kolhapur MLA Vinay Kore, requesting him to ensure relocation of the elephant Sunder to a sanctuary – \"(Sunder) has scars on his legs and cowers in fear and pain because he is being beaten by his mahout,\" \"He should live free from suffering, in the company of other elephants, and have the opportunity to roam vast distances\".Beti Bachao Beti Padhao\" campaign alongside PM Narendra Modi, Union Minister Maneka Gandhi and Haryana CM Manohar Lal Khattar in 2015Since 2014, Dixit began working with UNICEF to advocate the rights of children and prevent child labour and child trafficking.", "She participated in a fashion show organised by Lilavati hospital, to support the 'Save & Empower the Girl Child' initiative by the organisation.", "The same year, the Government of Madhya Pradesh appointed her as the brand ambassador for its Mamta Abhiyaan (maternal and child health) campaign.", "Dixit collaborated with Vogue for its Vogue Empower series on a short film on gender policing, 'Boys don't cry', directed by Vinil Mathew.", "She was appointed as the brand ambassador for the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao campaign, by the Government of India in 2015, that aims to generate awareness and improve the efficiency of welfare services intended for girls.", "She lent her voice for narrating the story of one of the eight girls who featured in Girl Rising: Woh Padhegi, Woh Udegi, a film on the education and empowerment of girls.", "Dixit was appointed the brand ambassador and launched MAA (Mothers Absolute Affection), a flagship programme to ensure adequate awareness is generated on the benefits of breastfeeding.Additionally, Dixit has made public appearances to support charities and causes.", "On 4 February 2012, Madhuri Dixit interacted with Cancer affected children on World Cancer Day which was organised by Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd at Juhu, Mumbai.", "In 2013, she launched Sanofi India's campaign on World Diabetes Day (WDD), that encourages people to take proactive steps to effectively prevent, manage and control diabetes.", "A year later, on 24 February 2014, she visited a school in Andheri, Mumbai to support the \"Support My School\" campaign.", "She participated in 'Set Beautiful Free'– an event by One Foundation to provide home, education, food and healthcare to the daughters of trafficking victims.", "In 2018, she attended a charity event by 'Nanhi Kali' NGO.On 17 March 2019, Dixit and her family adopted an abandoned puppy rescued by PETA India.", "She said, \"Abandoning a companion dog or cat is the cruelest thing to do.", "I'm happy we will be able to give this pup a new lease of life,\".In March 2021, Dixit along with other Bollywood actors John Abraham, Shilpa Shetty and Sunny Leone joined PETA India for its 20th anniversary.", "In the virtual party, awards were given to those who have been championing animal rights.", "Dixit recalling joining the organisation to help elephants recalled, \"From there on it was the beginning of a beautiful friendship.", "Two years ago, my family adopted Carmelo, a cherished dog, from PETA India.", "Since then, I urge everyone I see to adopt a dog or a cat from the shelter or from the street.", "\"'''False representation in endorsements'''In May–June 2015 the Tamil Nadu Consumer's Forum sent her notices for \"false representation\" in advertisements of Maggi, a noodle brand in which toxic levels of lead were found.", "She continued endorsing the safety of the product on Twitter, even when food regulators had already found more than 17 times the permissible limits of lead and the product was banned." ], [ "Reception and legacy", "=== Artistry ===Dixit on the ramp for PC Jeweller at the grand finale of India International Jewellery Week 2012Dixit is regarded as one of the accomplished and influential actresses of Indian cinema.", "Throughout the late 1980s, the 1990s and the early 2000s, Dixit was among the highest-paid actresses in the Indian entertainment industry.", "In 2000, the Guinness World Records book featured her as the highest-paid Indian actress.", "Dixit was placed at the first position by NDTV in 2012, in the listing of \"The most popular Bollywood actresses of all time\".", "The next year, she was placed at the fourth position, behind Amitabh Bachchan, Dilip Kumar and Shah Rukh Khan and topped among female actors as the greatest Bollywood star in a UK poll celebrating 100 years of Indian cinema.", "The same year, in a national poll conducted by CNN-IBN on the occasion of the centenary of Indian cinema, Dixit was voted at the second position, behind Sridevi, as \"India's Greatest Actress in 100 Years\".", "In 2017, Dixit topped an India Today poll as the most popular actress of Hindi cinema till date.Dixit has a significant following in the South Asian diaspora.", "While analysing her career, Reuters published, \"In her prime, Dixit was the undisputed queen of Bollywood, the world's largest film industry by audience size, and her popularity and fees rivaled even the biggest male stars.\"", "Throughout her career, Dixit has played roles in both mainstream productions and independent films, and appeared in a range of film genres, with Saibal Chatterjee of Outlook crediting ''Hum Aapke Hain Koun..!''", "as metamorphosing Dixit into a \"subcontinental icon\".", "''The New York Times'' called Dixit, \"India's biggest female star\".Discussing her performances, Baradwaj Rangan labelled her as \"the last of the all-in-one female stars who could do drama and comedy and dance\" and ''Firstpost'' called her, \"one of the last superstars of Hindi cinema\", praising her performances in ''Lajja'', ''Devdas'' and ''Dedh Ishqiya''.", "In 2010, Filmfare Magazine included her performance from ''Mrityudand'' in its list of \"80 Iconic Performances\".", "Dixit is credited in the media for her versatility and achieving a \"balance of critical acclaim and commercial success.", "\"In addition to acting, she has been noted for her skills as a dancer.", "Kathak dancer Pandit Birju Maharaj, who choreographed Dixit in ''Devdas'', calls her \"the best Bollywood dancer\" due to her versatility.", "Saroj Khan, who has collaborated with her on numerous occasions, calls her a \"choreographer's delight\".", "''Hindustan Times'' attributed her for giving a 'technical twist' to dance sequences in Hindi films.", "Dixit was the muse for Indian painter M. F. Husain.", "He got fascinated by Dixit's performance in ''Hum Aapke Hain Koun..!", "''; watching the film 67 times, and booked an entire theatre to see her comeback ''Aaja Nachle''.", "He made a series of paintings of her, and in 2000 directed ''Gaja Gamini'' starring her, which was intended as a tribute to Dixit herself.=== Media image ===Dixit's wax statue at Madame Tussauds, LondonDixit featured in Box Office India's ''Top Actresses'' list for ten consecutive years (1988–97).", "In 2001, ''Forbes'' placed her at fifth position in the list of \"top five most powerful Indian film stars\".", "In 2002 and 2014, Dixit featured in Rediff's annual \"Top Bollywood Actresses\" listing.", "She has been featured frequently on other Rediff lists, including \"Bollywood's Most Beautiful Actresses\", \"Bollywood's Best Actresses Ever\" and \"Top 10 Bollywood Actresses of all Time\".", "''The Economic Times'' featured her in the list of \"33 women who made India proud\" in 2010.In 1997, the Government of Andhra Pradesh honoured her with the \"Kalabhinetri Award\".", "In 2001, Dixit was awarded the National Citizens' Award for her work and contribution to Indian cinema.", "In 2008, the Government of India honoured her with the Padma Shri for her contribution to Indian Cinema.", "The Sathyabama University honoured her as the \"Inspiring Icon of India\" in 2015.An unauthorised biography of her named ''Madhuri Dixit'', written by professor Nandana Bose was released in 2019.Dixit is frequently referred to as one of the most attractive Indian celebrities and has been described as a sex symbol.", "Her eyes, sex appeal and urban looks have been cited by the media as her distinctive features; her smile being identified as her trademark.", "She featured in ''The Times of India''s list of 50 Beautiful Faces of cinema and ''Hindustan Times'' called her \"a classic Indian beauty\".", "Her look and performances have established her as a style icon.", "In 2007, 2013–16 and 2018, the UK magazine ''Eastern Eye'' ranked her as one of \"World's Sexiest Asian Women\".Sangestar Tso lake in Arunachal Pradesh was renamed ''Madhuri Lake'' after her, where a song from ''Koyla'' was picturised.", "She has a star named after her in the Orion constellation.", "In March 2012, a wax figure of Dixit was put on display in London's Madame Tussaud's wax museum.", "In 2017, two other figures were displayed at Madame Tussaud's Museum in Singapore and Delhi.", "Every year since its inception in 2012, Dixit has featured on ''Forbes India''s \"Celebrity 100,\" a list based on the income and popularity of India's celebrities with the exception of 2017.In 2018, she was among the twenty Indians invited for the Oscar Academy's Class of 2018." ], [ "Personal life", "Dixit with husband Shriram Nene, at their reception in 1999Amidst media speculation on her personal life, Dixit married Shriram Madhav Nene, a cardiovascular surgeon from Los Angeles, California on 17 October 1999, in a traditional ceremony held at the residence of Dixit's elder brother in Southern California.", "Nene had never seen any of her films, and was unaware of her celebrity status.", "Dixit explained their relationship by saying, \"It was very important that he didn't know me as an actress because then he would know me as a person first.", "When people have seen you as an actress, they have pre-conceived notions... None of it was there here with him.", "I found the right person, I wanted to get married and I did.\"", "Dixit and Nene's wedding reception in Mumbai was attended by several prominent Indian personalities, including then CM of Maharashtra Vilasrao Deshmukh, Shivsena chief Bal Thackeray, Dilip Kumar, Saira Banu, Yash Chopra, Sridevi, and many others.Following her marriage, Dixit relocated to Denver, Colorado, for over a decade.", "On 17 March 2003, Dixit gave birth to a son, Arin.", "Two years later, on 8 March 2005, she gave birth to another son, Ryan.", "She described motherhood as \"amazing\" and added that her kids kept \"the child in her alive\".Dixit moved back to Mumbai with her family in October 2011.Speaking about it, Dixit said, \"I always love being here.", "I have grown up here in Mumbai so for me it is like coming back home.", "It was a different phase in my life, where I wanted to have a home, family, husband and children... everything that I had dreamt of.", "\"In 2018, Dixit along with her husband, founded the production company, RnM Moving Pictures.", "They both also together earned orange belts in taekwondo." ], [ "Accolades", "Dixit has received six Filmfare Awards from a record seventeen nominations, including four Best Actress awards for ''Dil'' (1990), ''Beta'' (1992), ''Hum Aapke Hain Kaun!''", "(1994) and ''Dil To Pagal Hai'' (1997), and a Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress for ''Devdas'' (2002).", "She earned a Filmfare Special Award for completing 25 years in the Indian film industry.", "In 2008, she was awarded the Padma Shri, the fourth-highest Indian civilian award, by the Government of India for her contributions to the arts." ], [ "In popular culture", "* In a popular scene from the 1994 cult comedy ''Andaz Apna Apna'', Dixit's photograph appears on the cover of a film magazine.", "In the scene, Amar (played by Aamir Khan) teases Prem (played by Salman Khan) of having been engaged to Dixit, advertently referring to her photograph on the magazine.", "* In a popular song \"Maine Kal Ek Sapna Dekha\" from the 1997 romantic drama action film ''Sanam'', Dixit's name was referenced in the last line of the song.", "This song is picturised on main lead Sanjay Dutt as he is telling what he saw yesterday in his dream.", "He is telling about many other actresses of Bollywood that he wants all actresses close to him but in the last line he only wants to marry Madhuri Dixit.He says Banegi Madhuri Meri Dulhan (Madhuri will become my Bride).", "* In the song \"Tan Tana Tan Tan\" from the 1997 film ''Judwaa'', Dixit's name was referenced in one line along with Govinda's name.", "The song was a huge hit and was recreated in the film's 2017 remake, but the line referring to the two actors was not used.", "* In 1997, a Zee TV television serial ''Mrs.", "Madhuri Dixit'' was named after her, starring Renuka Shahane.", "* In the romantic comedy-drama ''Kuch Kuch Hota Hai'' (1998), during the summer camp there is a scene in the night time when everybody playing the Dumb Charade game and Rahul's mother (played by Farida Jalal) and Almeida (played by Johnny Lever) going to imitate one of the popular scenes of ''Hum Aapke Hain Koun!''", "so other team finds out which is the name of movie.", "So Rahul (played by Shahrukh Khan) finds name of the film and says mummy Madhuri Dixit first and then says ''Hum Aapke Hain Koun!''.", "* In mystery thriller ''Ajnabee'' (2001 film), there is a comedy scene when Lakhan Pal (L.P.) (played by Narendra Bedi) is going to tell Champa Devi (C.D.)", "(played by Amita Nangia) that u are not C.D.", "(Champa Devi) but M.D.", "and she is blushingly calling herself Madhuri Dixit.", "* In 2003, a film titled ''Main Madhuri Dixit Banna Chahti Hoon'' was released, in which a woman (played by Antara Mali) aspires to become the new Madhuri Dixit by trying her luck in Bollywood.", "The film was produced by Ram Gopal Varma and dedicated to Dixit.", "* The popular American sitcom ''The Big Bang Theory'' features a scene in the season two episode \"The Bad Fish Paradigm\", in which two of the lead characters Raj (played by Kunal Nayyar) and Sheldon (played by Jim Parsons) argue with each other over Dixit and fellow actress Aishwarya Rai.", "* It was speculated in the media that television actress Karishma Tanna would play Dixit onscreen in Sanjay Dutt's biopic ''Sanju'', which released in 2018.However, there was no reference to Dixit in the film." ], [ "See also", "* List of dancers* List of Indian film actresses" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mars Attacks" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Mars Attacks''''' is a science fiction-themed trading card series released in 1962 by Topps.", "The cards feature artwork by science fiction artists Wally Wood and Norman Saunders.", "The cards form a story arc, which tells of the invasion of Earth by cruel, hideous Martians under the command of a corrupt Martian government who conceal the fact from the Martian populace that Mars is doomed to explode and, therefore, proposes colonization of Earth to turn it into their new homeworld.", "The cards depict futuristic battle scenes and bizarre methods of Martian attack, torture and slaughter of humans, as well as various Earth nations being attacked.", "The story concludes with an expeditionary force of humans volunteering to embark on a counterattack on Mars, in which the Earth force attacks the Martians in their manner (bayoneting and bullets).", "This necessitates the Martians that are still on Mars to defend their homeworld.", "The Earth attack forces, after destroying the Martian cities and killing the Martians, depart just before Mars is destroyed in the predicted cataclysm, thus ensuring the peace and safety of Earth as the Martian race is seemingly doomed to extinction.Scholar Nathan Brownstone noted that \"The ''Mars Attacks'' cards achieved their popularity at the very time when the Cuban Missile Crisis captured the headlines, the moment when Cold War was closest to becoming radioactively hot.", "That was when a brutal zero-sum game scenario - for Humanity to survive the Martians must die - established a solid niche in Americana popular culture\".The cards proved popular with children, but depictions of explicit gore and implied sexual content caused an outcry, leading the company to halt production.", "The cards have since become collectors' items, with certain cards commanding over $3,500 at auction.In the 1980s, Topps began developing merchandise based on the ''Mars Attacks'' storyline, including mini-comic books and card reprints.", "An expanded set of 100 cards called ''Mars Attacks Archives'' was issued in 1994 by Topps and spawned a second round of merchandising.", "Director Tim Burton released a feature film called ''Mars Attacks!''", "in 1996 based on the series, spawning a third round of merchandising, including an intercompany crossover with the Image Universe, titled ''Mars Attacks Image'' and published by Image Comics.", "In 2012, Topps released a 50th anniversary expanded set of 75 cards called ''Mars Attacks Heritage'', leading to a fourth round of merchandising that continued into 2017 with the release of an official sequel series, ''Mars Attacks: The Revenge!''" ], [ "Trading cards", "Card #1: \"The Invasion Begins\"The ''Mars Attacks'' trading card series was created by Topps in 1962.Product developer Len Brown, inspired by Wally Wood's cover for EC Comics' ''Weird Science'' #16, pitched the idea to Woody Gelman.", "Gelman and Brown created the story — with Brown writing the copy — and created rough sketches.", "They enlisted Wood to flesh out the sketches and Bob Powell to finish them.", "Norman Saunders painted most of the 55-card set (Maurice Blumenfeld painted 10 - 20% of them, but Saunders provided the finishing touches to all of the images).The cards, which sold for five cents per pack of five, were test marketed by Topps through the dummy corporation Bubbles, Inc. under the name ''Attack from Space''.", "Sales were sufficient to expand the marketing and the name was changed to ''Mars Attacks''.", "The cards sparked parental and community outrage over their graphic violence and implied sexuality.", "Topps responded initially by repainting 13 of the 55 cards to reduce the gore and sexuality.", "However, inquiries from a Connecticut district attorney caused Topps to halt production of the series altogether before the replacements could even be printed." ], [ "Adaptations and merchandising", "In 1984, the first official item was released since the original set appeared: a direct copy of the original set of 55 cards, plus a 56th card that reprinted the wrapper graphics, was released by Renata Galasso Inc. through an agreement with Topps.In 1994, Topps re-released the cards as the expanded ''Mars Attacks Archives'', with the original 55 cards and 45 \"New Visions\" cards.", "The new cards are further divided into a #0 card, three subsets (\"The Unpublished 11\" (with 11 cards)), \"Mars Attacks: The Comics\" (with 10 cards) and \"Visions: New and Original\" (a.k.a.", "\"New Visions\"; with 22 cards)) and one card called \"Norm Saunders: A Self-Portrait\".", "21 artists collaborated on the new cards, including Zina Saunders, the daughter of the original artist Norman Saunders.", "Topps Comics, in conjunction with the trading cards, issued a five-issue comic book miniseries based on the original 55 cards written by Keith Giffen and drawn by Charles Adlard.", "Topps Comics continued the story in an ongoing series that lasted seven issues, a one-shot special and three more miniseries.", "''Wizard'' magazine and Topps Comics also published a #1/2 issue and an Ace Edition issue (#65).In 1995, one year after the ''Archives'' series, Screamin' Productions and Topps released a tie-in set of eight ''Mars Attacks'' vinyl model kits with an accompanying series of eight new trading cards, each one inside one of the kits.", "Bonus items that could be acquired by sending in proof-of-purchase certificates from all eight of the kits were two new nearly identical bonus cards (one oversized card with the ''Mars Attacks'' logo on the top of it and one regular-sized card without it) and a limited edition ninth vinyl model kit.In 1996, Warner Bros. released Tim Burton's feature film adaptation ''Mars Attacks!''.", "In conjunction, two hardcover novels were released: ''Mars Attacks: Martian Deathtrap'' by Nathan Archer; and ''Mars Attacks: War Dogs of the Golden Horde'' by Ray W. Murrill.", "Each contained two new trading cards inside the middle of each book (the paperback editions, however, did not have the trading cards inside them).", "A paperback movie tie-in novelization by the film's screenwriter was also published, in addition to two comic book intercompany crossovers with Image Comics continuing the Topps Comics run, titled ''Mars Attacks the Savage Dragon'' and ''Mars Attacks Image'' while respectively depicting the Martians battling the Image Comics superhero the Savage Dragon, and the Martians battling other characters from the wider Image Universe.", "Trendmasters also produced a series of toy figures based on the film.In 2012, to commemorate the franchise's 50th anniversary, Topps partnered with a variety of companies on comic books (via IDW Publishing), bobbleheads and vinyl figures (Funko POP!", "), action figures and plush toys (Mezco Toyz), costumes (Incogneato), statues and busts (Quarantine Studio), electronics skins (Gelaskins) and a commemorative hardcover book and 2013 wall calendar, both with nearly identical sets of four new trading cards (the only difference being that the book's cards had white borders on the front of the cards and the calendar's cards had green borders) (Abrams Books).", "Topps also re-released the original 55-card series again as the expanded ''Mars Attacks Heritage'', including two subsets (\"Deleted Scenes\" (with 10 cards) and \"Guide to the New Universe\" (with 15 cards)).In 2013, Topps issued ''Mars Attacks: Invasion'', a reboot series of 95 trading cards featuring a new story (''Mars Attacks: Invasion'' (cards #1-58, plus a #0 promo card from the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con)) with new artwork cards (divided into \"Mars Invades IDW\" (cards #59-77 and #91-92) and \"Art of Mars Attacks\" (cards #78-90 and #93-95)) and including four new subsets (\"Mars Attacks: Early Missions\" (with six cards), \"Mars Attacks Masterpieces\" (with five cards), \"Join the Fight!\"", "(with four cards) and \"Anatomy of a Martian\" (also with six cards)).", "This was the last ''Mars Attacks'' trading card series to be sold in retail stores as of this date; all other such series have been sold online ever since.A second series of trading cards, ''Mars Attacks: Occupation'', also featuring a second reboot series of 81 trading cards that picked up where ''Mars Attacks: Invasion'' left off (''Mars Attacks: Occupation'' (cards #1-45) with new artwork cards (divided into \"Art of Mars Attacks\" (cards #46-63), \"Factions\" (cards #64-72), \"Occupation Profiles\" (cards #73-78) and \"The Kickstarter Video\" (cards #79-81)) and including six new subsets (\"Mars Attacks Superstars\", Mars Attacks: Then and Now!", "\", \"Mars Attacks All-Star Art\" and \"Dinosaurs Attack!", "vs. Mars Attacks\" (each with nine cards (the last one of which was also available as a foil card set)), \"Attacky Packages\" (a hybrid subset between ''Mars Attacks'' and ''Wacky Packages'' with 13 cards; the last three cards were titled \"Attacky Packages Old School\" (like \"Dinosaurs Attack!", "vs. Mars Attacks\", this one, too, was also available as a foil card set)) and \"Mars Attacks/Judge Dredd\" (with 18 cards)) was funded by Topps on Kickstarter in 2015 and released in 2016.In 2017, to commemorate the franchise's 55th anniversary, Topps released an official sequel series to the original 1962 55-card series called ''Mars Attacks: The Revenge!", "'', which takes place five years after the events in the original series and chronicles a second invasion of Earth by the surviving Martians that were off-world and on Earth during the destruction of Mars.", "It contained 110 cards - the story itself (cards #1-55) and rough pencil art for the story cards (cards #P-1-P-55).", "No subsets were made for this series.", "It was sold as a complete box set containing only the unwrapped 110 cards.A third series of trading cards, ''Mars Attacks: Uprising'', also featuring a third reboot series of 92 trading cards that picked up where ''Mars Attacks: Occupation'' left off (''Mars Attacks: Uprising'' (cards #1-42 plus a #0 card labeled \"Kickstarter Backer\")) and including four new subsets (\"Mars & Dinosaurs Attack\" (nine cards plus a 10th card labeled \"X\"), \"Mars Motors\" (18 cards and six sticker cards, all done as an homage to the various ''Odd Rods'' trading card series from the 1970s made by rival company Donruss), \"Monsters from Mars Attacks\" (nine cards, all done as an homage to an earlier classic 1964 Topps trading card series titled ''Monsters from Outer Limits'') and \"Garbage Pail Kids / Mars Attacks\" (six cards)) and re-releases of two subsets from the previous two reboot series (\"Mars Attacks: Early Missions\" from ''Invasion'' and \"Dinosaurs Attack!", "vs. Mars Attacks\" from ''Occupation'') was both funded and released by Topps and Kickstarter in 2021." ], [ "Bibliography", "*Stewart, Bhob, Bill Pearson, Roger Hill, Greg Sadowski and Wallace Wood (2003).", "''Against the Grain: MAD Artist Wallace Wood''.", "TwoMorrows Publishing." ], [ "See also", "* Mars in fiction* ''Dinosaurs Attack!", "''* ''The War of the Worlds''" ], [ "References", "10.\"", "Mars Attacks Interview w/ Len Brown\" (by Kurt Kuersteiner for ''The Wrapper'' magazine #146).", "Retrieved 1/22/2021." ], [ "External links", "*''Mars Attacks'' (complete card set) ( archive) – from trading-cards.org" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Montreal Protocol" ], [ "Introduction", "The largest Antarctic ozone hole recorded as of September 2006Retrospective video on the Montreal Protocol and the collaboration between policy-makers, scientists, and industry leaders to regulate CFCs.The '''Montreal Protocol''' is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion.", "It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989.Since then, it has undergone nine revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1998 (Australia), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali) As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering.", "Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2040 (across much of the world) and 2066 (over Antarctica).", "Due to its widespread adoption and implementation, it has been hailed as an example of successful international co-operation.", "Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated that \"perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol\".", "In comparison, effective burden-sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge, where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so.", "In this case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established.", "Also, overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks.The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 198 parties (197 states and the European Union), making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history.These truly universal treaties have also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy-making process at the global scale, where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery (1973) and the international agreement signed (1985 and 1987)." ], [ "Terms and purposes", "The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that deplete stratospheric ozone.", "All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer).", "Some ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are not yet controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including nitrous oxide (N2O) For a table of ozone-depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol see:For each group of ODSs, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances must be reduced and eventually eliminated.", "This includes a 10-year phase-out for developing countries identified in Article 5 of the treaty.=== Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan ===The stated purpose of the treaty is that the signatory statesThere was a faster phase-out of halon-1211, -2402, -1301, There was a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc.)", "and some chemicals were given individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane).", "The phasing-out of the less damaging HCFCs only began in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved by 2030.There were a few exceptions for \"essential uses\" where no acceptable substitutes were initially found (for example, in the past metered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease were exempt) or Halon fire suppression systems used in submarines and aircraft (but not in general industry).The substances in Group I of Annex A are:* CFCl3 (CFC-11)* CF2Cl2 (CFC-12)* C2F3Cl3 (CFC-113)* C2F4Cl2(CFC-114)* C2F5Cl (CFC-115)The provisions of the Protocol include the requirement that the Parties to the Protocol base their future decisions on the current scientific, environmental, technical, and economic information that is assessed through panels drawn from the worldwide expert communities.", "To provide that input to the decision-making process, advances in understanding on these topics were assessed in 1989, 1991, 1994, 1998 and 2002 in a series of reports entitled Scientific assessment of ozone depletion, by the Scientific Assessment Panel (SAP).In 1990 a Technology and Economic Assessment Panel was also established as the technology and economics advisory body to the Montreal Protocol Parties.", "The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) provides, at the request of Parties, technical information related to the alternative technologies that have been investigated and employed to make it possible to virtually eliminate use of Ozone Depleting Substances (such as CFCs and Halons), that harm the ozone layer.", "The TEAP is also tasked by the Parties every year to assess and evaluate various technical issues including evaluating nominations for essential use exemptions for CFCs and halons, and nominations for critical use exemptions for methyl bromide.", "TEAP's annual reports are a basis for the Parties' informed decision-making.Numerous reports have been published by various inter-governmental, governmental and non-governmental organizations to catalogue and assess alternatives to the ozone depleting substances, since the substances have been used in various technical sectors, like in refrigeration, air conditioning, flexible and rigid foam, fire protection, aerospace, electronics, agriculture, and laboratory measurements.=== Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP) ===Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, especially Executive Committee (ExCom) 53/37 and ExCom 54/39, Parties to this Protocol agreed to set year 2013 as the time to freeze the consumption and production of HCFCs for developing countries.", "For developed countries, reduction of HCFC consumption and production began in 2004 and 2010, respectively, with 100% reduction set for 2020.Developing countries agreed to start reducing its consumption and production of HCFCs by 2015, with 100% reduction set for 2030.Hydrochlorofluorocarbons, commonly known as HCFCs, are a group of human-made compounds containing hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine and carbon.", "They are not found anywhere in nature.", "HCFC production began to take off after countries agreed to phase out the use of CFCs in the 1980s, which were found to be destroying the ozone layer.", "Like CFCs, HCFCs are used for refrigeration, aerosol propellants, foam manufacture and air conditioning.", "Unlike the CFCs, however, most HCFCs are broken down in the lowest part of the atmosphere and pose a much smaller risk to the ozone layer.", "Nevertheless, HCFCs are very potent greenhouse gases, despite their very low atmospheric concentrations, measured in parts per trillion (million million).The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foam manufacture, and fire extinguishers.", "In terms of ozone depletion potential (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that have ODP 0.6–1.0, these HCFCs have lower ODPs (0.01–0.5).", "In terms of global warming potential (GWP), in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680–10,720, HCFCs have lower GWPs (76–2,270).=== Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) ===On 1 January 2019 the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol came into force.", "Under the Kigali Amendment countries promised to reduce the use of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by more than 80% over the next 30 years.", "By 27 December 2018, 65 countries had ratified the Amendment.Produced mostly in developed countries, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) replaced CFCs and HCFCs.", "HFCs pose no harm to the ozone layer because, unlike CFCs and HCFCs, they do not contain chlorine.", "They are, however, greenhouse gases, with a high global warming potential (GWP), comparable to that of CFCs and HCFCs.", "In 2009, a study calculated that a fast phasedown of high-GWP HFCs could potentially prevent the equivalent of up to 8.8 Gt -eq ''per year'' in emissions by 2050.A proposed phasedown of HFCs was hence projected to avoid up to 0.5C of warming by 2100 under the high-HFC growth scenario, and up to 0.35C under the low-HFC growth scenario.", "Recognizing the opportunity presented for fast and effective phasing down of HFCs through the Montreal Protocol, starting in 2009 the Federated States of Micronesia proposed an amendment to phase down high-GWP HFCs, with the U.S., Canada, and Mexico following with a similar proposal in 2010.After seven years of negotiations, in October 2016 at the 28th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol in Kigali, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol adopted the Kigali Amendment whereby the Parties agreed to phase down HFCs under the Montreal Protocol.", "The amendment to the legally-binding Montreal Protocol will ensure that industrialised countries bring down their HFC production and consumption by at least 85 per cent compared to their annual average values in the period 2011–2013.A group of developing countries including China, Brazil and South Africa are mandated to reduce their HFC use by 85 per cent of their average value in 2020-22 by the year 2045.India and some other developing countries – Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, and some oil economies like Saudi Arabia and Kuwait – will cut down their HFCs by 85 per cent of their values in 2024-26 by the year 2047.On 17 November 2017, ahead of the 29th Meeting of the Parties of the Montreal Protocol, Sweden became the 20th Party to ratify the Kigali Amendment, pushing the Amendment over its ratification threshold ensuring that the Amendment would enter into force 1 January 2019." ], [ "History", "In the 1970s, the chemists Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, who were then at the University of California, Irvine, began studying the impacts of CFCs in the Earth's atmosphere.", "They discovered that CFC molecules were stable enough to remain in the atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the stratosphere where they would finally (after an average of 50–100 years for two common CFCs) be broken down by ultraviolet radiation releasing a chlorine atom.", "Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large amounts of ozone (O3) in the stratosphere.", "Their argument was based upon an analogy to contemporary work by Paul J. Crutzen and Harold Johnston, which had shown that nitric oxide (NO) could catalyze the destruction of ozone.", "(Several other scientists, including Ralph Cicerone, Richard Stolarski, Michael McElroy, and Steven Wofsy had independently proposed that chlorine could catalyze ozone loss, but none had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of chlorine.)", "Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for their work on this problem.The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of the ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet, depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead to an increase in UV-B radiation at the surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such as damage to crops and to marine phytoplankton.But the Rowland-Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries.", "The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is \"a science fiction tale...a load of rubbish...utter nonsense\".", "Robert Abplanalp, the president of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about Rowland's public statements (Roan, p. 56.", ")After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at ahearing before the U.S. House of Representatives in December 1974.As a result, significant funding was made available to study various aspects of the problem and to confirm the initial findings.", "In 1976, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released a report that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis.", "NAS continued to publish assessments of related science for the next decade.Then, in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jon Shanklin published results of abnormally low ozone concentrations above Halley Bay near the South Pole.", "They speculated that this was connected to increased levels of CFCs in the atmosphere.", "It took several other attempts to establish the Antarctic losses as real and significant, especially after NASA had retrieved matching data from its satellite recordings.", "This unforeseen phenomenon in the Antarctic, as well as NASA's scientific images of the ozone hole played an important role in the Montreal Protocol negotiations.", "The impact of these studies, the metaphor 'ozone hole', and the colourful visual representation in a time lapse animation proved shocking enough for negotiators in Montreal, Canada to take the issue seriously.TOMS satellite map showing the total ozone above the Antarctic region.", "Taken on 1 October 1983 (NASA)Parties subscribed to the Montreal Protocol by region, 1987-2013Also in 1985, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances.", "After the discovery of the ozone hole by SAGE 2 it only took 18 months to reach a binding agreement in Montreal, Canada.", "Mostafa Kamal Tolba, the head of the UNEP at the time, was considered the \"father of the Montreal Protocol\" for his role in bringing the nations together for an agreement.But the CFC industry did not give up that easily.", "As late as 1986, the Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy (an association representing the CFC industry founded by DuPont) was still arguing that the science was too uncertain to justify any action.", "In 1987, DuPont testified before the US Congress that \"We believe there is no imminent crisis that demands unilateral regulation.\"", "And even in March 1988, Du Pont Chair Richard E. Heckert would write in a letter to the United States Senate, \"we will not produce a product unless it can be made, used, handled and disposed of safely and consistent with appropriate safety, health and environmental quality criteria.", "At the moment, scientific evidence does not point to the need for dramatic CFC emission reductions.", "There is no available measure of the contribution of CFCs to any observed ozone change...\"" ], [ "Multilateral Fund", "The main objective of the ''Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol'' is to assist developing country parties to the Montreal Protocol whose annual per capita consumption and production of ozone depleting substances (ODS) is less than 0.3 kg to comply with the control measures of the Protocol.", "Currently, 147 of the 196 Parties to the Montreal Protocol meet these criteria (they are referred to as Article 5 countries).It embodies the principle agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 that countries have a common but differentiated responsibility to protect and manage the global commons.The Fund is managed by an executive committee with an equal representation of seven industrialized and seven Article 5 countries, which are elected annually by a Meeting of the Parties.", "The Committee reports annually to the Meeting of the Parties on its operations.", "The work of the Multilateral Fund on the ground in developing countries is carried out by four Implementing Agencies, which have contractual agreements with the executive committee:* United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), through its OzonAction Programme.", "* United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).", "* United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).", "* World Bank.Up to 20 percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered through their bilateral agencies in the form of eligible projects and activities.The fund is replenished on a three-year basis by the donors.", "Pledges amount to US$3.1 billion over the period 1991 to 2005.Funds are used, for example, to finance the conversion of existing manufacturing processes, train personnel, pay royalties and patent rights on new technologies, and establish national ozone offices." ], [ "Parties", "As of October 2022, all Member States of the United Nations, the Cook Islands, Niue, the Holy See, the State of Palestine as well as the European Union have ratified the original Montreal Protocol (see external link below), with the State of Palestine being the last party to ratify the agreement, bringing the total to 198.197 of those parties (with the exception of the State of Palestine) have also ratified the London, Copenhagen, Montreal, and Beijing amendments." ], [ "Effect", "Ozone-depleting gas trendsSince the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased.", "Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as the halons presently stored in fire extinguishers are released, but their rate of increase has slowed and their abundances are expected to begin to decline by about 2020.Also, the concentration of the HCFCs increased drastically at least partly because of many uses (e.g.", "used as solvents or refrigerating agents) CFCs were substituted with HCFCs.", "While there have been reports of attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g.", "by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to developed nations, the overall level of compliance has been high.", "Statistical analysis from 2010 show a clear positive signal from the Montreal Protocol to the stratospheric ozone.", "In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often been called the most successful international environmental agreement to date.", "In a 2001 report, NASA found the ozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the same thickness for the previous three years, however in 2003 the ozone hole grew to its second largest size.", "The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects of the Montreal Protocol states, \"The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in the atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery.\"", "However, a more recent study seems to point to a relative increase in CFCs due to an unknown source.Reported in 1997, significant production of CFCs occurred in Russia for sale on the black market to the EU throughout the 90s.", "Related US production and consumption was enabled by fraudulent reporting due to poor enforcement mechanisms.", "Similar illegal markets for CFCs were detected in Taiwan, Korea, and Hong Kong.The Montreal Protocol is also expected to have effects on human health.", "A 2015 report by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that the protection of the ozone layer under the treaty will prevent over 280 million cases of skin cancer, 1.5 million skin cancer deaths, and 45 million cataracts in the United States.However, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs, contribute to anthropogenic global warming.", "On a molecule-for-molecule basis, these compounds are up to 10,000 times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide.", "The Montreal Protocol currently calls for a complete phase-out of HCFCs by 2030, but does not place any restriction on HFCs.", "Since the CFCs themselves are equally powerful greenhouse gases, the mere substitution of HFCs for CFCs does not significantly increase the rate of anthropogenic climate change, but over time a steady increase in their use could increase the danger that human activity will change the climate.Policy experts have advocated for increased efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts.", "Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other.=== Regional detections of non-compliance ===In 2018, scientists monitoring the atmosphere following the 2010 phaseout date have reported evidence of continuing industrial production of CFC-11, likely in eastern Asia, with detrimental global effects on the ozone layer.", "A monitoring study detected fresh atmospheric releases of carbon tetrachloride from China's Shandong province, beginning sometime after 2012, and accounting for a large part of emissions exceeding global estimates under the Montreal Protocol." ], [ "25th anniversary celebrations", "The year 2012 marked the 25th anniversary of the signing of the Montreal Protocol.", "Accordingly, the Montreal Protocol community organized a range of celebrations at the national, regional and international levels to publicize its considerable success to date and to consider the work ahead for the future.Among its accomplishments are: The Montreal Protocol was the first international treaty to address a global environmental regulatory challenge; the first to embrace the \"precautionary principle\" in its design for science-based policymaking; the first treaty where independent experts on atmospheric science, environmental impacts, chemical technology, and economics, reported directly to Parties, without edit or censorship, functioning under norms of professionalism, peer review, and respect; the first to provide for national differences in responsibility and financial capacity to respond by establishing a multilateral fund for technology transfer; the first MEA with stringent reporting, trade, and binding chemical phase-out obligations for both developed and developing countries; and, the first treaty with a financial mechanism managed democratically by an executive board with equal representation by developed and developing countries.Within 25 years of signing, parties to the MP celebrate significant milestones.", "Significantly, the world has phased-out 98% of the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) contained in nearly 100 hazardous chemicals worldwide; every country is in compliance with stringent obligations; and, the MP has achieved the status of the first global regime with universal ratification; even the newest member state, South Sudan, ratified in 2013.UNEP received accolades for achieving global consensus that \"demonstrates the world’s commitment to ozone protection, and more broadly, to global environmental protection\"." ], [ "See also", "* Action for Climate Empowerment* Carbon footprint* Copenhagen Accord* Net capacity factor* International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer* Paris Agreement* R-134a* Section 608* Vienna Conference (1985)*Fossil fuel phase-out*Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles*Phase-out of gas boilers*Plastic bans" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "(referred to as Ozone Layer Protection)" ], [ "Further reading", "* Andersen, S. O. and K. M. Sarma.", "(2002).", "''Protecting the Ozone Layer: the United Nations History, Earthscan Press''.", "London.", "* Andersen, S. O., K. M. Sarma and K. N. Taddonio.", "(2007).", "''Technology Transfer for the Ozone Layer: Lessons for Climate Change''.", "Earthscan Press, London.", "* Benedick, Richard E. (1991).", "''Ozone Diplomacy''.", "Harvard University Press.", "(Ambassador Benedick was the Chief U.S.", "Negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the Protocol.", ")* Brodeur, Paul (1986).", "\"Annals of Chemistry: In the Face of Doubt.\"", "''The New Yorker'', 9 June 1986, pp. 70–87.", "* Chasek, Pam, David Downie, and J.W.", "Brown (2013).", "G''lobal Environmental Politics'', 6th ed., Boulder: Westview Press.", "* Dotto, Lydia and Harold Schiff (1978).", "''The Ozone War''.", "New York: Doubleday (publisher).", "* Downie, David (1993).", "\"Comparative Public Policy of Ozone Layer Protection.\"", "''Political Science'' (NZ) 45(2): (December): 186–197.", "* Downie, David (1995).", "\"Road Map or False Trail: Evaluating the Precedence of the Ozone Regime as Model and Strategy for Global Climate Change,\" ''International Environmental Affairs'', 7(4):321–345 (Fall 1995).", "* Downie, David (1999).", "\"The Power to Destroy: Understanding Stratospheric Ozone Politics as a Common Pool Resource Problem\", in J. Barkin and G. Shambaugh (eds.)", "''Anarchy and the Environment: The International Relations of Common Pool Resources''.", "Albany: State University of New York Press.", "* David L. Downie (2012).", "\"The Vienna Convention, Montreal Protocol and Global Policy to Protect Stratospheric Ozone\", in P. Wexler et al.", "(eds.)", "''Chemicals, Environment, Health: A Global Management Perspective''.", "Oxford: Taylor & Francis.", "* Downie, David (2013) \"Stratospheric Ozone Depletion.\"", "''The Routledge Handbook of Global Environmental Politics''.", "New York: Routledge.", "* Farman, J.C., B.G.", "Gardiner, and J.D.", "Shanklin (1985).", "\"Large Losses of Total Ozone in Antarctica Reveal Seasonal / Interaction.\"", "''Nature'' 315: 207–210, 16 May 1985.", "* Gareau, Brian J.", "(2013).", "''From Precaution to Profit: Contemporary Challenges to Environmental Protection in the Montreal Protocol''.", "New Haven & London: Yale University Press.", "* Grundmann, Reiner.", "(2001).", "''Transnational Environmental Policy: Reconstructing Ozone'', London: Routledge.", "* Litfin, Karen T. (1994).", "''Ozone Discourses''.", "Columbia University Press.", "* Molina, Mario and F. Sherwood Rowland (1974).", "\"Stratospheric Sink for Chlorofluoromethanes: Chlorine Atomic Catalyzed Destruction of Ozone.\"", "''Nature'' 249: 810–812, 28 June 1974.", "* Morissette, P.M. (1989).", "\"The evolution of policy responses to stratospheric ozone depletion.\"", "''Natural Resources Journal'' 29: 793–820.", "* Parson, Edward (2003).", "''Protecting the Ozone Layer: Science and Strategy''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Roan, Sharon (1989).", "''Ozone Crisis: The 15-Year Evolution of a Sudden Global Emergency''.", "New York, John Wiley and Sons * United Nations Environmental Programme.", "(2012). ''", "The Montreal Protocol and The Green Economy''.", "* Velders, G. J. M., S. O. Andersen, J. S. Daniel, D. W. Fahey, and M. McFarland.", "(2007). ''", "The Importance of the Montreal Protocol in Protecting the Climate''.", "Proc.", "of the Natl.", "Acad.", "Of Sci., 104(12), 4814–4819, .", "* Velders, G. J. M., D. W. Fahey, J.", "S Daniel, M. McFarland, and S. O. Andersen.", "(2009). ''", "The Large Contribution of Projected HFC Emissions to Future Climate Forcing''.", "Proc.", "of the Natl.", "Acad.", "Of Sci., 106(27), .", "* Velders, G. J. M., A. R. Ravishankara, M. K. Miller, M. J. Molina, J. Alcamo, J. S. Daniel, D. W. Fahey, S. A. Montzka, and S. Reimann.", "(2012). ''", "Preserving Montreal Protocol Climate Benefits by Limiting HFCs''.", "Science, 335(6071), 922–923, ." ], [ "External links", "* Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol* The Montreal Protocol* The Vienna Convention* Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) Controlled Under the Montreal Protocol* U.S. EPA Ozone Layer Protection Information Home Page* The Montreal Protocol Who's Who * by F.Sherwood Rowland and Mario J.Molina* Has the Montreal Protocol been successful in reducing ozone-depleting gases in the atmosphere?", "(NOAA Aeronomy Lab)* Doomsday Déjà vu: Ozone Depletion's Lessons for Global Warming by Ben Lieberman* EIA reports: Reports on illegal trade and solutions.", "* Introductory note by Edith Brown Weiss, procedural history note and audiovisual material on the ''Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer'' in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law* Green Cooling Initiative* Green Cooling Initiative on alternative natural refrigerants cooling technologies" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moncton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Moncton''' (; ) is the most populous city in the Canadian province of New Brunswick.", "Situated in the Petitcodiac River Valley, Moncton lies at the geographic centre of the Maritime Provinces.", "The city has earned the nickname \"Hub City\" because of its central inland location in the region and its history as a railway and land transportation hub for the Maritimes.", "As of the 2021 Census, the city had a population of 79,470.The metropolitan population in 2022 was 171,608, making it the fastest growing CMA in Canada for the year with a growth rate of 5.3%.", "Its land area is .Although the Moncton area was first settled in 1733, Moncton was officially founded in 1766 with the arrival of Pennsylvania German immigrants from Philadelphia.", "Initially an agricultural settlement, Moncton was not incorporated until 1855.It was named for Lt. Col. Robert Monckton, the British officer who had captured nearby Fort Beauséjour a century earlier.", "A significant wooden shipbuilding industry had developed in the community by the mid-1840s, allowing for the civic incorporation in 1855.But the shipbuilding economy collapsed in the 1860s, causing the town to lose its civic charter in 1862.Moncton regained its charter in 1875 after the community's economy rebounded, mainly due to a growing railway industry.", "In 1871, the Intercolonial Railway of Canada chose Moncton as its headquarters, and Moncton remained a railway town for well over a century until the Canadian National Railway (CNR) locomotive shops closed in the late 1980s.Although Moncton's economy was traumatized twice—by the collapse of the shipbuilding industry in the 1860s and by the closure of the CNR locomotive shops in the 1980s—the city was able to rebound strongly on both occasions.", "It adopted the motto ''Resurgo'' (Latin: \"I rise again\") after its rebirth as a railway town.", "Its economy is stable and diversified, primarily based on its traditional transportation, distribution, retailing, and commercial heritage, and supplemented by strength in the educational, health care, financial, information technology, and insurance sectors.", "The strength of Moncton's economy has received national recognition and the local unemployment rate is consistently less than the national average.On 1 January 2023, Moncton annexed an area including Charles Lutes Road and Zack Road; revised census information has not been released." ], [ "History", "Acadians settled the head of the Bay of Fundy in the 1670s.", "The first reference to the \"Petcoucoyer River\" was on the De Meulles map of 1686.Settlement of the Petitcodiac and Memramcook river valleys began about 1700, gradually extending inland and reaching the site of present-day Moncton in 1733.The first Acadian settlers in the Moncton area established a marshland farming community and chose to name their settlement ''Le Coude'' (\"The Elbow\"), an allusion to the 90° bend in the river near the site of the settlement.Fort Beauséjour in 1755.The Acadian fort was captured by British forces under the command of Robert Monckton.In 1755, nearby Fort Beausejour was captured by British forces under the command of Lt. Col. Robert Monckton.", "The Beaubassin region including the Memramcook and Petitcodiac river valleys subsequently fell under English control.", "Later that year, Governor Charles Lawrence issued a decree ordering the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia (including recently captured areas of Acadia such as Le Coude).", "This action came to be known as the \"Great Upheaval\".The reaches of the upper Petitcodiac River valley then came under the control of the Philadelphia Land Company (one of the principals of which was Benjamin Franklin.)", "In 1766, Pennsylvania German settlers arrived to reestablish the preexisting farming community at Le Coude.", "The Settlers consisted of eight families: Heinrich Stief (Steeves), Jacob Treitz (Trites), Matthias Sommer (Somers), Jacob Reicker (Ricker), Charles Jones (Schantz), George Wortmann (Wortman), Michael Lutz (Lutes), and George Koppel (Copple).", "There is a plaque dedicated in their honour at the mouth of Hall's Creek.", "They renamed the settlement \"The Bend\".", "The Bend remained an agricultural settlement for nearly 80 more years.", "Even by 1836, there were only 20 households in the community.", "At that time, the Westmorland Road became open to year-round travel and a regular mail coach service was established between Saint John and Halifax.", "The Bend became an important transfer and rest station along the route.", "Over the next decade, lumbering and then shipbuilding became important industries in the area.The community's turning point came when Joseph Salter took over (and expanded) a shipyard at the Bend in 1847.The shipyard grew to employ about 400 workers.", "The Bend subsequently developed a service-based economy to support the shipyard and gradually began to acquire all the amenities of a growing town.", "The prosperity engendered by the wooden shipbuilding industry allowed The Bend to incorporate as the town of Moncton in 1855.Although the town was named for Monckton, a clerical error at the time the town was incorporated resulted in the misspelling of its name, which has remained to the present day.", "Moncton's first mayor was the shipbuilder Joseph Salter.In 1857, the European and North American Railway opened its line from Moncton to nearby Shediac.", "This was followed in 1859 by a line from Moncton to Saint John.", "At about the time of the railway's arrival, the popularity of steam-powered ships forced an end to the era of wooden shipbuilding.", "The Salter shipyard closed in 1858.The resulting industrial collapse caused Moncton to surrender its civic charter in 1862.The Intercolonial Railway of Canada depot in Moncton in 1904.The city's economy was revitalized when it was selected as the railway's headquarters in 1871.Moncton's economic depression did not last long; a second era of prosperity came to the area in 1871, when Moncton was selected to be the headquarters of the Intercolonial Railway of Canada (ICR).", "The arrival of the ICR in Moncton was a seminal event for the community.", "For the next 120 years, the history of the city was firmly linked with the railway's.", "In 1875, Moncton reincorporated as a town, and a year later, the ICR line to Quebec opened.", "The railway boom that emanated from this and the associated employment growth allowed Moncton to achieve city status on April 23, 1890.The Canadian National Railway station in 1927Moncton grew rapidly during the early 20th century, particularly after provincial lobbying helped the city become the eastern terminus of the massive National Transcontinental Railway project in 1912.In 1918, the federal government merged the ICR and the National Transcontinental Railway (NTR) into the newly formed Canadian National Railways (CNR) system.", "The ICR shops became CNR's major locomotive repair facility for the Maritimes and Moncton became the headquarters for CNR's Maritime division.", "The T. Eaton Company's catalogue warehouse moved to the city in the early 1920s, employing over 700 people.", "Transportation and distribution became increasingly important to Moncton's economy in the mid-20th century.", "The first scheduled air service out of Moncton was established in 1928.During the Second World War, the Canadian Army built a large military supply base in the city to service the Maritime military establishment.", "The CNR continued to dominate the economy of the city; railway employment in Moncton peaked at nearly 6,000 workers in the 1950s before beginning a slow decline.The Eaton's catalogue warehouse in 1927.The company built the warehouse as Moncton was a centre for railways and shipping.Moncton was placed on the Trans-Canada Highway network in the early 1960s after Route 2 was built along the city's northern perimeter.", "Later, the Route 15 was built between the city and Shediac.", "At the same time, the Petitcodiac River Causeway was constructed.", "The Université de Moncton was founded in 1963 and became an important resource in the development of Acadian culture in the area.The late 1970s and the 1980s were a period of economic hardship for the city as several major employers closed or restructured.", "The Eatons catalogue division, CNR's locomotive shops facility and CFB Moncton closed during this time, throwing thousands of citizens out of work.The city diversified in the early 1990s with the rise of information technology, led by call centres that made use of the city's bilingual workforce.", "By the late 1990s, retail, manufacturing and service expansion began to occur in all sectors and within a decade of the closure of the CNR locomotive shops Moncton had more than made up for its employment losses.", "This dramatic turnaround in the city's fortunes has been termed the \"Moncton Miracle\".The community's growth has continued unabated since the 1990s, actually accelerating.", "The confidence of the community has been bolstered by its ability to host major events such as the Francophonie Summit in 1999, a Rolling Stones concert in 2005, the Memorial Cup in 2006, and both the IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics and a neutral site regular season CFL football game in 2010.Positive developments include the Atlantic Baptist University (later renamed Crandall University) achieving full university status and relocating to a new campus in 1996, the Greater Moncton Roméo LeBlanc International Airport opening a new terminal building and becoming a designated international airport in 2002, and the opening of the new Gunningsville Bridge to Riverview in 2005.In 2002, Moncton became Canada's first officially bilingual city.", "In the 2006 census, it was designated a Census Metropolitan Area and became New Brunswick's largest metropolitan area." ], [ "Geography", "Moncton is located along the north bank of the Petitcodiac River, at a point where the river bends acutely from a west–east to north–south flow.Moncton lies in southeastern New Brunswick, at the geographic centre of the Maritime Provinces.", "The city is along the north bank of the Petitcodiac River at a point where the river bends acutely from west−east to north−south flow.", "This geographical feature has contributed significantly to historical names for the community.", "''Petitcodiac'' in the Mi'kmaq language has been translated as \"bends like a bow\".", "The early Acadian settlers in the region named their community ''Le Coude'' (\"the elbow\").", "Subsequent English immigrants changed the settlement's name to The Bend of the Petitcodiac (or simply \"The Bend\").The Petitcodiac river valley at Moncton is broad and relatively flat, bounded by a long ridge to the north (Lutes Mountain) and by the rugged Caledonia Highlands to the south.", "Moncton lies at the original head of navigation on the river, but a causeway to Riverview (constructed in 1968) resulted in extensive sedimentation of the river channel downstream and rendered the Moncton area of the waterway unnavigable.", "On April 14, 2010, the causeway gates were opened in an effort to restore the silt-laden river.===Tidal bore===Close-up of a tidal bore on the Petitcodiac River in Moncton.", "The River exhibits one of North America's few examples of a tidal bore.The Petitcodiac River exhibits one of North America's few tidal bores: a regularly occurring wave that travels up the river on the leading edge of the incoming tide.", "The bore is a result of the Bay of Fundy's extreme tides.", "Originally, the bore was very impressive, sometimes between high and extending across the width of the Petitcodiac River in the Moncton area.", "This wave occurred twice a day at high tide, travelling at an average speed of and producing an audible roar.", "Unsurprisingly, the \"bore\" became a very popular early tourist attraction for the city, but when the Petitcodiac causeway was built in the 1960s, the river channel quickly silted in and reduced the bore so that it rarely exceeded in height.", "On April 14, 2010, the causeway gates were opened in an effort to restore the silt-laden river.", "A recent tidal bore since the opening of the causeway gates measured a wave, unseen for many years.===Climate===Despite being less than from the Bay of Fundy and less than from the Northumberland Strait, the climate tends to be more continental than maritime during the summer and winter seasons, with maritime influences somewhat tempering the transitional seasons of spring and autumn.Moncton has a warm summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification ''Dfb'') with uniform precipitation distribution.", "Winter days are typically cold but sunny, with solar radiation generating some warmth.", "Daytime high temperatures usually range a few degrees below the freezing point.", "Major snowfalls can result from Nor'easter ocean storms moving up the east coast of North America.", "These major snowfalls typically average 20–30 cm (8–12 in) and are frequently mixed with rain or freezing rain.", "Spring is often delayed because the sea ice that forms in the nearby Gulf of St. Lawrence during the winter requires time to melt, and this cools onshore winds, which can extend inland as far as Moncton.", "The ice burden in the gulf has diminished considerably over the last decade, and the springtime cooling effect has weakened as a result.", "Daytime temperatures above freezing are typical by late February.", "Trees are usually in full leaf by May.", "Summers are warm, sometimes hot, and can be somewhat humid due to the seasonal prevailing westerly winds strengthening the climate's continental tendencies.", "Daytime highs sometimes reach more than 30 °C (86 °F).", "Rainfall is generally modest, especially in late July and August, and short periods of drought occur on occasion.", "Autumn daytime temperatures remain mild until late October.", "First snowfalls usually do not occur until late November and consistent snow cover on the ground does not happen until late December.", "New Brunswick's Fundy coast occasionally experiences the effects of post-tropical storms.", "The stormiest weather of the year, with the greatest precipitation and the strongest winds, usually occurs during the fall/winter transition (November to mid-January).The highest temperature ever recorded in Moncton was on August 18 and 19, 1935.The coldest ever recorded was on February 5, 1948." ], [ "Cityscape", "Skyline of Downtown Moncton, with the Bell Aliant Tower to the right.", "The Tower is the tallest free-standing structure in Atlantic Canada.Moncton generally remains a \"low rise\" city, but its skyline encompasses buildings and structures with varying architectural styles from many periods.", "The city's most dominant structure is the Bell Aliant Tower, a microwave communications tower built in 1971.When it was constructed, it was the tallest microwave communications tower of its kind in North America.", "It remains the tallest structure in Moncton, dwarfing the neighbouring Place L’Assomption by .", "Indeed, the Bell Aliant Tower is also the tallest free-standing structure in all four Atlantic provinces.", "Assumption Place is a 20-story office building and the headquarters of Assumption Mutual Life Insurance.", "This building is tall and tied with Brunswick Square (Saint John) as the tallest building in the province.", "The Blue Cross Centre is a nine-story building in Downtown Moncton.", "It is architecturally distinctive, encompasses a full city block, and is the city's largest office building by square footage.", "It is the home of Medavie Blue Cross and the Moncton Public Library.", "There are about a half dozen other buildings in Moncton between eight and 12 stories, including the Delta Beausejour and Brunswick Crowne Plaza Hotels and the Terminal Plaza office complex.Centennial Park is one of several public parks managed by the city.===Urban parks===The most popular park in the area is Centennial Park, which contains an artificial beach, lighted cross country skiing and hiking trails, the city's largest playground, lawn bowling and tennis facilities, a boating pond, a treetop adventure course, and Rocky Stone Field, a city owned 2,500 seat football stadium with artificial turf, and home to the Moncton Minor Football Association.The city's other main parks are Mapleton Park in the city's north end, Irishtown Nature Park (one of the largest urban nature parks in Canada) and St. Anselme Park (located in Dieppe).", "The numerous neighbourhood parks throughout the metro Moncton area include Bore View Park (which overlooks the Petitcodiac River), and the downtown Victoria Park, which features a bandshell, flower gardens, fountain, and the city's cenotaph.", "There is an extensive system of hiking and biking trails in Metro Moncton.", "The Riverfront Trail is part of the Trans Canada Trail system, and various monuments and pavilions can be found along its length." ], [ "Demographics", "In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the City of Moncton had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of .", "With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.Moncton's urban area (''population centre'') had a population of living in an area of .", "Residents lived in 51,830 dwellings out of the 54,519 total private dwellings.", "Greater Moncton, the Census Metropolitan Area (CMA), had a population of living in of its total private dwellings; a change of from its 2016 population of .", "The CMA includes the neighbouring city of Dieppe and the town of Riverview, as well as adjacent suburban areas in Westmorland and Albert counties.", "With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.Moncton's urban area is the third largest in Atlantic Canada, after Halifax, Nova Scotia, and St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, and the second largest in The Maritimes.In 2016, the median age in Moncton was 41.4, close to the national median age of 41.2.The 2021 census reported that immigrants (individuals born outside Canada) comprise 8,460 persons or 10.9% of the total population of Moncton.", "Of the total immigrant population, the top countries of origin were Philippines (795 persons or 9.4%), India (655 persons or 7.7%), United States of America (555 persons or 6.6%), China (475 persons or 5.6%), Nigeria (470 persons or 5.6%), United Kingdom (395 persons or 4.7%), Syria (385 persons or 4.6%), South Korea (380 persons or 4.5%), France (290 persons or 3.4%), and Democratic Republic of the Congo (270 persons or 3.2%).=== Ethnicity ===As of 2021, approximately 82.4% of Moncton's residents were of European ancestry, while 14.9% were visible minorities and 2.7% were Indigenous.", "The largest ethnic minority groups in Moncton were Black (5.3%), South Asian (3.0%), Arab (1.5%), Filipino (1.3%), Chinese (0.9%), Southeast Asian (0.8%), Korean (0.7%), and Latin American (0.7%).+ Panethnic groups in the City of Moncton (2001−2021)Panethnic group20212016201120062001 European 63,780 63,130 62,730 60,575 58,450 African 4,075 1,830 1,180 710 555 South Asian 2,310 330 490 265 145 Indigenous 2,080 1,795 1,415 640 470 Southeast Asian 1,595 665 505 115 95 East Asian 1,300 1,085 690 275 215 Middle Eastern 1,260 950 270 185 65 Latin American 565 195 85 55 25 Other/multiracial 440 135 85 150 65 Total responses 77,405 70,115 67,450 62,965 60,080 Total population 79,470 71,889 69,074 64,128 61,046 === Language ===English and French is used on the sign, the two most spoken languages in the city.+Canada Census Mother Tongue - Moncton, New Brunswick Census Total Year Responses Count Trend Pop % Count Trend Pop % Count Trend Pop % Count Trend Pop % 45,765 4.68% 58.52% 21,375 0.95% 27.33% 2,230 79.12% 2.85% 8,470 51.36% 10.83% 43,720 1.60% 61.87% 21,580 1.43% 30.54% 1,245 15.81% 1.76% 4,120 61.57% 5.83% 43,030 63.34% 21,275 31.32% 1,075 1.58% 2,550 3.75%Moncton is a bilingual city, 58.5% of its residents having English as their mother tongue, while 27.3% have French, 2.9% learned both English and French as a first language, and 10.8% speak another language as their mother tongue.", "About 46% of the city population is bilingual and understands both English and French; the only other Canadian cities that approach this level of linguistic duality are Ottawa, Sudbury, and Montreal.", "Moncton became the first officially bilingual city in the country in 2002.This means that all municipal services, as well as public notices and information, are available in both French and English.", "The adjacent city of Dieppe is about 64% Francophone and has benefited from an ongoing rural depopulation of the Acadian Peninsula and areas in northern and eastern New Brunswick.", "The town of Riverview meanwhile is heavily (95%) Anglophone.Common non-official languages spoken as mother tongues are Arabic (1.4%), Punjabi (0.7%), Chinese Languages (0.7%), Tagalog (0.6%), Korean (0.6%), Spanish (0.6%), Vietnamese (0.5%), and Portuguese (0.5%).", "1.2% of residents listed both English and a non-official language as mother tongues, while 0.4% listed both French and a non-official language.=== Religion ===According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Moncton included:*Christianity (45,645 persons or 59.0%)*Irreligion (26,615 persons or 34.4%)*Islam (2,485 persons or 3.2%)*Hinduism (995 persons or 1.3%)*Sikhism (605 persons or 0.8%)*Judaism (205 persons or 0.3%)*Buddhism (180 persons or 0.2%)*Indigenous Spirituality (10 persons or <0.1%)*Other (660 persons or 0.9%)" ], [ "Economy", "The underpinnings of the local economy are based on Moncton's heritage as a commercial, distribution, transportation, and retailing centre.", "This is due to Moncton's central location in the Maritimes: it has the largest catchment area in Atlantic Canada with 1.6 million people living within a three-hour drive of the city.", "The insurance, information technology, educational, and health care sectors also are major factors in the local economy with the city's two hospitals alone employing over five thousand people, along with a growing high tech sector that includes companies such as Nanoptix, International Game Technology, OAO Technology Solutions, BMM Test Labs, TrustMe, and BelTek Systems Desig.The Blue Cross Centre is the headquarters for Medavie Blue Cross.", "A number of headquarters are located in Moncton.Moncton has garnered national attention because of the strength of its economy.", "The local unemployment rate averages around 6%, which is below the national average.", "In 2004 ''Canadian Business'' magazine named it \"The best city for business in Canada\", and in 2007 FDi magazine named it the fifth most business-friendly small-sized city in North America.Moncton's high proportion of bilingual workers and its status as border-city between majority francophone and majority anglophone areas makes it an attractive centre for both federal employment and the stationing of call-centres for Canadian companies (who provide services in both languages).", "The city is home to the regional head offices for several Canadian federal agencies such as Corrections Canada, Transport Canada, the Gulf Fisheries Centre and the Atlantic Canada Opportunities Agency.", "There are 37 call centres in the city which employ over 5,000 people.", "Some of the larger centres include Asurion, Numeris (formerly BBM Canada), Exxon Mobil, Royal Bank of Canada, Tangerine Bank (formerly ING Direct), UPS, Fairmont Hotels and Resorts, Rogers Communications, and Nordia Inc.A number of nationally or regionally prominent corporations have their head offices in Moncton including Atlantic Lottery Corporation, Assumption Life Insurance, Medavie Blue Cross Insurance, Armour Transportation Systems and Major Drilling Group International.", "TD Bank announced in 2018 a new banking services centre to be located in Moncton which will employ over 1,000 people (including a previously announced customer contact centre).", "Meanwhile several arms of the Irving corporation have their head offices and/or major operations in greater Moncton.", "These include Midland Transport, Majesta/Royale Tissues, Irving Personal Care, Master Packaging, Brunswick News, and Cavendish Farms.", "Kent Building Supplies (an Irving subsidiary) opened their main distribution centre in the Caledonia Industrial Park in 2014.The Irving group of companies employs several thousand people in the Moncton region.There are three large industrial parks in the metropolitan area.", "The Irving operations are concentrated in the Dieppe Industrial Park.", "The Moncton Industrial Park in the city's west end has been expanded.", "Molson/Coors opened a brewery in the Caledonia Industrial Park in 2007, its first new brewery in over fifty years.", "All three industrial parks also have large concentrations of warehousing and regional trucking facilities.Downtown Moncton acts as the central business district for the city.", "It houses a number of government and financial offices.A new four-lane Gunningsville Bridge was opened in 2005, connecting downtown Riverview directly with downtown Moncton.", "On the Moncton side, the bridge connects with an extension of Vaughan Harvey Boulevard as well as to Assumption Boulevard and will serve as a catalyst for economic growth in the downtown area.", "This has become already evident as an expansion to the Blue Cross Centre was completed in 2006 and a Marriott Residence Inn opened in 2008.The new regional law courts on Assumption Blvd opened in 2011.A new 8,800 seat downtown arena (the Avenir Centre) recently opened in September 2018.On the Riverview side, the Gunningsville Bridge now connects to a new ring road around the town and is expected to serve as a catalyst for development in east Riverview.The retail sector in Moncton has become one of the most important pillars of the local economy.", "Major retail projects such as Champlain Place in Dieppe and the Wheeler Park Power Centre on Trinity Drive have become major destinations for locals and for tourists alike.Magnetic Hill Tourism is an important industry in Moncton and historically owes its origins to the presence of two natural attractions, the tidal bore of the Petitcodiac River (see above) and the optical illusion of Magnetic Hill.", "The tidal bore was the first phenomenon to become an attraction but the construction of the Petitcodiac causeway in the 1960s effectively extirpated the attraction.", "Magnetic Hill, on the city's northwest outskirts, is the city's most famous attraction.", "The Magnetic Hill area includes (in addition to the phenomenon itself), a golf course, major water park, zoo, and an outdoor concert facility.", "A $90 million casino/hotel/entertainment complex opened at Magnetic Hill in 2010." ], [ "Culture", "Capitol Theatre is a performing arts venue and hosts productions for the Atlantic Ballet Theatre of Canada, and Theatre New Brunswick.Moncton's Capitol Theatre, an 800-seat restored 1920s-era vaudeville house on Main Street, is the main centre for cultural entertainment for the city.", "The theatre hosts a performing arts series and provides a venue for various theatrical performances as well as Symphony New Brunswick and the Atlantic Ballet Theatre of Canada.", "The adjacent Empress Theatre offers space for smaller performances and recitals.", "The Molson Canadian Centre at Casino New Brunswick provides a 2,000-seat venue for major touring artists and performing groups.The Moncton-based Atlantic Ballet Theatre tours mainly in Atlantic Canada but also tours nationally and internationally on occasion.", "Théâtre l'Escaouette is a Francophone live theatre company which has its own auditorium and performance space on Botsford Street.", "The Anglophone Live Bait Theatre is based in the nearby university town of Sackville.", "There are several private dance and music academies in the metropolitan area, including the Capitol Theatre's own performing arts school.Aberdeen Cultural Centre is an Acadian cultural cooperative containing multiple studios and galleries.The Aberdeen Cultural Centre is a major Acadian cultural cooperative containing multiple studios and galleries.", "Among other tenants, the centre houses the Galerie Sans Nom, the principal private art gallery in the city.The city's two main museums are the Moncton Museum at Resurgo Place on Mountain Road and the Musée acadien at Université de Moncton.", "The Moncton Museum reopened following major renovations and an expansion to include the Transportation Discovery Centre.", "The Discovery Centre includes many hands on exhibits highlighting the city's transportation heritage.", "The city also has several recognized historical sites.", "The Free Meeting House was built in 1821 and is a New England–style meeting house located adjacent to the Moncton Museum.", "The Thomas Williams House, a former home of a city industrialist built in 1883, is now maintained in period style and serves as a genealogical research centre and is also home to several multicultural organizations.", "The Treitz Haus is located on the riverfront adjacent to Bore View Park and has been dated to 1769 both by architectural style and by dendrochronology.", "It is the only surviving building from the Pennsylvania Dutch era and is the oldest surviving building in the province of New Brunswick.The Treitz Haus in Moncton, New BrunswickIn film production, the city has since 1974 been home to the National Film Board of Canada's French-language Studio Acadie.Moncton is home to the Frye Festival, an annual bilingual literary celebration held in honour of world-renowned literary critic and favourite son Northrop Frye.", "This event attracts noted writers and poets from around the world and takes place in the month of April.The Atlantic Nationals Automotive Extravaganza, held each July, is the largest annual gathering of classic cars in Canada.", "Other notable events include The Atlantic Seafood Festival in August, The HubCap Comedy Festival, and the World Wine Festival, both held in the spring.Our Lady of the Assumption Cathedral is the location of an interpretation centre, Monument for Recognition in the 21st century (MR21)." ], [ "Sports", "===Facilities===The Moncton Sports Dome is an indoor air-supported building used for a number of different sports and recreational activities.The Avenir Centre is an 8,800-seat arena which serves as a venue for major concerts and sporting events and is the home of the Moncton Wildcats of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League and the Moncton Magic of the National Basketball League of Canada.", "The CN Sportplex is a major recreational facility which has been built on the former CN Shops property.", "It includes ten ballfields, six soccer fields, an indoor rink complex with four ice surfaces (the Superior Propane Centre) and the Hollis Wealth Sports Dome, an indoor air supported multi-use building.", "The Sports Dome is large enough to allow for year-round football, soccer and golf activities.", "A newly constructed YMCA near the CN Sportsplex has extensive cardio and weight training facilities, as well as three indoor pools.", "The CEPS at Université de Moncton contains an indoor track and a swimming pool with diving towers.", "The new Moncton Stadium, also located at the U de M campus was built for the 2010 IAAF World Junior Track & Field Championships.", "It has a permanent seating for 10,000, but is expandable to a capacity of over 20,000 for events such as professional Canadian football.", "The only velodrome in Atlantic Canada is in Dieppe.", "It has since been closed after 17 years of existence due to safety concerns in May 2018.The metro area has a total of 12 indoor hockey rinks and one curling club, Curl Moncton.", "Other public sporting and recreational facilities are scattered throughout the metropolitan area, including a new $18 million aquatic centre in Dieppe opened in 2009.===Sports teams===The Moncton Wildcats play major junior hockey in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL).", "They won the President's Cup, the QMJHL championship in both 2006 and 2010.Historically there has been a longstanding presence of a Moncton-based team in the Maritime Junior A Hockey League, but the Dieppe Commandos (formerly known as the Moncton Beavers) relocated to Edmundston at the end of the 2017 season.", "Historically, Moncton also was home to a professional American Hockey League franchise from 1978 to 1994.The New Brunswick Hawks won the AHL Calder Cup by defeating the Binghamton Whalers in 1981–1982.The Moncton Mets played baseball in the New Brunswick Senior Baseball League and won the Canadian Senior Baseball Championship in 2006.In 2015, the Moncton Fisher Cats began play in the New Brunswick Senior Baseball League.", "They were formed by a merger between the Moncton Mets and the Hub City Brewers of the NBSBL.", "In 2011, the Moncton Miracles began play as one of the seven charter franchises of the professional National Basketball League of Canada.", "The franchise failed at the end of the 2016/17 season, to be immediately replaced by a new NBL franchise, the Moncton Magic, who played their inaugural season in 2017/18.The Universite de Moncton has a number of active CIS university sports programs including hockey, soccer, and volleyball.", "These teams are a part of the Canadian Interuniversity Sport program.+ Club Sport League Venue Established Championships Moncton Magic Basketball NBL Canada Avenir Centre 2017 1 – NBLC Championship 2019 Moncton Wildcats Ice hockey QMJHL Avenir Centre 1996 2 – President's Cup (QMJHL) Moncton Fisher Cats Baseball NBSBL Kiwanis Park 2015 1 – NBSBL Championship (2017) Moncton Mustangs Football MFL Rocky Stone Field 2004 5 – Maritime Bowl Moncton Mavericks Lacrosse ECJLL (JR A) Superior Propane Centre 2006 1 (Jr.B 2008) U de M Aigles Bleus Ice hockey (M/F) Soccer (M/F) Volleyball (F) track and field (M/F) Cross country running (M/F) AUS Aréna Jean-Louis-Lévesque U de M CEPS Stade Moncton Stadium 1964 Men's Hockey – 11 (AUS), 4 (CIS) Women's Hockey – 1 (AUS) Women's Volleyball – 5 (AUS) Men's Athletics – 6 (AUS) Women's Athletics – 2 (AUS) Crandall Chargers Baseball (M) Soccer (M/F) Basketball (M/F) Cross country running (M/F) ACAA CIBA Various Campus Facilities 1949 1 – CIBA Regional Championships===Major events===Moncton Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium that has hosted a number of events, including several games in the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup.Moncton has hosted many large sporting events.", "The 2006 Memorial Cup was held in Moncton with the hometown Moncton Wildcats losing in the championship final to rival Quebec Remparts.", "Moncton hosted the Canadian Interuniversity Sports (CIS) Men's University Hockey Championship in 2007 and 2008.The World Men's Curling Championship was held in Moncton in 2009; the second time this event has taken place in the city.Moncton also hosted the 2010 IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics.", "This was the largest sporting event ever held in Atlantic Canada, with athletes from over 170 countries in attendance.", "The new 10,000-seat capacity Moncton Stadium was built for this event on the Université de Moncton campus.", "The construction of this new stadium led directly to Moncton being awarded a regular season neutral site CFL game between the Toronto Argonauts and the Edmonton Eskimos, which was held on September 26, 2010.This was the first neutral site regular season game in the history of the Canadian Football League and was played before a capacity crowd of 20,750.Additional CFL regular season games were held in 2011 and 2013, and again on August 25, 2019.Moncton was one of only six Canadian cities chosen to host the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup.Major sporting events hosted by Moncton include:* 1968 Canadian Junior Baseball Championships* 1974 Canadian Figure Skating Championships* 1975 Macdonald Lassies Championship* 1975 Intercontinental Cup (baseball, co-hosted with Montreal)* 1977 Skate Canada International* 1978 CIS University Cup (hockey)* 1980 World Men's Curling Championships* 1982 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships* 1982 CIS University Cup* 1983 CIS University Cup* 1984 Canadian Men's and Women's Broomball Championships* 1985 Canadian Figure Skating Championships* 1985 Labatt Brier (curling)* 1992 Canadian Figure Skating Championships* 1997 World Junior Baseball Championships* 2000 Canadian Junior Curling Championships* 2004 Canadian Senior Baseball Championships* 2006 Memorial Cup (hockey)* 2007 CIS University Cup* 2008 CIS University Cup* 2009 World Men's Curling Championship* 2009 Fred Page Cup (hockey)* 2010 IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics* 2010 CFL regular season neutral site game (Toronto and Edmonton)* 2011 CFL regular season neutral site game (Hamilton and Calgary)* 2012 Canadian Figure Skating Championships* 2013 Canadian Track & Field Championships* 2013 Football Canada Cup (national U18 football championship)* 2013 CFL regular season neutral site game (Hamilton & Montreal)* 2014 Canadian Track & Field Championships* 2014 FIFA U20 Women's World Cup* 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup* 2017 Canadian U18 Curling Championships* 2019 CFL regular season neutral site game (Toronto and Montreal)* 2023 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships (Co-hosted with Halifax)" ], [ "Government", "Moncton City Hall is the seat of municipal government.The municipal government consists of a mayor and ten city councillors elected to four-year terms of office.", "The council is non-partisan with the mayor serving as the chairman, casting a ballot only in cases of a tie vote.", "There are four wards electing two councillors each with an additional two councillors selected at large by the general electorate.", "Day-to-day operation of the city is under the control of a City Manager.Moncton is in the federal riding of Moncton—Riverview—Dieppe.", "Portions of Dieppe are in the federal riding of Beauséjour, and portions of Riverview are in the riding of Fundy Royal.", "In the current federal parliament, two MPs from the metropolitan area belong to the Liberal party and one to the Conservative party.+'''Moncton federal election results''' Year Liberal Conservative New Democratic Green 2021 '''48%''' ''16,670'' 24% ''8.266'' 17% ''5,974'' 4% ''1,538'' 2019 '''42%''' ''16,621'' 24% ''9,369'' 12% ''4,812'' 18% ''7,027''+'''Moncton provincial election results''' Year PC Liberal Green People's Allnc.", "2020 '''43%''' ''13,210'' 33% ''10,105'' 16% ''5,112'' 6% ''1,720'' 2018 32% ''9,983'' '''44%''' ''13,600'' 10% ''3,064'' 3% ''1,034''===Military===The southwestern portion of the former CFB Moncton base continues to be used by the Canadian Forces, known as Moncton Garrison.Aside from locally formed militia units, the military did not have a significant presence in the Moncton area until the beginning of the Second World War.", "In 1940, a large military supply base (later known as CFB Moncton) was constructed on a railway spur line north of downtown next to the CNR shops.", "This base served as the main supply depot for the large wartime military establishment in the Maritimes.", "In addition, two Commonwealth Air Training Plan bases were also built in the Moncton area during the war: No.", "8 Service Flying Training School, RCAF, and No.", "31 Personnel Depot, RAF.", "The RCAF also operated No.", "5 Supply Depot in Moncton.", "A naval listening station was also constructed in Coverdale (Riverview) in 1941 to help in coordinating radar activities in the North Atlantic.", "Military flight training in the Moncton area terminated at the end of World War II and the naval listening station closed in 1971.CFB Moncton remained open to supply the maritime military establishment until just after the end of the Cold War.With the closure of CFB Moncton in the early 1990s, the military presence in Moncton has been significantly reduced.", "The northern portion of the former base property has been turned over to the Canada Lands Corporation and is slowly being redeveloped.", "The southern part of the former base remains an active DND property and is now termed the Moncton Garrison.", "It is affiliated with CFB Gagetown.", "Resident components of the garrison include the 1 Engineer Support Unit (Regular force).", "The garrison also houses the 37 Canadian Brigade Group Headquarters (reserve force) and one of the 37 Brigades constituent units; the 8th Canadian Hussars (Princess Louise's), which is an armoured reconnaissance regiment.", "3 Area support unit Det Moncton, and 42 Canadian Forces Health Services Centre Det Moncton provide logistical support for the base.", "In 2013, the last regular forces units left the Moncton base, but the reserve units remain active and Moncton remains the 37 Canadian Brigade Unit headquarters." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Health facilities===The Moncton Hospital is one of two major teaching hospitals located in Moncton.There are two major regional referral and teaching hospitals in Moncton.", "The Moncton Hospital has approximately 381 inpatient beds and is affiliated with Dalhousie University Medical School.", "It is home to the Northumberland family medicine residency training program and is a site for third and fourth year clinical training for medical students in the Dalhousie Medicine New Brunswick Training Program.", "The hospital hosts UNB degree programs in nursing and medical x-ray technology and professional internships in fields such as dietetics.", "Specialized medical services at the hospital include neurosurgery, peripheral and neuro-interventional radiology, vascular surgery, thoracic surgery, hepatobiliary surgery, orthopedics, trauma, burn unit, medical oncology, neonatal intensive care, and adolescent psychiatry.", "A$48 million expansion to the hospital was completed in 2009 and contains a new laboratory, ambulatory care centre, and provincial level one trauma centre.", "A new oncology clinic was built at the hospital and opened in late 2014.The Moncton Hospital is managed by Horizon Health Network (formerly the South East Regional Health Authority).The Dr. Georges-L.-Dumont University Hospital Centre was established in 1922.The Dr. Georges-L.-Dumont University Hospital Centre has about 302 beds and hosts a medical training program through the local CFMNB and distant Medical School.", "There are also degree programs in nursing, medical x-ray technology, medical laboratory technology and inhalotherapy which are administered by Université de Moncton.", "Specialized medical services include medical oncology, radiation oncology, orthopedics, vascular surgery, and nephrology.", "A cardiac cath lab is being studied for the hospital and a new PET/CT scanner has been installed.", "A$75 million expansion for ambulatory care, expanded surgery suites, and medical training is currently under construction.", "The hospital is also the location of the Atlantic Cancer Research Institute.", "This hospital is managed by francophone Vitalité Health Network.The internal working languages of the hospitals are English for the Moncton Hospital (Horizon Health Network) and French for the Dumont Hospital (Vitalité).", "However both health networks and their hospitals are required to provide services to the public in both official languages, in accordance with the New Brunswick Official Languages Act." ], [ "Transportation", "=== Air ===Greater Moncton Roméo LeBlanc International Airport serves as the international airport for the entire Greater Moncton metropolitan area.Moncton is served by the Greater Moncton Roméo LeBlanc International Airport (YQM).", "It was renamed for former Canadian Governor-General (and native son) Roméo LeBlanc in 2016.A new airport terminal with an international arrivals area was opened in 2002 by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.", "The GMIA handles about 677,000 passengers per year, making it the second busiest airport in the Maritimes in terms of passenger volume.", "The GMIA is the 10th busiest airport in Canada in terms of freight.", "Regular scheduled destinations include Halifax, Montreal, Ottawa, and Toronto.", "Scheduled service providers include Air Canada, Air Canada Rouge, Westjet and Porter Airlines.", "Seasonal direct air service is provided to destinations in Cuba, Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, and Florida, with operators including Sunwing Airlines, Air Transat, and Westjet.", "FedEx, UPS, and Purolator all have their Atlantic Canadian air cargo bases at the facility.", "The GMIA is the home of the Moncton Flight College; the largest pilot training institution in Canada, and is also the base for the regional RCMP air service, the New Brunswick Air Ambulance Service and the regional Transport Canada hangar and depot.There is a second smaller aerodrome near Elmwood Drive.", "McEwen Airfield (CCG4) is a private airstrip used for general aviation.", "Skydive Moncton operates the province's only nationally certified sports parachute club out of this facility.The Moncton Area Control Centre is one of only seven regional air traffic control centres in Canada.", "This centre monitors over 430,000 flights a year, 80% of which are either entering or leaving North American airspace.=== Highways ===Moncton lies on Route 2 of the Trans-Canada Highway, which leads to Nova Scotia in the east and to Fredericton and Quebec in the west.", "Route 15 intersects Route 2 at the eastern outskirts of Moncton, heads northeast leading to Shediac and northern New Brunswick, Route 16 connects to route 15 at Shediac and leads to Strait Shores and Prince Edward Island.", "Route 1 intersects Route 2 approximately west of the city and leads to Saint John and the U.S. border.", "Wheeler Boulevard (Route 15) serves as an internal ring road, extending from the Petitcodiac River Causeway to Dieppe before exiting the city and heading for Shediac.", "Inside the city it is an expressway bounded at either end by traffic circles.=== Public transit ===Codiac Transpo is a public transit bus service throughout Greater Moncton.Greater Moncton is served by Codiac Transpo, which is operated by the City of Moncton.", "It operates 40 buses on 19 routes throughout Moncton, Dieppe, and Riverview.Maritime Bus provides intercity service to the region.", "Moncton is the largest hub in the system.", "All other major centres in New Brunswick, as well as Charlottetown, Halifax, and Truro are served out of the Moncton terminal.=== Railways ===Freight rail transportation in Moncton is provided by Canadian National Railway.", "Although the presence of the CNR in Moncton has diminished greatly since the 1970s, the railway still maintains a large classification yard and intermodal facility in the west end of the city, and the regional headquarters for Atlantic Canada is still located here as well.", "Passenger rail transportation is provided by Via Rail Canada, with their train the ''Ocean'' serving the Moncton railway station three days per week to Halifax and to Montreal, Quebec.", "The downtown Via station has been refurbished and also serves as the terminal for the Maritime Bus intercity bus service." ], [ "Education", "École L'Odyssée is one of six publicly-funded secondary schools in the city.The South School Board administers 10 Francophone schools, including high schools École Mathieu-Martin and École L'Odyssée.", "The East School Board administers 25 Anglophone schools including Moncton, Harrison Trimble, Bernice MacNaughton, and Riverview high schools.The Université de Moncton is a French-language university, and the only publicly-funded university whose main campus is located in Moncton.Post secondary education in Moncton:* The Université de Moncton is a publicly funded provincial comprehensive university and is the largest francophone Canadian university outside of Quebec.", "* Crandall University is a private Baptist Christian liberal arts university.", "* The University of New Brunswick has a satellite health sciences campus in Moncton offering degree in nursing.", "* The Moncton campus of the New Brunswick Community College has 1,600 full-time students and also hundreds of part-time students.", "* The Collège communautaire du Nouveau-Brunswick offers training in trades and technologies.", "* Medavie HealthEd, a subsidiary of Medavie Health Services, is a Canadian Medical Association-accredited school providing training in primary and advanced care paramedicine, as well as the Advanced Emergent Care (AEC) program of the Department of National Defence (Canada).", "* Eastern College offers programs in the areas of business and administration, art and design, health care, social sciences & justice, tourism & hospitality, and trades.", "* Moncton Flight College is one of Canada's oldest and largest flight schools.", "* McKenzie College specializes in graphic design, digital media, and animation.", "* The private Oulton College provides training in nursing, business, paramedical, dental sciences, pharmacy, veterinary, youth care and paralegal programs." ], [ "Media", "The ''Times & Transcript'' building is located in Downtown Moncton.", "It is the highest daily circulated newspaper in New Brunswick.Moncton's daily newspaper is the ''Times & Transcript'', which has the highest circulation of any daily newspaper in New Brunswick.", "More than 60 percent of city households subscribe daily, and more than 90 percent of Moncton residents read the Times & Transcript at least once a week.", "The city's other publications include ''L'Acadie Nouvelle'', a French newspaper published in Caraquet in northern New Brunswick.There are 17 broadcast radio stations in the city covering a variety of genres and interests, all on the FM dial or online streaming.", "Eleven of these stations are English and six are French.Rogers Cable has its provincial headquarters and main production facilities in Moncton and broadcasts on two community channels, Cable 9 in French and Cable 10 in English.", "The French-language arm of the CBC, Radio-Canada, maintains its Atlantic Canadian headquarters in Moncton.", "There are three other broadcast television stations in Moncton and these represent all of the major national networks." ], [ "Notable people", "Moncton has been the home of a number of notable people, including National Hockey League Hall of Famer and NHL scoring champion Gordie Drillon, World and Olympic champion curler Russ Howard, distinguished literary critic and theorist Northrop Frye, former Governor-General of Canada Roméo LeBlanc, and former Supreme Court Justice Ivan Cleveland Rand, developer of the Rand Formula and Canada's representative on the UNSCOP commission.", "Trudy Mackay FRS, renowned quantitative geneticist, member of the Royal Society and National Academy of Sciences, and recipient of the prestigious Wolf Prize for agriculture (2016), was born in Moncton.", "Robb Wells, the actor who plays Ricky on the Showcase hit comedy ''Trailer Park Boys'' hails from Moncton, along with Julie Doiron, an indie rock musician, and Holly Dignard the actress who plays Nicole Miller on the CTV series ''Whistler''.", "Harry Currie, noted Canadian conductor, musician, educator, journalist and author was born in Moncton and graduated from MHS.", "Antonine Maillet, a francophone author, recipient of the Order of Canada and the \"Prix Goncourt\", the highest honour in francophone literature, is also from Moncton.", "France Daigle, another acclaimed Acadian novelist and playwright, was born and resides in Moncton, and is noted for her pioneering use of chiac in Acadian literature, was the recipient of the 2012 Governor General's Literary Prize in French Fiction, for her novel ''Pour Sûr'' (translated into English as \"For Sure\").", "Canadian hockey star Sidney Crosby graduated from Harrison Trimble High School in Moncton." ], [ "Sister cities", "* Lafayette, Louisiana, United States* North Bay, Ontario, Canada" ], [ "See also", "* Coat of arms of Moncton* Dieppe* History of Moncton* List of mayors of Moncton* List of municipalities in New Brunswick* List of neighbourhoods in Moncton* Petitcodiac River* Ridings History of Moncton, Dieppe and Riverview* Riverview" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Model theory" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematical logic, '''model theory''' is the study of the relationship between formal theories (a collection of sentences in a formal language expressing statements about a mathematical structure), and their models (those structures in which the statements of the theory hold).", "The aspects investigated include the number and size of models of a theory, the relationship of different models to each other, and their interaction with the formal language itself.", "In particular, model theorists also investigate the sets that can be defined in a model of a theory, and the relationship of such definable sets to each other.As a separate discipline, model theory goes back to Alfred Tarski, who first used the term \"Theory of Models\" in publication in 1954.Since the 1970s, the subject has been shaped decisively by Saharon Shelah's stability theory.Compared to other areas of mathematical logic such as proof theory, model theory is often less concerned with formal rigour and closer in spirit to classical mathematics.This has prompted the comment that ''\"if proof theory is about the sacred, then model theory is about the profane\"''.The applications of model theory to algebraic and Diophantine geometry reflect this proximity to classical mathematics, as they often involve an integration of algebraic and model-theoretic results and techniques.", "Consequently, proof theory is syntactic in nature, in contrast to model theory, which is semantic in nature.The most prominent scholarly organization in the field of model theory is the Association for Symbolic Logic." ], [ "Overview", "This page focuses on finitary first order model theory of infinite structures.", "The relative emphasis placed on the class of models of a theory as opposed to the class of definable sets within a model fluctuated in the history of the subject, and the two directions are summarised by the pithy characterisations from 1973 and 1997 respectively::'''model theory''' = universal algebra + logicwhere universal algebra stands for mathematical structures and logic for logical theories; and:'''model theory''' = algebraic geometry − fields.where logical formulas are to definable sets what equations are to varieties over a field.Nonetheless, the interplay of classes of models and the sets definable in them has been crucial to the development of model theory throughout its history.", "For instance, while stability was originally introduced to classify theories by their numbers of models in a given cardinality, stability theory proved crucial to understanding the geometry of definable sets." ], [ "Fundamental notions of first-order model theory", "===First-order logic===A first-order ''formula'' is built out of atomic formulas such as or by means of the Boolean connectives and prefixing of quantifiers or .", "A sentence is a formula in which each occurrence of a variable is in the scope of a corresponding quantifier.", "Examples for formulas are (or to mark the fact that at most is an unbound variable in ) and defined as follows::(Note that the equality symbol has a double meaning here.)", "It is intuitively clear how to translate such formulas into mathematical meaning.", "In the σsmr-structure of the natural numbers, for example, an element ''satisfies'' the formula if and only if is a prime number.", "The formula similarly defines irreducibility.", "Tarski gave a rigorous definition, sometimes called \"Tarski's definition of truth\", for the satisfaction relation , so that one easily proves:: is a prime number.", ": is irreducible.A set of sentences is called a (first-order) theory, which takes the sentences in the set as its axioms.", "A theory is ''satisfiable'' if it has a ''model'' , i.e.", "a structure (of the appropriate signature) which satisfies all the sentences in the set .", "A complete theory is a theory that contains every sentence or its negation.The complete theory of all sentences satisfied by a structure is also called the ''theory of that structure''.It's a consequence of Gödel's completeness theorem (not to be confused with his incompleteness theorems) that a theory has a model if and only if it is consistent, i.e.", "no contradiction is proved by the theory.Therefore, model theorists often use \"consistent\" as a synonym for \"satisfiable\".===Basic model-theoretic concepts===A signature or language is a set of non-logical symbols such that each symbol is either a constant symbol, or a function or relation symbol with a specified arity.", "Note that in some literature, constant symbols are considered as function symbols with zero arity, and hence are omitted.", "A structure is a set together with interpretations of each of the symbols of the signature as relations and functions on (not to be confused with the formal notion of an \"interpretation\" of one structure in another).", "'''Example:''' A common signature for ordered rings is , where and are 0-ary function symbols (also known as constant symbols), and are binary (= 2-ary) function symbols, is a unary (= 1-ary) function symbol, and is a binary relation symbol.", "Then, when these symbols are interpreted to correspond with their usual meaning on (so that e.g.", "is a function from to and is a subset of ), one obtains a structure .A structure is said to model a set of first-order sentences in the given language if each sentence in is true in with respect to the interpretation of the signature previously specified for .", "(Again, not to be confused with the formal notion of an \"interpretation\" of one structure in another)A substructure of a σ-structure is a subset of its domain, closed under all functions in its signature σ, which is regarded as a σ-structure by restricting all functions and relations in σ to the subset.This generalises the analogous concepts from algebra; for instance, a subgroup is a substructure in the signature with multiplication and inverse.A substructure is said to be ''elementary'' if for any first-order formula φ and any elements ''a''1, ..., ''a''''n'' of ,: if and only if .In particular, if ''φ'' is a sentence and an elementary substructure of , then if and only if .", "Thus, an elementary substructure is a model of a theory exactly when the superstructure is a model.", "'''Example:''' While the field of algebraic numbers is an elementary substructure of the field of complex numbers , the rational field is not, as we can express \"There is a square root of 2\" as a first-order sentence satisfied by but not by .An embedding of a σ-structure into another σ-structure is a map ''f'': ''A'' → ''B'' between the domains which can be written as an isomorphism of with a substructure of .", "If it can be written as an isomorphism with an elementary substructure, it is called an elementary embedding.", "Every embedding is an injective homomorphism, but the converse holds only if the signature contains no relation symbols, such as in groups or fields.A field or a vector space can be regarded as a (commutative) group by simply ignoring some of its structure.", "The corresponding notion in model theory is that of a ''reduct'' of a structure to a subset of the original signature.", "The opposite relation is called an ''expansion'' - e.g.", "the (additive) group of the rational numbers, regarded as a structure in the signature {+,0} can be expanded to a field with the signature {×,+,1,0} or to an ordered group with the signature {+,0,<}.Similarly, if σ' is a signature that extends another signature σ, then a complete σ'-theory can be restricted to σ by intersecting the set of its sentences with the set of σ-formulas.", "Conversely, a complete σ-theory can be regarded as a σ'-theory, and one can extend it (in more than one way) to a complete σ'-theory.", "The terms reduct and expansion are sometimes applied to this relation as well.===Compactness and the Löwenheim-Skolem theorem===The compactness theorem states that a set of sentences S is satisfiable if every finite subset of S is satisfiable.", "The analogous statement with ''consistent'' instead of ''satisfiable'' is trivial, since every proof can have only a finite number of antecedents used in the proof.", "The completeness theorem allows us to transfer this to satisfiability.", "However, there are also several direct (semantic) proofs of the compactness theorem.As a corollary (i.e., its contrapositive), the compactness theorem says that every unsatisfiable first-order theory has a finite unsatisfiable subset.", "This theorem is of central importance in model theory, where the words \"by compactness\" are commonplace.Another cornerstone of first-order model theory is the Löwenheim-Skolem theorem.", "According to the Löwenheim-Skolem Theorem, every infinite structure in a countable signature has a countable elementary substructure.", "Conversely, for any infinite cardinal κ every infinite structure in a countable signature that is of cardinality less than κ can be elementarily embedded in another structure of cardinality κ (There is a straightforward generalisation to uncountable signatures).", "In particular, the Löwenheim-Skolem Theorem implies that any theory in a countable signature with infinite models has a countable model as well as arbitrarily large models.In a certain sense made precise by Lindström's theorem, first-order logic is the most expressive logic for which both the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and the compactness theorem hold." ], [ "Definability", "===Definable sets===In model theory, definable sets are important objects of study.", "For instance, in the formula:defines the subset of prime numbers, while the formula:defines the subset of even numbers.In a similar way, formulas with ''n'' free variables define subsets of .", "For example, in a field, the formula:defines the curve of all such that .Both of the definitions mentioned here are ''parameter-free'', that is, the defining formulas don't mention any fixed domain elements.", "However, one can also consider definitions ''with parameters from the model''.For instance, in , the formula:uses the parameter from to define a curve.===Eliminating quantifiers===In general, definable sets without quantifiers are easy to describe, while definable sets involving possibly nested quantifiers can be much more complicated.This makes quantifier elimination a crucial tool for analysing definable sets: A theory ''T'' has quantifier elimination if every first-order formula φ(''x''1, ..., ''x''''n'') over its signature is equivalent modulo ''T'' to a first-order formula ψ(''x''1, ..., ''x''''n'') without quantifiers, i.e.", "holds in all models of ''T''.If the theory of a structure has quantifier elimination, every set definable in a structure is definable by a quantifier-free formula over the same parameters as the original definition.For example, the theory of algebraically closed fields in the signature σring = (×,+,−,0,1) has quantifier elimination.", "This means that in an algebraically closed field, every formula is equivalent to a Boolean combination of equations between polynomials.If a theory does not have quantifier elimination, one can add additional symbols to its signature so that it does.", "Axiomatisability and quantifier elimination results for specific theories, especially in algebra, were among the early landmark results of model theory.", "But often instead of quantifier elimination a weaker property suffices:A theory ''T'' is called model-complete if every substructure of a model of ''T'' which is itself a model of ''T'' is an elementary substructure.", "There is a useful criterion for testing whether a substructure is an elementary substructure, called the Tarski–Vaught test.", "It follows from this criterion that a theory ''T'' is model-complete if and only if every first-order formula φ(''x''1, ..., ''x''''n'') over its signature is equivalent modulo ''T'' to an existential first-order formula, i.e.", "a formula of the following form::,where ψ is quantifier free.", "A theory that is not model-complete may have a model completion, which is a related model-complete theory that is not, in general, an extension of the original theory.", "A more general notion is that of a model companion.===Minimality===In every structure, every finite subset is definable with parameters: Simply use the formula:.Since we can negate this formula, every cofinite subset (which includes all but finitely many elements of the domain) is also always definable.This leads to the concept of a ''minimal structure''.", "A structure is called minimal if every subset definable with parameters from is either finite or cofinite.The corresponding concept at the level of theories is called ''strong minimality'':A theory ''T'' is called strongly minimal if every model of ''T'' is minimal.A structure is called ''strongly minimal'' if the theory of that structure is strongly minimal.", "Equivalently, a structure is strongly minimal if every elementary extension is minimal.Since the theory of algebraically closed fields has quantifier elimination, every definable subset of an algebraically closed field is definable by a quantifier-free formula in one variable.", "Quantifier-free formulas in one variable express Boolean combinations of polynomial equations in one variable, and since a nontrivial polynomial equation in one variable has only a finite number of solutions, the theory of algebraically closed fields is strongly minimal.On the other hand, the field of real numbers is not minimal: Consider, for instance, the definable set:.This defines the subset of non-negative real numbers, which is neither finite nor cofinite.One can in fact use to define arbitrary intervals on the real number line.It turns out that these suffice to represent every definable subset of .This generalisation of minimality has been very useful in the model theory of ordered structures.A densely totally ordered structure in a signature including a symbol for the order relation is called o-minimal if every subset definable with parameters from is a finite union of points and intervals.===Definable and interpretable structures===Particularly important are those definable sets that are also substructures, i. e. contain all constants and are closed under function application.", "For instance, one can study the definable subgroups of a certain group.However, there is no need to limit oneself to substructures in the same signature.", "Since formulas with ''n'' free variables define subsets of , ''n''-ary relations can also be definable.", "Functions are definable if the function graph is a definable relation, and constants are definable if there is a formula such that ''a'' is the only element of such that is true.In this way, one can study definable groups and fields in general structures, for instance, which has been important in geometric stability theory.One can even go one step further, and move beyond immediate substructures.Given a mathematical structure, there are very often associated structures which can be constructed as a quotient of part of the original structure via an equivalence relation.", "An important example is a quotient group of a group.", "One might say that to understand the full structure one must understand these quotients.", "When the equivalence relation is definable, we can give the previous sentence a precise meaning.", "We say that these structures are ''interpretable''.A key fact is that one can translate sentences from the language of the interpreted structures to the language of the original structure.", "Thus one can show that if a structure interprets another whose theory is undecidable, then itself is undecidable." ], [ "Types", "===Basic notions===For a sequence of elements of a structure and a subset ''A'' of , one can consider the set of all first-order formulas with parameters in ''A'' that are satisfied by .", "This is called the ''complete (n-)type realised by'' ''over A''.If there is an automorphism of that is constant on ''A'' and sends to respectively, then and realise the same complete type over ''A''.The real number line , viewed as a structure with only the order relation {<}, will serve as a running example in this section.Every element satisfies the same 1-type over the empty set.", "This is clear since any two real numbers ''a'' and ''b'' are connected by the order automorphism that shifts all numbers by ''b-a''.", "The complete 2-type over the empty set realised by a pair of numbers depends on their order: either , or .Over the subset of integers, the 1-type of a non-integer real number ''a'' depends on its value rounded down to the nearest integer.More generally, whenever is a structure and ''A'' a subset of , a (partial) ''n-type over A'' is a set of formulas ''p'' with at most ''n'' free variables that are realised in an elementary extension of .", "If ''p'' contains every such formula or its negation, then ''p'' is ''complete''.", "The set of complete ''n''-types over ''A'' is often written as .", "If ''A'' is the empty set, then the type space only depends on the theory of .", "The notation is commonly used for the set of types over the empty set consistent with .", "If there is a single formula such that the theory of implies for every formula in ''p'', then ''p'' is called ''isolated''.Since the real numbers are Archimedean, there is no real number larger than every integer.", "However, a compactness argument shows that there is an elementary extension of the real number line in which there is an element larger than any integer.Therefore, the set of formulas is a 1-type over that is not realised in the real number line .A subset of that can be expressed as exactly those elements of realising a certain type over ''A'' is called ''type-definable'' over ''A''.For an algebraic example, suppose is an algebraically closed field.", "The theory has quantifier elimination .", "This allows us to show that a type is determined exactly by the polynomial equations it contains.", "Thus the set of complete -types over a subfield corresponds to the set of prime ideals of the polynomial ring , and the type-definable sets are exactly the affine varieties.===Structures and types===While not every type is realised in every structure, every structure realises its isolated types.If the only types over the empty set that are realised in a structure are the isolated types, then the structure is called ''atomic''.On the other hand, no structure realises every type over every parameter set; if one takes all of as the parameter set, then every 1-type over realised in is isolated by a formula of the form ''a = x'' for an .", "However, any proper elementary extension of contains an element that is ''not'' in .", "Therefore, a weaker notion has been introduced that captures the idea of a structure realising all types it could be expected to realise.A structure is called ''saturated'' if it realises every type over a parameter set that is of smaller cardinality than itself.While an automorphism that is constant on ''A'' will always preserve types over ''A'', it is generally not true that any two sequences and that satisfy the same type over ''A'' can be mapped to each other by such an automorphism.", "A structure in which this converse does holds for all ''A'' of smaller cardinality than is called '''homogeneous'''.The real number line is atomic in the language that contains only the order , since all ''n''-types over the empty set realised by in are isolated by the order relations between the .", "It is not saturated, however, since it does not realise any 1-type over the countable set that implies ''x'' to be larger than any integer.The rational number line is saturated, in contrast, since is itself countable and therefore only has to realise types over finite subsets to be saturated.===Stone spaces===The set of definable subsets of over some parameters is a Boolean algebra.", "By Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras there is a natural dual topological space, which consists exactly of the complete -types over .", "The topology generated by sets of the form for single formulas .", "This is called the ''Stone space of n-types over A''.This topology explains some of the terminology used in model theory: The compactness theorem says that the Stone space is a compact topological space, and a type ''p'' is isolated if and only if ''p'' is an isolated point in the Stone topology.While types in algebraically closed fields correspond to the spectrum of the polynomial ring, the topology on the type space is the constructible topology: a set of types is basic open iff it is of the form or of the form .", "This is finer than the Zariski topology." ], [ "Constructing models", "===Realising and omitting types===Constructing models that realise certain types and do not realise others is an important task in model theory.Not realising a type is referred to as ''omitting'' it, and is generally possible by the ''(Countable) Omitting types theorem''::Let be a theory in a countable signature and let be a countable set of non-isolated types over the empty set.", ":Then there is a model of which omits every type in .This implies that if a theory in a countable signature has only countably many types over the empty set, then this theory has an atomic model.On the other hand, there is always an elementary extension in which any set of types over a fixed parameter set is realised::Let be a structure and let be a set of complete types over a given parameter set :Then there is an elementary extension of which realises every type in .However, since the parameter set is fixed and there is no mention here of the cardinality of , this does not imply that every theory has a saturated model.In fact, whether every theory has a saturated model is independent of the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms of set theory, and is true if the generalised continuum hypothesis holds.===Ultraproducts===Ultraproducts are used as a general technique for constructing models that realise certain types.An ''ultraproduct'' is obtained from the direct product of a set of structures over an index set ''I'' by identifying those tuples that agree on almost all entries, where ''almost all'' is made precise by an ultrafilter ''U'' on ''I''.", "An ultraproduct of copies of the same structure is known as an ''ultrapower''.The key to using ultraproducts in model theory is ''Łoś's theorem'':: Let be a set of -structures indexed by an index set ''I'' and ''U'' an ultrafilter on ''I''.", "Then any -formula is true in the ultraproduct of the by if the set of all for which lies in ''U''.In particular, any ultraproduct of models of a theory is itself a model of that theory, and thus if two models have isomorphic ultrapowers, they are elementarily equivalent.The ''Keisler-Shelah theorem'' provides a converse::If and are elementary equivalent, then there is a set ''I'' and an ultrafilter ''U'' on ''I'' such that the ultrapowers by ''U'' of and : are isomorphic.Therefore, ultraproducts provide a way to talk about elementary equivalence that avoids mentioning first-order theories at all.", "Basic theorems of model theory such as the compactness theorem have alternative proofs using ultraproducts, and they can be used to construct saturated elementary extensions if they exist." ], [ "Categoricity", "A theory was originally called ''categorical'' if it determines a structure up to isomorphism.", "It turns out that this definition is not useful, due to serious restrictions in the expressivity of first-order logic.", "The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem implies that if a theory ''T'' has an infinite model for some infinite cardinal number, then it has a model of size κ for any sufficiently large cardinal number κ.", "Since two models of different sizes cannot possibly be isomorphic, only finite structures can be described by a categorical theory.However, the weaker notion of κ-categoricity for a cardinal κ has become a key concept in model theory.", "A theory ''T'' is called ''κ-categorical'' if any two models of ''T'' that are of cardinality κ are isomorphic.", "It turns out that the question of κ-categoricity depends critically on whether κ is bigger than the cardinality of the language (i.e.", "+ |σ|, where |σ| is the cardinality of the signature).", "For finite or countable signatures this means that there is a fundamental difference between -cardinality and κ-cardinality for uncountable κ.=== ω-categoricity ===-categorical theories can be characterised by properties of their type space::For a complete first-order theory ''T'' in a finite or countable signature the following conditions are equivalent::#''T'' is -categorical.", ":#Every type in ''Sn''(''T'') is isolated.", ":#For every natural number ''n'', ''Sn''(''T'') is finite.", ":#For every natural number ''n'', the number of formulas φ(''x''1, ..., ''x''n) in ''n'' free variables, up to equivalence modulo ''T'', is finite.The theory of , which is also the theory of , is -categorical, as every ''n''-type over the empty set is isolated by the pairwise order relation between the .This means that every countable dense linear order is order-isomorphic to the rational number line.", "On the other hand, the theories of , and as fields are not -categorical.", "This follows from the fact that in all those fields, any of the infinitely many natural numbers can be defined by a formula of the form .-categorical theories and their countable models also have strong ties with oligomorphic groups::A complete first-order theory ''T'' in a finite or countable signature is -categorical if and only if its automorphism group is oligomorphic.The equivalent characterisations of this subsection, due independently to Engeler, Ryll-Nardzewski and Svenonius, are sometimes referred to as the Ryll-Nardzewski theorem.In combinatorial signatures, a common source of -categorical theories are Fraïssé limits, which are obtained as the limit of amalgamating all possible configurations of a class of finite relational structures.=== Uncountable categoricity ===Michael Morley showed in 1963 that there is only one notion of ''uncountable categoricity'' for theories in countable languages.", ":Morley's categoricity theorem:If a first-order theory ''T'' in a finite or countable signature is κ-categorical for some uncountable cardinal κ, then ''T'' is κ-categorical for all uncountable cardinals κ.Morley's proof revealed deep connections between uncountable categoricity and the internal structure of the models, which became the starting point of classification theory and stability theory.", "Uncountably categorical theories are from many points of view the most well-behaved theories.In particular, complete strongly minimal theories are uncountably categorical.", "This shows that the theory of algebraically closed fields of a given characteristic is uncountably categorical, with the transcendence degree of the field determining its isomorphism type.A theory that is both -categorical and uncountably categorical is called ''totally categorical''." ], [ "Stability theory", "A key factor in the structure of the class of models of a first-order theory is its place in the ''stability hierarchy''.", ":A complete theory ''T'' is called ''-stable'' for a cardinal if for any model of ''T'' and any parameter set of cardinality not exceeding , there are at most complete ''T''-types over ''A''.A theory is called ''stable'' if it is -stable for some infinite cardinal .", "Traditionally, theories that are -stable are called ''-stable''.===The stability hierarchy===A fundamental result in stability theory is the ''stability spectrum theorem'', which implies that every complete theory ''T'' in a countable signature falls in one of the following classes:# There are no cardinals such that ''T'' is -stable.# ''T'' is -stable if and only if (see Cardinal exponentiation for an explanation of ).# ''T'' is -stable for any (where is the cardinality of the continuum).A theory of the first type is called ''unstable'', a theory of the second type is called ''strictly stable'' and a theory of the third type is called ''superstable''.Furthermore, if a theory is -stable, it is stable in every infinite cardinal, so -stability is stronger than superstability.Many construction in model theory are easier when restricted to stable theories; for instance, every model of a stable theory has a saturated elementary extension, regardless of whether the generalised continuum hypothesis is true.Shelah's original motivation for studying stable theories was to decide how many models a countable theory has of any uncountable cardinality.", "If a theory is uncountably categorical, then it is -stable.", "More generally, the ''Main gap theorem'' implies that if there is an uncountable cardinal such that a theory ''T'' has less than models of cardinality , then ''T'' is superstable.===Geometric stability theory===The stability hierarchy is also crucial for analysing the geometry of definable sets within a model of a theory.", "In -stable theories, ''Morley rank'' is an important dimension notion for definable sets ''S'' within a model.", "It is defined by transfinite induction:*The Morley rank is at least 0 if ''S'' is non-empty.", "*For ''α'' a successor ordinal, the Morley rank is at least ''α'' if in some elementary extension ''N'' of ''M'', the set ''S'' has infinitely many disjoint definable subsets, each of rank at least ''α'' − 1.", "*For ''α'' a non-zero limit ordinal, the Morley rank is at least ''α'' if it is at least ''β'' for all ''β'' less than ''α''.A theory ''T'' in which every definable set has well-defined Morley Rank is called ''totally transcendental''; if ''T'' is countable, then ''T'' is totally transcendental if and only if ''T'' is -stable.Morley Rank can be extended to types by setting the Morley Rank of a type to be the minimum of the Morley ranks of the formulas in the type.", "Thus, one can also speak of the Morley rank of an element ''a'' over a parameter set ''A'', defined as the Morley rank of the type of ''a'' over ''A''.", "There are also analogues of Morley rank which are well-defined if and only if a theory is superstable (U-rank) or merely stable (Shelah's -rank).Those dimension notions can be used to define notions of independence and of generic extensions.More recently, stability has been decomposed into simplicity and \"not the independence property\" (NIP).", "Simple theories are those theories in which a well-behaved notion of independence can be defined, while NIP theories generalise o-minimal structures.They are related to stability since a theory is stable if and only if it is NIP and simple, and various aspects of stability theory have been generalised to theories in one of these classes." ], [ "Non-elementary model theory", "Model-theoretic results have been generalised beyond elementary classes, that is, classes axiomatisable by a first-order theory.Model theory in higher-order logics or infinitary logics is hampered by the fact that completeness and compactness do not in general hold for these logics.", "This is made concrete by Lindstrom's theorem, stating roughly that first-order logic is essentially the strongest logic in which both the Löwenheim-Skolem theorems and compactness hold.", "However, model theoretic techniques have been developed extensively for these logics too.", "It turns out, however, that much of the model theory of more expressive logical languages is independent of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory.More recently, alongside the shift in focus to complete stable and categorical theories, there has been work on classes of models defined semantically rather than axiomatised by a logical theory.One example is ''homogeneous model theory'', which studies the class of substructures of arbitrarily large homogeneous models.", "Fundamental results of stability theory and geometric stability theory generalise to this setting.As a generalisation of strongly minimal theories, quasiminimally excellent classes are those in which every definable set is either countable or co-countable.", "They are key to the model theory of the complex exponential function.The most general semantic framework in which stability is studied are abstract elementary classes, which are defined by a ''strong substructure'' relation generalising that of an elementary substructure.", "Even though its definition is purely semantic, every abstract elementary class can be presented as the models of a first-order theory which omit certain types.", "Generalising stability-theoretic notions to abstract elementary classes is an ongoing research program." ], [ "Selected applications", "Among the early successes of model theory are Tarski's proofs of quantifier elimination for various algebraically interesting classes, such as the real closed fields, Boolean algebras and algebraically closed fields of a given characteristic.", "Quantifier elimination allowed Tarski to show that the first-order theories of real-closed and algebraically closed fields as well as the first-order theory of Boolean algebras are decidable, classify the Boolean algebras up to elementary equivalence and show that the theories of real-closed fields and algebraically closed fields of a given characteristic are unique.", "Furthermore, quantifier elimination provided a precise description of definable relations on algebraically closed fields as algebraic varieties and of the definable relations on real-closed fields as semialgebraic sets In the 1960s, the introduction of the ultraproduct construction led to new applications in algebra.", "This includes Ax's work on pseudofinite fields, proving that the theory of finite fields is decidable, and Ax and Kochen's proof of as special case of Artin's conjecture on diophantine equations, the Ax-Kochen theorem.", "The ultraproduct construction also led to Abraham Robinson's development of nonstandard analysis, which aims to provide a rigorous calculus of infinitesimals.More recently, the connection between stability and the geometry of definable sets led to several applications from algebraic and diophantine geometry, including Ehud Hrushovski's 1996 proof of the geometric Mordell-Lang conjecture in all characteristics In 2001, similar methods were used to prove a generalisation of the Manin-Mumford conjecture.In 2011, Jonathan Pila applied techniques around o-minimality to prove the André-Oort conjecture for products of Modular curves.In a separate strand of inquiries that also grew around stable theories, Laskowski showed in 1992 that NIP theories describe exactly those definable classes that are PAC-learnable in machine learning theory.", "This has led to several interactions between these separate areas.", "In 2018, the correspondence was extended as Hunter and Chase showed that stable theories correspond to online learnable classes." ], [ "History", "Model theory as a subject has existed since approximately the middle of the 20th century, and the name was coined by Alfred Tarski, a member of the Lwów–Warsaw school, in 1954.However some earlier research, especially in mathematical logic, is often regarded as being of a model-theoretical nature in retrospect.", "The first significant result in what is now model theory was a special case of the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, published by Leopold Löwenheim in 1915.The compactness theorem was implicit in work by Thoralf Skolem, but it was first published in 1930, as a lemma in Kurt Gödel's proof of his completeness theorem.", "The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and the compactness theorem received their respective general forms in 1936 and 1941 from Anatoly Maltsev.The development of model theory as an independent discipline was brought on by Alfred Tarski during the interbellum.", "Tarski's work included logical consequence, deductive systems, the algebra of logic, the theory of definability, and the semantic definition of truth, among other topics.", "His semantic methods culminated in the model theory he and a number of his Berkeley students developed in the 1950s and '60s.In the further history of the discipline, different strands began to emerge, and the focus of the subject shifted.", "In the 1960s, techniques around ultraproducts became a popular tool in model theory.", "At the same time, researchers such as James Ax were investigating the first-order model theory of various algebraic classes, and others such as H. Jerome Keisler were extending the concepts and results of first-order model theory to other logical systems.", "Then, inspired by Morley's problem, Shelah developed stability theory.", "His work around stability changed the complexion of model theory, giving rise to a whole new class of concepts.", "This is known as the paradigm shift.", "Over the next decades, it became clear that the resulting stability hierarchy is closely connected to the geometry of sets that are definable in those models; this gave rise to the subdiscipline now known as geometric stability theory.", "An example of an influential proof from geometric model theory is Hrushovski's proof of the Mordell–Lang conjecture for function fields." ], [ "Connections to related branches of mathematical logic", "===Finite model theory ===Finite model theory, which concentrates on finite structures, diverges significantly from the study of infinite structures in both the problems studied and the techniques used.", "In particular, many central results of classical model theory that fail when restricted to finite structures.", "This includes the compactness theorem, Gödel's completeness theorem, and the method of ultraproducts for first-order logic.", "At the interface of finite and infinite model theory are algorithmic or computable model theory and the study of 0-1 laws, where the infinite models of a generic theory of a class of structures provide information on the distribution of finite models.", "Prominent application areas of FMT are descriptive complexity theory, database theory and formal language theory.=== Set theory ===Any set theory (which is expressed in a countable language), if it is consistent, has a countable model; this is known as Skolem's paradox, since there are sentences in set theory which postulate the existence of uncountable sets and yet these sentences are true in our countable model.", "Particularly the proof of the independence of the continuum hypothesis requires considering sets in models which appear to be uncountable when viewed from ''within'' the model, but are countable to someone ''outside'' the model.The model-theoretic viewpoint has been useful in set theory; for example in Kurt Gödel's work on the constructible universe, which, along with the method of forcing developed by Paul Cohen can be shown to prove the (again philosophically interesting) independence of the axiom of choice and the continuum hypothesis from the other axioms of set theory.In the other direction, model theory is itself formalised within Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory.", "For instance, the development of the fundamentals of model theory (such as the compactness theorem) rely on the axiom of choice, and is in fact equivalent over Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory without choice to the Boolean prime ideal theorem.", "Other results in model theory depend on set-theoretic axioms beyond the standard ZFC framework.", "For example, if the Continuum Hypothesis holds then every countable model has an ultrapower which is saturated (in its own cardinality).", "Similarly, if the Generalized Continuum Hypothesis holds then every model has a saturated elementary extension.", "Neither of these results are provable in ZFC alone.", "Finally, some questions arising from model theory (such as compactness for infinitary logics) have been shown to be equivalent to large cardinal axioms." ], [ "See also", "* Abstract model theory* Algebraic theory* Axiomatizable class* Compactness theorem* Descriptive complexity* Elementary equivalence* First-order theories* Hyperreal number* Institutional model theory* Kripke semantics* Löwenheim–Skolem theorem* Model-theoretic grammar* Proof theory* Saturated model* Skolem normal form" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Canonical textbooks ===* * * * * === Other textbooks ===* * * * * * * * * * ===Free online texts===* * * * Hodges, Wilfrid, '' Model theory''.", "The Stanford Encyclopedia Of Philosophy, E. Zalta (ed.).", "* Hodges, Wilfrid, '' First-order Model theory''.", "The Stanford Encyclopedia Of Philosophy, E. Zalta (ed.).", "* Simmons, Harold (2004), '' An introduction to Good old fashioned model theory''.", "Notes of an introductory course for postgraduates (with exercises).", "* J. Barwise and S. Feferman (editors), Model-Theoretic Logics, Perspectives in Mathematical Logic, Volume 8, New York: Springer-Verlag, 1985." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moby-Dick" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Moby-Dick; or, The Whale''''' is an 1851 novel by American writer Herman Melville.", "The book is the sailor Ishmael's narrative of the maniacal quest of Ahab, captain of the whaling ship ''Pequod'', for vengeance against Moby Dick, the giant white sperm whale that bit off his leg on the ship's previous voyage.", "A contribution to the literature of the American Renaissance, ''Moby-Dick'' was published to mixed reviews, was a commercial failure, and was out of print at the time of the author's death in 1891.Its reputation as a Great American Novel was established only in the 20th century, after the 1919 centennial of its author's birth.", "William Faulkner said he wished he had written the book himself, and D. H. Lawrence called it \"one of the strangest and most wonderful books in the world\" and \"the greatest book of the sea ever written\".", "Its opening sentence, \"Call me Ishmael\", is among world literature's most famous.Melville began writing ''Moby-Dick'' in February 1850 and finished 18 months later, a year after he had anticipated.", "Melville drew on his experience as a common sailor from 1841 to 1844, including on whalers, and on wide reading in whaling literature.", "The white whale is modeled on a notoriously hard-to-catch albino whale Mocha Dick, and the book's ending is based on the sinking of the whaleship ''Essex'' in 1820.The detailed and realistic descriptions of whale hunting and of extracting whale oil, as well as life aboard ship among a culturally diverse crew, are mixed with exploration of class and social status, good and evil, and the existence of God.", "The book's literary influences include Shakespeare, Carlyle and the Bible.", "In addition to narrative prose, Melville uses styles and literary devices ranging from songs, poetry, and catalogs to Shakespearean stage directions, soliloquies, and asides.", "In August 1850, with the manuscript perhaps half finished, he met Nathaniel Hawthorne and was deeply impressed by his ''Mosses from an Old Manse'', which he compared to Shakespeare in its cosmic ambitions.", "This encounter may have inspired him to revise and deepen ''Moby-Dick'', which is dedicated to Hawthorne, \"in token of my admiration for his genius\".The book was first published (in three volumes) as ''The Whale'' in London in October 1851, and under its definitive title, ''Moby-Dick; or, The Whale'', in a single-volume edition in New York in November.", "The London publisher, Richard Bentley, censored or changed sensitive passages; Melville made revisions as well, including a last-minute change of the title for the New York edition.", "The whale, however, appears in the text of both editions as \"Moby Dick\", without the hyphen.", "Reviewers in Britain were largely favorable, though some objected that the tale seemed to be told by a narrator who perished with the ship, as the British edition lacked the epilogue recounting Ishmael's survival.", "American reviewers were more hostile." ], [ "Plot", "Ishmael travels in December from Manhattan Island to New Bedford, Massachusetts, with plans to sign up for a whaling voyage.", "The inn where he arrives is overcrowded, so he must share a bed with the tattooed cannibal Polynesian Queequeg, a harpooneer whose father was king of the fictional island of Rokovoko.", "The next morning, Ishmael and Queequeg attend Father Mapple's sermon on Jonah, then head for Nantucket.", "Ishmael signs up with the Quaker ship-owners Bildad and Peleg for a voyage on their whaler ''Pequod''.", "Peleg describes Captain Ahab: \"He's a grand, ungodly, god-like man\" who nevertheless \"has his humanities\".", "They hire Queequeg the following morning.", "A man named Elijah prophesies a dire fate should Ishmael and Queequeg join Ahab.", "While provisions are loaded, shadowy figures board the ship.", "On a cold Christmas Day, the ''Pequod'' leaves the harbor.Ishmael discusses cetology (the zoological classification and natural history of the whale), and describes the crew members.", "The chief mate is 30-year-old Starbuck, a Nantucket Quaker with a realist mentality, whose harpooneer is Queequeg; second mate is Stubb, from Cape Cod, happy-go-lucky and cheerful, whose harpooneer is Tashtego, a proud, pure-blooded Indian from Gay Head; and the third mate is Flask, also from Martha's Vineyard, short, stout, whose harpooneer is Daggoo, a tall African, now a resident of Nantucket.When Ahab finally appears on the quarterdeck, he announces he is out for revenge on the white whale which took one leg from the knee down and left him with a prosthesis fashioned from a whale's jawbone.", "Ahab will give the first man to sight Moby Dick a doubloon, a gold coin, which he nails to the mast.", "Starbuck objects that he has not come for vengeance but for profit.", "Ahab's purpose exercises a mysterious spell on Ishmael: \"Ahab's quenchless feud seemed mine\".", "Instead of rounding Cape Horn, Ahab heads for the equatorial Pacific Ocean via southern Africa.", "One afternoon, as Ishmael and Queequeg are weaving a mat—\"its warp seemed necessity, his hand free will, and Queequeg's sword chance\"—Tashtego sights a sperm whale.", "Five previously unknown men appear on deck and are revealed to be a special crew selected by Ahab and explain the shadowy figures seen boarding the ship.", "Their leader, Fedallah, a Parsee, is Ahab's harpooneer.", "The pursuit is unsuccessful.Moby Dick attacking a whaling boatSoutheast of the Cape of Good Hope, the ''Pequod'' makes the first of nine sea-encounters, or \"gams\", with other ships: Ahab hails the ''Goney'' (Albatross) to ask whether they have seen the White Whale, but the trumpet through which her captain tries to speak falls into the sea before he can answer.", "Ishmael explains that because of Ahab's absorption with Moby Dick, he sails on without the customary \"gam\", which Ishmael defines as a \"social meeting of two (or more) Whale-ships\", in which the two captains remain on one ship and the chief mates on the other.", "In the second gam off the Cape of Good Hope, with the ''Town-Ho'', a Nantucket whaler, the concealed story of a \"judgment of God\" is revealed, but only to the crew: a defiant sailor who struck an oppressive officer is flogged, and when that officer led the chase for Moby Dick, he fell from the boat and was killed by the whale.Ishmael digresses on pictures of whales, brit (microscopic sea creatures on which whales feed), squid and—after four boats are lowered in vain because Daggoo mistook a giant squid for the white whale—whale-lines.", "The next day, in the Indian Ocean, Stubb kills a sperm whale, and that night Fleece, the ''Pequod''s black cook, prepares him a rare whale steak.", "Fleece, at Stubb's request, delivers a sermon to the sharks that fight each other to feast on the whale's carcass, tied to the ship, saying that their nature is to be voracious, but they must overcome it.", "The whale is prepared, beheaded, and barrels of oil are tried out.", "Standing at the head of the whale, Ahab begs it to speak of the depths of the sea.", "The ''Pequod'' next encounters the ''Jeroboam'', which not only lost its chief mate to Moby Dick, but also is now plagued by an epidemic.The whale carcass still lies in the water.", "Queequeg mounts it, tied to Ishmael's belt by a monkey-rope as if they were Siamese twins.", "Stubb and Flask kill a right whale whose head is fastened to a yardarm opposite the sperm whale's head.", "Ishmael compares the two heads in a philosophical way: the right whale is Lockean, stoic, and the sperm whale is Kantean, platonic.", "Tashtego cuts into the head of the sperm whale and retrieves buckets of spermaceti.", "He falls into the head, which in turn falls off the yardarm into the sea.", "Queequeg dives after him and frees his mate with his sword.The ''Pequod'' next gams with the ''Jungfrau'' from Bremen.", "Both ships sight whales simultaneously, with the ''Pequod'' winning the contest.", "The three harpooneers dart their harpoons, and Flask delivers the mortal strike with a lance.", "The carcass sinks, and Queequeg barely manages to escape.", "The ''Pequod''s next gam is with the French whaler ''Bouton de Rose'', whose crew is ignorant of the ambergris in the gut of the diseased whale in their possession.", "Stubb talks them out of it, but Ahab orders him away before he can recover more than a few handfuls.", "Days later, Pip, a little African American cabin-boy, jumps in panic from Stubb's whale boat and the whale must be cut loose because Pip is entangled in the line; a few days later Pip jumps in panic again, and is left alone in the sea and has gone insane by the time he is picked up.Cooled spermaceti congeals and must be squeezed back into liquid state; blubber is boiled in the try-pots on deck; the warm oil is decanted into casks, and then stowed in the ship.", "After the operation, the decks are scrubbed.", "The coin hammered to the main mast shows three Andes summits, one with a flame, one with a tower, and one a crowing cock.", "Ahab stops to look at the doubloon and interprets the coin as signs of his firmness, volcanic energy, and victory; Starbuck takes the high peaks as evidence of the Trinity; Stubb focuses on the zodiacal arch over the mountains; and Flask sees nothing of any symbolic value at all.", "The Manxman mutters in front of the mast, and Pip declines the verb \"look\".Queequeg, as illustrated in a 1902 editionThe ''Pequod'' next gams with the ''Samuel Enderby'' of London, captained by Boomer, a down-to-earth fellow who lost his right arm to Moby Dick.", "Nevertheless, he carries no ill will toward the whale, which his ship's surgeon, Dr. Bunger, describes not as malicious, but as awkward.", "Ahab puts an end to the gam by rushing back to his ship.", "The narrator now discusses the subjects of (1) whalers supply; (2) a glen in Tranque in the Arsacides islands full of carved whale bones, fossil whales, whale skeleton measurements; (3) the chance that the magnitude of the whale will diminish and that the leviathan might perish.Leaving the ''Samuel Enderby'', Ahab wrenches his ivory leg and orders the carpenter to fashion him another.", "Starbuck informs Ahab of oil leakage in the hold.", "Reluctantly, Ahab orders the harpooneers to inspect the casks.", "Queequeg, sweating all day below decks, develops a chill and soon is almost mortally feverish.", "The carpenter makes a coffin for Queequeg, who fears an ordinary burial at sea.", "Queequeg tries it for size, with Pip sobbing and beating his tambourine, standing by and calling himself a coward while he praises Queequeg for his gameness.", "Queequeg suddenly rallies, briefly convalesces, and leaps up, back in good health.", "Henceforth, he uses his coffin for a spare seachest, which is later caulked and pitched to replace the ''Pequod''s life buoy.The ''Pequod'' sails northeast toward Formosa and into the Pacific Ocean.", "Ahab, with one nostril, smells the musk from the Bashee isles, and with the other, the salt of the waters where Moby Dick swims.", "Ahab goes to Perth, the blacksmith, with a bag of racehorse shoenail stubs to be forged into the shank of a special harpoon, and with his razors for Perth to melt and fashion into a harpoon barb.", "Ahab tempers the barb in blood from Queequeg, Tashtego, and Daggoo.The ''Pequod'' gams next with the ''Bachelor'', a Nantucket ship heading home full of sperm oil.", "Every now and then, the ''Pequod'' lowers for whales with success.", "On one of those nights in the whaleboat, Fedallah prophesies that neither hearse nor coffin can be Ahab's, that before he dies, Ahab must see two hearses — one not made by mortal hands and the other made of American wood — that Fedallah will precede his captain in death, and finally that only hemp can kill Ahab.As the ''Pequod'' approaches the Equator, Ahab scolds his quadrant for telling him only where he is and not where he will be.", "He dashes it to the deck.", "That evening, an impressive typhoon attacks the ship.", "Lightning strikes the mast, setting the doubloon and Ahab's harpoon aglow.", "Ahab delivers a speech on the spirit of fire, seeing the lightning as a portent of Moby Dick.", "Starbuck sees the lightning as a warning, and feels tempted to shoot the sleeping Ahab with a musket.", "The next morning, when he finds that the lightning disoriented the compass, Ahab makes a new one out of a lance, a maul, and a sailmaker's needle.", "He orders the log be heaved, but the weathered line snaps, leaving the ship with no way to fix its location.Moby Dick, as illustrated in a 1902 editionThe ''Pequod'' is now heading southeast toward Moby Dick.", "A man falls overboard from the mast.", "The life buoy is thrown, but both sink.", "Now Queequeg proposes that his superfluous coffin be used as a new life buoy.", "Starbuck orders the carpenter to seal and waterproof it.", "The next morning, the ship meets in another truncated gam with the ''Rachel'', commanded by Captain Gardiner from Nantucket.", "The ''Rachel'' is seeking survivors from one of her whaleboats which had gone after Moby Dick.", "Among the missing is Gardiner's young son.", "Ahab refuses to join the search.Twenty-four hours a day, Ahab now stands and walks the deck, while Fedallah shadows him.", "Suddenly, a sea hawk grabs Ahab's slouched hat and flies off with it.", "Next, the ''Pequod'', in a ninth and final gam, meets the ''Delight'', badly damaged and with five of her crew left dead by Moby Dick.", "Her captain shouts that the harpoon which can kill the white whale has yet to be forged, but Ahab flourishes his special lance and once more orders the ship forward.", "Ahab shares a moment of contemplation with Starbuck.", "Ahab speaks about his wife and child, calls himself a fool for spending 40 years on whaling, and claims he can see his own child in Starbuck's eye.", "Starbuck tries to persuade Ahab to return to Nantucket to meet both their families, but Ahab simply crosses the deck and stands near Fedallah.On the first day of the chase, Ahab smells the whale, climbs the mast, and sights Moby Dick.", "He claims the doubloon for himself, and orders all boats to lower except for Starbuck's.", "The whale bites Ahab's boat in two, tosses the captain out of it, and scatters the crew.", "On the second day of the chase, Ahab leaves Starbuck in charge of the ''Pequod''.", "Moby Dick smashes the three boats that seek him into splinters and tangles their lines.", "Ahab is rescued, but his ivory leg and Fedallah are lost.", "Starbuck begs Ahab to desist, but Ahab vows to slay the white whale, even if he would have to dive through the globe itself to get his revenge.On the third day of the chase, Ahab sights Moby Dick at noon.", "Sharks appear as well.", "Ahab lowers his boat for the final time, leaving Starbuck again on board.", "Moby Dick breaches and destroys two boats.", "Fedallah's corpse, still entangled in the fouled lines, is lashed to the whale's back, so Moby Dick turns out to be the hearse Fedallah prophesied.", "\"Possessed by all the fallen angels\", Ahab plants his harpoon in the whale's flank.", "Moby Dick smites the whaleboat, tossing its men into the sea.", "Only Ishmael is unable to return to the boat.", "He is left behind in the sea, and so is the only crewman of the ''Pequod'' to survive the final encounter.", "The whale destroys the ''Pequod''.", "Ahab then realizes that the destroyed ship is the hearse made of American wood in Fedallah's prophecy.Moby Dick returns \"within a few yards of Ahab's boat\", a harpoon is darted, the line gets tangled, and Ahab stoops to free it.", "In doing so, the line loops around Ahab's neck.", "As the stricken whale swims away, the captain is drawn with him out of sight.", "Queequeg's coffin comes to the surface, and it is the only thing to escape the vortex when the ''Pequod'' sinks.", "For a day and a night, Ishmael floats on it, until the ''Rachel'', still looking for its lost seamen, rescues him." ], [ "Structure", "=== Point of view ===Ishmael is the narrator, shaping his story with the use of many different genres including sermons, stage plays, soliloquies, and emblematical readings.", "Repeatedly, Ishmael refers to his writing of the book: \"But how can I hope to explain myself here; and yet, in some dim, random way, explain myself?", "I must, else all these chapters might be naught.\"", "Scholar John Bryant calls him the novel's \"central consciousness and narrative voice\".", "Walter Bezanson first distinguishes Ishmael as narrator from Ishmael as character, whom he calls \"forecastle Ishmael\", the younger Ishmael of some years ago.", "Narrator Ishmael, then, is \"merely young Ishmael grown older\".", "A second distinction is between either or both Ishmaels with the author Herman Melville.", "Bezanson warns readers to \"resist any one-to-one equation of Melville and Ishmael\".=== Chapter structure ===According to critic Walter Bezanson, the chapter structure can be divided into \"chapter sequences\", \"chapter clusters\", and \"balancing chapters\".", "The simplest sequences are of narrative progression, then sequences of theme such as the three chapters on whale painting, and sequences of structural similarity, such as the five dramatic chapters beginning with \"The Quarter-Deck\" or the four chapters beginning with \"The Candles\".", "Chapter clusters are the chapters on the significance of the color white, and those on the meaning of fire.", "Balancing chapters are chapters of opposites, such as \"Loomings\" versus the \"Epilogue\", or similars, such as \"The Quarter-Deck\" and \"The Candles\".Scholar Lawrence Buell describes the arrangement of the non-narrative chapters as structured around three patterns: first, the nine meetings of the ''Pequod'' with ships that have encountered Moby Dick.", "Each has been more and more severely damaged, foreshadowing the ''Pequod''s own fate.", "Second, the increasingly impressive encounters with whales.", "In the early encounters, the whaleboats hardly make contact; later there are false alarms and routine chases; finally, the massive assembling of whales at the edges of the China Sea in \"The Grand Armada\".", "A typhoon near Japan sets the stage for Ahab's confrontation with Moby Dick.The third pattern is the cetological documentation, so lavish that it can be divided into two subpatterns.", "These chapters start with the ancient history of whaling and a bibliographical classification of whales, getting closer with second-hand stories of the evil of whales in general and of Moby Dick in particular, a chronologically ordered commentary on pictures of whales.", "The climax to this section is chapter 57, \"Of whales in paint etc.", "\", which begins with the humble (a beggar in London) and ends with the sublime (the constellation Cetus).", "The next chapter (\"Brit\"), thus the other half of this pattern, begins with the book's first description of live whales, and next the anatomy of the sperm whale is studied, more or less from front to rear and from outer to inner parts, all the way down to the skeleton.", "Two concluding chapters set forth the whale's evolution as a species and claim its eternal nature.Some \"ten or more\" of the chapters on whale killings, beginning at two-fifths of the book, are developed enough to be called \"events\".", "As Bezanson writes, \"in each case a killing provokes either a chapter sequence or a chapter cluster of cetological lore growing out of the circumstance of the particular killing,\" thus these killings are \"structural occasions for ordering the whaling essays and sermons\".Buell observes that the \"narrative architecture\" is an \"idiosyncratic variant of the bipolar observer/hero narrative\", that is, the novel is structured around the two main characters, Ahab and Ishmael, who are intertwined and contrasted with each other, with Ishmael the observer and narrator.", "As the story of Ishmael, remarks Robert Milder, it is a \"narrative of education\".Bryant and Springer find that the book is structured around the two consciousnesses of Ahab and Ishmael, with Ahab as a force of linearity and Ishmael a force of digression.", "While both have an angry sense of being orphaned, they try to come to terms with this hole in their beings in different ways: Ahab with violence, Ishmael with meditation.", "And while the plot in ''Moby-Dick'' may be driven by Ahab's anger, Ishmael's desire to get a hold of the \"ungraspable\" accounts for the novel's lyricism.", "Buell sees a double quest in the book: Ahab's is to hunt Moby Dick, Ishmael's is \"to understand what to make of both whale and hunt\".One of the most distinctive features of the book is the variety of genres.", "Bezanson mentions sermons, dreams, travel account, autobiography, Elizabethan plays, and epic poetry.", "He calls Ishmael's explanatory footnotes to establish the documentary genre \"a Nabokovian touch\".=== Nine meetings with other ships ===A significant structural device is the series of nine meetings (gams) between the ''Pequod'' and other ships.", "These meetings are important in three ways.", "First, their placement in the narrative.", "The initial two meetings and the last two are both close to each other.", "The central group of five gams are separated by about 12 chapters, more or less.", "This pattern provides a structural element, remarks Bezanson, as if the encounters were \"bones to the book's flesh\".", "Second, Ahab's developing responses to the meetings plot the \"rising curve of his passion\" and of his monomania.", "Third, in contrast to Ahab, Ishmael interprets the significance of each ship individually: \"each ship is a scroll which the narrator unrolls and reads\".Bezanson sees no single way to account for the meaning of all of these ships.", "Instead, they may be interpreted as \"a group of metaphysical parables, a series of biblical analogues, a masque of the situation confronting man, a pageant of the humors within men, a parade of the nations, and so forth, as well as concrete and symbolic ways of thinking about the White Whale\".Scholar Nathalia Wright sees the meetings and the significance of the vessels along other lines.", "She singles out the four vessels which have already encountered Moby Dick.", "The first, the ''Jeroboam'', is named after the predecessor of the biblical King Ahab.", "Her \"prophetic\" fate is \"a message of warning to all who follow, articulated by Gabriel and vindicated by the ''Samuel Enderby'', the ''Rachel'', the ''Delight'', and at last the ''Pequod''\".", "None of the other ships has been completely destroyed because none of their captains shared Ahab's monomania; the fate of the ''Jeroboam'' reinforces the structural parallel between Ahab and his biblical namesake: \"Ahab did more to provoke the Lord God of Israel to anger than all the kings of Israel that were before him\" (I Kings 16:33)." ], [ "Themes", "An early enthusiast for the Melville Revival, British author E. M. Forster, remarked in 1927: \"''Moby-Dick'' is full of meanings: its meaning is a different problem.\"", "Yet he saw as \"the essential\" in the book \"its prophetic song\", which flows \"like an undercurrent\" beneath the surface action and morality.The hunt for the whale can be seen as a metaphor for an epistemological questin the words of biographer Laurie Robertson-Lorant, \"man's search for meaning in a world of deceptive appearances and fatal delusions\".", "Ishmael's taxonomy of whales merely demonstrates \"the limitations of scientific knowledge and the impossibility of achieving certainty\".", "She also contrasts Ishmael's and Ahab's attitudes toward life, with Ishmael's open-minded and meditative, \"polypositional stance\" as antithetical to Ahab's monomania, adhering to dogmatic rigidity.Melville biographer Andrew Delbanco cites race as an example of this search for truth beneath surface differences, noting that all races are represented among the crew members of the ''Pequod''.", "Although Ishmael initially is afraid of Queequeg as a tattooed possible cannibal, he soon decides \"Better sleep with a sober cannibal than a drunken Christian.\"", "While it may be rare for a mid-19th century American book to feature Black characters in a nonslavery context, slavery is frequently mentioned.", "The theme of race is carried primarily by Pip, the diminutive Black cabin boy.", "When Pip has almost drowned, and Ahab, genuinely touched by Pip's suffering, questions him gently, Pip \"can only parrot the language of an advertisement for the return of a fugitive slave: 'Pip!", "Reward for Pip!", "'\".Editors Bryant and Springer suggest that perception is a central themethe difficulty of seeing and understanding, which makes deep reality hard to discover and truth hard to pin down.", "Ahab explains that, like all things, the evil whale wears a disguise: \"All visible objects, man, are but pasteboard masks\"and Ahab is determined to \"strike through the mask!", "How can the prisoner reach outside, except by thrusting through the wall?", "To me, the white whale is that wall\" (Ch.", "36, \"The Quarter-Deck\").", "This theme pervades the novel, perhaps never so emphatically as in \"The Doubloon\" (Ch.", "99), where each crewmember perceives the coin in a way shaped by his own personality.", "Later, the American edition has Ahab \"discover no sign\" (Ch.", "133) of the whale when he is staring into the deep.", "In fact, Moby Dick is then swimming up at him.", "In the British edition, Melville changed the word \"discover\" to \"perceive\", and with good reason, for \"discovery\" means finding what is already there, but \"perceiving\", or better still, perception, is \"a matter of shaping what exists by the way in which we see it\".", "The point is not that Ahab would discover the whale as an object, but that he would perceive it as a symbol of his making.Yet Melville does not offer easy solutions.", "Ishmael and Queequeg's sensual friendship initiates a kind of racial harmony that is shattered when the crew's dancing erupts into racial conflict in \"Midnight, Forecastle\" (Ch.", "40).", "Fifty chapters later, Pip suffers mental disintegration after he is reminded that as a slave he would be worth less money than a whale.", "Commodified and brutalized, \"Pip becomes the ship's conscience\".", "His views of property are another example of wrestling with moral choice.", "In Chapter 89, \"Fast-Fish and Loose-Fish, Ishmael expounds the legal concept \"fast-fish and loose-fish\", which gives right of ownership to those who take possession of an abandoned fish or ship; he compares the concept to events in history, such as the European colonization of the Americas, the partitions of Poland, and the Mexican–American War.The novel has also been read as critical of the contemporary literary and philosophical movement Transcendentalism, attacking the thought of leading Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson in particular.", "The life and death of Ahab has been read as an attack on Emerson's philosophy of self-reliance, for one, in its destructive potential and potential justification for egoism.", "Richard Chase writes that for Melville, \"Deathspiritual, emotional, physicalis the price of self-reliance when it is pushed to the point of solipsism, where the world has no existence apart from the all-sufficient self.\"", "In that regard, Chase sees Melville's art as antithetical to that of Emerson's thought, in that Melville \"points up the dangers of an exaggerated self-regard, rather than, as ... Emerson loved to do, suggested the vital possibilities of the self\".", "Newton Arvin further suggests that self-reliance was, for Melville, really the \"masquerade in kingly weeds of a wild egoism, anarchic, irresponsible, and destructive\"." ], [ "Style", "\"Above all\", say the scholars Bryant and Springer, ''Moby-Dick'' is language: \"nautical, biblical, Homeric, Shakespearean, Miltonic, cetological, alliterative, fanciful, colloquial, archaic and unceasingly allusive\".", "Melville stretches grammar, quotes well-known or obscure sources, or swings from calm prose to high rhetoric, technical exposition, seaman's slang, mystic speculation, or wild prophetic archaism.", "Melville coined words, critic Newton Arvin recognizes, as if the English vocabulary were too limited for the complex things he had to express.", "Perhaps the most striking example is the use of verbal nouns, mostly plural, such as ''allurings'', ''coincidings'', and ''leewardings''.", "Equally abundant are unfamiliar adjectives and adverbs, including participial adjectives such as ''officered'', ''omnitooled'', and ''uncatastrophied''; participial adverbs such as ''intermixingly'', ''postponedly'', and ''uninterpenetratingly''; rarities such as the adjectives ''unsmoothable'', ''spermy'', and ''leviathanic'', and adverbs such as ''sultanically'', ''Spanishly'', and ''Venetianly''; and adjectival compounds ranging from odd to magnificent, such as \"the ''message-carrying'' air\", \"the ''circus-running'' sun\", and \"''teeth-tiered'' sharks\".", "It is rarer for Melville to create his own verbs from nouns, but he does this with what Arvin calls \"irresistible effect\", such as in \"who didst ''thunder'' him higher than a throne\", and \"my fingers ... began ... to ''serpentine'' and ''spiralize''\".", "For Arvin, the essence of the writing style of ''Moby-Dick'' lies inthe manner in which the parts of speech are 'intermixingly' assorted in Melville's styleso that the distinction between verbs and nouns, substantives and modifiers, becomes a half unreal onethis is the prime characteristic of his language.", "No feature of it could express more tellingly the awareness that lies below and behind ''Moby-Dick''the awareness that action and condition, movement and stasis, object and idea, are but surface aspects of one underlying reality.Later critics have expanded Arvin's categories.", "The superabundant vocabulary can be broken down into strategies used individually and in combination.", "First, the original modification of words as \"Leviathanism\" and the exaggerated repetition of modified words, as in the series \"pitiable\", \"pity\", \"pitied\" and \"piteous\" (Ch.", "81, \"The Pequod Meets the Virgin\").", "Second, the use of existing words in new ways, as when the whale \"heaps\" and \"tasks\".", "Third, words lifted from specialized fields, as \"fossiliferous\".", "Fourth, the use of unusual adjective-noun combinations, as in \"concentrating brow\" and \"immaculate manliness\" (Ch.", "26, \"Knights and Squires\").", "Fifth, using the participial modifier to emphasize and to reinforce the already established expectations of the reader, as the words \"preluding\" and \"foreshadowing\" (\"so still and subdued and yet somehow preluding was all the scene ...\"; \"In this foreshadowing interval ...\").Other characteristic stylistic elements are the echoes and overtones, both imitation of distinct styles and habitual use of sources to shape his own work.", "His three most important sources, in order, are the Bible, Shakespeare, and Milton.The novel uses several levels of rhetoric.", "The simplest is \"a relatively straightforward ''expository'' style\", such as in the cetological chapters, though they are \"rarely sustained, and serve chiefly as transitions\" between more sophisticated levels.", "A second level is the \"''poetic''\", such as in Ahab's quarter-deck monologue, to the point that it can be set as blank verse.", "Set over a metrical pattern, the rhythms are \"evenly controlled—too evenly perhaps for prose\", Bezanson suggests.", "A third level is the ''idiomatic'', and just as the poetic it hardly is present in pure form.", "Examples of this are \"the consistently excellent idiom\" of Stubb, such as in the way he encourages the rowing crew in a rhythm of speech that suggests \"the beat of the oars takes the place of the metronomic meter\".", "The fourth and final level of rhetoric is the ''composite'', \"a magnificent blending\" of the first three and possible other elements:The Nantucketer, he alone resides and riots on the sea; he alone, in Bible language, goes down to it in ships; to and fro ploughing it as his own special plantation.", "''There'' is his home; ''there'' lies his business, which a Noah's flood would not interrupt, though it overwhelmed all the millions in China.", "He lives on the sea, as prairie cocks in the prairie; he hides among the waves, he climbs them as chamois hunters climb the Alps.", "For years he knows not the land; so that when he comes to it at last, it smells like another world, more strangely than the moon would to an Earthsman.", "With the landless gull, that at sunset folds her wings and is rocked to sleep between billows; so at nightfall, the Nantucketer, out of sight of land, furls his sails, and lays him to his rest, while under his very pillow rush herds of walruses and whales.", "(\"Nantucket\", Ch.", "14).Bezanson calls this chapter a comical \"prose poem\" that blends \"high and low with a relaxed assurance\".", "Similar passages include the \"marvelous hymn to spiritual democracy\" in the middle of \"Knights and Squires\".The elaborate use of the Homeric simile may not have been learned from Homer himself, yet Matthiessen finds the writing \"more consistently alive\" on the Homeric than on the Shakespearean level, especially during the final chase the \"controlled accumulation\" of such similes emphasizes Ahab's hubris through a succession of land-images, for instance: \"The ship tore on; leaving such a furrow in the sea as when a cannon-ball, missent, becomes a ploughshare and turns up the level field\" (\"The Chase – Second Day\", Ch.", "134).", "A paragraph-long simile describes how the 30 men of the crew became a single unit:For as the one ship that held them all; though it was put together of all contrasting things—oak, and maple, and pine wood; iron, and pitch, and hemp—yet all these ran into each other in the one concrete hull, which shot on its way, both balanced and directed by the long central keel; even so, all the individualities of the crew, this man's valor, that man's fear; guilt and guiltiness, all varieties were welded into oneness, and were all directed to that fatal goal which Ahab their one lord and keel did point to.", "(\"The Chase – Second Day\", Ch.", "134).The final phrase fuses the two halves of the comparison; the men become identical with the ship, which follows Ahab's direction.", "The concentration only gives way to more imagery: the \"mastheads, like the tops of tall palms, were outspreadingly tufted with arms and legs\".", "All these images contribute their \"startling energy\" to the advance of the narrative.", "When the boats are lowered, the imagery serves to dwarf everything but Ahab's will in the presence of Moby Dick.", "These similes, with their astonishing \"imaginative abundance,\" not only create dramatic movement, Matthiessen observes: \"They are no less notable for breadth; and the more sustained among them, for an heroic dignity.", "\"===Assimilation of Shakespeare===F.", "O. Matthiessen, in 1941, declared that Melville's \"possession by Shakespeare went far beyond all other influences\" in that it made Melville discover his own full strength \"through the challenge of the most abundant imagination in history\".", "This insight was then reinforced by the study of Melville's annotatations in his reading copy of Shakespeare, which show that he immersed himself in Shakespeare when he was preparing for ''Moby-Dick'', especially ''King Lear'' and ''Macbeth''.", "Reading Shakespeare, Matthiessen observes, was \"a catalytic agent\", one that transformed his writing \"from limited reporting to the expression of profound natural forces\".The creation of Ahab, Melville biographer Leon Howard discovered, followed an observation by Coleridge in his lecture on ''Hamlet'': \"one of Shakespeare's modes of creating characters is to conceive any one intellectual or moral faculty in ''morbid'' excess, and then to place himself.", "... thus ''mutilated'' or ''diseased'', under given circumstances\".", "Coleridge's vocabulary is echoed in some phrases that describe Ahab.", "Ahab seemed to have \"what seems a half-wilful ''over-ruling morbidness'' at the bottom of his nature\", and \"all men tragically great\", Melville added, \"are made so through a certain ''morbidness''; \"all mortal greatness is but ''disease''\".", "In addition to this, in Howard's view, the self-references of Ishmael as a \"tragic dramatist\", and his defense of his choice of a hero who lacked \"all outward majestical trappings\" is evidence that Melville \"consciously thought of his protagonist as a tragic hero of the sort found in ''Hamlet'' and ''King Lear''\".Matthiessen demonstrates the extent to which Melville was in full possession of his powers in the description of Ahab, which ends in languagethat suggests Shakespeare's but is not an imitation of it: 'Oh, Ahab!", "what shall be grand in thee, it must needs be plucked from the skies and dived for in the deep, and featured in the unbodied air!'", "The imaginative richness of the final phrase seems particularly Shakespearean, \"but its two key words appear only once each in the plays ... and to neither of these usages is Melville indebted for his fresh combination\".Melville's assimilation of Shakespeare, Matthiessen concludes, gave ''Moby-Dick'' \"a kind of diction that depended upon no source\", and that could, as D.H. Lawrence put it, convey something \"almost superhuman or inhuman, bigger than life\".", "The prose is not based on anybody else's verse but on \"a sense of speech rhythm\".Matthiessen finds debts to Shakespeare, whether hard or easy to recognize, on almost every page.", "He points out that the phrase \"mere sounds, full of Leviathanism, but signifying nothing\" at the end of \"Cetology\" (Ch.32) echoes the famous phrase in ''Macbeth'': \"Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing.\"", "Matthiessen shows that Ahab's first extended speech to the crew, in the \"Quarter-Deck\" (Ch.36), is \"virtually blank verse, and can be printed as such\":In addition to this sense of rhythm, Matthiessen shows that Melville \"now mastered Shakespeare's mature secret of how to make language itself dramatic\".", "He had learned three essential things, Matthiessen sums up:* To rely on verbs of action, \"which lend their dynamic pressure to both movement and meaning\".", "The effective tension caused by the contrast of \"thou launchest navies of full-freighted worlds\" and \"there's that in here that still remains indifferent\" in \"The Candles\" (Ch.", "119) makes the last clause lead to a \"compulsion to strike the breast\", which suggests \"how thoroughly the drama has come to inhere in the words\".", "* The Shakespearean energy of verbal compounds was not lost on him (\"full-freighted\").", "* Finally: Melville learned how to handle \"the quickened sense of life that comes from making one part of speech act as anotherfor example, 'earthquake' as an adjective, or the coining of 'placeless', an adjective from a noun\".=== Thomas Carlyle ===Since the publication of ''Moby-Dick'' in 1851, critics have continued to notice parallels between it and the work of Thomas Carlyle, particularly ''Sartor Resartus'' (1833–34), ''On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History'' (1841) and the ''Critical and Miscellaneous Essays'', which Melville read while writing the novel.", "James Barbour and biographer Leon Howard write that \"Carlyle's rhetoric is reflected\" in much of the dialogue of Ahab and Ishmael, while Melville uses ''Sartor'''s philosophical concepts of \"an emblematic universe\" and a \"weaver god\" \"almost in Carlyle's words\".", "Alexander Welsh argues that Carlyle figured \"largely in the undertaking of ''Moby Dick''\", noting that the \"figure of the sheep in 'The Funeral' ... is taken directly from Carlyle\", specifically the essay \"Boswell's Life of Johnson\" (1832) and that the \"language of herring and whales, fleets and commodores\" may have been borrowed from ''Sartor''.", "According to Paul Giles, ''Sartor'' \"furnished Melville with a prototype for his playful iconoclastic style in ''Moby-Dick''\", particularly in its narrative strategy and romantic ironic paradoxes.", "The \"shared use of the clothing metaphor\" is also inspired by ''Sartor''.Jonathan Arac sees in ''Moby-Dick'' \"a direct appropriation\" of Carlyle's \"Hero\".", "\"Ahab\", writes Arac, \"is very much a Carlylean hero\", which Carlyle's \"romantic image of Cromwell helped Melville to create\".", "Carlyle's portraits of Dante Alighieri and Shakespeare in \"The Hero as Poet\", the third lecture of ''On Heroes'', \"offered models that helped Melville to develop as a reader and to achieve the definition of himself as a writer that made ''Moby-Dick'' possible\".===Renaissance Humanism===Melville also borrowed stylistic qualities from Renaissance Humanists such as Thomas Browne and Robert Burton.", "Melville's biographer Hershel Parker notes that, during the composition of ''Moby-Dick'', Melville read Thomas Browne, Robert Burton, and Rabelais and adopted not only their poetic and conversational prose styles, but also their skeptical attitudes towards religion.", "Browne's statement \"I love to lose my selfe in a mystery to pursue my reason to an ''ob altitudo''\" mirrors both in ethos and poetics Ishmael's \"I love to sail forbidden seas, and land on barbarous coasts.", "Not ignoring what is good, I am quick to perceive a horror, and could still be social with it.", "\"Ishmael also mirrors the epistemological uncertainty of Renaissance humanists.", "For instance, Browne argues that \"where there is an obscurity too deepe for our reason ...reason becomes more humble and submissive unto the subtilties of faith ...", "I believe there was already a tree whose fruit our unhappy parents tasted, though in the same chapter, when God forbids it, 'tis positivley said, the plants of the field were not yet growne.\"", "Ishmael similarly embraces paradox when he proclaims \"Doubts of all things earthly, and intuitions of some things heavenly; this combination makes neither believer nor infidel, but makes a man who regards them both with equal eye.", "\"Scholars have also noted similarities between Melville's style and that of Robert Burton in his ''Anatomy of Melancholy''.", "Scholar William Engel notes that \"Because Melville had Robert Burton's ''Anatomy of Melancholy'' at his side, this encyclopedic work will serve as a conceptual touchstone for analyzing his looking back to an earlier aesthetic practice.\"", "Additionally, Melville's biographer Hershel Parker writes that \"in 1847, Robert Burton's ''Anatomy of Melancholy'' served as Melville's sonorous textbook on morbid psychology\" and then \"in 1848 Melville bought Michel de Montaigne's works, where he read the ''Essays'', finding there a worldly wise skepticism that braced him against the superficial pieties demanded by his time\".", "Finally, Melville then read Thomas Browne's ''Religio Medici'' which Melville adored, describing Browne to a friend as \"a kind of 'crack'd archangel'\"." ], [ "Background", "===Autobiographical elements===''Moby-Dick'' draws on Melville's experience on the whaler ''Acushnet'', but is not autobiographical.", "On December 30, 1840, Melville signed on as a green hand for the maiden voyage of the ''Acushnet'', planned to last for 52 months.", "Its owner, Melvin O. Bradford, like Bildad, was a Quaker: on several instances when he signed documents, he erased the word \"swear\" and replaced it with \"affirm\".", "But the shareholders of the ''Acushnet'' were relatively wealthy, whereas the owners of the ''Pequod'' included poor widows and orphaned children.The model for the Whaleman's Chapel of chapter 7 is the Seamen's Bethel on Johnny Cake Hill.", "Melville attended a service there shortly before he shipped out on the ''Acushnet'', and he heard a sermon by Reverend Enoch Mudge, who is at least in part the inspiration for Father Mapple.", "Even the topic of Jonah and the Whale may be authentic, for Mudge contributed sermons on Jonah to ''Sailor's Magazine''.The crew was not as heterogenous or exotic as the crew of the ''Pequod''.", "Five were foreigners, four of them Portuguese, and the others were American either at birth or naturalized.", "Three black men were in the crew, two seamen and the cook.", "Fleece, the black cook of the ''Pequod'', was probably modeled on this Philadelphia-born William Maiden.", "A first mate, actually called Edward C. Starbuck was discharged at Tahiti under mysterious circumstances.", "The second mate, John Hall, is identified as Stubb in an annotation in the book's copy of crew member Henry Hubbard, who also is identified as the model for Pip: John Backus, a little black man added to the crew during the voyage.", "Hubbard witnessed Pip's fall into the water.Ahab seems to have had no model, though his death may have been based on an actual event.", "Melville was aboard ''The Star'' in May 1843 with two sailors from the ''Nantucket'' who could have told him that they had seen their second mate \"taken out of a whaleboat by a foul line and drowned\".===Whaling sources===Melville's copy of ''Natural History of the Sperm Whale'', 1839In addition to his own experience on the whaling ship ''Acushnet'', two actual events served as the genesis for Melville's tale.", "One was the sinking of the Nantucket ship ''Essex'' in 1820, after a sperm whale rammed her 2,000 miles (3,200 km) from the western coast of South America.", "First mate Owen Chase, one of eight survivors, recorded the events in his 1821 ''Narrative of the Most Extraordinary and Distressing Shipwreck of the Whale-Ship Essex''.The other event was the alleged killing in the late 1830s of the albino sperm whale Mocha Dick, in the waters off the Chilean island of Mocha.", "Mocha Dick was rumored to have 20 or so harpoons in his back from other whalers, and appeared to attack ships with premeditated ferocity.", "One of his battles with a whaler served as subject for an article by explorer Jeremiah N. Reynolds in the May 1839 issue of ''The Knickerbocker or New-York Monthly Magazine''.", "Melville was familiar with the article, which described:Significantly, Reynolds writes a first-person narration that serves as a frame for the story of a whaling captain he meets.", "The captain resembles Ahab and suggests a similar symbolism and single-minded motivation in hunting this whale, in that when his crew first encounters Mocha Dick and cowers from him, the captain rallies them:Mocha Dick had over 100 encounters with whalers in the decades between 1810 and the 1830s.", "He was described as being gigantic and covered in barnacles.", "Although he was the most famous, Mocha Dick was not the only white whale in the sea, nor the only whale to attack hunters.While an accidental collision with a sperm whale at night accounted for sinking of the ''Union'' in 1807, it was not until August 1851 that the whaler ''Ann Alexander'', while hunting in the Pacific off the Galápagos Islands, became the second vessel since the ''Essex'' to be attacked, holed, and sunk by a whale.", "Melville remarked, \"Ye Gods!", "What a commentator is this ''Ann Alexander'' whale.", "What he has to say is short & pithy & very much to the point.", "I wonder if my evil art has raised this monster.", "\"While Melville had already drawn on his different sailing experiences in his previous novels, such as ''Mardi'', he had never focused specifically on whaling.", "The 18 months he spent as an ordinary seaman aboard the whaler ''Acushnet'' in 1841–42, and one incident in particular, now served as inspiration.", "During a mid-ocean \"gam\" (rendezvous at sea between ships), he met Chase's son William, who lent him his father's book.", "Melville later wrote:The book was out of print, and rare.", "Melville let his interest in the book be known to his father-in-law, Lemuel Shaw, whose friend in Nantucket procured an imperfect but clean copy which Shaw gave to Melville in April 1851.Melville read this copy avidly, made copious notes in it, and had it bound, keeping it in his library for the rest of his life.", "Herman Melville''Moby-Dick'' contains large sections—most of them narrated by Ishmael—that seemingly have nothing to do with the plot, but describe aspects of the whaling business.", "Although a successful earlier novel about Nantucket whalers had been written, ''Miriam Coffin or The Whale-Fisherman'' (1835) by Joseph C. Hart, which is credited with influencing elements of Melville's work, most accounts of whaling tended to be sensational tales of bloody mutiny, and Melville believed that no book up to that time had portrayed the whaling industry in as fascinating or immediate a way as he had experienced it.Melville found the bulk of his data on whales and whaling in five books, the most important of which was by the English ship's surgeon Thomas Beale, ''Natural History of the Sperm Whale'' (1839), a book of reputed authority which Melville bought on July 10, 1850.", "\"In scale and complexity,\" scholar Steven Olsen-Smith writes, \"the significance of this source to the composition of ''Moby-Dick'' surpasses that of any other source book from which Melville is known to have drawn.\"", "According to scholar Howard P. Vincent, the general influence of this source is to supply the arrangement of whaling data in chapter groupings.", "Melville followed Beale's grouping closely, yet adapted it to what art demanded, and he changed the original's prosaic phrases into graphic figures of speech.", "The second most important whaling book is Frederick Debell Bennett, ''A Whaling Voyage Round the Globe, from the Year 1833 to 1836'' (1840), from which Melville also took the chapter organization, but in a lesser degree than he learned from Beale.The third book was the one Melville reviewed for the ''Literary World'' in 1847, J. Ross Browne's ''Etchings of a Whaling Cruise'' (1846), which may have given Melville the first thought for a whaling book, and in any case contains passages embarrassingly similar to passages in ''Moby-Dick''.", "The fourth book, Reverend Henry T. Cheever's ''The Whale and His Captors'' (1850), was used for two episodes in ''Moby-Dick'' but probably appeared too late in the writing of the novel to be of much more use.", "Melville did plunder a fifth book, William Scoresby Jr., ''An Account of the Arctic Regions with a History and Description of the Northern Whale Fishery'' (1820), though—unlike the other four books—its subject is the Greenland whale rather than the sperm whale.", "Although the book became the standard whaling reference soon after publication, Melville satirized and parodied it on several occasions—for instance in the description of narwhales in the chapter \"Cetology\", where he called Scoresby \"Charley Coffin\" and gave his account \"a humorous twist of fact\": \"Scoresby will help out Melville several times, and on each occasion Melville will satirize him under a pseudonym.\"", "Vincent suggests several reasons for Melville's attitude towards Scoresby, including his dryness and abundance of irrelevant data, but the major reason seems to have been that the Greenland whale was the sperm whale's closest competitor for the public's attention, so Melville felt obliged to dismiss anything dealing with it.In addition to cetological works, Melville also consulted scattered literary works that mention or discuss whales, as the opening \"Extracts\" section of the novel demonstrates.", "For instance, Thomas Browne's essay \"Of Sperma-Ceti, and the Sperma-Ceti Whale\" from his ''Pseudodoxia Epidemica'' is consulted not only in the extracts but also in the chapter titled \"Cetology\".", "Ishmael notes: \"Many are the men, small and great, old and new, landsmen and seamen, who have at large or in little, written of the whale.", "Run over a few:—The Authors of the Bible; Aristotle; Pliny; Aldrovandi; Sir Thomas Browne.\"", "Browne's playful examination of whales, which values philosophical interpretations over scientifically accurate examinations, helped shape the novel's style.", "Browne's comment on \"the Sperm-Whale's eyes but small, the pizell penis large, and prominent\" likely helped shape the comical chapter concerning whale penises, \"The Cassock\".===Composition===Scholars have concluded that Melville composed ''Moby-Dick'' in two or even three stages.", "Reasoning from biographical evidence, analysis of the functions of characters, and a series of unexplained but perhaps meaningful inconsistencies in the final version, they hypothesize that reading Shakespeare and his new friendship with Hawthorne, in the words of Lawrence Buell, inspired Melville to rewrite a \"relatively straightforward\" whaling adventure into \"an epic of cosmic encyclopedic proportions\".The earliest surviving mention of what became ''Moby-Dick'' is a letter Melville wrote to Richard Henry Dana Jr. on May 1, 1850:Bezanson objects that the letter contains too many ambiguities to assume \"that Dana's 'suggestion' would obviously be that Melville do for whaling what he had done for life on a man-of-war in ''White-Jacket''.", "Dana had experienced how incomparable Melville was in dramatic storytelling when he met him in Boston, so perhaps \"his 'suggestion' was that Melville do a book that captured that gift\".", "And the long sentence in the middle of the above quotation simply acknowledges that Melville is struggling with the problem, not of choosing between fact and fancy but of how to interrelate them.", "The most positive statements are that it will be a strange sort of a book and that Melville means to give the truth of the thing, but what thing exactly is not clear.Melville may have found the plot before writing or developed it after the writing process was underway.", "Considering his elaborate use of sources, \"it is safe to say\" that they helped him shape the narrative, its plot included.", "Scholars John Bryant and Haskell Springer cite the development of the character Ishmael as another factor which prolonged Melville's process of composition and which can be deduced from the structure of the final version of the book.", "Ishmael, in the early chapters, is simply the narrator, just as the narrators in Melville's earlier sea adventures had been, but in later chapters becomes a mystical stage manager who is central to the tragedy.Less than two months after mentioning the project to Dana, Melville reported in a letter of June 27 to Richard Bentley, his English publisher:Nathaniel Hawthorne and his family had moved to a small red farmhouse near Lenox, Massachusetts, at the end of March 1850.He met Melville on August 5, 1850, when the authors met at a picnic hosted by a mutual friend that included, among others, Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. and James T. Fields.", "Melville wrote an unsigned review of Hawthorne's short story collection ''Mosses from an Old Manse'' titled \"Hawthorne and His Mosses\", which appeared in ''The Literary World'' on August 17 and 24.Bezanson finds the essay \"so deeply related to Melville's imaginative and intellectual world while writing ''Moby-Dick''\" that it could be regarded as a virtual preface and should be \"everybody's prime piece of contextual reading\".", "In the essay, Melville compares Hawthorne to Shakespeare and Dante, and his \"self-projection\" is evident in the repeats of the word \"genius\", the more than two dozen references to Shakespeare, and in the insistence that Shakespeare's \"unapproachability\" is nonsense for an American.Arrowhead, the house in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, in which Melville worked on ''Moby-Dick''The most intense work on the book was done during the winter of 1850–1851, when Melville had changed the noise of New York City for a farm in Pittsfield, Massachusetts.", "The move may well have delayed finishing the book.", "During these months, he wrote several excited letters to Hawthorne, including one of June 1851 in which he summarizes his career: \"What I feel most moved to write, that is banned,—it will not pay.", "Yet, altogether, write the ''other'' way I cannot.", "So the product is a final hash, and all my books are botches.", "\"This is the stubborn Melville who stood by ''Mardi'' and talked about his other, more commercial books with contempt.", "The letter also reveals how Melville experienced his development from his 25th year: \"Three weeks have scarcely passed, at any time between then and now, that I have not unfolded within myself.", "But I feel that I am now come to the inmost leaf of the bulb, and that shortly the flower must fall to the mould.", "\"Buell finds the evidence that Melville changed his ambitions during writing \"on the whole convincing\", since the impact of Shakespeare and Hawthorne was \"surely monumental\", but others challenge the theories of the composition in three ways.", "The first raises objections on the use of evidence and the evidence itself.", "Bryant finds \"little concrete evidence, and nothing at all conclusive, to show that Melville radically altered the structure or conception of the book\".", "and scholar Robert Milder sees \"insufficient evidence and doubtful methodology\" at work.", "A second type of objection is based on assumptions about Melville's intellectual development.", "Bryant and Springer object to the conclusion that Hawthorne inspired Melville to write Ahab's tragic obsession into the book; Melville already had experienced other encounters which could just as well have triggered his imagination, such as the Bible's Jonah and Job, Milton's Satan, Shakespeare's King Lear, Byron's heroes.", "Bezanson is also not convinced that before he met Hawthorne, \"Melville was ''not'' ready for the kind of book ''Moby-Dick'' became\", because in his letters from the time Melville denounces his last two \"straight narratives, ''Redburn'' and ''White-Jacket'', as two books written just for the money, and he firmly stood by ''Mardi'' as the kind of book he believed in.", "His language is already \"richly steeped in 17th-century mannerisms\", characteristics of ''Moby-Dick''.", "A third type calls upon the literary nature of passages used as evidence.", "According to Milder, the cetological chapters cannot be leftovers from an earlier stage of composition and any theory that they are \"will eventually founder on the stubborn meaningfulness of these chapters\", because no scholar adhering to the theory has yet explained how these chapters \"can bear intimate thematic relation to a symbolic story not yet conceived\".Buell finds that theories based on a combination of selected passages from letters and what are perceived as \"loose ends\" in the book not only \"tend to dissolve into guesswork\", but he also suggests that these so-called loose ends may be intended by the author: repeatedly the book mentions \"the necessary unfinishedness of immense endeavors\"." ], [ "Publication history", "Melville first proposed the British publication in a June 27, 1850, letter to Richard Bentley, London publisher of his earlier works.", "Textual scholar G. Thomas Tanselle explains that for these earlier books, American proof sheets had been sent to the British publisher and that publication in the United States had been held off until the work had been set in type and published in England.", "This procedure was intended to provide the best (though still uncertain) claim for the UK copyright of an American work.", "In the case of ''Moby-Dick'', Melville had taken almost a year longer than promised, and could not rely on Harpers to prepare the proofs as they had done for the earlier books.", "Indeed, Harpers had denied him an advance, and since he was already in debt to them for almost $700, he was forced to borrow money and to arrange for the typesetting and plating himself.", "John Bryant suggests that he did so \"to reduce the number of hands playing with his text\".The final stages of composition overlapped with the early stages of publication.", "At the end of May 1851, Melville delivered the bulk of his manuscript to Harper's for plating and printing of proof sheets.", "In June, he wrote to Hawthorne that he was in New York to \"work and slave on my 'Whale' while it is driving through the press\".", "He was staying with Allan and Sophia in a small room to correct proofs, and to (re)write the closing pages.", "By the end of the month, \"wearied with the long delay of printers\", Melville came back to finish work on the book in Pittsfield.", "Three weeks later, the typesetting was almost done, as he announced to Bentley on July 20: \"I am now passing thro' the press, the closing sheets of my new work\".", "While Melville was simultaneously writing and proofreading what had been set, the corrected proof would be plated, that is, the type fixed in final form.", "Since earlier chapters were already plated when he was revising the later ones, Melville must have \"felt restricted in the kinds of revisions that were feasible\".On July 3, 1851, Bentley offered Melville £150 and \"half profits\", that is, half the profits that remained after the expenses of production and advertising.", "On July 20, Melville accepted, after which Bentley drew up a contract on August 13.Melville signed and returned the contract in early September, and then went to New York with the proof sheets, made from the finished plates, which he sent to London by his brother Allan on September 10.For over a month, these proofs had been in Melville's possession, and because the book would be set anew in London he could devote all his time to correcting and revising them.", "He still had no American publisher, so the usual hurry about getting the British publication to precede the American was not present.", "Only on September 12 was the Harper publishing contract signed.", "Bentley received the proof sheets with Melville's corrections and revisions marked on them on September 24.He published the book less than four weeks later.In the October 1851 issue of ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'' \"The Town Ho's Story\" was published, with a footnote reading: \"From 'The Whale'.", "The title of a new work by Mr. Melville, in the press of Harper and Brothers, and now publishing in London by Mr.", "Bentley.", "\"On October 18, the British edition, ''The Whale'', was published in a printing of only 500 copies, fewer than Melville's previous books.", "Their slow sales had convinced Bentley that a smaller number was more realistic.", "The London ''Morning Herald'' on October 20 printed the earliest known review.", "On November 14, the American edition, ''Moby-Dick'', was published and the same day reviewed in both the Albany ''Argus'' and the ''Morning Courier and New-York Enquirer''.", "On November 19, Washington received the copy to be deposited for copyright purposes.", "The first American printing of 2,915 copies was almost the same as the first of ''Mardi'', but the first printing of Melville's other three Harper books had been a thousand copies more.===Melville's revisions and British editorial revisions===The British edition, set by Bentley's printers from the American page proofs with Melville's revisions and corrections, differs from the American edition in over 700 wordings and thousands of punctuation and spelling changes.Excluding the preliminaries and the one extract, the three volumes of the British edition came to 927 pages and the single American volume to 635 pages.", "Accordingly, the dedication to Hawthorne in the American edition—\"this book is inscribed to\"—became \"these volumes are inscribed to\" in the British.", "The table of contents in the British edition generally follows the actual chapter titles in the American edition, but 19 titles in the American table of contents differ from the titles above the chapters themselves.", "This list was probably drawn up by Melville himself: the titles of chapters describing encounters of the ''Pequod'' with other ships had—apparently to stress the parallelisms between these chapters—been standardized to \"The Pequod meets the ...,\" with the exception of the already published 'The Town-Ho's Story'.For unknown reasons, the \"Etymology\" and \"Extracts\" were moved to the end of the third volume.", "An epigraph from ''Paradise Lost'', taken from the second of the two quotations from that work in the American edition, appears on the title page of each of the three British volumes.", "Melville's involvement with this rearrangement is not clear: if it was Bentley's gesture toward accommodating Melville, as Tanselle suggests, its selection put an emphasis on the quotation Melville might not have agreed with.The largest of Melville's revisions is the addition to the British edition of a 139-word footnote in Chapter 87 explaining the word \"gally\".", "The edition also contains six short phrases and some 60 single words lacking in the American edition.", "In addition, about 35 changes produce genuine improvements, as opposed to mere corrections: \"Melville may not have made every one of the changes in this category, but it seems certain that he was responsible for the great majority of them.", "\"===British censorship and missing \"Epilogue\"===The British publisher hired one or more revisers who were, in the evaluation of scholar Steven Olsen-Smith, responsible for \"unauthorized changes ranging from typographical errors and omissions to acts of outright censorship\".", "According to biographer Robertson-Lorant, the result was that the British edition was \"badly mutilated\".", "The expurgations fall into four categories, ranked according to the apparent priorities of the censor:# Sacrilegious passages, more than 1,200 words: Attributing human failures to God was grounds for excision or revision, as was comparing human shortcomings to divine ones.", "For example, in chapter 28, \"Ahab\", Ahab stands with \"a crucifixion in his face\" was revised to \"an apparently eternal anguish\";# Sexual matters, including the sex life of whales and even Ishmael's worried anticipation of the nature of Queequeg's underwear, as well as allusions to fornication or harlots, and \"our hearts' honeymoon\" (in relation to Ishmael and Queequeg).", "Chapter 95, however, \"The Cassock\", referring to the whale's genital organ, was untouched, perhaps because of Melville's indirect language.# Remarks \"belittling royalty or implying a criticism of the British\": This meant the exclusion of the complete chapter 25, a \"Postscript\" on the use of sperm oil at coronations;# Perceived grammatical or stylistic anomalies were treated with \"a highly conservative interpretation of rules of 'correctness.These expurgations also meant that any corrections or revisions Melville had marked upon these passages are now lost.The final difference in the material not already plated is that the \"Epilogue\", thus Ishmael's miraculous survival, is omitted from the British edition.", "Obviously, the epilogue was not an afterthought supplied too late for the edition, for it is referred to in \"The Castaway\": \"in the sequel of the narrative, it will then be seen what like abandonment befell myself.\"", "Why the \"Epilogue\" is missing is unknown.", "Since nothing objectionable was in it, most likely it was somehow lost by Bentley's printer when the \"Etymology\" and \"Extracts\" were moved.===Last-minute change of title===After the sheets had been sent, Melville changed the title.", "Probably late in September, Allan sent Bentley two pages of proof with a letter of which only a draft survives which informed him that Melville \"has determined upon a new title & dedication—Enclosed you have proof of both—It is thought here that the new title will be a better ''selling'' title\".", "After expressing his hope that Bentley would receive this change in time, Allan said that \"Moby-Dick is a legitimate title for the book, being the name given to a particular whale who if I may so express myself is the hero of the volume\".", "Biographer Hershel Parker suggests that the reason for the change was that Harper's had two years earlier published a book with a similar title, ''The Whale and His Captors''.Changing the title was not a problem for the American edition, since the running heads throughout the book only showed the titles of the chapters, and the title page, which would include the publisher's name, could not be printed until a publisher was found.", "In October ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'' printed chapter 54, \"The Town-Ho's Story\", with a footnote saying: \"From ''The Whale.''", "The title of a new work by Mr. Melville\".", "The one surviving leaf of proof, \"a 'trial' page bearing the title 'The Whale' and the Harper imprint,\" shows that at this point, after the publisher had been found, the original title still stood.", "When Allan's letter arrived, no sooner than early October, Bentley had already announced ''The Whale'' in both the ''Athenaem'' and the ''Spectator'' of October 4 and 11.Probably to accommodate Melville, Bentley inserted a half-title page in the first volume only, which reads \"The Whale; or, Moby Dick\".===Sales and earnings===The British printing of 500 copies sold fewer than 300 within the first four months.", "In 1852, some remaining sheets were bound in a cheaper casing, and in 1853, enough sheets were still left to issue a cheap edition in one volume.", "Bentley recovered only half on the £150 he advanced Melville, whose share from actual sales would have been just £38, and he did not print a new edition.", "Harper's first printing was 2,915 copies, including the standard 125 review copies.", "The selling price was $1.50, about a fifth of the price of the British three-volume edition.About 1,500 copies were sold within 11 days, and then sales slowed down to less than 300 the next year.", "After three years, the first edition was still available, almost 300 copies of which were lost when a fire broke out at the firm in December 1853.In 1855, a second printing of 250 copies was issued, in 1863, a third of 253 copies, and finally in 1871, a fourth printing of 277 copies, which sold so slowly that no new printing was ordered.", "''Moby-Dick'' was out of print during the last four years of Melville's life, having sold 2,300 in its first year and a half and on average 27 copies a year for the next 34 years, totaling 3,215 copies.Melville's earnings from the book add up to $1,260: the £150 advance from Bentley was equivalent to $703, and the American printings earned him $556, which was $100 less than he earned from any of his five previous books.", "Melville's widow received another $81 when the United States Book Company issued the book and sold almost 1,800 copies between 1892 and 1898." ], [ "Reception", "The reception of ''The Whale'' in Britain and of ''Moby-Dick'' in the United States differed in two ways, according to Parker.", "First, British literary criticism was more sophisticated and developed than in the still-young republic, with British reviewing done by \"cadres of brilliant literary people\" who were \"experienced critics and trenchant prose stylists\", while the United States had only \"a handful of reviewers\" capable enough to be called critics, and American editors and reviewers habitually echoed British opinion.", "American reviewing was mostly delegated to \"newspaper staffers\" or else by \"amateur contributors more noted for religious piety than critical acumen.\"", "Second, the differences between the two editions caused \"two distinct critical receptions.", "\"=== British ===Twenty-one reviews appeared in London, and later one in Dublin.", "The British reviewers, according to Parker, mostly regarded ''The Whale'' as \"a phenomenal literary work, a philosophical, metaphysical, and poetic romance\".", "The ''Morning Advertiser'' for October 24 was in awe of Melville's learning, of his \"dramatic ability for producing a prose poem\", and of the whale adventures which were \"powerful in their cumulated horrors.\"", "To its surprise, ''John Bull'' found \"philosophy in whales\" and \"poetry in blubber\", and concluded that few books that claimed to be either philosophical or literary works \"contain as much true philosophy and as much genuine poetry as the tale of the ''Pequod''s whaling expedition\", making it a work \"far beyond the level of an ordinary work of fiction\".", "The ''Morning Post'' found it \"one of the cleverest, wittiest, and most amusing of modern books\", and predicted that it was a book \"which will do great things for the literary reputation of its author\".Melville himself never saw these reviews, and Parker calls it a \"bitter irony\" that the reception overseas was \"all he could possibly have hoped for, short of a few conspicuous proclamations that the distance between him and Shakespeare was by no means immeasurable.", "\"One of the earliest reviews, by the extremely conservative critic Henry Chorley in the highly regarded London ''Athenaeum'', described it asAccording to the London ''Literary Gazette and Journal of Science and Art'' for December 6, 1851, \"Mr. Melville cannot do without savages, so he makes half of his ''dramatis personae'' wild Indians, Malays, and other untamed humanities\", who appeared in \"an odd book, professing to be a novel; wantonly eccentric, outrageously bombastic; in places charmingly and vividly descriptive\".", "Most critics regretted the extravagant digressions because they distracted from an otherwise interesting and even exciting narrative, but even critics who did not like the book as a whole praised Melville's originality of imagination and expression.Because the English edition omitted the epilogue describing Ishmael's escape, British reviewers read a book with a first-person narrator who apparently did not survive.", "The reviewer of the ''Literary Gazette'' asked how Ishmael, \"who appears to have been drowned with the rest, communicated his notes to Mr. Bentley\".", "The reviewer in the ''Spectator'' objected that \"nothing should be introduced into a novel which it is physically impossible for the writer to have known: thus, he must not describe the conversation of miners in a pit if they ''all'' perish.\"", "The ''Dublin University Magazine'' asked \"how does it happen that the author is alive to tell the story?\"", "A few other reviewers, who did not comment upon the apparent impossibility of Ishmael telling the story, pointed out violations of narrative conventions in other passages.Other reviewers accepted the flaws they perceived.", "''John Bull'' praised the author for making literature out of unlikely and even unattractive matter, and the ''Morning Post'' found that delight far outstripped the improbable character of events.", "Though some reviewers viewed the characters, especially Ahab, as exaggerated, others felt that it took an extraordinary character to undertake the battle with the white whale.", "Melville's style was often praised, although some found it excessive or too American.=== American ===Some sixty reviews appeared in America, the criterion for counting as a review being more than two lines of comment.", "Only a couple of reviewers expressed themselves early enough not to be influenced by news of the British reception.", "Though ''Moby-Dick'' did contain the ''Epilogue'' and so accounted for Ishmael's survival, the British reviews influenced the American reception.", "The earliest American review, in the Boston ''Post'' for November 20, quoted the London ''Athenaeum''s scornful review, not realizing that some of the criticism of ''The Whale'' did not pertain to ''Moby-Dick''.", "This last point, and the authority and influence of British criticism in American reviewing, is clear from the review's opening: \"We have read nearly one half of this book, and are satisfied that the London Athenaeum is right in calling it 'an ill-compounded mixture of romance and matter-of-fact'\".", "Though the ''Post'' quoted the greater portion of the review, it omitted the condensed extract of Melville's prose the ''Athenaeum'' had included to give readers an example of it.", "The ''Post'' deemed the price of one dollar and fifty cents far too much: \"'The Whale' is not worth the money asked for it, either as a literary work or as a mass of printed paper\".The New York ''North American Miscellany'' for December summarized the verdict in the ''Athenaeum''.", "The reviewer of the December New York ''Eclectic Magazine'' had actually read ''Moby-Dick'' in full, and was puzzled why the ''Athenaeum'' was so scornful of the ending.", "The attack on ''The Whale'' by the ''Spectator'' was reprinted in the December New York ''International Magazine'', which inaugurated the influence of another unfavorable review.", "Rounding off what American readers were told about the British reception, in January ''Harper's Monthly Magazine'' attempted some damage control, and wrote that the book had \"excited a general interest\" among the London magazines.The most influential American review, ranked according to the number of references to it, appeared in the weekly magazine ''Literary World'', which had printed Melville's \"Mosses\" essay the preceding year.", "The author of the unsigned review in two installments, on November 15 and 22, was later identified as publisher Evert Duyckinck.", "The first half of the first installment was devoted to an event of remarkable coincidence: early in the month, between the publishing of the British and the American edition, a whale had sunk the New Bedford whaler ''Ann Alexander'' near Chile.In the second installment, Duyckinck described ''Moby-Dick'' as three books rolled into one: he was pleased with the book as far as it was a thorough account of the sperm whale, less so with it as far as the adventures of the ''Pequod'' crew were considered, perceiving the characters as unrealistic and expressing inappropriate opinions on religions, and condemned the essayistic rhapsodizing and moralizing with what he thought was little respect of what \"must be to the world the most sacred associations of life violated and defaced.\"", "The review prompted Hawthorne to take the \"unusually aggressive step of reproving Duyckinck\" by criticizing the review in a letter to Duyckinck of December 1:What a book Melville has written!", "It gives me an idea of much greater power than his preceding ones.", "It hardly seemed to me that the review of it, in the Literary World, did justice to its best points.The Transcendental socialist George Ripley published a review in the New York ''Tribune'' for November 22, in which he compared the book favorably to ''Mardi'', because the \"occasional touches of the subtle mysticism\" was not carried on to excess but kept within boundaries by the solid realism of the whaling context.", "Ripley was almost surely also the author of the review in ''Harper's'' for December, which saw in Ahab's quest the \"slight framework\" for something else: \"Beneath the whole story, the subtle, imaginative reader may perhaps find a pregnant allegory, intended to illustrate the mystery of human life.\"", "Among the handful of other favorable reviews was one in the ''Albion'' on November 22 which saw the book as a blend of truth and satire.Melville's friend Nathaniel Parker Willis, reviewing the book in November 29 ''Home Journal'', found it \"a very racy, spirited, curious and entertaining book ... it enlists the curiosity, excites the sympathies, and often charms the fancy\".", "In December 6 ''Spirit of the Times'', editor William T. Porter praised the book, and all of Melville's five earlier works, as the writings \"of a man who is at once philosopher, painter, and poet\".", "Some other, shorter reviews mixed their praise with genuine reservations about the \"irreverence and profane jesting\", as the New Haven ''Daily Palladium'' for November 17 phrased it.", "Many reviewers, Parker observes, had come to the conclusion that Melville was capable of producing enjoyable romances, but they could not see in him the author of great literature.Reviewers who actually did read the book \"found much to praise,\" Robertson-Lorant writes, but conservative reviewers did not like it.", "A friend of Duyckinck's, William Allen Butler, protested in the ''National Intelligencer'' against \"the querulous and cavilling innuendoes\" and the \"irreverent wit,\" while the ''Boston Post'' called it \"a crazy sort of affair.\"" ], [ "Legacy and adaptations", "Within a year after Melville's death in 1891, ''Moby-Dick'', along with ''Typee'', ''Omoo'', and ''Mardi'', was reprinted by Harper & Brothers, giving it a chance to be rediscovered.", "However, only New York's literary underground showed interest, just enough to keep Melville's name circulating for the next 25 years in the capital of American publishing.", "During this time, a few critics were willing to devote time, space, and a modicum of praise to Melville and his works, or at least those that could still be easily obtained or remembered.", "Other works, especially the poetry, went largely forgotten.In 1917, American author Carl Van Doren became the first of this period to proselytize about Melville's value in his 1921 study, ''The American Novel'', calling ''Moby-Dick'' a pinnacle of American Romanticism.In his 1923 ''Studies in Classic American Literature'', novelist, poet, and short story writer D. H. Lawrence celebrated the originality and value of American authors, among them Melville.", "Lawrence saw ''Moby-Dick'' as a work of the first order despite his using the expurgated original English edition, which lacked the epilogue.The Modern Library brought out ''Moby-Dick'' in 1926, and the Lakeside Press in Chicago commissioned Rockwell Kent to design and illustrate a striking three-volume edition, which appeared in 1930.Random House then issued a one-volume trade version of Kent's edition, which in 1943 they reprinted as a less expensive Modern Library Giant.The novel has been adapted or represented in art, film, books, cartoons, television, and more than a dozen versions in comic-book format.", "The first adaptation was the 1926 silent movie ''The Sea Beast'', starring John Barrymore, in which Ahab returns to marry his fiancée after killing the whale.", "The most famous adaptation was the John Huston 1956 film produced from a screenplay by author Ray Bradbury.", "The long list of adaptations, as Bryant and Springer put it, demonstrates that \"the iconic image of an angry embittered American slaying a mythic beast seemed to capture the popular imagination.\"", "They conclude that \"different readers in different periods of popular culture have rewritten ''Moby-Dick''\" to make it a \"true cultural icon\".", "American artist David Klamen has cited the novel as an important influence on his dark, slow-to-disclose paintings, noting a passage in the book in which a mysterious, undecipherable painting in a bar is gradually revealed to depict a whale.American author Ralph Ellison wrote a tribute to the book in the prologue of his 1952 novel ''Invisible Man''.", "The narrator remembers a moment of truth under the influence of marijuana and evokes a church service: \"Brothers and sisters, my text this morning is the 'Blackness of Blackness.'", "And the congregation answers: 'That blackness is most black, brother, most black ... '\" This scene, Ellison biographer Arnold Rampersad observes, \"reprises a moment in the second chapter of ''Moby-Dick''\", where Ishmael wanders around New Bedford looking for a place to spend the night, and momentarily joins a congregation: \"It was a negro church; and the preacher's text was about the blackness of darkness, and the weeping and wailing and teeth-gnashing there.\"", "According to Rampersad, it was Melville who \"empowered Ellison to insist on a place in the American literary tradition\" by his example of \"representing the complexity of race and racism so acutely and generously in his text\".", "Rampersad also believes Ellison's choice of a first-person narrator was inspired above all by ''Moby-Dick'', and the novel even has a similar opening sentence with the narrator introducing himself (\"I am an invisible man\").", "The oration by Ellison's blind preacher Barbee resembles Father Mapple's sermon in that both prepare the reader for what is to come.According to critic Camille Paglia in Sexual Personae, a book with the whiteness or blankness of nonmeaning as its main symbol should logically propose a depersonalized view of nature, but in this respect the novel is \"amazingly inconsistent\", as Melville \"elevates the masculine principle above the feminine.\"", "To be perfectly consistent, in her view the whale should be \"sexually neuter,\" and its whiteness \"an obliteration of person, gender, and meaning.", "\"American songwriter Bob Dylan's Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech of 2017 cited ''Moby-Dick'' as one of the three books that influenced him most.", "Dylan's description ends with an acknowledgment: \"That theme, and all that it implies, would work its way into more than a few of my songs.\"" ], [ "Editions", "* Melville, H. ''The Whale''.", "London: Richard Bentley, 1851.3 vols.", "(viii, 312; iv, 303; iv, 328 pp.).", "Published October 18, 1851.", "* Melville, H., '' Moby-Dick''; or, ''The Whale''.", "New York: Harper and Brothers, 1851.xxiii, 635 pages.", "Published probably on November 14, 1851.", "* Melville, H., ''Moby-Dick; or, The Whale''.", "Edited by Luther S. Mansfield and Howard P. Vincent.", "New York: Hendricks House, 1952.Includes a 25-page Introduction and over 250 pages of Explanatory Notes with an Index.", "* Melville, H., ''Moby-Dick; or, The Whale'': An Authoritative Text, Reviews and Letters by Melville, Analogues and Sources, Criticism.", "A Norton Critical Edition.", "Edited by Harrison Hayford and Hershel Parker.", "New York: W.W. Norton, 1967..* Melville, H. '' Moby-Dick, or The Whale.''", "Northwestern-Newberry Edition of the Writings of Herman Melville 6.Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern U.", "Press, 1988.A critical text with appendices on the history and reception of the book.", "The text is in the public domain.", "* ''Moby-Dick''.", "A Norton Critical Edition.", "Parker, Hershel, and Harrison Hayford (eds.).", "Second Edition, New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company.", ".", "* ''Moby-Dick: A Longman Critical Edition'', Edited by John Bryant and Haskell Springer.", "New York: Longman, 2007 and 2009..* ''Moby-Dick: An Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism'', Hershel Parker, ed.", "(W. W. Norton and Company, 2018).", "." ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General references", "* Abrams, M. H. (1999).", "''A Glossary of Literary Terms''.", "Seventh Edition.", "Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.", "* Arvin, Newton (1950).", "\"The Whale.\"", "Excerpt from Newton Arvin, ''Herman Melville'' (New York: William Sloane Associates, Inc., 1950), in Parker and Hayford (1970).", "* Bercaw, Mary K. (1987).", "''Melville's Sources''.", "Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press.", "* Berthoff, Warner (1962).", "''The Example of Melville''.", "Reprinted 1972, New York: W. W.", "Norton.", "* Bezanson, Walter E. (1953).", "\"''Moby-Dick'': Work of Art\".", "Reprinted in Parker and Hayford (2001).", "* --- .", "(1986).", "\"''Moby-Dick'': Document, Drama, Dream.\"", "In Bryant 1986.", "* Branch, Watson G. (1974).", "''Melville: The Critical Heritage.''", "First edition 1974.Paperback edition 1985, London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul.", "* Bryant, John, ed.", "(1986).", "''A Companion to Melville Studies''.", "Greenport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.", "* --- (1998).", "\"''Moby-Dick'' as Revolution.\"", "In Levine 1998.", "* --- (2006).", "\"The Melville Text.\"", "In Kelley 2006.", "* --- , and Haskell Springer (2007).", "\"Introduction,\" \"Explanatory Notes\" and \"The Making of ''Moby-Dick''.\"", "In John Bryant and Haskell Springer (eds), Herman Melville, ''Moby-Dick.''", "New York Boston: Pearson Longman (A Longman Critical Edition).", ".", "* * Chapter by chapter explication of the text and references.", "* * Faulkner, William (1927).", "\"I Wish I Had Written That\".", "Originally in the ''Chicago Tribune'', July 16, 1927.Reprinted in Parker and Hayford (2001), 640.", "* Forster, E. M. (1927). ''", "Aspects of the Novel''.", "Reprinted Middlesex: Penguin Books 1972.", "* * Grey, Robin (2006).", "\"The Legacy of Britain.\"", "In Kelley (2006).", "* Hayford, Harrison (1988).", "\"Historical Note Section V.\" In Melville (1988).", "* Heflin, Wilson (2004).", "''Herman Melville's Whaling Years''.", "Edited by Mary K. Bercaw Edwards and Thomas Farel Heffernan.", "Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press.", "* At InternetArchive Online* Reprinted in * Kelley, Wyn, ed.", "(2006). ''", "A Companion to Herman Melville''.", "Malden, MA, Oxford, UK, and Carlton, Australia: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. * Lawrence, D. H. (1923). ''", "Studies in Classic American Literature''.", "Reprinted London: Penguin Books.", "* * Levine, Robert S. (1998).", "''The Cambridge Companion to Herman Melville''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "* .", "* * Melville, Herman (1993). ''", "Correspondence''.", "The Writings of Herman Melville, Vol.", "14, edited by Lynn Horth.", "Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press and The Newberry Library.", "* Milder, Robert (1977).", "The Composition of ''Moby-Dick'': A Review and a Prospect.\"", "''ESQ: A Journal of the American Renaissance''.", "* Milder, Robert (1988).", "\"Herman Melville.\"", "In Emory Elliott (General Editor), '' Columbia Literary History of the United States''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", "* Miller, Edwin Haviland (1991).", "''Salem Is My Dwelling Place: A Life of Nathaniel Hawthorne''.", "Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.", "* Olson, Charles (2015) 1947.", "''Call Me Ishmael'', Eastford, Connecticut: Martino Publishing.", ".", "* Olsen-Smith, Steven (2008).", "Review of Bryant and Springer 2007.", "''Leviathan: A Journal of Melville Studies'', June 2008, 96–9.", "* Paglia, Camille (2001).", "\"''Moby-Dick'' as Sexual Protest\".", "In Parker and Hayford, eds., 2001.", "* Parker, Hershel (1988).", "\"Historical Note Section VII\".", "In Melville (1988).", "* Parker, Hershel, and Harrison Hayford, eds.", "(1970).", "''Moby-Dick as Doubloon.", "Essays and Extracts (1851-1970).''", "New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc., 1970.", "* Parker, Hershel, and Harrison Hayford, eds.", "(2001).", "Herman Melville, ''Moby-Dick''.", "A Norton Critical Edition.", "Second Edition, New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company.", "* Parker, Hershel (2002). ''", "Herman Melville: A Biography.", "Volume 2, 1851-1891.''", "Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.", "* * Rampersad, Arnold (1997).", "\"Shadow and Veil: Melville and Modern Black Consciousness.\"", "''Melville's Evermoving Dawn: Centennial Essays''.", "Edited by John Bryant and Robert Milder.", "Kent, Ohia, and London, England: The Kent State University Press.", "* Rampersad, Arnold (2007).", "''Ralph Ellison: A Biography.''", "New York: Alfred A. Knopf.", "* Robertson-Lorant, Laurie (1996).", "''Melville.", "A Biography.''", "New York: Clarkson Potters/ Publishers.", "* Tanselle, G. Thomas (1988).", "\"Historical Note Section VI\", \"Note on the Text\", and \"The Hubbard Copy of ''The Whale''\".", "In Melville (1988).", "* Vincent, Howard P. (1949).", "''The Trying-Out of Moby-Dick.''", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.", "* Wright, Nathalia (1940).", "\"Biblical Allusion in Melville's Prose.\"", "''American Literature'', May 1940, 185–199.", "* Wright, Nathalia.", "(1949).", "''Melville's Use of the Bible''.", "Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press.InternetArchive free Online." ], [ "External links", "; Digital editions* * * * The ''Moby-Dick'' \"Big Read\", \"an online version of Melville's magisterial tome: each of its 135 chapters read out aloud, by a mixture of the celebrated and the unknown\"* Side-by-side versions of the British and American 1851 first editions of ''Moby-Dick'' at the Melville Electronic Library, with differences highlighted; Associated texts* ''Moby Dick or The Whale'' illustrations by Rockwell Kent for the 1930 Lakeside Press edition* Guide to the Hank Scotch Moby Dick Comic Books Collection 2008 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center* Melville's Marginalia Online A virtual archive of books Melville owned or borrowed and a digital edition of books he marked and annotated.", "; Educational resources* \" Melville's 'Moby-Dick': Shifts in Narrative Voice and Literary Genres\" lesson plan for grades 9–12.", "* Power Moby Dick* How to read Melville's ''Moby Dick'' (guide for first time readers); Other* American Icons: ''Moby-Dick'', a Peabody Award–winning episode of ''Studio 360'' that examines the influence of ''Moby-Dick'' on contemporary American culture" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Underground" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Underground''' most commonly refers to:* Subterranea (geography), the regions beneath the surface of the Earth'''Underground''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Buenos Aires Underground, a rapid transit system* London Underground, a rapid transit system* The Underground (Boston), a music club in the Allston neighborhood of Boston* The Underground (Stoke concert venue), a club/music venue based in Hanley, Stoke-on-Trent* Underground (Manhattan), a music club (1980—1989) in Manhattan* Underground Atlanta, a shopping and entertainment district in the Five Points neighborhood of downtown Atlanta, Georgia* Underground City, Montreal* Underground city, a series of linked subterranean spaces* Underground living, refers simply to living below the ground's surface" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Films===* ''Underground'' (1928 film), a drama by Anthony Asquith* ''Underground'' (1941 film), a war drama by Vincent Sherman* ''Underground'' (1970 film), a war drama starring Robert Goulet* ''Underground'' (1976 film), a documentary about the radical organization the Weathermen* ''Underground'' (1989 film), a film featuring Melora Walters* ''Underground'' (1995 film), a film by Emir Kusturica* ''The Underground'' (1997 film), a cop must stop the killings of rap stars* ''Underground'' (2007 film), a British independent film starring Mark Strange* ''Underground'' (2011 film), a horror film starring Adrian R'Mante* ''Underground'' (2020 film), a/k/a ''Souterrain'', a drama film directed by Sophie Dupuis* ''Underground: The Julian Assange Story'', a 2012 Australian television film on Julian Assange for Network Ten===Games===* ''Underground'' (role-playing game), a satirical superhero game* ''Underground'', an expansion pack for ''Tom Clancy's The Division''* ''Medal of Honor: Underground'', a 2000 first-person shooter* ''Need for Speed: Underground'', a 2003 racing video game* ''Need for Speed: Underground 2'', a 2004 racing video game* ''Tony Hawk's Underground'', a 2003 skateboarding video game* ''Tony Hawk's Underground 2'', a 2004 skateboarding video game* ''Underground Zone'', the first level in ''Sonic the Hedgehog 2 (8-bit)''===Literature===* ''Underground'' (Dreyfus book), a 1997 nonfiction book about computer hacking* ''Underground'' (McGahan novel), by Andrew McGahan* ''Underground'' (Murakami book), a 1998 collection of interviews about the Tokyo sarin gas attack* ''The Underground'' (Animorphs), by K. A. Applegate* ''The Underground'' (Left Behind: The Kids), by Jerry B. Jenkins and Tim LaHaye* Underground comix===Music======= Albums ====* ''Underground'' (The Electric Prunes album), 1967* ''Underground'' (Thelonious Monk album), 1968* ''Underground'' (Twinkle Brothers album), ''''''* ''Underground'' (Phil Keaggy album), 1983* ''Underground'' (Graham Bonnet album), 1997* ''Underground'' (Jayo Felony album), 1999* ''Underground'' (Courtney Pine album), 1997* ''Underground'' (Chris Potter album), 2006* ''Underground'' (soundtrack), by Goran Bregović, 2000* ''Underground'', by Analog Pussy, ''''''* ''Underground Vol.", "1: 1991–1994'', a compilation album by Three 6 Mafia, 1999* ''Underground Vol.", "2: Club Memphis'', a compilation album by Three 6 Mafia, 1999==== Songs ====* \"Underground\", a song by Curtis Mayfield from ''Roots'', 1970* \"Underground\", a song by Gentle Giant from ''Civilian''* \"Underground\", a song by Tom Waits from ''Swordfishtrombones''* \"Underground\", song by Men at Work from ''Business as Usual'', 1980s* \"Underground\" (David Bowie song), featured in the film ''Labyrinth''* \"Underground\" (Ben Folds Five song), 1995* \"Underground\" (Evermore song), 2010* \"Underground\", a song by Adam Lambert from ''The Original High'', 2015* \"Underground\", a song by Circa Zero from ''Circus Hero''* \"Underground\", a song by Decadence from ''Undergrounder'', 2017* \"Underground\", a song by Eminem from ''Relapse''* \"Underground\", a song by Jane's Addiction from ''The Great Escape Artist''* \"Underground\", a song by Pokey LaFarge from ''Something In The Water''* \"Underground\", a song by The Tea Party from ''Triptych''* \"The Underground\", a song by Mani Spinx==== Other uses in music====* Underground music, a variety of music subgenres===Television===* ''Underground'' (TV series), a 2016 American television drama series* ''TCM Underground'', a weekly cult-film showcase* ''The Underground'' (TV series), a sketch comedy show* \"Underground\" (1958 TV play), a British television drama, part of ''Armchair Theatre''* \"Underground\" (''Stargate Atlantis''), an episode of ''Stargate Atlantis''* \"Underground\" (''BoJack Horseman''), an episode of ''BoJack Horseman''* \"Underground\", a ''Transformers: Armada'' episode===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===* ''Underground'' (play), by Michael Sloane* Underground press, independent counterculture publications* Underground producciones, an Argentine producer of TV series" ], [ "Groups and organizations", "* Narodnaya Volya, an underground group in late 19th-century Russia* Resistance movement** Resistance during World War II, with some groups sometimes referred to informally as \"The Underground\"*** Polish Underground State (), 1939-1945* Weather Underground, a clandestine far-left terrorist group which operated in the United States of America between 1969 and 1977" ], [ "Other uses", "* Underground economy, a market system operating outside of legal regulations* UK underground, a counter-cultural movement in the United Kingdom* Underground Railroad, an informal network of secret routes and safe houses* The Underground (roller coaster), a wooden roller coaster at Adventureland (Iowa)* Underground mining (hard rock), removal of valuable minerals from below the Earth's surface" ], [ "See also", "* Rapid transit, rail-based transportation systems, which often operate in tunnels* Underground culture (disambiguation)* Underground 2 (disambiguation)* 6 Underground (disambiguation)* Overground (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Madeira River" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of the Amazon Basin with the Madeira River highlightedThe '''Madeira River''' ( ) is a major waterway in South America.", "It is estimated to be in length, while the Madeira-Mamoré is estimated near or in length depending on the measuring party and their methods.", "The Madeira is the biggest tributary of the Amazon, accounting for about 15% of the water in the basin.", "A map from Emanuel Bowen in 1747, held by the David Rumsey Map Collection, refers to the Madeira by the pre-colonial, indigenous name Cuyari.", "The River of Cuyari, called by the Portuguese Madeira or the Wood River, is formed by two great rivers, which join near its mouth.", "It was by this River, that the Nation of Topinambes passed into the River Amazon." ], [ "Climate", "The mean inter-annual precipitations on the great basins vary from , the entire upper Madeira basin receiving .", "The greatest extremes of rainfall are between .", "Even just below the confluence that forms it, the Madeira is one of the largest rivers of the world, with a mean inter-annual discharge of , i.e., per year, approximately half the discharge of the Congo River.", "On the further course towards the Amazon, the mean discharge of the Madeira increases up to ." ], [ "Course", "Rapids of Teotônio before 2012Between Guajará-Mirim and the falls of Teotônio, the Madeira receives the drainage of the north-eastern slopes of the Andes from Santa Cruz de la Sierra to Cuzco, the whole of the south-western slope of Brazilian Mato Grosso and the northern slope of the Chiquitos sierras.", "In total, this catchment area, which is slightly more than the combined area of all headwaters, is , almost equal in size to France and Spain combined.", "The waters flow into the Madeira from many large rivers, the principal of which, (from east to west), are the Guaporé or Iténez, the Baures and Blanco, the Itonamas or San Miguel, the Mamoré, Beni, and Madre de Dios or Mayutata, all of which are reinforced by numerous secondary but powerful affluents.", "The climate of the upper catchment area varies from humid in the western edge with the origin of the river's main stem by volume (Río Madre de Dios, Río Beni) to semi arid in the southernmost part with the Andine headwaters of the main stem by length (Río Caine, Río Rocha, Río Grande, Mamoré).All of the upper branches of the river Madeira find their way to the falls across the open, almost level Mojos and Beni plains, of which are yearly flooded to an average depth of about for a period of from three to four months.From its source in the confluence of Madre de Dios and Mamoré rivers and downstream to Abuna River the Madeira flows northward forming border between Bolivia and Brazil.", "Below its confluence with the latter tributary the flow of river changes to north-eastward direction, inland of Rondônia state of Brazil.", "The section of the river from the border to Porto Velho has notable drop of bed and was not navigable.", "Before 2012 the falls of Teotônio and of San Antônio existed here, they had higher flow rate and bigger level drop than more famous Boyoma Falls in Africa.", "Currently these rapids are submerged by the reservoir of Santo Antônio Dam.", "Below Porto Velho the Madeira meanders north-eastward through the Rondônia and Amazonas states of north west Brazil to its junction with the Amazon.The Rio Madeira Sustainable Development Reserve, created in 2006, extends along the north bank of the river opposite the town of Novo Aripuanã.At its mouth is Ilha Tupinambaranas, an extensive marshy region formed by the Madeira's distributaries." ], [ "Navigation", "The Madeira river rises more than during the rainy season, and ocean vessels may ascend it to the Falls of San Antonio, near Porto Velho, Brazil, above its mouth; but in the dry months, from June to November, it is only navigable for the same distance for craft drawing about of water.", "The Madeira-Mamoré Railroad runs in a loop around the unnavigable section to Guajará-Mirim on the Mamoré River, but is not functional, limiting shipping from the Atlantic at Porto Velho.Today, it is also one of the Amazon basin's most active waterways, and helps export close to four million tons of grains, which are loaded onto barges in Porto Velho, where both Cargill and Amaggi have loading facilities, and then shipped down the Madeira to the ports of Itacoatiara, near the mouth of the Madeira, just upstream on the left bank of the Amazon, or further down the Amazon, to the port of Santarem, at the mouth of the Tapajos River.", "From these two ports, Panamax-type ships then export the grains - mainly soy and corn - to Europe and Asia.", "The Madeira waterway is also used to take fuel from the REMAN refinery (Petrobras) in Manaus, state capital of Amazonas, to Porto Velho, from where the states of Acre, Rondônia and parts of Mato Grosso are supplied mainly with gasoline (petrol) refined in Manaus.", "Cargo barges also use the Madeira on the route between Manaus and Porto Velho, which is along the Rio Negro, Amazon and Madeira, connecting Manaus' industrial district with the rest of Brazil, as Manaus is land-locked as far as logistics with the rest of the country are concerned, to bring in part of its raw materials, and export its produce to the major consumer centres of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro.", "In 2012, the cargo amounted to 287,835 tons (both directions).", "The total tonnage shipped in 2012 on the Madeira accounted to 5,076,014.Two large dams (see below) are under construction as part of the IIRSA regional integration project.", "The dam projects include large ship-locks capable of moving oceangoing vessels between the impounded reservoir and the downstream river.", "If the project is completed, \"more than of waterways upstream from the dams in Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru would become navigable.\"" ], [ "Ecology", "The confluence of the Madeira River (brown) and Aripuanã River (dark) near the town of Novo Aripuanã.As typical of Amazonian rivers with the primary headwaters in the Andes, the Madeira River is turbid because of high sediment levels and it is whitewater, but some of its tributaries are clearwater (e.g., Aripuanã and Ji-Paraná) or blackwater (e.g., Manicoré).The Bolivian river dolphin, variously considered a subspecies of the Amazon river dolphin or a separate species, is restricted to the upper Madeira River system.", "It has been estimated that there are more than 900 fish species in the Madeira River Basin, making it one of the freshwater systems in the world with the highest species richness." ], [ "In popular culture", "The river is the fifth title of the 1993/1999 Philip Glass album ''Aguas da Amazonia''." ], [ "Dams", "In July 2007, plans have been approved by the Brazilian Government to construct two hydroelectric dams on the Madeira River, the Santo Antônio Dam near Porto Velho and the Jirau Dam about 100 km upstream.", "Both the Jirau and Santo Antonio dams are run-of-the-river projects that do not impound a large reservoir.", "Both dams also feature some environmental re-mediation efforts (such as fish ladders).", "As a consequence, it has been suggested that there has not been strong environmental opposition to the implementation of the Madeira river complex.", "Yet, if the fish ladders fail, \"several valuable migratory fish species could suffer near-extinction as a result of the Madeira dams.", "\"There are also concerns with deforestation and pressure on conservation areas and indigenous peoples' territories.The Worldwatch institute has also criticized the fast-track approval process for \"kindler, gentler dams with smaller reservoirs, designed to lessen social and environmental impacts\", claiming that no project should \"fast-track the licensing of new dams in Amazonia and allow projects to circumvent Brazil's tough environmental laws\"." ], [ "Languages", "Indigenous languages of the upper Madeira River basin (in Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru):''Note'': † = extinct language Classification Language(s) Location No.", "of speakers Arawakan Mojeño (2 dialects): Ignaciano, Trinitario-†Loretano Mojos de Beni (San Ignácio, Isiboro-Sécure, Trinidad) 2,000 Arawakan Terena: Terena, †Chané, dialects influenced by Guaikuru southern Mato Grosso and southern Santa Cruz 8,000 (?)", "Arawakan Paunaka near Concepción (Santa Cruz) 4 Arawakan Baure (3 dialects): Baure, †Muchojeone, †Paikoneka savannas in northeastern Beni and forests in northern Santa Cruz 40 Arawakan Parecí (3 dialects): Waimaré-Kaxiniti, Kozarini, Enawenê-Nawê tributaries of the upper Juruena River and the upper Guaporé River (Mato Grosso) 800 Arawakan †Sarave(ka) Santa Cruz (border with Brazil) 0 Arawakan Piro: Maniteneri, Iñapari Pando and Piedras River (Peru) 300 Arawakan †Lapaču / Apolista Yungas de Apolo (La Paz) 0 Cariban †Palmela northeast of Beni, near the Guaporé River 0 Tupian Tupi-Guarani (2 dialects): Guarayu, Kagwahib from the San Pablo River (Ecuador) to the Paragúa River (Santa Cruz); Rondônia and Amazonas 6,000 Tupian Sirionó, Yuki between Trinidad and Santa Cruz 600 Tupian Karitiana east of Porto Velho 170 Tupian Puruborá São Miguel River (Rondônia) 2 Tupian Mondé Suruí Rondônia and Mato Grosso 700 Tupian Mondé Gavião-Zoró, Cinta-Larga, Aruá, Salamãi Rondônia and Mato Grosso 1,800 Tupian Arara Rondônia and Mato Grosso 150 Tupian Makurap east of Rondônia 50 Tupian Tupari Rondônia, coming from Mato Grosso 150 Tupian Tsakirabiat, Akuntsu east of Rondônia 30 Tupian Wayoro east of Rondônia 10 Tupian †Kepkiriwat east of Rondônia 0 Panoan 2 dialects: Pakawara / †Karipuna, Chácobo / †Pakaa-Nova lower Beni River, Yata River and Abunã River 700 Panoan †Atsawaka, Yamiaka Madre de Dios River (Peru) 0 Panoan Kaxarari Abunã River (Rondônia and Amazonas) 100 Panoan Yaminawa Acre and Pando 500 Tacanan Araona Madre de Dios River and Manuripi River 81 Tacanan Esse’ Ejja Madidi River 500 Tacanan Cavineña Beni River and Madidi River 1,200 Tacanan Takana between the upper Beni River and Peru 1,800 Tacanan Maropa upper Beni River 5 Chapacuran Wari’ / “Pacaa-Nova” Pacaás Novos River (Rondônia) 1,300 Chapacuran Itene (Moré, Kautário) Cautário River (Rondônia) and Bolivia 20 Chapacuran Oro Win upper Pacaás Novos River 5 Chapacuran Wanyam (Miguelenho) São Miguel River (Rondônia) 2 Chapacuran †Tora, †Urupa lower Machado River (Rondônia) 0 Chapacuran †Chapacura proper, †Nãpeka Rio Blanco (Santa Cruz) 0 Nambikwaran Nambikwara, Northern between the Cabixi River and Camararé River (Mato Grosso) 20 Nambikwaran Nambikwara, Southern between the upper Guaporé River and Juruena River (Mato Grosso) 700 Nambikwaran Sabanê near Vilhena (Mato Grosso) 3 Yabuti Djeoromitxi Rio Branco (Rondônia) 40 Yabuti Arikapu (Mashubi) Rio Branco (Rondônia) 2 Macro-Jê Rikbaktsa (Canoeiro) Juruena River (Mato Grosso) 1,000 isolate Irantxe, Myky Do Sangue River (Mato Grosso) 300 isolate Aikanã (Masaka, Huari) Corumbiara River and Apediá River (Rondônia) 170 isolate Kanoê Corumbiara River (Rondônia) 5 isolate Kwaza (Koaiá) Apediá River (Rondônia) 25 isolate Canichana San Pedro (Mamoré River) 1 isolate Cayuvava Exaltación (Mamoré River) 1 isolate Itonama northeast of Beni 4 isolate Movima Yacuma River (Beni) 1,500 isolate Mosetén, Chimane near San Borja (Beni) 6,000 isolate Yuracare from the Sécure River to the Ichilo River (Cochabamba) 3,000 isolate Chiquitano central Santa Cruz 6,000 isolate Mura-Pirahã middle Madeira River 300 isolate †Matanawi Castanha River / Roosevelt River 0 Harakmbet-Katukina Harakmbet (Amarakaeri, Wachipaeri) Madre de Dios River (Peru) 650" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** The Amazon and Madeira Rivers: Sketches and Descriptions from the Note-Book of an Explorer from 1875" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marañón River" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Marañón River''' (, ) is the principal or mainstem source of the Amazon River, arising about 160 km to the northeast of Lima, Peru, and flowing northwest across plateaus 3,650 m (12,000 feet) high, it runs through a deeply eroded Andean valley, along the eastern base of the Cordillera of the Andes, as far as 5° 36′ southern latitude; from where it makes a great bend to the northeast, and cuts through the jungle Ande in its midcourse, until at the Pongo de Manseriche it flows into the flat Amazon basin.", "Although historically, the term \"Marañon River\" often was applied to the river all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, nowadays the Marañon River is generally thought to end at the confluence with the Ucayali River, after which most cartographers label the ensuing waterway the Amazon River.As the Marañón passes through high jungle in its midcourse, it is marked by a series of unnavigable rapids and falls." ], [ "Geography", "The Marañón River is Peru's second-longest river, according to a 2005 statistical publication by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática." ], [ "Source of the Amazon", "The Marañon River was considered the source of the Amazon River starting with the 1707 map published by Padre Samuel Fritz, who indicated the great river “has its source on the southern shore of a lake that is called Lauriocha, near Huánuco.\"", "Fritz believed that the Marañón contributed the most water of all the Amazon's tributaries, making it the most important headstream.", "For most of the 18th–19th centuries and into the 20th century, the Marañon River was generally considered the source of the Amazon.", "Later explorations have proposed two headwaters rivers of the Marañon in the high Andes as sources of the Amazon: the Lauricocha and Nupe Rivers.", "The Lauricocha and Nupe unite near the village of Rondos to form from their confluence downstream the river that is called the Marañon.Although the Apurimac and Mantaro rivers also have claims to being the source of the Amazon, the Marañon River continues to claim the title of the \"mainstem source\" or \"hydrological source\" of the Amazon due to its contribution of the highest annual discharge rates." ], [ "Description", "The initial section of the Marañon contains a plethora of ''pongos'', which are gorges in the jungle areas often with difficult rapids.The Pongo de Manseriche is the final'' pongo'' on the Marañon located just before the river enters the flat Amazon basin.", "It is long and located between the confluence with the Rio Santiago and the village of Borja.", "According to Captain Carbajal, who attempted ascent through the Pongo de Manseriche in the little steamer ''Napo'', in 1868, it is a vast rent in the Andes about 600 m (2000 ft) deep, narrowing in places to a width of only 30 m (100 ft), the precipices \"seeming to close in at the top.\"", "Through this canyon, the Marañón leaps along, at times, at the rate of 20 km/h (12 mi/h).", "The ''pongo'' is known for wrecking many ships and many drownings.Downstream of the Pongo de Manseriche, the river often has islands, and usually nothing is visible from its low banks, but an immense forest-covered plain known as the ''selva baja'' (low jungle) or Peruvian Amazonia.", "It is home to indigenous peoples such as the Urarina of the Chambira Basin , the Candoshi, and the Cocama-Cocamilla peoples.A 552-km (343-mi) section of the Marañon River between Puente Copuma (Puchka confluence) and Corral Quemado is a class IV raftable river that is similar in many ways to the Grand Canyon of the United States, and has been labeled the \"Grand Canyon of the Amazon\".", "Most of this section of the river is in a canyon that is up to 3000 m deep on both sides – over twice the depth of the Colorado's Grand Canyon.", "It is in dry, desert-like terrain, much of which receives only 250–350 mm/rain per year (10–14 in/yr) with parts such as from Balsas to Jaén known as the hottest ''infierno'' area of Peru.", "The Marañon Grand Canyon section flows by the village of Calemar, where Peruvian writer Ciro Alegría based one of his most important novels, ''La serpiente de oro'' (1935)." ], [ "Historical journeys", "=== La Condamine, 1743 ===One of the first popular descents of the Marañon River occurred in 1743, when Frenchman Charles Marie de La Condamine journeyed from the Chinchipe confluence all the way to the Atlantic Ocean.", "La Condamine did not descend the initial section of the Marañon by boat due to the ''pongos''.", "From where he began his boating descent at the Chiriaco confluence, La Condamine still had to confront several ''pongos'', including the Pongo de Huaracayo (or Guaracayo) and the Pongo de Manseriche.=== The Grand Canyon of the Amazon ===Marañon River as seen from Quchapata in PeruThe upper Marañon River has seen a number of descents.", "An attempt to paddle the river was made by Herbert Rittlinger in 1936.Sebastian Snow was an adventurer who journeyed down most of the river by trekking to Chiriaco River starting at the source near Lake Niñacocha.In 1976 and/or 1977, Laszlo Berty descended the section from Chagual to the jungle in raft.", "In 1977, a group composed of Tom Fisher, Steve Gaskill, Ellen Toll, and John Wasson spent over a month descending the river from Rondos to Nazareth with kayaks and a raft.", "In 2004, Tim Biggs and companions kayaked the entire river from the Nupe River to Iquitos.", "In 2012, Rocky Contos descended the entire river with various companions along the way." ], [ "Hydroelectric dams", "The Marañon River may supply 20 hydroelectric megadams planned in the Andes, and most of the power is thought to be destined for export to Brazil, Chile, or Ecuador.", "Dam survey crews have drafted construction blueprints, and the environmental impact statements have been available since November 2009 for the Veracruz dam, and since November 2011, the Chadin2 dam.", "A 2011 law stated \"national demand\" for the hydroelectric energy, while in 2013, Peruvian President Ollanta Humala explicitly made a connection with mining; the energy is to supply mines in the Cajamarca Region, La Libertad, Ancash Region, and Piura Region.", "Construction of the 406 MW dam in Chaglla District started in 2012.===Concerns===Opposition arose because the dams are expected to disrupt the major source of the Amazon, alter normal silt deposition into the lower river, damage habitat and migration patterns for fish and other aquatic life, displace thousands of residents along the river, and damage a national treasure \"at least as nice as the Grand Canyon in the USA\".", "Residents have launched efforts to halt the dams along the river with conservation groups such as SierraRios and International Rivers.Potential ecological impacts of 151 new dams greater than 2 MW on five of the six major Andean tributaries of the Amazon over the next 20 years are estimated to be high, including the first major break in connectivity between Andean headwaters and lowland Amazon and deforestation due to infrastructure." ], [ "See also", "* Extinct languages of the Marañón River basin*List of rivers of Peru* Loreto Region* Maina Indians*World Commission on Dams" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "March 6" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*12 BCE – The Roman emperor Augustus is named Pontifex Maximus, incorporating the position into that of the emperor.", "* 632 – The Farewell Sermon (Khutbah, Khutbatul Wada') of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.", "* 845 – The 42 Martyrs of Amorium are killed after refusing to convert to Islam.", "* 961 – Byzantine conquest of Chandax by Nikephoros Phokas, end of the Emirate of Crete.", "*1204 – The Siege of Château Gaillard ends in a French victory over King John of England, who loses control of Normandy to King Philip II Augustus.", "*1323 – Treaty of Paris of 1323 is signed.", "*1454 – Thirteen Years' War: Delegates of the Prussian Confederation pledge allegiance to King Casimir IV of Poland who agrees to commit his forces in aiding the Confederation's struggle for independence from the Teutonic Knights.", "*1521 – Ferdinand Magellan arrives at Guam.===1601–1900===*1665 – The first joint Secretary of the Royal Society, Henry Oldenburg, publishes the first issue of ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'', the world's longest-running scientific journal.", "*1788 – The First Fleet arrives at Norfolk Island in order to found a convict settlement.", "*1820 – The Missouri Compromise is signed into law by President James Monroe.", "The compromise allows Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state, brings Maine into the Union as a free state, and makes the rest of the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase territory slavery-free.", "*1834 – York, Upper Canada, is incorporated as Toronto.", "*1836 – Texas Revolution: Battle of the Alamo: After a thirteen-day siege by an army of 3,000 Mexican troops, the 187 Texas volunteers, including frontiersman Davy Crockett and colonel Jim Bowie, defending the Alamo are killed and the fort is captured.", "*1857 – The Supreme Court of the United States rules 7–2 in the ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'' case that the Constitution does not confer citizenship on black people.", "*1869 – Dmitri Mendeleev presents the first periodic table to the Russian Chemical Society.", "*1882 – The Serbian kingdom is re-founded.", "*1899 – Bayer registers \"Aspirin\" as a trademark.===1901–present===*1901 – Anarchist assassin tries to kill German Emperor Wilhelm II.", "*1904 – Scottish National Antarctic Expedition: Led by William Speirs Bruce, the Antarctic region of Coats Land was discovered from the ''Scotia''.", "*1912 – Italo-Turkish War: Italian forces become the first to use airships in war, as two dirigibles drop bombs on Turkish troops encamped at Janzur, from an altitude of .", "*1930 – International Unemployment Day demonstrations globally initiated by the Comintern.", "*1933 – Great Depression: President Franklin D. Roosevelt declares a \"bank holiday\", closing all U.S. banks and freezing all financial transactions.", "*1943 – Norman Rockwell published ''Freedom from Want'' in ''The Saturday Evening Post'' with a matching essay by Carlos Bulosan as part of the ''Four Freedoms'' series.", "* 1943 – World War II: ''Generalfeldmarschall'' Erwin Rommel launches the Battle of Medenine in an attempt to slow down the British Eight Army.", "It fails, and he leaves Africa three days later.", "* 1943 – World War II: The Battle of Fardykambos, one of the first major battles between the Greek Resistance and the occupying Royal Italian Army, ends with the surrender of an entire Italian battalion, the bulk of the garrison of the town of Grevena, leading to its liberation a fortnight later.", "*1944 – World War II: Soviet Air Forces bomb an evacuated town of Narva in German-occupied Estonia, destroying the entire historical Swedish-era town.", "*1945 – World War II: Cologne is captured by American troops.", "On the same day, Operation Spring Awakening, the last major German offensive of the war, begins.", "*1946 – Ho Chi Minh signs an agreement with France which recognizes Vietnam as an autonomous state in the Indochinese Federation and the French Union.", "*1951 – Cold War: The trial of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg begins.", "*1953 – Georgy Malenkov succeeds Joseph Stalin as Premier of the Soviet Union and First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.", "*1957 – Ghana becomes the first Sub-Saharan country to gain independence from the British.", "*1964 – Nation of Islam leader Elijah Muhammad officially gives boxing champion Cassius Clay the name Muhammad Ali.", "* 1964 – Constantine II becomes the last King of Greece.", "*1965 – Premier Tom Playford of South Australia loses power after 27 years in office.", "*1967 – Cold War: Joseph Stalin's daughter Svetlana Alliluyeva defects to the United States.", "*1968 – Three rebels are executed by Rhodesia, the first executions since UDI, prompting international condemnation.", "*1970 – An explosion at the Weather Underground safe house in Greenwich Village kills three.", "*1975 – For the first time the Zapruder film of the assassination of John F. Kennedy is shown in motion to a national TV audience by Robert J. Groden and Dick Gregory.", "* 1975 – Algiers Accord: Iran and Iraq announce a settlement of their border dispute.", "*1984 – In the United Kingdom, a walkout at Cortonwood Colliery in Brampton Bierlow signals the start of a strike that lasted almost a year and involved the majority of the country's miners.", "*1987 – The British ferry capsizes in about 90 seconds, killing 193.", "*1988 – Three Provisional Irish Republican Army volunteers are shot dead by the SAS in Gibraltar in Operation Flavius.", "*1992 – The Michelangelo computer virus begins to affect computers.", "*2003 – Air Algérie Flight 6289 crashes at the Aguenar – Hadj Bey Akhamok Airport in Tamanrasset, Algeria, killing 102 out of the 103 people on board.", "*2008 – A suicide bomber kills 68 people (including first responders) in Baghdad on the same day that a gunman kills eight students in Jerusalem.", "*2018 – Forbes names Jeff Bezos as the world's richest person, for the first time, at $112 billion net worth.", "*2020 – Thirty-two people are killed and 81 are injured when gunmen open fire on a ceremony in Kabul, Afghanistan.", "The Islamic State claims responsibility for the attack." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1340 – John of Gaunt (probable; d. 1399)*1405 – John II of Castile (d. 1454)*1459 – Jakob Fugger, German merchant and banker (d. 1525)*1475 – Michelangelo, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1564)*1483 – Francesco Guicciardini, Italian historian and politician (d. 1540)*1493 – Juan Luis Vives, Spanish scholar and humanist (d. 1540)*1495 – Luigi Alamanni, Italian poet and diplomat (d. 1556)*1536 – Santi di Tito, Italian painter (d. 1603)===1601–1900===*1619 – Cyrano de Bergerac, French author and playwright (d. 1655)*1663 – Francis Atterbury, English bishop and poet (d. 1732)*1706 – George Pocock, English admiral (d. 1792)*1716 – Pehr Kalm, Swedish-Finnish botanist and explorer (d. 1779)*1724 – Henry Laurens, English-American merchant and politician, 5th President of the Continental Congress (d. 1792)*1761 – Antoine-François Andréossy, French general and diplomat (d. 1828)*1779 – Antoine-Henri Jomini, Swiss-French general (d. 1869)*1780 – Lucy Barnes, American writer (d. 1809)*1785 – Karol Kurpiński, Polish composer and conductor (d. 1857)*1787 – Joseph von Fraunhofer, German physicist and astronomer (d. 1826)*1806 – Elizabeth Barrett Browning, English-Italian poet and translator (d. 1861)*1812 – Aaron Lufkin Dennison, American businessman, co-founded the Waltham Watch Company (d. 1895)*1817 – Princess Clémentine of Orléans (d. 1907)*1818 – William Claflin, American businessman and politician, 27th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1905)*1823 – Charles I of Württemberg (d. 1891)*1826 – Annie Feray Mutrie, British painter (d. 1893)*1831 – Philip Sheridan, Irish-American general (d. 1888)*1834 – George du Maurier, French-English author and illustrator (d. 1896)*1841 – Viktor Burenin, Russian author, poet, playwright, and critic (d. 1926)*1849 – Georg Luger, Austrian gun designer, designed the Luger pistol (d. 1923)*1864 – Richard Rushall, British businessman (d. 1953)*1865 – Duan Qirui, Chinese warlord and politician (d. 1936)*1870 – Oscar Straus, Viennese composer and conductor (d. 1954)*1871 – Afonso Costa, Portuguese lawyer and politician, 59th Prime Minister of Portugal (d. 1937)*1872 – Ben Harney, American pianist and composer (d. 1938)*1876 – A.", "A. Kannisto, Finnish politician (d. 1930)*1877 – Rose Fyleman, English writer and poet (d. 1957)*1879 – Jimmy Hunter, New Zealand rugby player (d. 1962)*1882 – F. Burrall Hoffman, American architect, co-designed Villa Vizcaya (d. 1980)* 1882 – Guy Kibbee, American actor and singer (d. 1956)*1884 – Molla Mallory, Norwegian-American tennis player (d. 1959)*1885 – Ring Lardner, American journalist and author (d. 1933)*1892 – Bert Smith, English international footballer (d. 1969)*1893 – Furry Lewis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1981)* 1893 – Ella P. Stewart, pioneering Black American pharmacist (d. 1987)*1895 – Albert Tessier, Canadian priest and historian (d. 1976)*1898 – Gus Sonnenberg, American football player and wrestler (d. 1944)*1900 – Gina Cigna, French-Italian soprano and actress (d. 2001)* 1900 – Lefty Grove, American baseball player (d. 1975)* 1900 – Henri Jeanson, French journalist and author (d. 1970)===1901–present===*1903 – Empress Kōjun of Japan (d. 2000)*1904 – José Antonio Aguirre, Spanish lawyer and politician, 1st President of the Basque Country (d. 1960)*1905 – Bob Wills, American Western swing musician, songwriter, and bandleader (d. 1975) *1906 – Lou Costello, American actor and comedian (d. 1959)*1909 – Obafemi Awolowo, Nigerian lawyer and politician (d. 1987)* 1909 – Stanisław Jerzy Lec, Polish poet and author (d. 1966)*1910 – Emma Bailey, American auctioneer and author (d. 1999)*1912 – Mohammed Burhanuddin, Indian spiritual leader, 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq (d. 2014)*1913 – Ella Logan, Scottish-American singer and actress (d. 1969)*1917 – Donald Davidson, American philosopher and academic (d. 2003)* 1917 – Will Eisner, American illustrator and publisher (d. 2005)* 1917 – Frankie Howerd, English comedian (d. 1992)*1918 – Howard McGhee, American trumpeter (d. 1987)*1920 – Lewis Gilbert, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018)*1921 – Leo Bretholz, Austrian-American holocaust survivor and author (d. 2014)*1923 – Ed McMahon, American comedian, game show host, and announcer (d. 2009)* 1923 – Wes Montgomery, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 1968)*1924 – Ottmar Walter, German footballer (d. 2013)* 1924 – William H. Webster, American lawyer and jurist, 14th Director of Central Intelligence*1926 – Ann Curtis, American swimmer (d. 2012)* 1926 – Alan Greenspan, American economist and politician* 1926 – Ray O'Connor, Australian politician, 22nd Premier of Western Australia (d. 2013)* 1926 – Andrzej Wajda, Polish director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2016)*1927 – William J.", "Bell, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2005)* 1927 – Gordon Cooper, American engineer, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2004)* 1927 – Gabriel García Márquez, Colombian journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2014)*1929 – Tom Foley, American lawyer and politician, 57th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 2013)* 1929 – David Sheppard, English cricketer and bishop (d. 2005)*1930 – Lorin Maazel, French-American violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 2014)*1932 – Marc Bazin, Haitian lawyer and politician, 49th President of Haiti (d. 2010)* 1932 – Bronisław Geremek, Polish historian and politician, Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2008)*1933 – Ted Abernathy, American baseball player (d. 2004)* 1933 – William Davis, German-English journalist and economist (d. 2019)* 1933 – Augusto Odone, Italian economist and inventor of Lorenzo's oil (d. 2013)*1934 – Red Simpson, American singer-songwriter (d. 2016)*1935 – Ron Delany, Irish runner and coach* 1935 – Derek Kevan, English footballer (d. 2013)*1936 – Bob Akin, American race car driver and journalist (d. 2002)* 1936 – Marion Barry, American lawyer and politician, 2nd Mayor of the District of Columbia (d. 2014)* 1936 – Choummaly Sayasone, Laotian politician, 5th President of Laos*1937 – Ivan Boesky, American businessman* 1937 – Valentina Tereshkova, Russian general, pilot, and astronaut*1938 – Keishu Tanaka, Japanese politician, 17th Japanese Minister of Justice (d. 2022)*1939 – Kit Bond, American lawyer and politician, 47th Governor of Missouri* 1939 – Adam Osborne, Thai-Indian engineer and businessman, founded the Osborne Computer Corporation (d. 2003)*1940 – Ken Danby, Canadian painter (d. 2007)* 1940 – Joanna Miles, French-born American actress* 1940 – R. H. Sikes, American golfer* 1940 – Willie Stargell, American baseball player and coach (d. 2001)* 1940 – Jeff Wooller, English accountant and banker*1941 – Peter Brötzmann, German saxophonist and clarinet player (d. 2023)* 1941 – Marilyn Strathern, Welsh anthropologist and academic*1942 – Ben Murphy, American actor*1944 – Richard Corliss, American journalist and critic (d. 2015)* 1944 – Kiri Te Kanawa, New Zealand soprano and actress* 1944 – Mary Wilson, American singer (d. 2021) *1945 – Angelo Castro Jr., Filipino actor and journalist (d. 2012)*1946 – Patrick Baudry, French military officer and astronaut* 1946 – David Gilmour, English singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1946 – Richard Noble, Scottish race car driver and businessman*1947 – Kiki Dee, English singer-songwriter* 1947 – Dick Fosbury, American high jumper (d. 2023)* 1947 – Anna Maria Horsford, American actress* 1947 – Rob Reiner, American actor, director, producer, and activist* 1947 – Jean Seaton, English historian and academic* 1947 – John Stossel, American journalist and author*1948 – Stephen Schwartz, American composer and producer*1949 – Shaukat Aziz, Pakistani economist and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Pakistan* 1949 – Martin Buchan, Scottish footballer and manager*1950 – Arthur Roche, English archbishop*1951 – Gerrie Knetemann, Dutch cyclist (d. 2004)*1952 – Denis Napthine, Australian politician, 47th Premier of Victoria*1953 – Madhav Kumar Nepal, Nepali banker and politician, 34th Prime Minister of Nepal* 1953 – Carolyn Porco, American astronomer and academic* 1953 – Phil Alvin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1954 – Jeff Greenwald, American author, photographer, and monologist* 1954 – Harald Schumacher, German footballer and manager*1955 – Cyprien Ntaryamira, Burundian politician, 5th President of Burundi (d. 1994)* 1955 – Alberta Watson, Canadian actress (d. 2015)*1956 – Peter Roebuck, English cricketer, journalist, and sportcaster (d. 2011)* 1956 – Steve Vizard, Australian television host, actor, and producer*1960 – Sleepy Floyd, American basketball player and coach*1962 – Alison Nicholas, British golfer*1963 – D. L. Hughley, American actor, producer, and screenwriter*1964 – Linda Pearson, Scottish sport shooter*1965 – Allan Bateman, Welsh rugby player* 1965 – Jim Knight, English politician*1966 – Alan Davies, English comedian, actor and screenwriter*1967 – Julio Bocca, Argentinian ballet dancer and director* 1967 – Connie Britton, American actress* 1967 – Glenn Greenwald, American journalist and author * 1967 – Shuler Hensley, American actor and singer*1968 – Moira Kelly, American actress and director*1971 – Darrick Martin, American basketball player and coach*1972 – Shaquille O'Neal, American basketball player, actor, and rapper* 1972 – Jaret Reddick, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor *1973 – Michael Finley, American basketball player* 1973 – Peter Lindgren, Swedish guitarist and songwriter * 1973 – Greg Ostertag, American basketball player* 1973 – Trent Willmon, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1974 – Guy Garvey, English singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1974 – Matthew Guy, Australian politician * 1974 – Brad Schumacher, American swimmer* 1974 – Beanie Sigel, American rapper *1975 – Aracely Arámbula, Mexican actress and singer* 1975 – Yannick Nézet-Séguin, Canadian pianist and conductor*1976 – Ken Anderson, American wrestler and actor*1977 – Nantie Hayward, South African cricketer* 1977 – Giorgos Karagounis, Greek international footballer* 1977 – Shabani Nonda, DR Congolese footballer* 1977 – Marcus Thames, American baseball player and coach*1978 – Sage Rosenfels, American football player* 1978 – Chad Wicks, American wrestler*1979 – Clint Barmes, American baseball player* 1979 – Érik Bédard, Canadian baseball player* 1979 – David Flair, American wrestler* 1979 – Tim Howard, American soccer player*1980 – Emílson Cribari, Brazilian footballer*1981 – Ellen Muth, American actress*1983 – Andranik Teymourian, Armenian-Iranian footballer*1984 – Daniël de Ridder, Dutch footballer* 1984 – Eskil Pedersen, Norwegian politician* 1984 – Chris Tomson, American drummer *1985 – Bakaye Traoré, French-Malian footballer*1986 – Jake Arrieta, American baseball player* 1986 – Francisco Cervelli, Venezuelan-Italian baseball player* 1986 – Ross Detwiler, American baseball player* 1986 – Eli Marienthal, American actor* 1986 – Charlie Mulgrew, Scottish footballer*1987 – Kevin-Prince Boateng, Ghanaian-German footballer* 1987 – Chico Flores, Spanish footballer*1988 – Agnes, Swedish singer * 1988 – Marina Erakovic, New Zealand tennis player * 1988 – Simon Mignolet, Belgian footballer*1989 – Agnieszka Radwańska, Polish tennis player*1990 – Derek Drouin, Canadian athlete*1991 – Lex Luger, American keyboard player and producer * 1991 – Emma McDougall, English footballer (d. 2013)* 1991 – Tyler Gregory Okonma, American rapper*1993 – Andrés Rentería, Colombian footballer*1994 – Marcus Smart, American basketball player*1995 – Georgi Kitanov, Bulgarian footballer*1996 – Christian Coleman, American sprinter* 1996 – Tyrell Fuimaono, Australian rugby player* 1996 – Timo Werner, German footballer* 1996 – Mohamed Magdy, Egyptian footballer*1999 – Ylena In-Albon, Swiss tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 190 – Liu Bian (poisoned by Dong Zhuo) (b.", "176)* 653 – Li Ke, prince of the Tang Dynasty (b.", "619)* 766 – Chrodegang, Frankish bishop and saint* 903 – Lu Guangqi, Chinese official and chancellor* 903 – Su Jian, Chinese official and chancellor*1070 – Ulric I, Margrave of Carniola*1251 – Rose of Viterbo, Italian saint (b.", "1235)*1353 – Roger Grey, 1st Baron Grey de Ruthyn*1447 – Colette of Corbie, French abbess and saint in the Catholic Church (b.", "1381)*1466 – Alvise Loredan, Venetian admiral and statesman (b.", "1393)*1490 – Ivan the Young, Ruler of Tver (b.", "1458)*1491 – Richard Woodville, 3rd Earl Rivers*1531 – Pedro Arias Dávila, Spanish explorer and diplomat (b.", "1440)===1601–1900===*1616 – Francis Beaumont, English playwright (b.", "1584)*1754 – Henry Pelham, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1694)*1758 – Henry Vane, 1st Earl of Darlington, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Durham (b.", "1705)*1764 – Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke, English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (b.", "1690)*1796 – Guillaume Thomas François Raynal, French historian and author (b.", "1713)*1836 – Deaths at the Battle of the Alamo:** James Bonham, American lawyer and soldier (b.", "1807)** James Bowie, American colonel (b.", "1796)** Davy Crockett, American soldier and politician (b.", "1786)** William B. Travis, American lieutenant colonel and lawyer (b.", "1809)*1854 – Charles Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry, Irish colonel and diplomat, Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies (b.", "1778)*1866 – William Whewell, English priest, historian, and philosopher (b.", "1794)*1867 – Charles Farrar Browne, American-English author and educator (b.", "1834)*1888 – Louisa May Alcott, American novelist and poet (b.", "1832)*1895 – Camilla Collett, Norwegian novelist and activist (b.", "1813)*1899 – Kaʻiulani of Hawaii (b.", "1875)*1900 – Gottlieb Daimler, German engineer and businessman, co-founded Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (b.", "1834)===1901–present===*1905 – John Henninger Reagan, American surveyor, judge, and politician, 3rd Confederate States of America Secretary of the Treasury (b.", "1818)*1905 – Makar Yekmalyan, Armenian composer (b.", "1856)*1919 – Oskars Kalpaks, Latvian colonel (b.", "1882)*1920 – Ömer Seyfettin, Turkish author and educator (b.", "1884)*1932 – John Philip Sousa, American conductor and composer (b.", "1854)*1933 – Anton Cermak, Czech-American lawyer and politician, 44th Mayor of Chicago (b.", "1873)*1935 – Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., American colonel, lawyer, and jurist (b.", "1841)*1939 – Ferdinand von Lindemann, German mathematician and academic (b.", "1852)*1941 – Francis Aveling, Canadian priest, psychologist, and author (b.", "1875)*1941 – Gutzon Borglum, American sculptor and academic, designed Mount Rushmore (b.", "1867)*1948 – Ross Lockridge Jr., American author, poet, and academic (b.", "1914)*1948 – Alice Woodby McKane, First Black woman doctor in Savannah, Georgia (b.", "1865)*1950 – Albert François Lebrun, French engineer and politician, 15th President of France (b.", "1871)*1951 – Ivor Novello, Welsh singer-songwriter and actor (b.", "1893)*1951 – Volodymyr Vynnychenko, Ukrainian playwright and politician, Prime Minister of Ukraine (b.", "1880)*1952 – Jürgen Stroop, German general (b.", "1895)*1955 – Mammad Amin Rasulzade, Azerbaijani scholar and politician (b.", "1884)*1961 – George Formby, English singer-songwriter and actor (b.", "1904)*1964 – Paul of Greece (b.", "1901)*1965 – Margaret Dumont, American actress (b.", "1889)*1967 – John Haden Badley, English author and educator, founded the Bedales School (b.", "1865)*1967 – Nelson Eddy, American actor and singer (b.", "1901)*1967 – Zoltán Kodály, Hungarian composer, linguist, and philosopher (b.", "1882)*1970 – William Hopper, American actor (b.", "1915)*1973 – Pearl S. Buck, American novelist, essayist, short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1892)*1974 – Ernest Becker, American anthropologist and author (b.", "1924)*1976 – Maxie Rosenbloom, American boxer (b.", "1903)*1977 – Alvin R. Dyer, American religious leader (b.", "1903)*1981 – George Geary, English cricketer and coach (b.", "1893)*1981 – Rambhau Mhalgi, Indian politician and member of the Lok Sabha (b.", "1921)*1982 – Ayn Rand, Russian-American philosopher, author, and playwright (b.", "1905)*1984 – Billy Collins Jr., American boxer (b.", "1961)*1984 – Martin Niemöller, German pastor and theologian (b.", "1892)*1984 – Homer N. Wallin, American admiral (b.", "1893)*1984 – Henry Wilcoxon, Dominican-American actor and producer (b.", "1905)*1986 – Georgia O'Keeffe, American painter (b.", "1887)*1988 – Mairéad Farrell, Provisional IRA volunteer (b.", "1957)*1988 – Daniel McCann, Provisional IRA volunteer (b.", "1957)*1988 – Seán Savage, Provisional IRA volunteer (b.", "1965)*1994 – Melina Mercouri, Greek actress and politician, 9th Greek Minister of Culture (b.", "1920)*1997 – Cheddi Jagan, Guyanese politician, 4th President of Guyana (b.", "1918)*1997 – Michael Manley, Jamaican soldier, pilot, and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Jamaica (b.", "1924)*1997 – Ursula Torday, English author (b.", "1912)*1999 – Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, Bahrain king (b.", "1933)*2000 – John Colicos, Canadian actor (b.", "1928)*2002 – Bryan Fogarty, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1969)*2004 – Hercules, American wrestler (b.", "1957)*2004 – Frances Dee, American actress (b.", "1909)*2005 – Hans Bethe, German-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1906)*2005 – Danny Gardella, American baseball player and trainer (b.", "1920)*2005 – Tommy Vance, English radio host (b.", "1943)*2005 – Teresa Wright, American actress (b.", "1918)*2005 – Gladys Marín, Chilean activist and political figure (b.1938)*2006 – Anne Braden, American journalist and activist (b.", "1924)*2006 – Kirby Puckett, American baseball player and sportscaster (b.", "1960)*2007 – Jean Baudrillard, French photographer and theorist (b.", "1929)*2007 – Ernest Gallo, American businessman, co-founded E & J Gallo Winery (b.", "1909)*2008 – Peter Poreku Dery, Ghanaian cardinal (b.", "1918)*2009 – Francis Magalona, Filipino rapper, producer, and actor (b.", "1964)*2010 – Endurance Idahor, Nigerian footballer (b.", "1984)*2010 – Mark Linkous, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1962)*2010 – Betty Millard, American philanthropist and activist (b.", "1911)*2011 – Sasao Gouland, governor of Chuuk State, Micronesia (b.", "1933)*2012 – Francisco Xavier do Amaral, East Timorese politician, 1st President of East Timor (b.", "1937)*2012 – Donald M. Payne, American businessman and politician (b.", "1934)*2012 – Helen Walulik, American baseball player (b.", "1929)*2013 – Chorão, Brazilian singer-songwriter (b.", "1970)*2013 – Stompin' Tom Connors, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1936)*2013 – Alvin Lee, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1944)*2013 – W. Wallace Cleland, American biochemist and academic (b.", "1930)*2014 – Alemayehu Atomsa, Ethiopian educator and politician (b.", "1969)*2014 – Frank Jobe, American soldier and surgeon (b.", "1925)*2014 – Sheila MacRae, English-American actress, singer, and dancer (b.", "1921)*2014 – Martin Nesbitt, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1946)*2014 – Manlio Sgalambro, Italian philosopher, author, and poet (b.", "1924)*2015 – Fred Craddock, American minister and academic (b.", "1928)*2015 – Ram Sundar Das, Indian lawyer and politician, 18th Chief Minister of Bihar (b.", "1921)*2015 – Enrique \"Coco\" Vicéns, Puerto Rican-American basketball player and politician (b.", "1926)*2016 – Nancy Reagan, American actress, 42nd First Lady of the United States (b.", "1921)*2016 – Sheila Varian, American horse trainer and breeder (b.", "1937)*2017 – Robert Osborne, American actor and historian (b.", "1932)*2018 – Peter Nicholls, Australian science fiction critic and encyclopedist (b.", "1939)*2021 – Lou Ottens, Dutch engineer and inventor (b.1926)*2021 – Graham Pink, British nurse (b.", "1929)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Chrodegang**Colette of Corbie**Fridolin of Säckingen**Kyneburga, Kyneswide and Tibba**Marcian of Tortona**March 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*European Day of the Righteous, commemorates those who have stood up against crimes against humanity and totalitarianism with their own moral responsibility.", "(Europe)*Foundation Day (Norfolk Island), the founding of Norfolk Island in 1788.", "*Independence Day (Ghana), celebrates the independence of Ghana from the UK in 1957." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 6" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Morona River" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Morona''' River is a tributary to the Marañón River, and flows parallel to the Pastaza River and immediately to the west of it, and is the last stream of any importance on the northern side of the Amazon before reaching the Pongo de Manseriche.It is formed from a multitude of water-courses which descend the slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes south of the gigantic volcano of Sangay; but it soon reaches the plain, which commences where it receives its Cusulima branch.", "The Morona is navigable for small craft for about 300 miles above its mouth, but it is extremely tortuous.", "Canoes may ascend many of its branches, especially the Cusuhma and the Miazal, the latter almost to the base of Sangay.", "The Morona has been the scene of many rude explorations, with the hope of finding it serviceable as a commercial route between the inter-Andean tableland of Ecuador and the Amazon river." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Max Newman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Maxwell Herman Alexander Newman''', FRS, (7 February 1897 – 22 February 1984), generally known as '''Max Newman''', was a British mathematician and codebreaker.", "His work in World War II led to the construction of Colossus, the world's first operational, programmable electronic computer, and he established the Royal Society Computing Machine Laboratory at the University of Manchester, which produced the world's first working, stored-program electronic computer in 1948, the Manchester Baby." ], [ "Early life and education", "Newman was born Maxwell Herman Alexander Neumann in Chelsea, London, England, to a Jewish family, on 7 February 1897.His father was Herman Alexander Neumann, originally from the German city of Bromberg (now in Poland), who had emigrated with his family to London at the age of 15.Herman worked as a secretary in a company, and married Sarah Ann Pike, an Irish schoolteacher, in 1896.The family moved to Dulwich in 1903, and Newman attended Goodrich Road school, then City of London School from 1908.At school, he excelled in classics and in mathematics.", "He played chess and the piano well.Newman won a scholarship to study mathematics at St John's College, Cambridge in 1915, and in 1916 gained a First in Part I of the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos." ], [ "World War I", "Newman's studies were interrupted by World War I.", "His father was interned as an enemy alien after the start of the war in 1914, and upon his release he returned to Germany.", "In 1916, Herman changed his name by deed poll to the anglicised \"Newman\" and Sarah did likewise in 1920.In January 1917, Newman took up a teaching post at Archbishop Holgate's Grammar School in York, leaving in April 1918.He spent some months in the Royal Army Pay Corps, and then taught at Chigwell School for six months in 1919 before returning to Cambridge.", "He was called up for military service in February 1918, but claimed conscientious objection due to his beliefs and his father's country of origin, and thereby avoided any direct role in the fighting." ], [ "Between the wars", "===Graduation===Newman resumed his interrupted studies in October 1919, and graduated in 1921 as a Wrangler (equivalent to a First) in Part II of the Mathematical Tripos, and gained distinction in Schedule B (the equivalent of Part III).", "His dissertation considered the use of \"symbolic machines\" in physics, foreshadowing his later interest in computing machines.===Early academic career===On 5 November 1923, Newman was elected a Fellow of St John's.", "He worked on the foundations of combinatorial topology, and proposed that a notion of equivalence be defined using only three elementary \"moves\".", "Newman's definition avoided difficulties that had arisen from previous definitions of the concept.", "Publishing over twenty papers established his reputation as an \"expert in modern topology\".", "Newman wrote ''Elements of the topology of plane sets of points'', a work on general topology and undergraduate text.", "He also published papers on mathematical logic, and solved a special case of Hilbert's fifth problem.He was appointed a lecturer in mathematics at Cambridge in 1927.His 1935 lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics and Gödel's theorem inspired Alan Turing to embark on his work on the ''Entscheidungsproblem'' (decision problem) that had been posed by Hilbert and Ackermann in 1928.Turing's solution involved proposing a hypothetical programmable computing machine.", "In spring 1936, Newman was presented by Turing with a draft of \"On Computable Numbers with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem\".", "He realised the paper's importance and helped ensure swift publication.", "Newman subsequently arranged for Turing to visit Princeton where Alonzo Church was working on the same problem but using his Lambda calculus.", "During this period, Newman started to share Turing's dream of building a stored-program computing machine.During this time at Cambridge, he developed close friendships with Patrick Blackett, Henry Whitehead and Lionel Penrose.In September 1937, Newman and his family accepted an invitation to work for six months at Princeton.", "At Princeton, he worked on the Poincaré Conjecture and, in his final weeks there, presented a proof.", "However, in July 1938, after he returned to Cambridge, Newman discovered that his proof was fatally flawed.In 1939, Newman was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.===Family life===In December 1934, he married Lyn Lloyd Irvine, a writer, with Patrick Blackett as best man.", "They had two sons, Edward (born 1935) and William (born 1939)." ], [ "World War II", "The United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939.Newman's father was Jewish, which was of particular concern in the face of Nazi Germany, and Lyn, Edward and William were evacuated to America in July 1940, where they spent three years before returning to England in October 1943.After Oswald Veblen — maintaining 'that every able-bodied man ought to be carrying a gun or hand-grenade and fight for his country'— opposed moves to bring him to Princeton, Newman remained at Cambridge and at first continued research and lecturing.===Government Code and Cypher School===By spring 1942, Newman was considering involvement in war work.", "He made enquiries.", "After Patrick Blackett recommended him to the Director of Naval Intelligence, Newman was sounded out by Frank Adcock in connection with the Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park.Newman was cautious, concerned to ensure that the work would be sufficiently interesting and useful, and there was also the possibility that his father's German nationality would rule out any involvement in top-secret work.", "The potential issues were resolved by the summer, and he agreed to arrive at Bletchley Park on 31 August 1942.Newman was invited by F. L. (Peter) Lucas to work on Enigma but decided to join Tiltman's group working on Tunny.===Tunny===Newman was assigned to the Research Section and set to work on a German teleprinter cipher known as \"Tunny\".", "He joined the \"Testery\" in October.", "Newman enjoyed the company but disliked the work and found that it was not suited to his talents.", "He persuaded his superiors that Tutte's method could be mechanised, and he was assigned to develop a suitable machine in December 1942.Shortly afterwards, Edward Travis (then operational head of Bletchley Park) asked Newman to lead research into mechanised codebreaking.===The Newmanry===When the war ended, Newman was presented with a silver tankard inscribed 'To MHAN from the Newmanry, 1943–45'.====Heath Robinson====Construction started in January 1943, and the first prototype was delivered in June 1943.It was operated in Newman's new section, termed the \"Newmanry\", was housed initially in Hut 11 and initially staffed by himself, Donald Michie, two engineers, and 16 Wrens.", "The Wrens nicknamed the machine the \"Heath Robinson\", after the cartoonist of the same name who drew humorous drawings of absurd mechanical devices.====Colossus====The Robinson machines were limited in speed and reliability.", "Tommy Flowers of the Post Office Research Station, Dollis Hill had experience of thermionic valves and built an electronic machine, the Colossus computer which was installed in the Newmanry.", "This was a great success and ten were in use by the end of the war." ], [ "Later academic career", "===Fielden Chair, Victoria University of Manchester===In September 1945, Newman was appointed head of the Mathematics Department and to the Fielden Chair of Pure Mathematics at the University of Manchester.====Computing Machine Laboratory====Newman lost no time in establishing the renowned Royal Society Computing Machine Laboratory at the University.", "In February 1946, he wrote to John von Neumann, expressing his desire to build a computing machine.", "The Royal Society approved Newman's grant application in July 1946.Frederic Calland Williams and Thomas Kilburn, experts in electronic circuit design, were recruited from the Telecommunications Research Establishment.", "Kilburn and Williams built Baby, the world's first electronic stored-program digital computer based on Alan Turing's and John von Neumann's ideas.After the Automatic Computing Engine suffered delays and set backs, Turing accepted Newman's offer and joined the Computer Machine Laboratory in May 1948 as Deputy Director (there being no Director).", "Turing joined Kilburn and Williams to work on Baby's successor, the Manchester Mark I.", "Collaboration between the University and Ferranti later produced the Ferranti Mark I, the first mass-produced computer to go on sale.===Retirement===Newman retired in 1964 to live in Comberton, near Cambridge.", "After Lyn's death in 1973, he married Margaret Penrose, widow of his friend Lionel Penrose, father of Sir Roger Penrose.He continued to do research on combinatorial topology during a period when England was a major centre of activity notably Cambridge under the leadership of Christopher Zeeman.", "Newman made important contributions leading to an invitation to present his work at the 1962 International Congress of Mathematicians in Stockholm at the age of 65, and proved a Generalized Poincaré conjecture for topological manifolds in 1966.At the age of 85, Newman began to suffer from Alzheimer's disease.", "He died in Cambridge two years later." ], [ "Honours", "* Fellow of the Royal Society, elected 1939* Royal Society Sylvester Medal, awarded 1958* London Mathematical Society, President 1949–1951* LMS De Morgan Medal, awarded 1962* D.Sc.", "University of Hull, awarded 1968The Newman Building at Manchester was named in his honour.", "The building housed the pure mathematicians from the Victoria University of Manchester between moving out of the Mathematics Tower in 2004 and July 2007 when the School of Mathematics moved into its new Alan Turing Building, where a lecture room is named in his honour.In 1946, Newman declined the offer of an OBE as he considered the offer derisory.", "Alan Turing had been appointed an OBE six months earlier and Newman felt that it was inadequate recognition of Turing's contribution to winning the war, referring to it as the \"ludicrous treatment of Turing\"." ], [ "See also", "* List of pioneers in computer science" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", ";Archival materials* The Max Newman Digital Archive has digital copies of materials from the library of St. John's College, Cambridge." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Measure" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Measure''' may refer to:* Measurement, the assignment of a number to a characteristic of an object or event" ], [ "Law", "* Ballot measure, proposed legislation in the United States* Church of England Measure, legislation of the Church of England * Measure of the National Assembly for Wales, primary legislation in Wales* Assembly Measure of the Northern Ireland Assembly (1973)" ], [ "Science and mathematics", "* Measure (data warehouse), a property on which calculations can be made * Measure (mathematics), a systematic way to assign a number to each suitable subset of a given set* Measure (physics), a way to integrate over all possible histories of a system in quantum field theory* Measure (termination), in computer program termination analysis* Measuring coalgebra, a coalgebra constructed from two algebras* Measure (Apple), an iOS augmented reality app" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Measure'' (album), by Matt Pond PA, 2000, and its title track* Measure (bartending) or jigger, a bartending tool used to measure liquor* ''Measure'' (journal), an international journal of formal poetry* \"Measures\" (''Justified''), a 2012 episode of the TV series ''Justified''* Measure (typography), line length in characters per line* Coal measures, the coal-bearing part of the Upper Carboniferous System* The Measure (SA), an American punk rock band* Measure, an alternative term for bar (music)" ], [ "See also", "* Countermeasure, a measure or action taken to counter or offset another one* Quantity, a property that can exist as a multitude or magnitude* ''Measure for Measure'', a play by William Shakespeare" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority''' (abbreviated '''MBTA''' and known colloquially as \"'''the T'''\") is the public agency responsible for operating most public transportation services in Greater Boston, Massachusetts.", "The MBTA transit network includes the MBTA subway with three metro lines (the Blue, Orange, and Red lines), two light rail lines (the Green and Ashmont–Mattapan lines), and a five-line bus rapid transit system (the Silver Line); MBTA bus local and express service; the twelve-line MBTA Commuter Rail system, and several ferry routes.", "In , the system had a ridership of , or about per weekday as of , of which the rapid transit lines averaged and the light rail lines , making it the fourth-busiest rapid transit system and the third-busiest light rail system in the United States.", "As of , average weekday ridership of the commuter rail system was , making it the fifth-busiest commuter rail system in the U.S.The MBTA is the successor of several previous public and private operators.", "Privately operated transit in Boston began with commuter rail in 1834 and horsecar lines in 1856.The various horsecar companies were consolidated under the West End Street Railway in the 1880s and electrified over the next decade.", "The Boston Elevated Railway (BERy) succeeded the West End in 1897; over the next several decades, the BERy built a partially-publicly owned rapid transit system, beginning with the Tremont Street subway in 1897.The BERy came under the control of public trustees in 1919, and was subsumed into the fully-publicly owned Metropolitan Transit Authority (MTA) in 1947.The MTA was in turn succeeded in 1964 by the MBTA, with an expanded funding district to fund declining suburban commuter rail service.", "In its first two decades, the MBTA took over the commuter rail system from the private operators and continued expansion of the rapid transit system.", "Originally established as an individual department within the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, the MBTA became a division of the Massachusetts Department of Transportation (MassDOT) in 2009." ], [ "History", "1880 horse railway map.Mass transportation in Boston was provided by private companies, often granted charters by the state legislature for limited monopolies, with powers of eminent domain to establish a right-of-way, until the creation of the MTA in 1947.Development of mass transportation both followed and shaped economic and population patterns.=== Railways ===Shortly after the steam locomotive became practical for mass transportation, the private Boston and Lowell Railroad was chartered in 1830.The rail, which opened in 1835, connected Boston to Lowell, a major northerly mill town in northeast Massachusetts' Merrimack Valley, via one of the oldest railroads in North America.", "This marked the beginning of the development of American intercity railroads, which in Massachusetts would later become the MBTA Commuter Rail system and the Green Line D branch.=== Streetcars ===Starting with the opening of the Cambridge Railroad on March 26, 1856, a profusion of streetcar lines appeared in Boston under chartered companies.", "Despite the change of companies, Boston is the city with the oldest continuously working streetcar system in the world.", "Many of these companies consolidated, and animal-drawn vehicles were converted to electric propulsion.=== Subways and elevated railways ===Park Street station in Boston on the Green Line soon after opening, Streetcar congestion in downtown Boston led to the subways in 1897 and elevated rail in 1901.The Tremont Street subway was the first rapid transit tunnel in the United States.", "Grade-separation added capacity and avoided delays caused by cross streets.", "The first elevated railway and the first rapid transit line in Boston were built three years before the first underground line of the New York City Subway, but 34 years after the first London Underground lines, and long after the first elevated railway in New York City; its Ninth Avenue El started operations on July 1, 1868, in Manhattan as an elevated cable car line.Various extensions and branches were added at both ends, bypassing more surface tracks.", "As grade-separated lines were extended, street-running lines were cut back for faster downtown service.", "The last elevated heavy rail or \"El\" segments in Boston were at the extremities of the Orange Line: its northern end was relocated in 1975 from Everett to Malden, Massachusetts, and its southern end was relocated into the Southwest Corridor in 1987.However, the Green Line's Causeway Street Elevated remained in service until 2004, when it was relocated into a tunnel with an incline to reconnect to the Lechmere Viaduct.", "The Lechmere Viaduct and a short section of steel-framed elevated at its northern end remain in service, though the elevated section was cut back slightly and connected to a northwards viaduct extension as part of the Green Line Extension.=== Public enterprise ===Logo of the Metropolitan Transit Authority, the MBTA's predecessor, extant from 1947 to 1964.An updated version of this graphic still appears on the Ashmont–Mattapan High-Speed Line streetcar livery.The old elevated railways proved to be an eyesore and required several sharp curves in Boston's twisty streets.", "The Atlantic Avenue Elevated was closed in 1938 amidst declining ridership and was demolished in 1942.As rail passenger service became increasingly unprofitable, largely due to rising automobile ownership, government takeover prevented abandonment and dismantlement.", "The MTA purchased and took over subway, elevated, streetcar, and bus operations from the Boston Elevated Railway in 1947.In the 1950s, the MTA ran new subway extensions, while the last two streetcar lines running into the Pleasant Street Portal of the Tremont Street Subway were substituted with buses in 1953 and 1962.In 1958, the MTA purchased the Highland branch from the Boston and Albany Railroad, reopening it a year later as a rapid transit line (now the Green Line D branch).While the operations of the MTA were relatively stable by the early 1960s, the privately operated commuter rail lines were in freefall.", "The New Haven Railroad, New York Central Railroad, and Boston and Maine Railroad were all financially struggling; deferred maintenance was hurting the mainlines while most branch lines had been discontinued.", "The 1945 Coolidge Commission plan assumed that most of the commuter rail lines would be replaced by shorter rapid transit extensions, or simply feed into them at reduced service levels.", "Passenger service on the entire Old Colony Railroad system serving the southeastern part of the state was abandoned by the New Haven Railroad in 1959, triggering calls for state intervention.", "Between January 1963 and March 1964, the Mass Transportation Commission tested different fare and service levels on the B&M and New Haven systems.", "Determining that commuter rail operations were important but could not be financially self-sustaining, the MTC recommended an expansion of the MTA to commuter rail territory.On August 3, 1964, the MBTA succeeded the MTA, with an enlarged service area intended to fund continued commuter rail operations.", "The original 14-municipality MTA district was expanded to 78 cities and towns.", "Several lines were briefly cut back while contracts with out-of-district towns were reached, but, except for the outer portions of the Central Mass branch (cut back from Hudson to South Sudbury), West Medway branch (cut back from West Medway to Millis), Blackstone Line (cut back from Blackstone to Franklin), and B&M New Hampshire services (cut back from Portsmouth to Newburyport), these cuts were temporary; however, service on three branch lines (all of them with only one round trip daily: one morning rush-hour trip in to Boston, and one evening rush-hour trip back out to the suburbs) was dropped permanently between 1965 and 1976 (the Millis (the new name of the truncated West Medway branch) and Dedham Branches were discontinued in 1967, while the Central Mass branch was abandoned in 1971).", "The MBTA bought the Penn Central (New York Central and New Haven) commuter rail lines in January 1973, Penn Central equipment in April 1976, and all B&M commuter assets in December 1976; these purchases served to make the system state-owned with the private railroads retained solely as operators.", "Only two branch lines were abandoned after 1976: service on the Lexington branch (also with only one round trip daily) was discontinued in January 1977 after a snowstorm blocked the line, while the Lowell Line's full-service Woburn branch was eliminated in January 1981 due to poor track conditions.The MBTA assigned colors to its four rapid transit lines in 1965, and lettered the branches of the Green Line from north to south.", "Shortages of streetcars, among other factors, caused bustitution of rail service on two branches of the Green Line.", "The A branch ceased operating entirely in 1969 and was replaced by the 57 bus, while the E branch was truncated from Arborway to Heath Street in 1985, with the section between Heath Street and Arborway being replaced by the 39 bus.The MBTA purchased bus routes in the outer suburbs to the north and south from the Eastern Massachusetts Street Railway in 1968.As with the commuter rail system, many of the outlying routes were dropped shortly before or after the takeover due to low ridership and high operating costs.In the 1970s, the MBTA received a boost from the Boston Transportation Planning Review area-wide re-evaluation of the role of mass transit relative to highways.", "Producing a moratorium on highway construction inside Route 128, numerous mass transit lines were planned for expansion by the Voorhees-Skidmore, Owings and Merrill-ESL consulting team.", "The removal of elevated lines continued, and the closure of the Washington Street Elevated in 1987 brought the end of rapid transit service to the Roxbury neighborhood.", "Between 1971 and 1985, the Red Line was extended both north and south, providing not only additional subway system coverage, but also major parking structures at several of the terminal and intermediate stations.In 1981, seventeen people and one corporation were indicted for their roles in a number of kickback schemes at the MBTA.", "Massachusetts Secretary of Transportation and MBTA Chairman Barry Locke was convicted of five counts of bribery and sentenced to 7 to 10 years in prison.=== 21st century ===MBTA Commuter Rail map showing the 175-municipality funding district created in 1999By 1999, the district was expanded further to 175 cities and towns, adding most that were served by or adjacent to commuter rail lines, though the MBTA did not assume responsibility for local service in those communities adjacent to or served by commuter rail.", "In 2016, the Town of Bourne voted to join the MBTA district, bringing the number of MBTA communities to 176.Prior to July 1, 2000, the MBTA was reimbursed by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts for all costs above revenue collected (net cost of service).", "\"Forward funding\" introduced at that time consists of a dedicated revenue stream from assessments on served cities and towns, along with a 20% portion of the 5% state sales tax.The Commonwealth assigned to the MBTA responsibility for increasing public transit to compensate for increased automobile pollution from the Big Dig.", "However, these projects have strained the MBTA's limited resources, since the Big Dig project did not include funding for these improvements.", "Since 1988, the MBTA has been the fastest expanding transit system in the country, even as Greater Boston has been one of the slowest growing metropolitan areas in the United States.", "The MBTA subsequently went into debt, and rates underwent an appreciable hike on January 1, 2007.In 2006, the creation of the MetroWest Regional Transit Authority saw several towns subtract their MWRTA assessment from their MBTA assessment, though the amount of funding the MBTA received remained the same.", "The next year, the MBTA started commuter rail service to the Greenbush section of Scituate, the third branch of the Old Colony service.", "Rhode Island also paid for extensions of the Providence/Stoughton Line to T.F.", "Green Airport in 2010 and Wickford Junction in 2012.A new station on the Fairmount Line, the Talbot Avenue station, opened in November 2012.On June 26, 2009, Governor Deval Patrick signed a law to place the MBTA along with other state transportation agencies within the administrative authority of the Massachusetts Department of Transportation (MassDOT), with the MBTA now part of the Mass Transit division (MassTrans).The 2009 transportation law continued the MBTA corporate structure and changed the MBTA board membership to the five Governor-appointed members of the Mass DOT Board.The SL3 bus rapid transit service, which was introduced in 2018In February 2015, there was record breaking snowfall in Boston from the 2014–15 North American winter, which caused lengthy closures of portions of the MBTA subway system, and many long-term operational and financial problems with the entire MBTA system coming under greater public attention, Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker subsequently announced the formation of a special advisory panel to diagnose the MBTA's problems and write a report recommending proposals to address them.", "The special advisory panel formed the previous February released its report in April 2015.On March 19, 2015, using a grassroots tool, GovOnTheT, Steve Kropper, and Michele Rapp enlisted 65 Massachusetts General Court legislators to ride the T to the State House, pairing them with 85 TV, radio, electronic, and print reporters.", "The event responded to widespread anger directed at the governor, state legislators, and MBTA management.", "The pairings helped to raise awareness of the problems with the T and contributed to its restructuring and refinancing.The next month, Baker appointed a new MassDOT Board of Directors and proposed a five-year winter resiliency plan with $83 million being spent to update infrastructure, purchase new equipment, and improve operations during severe weather.", "A new state law established the MBTA Fiscal and Management Control Board, effective July 17, 2015, with expanded powers to reform the agency during a five-year period.", "Its term was extended by another year in 2020.Construction of the Green Line Extension, the first expansion to the rail rapid transit system since 1987, began in 2018.In April 2018, the MBTA Silver Line began operating a route from Chelsea to South Station.A June 2019 Red Line derailment resulted in train delays for several months, which brought more attention to capital maintenance problems at the T. After complaints from many riders and business groups, the governor proposed adding $50 million for an independent team to speed up inspections and capital projects, and general efforts to speed up existing capital spending from $1 billion to $1.5 billion per year.", "Replacement of the Red Line signal system was accelerated, including equipment that was damaged in the derailment.", "Baker proposed allocating to the MBTA $2.7 billion from the state's five-year transportation bond bill plus more money from the proposed multi-state Transportation and Climate Initiative.A December 2019 report by the MBTA's Fiscal and Management Control Board panel found \"safety is not the priority at the T, but it must be.\"", "The report said, \"there is a general feeling that fiscal controls over the years may have gone too far, which coupled with staff cutting has resulted in the inability to accomplish required maintenance and inspections, or has hampered work keeping legacy system assets fully functional.\"", "In June 2021, the Fiscal and Management Control Board was dissolved, and the following month, Baker signed into law a supplemental budget bill that included a provision creating a permanent MBTA Board of Directors, and Baker appointed the new board the following October.", "In February 2022, MBTA staff reported to the MBTA Board of Directors safety subcommittee that of 61 recommendations made by the Fiscal and Management Control Board in 2019, two-thirds were complete and one-third were on progress or on hold (including all financial review recommendations).", "In April 2022, the Federal Transit Administration announced in a letter to MBTA General Manager Steve Poftak that it would assume an increased safety oversight role over the MBTA and would conduct a safety management inspection.As of 2022, the MBTA had reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 47% from 2009 levels, and now buys or produces 100% renewable electricity." ], [ "Services", "=== Subway ===Red Line at Downtown CrossingThe subway system has three heavy rail rapid transit lines (the Red, Orange and Blue Lines), and two light rail lines (the Green Line and the Ashmont–Mattapan High-Speed Line, the latter designated an extension of the Red Line).", "The system operates according to a spoke-hub distribution paradigm, with the lines running radially between central Boston and its environs.", "It is common usage in Boston to refer to all four of the color-coded rail lines which run underground as \"the subway\" or \"the T\", regardless of the actual railcar equipment used.All four subway lines cross downtown, forming a quadrilateral configuration, and the Orange and Green Lines (which run approximately parallel in that district) also connect directly at two stations just north of downtown.", "The Red Line and Blue Line are the only pair of subway lines which do not have a direct transfer connection to each other.", "Because the various subway lines do not consistently run in any given compass direction, it is customary to refer to line directions as \"inbound\" or \"outbound\".", "Inbound trains travel towards the four downtown transfer stations, and outbound trains travel away from these hub stations.The Green Line has four branches in the west: B (Boston College), C (Cleveland Circle), D (Riverside), and E (Heath Street).", "The A branch formerly went to Watertown, filling in the north-to-south letter assignment pattern, and the E branch formerly continued beyond Heath Street to Arborway.The Red Line has two branches in the south, Ashmont and Braintree, named after their terminal stations.The colors were assigned on August 26, 1965, in conjunction with design standards developed by Cambridge Seven Associates, and have served as the primary identifier for the lines since the 1964 reorganization of the MTA into the MBTA.", "The Orange Line is so named because it used to run along Orange Street (now lower Washington Street), as the former \"Orange Street\" also was the street that joined the city to the mainland through Boston Neck in colonial times; the Green Line because it runs adjacent to parts of the Emerald Necklace park system; the Blue Line because it runs under Boston Harbor; and the Red Line because its northernmost station was, at that time, at Harvard University, whose school color is crimson.Opened in September 1897, the four-track-wide segment of the Green Line tunnel between Park Street and Boylston stations was the first subway in the United States, and has been designated a National Historic Landmark.", "The downtown portions of what are now the Green, Orange, Blue, and Red line tunnels were all in service by 1912.Additions to the rapid transit network occurred in most decades of the 1900s, and continue in the 2000s with the addition of Silver Line bus rapid transit and planned Green Line expansion.", "(See History and Future plans sections.", ")=== Buses ===A typical New Flyer XDE40 Hybrid busThe MBTA bus system, the nation's sixth largest by ridership, has over 170 routes.", "Most routes provide local service in the urban core; smaller local networks are also centered around Waltham, Lynn, and Quincy.", "The system also includes longer routes serving less-dense suburbs, including several express routes.", "The buses are colored yellow on maps and in station decor.", "Most routes are directly operated by the MBTA, though several suburban routes are run by private operators under contract to the MBTA.The Silver Line is also operated as part of the MBTA bus system.", "It is designated as bus rapid transit (BRT), even though it lacks some of the characteristics of bus rapid transit.", "Two routes run on Washington Street between Nubian station and downtown Boston.", "Three \"waterfront\" routes run in a dedicated tunnel in South Boston and on the surface, elsewhere including the SL1 route that serves Logan Airport.", "Washington Street service, a belated replacement for the Washington Street Elevated, began in 2002 and was expanded in 2009.Waterfront service began in 2004, with an expansion to opened in 2018.MBTA predecessors formerly operated a large trolleybus network, much of which replaced surface streetcar lines.", "Four lines based out of Harvard station lasted until 2022, when they were replaced with conventional buses.", "Three Silver Line routes operate as trolleybuses in the Waterfront Tunnel using dual-mode buses; these are scheduled to be replaced with hybrid battery buses in 2023.=== Commuter rail ===Lowell line train at Anderson/Woburn RTCThe MBTA Commuter Rail system is a commuter rail network that reaches from Boston into the suburbs of eastern Massachusetts.", "The system consists of twelve main lines, three of which have two branches.", "The rail network operates according to a spoke-hub distribution paradigm, with the lines running radially outward from the city of Boston, with a total of of revenue trackage.", "Eight of the lines converge at South Station, with four of these passing through Back Bay station.", "The other four converge at North Station.", "There is no passenger connection between the two sides; the Grand Junction Railroad is used for non-revenue equipment moves accessing the maintenance facility.", "The North–South Rail Link has been proposed to connect the two halves of the system; it would be constructed under the Central Artery tunnel of the Big Dig.Special MBTA trains are run over the Franklin/Foxboro Line and the Providence/Stoughton Line to Foxborough station for New England Patriots home games and other events at Gillette Stadium.", "The ''CapeFLYER'' intercity service, operated on summer weekends, uses MBTA equipment and operates over the Middleborough/Lakeville Line.", "Amtrak runs regularly scheduled intercity rail service over four lines: the ''Lake Shore Limited'' over the Framingham/Worcester Line, ''Acela Express'' and ''Northeast Regional'' services over the Providence/Stoughton Line, and the ''Downeaster'' over sections of the Lowell Line and Haverhill Line.", "Freight trains run by Pan Am Southern, Pan Am Railways, CSX Transportation, the Providence and Worcester Railroad, and the Fore River Railroad also use parts of the network.The first commuter rail service in the United States was operated over what is now the Framingham/Worcester Line beginning in 1834.Within the next several decades, Boston was the center of a massive rail network, with eight trunk lines and dozens of branches.", "By 1900, ownership was consolidated under the Boston and Maine Railroad to the north, the New York Central Railroad to the west, and the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad to the south.", "Most branches and one trunk line – the former Old Colony Railroad main – had their passenger services discontinued during the middle of the 20th century.", "In 1964, the MBTA was formed to fund the failing suburban railroad operations, with an eye towards converting many to extensions of the existing rapid transit system.", "The first unified branding of the system was applied on October 8, 1974, with \"MBTA Commuter Rail\" naming and purple coloration analogous to the four subway lines.", "The system continued to shrink – mostly with the loss of marginal lines with one daily round trip – until 1981.The system has been expanded since, with four lines restored (Fairmount Line in 1979, Old Colony Lines in 1997, and Greenbush Line in 2007), six extended, and a number of stations added and rebuilt, especially on the Fairmount Line.Each commuter rail line has up to eleven fare zones, numbered 1A and 1 through 10.Riders are charged based on the number of zones they travel through.", "Tickets can be purchased on the train, from ticket counters or machines in some rail stations, or with a mobile app called mTicket.", "If a local vendor or ticket machine is available, riders will pay a surcharge for paying with cash on board.", "Fares range from $2.40 to $13.25, with multi-ride and monthly passes available, and $10 unlimited weekend passes.", "In 2016, the system averaged 122,600 daily riders, making it the fourth-busiest commuter rail system in the nation.=== Ferries ===Quincy approaching the dock at Long Wharf (service from Quincy was discontinued in 2013)The MBTA boat system comprises several ferry routes via Boston Harbor.", "One of these is an inner harbor service, linking the downtown waterfront with the Boston Navy Yard in Charlestown.", "The other routes are commuter routes, linking downtown to Hingham, Hull, and Salem.", "Some commuter services operate via Logan International Airport.All boat services are operated by private sector companies under contract to the MBTA.", "In FY2005, the MBTA boat system carried 4,650 passengers (0.41% of total MBTA passengers) per weekday.", "The service is provided through contract of the MBTA by Boston Harbor Cruises (BHC).=== Paratransit ===The MBTA contracts out operation of \"The Ride\", a door to door service for people with disabilities.", "Paratransit services carry 5,400 passengers on a typical weekday, or 0.47% of the MBTA system ridership.", "The two private service providers under contractual agreement with the MBTA for The Ride: Veterans Transportation LLC, and National Express Transit (NEXT).In September 2016, the MBTA announced that paratransit users would be able to get rides from Uber and Lyft.", "Riders would pay $2 for a pickup within a few minutes (more for longer trips worth more than $15) instead of $3.15 for a scheduled pickup the next day.", "The MBTA would pay $13 instead of $31 per ride ($46 per trip when fixed costs of The Ride are considered).=== Bicycles ===Conventional bicycles are generally allowed on MBTA commuter rail, commuter boat, and rapid transit lines during off-peak hours and all day on weekends and holidays.", "However, bicycles are ''not'' allowed at any time on the Green Line, or the Ashmont–Mattapan High-Speed Line segment of the Red Line.", "Buses equipped with bike racks at the front (including the Silver Line) may always accommodate bicycles, up to the capacity limit of the racks.", "The MBTA claims that 95% of its buses are now equipped with bike racks, except for trackless trolleys which still lack this capability.Due to congestion and tight clearances, bicycles are banned from Park Street, Downtown Crossing, and Government Center stations at all times.However, compact folding bicycles are permitted on all MBTA vehicles at all times, provided that they are kept completely folded for the duration of the trip, including passage through faregates.", "Gasoline-powered vehicles, bike trailers, and Segways are prohibited.No special permit is required to take a bicycle onto an MBTA vehicle, but bicyclists are expected to follow the rules and hours of operation.", "Cyclists under 16 years old are supposed to be accompanied by a parent or legal guardian.", "Detailed rules, and an explanation of how to use front-of-bus bike racks and bike parking are on the MBTA website.The MBTA says that over 95% of its stations are equipped with bike racks, many of them under cover from the weather.", "In addition, over a dozen stations are equipped with \"Pedal & Park\" fully enclosed areas protected with video surveillance and controlled door access, for improved security.", "To obtain access, a personally registered CharlieCard must be used.", "Registration is done online, and requires a valid email address and the serial number of the CharlieCard.", "All bike parking is free of charge.=== Parking ===, the MBTA operates park and ride facilities at 103 locations with a total capacity of 55,000 automobiles, and is the owner of the largest number of off-street paid parking spaces in New England.", "The number of spaces at stations with parking varies from a few dozen to over 2,500.The larger lots and garages are usually near a major highway exit, and most lots fill up during the morning rush hour.", "There are some 22,000 spaces on the southern portion of the commuter rail system, 9,400 on the northern portion and 14,600 at subway stations.", "The parking fee ranges from $4 to $7 per day, and overnight parking (maximum 7 days) is permitted at some stations.Management for a number of parking lots owned by the MBTA is handled by a private contractor.", "The 2012 contract with LAZ Parking (which was not its first) was terminated in 2017 after employees were discovered \"skimming\" revenue; the company paid $5.5 million to settle the case.", "A new contract with stronger performance incentives and anti-fraud penalties was then awarded to Republic Parking System of Tennessee.Customers parking in MBTA-owned and operated lots with existing cash \"honor boxes\" can pay for parking online or via phone while in their cars or once they board a train, bus, or commuter boat.", ", the MBTA switched from ParkMobile to PayByPhone as its provider for mobile parking payments by smartphone.", "Monthly parking permits are available, offering a modest discount.", "Detailed parking information by station is available online, including prices, estimated vacancy rate, and number of accessible and bicycle parking slots., the MBTA has a policy for electric vehicle charging stations in its parking spaces, but does not yet have such facilities available.From time to time the MBTA has made various agreements with companies that contribute to commuting options.", "One company the MBTA selected was Zipcar; the MBTA provides Zipcar with a limited number of parking spaces at various subway stations throughout the system.=== Hours of operation ===Traditionally, the MBTA has stopped running around 1 a.m. each day.", "Like many subways worldwide, the MBTA's subway does not have parallel express and local tracks, so much rail maintenance is only done when the trains are not running.", "An MBTA spokesperson has said, \"with a 109-year-old system you have to be out there every night\" to do necessary maintenance.", "The MBTA did experiment with \"Night Owl\" substitute bus service from 2001 to 2005, but abandoned it because of insufficient ridership, citing a $7.53 per rider cost to keep the service open, five times the cost per passenger of an average bus route.A modified form of the MBTA's previous \"Night Owl\" service was experimentally reinstated starting in the spring of 2014 – this time, all subway lines were proposed to run until 3 am on weekends, along with the 15 most heavily used bus lines and the para-transit service \"The Ride\".Starting March 28, 2014, the late-night service began operation on a one-year trial basis, with service continuation depending on late-night ridership and on possible corporate sponsorship.", ", late-night ridership was stable, and much higher than the earlier failed experimental service.", "However, it is still unclear whether and on what basis the program might be extended past its first year.", "The extended hours program has not been implemented on the MBTA commuter rail operations.In early 2016, the MBTA decided that Late-Night service would be canceled because of lack of funding.", "The last night for late-night service was on March 19, 2016.The last train left at 2 a.m. on March 19, 2016.In 2018, the MBTA further tried \"Early Morning and Late Night Bus Service Pilots\".In June 2019, a year after the trials the board voted to make some changes to the schedule which would allow for further late night service to be incorporated long term" ], [ "Ridership", "During Fiscal Year 2013, the entire MBTA system had a typical weekday passenger ridership of 1,297,650.The MBTA's rapid transit lines (Red, Green, Orange, and Blue) accounted for 59% of all rides, buses accounted for 30%, and commuter rail accounted for 10% of all rides.", "The MBTA's ferries and paratransit accounted for the remaining 1% of rides.Passenger ridership has been steadily growing over the years, and between 2010 and 2013, the system saw passenger ridership grow 4.6% or an additional 57,000 daily passengers to the system.+MBTA Typical Weekday Passenger Ridership2004200720102013+/-Rapid transitRed Line 210,500 226,417 241,603 '''272,684''' +29.5%Green Line 212,550 237,410 236,096 '''227,645''' +7.1%Orange Line 154,350 216,183 184,961 '''203,406''' +31.8%Blue Line 55,600 50,515 57,273 '''63,225''' +13.7%Commuter railMBTA Commuter Rail 143,092 140,825 132,720 '''129,075''' −9.8%Bus & trolleyMBTA bus & trolley(includes Silver Line) 382,600 355,588 374,040 '''387,815''' +1.4%Silver Line 14,100 25,715 30,026 '''29,839''' +111.6%FerryMBTA boat 4,674 4,900 4,372 '''4,464''' −4.5%Paratransit andcontracted busThe Ride 8,740 9,823 9,376 '''9,336''' +6.8%Total 1,172,106 1,241,631 1,240,441 1,327,489 +10.7%+Busiest MBTA subway stations by daily passengers (2013)StationPassengersLines1.25,100 Red Line, Silver Line, Commuter Rail2.Downtown Crossing 23,500 Red Line, Orange Line, Silver Line3.Harvard 23,200 Red Line4.Park Street 19,700 Red Line, Green Line, Orange Line, Silver Linenote: use Park St.", "Downtown Crossing connection to access Orange Line and Silver Line5.Back Bay 18,100 Orange Line, Commuter Rail6.17,100 Orange Line, Green Line, Commuter Rail7.Central 16,500 Red Line8.Kendall/MIT 15,400 Red Line9.Forest Hills 15,200 Orange Line, Commuter Rail10.Copley 14,000 Green Line" ], [ "Funding", "=== Fares and fare collection ===World Trade Center station on the Silver Line.The MBTA has various fare structures for its various types of service.", "The plastic CharlieCard electronic farecard is accepted only on the subway and bus systems.", "Commuter rail and ferry accept paper CharlieTickets and the mTicket mobile app.", "Only buses, surface trolleys, and Commuter Rail accept cash on board, which is discouraged (with a $3 fee for Commuter Rail for stations with fare vending machines).", "Passengers pay for subway and bus rides at faregates in station entrances or fareboxes in the front of vehicles; MBTA employees manually check tickets on the commuter rail and ferries.", "For paratransit service, instead of physical fare media passengers maintain an account to which funds can be added by web site, phone, mail, or in-person visit.", "Trips on The RIDE are booked in advance online or by phone, or subsidized on-demand trips can be requested via Uber or Lyft on those companies' mobile apps.Starting June 22, 2020, the short, urban Fairmount Line was incorporated into the subway fare structure in a pilot program that also started running weekday trips every 45 minutes.", "In addition to the usual Commuter Rail fare media, CharlieCards are now accepted by tapping at fare vending machines and obtaining proof of payment.Since the 1980s, the MBTA has offered discounted monthly passes on all modes for the convenience of daily commuters and other frequent riders.", "As of March 2022, it also offers one-day and seven-day passes (often used by tourists) for subway, bus, inner-harbor ferry, and Commuter Rail Zone 1A.", "Only the CharlieTicket versions of these passes are accepted on all modes.", "Single-ride CharlieTickets, weekend passes, 5-ride passes, and the mobile app used for the ferries and commuter rail are not accepted for transfers to buses or subways.The MBTA has periodically raised fares to match inflation and keep the system financially solvent.", "A substantial increase effective July 2012 raised public ire including an \"Occupy the MBTA\" protest.", "A transportation funding law passed in 2013 limits MBTA fare increases to 7% every two years.", "Subsequent fare increases took place in 2014, 2016, and 2019.Several local politicians, including Boston Mayor Michelle Wu, Representative Ayanna Pressley, and Senator Edward J. Markey, have proposed to eliminate MBTA fares.The remaining phases of the ongoing \"Fare Transformation\" project aim to add contactless credit cards, Apple Pay, and Google Pay as payment methods for all subway and bus lines so passengers will not need to purchase a CharlieCard or CharlieTicket.", "It is also expected to add all-door boarding on all buses and surface trolleys, using a proof of payment system.", "A new website is planned to allow passengers and employers to perform self-service CharlieCard transactions.", "\"Fare Transformation\", originally scheduled to be completed in 2021 under the name \"AFC 2.0\", is now expected to be completed in 2025.==== Subway and bus ====Faregates at Haymarket stationAll subway trips (Green Line, Blue Line, Orange Line, Red Line, Ashmont-Mattapan Line, and the Waterfront section of the Silver Line) cost $2.40 for all users.", "Local bus and trackless trolley fares (including the Washington Street section of the Silver Line) are $1.70 for all users.Paying directly with cash is only available on buses, Green Line surface stops, and the Ashmont-Mattapan Line; from 2007 to 2020, the higher CharlieTicket price was charged.All transfers between subway lines are free with all fare media, without the need to pass through fare control (except when continuing in either direction at Ashmont Station).", "Passengers using CharlieCards can transfer free from a subway to a bus, and from a bus to a subway for the difference in price (\"step-up fare\").", "CharlieTicket holders can transfer free between buses, but not between subway and bus, except free subway transfers are given for the Silver Line at Airport station and SL4/SL5 branches.The MBTA operates \"Inner Express\" and \"Outer Express\" buses to suburbs outside the subway system.", "Inner Express bus trips cost $4.25; Outer Express trips cost $5.25.Free transfers are available to the subway and local buses with a CharlieCard, and to local buses with a CharlieTicket.CharlieTickets are available from ticket vending machines in MBTA rapid transit stations.", "Following the installation of upgraded fare vending machines in July 2022, CharlieCards are now available for purchase from all subway lines and Silver Line stations.", "CharlieCards were not previously dispensed by the machines but were available free of charge on request at most MBTA Customer Service booths in stations, or at the CharlieCard Store at Downtown Crossing station.", "As given out, the CharlieCards are \"empty\", and must have value added at an MBTA ticket machine before they can be used.The fare system, including on-board and in-station fare vending machines, was purchased from German-based Scheidt and Bachmann, which developed the technology.", "The CharlieCards were developed by Gemalto and later by Giesecke & Devrient.", "In 2006, electronic fares replaced metal tokens, which had been used on and off by transit systems in Boston for over a century.Upon introduction in 2007, fares for reloadable CharlieCard contactless smart cards were substantially lower, to encourage riders to use them.", "The alternative magnetic stripe CharlieTickets were not as durable (and so could only be loaded once), were slower to read, and required maintenance of machines with moving parts.In 2020, the MBTA started implementation of its \"Fare Transformation\" program, reducing cash-on-board and CharlieTicket prices to the CharlieCard level.", "In the fall of that year, the agency started upgrading a portion of faregates at all stations to accept only contactless cards, in anticipation of the phase-out of paper CharlieTickets, which occurred on March 31, 2022.The gates also feature an optical reader, which is currently unused but is capable of scanning QR codes or bar codes, such as those generated by the mTicket app.Installation of upgraded fare vending machines was completed in July 2022, allowing riders to purchase CharlieCards and the new tappable CharlieTickets at any rapid transit station.", "These also serve as fare validation points for proof of payment on the Green Line Extension.As of July 1, 2022, two free transfers will be given to CharlieCard stored-value users for all combinations of subway, bus, and express bus rides.==== Subway and bus fare history ==== Date Subway Bus Ref.", "Cash CharlieCard Cash CharlieCard1964$0.20$0.101968$0.25$0.20April 1973$0.10 *September 1975$0.25$0.25June 1980$0.50$0.25August 1981$0.75$0.50May 1982$0.60$0.50May 1989$0.75$0.50 October 1991 $0.85 $0.60 September 2000$1.00$0.75 January 2004$1.25$0.90 January 2007$2.00$1.70$1.50$1.25 July 2012$2.50$2.00$2.00$1.50 July 2014$2.65$2.10$2.10$1.60 July 2016$2.75$2.25$2.00$1.70 July 2019$2.90$2.40$2.00$1.70 Fall 2020$2.40$1.70 Experimental reduced fare program, \"Dime Time\", for all persons entering rapid transit stations between 10 a.m. and 1 p.m., Monday through Friday.", "Extended weekday hours to 2 p.m. and to all day Sunday in 1974.Ended July 31, 1975.Until 2007, not all subway fares were identical – passengers were not charged for boarding outbound Green Line trains at surface stops, while double fares were charged for the outer ends of the Green Line D branch and the Red Line Braintree branch.", "As part of a general fare hike effective January 1, 2007, the MBTA eliminated these inconsistent fares.Because there was no farebox on the left-facing door, passengers on the 71 and 73 trolleybuses in Cambridge who boarded through that door underground in Harvard station instead paid the only remaining exit fare in the system.", "This was eliminated starting March 13, 2022, when the trackless trolleys were replaced by conventional buses to allow the Cambridge garage to convert to service battery-electric buses.==== Commuter Rail ====Commuter rail tickets and on-board fare receiptsCommuter rail fares are on a zone-based system, with fares dependent on the distance from downtown.", "Rides between Zone 1A stations – South Station, Back Bay, most of the Fairmount Line, and eight other stations within several miles of downtown – cost $2.40, the same as a subway fare with a CharlieCard.", "Fares for other stations range from $5.75 from Zone 1 (~5–10 miles from downtown) to $14.50 from Zone 10 (~60 miles).", "All Massachusetts stations are Zone 8 or closer; only T.F.", "Green Airport and Wickford Junction in Rhode Island are Zone 9 and 10.Interzone fares – for trips that do not go to Zone 1A – are offered at a substantial discount to encourage riders to take the commuter rail for less common commuting patterns for which transit is not usually taken.", "Discounted monthly passes are available for all trips; 10-ride passes at full price are also available for trips to Zone 1A.", "All monthly passes include unlimited trips on the subway and local bus; some outer-zone monthlies also offer free use of express buses and ferries.", "A cash-on-board surcharge of $3.00 is added for trips originating from stations with fare vending machines.Starting in spring 2022, the MBTA began installing fare gates at North Station, South Station, and Back Bay station as part of its \"Fare Transformation\" project.", "These three stations are the start and end points of the vast majority of Commuter Rail trips, and the gates eliminate the possibility of passengers boarding without tickets or without having a single-use ticket invalidated (though conductors will still manually verify passengers leave the train in the zone they paid for).", "A common complaint from monthly pass holders was that on-board conductors would sometimes fail to check any tickets for their car, giving a free ride to single-ride and cash-on-board passengers.", "The new gates have scanners for bar codes on paper tickets, the mTicket app, Amtrak tickets, and military IDs.", "They also have a reader for tappable CharlieTickets (and CharlieCards, to prepare for potential future use on the Commuter Rail).==== MBTA boat ====The Inner Harbor Ferry costs $3.25 per ride, and is grouped as a Zone 1A monthly commuter rail pass.", "Single rides cost $8.50 from Hull or Hingham to Boston, $17.00 from Hull or Hingham to Logan Airport, and $13.75 from Boston to Logan Airport.==== The Ride ====Fares on The Ride, the MBTA's paratransit program, are structured differently from other modes.", "Passengers using The Ride must maintain an account with the MBTA in order to pay for service.", "Fares are $3.35 for \"ADA trips\" originating within of fixed-route bus or subway service and booked in advance, and $5.60 for \"premium trips\" outside the mandated area.==== Discounted fares ====Discounted fares as well as discounted monthly local bus and subway passes are available to seniors aged 65 and older, and passengers who are permanently disabled who utilize a special photo CharlieCard (called \"Senior ID\" and \"Transportation Access Pass\", respectively).", "Holders of these passes are also entitled to 50% off the Commuter Rail fares.", "Passengers who are legally blind ride for free on all MBTA services (including express buses and the Commuter Rail) with a \"Blind Access Card\".Children under 12 ride for free with an adult (up to 2 per adult).", "Military personnel, state police officers, police officers and firefighters from the MBTA service area, and certain government officials (Commonwealth Department of Public Utilities employees and state elevator inspectors) ride at no charge upon presentation of proper ID, or if dressed in official work uniforms.Middle school and high school students receive the aforementioned discounts on fares.", "Student discounts require a \"Student CharlieCard\" or \"S-Card\" issued through the holder's school which is valid year-round.", "College students are not generally eligible for reduced fares, but some colleges offer a \"Semester Pass\" program.", "A special \"Youth Pass\" program was introduced in 2017, allowing young adults less than 25 years old who reside in participating cities or towns and are enrolled in specific low income programs to pay reduced fares.====Employer and college subsidized====Federal law allows employers to deduct the cost of transit passes from wages on a pre-tax basis.", "Some employers and colleges also choose to subsidize the cost of these passes for employees or students.", "The MBTA has long had a program that facilitates these bulk purchases for monthly passes.", "In 2016, it began allowing MIT to subsidize on a per-ride basis, which is considerably cheaper to the institution; this expanded to other employers in 2022.=== Budget ===+ MBTA Operating RevenuesRevenue SourceAmount(FY 2014 budget)State Sales Tax$799MFares$569MMunicipal Assessments$157MParking$15.7MReal Estate$15.4MAdvertising$14.2MFederal government$12MOther$160MInterest$1.5MUtility reimbursement from tenants$1.7M'''Total''''''$1.75B'''Since the \"forward funding\" reform in 2000, the MBTA is funded primarily through 16% of the state sales tax excluding the meals tax (with minimum dollar amount guarantee), which is set at 6.25% statewide, and therefore equal to 1% of taxable non-meal purchases statewide.", "The authority is also funded by passenger fares and formula assessments of the cities and towns in its service area (excepting those which are assessed for the MetroWest Regional Transit Authority).", "Supplemental income is obtained from its paid parking lots, renting space to retail vendors in and around stations, rents from utility companies using MBTA rights of way, selling surplus land and movable property, advertising on vehicles and properties, and federal operating funding for special programs.A May 2019 report found the MBTA had a maintenance backlog of approximately $10 billion, which it hopes to clear by 2032 by increasing spending on capital projects.The Capital Investment Program is a rolling 5-year plan which programs capital expenses.", "The draft FY2009-2014 CIP allocates $3,795M, including $879M in projects funded from non-MBTA state sources (required for Clean Air Act compliance), and $299M in projects with one-time federal funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.Capital projects are paid for by federal grants, allocations from the general budget of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts (for legal commitments and expansion projects) and MBTA bonds (which are paid off through the operating budget).", "The FY2014 budget includes $1.422 billion for operating expenses and $443.8M in debt and lease payments.The FY2010 budget was supplemented by $160 million in sales tax revenue when the statewide rate was raised from 5% to 6.25%, to avoid service cuts or a fare increase in a year when deferred debt payments were coming due.=== Capital improvements and planning process ===The Boston Metropolitan Planning Organization is responsible for overall regional surface transportation planning.", "As required by federal law for projects to be eligible for federal funding (except earmarks), the MPO maintains a fiscally constrained 20+ year Regional Transportation Plan for surface transportation expansion, the current edition of which is called ''Journey to 2030''.", "The required 4-year MPO plan is called the Transportation Improvement Plan.The MBTA maintains its own 25-year capital planning document, called the Program for Mass Transportation, which is fiscally unconstrained.", "The agency's 4-year plan is called the Capital Improvement Plan; it is the primary mechanism by which money is actually allocated to capital projects.", "Major capital spending projects must be approved by the MBTA Board, and except for unexpected needs, are usually included in the initial CIP.In addition to federal funds programmed through the Boston MPO, and MBTA capital funds derived from fares, sales tax, municipal assessments, and other minor internal sources, the T receives funding from the Commonwealth of Massachusetts for certain projects.", "The state may fund items in the State Implementation Plan (SIP) – such as the Big Dig mitigation projects – which is the plan required under the Clean Air Act to reduce air pollution.", "(, all of Massachusetts is designated as a clean air \"non-attainment\" zone.", ")=== Projects underway and future plans ======= Blue Line ====There is a proposal to extend the Blue Line northward to Lynn, with two potential extension routes having been identified.", "One proposed path would run through marshland alongside the existing Newburyport/Rockport commuter rail line, while the other would extend the line along the remainder of the BRB&L right of way.In addition, the MBTA has committed to designing an extension of the line's southern terminus westward to Charles/MGH, where it would connect with the Red Line.", "This was one of the mitigation measures the Commonwealth of Massachusetts agreed to offset increased automobile emissions from the Big Dig, but it was later replaced in this agreement by other projects.==== Orange and Red Lines ====Mockup of a new Red Line car on display in August 2018In October 2013, MassDOT announced plans for a $1.3 billion subway car order for the Orange and Red Lines, which would replace and expand the existing car fleets and add more frequent service.", "The MassDOT Board awarded a $566.6 million contract to a China based manufacturer CNR (which became part of CRRC the following year) to build 404 replacement railcars for the Orange Line and Red Line.", "The other bidders were Bombardier Transportation, Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Hyundai Rotem.", "The Board forwent federal funding to allow the contract to specify the cars be built in Massachusetts, in order to create a local railcar manufacturing industry.", "CNR began assembling the cars at a new manufacturing plant in Springfield, Massachusetts, with initial deliveries expected in 2018 and all cars in service by 2023.However, by the beginning of 2023, only 78 of the promised 152 Orange Line cars had been delivered.", "In a letter dated December 22, 2022, from the MBTA's Deputy Director of Vehicle Engineering to CRRC, the former complains of \"several significant lapses in overall quality management for the Red and Orange Line project\" with \"no meaningful progress...made by CRRC to address these concerns despite several commitments by CRRC's Management to address these over the period of the last several years\" On January 6, 2023, the MBTA announced its intention to keep the older Orange Line cars as \"a backup plan\".In addition to the new rolling stock, the $1.3 billion allocated for the project will pay for testing, signal improvements and expanded maintenance facilities, as well as other related expenses.", "Sixty percent of the car's components are sourced from the United States.", "Replacement of the signal systems, which will increase reliability and allow more frequent trains, was expected to be complete by 2022, with a total cost of $218 million for both lines.", "As of the end of 2022, the project was described by the MBTA as \"48% complete\"==== Commuter rail ====The first phase of the South Coast Rail project began construction in 2020 and is planned to open in mid-2024.It will extend the Middleborough/Lakeville Line to Fall River, and New Bedford.", "The second phase of the project, planned for 2030, will add a more direct routing via .The MBTA plans to convert the system from diesel-powered commuter rail – which is primarily designed for Boston-centric trips at peak hours – to an electric regional rail system with frequent all-day service.", "In June 2022, the MBTA indicated plans to purchase battery electric multiple units, with catenary for charging on part of the network.", "Plans call for electric service on the Providence/Stoughton Line and Fairmount line by 2028–29, followed by the Newburyport/Rockport Line in 2031; all lines would be electrified by 2050.No direct connection exists between the two downtown commuter rail terminals; passengers must use the MBTA subway or other modes to transfer between the two halves of the system.", "(For non-revenue transfers of equipment, the MBTA and Amtrak use the Grand Junction Branch.)", "The proposed North–South Rail Link would add a new rail tunnel under downtown Boston to allow through-running service, with new underground stations at South Station, North Station, and possibly a new Central Station.", "A feasibility study was conducted in 2018.Two other extensions of existing lines have been studied in the 2020s: extension of the Middleborough/Lakeville Line to or , and extension of the Lowell Line to New Hampshire." ], [ "MBTA Massachusetts Realty Group", "As one of the most expansive land owners throughout the Commonwealth, the MBTA established a joint public-private management agency for managing the MBTA's vast inventory of property holdings and land.This allows the transit authority to work with entities to obtain right-of-way (ROW) grant on property which the MBTA administers.", "The agency assists with the processing of all ROW applications as efficiently and economically as possible, and authorizes these grants at the authorized officer's discretion.", "Generally, the ROW is granted for an additional stream of revenue to the MBTA outside of normal fare revenue.", "The agency additionally facilitates persons or organizations wanting to provide concessions, or public advertising potential; or the awardance of property easements.Occasionally sale of some surplus under-utilized public space under the MBTA real estate agency's responsibility are disposed of though bidding.", "This may include lands formerly in use as the state's streetcar network, equipment depots, electric substations, former railroad lines & yards or other properties.", "Given the vast long-haul rail routes, the MBTA further determined its desire to work with distance providers of telecom or utilities to provide authorization to use pieces of public land for ROW projects, including: renewable energy installs, electric power lines & energy corridors, optical fibre lines, communications sites, road, trail, canal, flume, pipeline or reservoir uses." ], [ "Management and administration", "===Structure===In 2015, Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker signed new legislation creating a financial control board to oversee the MBTA, replacing the Massachusetts Department of Transportation's Board of Directors in the role of overseeing the transit authority.", "The Fiscal and Management Control Board (FMCB) started meeting in July 2015 and was charged with bringing financial stability to the agency.", "It reported to Massachusetts Secretary of Transportation Stephanie Pollack.", "Three of the five members of the MBTA FMCB were also members of the Massachusetts Department of Transportation.", "The FMCB's term expired at the end of June 2021 and was not extended.", "It was dissolved and replaced by a new governing body known simply as the MBTA Board of Directors and consisting of seven members.The Massachusetts Secretary of Transportation leads the executive management team of MassDOT in addition to serving in the Governor's Cabinet.", "The MBTA's executive management team is led by its General Manager, who is currently also serving as the MassDOT Rail and Transit Administrator, overseeing all public transit in the state.The MBTA Advisory Board represents the cities and towns in the MBTA service district.", "The municipalities are assessed a total of $143M annually ().", "In return, the advisory board has veto power over the MBTA operating and capital budgets, including the power to reduce the overall amount.The MBTA is headquartered in the State Transportation Building (10 Park Plaza) in Boston, with the operations control center at 45 High Street.", "The agency operates service from a number of bus garages, rail yards, and maintenance facilities.", "The MBTA maintains its own police force, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority Police, which has jurisdiction in MBTA facilities and vehicles.=== Board of directors ===The seven members of the board are as follows:* Thomas P. Glynn, Chair* Monica Tibbits-Nutt, Acting Secretary of Transportation* Thomas Koch, Mayor of Quincy, Vice Chair* Robert Butler* Eric L. Goodwine* Thomas M. McGee* Charlie Sisitsky, Mayor of Framingham* Chanda Smart=== MassDOT Board of Directors ===The eleven members of the committee are as follows:* Monica Tibbits-Nutt, Chair, Secretary (head) of MassDOT* Joseph Beggan* Ilyas Bhatti* Richard A. Dimino* Lisa I. Iezzoni* Timothy King* Thomas Koch* Dean Mazzarella* Tom McGee* Vanessa Otero=== General managers ===The list of MBTA general managers is as follows: * Thomas McLernon: 1960–1965* Rush B. Lincoln Jr.: 1965–1967* Leo J. Cusick: 1967–1970* Joseph C. Kelly (acting): 1970* Joseph C. Kelly: 1970–1975* Bob Kiley: 1975–1979 (as chairman/CEO)* Robert Foster: 1979–1980 (as chairman/CEO)* Barry Locke: 1980–1981 (as chairman/CEO)* James O'Leary: 1981–1989* Thomas P. Glynn: 1989–1991* John J. Haley Jr.: 1991–1995* Patrick Moynihan: 1995–1997* Robert H. Prince: 1997–2001* Michael H. Mulhern: 2002–2005* Daniel Grabauskas: 2005–2009* Richard A. Davey: 2010–2011* Jonathan Davis (interim): 2011–2012* Beverly A. Scott: 2012–2015* Frank DePaola (interim): 2015–2016* Brian Shortsleeve (acting): 2016–2017* Steve Poftak (interim): 2017–2017* Luis Manuel Ramírez: 2017–2018* Jeff Gonneville (interim): 2018–2018* Steve Poftak: 2019–2022* Jeff Gonneville (interim): 2023–2023* Phillip Eng: April 10, 2023–present=== Employees and unions ===, the MBTA employs 6,346 workers, of which roughly 600 are in part-time jobs.Many MBTA employees are represented by unions, with a growing number of full-time non-union contractors.", "The largest union of the MBTA is the Carmen's Union (Local 589), representing bus and subway operators.", "This includes full and part-time bus drivers, motorpersons and streetcar motorpersons, full and part-time train attendants, and Customer Service Agents (CSAs).", "Further unions include the Machinists Union, Local 264; Electrical Workers Union, Local 717; the Welder's Union, Local 651; the Executive Union; the Office and Professional Employees International Union, Local 453; the Professional and Technical Engineers Union, Local 105; and the Office and Professional Employees Union, Local 6.Within the authority, employees are ranked according to seniority (or \"rating\").", "This is categorized by an employee's five or six-digit badge number, though some of the longest serving employees still have only three or four-digits.", "An employee's badge number indicates the relative length of employment with the MBTA; badges are issued in sequential order.", "The rating structure determines many different things, including the rank in which perks are to be offered to employee, such as: When offering the choice for quarter-annual route assignments (\"picks\"), overtime offerings, and even the rank to transfer new hires from part-time roles to a full-time role." ], [ "In popular culture", "In 1951, the growing subway network was the setting of \"A Subway Named Mobius\", a science fiction short story written by the American astronomer Armin Joseph Deutsch.", "The tale described a Boston subway train which accidentally became a \"phantom\" by becoming lost in the fourth dimension, analogous to a topological Mobius strip.", "In 2001, a half-century later, the narrative was awarded a Retro Hugo Award for Best Short Story at the World Science Fiction Convention.In 1959, the satirical song \"M.T.A.\"", "(informally known as \"Charlie on the MTA\") was a hit single, as performed by the folksingers the Kingston Trio.", "It tells the absurd story of a passenger named Charlie, who cannot pay a newly imposed 5-cent exit fare, and thus remains trapped in the subway system.", "The song was still well known in 2006, when the MBTA named its new electronic farecards the \"CharlieCard\" and \"CharlieTicket\"." ], [ "See also", "* List of MBTA subway stations* List of United States rapid transit systems by ridership* ''MBTA v. Anderson''* Free public transport in Boston* Transportation in Boston* Boston Street Railway Association* CharlieCard" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Meson" ], [ "Introduction", "In particle physics, a '''meson''' () is a type of hadronic subatomic particle composed of an equal number of quarks and antiquarks, usually one of each, bound together by the strong interaction.", "Because mesons are composed of quark subparticles, they have a meaningful physical size, a diameter of roughly one femtometre (10 m), which is about 0.6 times the size of a proton or neutron.", "All mesons are unstable, with the longest-lived lasting for only a few tenths of a nanosecond.", "Heavier mesons decay to lighter mesons and ultimately to stable electrons, neutrinos and photons.Outside the nucleus, mesons appear in nature only as short-lived products of very high-energy collisions between particles made of quarks, such as cosmic rays (high-energy protons and neutrons) and baryonic matter.", "Mesons are routinely produced artificially in cyclotrons or other particle accelerators in the collisions of protons, antiprotons, or other particles.Higher-energy (more massive) mesons were created momentarily in the Big Bang, but are not thought to play a role in nature today.", "However, such heavy mesons are regularly created in particle accelerator experiments that explore the nature of the heavier quarks that compose the heavier mesons.Mesons are part of the hadron particle family, which are defined simply as particles composed of two or more quarks.", "The other members of the hadron family are the baryons: subatomic particles composed of odd numbers of valence quarks (at least 3), and some experiments show evidence of exotic mesons, which do not have the conventional valence quark content of two quarks (one quark and one antiquark), but 4 or more.Because quarks have a spin , the difference in quark number between mesons and baryons results in conventional two-quark mesons being bosons, whereas baryons are fermions.Each type of meson has a corresponding antiparticle (antimeson) in which quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks and vice versa.", "For example, a positive pion () is made of one up quark and one down antiquark; and its corresponding antiparticle, the negative pion (), is made of one up antiquark and one down quark.Because mesons are composed of quarks, they participate in both the weak interaction and strong interaction.", "Mesons with net electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction.", "Mesons are classified according to their quark content, total angular momentum, parity and various other properties, such as C-parity and G-parity.", "Although no meson is stable, those of lower mass are nonetheless more stable than the more massive, and hence are easier to observe and study in particle accelerators or in cosmic ray experiments.", "The lightest group of mesons is less massive than the lightest group of baryons, meaning that they are more easily produced in experiments, and thus exhibit certain higher-energy phenomena more readily than do baryons.", "But mesons can be quite massive: for example, the J/Psi meson () containing the charm quark, first seen 1974, is about three times as massive as a proton, and the upsilon meson () containing the bottom quark, first seen in 1977, is about ten times as massive." ], [ "History", "From theoretical considerations, in 1934 Hideki Yukawa predicted the existence and the approximate mass of the \"meson\" as the carrier of the nuclear force that holds atomic nuclei together.", "If there were no nuclear force, all nuclei with two or more protons would fly apart due to electromagnetic repulsion.", "Yukawa called his carrier particle the meson, from μέσος ''mesos'', the Greek word for \"intermediate\", because its predicted mass was between that of the electron and that of the proton, which has about 1,836 times the mass of the electron.", "Yukawa or Carl David Anderson, who discovered the muon, had originally named the particle the \"mesotron\", but he was corrected by the physicist Werner Heisenberg (whose father was a professor of Greek at the University of Munich).", "Heisenberg pointed out that there is no \"tr\" in the Greek word \"mesos\".The first candidate for Yukawa's meson, in modern terminology known as the muon, was discovered in 1936 by Carl David Anderson and others in the decay products of cosmic ray interactions.", "The \"mu meson\" had about the right mass to be Yukawa's carrier of the strong nuclear force, but over the course of the next decade, it became evident that it was not the right particle.", "It was eventually found that the \"mu meson\" did not participate in the strong nuclear interaction at all, but rather behaved like a heavy version of the electron, and was eventually classed as a lepton like the electron, rather than a meson.", "Physicists in making this choice decided that properties other than particle mass should control their classification.There were years of delays in the subatomic particle research during World War II (1939–1945), with most physicists working in applied projects for wartime necessities.", "When the war ended in August 1945, many physicists gradually returned to peacetime research.", "The first true meson to be discovered was what would later be called the \"pi meson\" (or pion).", "During 1939–1942, Debendra Mohan Bose and Bibha Chowdhuri exposed Ilford half-tone photographic plates in the high altitude mountainous regions of Darjeeling, and observed long curved ionizing tracks that appeared to be different from the tracks of alpha particles or protons.", "In a series of articles published in ''Nature'', they identified a cosmic particle having an average mass close to 200 times the mass of electron.", "This discovery was made in 1947 with improved full-tone photographic emulsion plates, by Cecil Powell, Hugh Muirhead, César Lattes, and Giuseppe Occhialini, who were investigating cosmic ray products at the University of Bristol in England, based on photographic films placed in the Andes mountains.", "Some of those mesons had about the same mass as the already-known mu \"meson\", yet seemed to decay into it, leading physicist Robert Marshak to hypothesize in 1947 that it was actually a new and different meson.", "Over the next few years, more experiments showed that the pion was indeed involved in strong interactions.", "The pion (as a virtual particle) is also believed to be the primary force carrier for the nuclear force in atomic nuclei.", "Other mesons, such as the virtual rho mesons are involved in mediating this force as well, but to a lesser extent.", "Following the discovery of the pion, Yukawa was awarded the 1949 Nobel Prize in Physics for his predictions.For a while in the past, the word ''meson'' was sometimes used to mean ''any'' force carrier, such as \"the Z meson\", which is involved in mediating the weak interaction.", "However, this use has fallen out of favor, and mesons are now defined as particles composed of pairs of quarks and antiquarks." ], [ "Overview", "=== Spin, orbital angular momentum, and total angular momentum ===Spin (quantum number ) is a vector quantity that represents the \"intrinsic\" angular momentum of a particle.", "It comes in increments of  .Quarks are fermions—specifically in this case, particles having spin Because spin projections vary in increments of 1 (that is 1 ), a single quark has a spin vector of length , and has two spin projections, either or Two quarks can have their spins aligned, in which case the two spin vectors add to make a vector of length with three possible spin projections and and their combination is called a ''vector meson'' or spin-1 triplet.", "If two quarks have oppositely aligned spins, the spin vectors add up to make a vector of length and only one spin projection called a ''scalar meson'' or spin-0 singlet.", "Because mesons are made of one quark and one antiquark, they are found in triplet and singlet spin states.", "The latter are called scalar mesons or pseudoscalar mesons, depending on their parity (see below).There is another quantity of quantized angular momentum, called the orbital angular momentum (quantum number ), that is the angular momentum due to quarks orbiting each other, and also comes in increments of 1 .", "The total angular momentum (quantum number ) of a particle is the combination of the two intrinsic angular momentums (spin) and the orbital angular momentum.", "It can take any value from up to in increments of 1.+ Meson angular momentum quantum numbers for = 0, 1, 2, 3 0 0 − 0 0 1 + 1 1 2 − 2 2 3 + 3 3 1 0 − 1 1 1 + 2, 0 2, 0 2 − 3, 1 3, 1 3 + 4, 2 4, 2Particle physicists are most interested in mesons with no orbital angular momentum ( = 0), therefore the two groups of mesons most studied are the  = 1;  = 0 and  = 0;  = 0, which corresponds to  = 1 and  = 0, although they are not the only ones.", "It is also possible to obtain  = 1 particles from  = 0 and  = 1.How to distinguish between the  = 1,  = 0 and  = 0,  = 1 mesons is an active area of research in meson spectroscopy.=== -parity ===-parity is left-right parity, or spatial parity, and was the first of several \"parities\" discovered, and so is often called just “parity”.", "If the universe were reflected in a mirror, most laws of physics would be identical—things would behave the same way regardless of what we call \"left\" and what we call \"right\".", "This concept of mirror reflection is called parity ().", "Gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the strong interaction all behave in the same way regardless of whether or not the universe is reflected in a mirror, and thus are said to conserve parity (-symmetry).", "However, the weak interaction does'' ''distinguish \"left\" from \"right\", a phenomenon called parity violation (-violation).Based on this, one might think that, if the wavefunction for each particle (more precisely, the quantum field for each particle type) were simultaneously mirror-reversed, then the new set of wavefunctions would perfectly satisfy the laws of physics (apart from the weak interaction).", "It turns out that this is not quite true: In order for the equations to be satisfied, the wavefunctions of certain types of particles have to be multiplied by −1, in addition to being mirror-reversed.", "Such particle types are said to have ''negative'' or ''odd'' parity ( = −1, or alternatively  = −), whereas the other particles are said to have ''positive'' or ''even'' parity ( = +1, or alternatively  = +).For mesons, parity is related to the orbital angular momentum by the relation:: where the is a result of the parity of the corresponding spherical harmonic of the wavefunction.", "The \"+1\" comes from the fact that, according to the Dirac equation, a quark and an antiquark have opposite intrinsic parities.", "Therefore, the intrinsic parity of a meson is the product of the intrinsic parities of the quark (+1) and antiquark (−1).", "As these are different, their product is −1, and so it contributes the \"+1\" that appears in the exponent.As a consequence, all mesons with no orbital angular momentum ( = 0) have odd parity ( = −1).=== C-parity ===-parity is only defined for mesons that are their own antiparticle (i.e.", "neutral mesons).", "It represents whether or not the wavefunction of the meson remains the same under the interchange of their quark with their antiquark.", "If: then, the meson is \" even\" ( = +1).", "On the other hand, if: then the meson is \" odd\" ( = −1).-parity rarely is studied on its own, but more commonly in combination with P-parity into CP-parity.", "-parity was originally thought to be conserved, but was later found to be violated on rare occasions in weak interactions.=== -parity ===-parity is a generalization of the -parity.", "Instead of simply comparing the wavefunction after exchanging quarks and antiquarks, it compares the wavefunction after exchanging the meson for the corresponding antimeson, regardless of quark content.If: then, the meson is \" even\" ( = +1).", "On the other hand, if: then the meson is \" odd\" ( = −1).=== Isospin and charge ===nonet.", "Combinations of one , , or quark and one , , or antiquark in configuration also form a nonet.==== Original isospin model ====The concept of isospin was first proposed by Werner Heisenberg in 1932 to explain the similarities between protons and neutrons under the strong interaction.", "Although they had different electric charges, their masses were so similar that physicists believed that they were actually the same particle.", "The different electric charges were explained as being the result of some unknown excitation similar to spin.", "This unknown excitation was later dubbed ''isospin'' by Eugene Wigner in 1937.When the first mesons were discovered, they too were seen through the eyes of isospin and so the three pions were believed to be the same particle, but in different isospin states.The mathematics of isospin was modeled after the mathematics of spin.", "Isospin projections varied in increments of 1 just like those of spin, and to each projection was associated a \"charged state\".", "Because the \"pion particle\" had three \"charged states\", it was said to be of isospin Its \"charged states\" , , and , corresponded to the isospin projections and respectively.", "Another example is the \"rho particle\", also with three charged states.", "Its \"charged states\" , , and , corresponded to the isospin projections and respectively.==== Replacement by the quark model ====This belief lasted until Murray Gell-Mann proposed the quark model in 1964 (containing originally only the , , and quarks).", "The success of the isospin model is now understood to be an artifact of the similar masses of the and quarks.", "Because the and quarks have similar masses, particles made of the same number of them also have similar masses.The exact and quark composition determines the charge, because quarks carry charge whereas quarks carry charge .", "For example, the three pions all have different charges* * = a quantum superposition of ) and states * but they all have similar masses ( ) as they are each composed of a same total number of up and down quarks and antiquarks.", "Under the isospin model, they were considered a single particle in different charged states.After the quark model was adopted, physicists noted that the isospin projections were related to the up and down quark content of particles by the relation: where the -symbols are the count of up and down quarks and antiquarks.In the \"isospin picture\", the three pions and three rhos were thought to be the different states of two particles.", "However, in the quark model, the rhos are excited states of pions.", "Isospin, although conveying an inaccurate picture of things, is still used to classify hadrons, leading to unnatural and often confusing nomenclature.Because mesons are hadrons, the isospin classification is also used for them all, with the quantum number calculated by adding for each positively charged up-or-down quark-or-antiquark (up quarks and down antiquarks), and for each negatively charged up-or-down quark-or-antiquark (up antiquarks and down quarks).=== Flavour quantum numbers ===The strangeness quantum number ''S'' (not to be confused with spin) was noticed to go up and down along with particle mass.", "The higher the mass, the lower (more negative) the strangeness (the more s quarks).", "Particles could be described with isospin projections (related to charge) and strangeness (mass) (see the uds nonet figures).", "As other quarks were discovered, new quantum numbers were made to have similar description of udc and udb nonets.", "Because only the u and d mass are similar, this description of particle mass and charge in terms of isospin and flavour quantum numbers only works well for the nonets made of one u, one d and one other quark and breaks down for the other nonets (for example ucb nonet).", "If the quarks all had the same mass, their behaviour would be called ''symmetric'', because they would all behave in exactly the same way with respect to the strong interaction.", "However, as quarks do not have the same mass, they do not interact in the same way (exactly like an electron placed in an electric field will accelerate more than a proton placed in the same field because of its lighter mass), and the symmetry is said to be broken.It was noted that charge (''Q'') was related to the isospin projection (''I''3), the baryon number (''B'') and flavour quantum numbers (''S'', ''C'', ''B''′, ''T'') by the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula:: where ''S'', ''C'', ''B''′, and ''T'' represent the strangeness, charm, bottomness and topness flavour quantum numbers respectively.", "They are related to the number of strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks and antiquark according to the relations:: meaning that the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula is equivalent to the expression of charge in terms of quark content::" ], [ "Classification", "Mesons are classified into groups according to their isospin (''I''), total angular momentum (''J''), parity (''P''), G-parity (''G'') or C-parity (''C'') when applicable, and quark (q) content.", "The rules for classification are defined by the Particle Data Group, and are rather convoluted.", "The rules are presented below, in table form for simplicity.=== Types of meson ===Mesons are classified into types according to their spin configurations.", "Some specific configurations are given special names based on the mathematical properties of their spin configuration.+Types of mesons Type P Pseudoscalar meson 0 0 − 0 0 Pseudovector meson 0, 1 1 + 1 1 Vector meson 1 0, 2 − 1 1 Scalar meson 1 1 + 0 0 Tensor meson 1 1, 3 + 2 2=== Nomenclature ======= Flavourless mesons ====Flavourless mesons are mesons made of pair of quark and antiquarks of the same flavour (all their flavour quantum numbers are zero: = 0, = 0, = 0, = 0).", "The rules for flavourless mesons are:+ Nomenclature of flavourless mesons content     0−+, 2−+, 4−+, ... 1+−, 3+−, 5+−, ... 1−−, 2−−, 3−−, ... 0++, 1++, 2++, ... 1 b+b0b− a+a0a−Mix of , , 0 hh′ ff′ 0 hc ψ χc 0 hb χb 0 ht χt;In addition:* When the spectroscopic state of the meson is known, it is added in parentheses.", "* When the spectroscopic state is unknown, mass (in MeV/''c''2) is added in parentheses.", "* When the meson is in its ground state, nothing is added in parentheses.==== Flavoured mesons ====Flavoured mesons are mesons made of pair of quark and antiquarks of different flavours.", "The rules are simpler in this case: The main symbol depends on the heavier quark, the superscript depends on the charge, and the subscript (if any) depends on the lighter quark.", "In table form, they are:+ Nomenclature of flavoured mesons Quark Antiquark    up     down   charm  strange    top    bottom up down charm strange top bottom ;In addition:* If P is in the \"normal series\" (i.e., P = 0+, 1−, 2+, 3−, ...), a superscript ∗ is added.", "* If the meson is not pseudoscalar (P = 0−) or vector (P = 1−), is added as a subscript.", "* When the spectroscopic state of the meson is known, it is added in parentheses.", "* When the spectroscopic state is unknown, mass (in MeV/''c''2) is added in parentheses.", "* When the meson is in its ground state, nothing is added in parentheses." ], [ "Exotic mesons", "There is experimental evidence for particles that are hadrons (i.e., are composed of quarks) and are color-neutral with zero baryon number, and thus by conventional definition are mesons.", "Yet, these particles do not consist of a single quark/antiquark pair, as all the other conventional mesons discussed above do.", "A tentative category for these particles is exotic mesons.There are at least five exotic meson resonances that have been experimentally confirmed to exist by two or more independent experiments.", "The most statistically significant of these is the Z(4430), discovered by the Belle experiment in 2007 and confirmed by LHCb in 2014.It is a candidate for being a tetraquark: a particle composed of two quarks and two antiquarks.", "See the main article above for other particle resonances that are candidates for being exotic mesons." ], [ "List", "=== Pseudoscalar mesons === Particle name Particle symbol Antiparticle symbol Quark content Rest mass (MeV/''c''2) IG JPC S C B' Mean lifetime (s)Commonly decays to (>5% of decays) Pion 1− 0− 0 0 0 Pion 1− 0−+ 0 0 0 Eta meson 0+ 0−+ 0 0 0 or Eta prime meson (958) 0+ 0−+ 0 0 0 Charmed eta meson (1S) 0+ 0−+ 0 0 0 See decay modes Bottom eta meson (1S) 0+ 0−+ 0 0 0 Unknown See decay modes Kaon 0− 1 0 0 Kaon 0− 1 0 0 K-Short 0− (*) 0 0 K-Long 0− (*) 0 0 D meson 0− 0 +1 0 See decay modes D meson 0− 0 +1 0 See decay modes strange D meson 0 0− +1 +1 0 See decay modes B meson 0− 0 0 +1 See decay modes B meson 0− 0 0 +1 See decay modes Strange B meson 0 0− −1 0 +1 See decay modes Charmed B meson 0 0− 0 +1 +1 See decay modesa Makeup inexact due to non-zero quark masses.b PDG reports the resonance width (Γ).", "Here the conversion τ =  is given instead.c Strong eigenstate.", "No definite lifetime (see kaon notes below)d The mass of the and are given as that of the .", "However, it is known that a difference between the masses of the and on the order of exists.e Weak eigenstate.", "Makeup is missing small CP–violating term (see notes on neutral kaons below).=== Vector mesons === Particle name Particle symbol Antiparticle symbol Quarkcontent Rest mass (MeV/''c''2) IG JPC S C B' Mean lifetime (s) Commonly decays to (>5% of decays) Charged rho meson (770) (770) 1+ 1− 0 0 0 Neutral rho meson (770) 1+ 1−− 0 0 0 Omega meson (782) 0− 1−− 0 0 0 Phi meson (1020) 0− 1−− 0 0 0 J/Psi 0− 1−− 0 0 0 See (1S) decay modes Upsilon meson (1S) 0− 1−− 0 0 0 See (1S) decay modes Kaon 1− 1 0 0 See (892) decay modes Kaon 1− 1 0 0 See (892) decay modes D meson (2010) (2010) 1− 0 +1 0 D meson (2007) (2007) 1− 0 +1 0 strange D meson 0 1− +1 +1 0 B meson 1− 0 0 +1 Unknown B meson 1− 0 0 +1 Unknown Strange B meson 0 1− −1 0 +1 Unknown Charmed B meson† Unknown 0 1− 0 +1 +1 Unknown Unknownf PDG reports the resonance width (Γ).", "Here the conversion τ =  is given instead.g The exact value depends on the method used.", "See the given reference for detail.=== Notes on neutral kaons ===There are two complications with neutral kaons:* Due to neutral kaon mixing, the and are not eigenstates of strangeness.", "However, they ''are'' eigenstates of the weak force, which determines how they decay, so these are the particles with definite lifetime.", "* The linear combinations given in the table for the and are not exactly correct, since there is a small correction due to CP violation.", "See CP violation in kaons.Note that these issues also exist in principle for other neutral, flavored mesons; however, the weak eigenstates are considered separate particles only for kaons because of their dramatically different lifetimes." ], [ "See also", "* Mesonic molecule* Standard Model" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", " <!-- unused" ], [ "General Sources", "* * * * * * -->" ], [ "External links", "* * — Compiles authoritative information on particle properties* * * — An interactive visualisation allowing physical properties to be compared* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marvel Super Heroes (role-playing game)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Marvel Super Heroes''''' (''MSH'') is a licensed role playing game set in the Marvel Universe, first published by TSR in 1984.The game lets players assume the roles of Marvel superheroes such as Spider-Man, Daredevil, Hulk, Captain America, the Fantastic Four, and the X-Men.", "The game was designed to be easily understood, and this approach proved popular.", "TSR published an expanded edition, ''Marvel Superheroes Advanced Game'' in 1986." ], [ "System", "=== Attributes ===Players resolve most game situations by rolling percentile dice and comparing the results against a column of the colorful \"Universal Results Table\".", "The attribute used determines which column to use; different tasks map to different attributes.", "All characters have seven basic attributes:Fighting determines hit probability in and defense against hand-to-hand attacks.Agility determines hit probability in and defense against ranged attacks, feats of agility vs. the environment, and acrobatics.Strength determines damage inflicted by hand-to-hand attacks, grappling, or lifting and breaking heavy objects.Endurance determines resistance to physical damage (e.g., poison, disease, death).", "It also determines how long a character can fight and how fast a character can move at top speed.Reason determines the success of tasks relating to knowledge, puzzle-solving, and advanced technology.Intuition determines the success of tasks relating to awareness, perception, and instinct.Psyche determines the success of tasks relating to willpower, psionics, and magic.Players sometimes refer to this set of attributes and the game system as a whole by the acronym \"FASERIP\".", "Attribute scores for most characters range from 1 to 100, where normal human ability is Typical (6), and peak (non-superheroic) human ability is Excellent (20).", "The designers minimize use of the numerical figures, instead preferring adjectives like \"Incredible\" (36-45) and \"Amazing\" (46-62).", "A \"Typical\" (5-7) attribute has a 50% base chance for success at most tasks relating to that attribute.", "As an attribute increases, the chance of success increases about 5% per 10 points.", "Thus a character with an \"Amazing\" (50) attribute has a 75% chance of success at tasks relating to that attribute.===Superpowers and origins===Beyond the seven attributes, characters have superpowers that function on a mostly ''ad hoc'' basis, and each character's description gives considerable space to a description of how their powers work in the game.Each character has an origin which puts ceilings on a character's abilities and superpowers.", "The origins include:Altered humans, normal people who acquire powers, such as Spider-Man or the Fantastic Four.High-tech wonders, normal people whose powers come from devices, such as Iron Man.Mutants, persons born with superpowers, such as the X-Men.Robots, created beings, such as the Vision and Ultron.Aliens, non-humans, including extra-dimensional beings such as Thor and Hercules.===Talents===The game also features a simple skill system referred to as Talents.", "Talents must be learned and cover areas of knowledge from Archery to Zoology.", "A Talent raises a character's ability by one rank when attempting actions related to that Talent.", "The GM is free to determine if a character would be unable to attempt an action without the appropriate Talent (such as a character with no medical background attempting to make a pill that can cure a rare disease)." ], [ "Game mechanics", "Two primary game mechanics drive the game: column shifts and colored results.", "Both influence the difficulty of an action.A column shift is used when a character is trying a hard or easy action.", "A column shift to the left indicates a penalty, while a shift to the right indicates a bonus.The column for each ability is divided into four colors: white, green, yellow, and red.", "A white result is always a failure or unfavorable outcome.", "In most cases, getting a green result is all that is needed to succeed at a particular action.", "Yellow and red results usually indicate more favorable results that could knock back, stun, or even kill an opponent.", "However, the GM can determine that succeeding at a hard task might require a yellow or red result.Additional rules in the \"Campaign Book\" of the basic and advanced sets use the same game mechanic to resolve non-violent tasks.Cover of ''Marvel Super Heroes Advanced Set'', art by Jeff Butler, 1986" ], [ "Publication history", "The first super hero role-playing games appeared in the early 1980s with ''Champions'' (1981) by Hero Games and ''Villains and Vigilantes'' (1983) by Fantasy Games Unlimited.", "Both of these were \"generic\" systems, not tied to any particular line of comics, and players had to create their own super heroes.", "TSR scored a coup in 1984 when it acquired the game license from Marvel Comics, allowing it to create a role-playing game and characters based on the popular line of comics.", "The result was ''Marvel Super Heroes'', a boxed set designed by Jeff Grubb and written by Steve Winter.", "Grubb designed the game to be easily understood, including a bare-bones combat system sufficient to resolve comic book style superhero fights.", "The game proved popular, and two years later Grubb and Winter created an expanded edition, the ''Marvel Superheroes Advanced Game''.=== TSR game supplements ===The original ''Marvel Super Heroes'' game received extensive support from TSR, covering a variety of Marvel Comics characters and settings, including a ''Gamer's Handbook of the Marvel Universe'' patterned after Marvel's ''Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe''.", "''MSH'' also got its own column, \"The Marvel-phile\", in TSR's house magazine ''Dragon''; the column usually spotlighted a character or group of characters that hadn't yet appeared in a published game product.===SAGA System===In the late 1990s, TSR published ''Marvel Super Heroes Adventure Game'', a card-based game that used their SAGA System game engine.", "This version, written by Mike Selinker, included a method of converting characters from the old role-playing game to the SAGA System.", "Though critically praised in various reviews at the time, it never reached a large market.", "Shortly afterwards, the Marvel Comics game license reverted to Marvel Comics.===Other games===In 2003, Marvel Comics published their own game, ''Marvel Universe Roleplaying Game''.", "This game uses a diceless game mechanic that incorporates a Karma-based resolution system of \"stones\" (or tokens) to represent character effort.", "Subsequently Marvel Comics published a few additional supplements, but stopped supporting the game a little over a year after its initial release, despite going through several printings of the core rulebook.In August 2011, Margaret Weis Productions acquired the licence to publish an RPG based on Marvel superheroes, and ''Marvel Heroic Roleplaying'' was released beginning in 2012.However, the company found that despite critical acclaim and two Origins Awards, ''Marvel Heroic Roleplaying: Civil War'' \"didn't garner the level of sales necessary to sustain the rest of the line.\"", "so they brought the game to a close at the end of April 2013." ], [ "Reception", "In the July–August 1984 edition of ''Space Gamer'' (No.", "70), Allen Varney wrote that the game was only suited to younger players and Marvel fanatics, saying, \"this is a respectable effort, and an excellent introductory game for a devoted Marvel fan aged 10 to 12; older, more experienced, or less devoted buyers will probably be disappointed.", "'Nuff said.", "\"Seven years later, Varney revisited the game in the August 1991 edition of ''Dragon'' (Issue #172), reviewing the new basic set edition that had just been released.", "While Varney appreciated that the game was designed for younger players, he felt that it failed to recreate the excitement of the comics.", "\"This is the gravest flaw of this system and support line: its apathy about recreating the spirit of Marvel stories.", "In this new Basic Set edition... you couldn’t find a miracle if you used microscopic vision.", "Look at this set’s few elementary mini-scenarios: all fight scenes.", "The four-color grandeur and narrative magic in the best Marvel stories are absent.", "Is this a good introduction to role-playing?\"", "Varney instead suggested ''Toon'' by Steve Jackson Games or ''Ghostbusters'' by West End Games as better role-playing alternatives for new and beginning young players.Pete Tamlyn reviewed ''Marvel Super Heroes'' for ''Imagine'' magazine and stated that \"this game has been produced in collaboration with Marvel and that opportunity itself is probably worth a new game release.", "However, ''Marvel Superheroes'' is not just another Superhero game.", "In many ways it is substantially different from other SHrpgs.", "\"In the January–February 1985 edition of ''Different Worlds'' (Issue #38), Troy Christensen gave it an average rating of 2.5 stars out of 4, saying, \"The ''Marvel Super Heroes'' roleplaying game overall is a basic and simple system which I would recommend for beginning and novice players ... People who enjoy a fast and uncomplicated game and like a system which is conservative and to the point will like this game.", "\"Marcus L. Rowland reviewed ''Marvel Super Heroes'' for ''White Dwarf'' #62, giving it an overall rating of 8 out of 10, and stated that \"All in all, a useful system which is suitable for beginning players and referees, but should still suit experienced gamers.", "\"In his 1990 book ''The Complete Guide to Role-Playing Games'', game critic Rick Swan called this \"a snap to learn, loaded with action, and nearly captures the anything-goes lunacy that's been a hallmark of Marvel Comics since the early 1960s.\"", "Swan did note that familiarity with Marvel heroes was a necessity \"and players who've never heard of Captain America or the Fantastic Four (are there any?)", "won't find much to like.\"", "Swan concluded by giving the game superior rating of 3.5 out of 4, saying, \"I believe it's more difficult to design a simple game than a complicated one, so ''Marvel Super Heroes'' strikes me as a triumph.\"", "''Marvel Super Heroes'' was chosen for inclusion in the 2007 book ''Hobby Games: The 100 Best''.", "Writer and game designer Steve Kenson commented that \"it's a testament to the game's longevity that it still has enthusiastic fan support on the Internet and an active play community more than a decade after its last product was published.", "Even more so that it continues to set a standard by which new superhero roleplaying games are measured.", "Like modern comic book writers and artists following the greats of the Silver Age, modern RPG designers have a tough act to follow.", "\"In a retrospective review of ''Marvel Super Heroes'' in ''Black Gate'', Matthew David Surridge said \"you couldn't help but read comics differently when you were helping create super-hero adventures yourself.", "Which, so often, seemed superior to what was being published by the major publishers, especially in the early 1990s.\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Measure (mathematics)" ], [ "Introduction", "monotone in the sense that if is a subset of the measure of is less than or equal to the measure of Furthermore, the measure of the empty set is required to be 0.A simple example is a volume (how big an object occupies a space) as a measure.In mathematics, the concept of a '''measure''' is a generalization and formalization of geometrical measures (length, area, volume) and other common notions, such as magnitude, mass, and probability of events.", "These seemingly distinct concepts have many similarities and can often be treated together in a single mathematical context.", "Measures are foundational in probability theory, integration theory, and can be generalized to assume negative values, as with electrical charge.", "Far-reaching generalizations (such as spectral measures and projection-valued measures) of measure are widely used in quantum physics and physics in general.The intuition behind this concept dates back to ancient Greece, when Archimedes tried to calculate the area of a circle .", "But it was not until the late 19th and early 20th centuries that measure theory became a branch of mathematics.", "The foundations of modern measure theory were laid in the works of Émile Borel, Henri Lebesgue, Nikolai Luzin, Johann Radon, Constantin Carathéodory, and Maurice Fréchet, among others." ], [ "Definition", "Countable additivity of a measure : The measure of a countable disjoint union is the same as the sum of all measures of each subset.Let be a set and a -algebra over A set function from to the extended real number line is called a '''measure''' if the following conditions hold:*'''Non-negativity''': For all **'''Countable additivity''' (or -additivity): For all countable collections of pairwise disjoint sets in Σ,If at least one set has finite measure, then the requirement is met automatically due to countable additivity:and therefore If the condition of non-negativity is dropped, and takes on at most one of the values of then is called a ''signed measure''.The pair is called a ''measurable space'', and the members of are called '''measurable sets'''.A triple is called a ''measure space''.", "A probability measure is a measure with total measure one – that is, A probability space is a measure space with a probability measure.For measure spaces that are also topological spaces various compatibility conditions can be placed for the measure and the topology.", "Most measures met in practice in analysis (and in many cases also in probability theory) are Radon measures.", "Radon measures have an alternative definition in terms of linear functionals on the locally convex topological vector space of continuous functions with compact support.", "This approach is taken by Bourbaki (2004) and a number of other sources.", "For more details, see the article on Radon measures." ], [ "Instances", "Some important measures are listed here.", "* The counting measure is defined by = number of elements in * The Lebesgue measure on is a complete translation-invariant measure on a ''σ''-algebra containing the intervals in such that ; and every other measure with these properties extends Lebesgue measure.", "* Circular angle measure is invariant under rotation, and hyperbolic angle measure is invariant under squeeze mapping.", "* The Haar measure for a locally compact topological group is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure (and also of counting measure and circular angle measure) and has similar uniqueness properties.", "* The Hausdorff measure is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure to sets with non-integer dimension, in particular, fractal sets.", "* Every probability space gives rise to a measure which takes the value 1 on the whole space (and therefore takes all its values in the unit interval 0, 1).", "Such a measure is called a ''probability measure'' or ''distribution''.", "See the list of probability distributions for instances.", "* The Dirac measure ''δ''''a'' (cf.", "Dirac delta function) is given by ''δ''''a''(''S'') = ''χ''''S''(a), where ''χ''''S'' is the indicator function of The measure of a set is 1 if it contains the point and 0 otherwise.Other 'named' measures used in various theories include: Borel measure, Jordan measure, ergodic measure, Gaussian measure, Baire measure, Radon measure, Young measure, and Loeb measure.", "In physics an example of a measure is spatial distribution of mass (see for example, gravity potential), or another non-negative extensive property, conserved (see conservation law for a list of these) or not.", "Negative values lead to signed measures, see \"generalizations\" below.", "* Liouville measure, known also as the natural volume form on a symplectic manifold, is useful in classical statistical and Hamiltonian mechanics.", "* Gibbs measure is widely used in statistical mechanics, often under the name canonical ensemble.Measure theory is used in machine learning.", "One example is the Flow Induced Probability Measure in GFlowNet." ], [ "Basic properties", "Let be a measure.===Monotonicity===If and are measurable sets with then===Measure of countable unions and intersections=======Countable subadditivity====For any countable sequence of (not necessarily disjoint) measurable sets in ====Continuity from below====If are measurable sets that are increasing (meaning that ) then the union of the sets is measurable and====Continuity from above====If are measurable sets that are decreasing (meaning that ) then the intersection of the sets is measurable; furthermore, if at least one of the has finite measure thenThis property is false without the assumption that at least one of the has finite measure.", "For instance, for each let which all have infinite Lebesgue measure, but the intersection is empty." ], [ "Other properties", "===Completeness===A measurable set is called a ''null set'' if A subset of a null set is called a ''negligible set''.", "A negligible set need not be measurable, but every measurable negligible set is automatically a null set.", "A measure is called ''complete'' if every negligible set is measurable.A measure can be extended to a complete one by considering the σ-algebra of subsets which differ by a negligible set from a measurable set that is, such that the symmetric difference of and is contained in a null set.", "One defines to equal ===\"Dropping the Edge\"===If is -measurable, thenfor almost all This property is used in connection with Lebesgue integral.===Additivity===Measures are required to be countably additive.", "However, the condition can be strengthened as follows.For any set and any set of nonnegative define:That is, we define the sum of the to be the supremum of all the sums of finitely many of them.A measure on is -additive if for any and any family of disjoint sets the following hold:The second condition is equivalent to the statement that the ideal of null sets is -complete.===Sigma-finite measures===A measure space is called finite if is a finite real number (rather than ).", "Nonzero finite measures are analogous to probability measures in the sense that any finite measure is proportional to the probability measure A measure is called ''σ-finite'' if can be decomposed into a countable union of measurable sets of finite measure.", "Analogously, a set in a measure space is said to have a ''σ-finite measure'' if it is a countable union of sets with finite measure.For example, the real numbers with the standard Lebesgue measure are σ-finite but not finite.", "Consider the closed intervals for all integers there are countably many such intervals, each has measure 1, and their union is the entire real line.", "Alternatively, consider the real numbers with the counting measure, which assigns to each finite set of reals the number of points in the set.", "This measure space is not σ-finite, because every set with finite measure contains only finitely many points, and it would take uncountably many such sets to cover the entire real line.", "The σ-finite measure spaces have some very convenient properties; σ-finiteness can be compared in this respect to the Lindelöf property of topological spaces.", "They can be also thought of as a vague generalization of the idea that a measure space may have 'uncountable measure'.===Strictly localizable measures======Semifinite measures===Let be a set, let be a sigma-algebra on and let be a measure on We say is '''semifinite''' to mean that for all Semifinite measures generalize sigma-finite measures, in such a way that some big theorems of measure theory that hold for sigma-finite but not arbitrary measures can be extended with little modification to hold for semifinite measures.", "(To-do: add examples of such theorems; cf.", "the talk page.", ")====Basic examples====* Every sigma-finite measure is semifinite.", "* Assume let and assume for all ** We have that is sigma-finite if and only if for all and is countable.", "We have that is semifinite if and only if for all ** Taking above (so that is counting measure on ), we see that counting measure on is*** sigma-finite if and only if is countable; and*** semifinite (without regard to whether is countable).", "(Thus, counting measure, on the power set of an arbitrary uncountable set gives an example of a semifinite measure that is not sigma-finite.", ")* Let be a complete, separable metric on let be the Borel sigma-algebra induced by and let Then the Hausdorff measure is semifinite.", "* Let be a complete, separable metric on let be the Borel sigma-algebra induced by and let Then the packing measure is semifinite.====Involved example====The zero measure is sigma-finite and thus semifinite.", "In addition, the zero measure is clearly less than or equal to It can be shown there is a greatest measure with these two properties:We say the '''semifinite part''' of to mean the semifinite measure defined in the above theorem.", "We give some nice, explicit formulas, which some authors may take as definition, for the semifinite part:* * * Since is semifinite, it follows that if then is semifinite.", "It is also evident that if is semifinite then ====Non-examples====Every '' measure'' that is not the zero measure is not semifinite.", "(Here, we say '' measure'' to mean a measure whose range lies in : ) Below we give examples of measures that are not zero measures.", "* Let be nonempty, let be a -algebra on let be not the zero function, and let It can be shown that is a measure.", "** *** * Let be uncountable, let be a -algebra on let be the countable elements of and let It can be shown that is a measure.====Involved non-example====We say the ''' part''' of to mean the measure defined in the above theorem.", "Here is an explicit formula for : ====Results regarding semifinite measures====* Let be or and let Then is semifinite if and only if is injective.", "(This result has import in the study of the dual space of .", ")* Let be or and let be the topology of convergence in measure on Then is semifinite if and only if is Hausdorff.", "* (Johnson) Let be a set, let be a sigma-algebra on let be a measure on let be a set, let be a sigma-algebra on and let be a measure on If are both not a measure, then both and are semifinite if and only if for all and (Here, is the measure defined in Theorem 39.1 in Berberian '65.)", "===Localizable measures===Localizable measures are a special case of semifinite measures and a generalization of sigma-finite measures.Let be a set, let be a sigma-algebra on and let be a measure on * Let be or and let Then is localizable if and only if is bijective (if and only if \"is\" ).===s-finite measures===A measure is said to be s-finite if it is a countable sum of finite measures.", "S-finite measures are more general than sigma-finite ones and have applications in the theory of stochastic processes." ], [ "Non-measurable sets", "If the axiom of choice is assumed to be true, it can be proved that not all subsets of Euclidean space are Lebesgue measurable; examples of such sets include the Vitali set, and the non-measurable sets postulated by the Hausdorff paradox and the Banach–Tarski paradox." ], [ "Generalizations", "For certain purposes, it is useful to have a \"measure\" whose values are not restricted to the non-negative reals or infinity.", "For instance, a countably additive set function with values in the (signed) real numbers is called a ''signed measure'', while such a function with values in the complex numbers is called a ''complex measure''.", "Observe, however, that complex measure is necessarily of finite variation, hence complex measures include finite signed measures but not, for example, the Lebesgue measure.Measures that take values in Banach spaces have been studied extensively.", "A measure that takes values in the set of self-adjoint projections on a Hilbert space is called a ''projection-valued measure''; these are used in functional analysis for the spectral theorem.", "When it is necessary to distinguish the usual measures which take non-negative values from generalizations, the term '''positive measure''' is used.", "Positive measures are closed under conical combination but not general linear combination, while signed measures are the linear closure of positive measures.Another generalization is the ''finitely additive measure'', also known as a content.", "This is the same as a measure except that instead of requiring ''countable'' additivity we require only ''finite'' additivity.", "Historically, this definition was used first.", "It turns out that in general, finitely additive measures are connected with notions such as Banach limits, the dual of and the Stone–Čech compactification.", "All these are linked in one way or another to the axiom of choice.", "Contents remain useful in certain technical problems in geometric measure theory; this is the theory of Banach measures.A charge is a generalization in both directions: it is a finitely additive, signed measure.", "(Cf.", "ba space for information about ''bounded'' charges, where we say a charge is ''bounded'' to mean its range its a bounded subset of ''R''.)" ], [ "See also", "* Abelian von Neumann algebra* Almost everywhere* Carathéodory's extension theorem* Content (measure theory)* Fubini's theorem* Fatou's lemma* Fuzzy measure theory* Geometric measure theory* Hausdorff measure* Inner measure* Lebesgue integration* Lebesgue measure* Lorentz space* Lifting theory* Measurable cardinal* Measurable function* Minkowski content* Outer measure* Product measure* Pushforward measure* Regular measure* Vector measure* Valuation (measure theory)* Volume form" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Robert G. Bartle (1995) ''The Elements of Integration and Lebesgue Measure'', Wiley Interscience.", "* * * * * Chapter III.", "* R. M. Dudley, 2002.", "''Real Analysis and Probability''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* * * Federer, Herbert.", "Geometric measure theory.", "Die Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften, Band 153 Springer-Verlag New York Inc., New York 1969 xiv+676 pp.", "* Second printing.", "* * * R. Duncan Luce and Louis Narens (1987).", "\"measurement, theory of\", ''The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics'', v. 3, pp. 428–32.", "* * ** The first edition was published with ''Part B: Functional Analysis'' as a single volume: * M. E. Munroe, 1953.", "''Introduction to Measure and Integration''.", "Addison Wesley.", "* * * First printing.", "There is a later (2017) second printing.", "Though usually there is little difference between the first and subsequent printings, in this case the second printing not only deletes from page 53 the Exercises 36, 40, 41, and 42 of Chapter 2 but also offers a (slightly, but still substantially) different presentation of part (ii) of Exercise 17.8.", "(The second printing's presentation of part (ii) of Exercise 17.8 (on the Luther decomposition) agrees with usual presentations, whereas the first printing's presentation provides a fresh perspective.", ")* Shilov, G. E., and Gurevich, B. L., 1978.", "''Integral, Measure, and Derivative: A Unified Approach'', Richard A. Silverman, trans.", "Dover Publications.", ".", "Emphasizes the Daniell integral.", "* * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Tutorial: Measure Theory for Dummies" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Motorcycle" ], [ "Introduction", "Norton motorcycle|alt=1952 Lambretta 125 D scooterA '''motorcycle''' ('''motorbike''', '''bike''', or, if three-wheeled, a '''trike''') is a two or three-wheeled motor vehicle steered by a handlebar from a saddle-style seat.Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes: long-distance travel, commuting, cruising, sport (including racing), and off-road riding.", "Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and being involved in other related social activities such as joining a motorcycle club and attending motorcycle rallies.The 1885 Daimler Reitwagen made by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Germany was the first internal combustion, petroleum-fueled motorcycle.", "In 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle.Globally, motorcycles are comparably popular to cars as a method of transport.", "In 2021, approximately 58.6 million new motorcycles were sold around the world, fewer than the 66.7 million cars sold over the same period.In 2022, the top four motorcycle producers by volume and type were Honda, Yamaha, Kawasaki, and Suzuki.", "In developing countries, motorcycles are considered utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy.", "Of all the motorcycles in the world, 58% are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, excluding car-centric Japan.According to the US Department of Transportation, the number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for motorcycles than for cars." ], [ "Types", "The term motorcycle has different legal definitions depending on jurisdiction (see ).There are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road, and dual purpose.", "Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes.", "There is often a racing counterpart to each type, such as road racing and street bikes, or motocross including dirt bikes.Street bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, and many other types.", "Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas.", "Dual purpose machines like the dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well.Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture.In some countries the use of pillions (rear seats) is restricted.File:2009-02-14 Kawasaki Vulcan 900 Custom and Yamaha FZ6.jpg|A cruiser (front) and a sportbike (background)File:URAL650-SPORTSMAN.jpg|A Ural motorcycle with a sidecarFile:Gendarmerie motor officer raising arm in traffic.jpg|French gendarme motorcyclistFile:Japan Police rider.jpg|Police motorcycle" ], [ "History", "===Experimentation and invention===Replica of the Daimler-Maybach ''Reitwagen''The first internal combustion, petroleum fueled motorcycle was the Daimler ''Reitwagen''.", "It was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt, Germany, in 1885.This vehicle was unlike either the safety bicycles or the boneshaker bicycles of the era in that it had zero degrees of steering axis angle and no fork offset, and thus did not use the principles of bicycle and motorcycle dynamics developed nearly 70 years earlier.", "Instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning.The inventors called their invention the ''Reitwagen'' (\"riding car\").", "It was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle.Butler's Patent VelocycleThe first commercial design for a self-propelled cycle was a three-wheel design called the Butler Petrol Cycle, conceived of Edward Butler in England in 1884.He exhibited his plans for the vehicle at the Stanley Cycle Show in London in 1884.The vehicle was built by the Merryweather Fire Engine company in Greenwich, in 1888.The Butler Petrol Cycle was a three-wheeled vehicle, with the rear wheel directly driven by a , displacement, bore × stroke, flat twin four-stroke engine (with magneto ignition replaced by coil and battery) equipped with rotary valves and a float-fed carburettor (five years before Maybach) and Ackermann steering, all of which were state of the art at the time.", "Starting was by compressed air.", "The engine was liquid-cooled, with a radiator over the rear driving wheel.", "Speed was controlled by means of a throttle valve lever.", "No braking system was fitted; the vehicle was stopped by raising and lowering the rear driving wheel using a foot-operated lever; the weight of the machine was then borne by two small castor wheels.", "The driver was seated between the front wheels.", "It was not, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing.Many authorities have excluded steam powered, electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a 'motorcycle', and credit the Daimler ''Reitwagen'' as the world's first motorcycle.", "Given the rapid rise in use of electric motorcycles worldwide, defining only internal-combustion powered two-wheelers as 'motorcycles' is increasingly problematic.", "The first (petroleum fueled) internal-combustion motorcycles, like the German ''Reitwagen'', were, however, also the first practical motorcycles.If a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle, then the first motorcycles built seem to be the French Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede which patent application was filed in December 1868, constructed around the same time as the American Roper steam velocipede, built by Sylvester H. Roper of Roxbury, Massachusetts,who had been demonstrating his machine at fairs and circuses in the eastern U.S. since 1867.Roper built about 10 steam cars and cycles from the 1860s until his death in 1896.====Summary of early inventions==== Year Vehicle Number of wheels Inventor Engine type Notes 1867–1868 Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede 2 Pierre MichauxLouis-Guillaume Perreaux Steam *One made 1867–1868 Roper steam velocipede 2 Sylvester Roper Steam *One made 1885 Daimler Reitwagen 2 (plus 2 outriggers) Gottlieb DaimlerWilhelm Maybach Petroleum internal-combustion *One made 1887 Butler Petrol Cycle 3 (plus 2 castors) Edward Butler Petroleum internal-combustion 1894 Hildebrand & Wolfmüller 2 Heinrich HildebrandWilhelm HildebrandAlois Wolfmüller Petroleum internal-combustion *Modern configuration*First mass-produced motorcycle*First machine to be called \"motorcycle\"===First motorcycle companies===Diagram of 1894 Hildebrand & WolfmüllerIn 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle ().", "Excelsior Motor Company, originally a bicycle manufacturing company based in Coventry, England, began production of their first motorcycle model in 1896.The first production motorcycle in the US was the Orient-Aster, built by Charles Metz in 1898 at his factory in Waltham, Massachusetts.In the early period of motorcycle history, many producers of bicycles adapted their designs to accommodate the new internal combustion engine.", "As the engines became more powerful and designs outgrew the bicycle origins, the number of motorcycle producers increased.", "Many of the nineteenth-century inventors who worked on early motorcycles often moved on to other inventions.", "Daimler and Roper, for example, both went on to develop automobiles.1902 Orient motocycleAt the end of the 19th century the first major mass-production firms were set up.", "In 1898, Triumph Motorcycles in England began producing motorbikes, and by 1903 it was producing over 500 bikes.", "Other British firms were Royal Enfield, Norton, Douglas Motorcycles and Birmingham Small Arms Company who began motorbike production in 1899, 1902, 1907 and 1910, respectively.", "Indian began production in 1901 and Harley-Davidson was established two years later.", "By the outbreak of World War I, the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world was Indian,producing over 20,000 bikes per year.===First World War===Triumph Motorcycles Model H, mass-produced for the war effort and notable for its reliabilityDuring the First World War, motorbike production was greatly ramped up for the war effort to supply effective communications with front line troops.", "Messengers on horses were replaced with despatch riders on motorcycles carrying messages, performing reconnaissance and acting as a military police.", "American company Harley-Davidson was devoting over 50% of its factory output toward military contract by the end of the war.", "The British company Triumph Motorcycles sold more than 30,000 of its Triumph Type H model to allied forces during the war.", "With the rear wheel driven by a belt, the Model H was fitted with a air-cooled four-stroke single-cylinder engine.", "It was also the first Triumph without pedals.The Model H in particular, is regarded by many as having been the first \"modern motorcycle\".", "Introduced in 1915 it had a 550 cc side-valve four-stroke engine with a three-speed gearbox and belt transmission.", "It was so popular with its users that it was nicknamed the \"Trusty Triumph\".===Postwar===Motorcycle rider on his Rudge-Whitworth motorbike, Australia, By 1920, Harley-Davidson was the largest manufacturer, with their motorcycles being sold by dealers in 67 countries.Amongst many British motorcycle manufacturers, Chater-Lea with its twin-cylinder models followed by its large singles in the 1920s stood out.", "Initially, using converted a Woodmann-designed ohv Blackburne engine it became the first 350 cc to exceed , recording over the flying kilometre during April 1924.7 Later, Chater-Lea set a world record for the flying kilometre for 350 cc and 500 cc motorcycles at for the firm.", "Chater-Lea produced variants of these world-beating sports models and became popular among racers at the Isle of Man TT.", "Today, the firm is probably best remembered for its long-term contract to manufacture and supply AA Patrol motorcycles and sidecars.By the late 1920s or early 1930s, DKW in Germany took over as the largest manufacturer.1955 Grand Prix seasonIn the 1950s, streamlining began to play an increasing part in the development of racing motorcycles and the \"dustbin fairing\" held out the possibility of radical changes to motorcycle design.", "NSU and Moto Guzzi were in the vanguard of this development, both producing very radical designs well ahead of their time.NSU produced the most advanced design, but after the deaths of four NSU riders in the 1954–1956 seasons, they abandoned further development and quit Grand Prix motorcycle racing.Moto Guzzi produced competitive race machines, and until the end of 1957 had a succession of victories.", "The following year, 1958, full enclosure fairings were banned from racing by the FIM in the light of the safety concerns.From the 1960s through the 1990s, small two-stroke motorcycles were popular worldwide, partly as a result of East German MZs Walter Kaaden's engine work in the 1950s.===Today===Royal Enfield BulletIn the 21st century, the motorcycle industry is mainly dominated by Indian and Japanese motorcycle companies.", "In addition to the large capacity motorcycles, there is a large market in smaller capacity (less than 300 cc) motorcycles, mostly concentrated in Asian and African countries and produced in China and India.", "A Japanese example is the 1958 Honda Super Cub, which went on to become the biggest selling vehicle of all time, with its 60 millionth unit produced in April 2008.Today, this area is dominated by mostly Indian companies with Hero MotoCorp emerging as the world's largest manufacturer of two wheelers.", "Its Splendor model has sold more than 8.5 million to date.", "Other major producers are Bajaj and TVS Motors.Yamaha Troops motorbike" ], [ "Technical aspects", "A Suzuki GS500 with a clearly visible frame, painted silver ===Construction===Motorcycle construction is the engineering, manufacturing, and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in the performance, cost, and aesthetics desired by the designer.", "With some exceptions, construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on a steel or aluminium frame, telescopic forks holding the front wheel, and disc brakes.", "Some other body parts, designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added.", "A petrol-powered engine typically consisting of between one and four cylinders (and less commonly, up to eight cylinders) coupled to a manual five- or six-speed sequential transmission drives the swingarm-mounted rear wheel by a chain, driveshaft, or belt.", "The repair can be done using a Motorcycle lift.===Fuel economy===Motorcycle fuel economy varies greatly with engine displacement and riding style.", "A streamlined, fully faired Matzu Matsuzawa Honda XL125 achieved in the Craig Vetter Fuel Economy Challenge \"on real highways in real conditions\".Due to low engine displacements (), and high power-to-mass ratios, motorcycles offer good fuel economy.", "Under conditions of fuel scarcity like 1950s Britain and modern developing nations, motorcycles claim large shares of the vehicle market.", "In the United States, the average motorcycle fuel economy is 44 miles per US gallon (19 km per liter).====Electric motorcycles====Very high fuel economy equivalents are often derived by electric motorcycles.", "Electric motorcycles are nearly silent, zero-emission electric motor-driven vehicles.", "Operating range and top speed are limited by battery technology.", "Fuel cells and petroleum-electric hybrids are also under development to extend the range and improve performance of the electric drive system.===Reliability===A 2013 survey of 4,424 readers of the US ''Consumer Reports'' magazine collected reliability data on 4,680 motorcycles purchased new from 2009 to 2012.The most common problem areas were accessories, brakes, electrical (including starters, charging, ignition), and fuel systems, and the types of motorcycles with the greatest problems were touring, off-road/dual sport, sport-touring, and cruisers.", "There were not enough sport bikes in the survey for a statistically significant conclusion, though the data hinted at reliability as good as cruisers.", "These results may be partially explained by accessories including such equipment as fairings, luggage, and auxiliary lighting, which are frequently added to touring, adventure touring/dual sport and sport touring bikes.", "Trouble with fuel systems is often the result of improper winter storage, and brake problems may also be due to poor maintenance.", "Of the five brands with enough data to draw conclusions, Honda, Kawasaki and Yamaha were statistically tied, with 11 to 14% of those bikes in the survey experiencing major repairs.", "Harley-Davidsons had a rate of 24%, while BMWs did worse, with 30% of those needing major repairs.", "There were not enough Triumph and Suzuki motorcycles surveyed for a statistically sound conclusion, though it appeared Suzukis were as reliable as the other three Japanese brands while Triumphs were comparable to Harley-Davidson and BMW.", "Three-fourths of the repairs in the survey cost less than US$200 and two-thirds of the motorcycles were repaired in less than two days.", "In spite of their relatively worse reliability in this survey, Harley-Davidson and BMW owners showed the greatest owner satisfaction, and three-fourths of them said they would buy the same bike again, followed by 72% of Honda owners and 60 to 63% of Kawasaki and Yamaha owners.===Dynamics===Racing motorcycles leaning in a turnTwo-wheeled motorcycles stay upright while rolling due to a physical property known as conservation of angular momentum in the wheels.", "Angular momentum points along the axle, and it \"wants\" to stay pointing in that direction.Different types of motorcycles have different dynamics and these play a role in how a motorcycle performs in given conditions.", "For example, one with a longer wheelbase provides the feeling of more stability by responding less to disturbances.", "Motorcycle tyres have a large influence over handling.Motorcycles must be leaned in order to make turns.", "This lean is induced by the method known as countersteering, in which the rider momentarily steers the handlebars in the direction opposite of the desired turn.", "This practice is counterintuitive and therefore often confusing to novices and even many experienced motorcyclists.With such short wheelbase, motorcycles can generate enough torque at the rear wheel, and enough stopping force at the front wheel, to lift the opposite wheel off the road.", "These actions, if performed on purpose, are known as wheelies and stoppies (or endos) respectively.===Accessories===Various features and accessories may be attached to a motorcycle either as OEM (factory-fitted) or aftermarket.", "Such accessories are selected by the owner to enhance the motorcycle's appearance, safety, performance, or comfort, and may include anything from mobile electronics to sidecars and trailers." ], [ "Records", "* The world record for the longest motorcycle jump was set in 2008 by Robbie Maddison with .", "* Since late 2010, the Ack Attack team has held the motorcycle land-speed record at ." ], [ "Safety", "Motorcycle equipmentWearing a motorcycle helmet reduces the risks of death or head injury in a motorcycle crash.Motorcycles have a higher rate of fatal accidents than automobiles or trucks and buses.", "United States Department of Transportation data for 2005 from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System show that for passenger cars, 18.62 fatal crashes occur per 100,000 registered vehicles.", "For motorcycles this figure is higher at 75.19 per 100,000 registered vehicles four times higher than for cars.The same data shows that 1.56 fatalities occur per 100 million vehicle miles travelled for passenger cars, whereas for motorcycles the figure is 43.47 which is 28 times higher than for cars (37 times more deaths per mile travelled in 2007).Furthermore, for motorcycles the accident rates have increased significantly since the end of the 1990s, while the rates have dropped for passenger cars.The most common configuration of motorcycle accidents in the United States is when a motorist pulls out or turns in front of a motorcyclist, violating their right-of-way.", "This is sometimes called a , an acronym formed from the motorists' common response of \"Sorry mate, I didn't see you\".Motorcyclists can anticipate and avoid some of these crashes with proper training, increasing their visibility to other traffic, keeping to the speed limits, and not consuming alcohol or other drugs before riding.The United Kingdom has several organisations dedicated to improving motorcycle safety by providing advanced rider training beyond what is necessary to pass the basic motorcycle licence test.", "These include the Institute of Advanced Motorists (IAM) and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA).", "Along with increased personal safety, riders with these advanced qualifications may benefit from reduced insurance costsYoung woman riding a motorcycle in Laos, with four young children passengersIn South Africa, the Think Bike campaign is dedicated to increasing both motorcycle safety and the awareness of motorcycles on the country's roads.", "The campaign, while strongest in the Gauteng province, has representation in Western Cape, KwaZulu Natal and the Free State.", "It has dozens of trained marshals available for various events such as cycle races and is deeply involved in numerous other projects such as the annual Motorcycle Toy Run.Motorcycle safety education is offered throughout the United States by organisations ranging from state agencies to non-profit organisations to corporations.", "Most states use the courses designed by the Motorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF), while Oregon and Idaho developed their own.", "All of the training programs include a Basic Rider Course, an Intermediate Rider Course and an Advanced Rider Course.An MSF rider course for novicesIn Ireland, since 2010, in the UK and some Australian jurisdictions, such as Victoria, New South Wales,the Australian Capital Territory, Tasmaniaand the Northern Territory, it is compulsory to complete a basic rider training course before being issued a Learners Licence, after which they can ride on public roads.In Canada, motorcycle rider training is compulsory in Quebec and Manitoba only, but all provinces and territories have graduated licence programs which place restrictions on new drivers until they have gained experience.", "Eligibility for a full motorcycle licence or endorsement for completing a Motorcycle Safety course varies by province.", "Without the Motorcycle Safety Course the chance of getting insurance for the motorcycle is very low.", "The Canada Safety Council, a non-profit safety organisation, offers the Gearing Up program across Canada and is endorsed by the Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council.", "Training course graduates may qualify for reduced insurance premiums." ], [ "Motorcycle rider postures", "BMW C1, with a more upright seating positionBombardier Can-Am Spyder, showing location of rider on the trikeThe motorcyclist's riding position depends on rider body-geometry (anthropometry) combined with the geometry of the motorcycle itself.", "These factors create a set of three basic postures.", "*Sport the rider leans forward into the wind and the weight of the upper torso is supported by the rider's core at low speed and air pressure at high speed.", "The footpegs are below the rider or to the rear.", "The reduced frontal area cuts wind resistance and allows higher speeds.", "At low-speed in this position the rider's arms may bear some of the weight of the rider's torso, which can be problematic.", "*Standard the rider sits upright or leans forward slightly.", "The feet are below the rider.", "These are motorcycles that are not specialised to one task, so they do not excel in any particular area.", "The standard posture is used with touring and commuting as well as dirt and dual-sport bikes, and may offer advantages for beginners.", "*Cruiser the rider sits at a lower seat height with the upper torso upright or leaning slightly rearward.", "Legs are extended forwards, sometimes out of reach of the regular controls on cruiser pegs.", "The low seat height can be a consideration for new or short riders.", "Handlebars tend to be high and wide.", "The emphasis is on comfort while compromising cornering ability because of low ground clearance and the greater likelihood of scraping foot pegs, floor boards, or other parts if turns are taken at the speeds other motorcycles can more readily accomplish.Factors of a motorcycle's ergonomic geometry that determine the seating posture include the height, angle and location of footpegs, seat and handlebars.", "Factors in a rider's physical geometry that contribute to seating posture include torso, arm, thigh and leg length, and overall rider height." ], [ "Legal definitions and restrictions", "A motorcycle is broadly defined by law in most countries for the purposes of registration, taxation and rider licensing as a powered two-wheel motor vehicle.", "Most countries distinguish between mopeds of 49 cc and the more powerful, larger vehicles (scooters do not count as a separate category).", "Many jurisdictions include some forms of three-wheeled cars as motorcycles.In Nigeria, motorcycles, popularly referred to as ''Okada'' have been subject of many controversies with regards to safety and security followed by restriction of movement in many states.", "In 2020, it was banned in Lagos, Nigeria's most populous city." ], [ "Environmental impact", "Motorcycles and scooters' low fuel consumption has attracted interest in the United States from environmentalists and those affected by increased fuel prices.Piaggio Group Americas supported this interest with the launch of a \"Vespanomics\" website and platform, claiming lower per-mile carbon emissions of 0.4 lb/mile (113 g/km) less than the average car, a 65% reduction, and better fuel economy.However, a motorcycle's exhaust emissions may contain 10–20 times more oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide, and unburned hydrocarbons than exhaust from a similar-year passenger car or SUV.This is because many motorcycles lack a catalytic converter, and the emission standard is much more permissive for motorcycles than for other vehicles.", "While catalytic converters have been installed in most gasoline-powered cars and trucks since 1975 in the United States, they can present fitment and heat difficulties in motorcycle applications.", "United States Environmental Protection Agency 2007 certification result reports for all vehicles versus on highway motorcycles (which also includes scooters), the average certified emissions level for 12,327 vehicles tested was 0.734.The average \"Nox+Co End-Of-Useful-Life-Emissions\" for 3,863 motorcycles tested was 0.8531.54% of the tested 2007-model motorcycles were equipped with a catalytic converter.===United States emissions limits===The following table shows maximum acceptable legal emissions of the combination of hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and carbon monoxide for new motorcycles sold in the United States with 280 cc or greater piston displacement.", "Tier Model year HC+NOx (g/km) CO (g/km) Tier 1 2006–2009 1.4 12.0 Tier 2 2010 and later 0.8 12.0The maximum acceptable legal emissions of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide for new Class I and II motorcycles (50 cc–169 cc and 170 cc–279 cc respectively) sold in the United States are as follows: Model year HC (g/km) CO (g/km) 2006 and later 1.0 12.0===Europe===European emission standards for motorcycles are similar to those for cars.", "New motorcycles must meet Euro 5 standards, while cars must meet Euro 6D-temp standards.", "Motorcycle emission controls are being updated and it has been proposed to update to Euro 5+ in 2024.=== Vietnam ===According to the National Environmental Status Report 2016 and recent air quality reports, emissions from motor vehicles have been identified as the main cause of environmental pollution.", "Among them, with over 68 million vehicles in operation nationwide (statistics from the Ministry of Transport, 2021), motorcycles are the largest source of pollutant emissions.In Hanoi, there are over 6 million motorcycles, of which nearly 3 million were manufactured before 2000.In Ho Chi Minh City, there are about 7.8 million motorcycles, of which 67.89% are over 10 years old.", "Air quality index (AQI) in urban centers often spikes during peak traffic times, such as rush hour in the morning and evening.A study by the Institute of Environment and Resources, Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, found that motorcycles account for about 29% of NO emissions, 90% of CO emissions, 65.4% of NMVOC emissions, 37.7% of particulate matter emissions, and 31% of fine particulate matter emissions.Traffic emissions account for 50% of total emissions in Ho Chi Minh City.", "While the world is moving towards Euro 6 emission standards, most cars in Vietnam meet Euro 4 or Euro 5 standards.", "However, motorcycles still meet Euro 2 or Euro 3 standards, which were implemented over 25 years ago." ], [ "See also", "* Bicycle and motorcycle geometry* List of motorcycle manufacturers* List of motor scooter manufacturers and brands* Motorcycle industry in China* Scooter (motorcycle)* Streamlined motorcycle" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General references", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Map" ], [ "Introduction", "Physical map of EarthPolitical map of EarthA '''map''' is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, or themes.Many maps are static, fixed to paper or some other durable medium, while others are dynamic or interactive.", "Although most commonly used to depict geography, maps may represent any space, real or fictional, without regard to context or scale, such as in brain mapping, DNA mapping, or computer network topology mapping.", "The space being mapped may be two dimensional, such as the surface of the Earth, three dimensional, such as the interior of the Earth, or even more abstract spaces of any dimension, such as arise in modeling phenomena having many independent variables.Although the earliest maps known are of the heavens, geographic maps of territory have a very long tradition and exist from ancient times.", "The word \"map\" comes from the , wherein ''mappa'' meant 'napkin' or 'cloth' and ''mundi'' 'the world'.", "Thus, \"map\" became a shortened term referring to a two-dimensional representation of the surface of the world." ], [ "History", ", one of the most advanced early world maps, by Muhammad al-Idrisi, 1154The history of cartography traces the development of cartography, or mapmaking technology, in human history.", "Maps have been one of the most important human inventions for millennia, allowing humans to explain and navigate their way through the world.", "The earliest surviving maps include cave paintings and etchings on tusk and stone, followed by extensive maps produced by ancient Babylon, Greece and Rome, China, and India.", "In their most simple form maps are two dimensional constructs, however since the age of Classical Greece maps have also been projected onto a three-dimensional sphere known as a globe.", "The Mercator Projection, developed by Flemish geographer Gerardus Mercator, was widely used as the standard two-dimensional projection of the earth for world maps until the late 20th century, when more accurate projections were formulated.", "Mercator was also the first to use and popularise the concept of the atlas as a collection of maps." ], [ "Geography", "Celestial map by the cartographer Frederik de Wit, 17th centuryCartography or ''map-making'' is the study and practice of crafting representations of the Earth upon a flat surface (see History of cartography), and one who makes maps is called a cartographer.Road maps are perhaps the most widely used maps today, and form a subset of navigational maps, which also include aeronautical and nautical charts, railroad network maps, and hiking and bicycling maps.", "In terms of quantity, the largest number of drawn map sheets is probably made up by local surveys, carried out by municipalities, utilities, tax assessors, emergency services providers, and other local agencies.", "Many national surveying projects have been carried out by the military, such as the British Ordnance Survey: a civilian government agency, internationally renowned for its comprehensively detailed work.In addition to location information, maps may also be used to portray contour lines indicating constant values of elevation, temperature, rainfall, etc." ], [ "Orientation", "The ''Hereford Mappa Mundi'', Hereford Cathedral, England, , a classic \"T-O\" map with Jerusalem at the center, east toward the top, Europe the bottom left and Africa on the rightThe orientation of a map is the relationship between the directions on the map and the corresponding compass directions in reality.", "The word \"orient\" is derived from Latin , meaning east.", "In the Middle Ages many maps, including the T and O maps, were drawn with east at the top (meaning that the direction \"up\" on the map corresponds to East on the compass).", "The most common cartographic convention is that north is at the top of a map.Map of Utrecht, Netherlands (1695).Maps not oriented with north at the top:* Medieval European T and O maps such as the Hereford Mappa Mundi were centered on Jerusalem with East at the top.", "Indeed, before the reintroduction of Ptolemy's ''Geography'' to Europe around 1400, there was no single convention in the West.", "Portolan charts, for example, are oriented to the shores they describe.", "* Maps of cities bordering a sea are often conventionally oriented with the sea at the top.", "* Route and channel maps have traditionally been oriented to the road or waterway they describe.", "* Polar maps of the Arctic or Antarctic regions are conventionally centered on the pole; the direction North would be toward or away from the center of the map, respectively.", "Typical maps of the Arctic have 0° meridian toward the bottom of the page; maps of the Antarctic have the 0° meridian toward the top of the page.", "* South-up maps invert the ''North is up'' convention by having south at the top.", "Ancient Africans including in Ancient Egypt used this orientation, as some maps in Brazil do today.", "* Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion maps are based on a projection of the Earth's sphere onto an icosahedron.", "The resulting triangular pieces may be arranged in any order or orientation.", "* Using the equator as the edge, the world map of Gott, Vanderbei, and Goldberg is arranged as a pair of disks back-to-back designed to present the least error possible.", "They are designed to be printed as a two-sided flat object that could be held easily for educational purposes." ], [ "Scale and accuracy", "Many maps are drawn to a scale expressed as a ratio, such as 1:10,000, which means that 1 unit of measurement on the map corresponds to 10,000 of that same unit on the ground.", "The scale statement can be accurate when the region mapped is small enough for the curvature of the Earth to be neglected, such as a city map.", "Mapping larger regions, where the curvature cannot be ignored, requires projections to map from the curved surface of the Earth to the plane.", "The impossibility of flattening the sphere to the plane without distortion means that the map cannot have a constant scale.", "Rather, on most projections, the best that can be attained is an accurate scale along one or two paths on the projection.", "Because scale differs everywhere, it can only be measured meaningfully as point scale per location.", "Most maps strive to keep point scale variation within narrow bounds.", "Although the scale statement is nominal it is usually accurate enough for most purposes unless the map covers a large fraction of the earth.", "At the scope of a world map, scale as a single number is practically meaningless throughout most of the map.", "Instead, it usually refers to the scale along the equator.Cartogram of the EU – distorted to show population distributions as of 2008|leftSome maps, called cartograms, have the scale deliberately distorted to reflect information other than land area or distance.", "For example, this map (at the left) of Europe has been distorted to show population distribution, while the rough shape of the continent is still discernible.Another example of distorted scale is the famous London Underground map.", "The basic geographical structure is respected but the tube lines (and the River Thames) are smoothed to clarify the relationships between stations.", "Near the center of the map, stations are spaced out more than near the edges of the map.Further inaccuracies may be deliberate.", "For example, cartographers may simply omit military installations or remove features solely to enhance the clarity of the map.", "For example, a road map may not show railroads, smaller waterways, or other prominent non-road objects, and even if it does, it may show them less clearly (e.g.", "dashed or dotted lines/outlines) than the main roads.", "Known as decluttering, the practice makes the subject matter that the user is interested in easier to read, usually without sacrificing overall accuracy.", "Software-based maps often allow the user to toggle decluttering between ON, OFF, and AUTO as needed.", "In AUTO the degree of decluttering is adjusted as the user changes the scale being displayed." ], [ "Projection", "Geographic maps use a projection to translate the three-dimensional real surface of the geoid to a two-dimensional picture.", "Projection always distorts the surface.", "There are many ways to apportion the distortion, and so there are many map projections.", "Which projection to use depends on the purpose of the map." ], [ "Symbology", "The various features shown on a map are represented by conventional signs or symbols.", "For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads.", "Those signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet.Some cartographers prefer to make the map cover practically the entire screen or sheet of paper, leaving no room \"outside\" the map for information about the map as a whole.", "These cartographers typically place such information in an otherwise \"blank\" region \"inside\" the mapcartouche, map legend, title, compass rose, bar scale, etc.In particular, some maps contain smaller \"sub-maps\" in otherwise blank regions—often one at a much smaller scale showing the whole globe and where the whole map fits on that globe, and a few showing \"regions of interest\" at a larger scale to show details that wouldn't otherwise fit.Occasionally sub-maps use the same scale as the large map—a few maps of the contiguous United States include a sub-map to the same scale for each of the two non-contiguous states." ], [ "Design", "The design and production of maps is a craft that has developed over thousands of years, from clay tablets to Geographic information systems.", "As a form of Design, particularly closely related to Graphic design, map making incorporates scientific knowledge about how maps are used, integrated with principles of artistic expression, to create an aesthetically attractive product, carries an aura of authority, and functionally serves a particular purpose for an intended audience.Designing a map involves bringing together a number of elements and making a large number of decisions.", "The elements of design fall into several broad topics, each of which has its own theory, its own research agenda, and its own best practices.", "That said, there are synergistic effects between these elements, meaning that the overall design process is not just working on each element one at a time, but an iterative feedback process of adjusting each to achieve the desired gestalt.", "* Map projections: The foundation of the map is the plane on which it rests (whether paper or screen), but projections are required to flatten the surface of the earth.", "All projections distort this surface, but the cartographer can be strategic about how and where distortion occurs.", "* Generalization: All maps must be drawn at a smaller scale than reality, requiring that the information included on a map be a very small sample of the wealth of information about a place.", "Generalization is the process of adjusting the level of detail in geographic information to be appropriate for the scale and purpose of a map, through procedures such as selection, simplification, and classification.", "* Symbology: Any map visually represents the location and properties of geographic phenomena using map symbols, graphical depictions composed of several visual variables, such as size, shape, color, and pattern.", "* Composition: As all of the symbols are brought together, their interactions have major effects on map reading, such as grouping and Visual hierarchy.", "* Typography or Labeling: Text serves a number of purposes on the map, especially aiding the recognition of features, but labels must be designed and positioned well to be effective.", "* Layout: The map image must be placed on the page (whether paper, web, or other media), along with related elements, such as the title, legend, additional maps, text, images, and so on.", "Each of these elements have their own design considerations, as does their integration, which largely follows the principles of Graphic design.", "* Map type-specific design: Different kinds of maps, especially thematic maps, have their own design needs and best practices." ], [ "Types{{anchor|Map_types_and_projections}}", " Geological map of the MoonMaps of the world or large areas are often either 'political' or 'physical'.", "The most important purpose of the political map is to show territorial borders; the purpose of the physical is to show features of geography such as mountains, soil type, or land use including infrastructures such as roads, railroads, and buildings.", "Topographic maps show elevations and relief with contour lines or shading.", "Geological maps show not only the physical surface, but characteristics of the underlying rock, fault lines, and subsurface structures.===Electronic===USGS digital raster graphic.From the last quarter of the 20th century, the indispensable tool of the cartographer has been the computer.", "Much of cartography, especially at the data-gathering survey level, has been subsumed by geographic information systems (GIS).", "The functionality of maps has been greatly advanced by technology simplifying the superimposition of spatially located variables onto existing geographical maps.", "Having local information such as rainfall level, distribution of wildlife, or demographic data integrated within the map allows more efficient analysis and better decision making.", "In the pre-electronic age such superimposition of data led Dr. John Snow to identify the location of an outbreak of cholera.", "Today, it is used by agencies of humankind, as diverse as wildlife conservationists and militaries around the world.Relief map of the Sierra NevadaEven when GIS is not involved, most cartographers now use a variety of computer graphics programs to generate new maps.Interactive, computerized maps are commercially available, allowing users to ''zoom in'' or ''zoom out'' (respectively meaning to increase or decrease the scale), sometimes by replacing one map with another of different scale, centered where possible on the same point.", "In-car global navigation satellite systems are computerized maps with route planning and advice facilities that monitor the user's position with the help of satellites.", "From the computer scientist's point of view, zooming in entails one or a combination of:# replacing the map by a more detailed one# enlarging the same map without enlarging the pixels, hence showing more detail by removing less information compared to the less detailed version# enlarging the same map with the pixels enlarged (replaced by rectangles of pixels); no additional detail is shown, but, depending on the quality of one's vision, possibly more detail can be seen; if a computer display does not show adjacent pixels really separate, but overlapping instead (this does not apply for an LCD, but may apply for a cathode ray tube), then replacing a pixel by a rectangle of pixels does show more detail.", "A variation of this method is interpolation.A world map in PDF format.For example:* Typically (2) applies to a Portable Document Format (PDF) file or other format based on vector graphics.", "The increase in detail is limited to the information contained in the file: enlargement of a curve may eventually result in a series of standard geometric figures such as straight lines, arcs of circles, or splines.", "* (2) may apply to text and (3) to the outline of a map feature such as a forest or building.", "* (1) may apply to the text as needed (displaying labels for more features), while (2) applies to the rest of the image.", "Text is not necessarily enlarged when zooming in.", "Similarly, a road represented by a double line may or may not become wider when one zooms in.", "* The map may also have layers that are partly raster graphics and partly vector graphics.", "For a single raster graphics image (2) applies until the pixels in the image file correspond to the pixels of the display, thereafter (3) applies.===Climatic===Mean Annual Temperature map of Ohio from \"Geography of Ohio\" 1923The maps that reflect the territorial distribution of climatic conditions based on the results of long-term observations are called ''climatic maps''.", "These maps can be compiled both for individual climatic features (temperature, precipitation, humidity) and for combinations of them at the earth's surface and in the upper layers of the atmosphere.", "Climatic maps show climatic features across a large region and permit values of climatic features to be compared in different parts of the region.", "When generating the map, spatial interpolation can be used to synthesize values where there are no measurements, under the assumption that conditions change smoothly.Climatic maps generally apply to individual months and the year as a whole, sometimes to the four seasons, to the growing period, and so forth.", "On maps compiled from the observations of ground meteorological stations, atmospheric pressure is converted to sea level.", "Air temperature maps are compiled both from the actual values observed on the surface of the earth and from values converted to sea level.", "The pressure field in the free atmosphere is represented either by maps of the distribution of pressure at different standard altitudes—for example, at every kilometer above sea level—or by maps of baric topography on which altitudes (more precisely geopotentials) of the main isobaric surfaces (for example, 900, 800, and 700 millibars) counted off from sea level are plotted.", "The temperature, humidity, and wind on aero climatic maps may apply either to standard altitudes or to the main isobaric surfaces.Isolines are drawn on maps of such climatic features as the long-term mean values (of atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, total precipitation, and so forth) to connect points with equal values of the feature in question—for example, isobars for pressure, isotherms for temperature, and isohyets for precipitation.", "Isoamplitudes are drawn on maps of amplitudes (for example, annual amplitudes of air temperature—that is, the differences between the mean temperatures of the warmest and coldest month).", "Isanomals are drawn on maps of anomalies (for example, deviations of the mean temperature of each place from the mean temperature of the entire latitudinal zone).", "Isolines of frequency are drawn on maps showing the frequency of a particular phenomenon (for example, the annual number of days with a thunderstorm or snow cover).", "Isochrones are drawn on maps showing the dates of onset of a given phenomenon (for example, the first frost and appearance or disappearance of the snow cover) or the date of a particular value of a meteorological element in the course of a year (for example, passing of the mean daily air temperature through zero).", "Isolines of the mean numerical value of wind velocity or isotachs are drawn on wind maps (charts); the wind resultants and directions of prevailing winds are indicated by arrows of different lengths or arrows with different plumes; lines of flow are often drawn.", "Maps of the zonal and meridional components of wind are frequently compiled for the free atmosphere.", "Atmospheric pressure and wind are usually combined on climatic maps.", "Wind roses, curves showing the distribution of other meteorological elements, diagrams of the annual course of elements at individual stations, and the like are also plotted on climatic maps.Maps of climatic regionalization, that is, division of the earth's surface into climatic zones and regions according to some classification of climates, are a special kind of climatic map.Climatic maps are often incorporated into climatic atlases of varying geographic ranges (globe, hemispheres, continents, countries, oceans) or included in comprehensive atlases.", "Besides general climatic maps, applied climatic maps and atlases have great practical value.", "Aero climatic maps, aero climatic atlases, and agro climatic maps are the most numerous.===Extraterrestrial===Maps exist of the Solar System, and other cosmological features such as star maps.", "In addition maps of other bodies such as the Moon and other planets are technically not ''geo''graphical maps.Floor maps are also spatial but not necessarily geospatial.===Topological===In a topological map, like this one showing inventory locations, the distances between locations are not important.", "Only the layout and connectivity between them matters.Diagrams such as schematic diagrams and Gantt charts and tree maps display logical relationships between items, rather than geographical relationships.", "Topological in nature, only the connectivity is significant.", "The London Underground map and similar subway maps around the world are a common example of these maps.===General===General-purpose maps provide many types of information on one map.", "Most atlas maps, wall maps, and road maps fall into this category.", "The following are some features that might be shown on general-purpose maps: bodies of water, roads, railway lines, parks, elevations, towns and cities, political boundaries, latitude and longitude, national and provincial parks.", "These maps give a broad understanding of the location and features of an area.", "The reader may gain an understanding of the type of landscape, the location of urban places, and the location of major transportation routes all at once.===Extremely large maps=======The Great Polish Map of Scotland====The Great Polish Map of Scotland at Barony Castle, ScotlandPolish general Stanisław Maczek had once been shown an impressive outdoor map of land and water in the Netherlands demonstrating the working of the waterways (which had been an obstacle to the Polish forces progress in 1944).", "This had inspired Maczek and his companions to create Great Polish Map of Scotland as a 70-ton permanent three-dimensional reminder of Scotland's hospitality to his compatriots.", "In 1974, the coastline and relief of Scotland were laid out by Kazimierz Trafas, a Polish student geographer-planner, based on existing Bartholomew Half-Inch map sheets.", "Engineering infrastructure was put in place to surround it with a sea of water and at the General's request some of the main rivers were even arranged to flow from headwaters pumped into the mountains.", "The map was finished in 1979, but had to be restored between 2013 and 2017.====Challenger Relief Map of British Columbia====The Challenger Relief Map of British Columbia is a hand-built topographic map of the province, 80 feet by 76 feet.", "Built by George Challenger and his family from 1947 to 1954, it features all of B.C.", "'s mountains, lakes, rivers and valleys in exact-scaled topographical detail.", "Residing in the British Columbia Pavilion at the Pacific National Exhibition (PNE) in Vancouver from 1954 to 1997 it was viewed by millions of visitors.", "The Guinness Book of Records cites the Challenger Map as the largest of its kind in the world.", "The map in its entirety occupies 6,080 square feet (1,850 square metres) of space.", "It was disassembled in 1997; there is a project to restore it in a new location.====Relief map of Guatemala====Mapa en Relieve de GuatemalaThe Relief map of Guatemala was made by Francisco Vela in 1905 and still exists.", "This map (horizontal scale 1:10,000; vertical scale 1:2,000) measures 1,800 m2, and was created to educate children in the scape of their country.===List===* Aeronautical chart* Atlas* Cadastral map* Climatic map* Geologic map* Historical map* Linguistic map* Nautical map* Physical map* Political map* Relief map* Resource map* Road map* Star map* Street map* Thematic map* Topographic map* Train track map* Transit map* Weather map* World map" ], [ "Legal regulation", "Some countries required that all published maps represent their national claims regarding border disputes.", "For example:* Within Russia, Google Maps shows Crimea as part of Russia.", "* Both the Republic of India and the People's Republic of China require that all maps show areas subject to the Sino-Indian border dispute in their own favor.In 2010, the People's Republic of China began requiring that all online maps served from within China be hosted there, making them subject to Chinese laws." ], [ "See also", "=== General ===* Counter-mapping* Map–territory relation* Censorship of maps* List of online map services* Map collection=== Map designing and types ===* Automatic label placement* City map* Compass rose* Contour map* Estate map* Fantasy map* Floor plan* Geologic map* Hypsometric tints* Map design* Orthophotomap—A map created from orthophotography* Pictorial maps* Plat* Road atlas* Strip map* Transit map*Page layout (cartography)=== Map history ===* Early world maps* History of cartography* List of cartographers=== Related topics ===* Aerial landscape art* Digital geologic mapping* Economic geography* Geographic coordinate system* Index map* Global Map* List of online map services* Map database management" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* David Buisseret, ed., ''Monarchs, Ministers and Maps: The Emergence of Cartography as a Tool of Government in Early Modern Europe.''", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, * Denis E. Cosgrove (ed.)", "''Mappings''.", "Reaktion Books, 1999 * Freeman, Herbert, Automated Cartographic Text Placement.", "White paper.", "* Ahn, J. and Freeman, H., \"A program for automatic name placement,\" Proc.", "AUTO-CARTO 6, Ottawa, 1983.444–455.", "* Freeman, H., \"Computer Name Placement,\" ch.", "29, in Geographical Information Systems, 1, D.J.", "Maguire, M.F.", "Goodchild, and D.W. Rhind, John Wiley, New York, 1991, 449–460.", "* Mark Monmonier, ''How to Lie with Maps'', * O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson, '' The History of Cartography''.", "Scotland : St. Andrews University, 2002." ], [ "External links", "* International Cartographic Association (ICA), the world body for mapping and GIScience professionals* Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide, by the staff of the U.S. Library of Congress.", "* The History of Cartography Project at the University of Wisconsin, a comprehensive research project in the history of maps and mapping" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Management" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Management''' (or '''managing''') is the administration of organizations, whether they are a business, a nonprofit organization, or a government body through business administration, nonprofit management, or the political science sub-field of public administration respectively.", "It is the process of managing the resources of businesses, governments, and other organizations.", "Larger organizations generally have three hierarchical levels of managers, in a pyramid structure:* Senior management roles include the board of directors and a chief executive officer (CEO) or a president of an organization.", "They set the strategic goals and policy of the organization and make decisions on how the overall organization will operate.", "Senior managers are generally executive-level professionals who provide direction to middle management.", "* Middle management roles include branch managers, regional managers, department managers, and section managers.", "They provide direction to the front-line managers and communicate the strategic goals and policy of senior management to the front-line managers.", "* Line management roles include supervisors and front-line team leaders, who oversee the work of regular employees, or volunteers in some voluntary organizations, and provide direction on their work.", "Line managers often perform the managerial functions that are traditionally considered the core of management.", "Despite the name, they are usually considered part of the workforce and not part of the organization's management class.Management is taught across different disciplines at colleges and universities.", "Prominent major degree programs in management include Management, Business Administration and Public Administration.", "Social scientists study management as an academic discipline, investigating areas such as social organization, organizational adaptation, and organizational leadership.", "In recent decades, there has been a movement for evidence-based management." ], [ "Etymology", "The English verb ''manage'' has its roots in the fifteenth-century French verb ''mesnager'', which often referred in equestrian language \"to hold in hand the reins of a horse\".", "Also the Italian term ''maneggiare'' (to handle, especially tools or a horse) is possible.", "In Spanish, ''manejar'' can also mean to rule the horses.", "These three terms derive from the two Latin words ''manus'' (hand) and ''agere'' (to act).", "The French word for housekeeping, ''ménagerie'', derived from ''ménager'' (\"to keep house\"; compare ''ménage'' for \"household\"), also encompasses taking care of domestic animals.", "''Ménagerie'' is the French translation of Xenophon's famous book ''Oeconomicus'' () on household matters and husbandry.", "The French word ''mesnagement'' (or ''ménagement'') influenced the semantic development of the English word ''management'' in the 17th and 18th centuries." ], [ "Definitions", "Views on the definition and scope of management include:* Henri Fayol (1841–1925) stated: \"To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate and to control\".", "* Fredmund Malik (1944– ) defines management as \"the transformation of resources into utility\".", "* Management is included as one of the factors of production – along with machines, materials and money.", "* Ghislain Deslandes defines management as \"a vulnerable force, under pressure to achieve results and endowed with the triple power of constraint, imitation, and imagination, operating on subjective, interpersonal, institutional and environmental levels\".", "* Peter Drucker (1909–2005) saw the basic task of management as twofold: marketing and innovation.", "Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing (product innovation is a central strategic marketing issue).", "Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are generally understood as two different branches of business administration knowledge.", "===Theoretical scope===Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures, rules and manipulation of the human capital of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the enterprise.", "Scholars have focused on the management of individual, organizational, and inter-organizational relationships.", "This implies effective communication: an enterprise environment (as opposed to a physical or mechanical mechanism) implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome.", "As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine or automated program), not the herding of animals, and can occur either in a legal or in an illegal enterprise or environment.", "From an individual's perspective, management does not need to be seen solely from an enterprise point of view, because management is an essential function in improving one's life and relationships.", "Management is therefore everywhere and it has a wider range of application.", "Communication and a positive endeavor are two main aspects of it either through enterprise or through independent pursuit.", "Plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures (profit, etc.)", "may or may not be necessary components for there to be management.", "At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans, and meeting goals, but this applies even in situations where planning does not take place.", "From this perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925) considers management to consist of five functions:* planning (forecasting)* organizing* commanding* coordinating* controllingIn another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), allegedly defined management as \"the art of getting things done through people\".", "She described management as a philosophy.Critics, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow.", "The phrase \"management is what managers do\" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management without circularity, the shifting nature of definitions and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or of a class.One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to \"business administration\" and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, for example in charities and in the public sector.", "More broadly, every organization must \"manage\" its work, people, processes, technology, etc.", "to maximize effectiveness.", "Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as \"business schools\".", "Some such institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name, while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the broader term \"management\".English speakers may also use the term \"management\" or \"the management\" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation.Historically this use of the term often contrasted with the term ''labor'' – referring to those being managed." ], [ "Levels", "An organization chart for the United States Coast Guard shows the hierarchy of managerial roles in that organization.A common management structure of organizations includes three management levels: low-level, middle-level, and top-level managers.", "Low-level managers manage the work of non-managerial individuals who are directly involved with the production or creation of the organization's products.", "Low-level managers are often called supervisors, but may also be called line managers, office managers, or even foremen.", "Middle managers include all levels of management between the low level and the top level of the organization.", "These managers manage the work of low-level managers and may have titles such as department head, project leader, plant manager, or division manager.", "Top managers are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing the plans and goals that affect the entire organization.", "These individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director, chief operating officer, chief executive officer, or board chairman.These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority and perform different tasks.", "In many organizations, the number of managers at every level resembles a pyramid.", "Each level is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles.===Top management===The top or senior layer of management is a small group which consists of the board of directors (including non-executive directors, executive directors and independent directors), president, vice-president, CEOs and other members of the C-level executives.", "Different organizations have various members in their C-suite, which may include a chief financial officer, chief technology officer, and so on.", "They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the operations of the entire organization.", "They set a \"tone at the top\" and develop strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions on the overall direction of the organization.", "In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources.", "Senior managers are accountable to the shareholders, the general public, and public bodies that oversee corporations and similar organizations.", "Some members of the senior management may serve as the public face of the organization, and they may make speeches to introduce new strategies or appear in marketing.The board of directors is typically primarily composed of non-executives who owe a fiduciary duty to shareholders and are not closely involved in the day-to-day activities of the organization.", "However, this varies depending on the type (e.g., public versus private), size, and culture of the organization.", "These directors are theoretically liable for breaches of that duty and are typically insured under directors and officers liability insurance.", "Fortune 500 directors are estimated to spend 4.4 hours per week on board duties, and median compensation was $212,512 in 2010.The board sets corporate strategy, makes major decisions such as major acquisitions, and hires, evaluates, and fires the top-level manager (chief executive officer or CEO).", "The CEO typically hires other positions.", "However, board involvement in the hiring of other positions such as the chief financial officer (CFO) has increased.", "In 2013, a survey of over 160 CEOs and directors of public and private companies found that the top weaknesses of CEOs were \"mentoring skills\" and \"board engagement\", and 10% of companies never evaluated the CEO.", "The board may also have certain employees (e.g., internal auditors) report to them or directly hire independent contractors; for example, the board (through the audit committee) typically selects the auditor.Helpful skills of top management vary by the type of organization but typically include a broad understanding of competition, world economies, and politics.", "In addition, the CEO is responsible for implementing and determining (within the board's framework) the broad policies of the organization.", "Executive management accomplishes the day-to-day details, including instructions for the preparation of department budgets, procedures, and schedules; appointment of middle-level executives such as department managers; coordination of departments; media and governmental relations; and shareholder communication.===Middle management===Consist of general managers, branch managers and department managers.", "They are accountable to the top management for their department's function.", "They devote more time to organizational and directional functions.", "Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and the top management's objectives, defining and discussing information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly, inspiring and providing guidance to lower-level managers towards better performance.Middle management is the midway management of a categorized organization, being secondary to the senior management but above the deepest levels of operational members.", "An operational manager may be well-thought-out by middle management or may be categorized as a non-management operator, liable to the policy of the specific organization.", "The efficiency of the middle level is vital in any organization since it bridges the gap between top-level and bottom-level staff.Their functions include:* Designing and implementing effective group and inter-group work and information systems* Defining and monitoring group-level performance indicators* Diagnosing and resolving problems within and among workgroups* Designing and implementing reward systems that support cooperative behavior, as well as making decisions and sharing ideas with top managers===Line management===Line managers include supervisors, section leaders, forepersons, and team leaders.", "They focus on controlling and directing regular employees.", "They are usually responsible for assigning employees tasks, guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring the quality and quantity of production and/or service, making recommendations and suggestions to employees on their work, and channeling employee concerns that they cannot resolve to mid-level managers or other administrators.", "Low-level or \"front-line\" managers also act as role models for their employees.", "In some types of work, front-line managers may also do some of the same tasks that employees do, at least some of the time.", "For example, in some restaurants, the front-line managers will also serve customers during a very busy period of the day.", "In general, line managers are considered part of the workforce and not part of the organization's proper management despite performing traditional management functions.Front-line managers typically provide:* Training for new employees* Basic supervision* Motivation* Performance feedback and guidanceSome front-line managers may also provide career planning for employees who aim to rise within the organization." ], [ "Training and education", "Colleges and universities around the world offer bachelor's degrees, graduate degrees, diplomas, and certificates in management; generally within their colleges of business, business schools, or faculty of management but also in other related departments.", "Higher education has been characterized as a necessary factor in the managerial revolution in the 20th century.===Requirement===While some professions require academic credentials in order to work in the profession (e.g., law, medicine, and engineering, which require, respectively the Bachelor of Law, Doctor of Medicine, and Bachelor of Engineering degrees), management and administration positions do not necessarily require the completion of academic degrees.", "Some well-known senior executives in the US who did not complete a degree include Steve Jobs, Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg.", "However, many managers and executives have completed some type of business or management training, such as a Bachelor of Commerce or a Master of Business Administration degree.", "Some major organizations, including companies, non-profit organizations, and governments, require applicants to managerial or executive positions to hold at minimum bachelor's degree in a field related to administration or management, or in the case of business jobs, a Bachelor of Commerce or a similar degree.===Undergraduate===At the undergraduate level, the most common business programs are the Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.", ").These typically comprise a four-year program designed to give students an overview of the role of managers in planning and directing within an organization.", "Course topics include accounting, financial management, statistics, marketing, strategy, and other related areas.Many other undergraduate degrees include the study of management, such as Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees with a major in business administration or management and the Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS) in political science (PoliSci) with a concentration in public administration or the Bachelor of Public Administration (B.P.A), a degree designed for individuals aiming to work as bureaucrats in the government jobs.", "Many colleges and universities also offer certificates and diplomas in business administration or management, which typically require one to two years of full-time study.To manage technological areas, one often needs an undergraduate degree in a STEM area.===Graduate===At the graduate level students aiming at careers as managers or executives may choose to specialize in major subareas of management or business administration such as entrepreneurship, human resources, international business, organizational behavior, organizational theory, strategic management, accounting, corporate finance, entertainment, global management, healthcare management, investment management, sustainability and real estate.A Master of Business Administration (MBA) is the most popular professional degree at the master's level and can be obtained from many universities in the United States.", "MBA programs provide further education in management and leadership for graduate students.", "Other master's degrees in business and management include Master of Management (MM) and the Master of Science (M.Sc.)", "in business administration or management, which is typically taken by students aiming to become researchers or professors.There are also specialized master's degrees in administration for individuals aiming at careers outside of business, such as the Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree (also offered as a Master of Arts or Master of Science in public administration in some universities), for students aiming to become managers or executives in the public service and the Master of Health Administration, for students aiming to become managers or executives in the health care and hospital sector.Management doctorates are the most advanced terminal degrees in the field of business and management.", "Most individuals obtaining management doctorates take the programs to obtain the training in research methods, statistical analysis, and writing academic papers that they will need to seek careers as researchers, senior consultants, and/or professors in business administration or management.", "There are several types of management doctorates: the Doctor of Management (DM), the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), the Doctor of Public Administration(DPA), the Ph.D. in business administration, the Ph.D. in management, and the Ph.D. in political science with a concentration in public administration.", "In the 2010s, doctorates in business administration and management were available with many specializations.===Good practices===While management trends can change fast, the long-term trend in management has been defined by a market embracing diversity and a rising service industry.", "Managers are currently being trained to encourage greater equality for minorities and women in the workplace, by offering increased flexibility in working hours, better retraining, and innovative (and usually industry-specific) performance markers.", "Managers destined for the service sector are being trained to use unique measurement techniques, better worker support, and more charismatic leadership styles.", "Human resources finds itself increasingly working with management in a training capacity to help collect management data on the success (or failure) of management actions with employees.Good practices identified for managers include \"walking the shop floor\", and, especially for managers who are new in post, identifying and achieving some \"quick wins\" which demonstrate visible success in establishing appropriate objectives.", "Leadership writer John Kotter uses the phrase \"Short-Term Wins\" to express the same idea.", "As in all work, achieving an appropriate work-life balance for self and others is an important management practice.====Evidence-based management====Evidence-based management is an emerging movement to use the current, best evidence in management and decision-making.", "It is part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices.", "Evidence-based management entails managerial decisions and organizational practices informed by the best available evidence.", "As with other evidence-based practice, this is based on the three principles of published peer-reviewed (often in management or social science journals) research evidence that bears on whether and why a particular management practice works; judgment and experience from contextual management practice, to understand the organization and interpersonal dynamics in a situation and determine the risks and benefits of available actions; and the preferences and values of those affected." ], [ "History", "Some see management as a late-modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization.", "On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history – only harbingers (such as stewards).", "Others, however, detect management-like thought among ancient Sumerian traders and the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt.", "Slave owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting and motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically.", "However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control.", "* An organization is more stable if members have the right to express their differences and solve their conflicts within it.", "* While one person can begin an organization, \"it is lasting when it is left in the care of many and when many desire to maintain it\".", "* A weak manager can follow a strong one, but not another weak one, and maintain authority.", "* A manager seeking to change an established organization \"should retain at least a shadow of the ancient customs\".With the changing workplaces of industrial revolutions in the 18th and 19th centuries, military theory and practice contributed approaches to managing the newly popular factories.Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the Industrial Revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves.", "But with the growing size and complexity of organizations, a distinction between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties, or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.===Early writing===The field of management originated in ancient China, including possibly the first highly centralized bureaucratic state, and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of an administration based on merit through testing.", "Some theorists have cited ancient military texts as providing lessons for civilian managers.", "For example, Chinese general Sun Tzu in his 6th-century BC work ''The Art of War'' recommends (when re-phrased in modern terminology) being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.", "The writings of influential Chinese Legalist philosopher Shen Buhai may be considered to embody a rare premodern example of abstract theory of administration.", "American philosopher Herrlee G. Creel and other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe by the 12th century.", "Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in Guangzhou, argued in his ''Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China'' (1847) that \"the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only,\" and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic.", "Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination, the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than \"preferment, patronage, or purchase\".", "This led to implementation of Her Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy.", "Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system.", "Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had \"perfected moral science\" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese.", "French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies.", "These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model.Various ancient and medieval civilizations produced \"mirrors for princes\" books, which aimed to advise new monarchs on how to govern.", "Plato described job specialization in 350 BC, and Alfarabi listed several leadership traits in AD 900.Other examples include the Indian ''Arthashastra'' by Chanakya (written around 300 BC), and ''The Prince'' by Italian authorNiccolò Machiavelli ().Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, ''The Wealth of Nations'' discussed efficient organization of work through division of labour.Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins.", "While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in the manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled the production of 48,000 pins per day.===19th century===Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) provided a theoretical background to resource allocation, production (economics), and pricing issues.", "About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765–1825), James Watt (1736–1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and work-planning.", "Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy.", "That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, \"managed\" in profitable quasi-mass productionbefore wage slavery eclipsed chattel slavery.Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in the late 19th century.", "As large corporations began to overshadow small family businesses the need for personnel management positions became more necessary.", "Businesses grew into large corporations and the need for clerks, bookkeepers, secretaries and managers expanded.", "The demand for trained managers led college and university administrators to consider and move forward with plans to create the first schools of business on their campuses.===20th century===At the turn of the twentieth century, the need for skilled and trained managers had become increasingly apparent.", "The demand occurred as personnel departments began to expand rapidly.", "In 1915, less than one in twenty manufacturing firms had a dedicated personnel department.", "By 1929 that number had grown to over one-third.", "Formal management education became standardized at colleges and universities.", "Colleges and universities capitalized on the needs of corporations by forming business schools and corporate placement departments.", "This shift toward formal business education marked the creation of a corporate elite in the US.By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief).", "Examples include Henry R. Towne's ''Science of management'' in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's ''The Principles of Scientific Management'' (1911), Lillian Gilbreth's ''Psychology of Management'' (1914), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's ''Applied motion study'' (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s).", "J. Duncan wrote the first college management textbook in 1911.In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became the first management consultant of the \"Japanese management style\".", "His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance.The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920.The Harvard Business School offered the first Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921.People like Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and Alexander Church (1866–1936) described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships.", "In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), Walter Scott (1869–1955) and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management.", "Other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880–1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), Chester Barnard (1886–1961), Max Weber (1864–1920), who saw what he called the \"administrator\" as bureaucrat, Rensis Likert (1903–1981), and Chris Argyris (born 1923) approached the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective.Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: ''Concept of the Corporation'' (published in 1946).", "It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organization.", "Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.H.", "Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management studies.", "In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett worked in the development of the applied-mathematics science of operations research, initially for military operations.", "Operations research, sometimes known as \"management science\" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving decision problems and can apply directly to multiple management problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations.Some of the later 20th-century developments include the theory of constraints (introduced in 1984), management by objectives (systematized in 1954), re-engineering (the early 1990s), Six Sigma (1986), management by walking around (1970s), the Viable system model (1972), and various information-technology-driven theories such as agile software development (so-named from 2001), as well as group-management theories such as Cog's Ladder (1972) and the notion of \"thriving on chaos\" (1987).As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares.", "In this context, many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management.Business management includes the following branches:# financial management# human resource management# Management cybernetics# information technology management (responsible for management information systems )# marketing management# operations management and production management# strategic management===21st century===Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government: such as public administration, public management, and educational management.", "Further, management programs related to civil society organizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit management and social entrepreneurship.Many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from business-ethics viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism.As one consequence, workplace democracy (sometimes referred to as Workers' self-management) has become both more common and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work.", "However, these models predate any current political issue and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy." ], [ "Nature of work", "In profitable organizations, management's primary function is the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders.", "This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing great employment opportunities for employees.", "In case of nonprofit management, one of the main functions is, keeping the faith of donors.", "In most models of management and governance, shareholders vote for the board of directors, and the board then hires senior management.", "Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers, but this is rare." ], [ "Topics", "===Basics===According to Fayol, management operates through five basic functions: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.", "* '''Planning''': Deciding what needs to happen in the future and generating action plans (deciding in advance).", "* '''Organizing''' (or staffing): Making sure the human and nonhuman resources are put into place.", "* '''Commanding''' (or leading): Determining what must be done in a situation and getting people to do it.", "* '''Coordinating''': Creating a structure through which an organization's goals can be accomplished.", "* '''Controlling''': Checking progress against plans.===Basic roles===* '''Interpersonal''': roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees.Figurehead, leader, liaison * '''Informational''': roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information.Nerve centre, disseminator, spokesperson * '''Decision''': roles that require decision-making.Entrepreneur, negotiator, allocator, disturbance handler=== Skills ===Management skills include:* Political: used to build a power base and to establish connections.", "* Interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, mentor and delegate.", "* Diagnostic: ability to visualize appropriate responses to a situation.", "* Leadership: ability to communicate a vision and inspire people to embrace that vision.", "** cross-cultural leadership: the ability to understand the effects of culture on leadership style.", "* Behavioral: perception towards others, conflict resolution, time management, self-improvement, stress management and resilience, patience, clear communication.===Implementation of policies and strategies===* All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff.", "* Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies.", "* An action plan must be devised for each department.", "* Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.", "* Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.", "* Top-level managers should carry out regular progress assessments.", "* The business requires team spirit and a good environment.", "* The missions, objectives, strengths, and weaknesses of each department must be analyzed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission.", "* The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment.", "* A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives." ], [ "Policies and strategies in the planning process", "* They give mid and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department in an organization.", "* A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made.", "* Mid and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategies." ], [ "See also", "* Certificate in Management Studies* Engineering management* Outline of management* Outline of business management" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mineralogy" ], [ "Introduction", "Mineralogy applies principles of chemistry, geology, physics and materials science to the study of minerals'''Mineralogy''' is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts.", "Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization." ], [ "History", "Page from ''Treatise on mineralogy'' by Friedrich Mohs (1825)The Moon Mineralogy Mapper, a spectrometer that mapped the lunar surfaceEarly writing on mineralogy, especially on gemstones, comes from ancient Babylonia, the ancient Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval China, and Sanskrit texts from ancient India and the ancient Islamic world.", "Books on the subject included the ''Natural History'' of Pliny the Elder, which not only described many different minerals but also explained many of their properties, and Kitab al Jawahir (Book of Precious Stones) by Persian scientist Al-Biruni.", "The German Renaissance specialist Georgius Agricola wrote works such as ''De re metallica'' (''On Metals'', 1556) and ''De Natura Fossilium'' (''On the Nature of Rocks'', 1546) which began the scientific approach to the subject.", "Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-Renaissance Europe.", "The modern study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of crystallography (the origins of geometric crystallography, itself, can be traced back to the mineralogy practiced in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries) and to the microscopic study of rock sections with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century.Nicholas Steno first observed the law of constancy of interfacial angles (also known as the first law of crystallography) in quartz crystals in 1669.This was later generalized and established experimentally by Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Islee in 1783.René Just Haüy, the \"father of modern crystallography\", showed that crystals are periodic and established that the orientations of crystal faces can be expressed in terms of rational numbers, as later encoded in the Miller indices.", "In 1814, Jöns Jacob Berzelius introduced a classification of minerals based on their chemistry rather than their crystal structure.", "William Nicol developed the Nicol prism, which polarizes light, in 1827–1828 while studying fossilized wood; Henry Clifton Sorby showed that thin sections of minerals could be identified by their optical properties using a polarizing microscope.", "James D. Dana published his first edition of ''A System of Mineralogy'' in 1837, and in a later edition introduced a chemical classification that is still the standard.", "X-ray diffraction was demonstrated by Max von Laue in 1912, and developed into a tool for analyzing the crystal structure of minerals by the father/son team of William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg.More recently, driven by advances in experimental technique (such as neutron diffraction) and available computational power, the latter of which has enabled extremely accurate atomic-scale simulations of the behaviour of crystals, the science has branched out to consider more general problems in the fields of inorganic chemistry and solid-state physics.", "It, however, retains a focus on the crystal structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals (such as the perovskites, clay minerals and framework silicates).", "In particular, the field has made great advances in the understanding of the relationship between the atomic-scale structure of minerals and their function; in nature, prominent examples would be accurate measurement and prediction of the elastic properties of minerals, which has led to new insight into seismological behaviour of rocks and depth-related discontinuities in seismograms of the Earth's mantle.", "To this end, in their focus on the connection between atomic-scale phenomena and macroscopic properties, the ''mineral sciences'' (as they are now commonly known) display perhaps more of an overlap with materials science than any other discipline." ], [ "Physical properties", "Calcite is a carbonate mineral (CaCO3) with a rhombohedral crystal structure.Aragonite is an orthorhombic polymorph of calcite.", "An initial step in identifying a mineral is to examine its physical properties, many of which can be measured on a hand sample.", "These can be classified into density (often given as specific gravity); measures of mechanical cohesion (hardness, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting); macroscopic visual properties (luster, color, streak, luminescence, diaphaneity); magnetic and electric properties; radioactivity and solubility in hydrogen chloride ().", "''Hardness'' is determined by comparison with other minerals.", "In the Mohs scale, a standard set of minerals are numbered in order of increasing hardness from 1 (talc) to 10 (diamond).", "A harder mineral will scratch a softer, so an unknown mineral can be placed in this scale, by which minerals; it scratches and which scratch it.", "A few minerals such as calcite and kyanite have a hardness that depends significantly on direction.", "Hardness can also be measured on an absolute scale using a sclerometer; compared to the absolute scale, the Mohs scale is nonlinear.", "''Tenacity'' refers to the way a mineral behaves, when it is broken, crushed, bent or torn.", "A mineral can be brittle, malleable, sectile, ductile, flexible or elastic.", "An important influence on tenacity is the type of chemical bond (''e.g.,'' ionic or metallic).", "Of the other measures of mechanical cohesion, ''cleavage'' is the tendency to break along certain crystallographic planes.", "It is described by the quality (''e.g.", "'', perfect or fair) and the orientation of the plane in crystallographic nomenclature.", "''Parting'' is the tendency to break along planes of weakness due to pressure, twinning or exsolution.", "Where these two kinds of break do not occur, ''fracture'' is a less orderly form that may be ''conchoidal'' (having smooth curves resembling the interior of a shell), ''fibrous'', ''splintery'', ''hackly'' (jagged with sharp edges), or ''uneven''.If the mineral is well crystallized, it will also have a distinctive crystal habit (for example, hexagonal, columnar, botryoidal) that reflects the crystal structure or internal arrangement of atoms.", "It is also affected by crystal defects and twinning.", "Many crystals are polymorphic, having more than one possible crystal structure depending on factors such as pressure and temperature." ], [ "Crystal structure", "perovskite crystal structure.", "The most abundant mineral in the Earth, bridgmanite, has this structure.", "Its chemical formula is (Mg,Fe)SiO3; the red spheres are oxygen, the blue spheres silicon and the green spheres magnesium or iron.The crystal structure is the arrangement of atoms in a crystal.", "It is represented by a lattice of points which repeats a basic pattern, called a unit cell, in three dimensions.", "The lattice can be characterized by its symmetries and by the dimensions of the unit cell.", "These dimensions are represented by three ''Miller indices''.", "The lattice remains unchanged by certain symmetry operations about any given point in the lattice: reflection, rotation, inversion, and rotary inversion, a combination of rotation and reflection.", "Together, they make up a mathematical object called a ''crystallographic point group'' or ''crystal class''.", "There are 32 possible crystal classes.", "In addition, there are operations that displace all the points: translation, screw axis, and glide plane.", "In combination with the point symmetries, they form 230 possible space groups.Most geology departments have X-ray powder diffraction equipment to analyze the crystal structures of minerals.", "X-rays have wavelengths that are the same order of magnitude as the distances between atoms.", "Diffraction, the constructive and destructive interference between waves scattered at different atoms, leads to distinctive patterns of high and low intensity that depend on the geometry of the crystal.", "In a sample that is ground to a powder, the X-rays sample a random distribution of all crystal orientations.", "Powder diffraction can distinguish between minerals that may appear the same in a hand sample, for example quartz and its polymorphs tridymite and cristobalite.Isomorphous minerals of different compositions have similar powder diffraction patterns, the main difference being in spacing and intensity of lines.", "For example, the (halite) crystal structure is space group ''Fm3m''; this structure is shared by sylvite (), periclase (), bunsenite (), galena (), alabandite (), chlorargyrite (), and osbornite ()." ], [ "Chemical elements", "Portable Micro-X-ray fluorescence machineA few minerals are chemical elements, including sulfur, copper, silver, and gold, but the vast majority are compounds.", "The classical method for identifying composition is ''wet chemical analysis'', which involves dissolving a mineral in an acid such as hydrochloric acid (HCl).", "The elements in solution are then identified using colorimetry, volumetric analysis or gravimetric analysis.Since 1960, most chemistry analysis is done using instruments.", "One of these, atomic absorption spectroscopy, is similar to wet chemistry in that the sample must still be dissolved, but it is much faster and cheaper.", "The solution is vaporized and its absorption spectrum is measured in the visible and ultraviolet range.", "Other techniques are X-ray fluorescence, electron microprobe analysis atom probe tomography and optical emission spectrography." ], [ "Optical", "Photomicrograph of olivine adcumulate from the Archaean komatiite of Agnew, Western Australia.In addition to macroscopic properties such as colour or lustre, minerals have properties that require a polarizing microscope to observe.===Transmitted light===When light passes from air or a vacuum into a transparent crystal, some of it is reflected at the surface and some refracted.", "The latter is a bending of the light path that occurs because the speed of light changes as it goes into the crystal; Snell's law relates the bending angle to the Refractive index, the ratio of speed in a vacuum to speed in the crystal.", "Crystals whose point symmetry group falls in the cubic system are ''isotropic'': the index does not depend on direction.", "All other crystals are ''anisotropic'': light passing through them is broken up into two plane polarized rays that travel at different speeds and refract at different angles.A polarizing microscope is similar to an ordinary microscope, but it has two plane-polarized filters, a (''polarizer'') below the sample and an analyzer above it, polarized perpendicular to each other.", "Light passes successively through the polarizer, the sample and the analyzer.", "If there is no sample, the analyzer blocks all the light from the polarizer.", "However, an anisotropic sample will generally change the polarization so some of the light can pass through.", "Thin sections and powders can be used as samples.When an isotropic crystal is viewed, it appears dark because it does not change the polarization of the light.", "However, when it is immersed in a calibrated liquid with a lower index of refraction and the microscope is thrown out of focus, a bright line called a ''Becke line'' appears around the perimeter of the crystal.", "By observing the presence or absence of such lines in liquids with different indices, the index of the crystal can be estimated, usually to within ." ], [ "Systematic", "Hanksite, Na22K(SO4)9(CO3)2Cl, one of the few minerals that is considered a carbonate and a sulfateSystematic mineralogy is the identification and classification of minerals by their properties.", "Historically, mineralogy was heavily concerned with taxonomy of the rock-forming minerals.", "In 1959, the International Mineralogical Association formed the Commission of New Minerals and Mineral Names to rationalize the nomenclature and regulate the introduction of new names.", "In July 2006, it was merged with the Commission on Classification of Minerals to form the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature, and Classification.", "There are over 6,000 named and unnamed minerals, and about 100 are discovered each year.", "The ''Manual of Mineralogy'' places minerals in the following classes: native elements, sulfides, sulfosalts, oxides and hydroxides, halides, carbonates, nitrates and borates, sulfates, chromates, molybdates and tungstates, phosphates, arsenates and vanadates, and silicates." ], [ "Formation environments", "The environments of mineral formation and growth are highly varied, ranging from slow crystallization at the high temperatures and pressures of igneous melts deep within the Earth's crust to the low temperature precipitation from a saline brine at the Earth's surface.Various possible methods of formation include:*sublimation from volcanic gases*deposition from aqueous solutions and hydrothermal brines*crystallization from an igneous magma or lava*recrystallization due to metamorphic processes and metasomatism*crystallization during diagenesis of sediments*formation by oxidation and weathering of rocks exposed to the atmosphere or within the soil environment." ], [ "Biomineralogy", "Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between mineralogy, paleontology and biology.", "It is the study of how plants and animals stabilize minerals under biological control, and the sequencing of mineral replacement of those minerals after deposition.", "It uses techniques from chemical mineralogy, especially isotopic studies, to determine such things as growth forms in living plants and animals as well as things like the original mineral content of fossils.A new approach to mineralogy called mineral evolution explores the co-evolution of the geosphere and biosphere, including the role of minerals in the origin of life and processes as mineral-catalyzed organic synthesis and the selective adsorption of organic molecules on mineral surfaces." ], [ "Mineral ecology", "In 2011, several researchers began to develop a Mineral Evolution Database.", "This database integrates the crowd-sourced site Mindat.org, which has over 690,000 mineral-locality pairs, with the official IMA list of approved minerals and age data from geological publications.This database makes it possible to apply statistics to answer new questions, an approach that has been called ''mineral ecology''.", "One such question is how much of mineral evolution is deterministic and how much the result of chance.", "Some factors are deterministic, such as the chemical nature of a mineral and conditions for its stability; but mineralogy can also be affected by the processes that determine a planet's composition.", "In a 2015 paper, Robert Hazen and others analyzed the number of minerals involving each element as a function of its abundance.", "They found that Earth, with over 4800 known minerals and 72 elements, has a power law relationship.", "The Moon, with only 63 minerals and 24 elements (based on a much smaller sample) has essentially the same relationship.", "This implies that, given the chemical composition of the planet, one could predict the more common minerals.", "However, the distribution has a long tail, with 34% of the minerals having been found at only one or two locations.", "The model predicts that thousands more mineral species may await discovery or have formed and then been lost to erosion, burial or other processes.", "This implies a role of chance in the formation of rare minerals occur.In another use of big data sets, network theory was applied to a dataset of carbon minerals, revealing new patterns in their diversity and distribution.", "The analysis can show which minerals tend to coexist and what conditions (geological, physical, chemical and biological) are associated with them.", "This information can be used to predict where to look for new deposits and even new mineral species.A color chart of some raw forms of commercially valuable metals." ], [ "Uses", "Minerals are essential to various needs within human society, such as minerals used as ores for essential components of metal products used in various commodities and machinery, essential components to building materials such as limestone, marble, granite, gravel, glass, plaster, cement, etc.", "Minerals are also used in fertilizers to enrich the growth of agricultural crops.A small collection of mineral samples, with cases.", "Labels in Russian.===Collecting===Mineral collecting is also a recreational study and collection hobby, with clubs and societies representing the field.", "Museums, such as the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History Hall of Geology, Gems, and Minerals, the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, the Natural History Museum, London, and the private Mim Mineral Museum in Beirut, Lebanon, have popular collections of mineral specimens on permanent display." ], [ "See also", "* List of minerals* List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association* List of mineralogists* List of publications in mineralogy* Mineral collecting* Mineral physics* Metallurgy* Petrology" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "**********" ], [ "External links", "* The Virtual Museum of the History of Mineralogy===Associations===* American Federation of Mineral Societies* French Society of Mineralogy and Crystallography* Geological Society of America* German Mineralogical Society* International Mineralogical Association* Italian Mineralogical and Petrological Society* Mineralogical Association of Canada* Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland* Mineralogical Society of America" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maple syrup" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Maple syrup''' is a syrup made from the sap of maple trees.", "In cold climates, these trees store starch in their trunks and roots before winter; the starch is then converted to sugar that rises in the sap in late winter and early spring.", "Maple trees are tapped by drilling holes into their trunks and collecting the sap, which is processed by heating to evaporate much of the water, leaving the concentrated syrup.Maple syrup was first made by the Indigenous peoples of Northeastern North America.", "The practice was adopted by European settlers, who gradually changed production methods.", "Technological improvements in the 1970s further refined syrup processing.", "Virtually all of the world's maple syrup is produced in Canada and the United States.", "The Canadian province of Quebec is the largest producer, responsible for 70 per cent of the world's output; Canadian exports of maple syrup in 2016 were C$487 million (about US$360 million), with Quebec accounting for some 90 per cent of this total.Maple syrup is graded based on its colour and taste.", "Sucrose is the most prevalent sugar in maple syrup.", "In Canada, syrups must be made exclusively from maple sap to qualify as maple syrup and must also be at least 66 per cent sugar.", "In the United States, a syrup must be made almost entirely from maple sap to be labelled as \"maple\", though states such as Vermont and New York have more restrictive definitions.Maple syrup is often used as a condiment for pancakes, waffles, French toast, oatmeal, or porridge.", "It is also used as an ingredient in baking and as a sweetener or flavouring agent.", "Culinary experts have praised its unique flavour, although the chemistry responsible is not fully understood." ], [ "Sources", "A sugar maple treeThree species of maple (''Acer'') trees are predominantly used to produce maple syrup: the sugar maple (''Acer saccharum''), the black maple (''A.", "nigrum''), and the red maple (''A.", "rubrum''), because of the high sugar content (roughly two to five per cent) in the sap of these species.", "The black maple is included as a subspecies or variety in a more broadly viewed concept of ''A.", "saccharum'', the sugar maple, by some botanists.", "Of these, the red maple has a shorter season because it buds earlier than sugar and black maples, which alters the flavour of the sap.A few other species of maple are also sometimes used as sources of sap for producing maple syrup, including the box elder or Manitoba maple (''Acer negundo''), the silver maple (''A.", "saccharinum''), and the bigleaf maple (''A.", "macrophyllum'').", "In the Southeastern United States, Florida sugar maple (''Acer floridanum'') is occasionally used for maple syrup production.Similar syrups may also be produced from walnut, birch, or palm trees, among other sources." ], [ "History", "=== Indigenous peoples ===''Sugar-Making Among the Indians in the North'' (19th-century illustration)Indigenous peoples living in northeastern North America were the first groups known to have produced maple syrup and maple sugar.", "According to Indigenous oral traditions, as well as archeological evidence, maple tree sap was being processed into syrup long before Europeans arrived in the region.", "There are no authenticated accounts of how maple syrup production and consumption began, but various legends exist; one of the most popular involves maple sap being used in place of water to cook venison served to a chief.", "Indigenous tribes developed rituals around syrup-making, celebrating the Sugar Moon (the first full moon of spring) with a Maple Dance.", "Many aboriginal dishes replaced the salt traditional in European cuisine with maple syrup.The Algonquians recognized maple sap as a source of energy and nutrition.", "At the beginning of the spring thaw, they made V-shaped incisions in tree trunks; they then inserted reeds or concave pieces of bark to run the sap into clay buckets or tightly woven birch-bark baskets.", "The maple sap was concentrated first by leaving it exposed to the cold temperatures overnight and disposing of the layer of ice that formed on top.", "Following that, the sap was transported by sled to large fires where it was boiled in clay pots to produce maple syrup.", "Often, multiple pots were used in conjunction, with the liquid being transferred between them as it grew more concentrated.", "Contrary to popular belief, syrup was not typically produced by dropping heated stones into wooden bowls, especially in northeast North America where Indigenous cultures had been using clay pots for thousands of years.", "However, modern and historic sources contain evidence that hot stones may have occasionally been used in the upper Midwest and Canada, where hollowed out logs and birchbark containers typically replaced clay pots.=== European colonists===''Sugar Making in Montreal'', October 1852In the early stages of European colonization in northeastern North America, local Indigenous peoples showed the arriving colonists how to tap the trunks of certain types of maples during the spring thaw to harvest the sap.", "André Thevet, the \"Royal Cosmographer of France\", wrote about Jacques Cartier drinking maple sap during his Canadian voyages.", "By 1680, European settlers and fur traders were involved in harvesting maple products.", "However, rather than making incisions in the bark, the Europeans used the method of drilling tapholes in the trunks with augers.", "Prior to the 19th century, processed maple sap was used primarily as a source of concentrated sugar, in both liquid and crystallized-solid form, as cane sugar had to be imported from the West Indies.Maple sugaring parties typically began to operate at the start of the spring thaw in regions of woodland with sufficiently large numbers of maples.", "Syrup makers first bored holes in the trunks, usually more than one hole per large tree; they then inserted wooden spouts into the holes and hung a wooden bucket from the protruding end of each spout to collect the sap.", "The buckets were commonly made by cutting cylindrical segments from a large tree trunk and then hollowing out each segment's core from one end of the cylinder, creating a seamless, watertight container.", "Sap filled the buckets, and was then either transferred to larger holding vessels (barrels, large pots, or hollowed-out wooden logs), often mounted on sledges or wagons pulled by draft animals, or carried in buckets or other convenient containers.", "The sap-collection buckets were returned to the spouts mounted on the trees, and the process was repeated for as long as the flow of sap remained \"sweet\".", "The specific weather conditions of the thaw period were, and still are, critical in determining the length of the sugaring season.", "As the weather continues to warm, a maple tree's normal early spring biological process eventually alters the taste of the sap, making it unpalatable, perhaps due to an increase in amino acids.The boiling process was very time-consuming.", "The harvested sap was transported back to the party's base camp, where it was then poured into large vessels (usually made from metal) and boiled down to achieve the desired concentration.", "The sap was usually transported using large barrels pulled by horses or oxen to a central collection point, where it was processed either over a fire built out in the open or inside a shelter built for that purpose (the \"sugar shack\").===Since 1850===A bucket used to collect sap, built circa 1820Around the time of the American Civil War (1861–1865), syrup makers started using large, flat sheet metal pans as they were more efficient for boiling than heavy, rounded iron kettles, because of a greater surface area for evaporation.", "Around this time, cane sugar replaced maple sugar as the dominant sweetener in the US; as a result, producers focused marketing efforts on maple syrup.", "The first evaporator, used to heat and concentrate sap, was patented in 1858.In 1872, an evaporator was developed that featured two pans and a metal arch or firebox, which greatly decreased boiling time.", "Around 1900, producers bent the tin that formed the bottom of a pan into a series of flues, which increased the heated surface area of the pan and again decreased boiling time.", "Some producers also added a finishing pan, a separate batch evaporator, as a final stage in the evaporation process.Buckets began to be replaced with plastic bags, which allowed people to see at a distance how much sap had been collected.", "Syrup producers also began using tractors to haul vats of sap from the trees being tapped (the sugarbush) to the evaporator.", "Some producers adopted motor-powered tappers and metal tubing systems to convey sap from the tree to a central collection container, but these techniques were not widely used.", "Heating methods also diversified: modern producers use wood, oil, natural gas, propane, or steam to evaporate sap.", "Modern filtration methods were perfected to prevent contamination of the syrup.Two taps in a maple tree, using plastic tubing for sap collectionA large number of technological changes took place during the 1970s.", "Plastic tubing systems that had been experimental since the early part of the century were perfected, and the sap came directly from the tree to the evaporator house.", "Vacuum pumps were added to the tubing systems, and preheaters were developed to recycle heat lost in the steam.", "Producers developed reverse-osmosis machines to take a portion of water out of the sap before it was boiled, increasing processing efficiency.Improvements in tubing and vacuum pumps, new filtering techniques, \"supercharged\" preheaters, and better storage containers have since been developed.", "Research continues on pest control and improved woodlot management.", "In 2009, researchers at the University of Vermont unveiled a new type of tap that prevents backflow of sap into the tree, reducing bacterial contamination and preventing the tree from attempting to heal the bore hole.", "Experiments show that it may be possible to use saplings in a plantation instead of mature trees, dramatically boosting productivity per acre.", "As a result of the smaller tree diameter, milder diurnal temperature swings are needed for the tree to freeze and thaw, which enables sap production in milder climatic conditions outside of northeastern North America." ], [ "Processing", "Traditional bucket tap and a plastic-bag tapOpen pan evaporation methods have been streamlined since colonial days, but remain basically unchanged.", "Sap must first be collected and boiled down to obtain syrup.", "Maple syrup is made by boiling between 20 and 50 volumes of sap (depending on its concentration) over an open fire until 1 volume of syrup is obtained, usually at a temperature over the boiling point of water.", "As the boiling point of water varies with changes in air pressure the correct value for pure water is determined at the place where the syrup is being produced, each time evaporation is begun and periodically throughout the day.", "Syrup can be boiled entirely over one heat source or can be drawn off into smaller batches and boiled at a more controlled temperature.", "Defoamers are often added during boiling.Boiling the syrup is a tightly controlled process, which ensures appropriate sugar content.", "Syrup boiled too long will eventually crystallize, whereas under-boiled syrup will be watery, and will quickly spoil.", "The finished syrup has a density of 66° on the Brix scale (a hydrometric scale used to measure sugar solutions).", "The syrup is then filtered to remove precipitated \"sugar sand\", crystals made up largely of sugar and calcium malate.", "These crystals are not toxic, but create a \"gritty\" texture in the syrup if not filtered out.In addition to open pan evaporation methods, many large producers use the more fuel efficient reverse osmosis procedure to separate the water from the sap.", "Smaller producers can also use batchwise recirculating reverse osmosis, with the most energy-efficient operation taking the sugar concentration to 25% prior to boiling.The higher the sugar content of the sap, the smaller the volume of sap is needed to obtain the same amount of syrup.", "To yield 1 unit of syrup, sap at 1.5 per cent sugar content will require 57 units, while sap at 3.5 per cent sugar content only needs 25 units of sap.", "The sap's sugar content is highly variable and will fluctuate even within the same tree.The filtered syrup is graded and packaged while still hot, usually at a temperature of or greater.", "The containers are turned over after being sealed to sterilize the cap with the hot syrup.", "Packages can be made of metal, glass, or coated plastic, depending on volume and target market.", "The syrup can also be heated longer and further processed to create a variety of other maple products, including maple sugar, maple butter or cream, and maple candy or taffy.Maple sap harvesting=== Off-flavours ===Off-flavours can sometimes develop during the production of maple syrup, resulting from contaminants in the boiling apparatus (such as disinfectants), microorganisms, fermentation products, metallic can flavours, and \"buddy sap\", an off-flavour occurring late in the syrup season when tree budding has begun.", "In some circumstances, it is possible to remove off-flavours through processing." ], [ "Production", "Pouring the sapA \"sugar shack\" where sap is boiling.Regions of maple syrup production in Southeastern Canada and the Northeastern United States, according to the Maple Syrup Producers' Association of OntarioMaple syrup production is centred in northeastern North America; however, given the correct weather conditions, it can be made wherever suitable species of maple trees grow, such as New Zealand, where there are efforts to establish commercial production.A maple syrup production farm is called a \"sugarbush\".", "Sap is often boiled in a \"sugar house\" (also known as a \"sugar shack\", \"sugar cabin\", \"sugar shanty\", or ''cabane à sucre''), a building louvred at the top to vent the steam from the boiling sap.Maples are usually tapped beginning at 30 to 40 years of age.", "Each tree can support between one and three taps, depending on its trunk diameter.", "The average maple tree will produce of sap per season, up to per day.", "This is roughly equal to seven per cent of its total sap.", "Tap seasons typically happen during late winter and spring and usually last for four to eight weeks, though the exact dates depends on the weather, location, and climate.", "The timing of the season and the region of maximum sap flow are both expected to be significantly altered by climate change by 2100.During the day, sucrose stored in the roots for the winter rises through the trunk as sugary sap.", "A hole is bored into the trunk of the tree to allow the sap to flow out of a spile that is tapped in the hole.", "The taps are left in place for the season, and the sap flows during the day when the temperature is above freezing.", "Some producers also tap in autumn, though this practice is less common than spring tapping.", "Maples can continue to be tapped for sap until they are over 100 years old." ], [ "Commerce", "Until the 1930s, the United States produced most of the world's maple syrup.", "Today, after rapid growth in the 1990s, Canada produces more than 80 per cent of the world's maple syrup, producing about in 2016.The vast majority of this comes from the province of Quebec, which is the world's largest producer, with about 70 per cent of global production.", "Canada exported more than C$362 million of maple syrup in 2016.In 2015, 64 per cent of Canadian maple syrup exports went to the United States (a value of C$229 million), 8 per cent to Germany (C$31 million), 6 per cent to Japan (C$26 million), and 5 per cent to the United Kingdom (C$16 million)., Quebec accounts for 91.6 per cent of maple syrup produced in Canada, followed by New Brunswick at 4.7 per cent, and Ontario at 3.4 per cent.", "However, 96.8 per cent of exported Canadian maple syrup originated from Quebec, whereas 2.6 per cent of exported syrup originated from New Brunswick, and the remaining 0.6 per cent from all other provinces.", "Ontario holds the most maple syrup farms in Canada outside of Quebec, with 389 maple syrup producers in 2021.This is followed by New Brunswick, with 114 maple syrup producers; and Nova Scotia, with 39 maple syrup producers.As of 2016, Quebec had some 7,300 producers working with 13,500 farmers, collectively making over of syrup.", "Production in Quebec is controlled through a supply management system, with producers receiving quota allotments from the government sanctioned Quebec Maple Syrup Producers (QMSP; ), which also maintains reserves of syrup, although there is a black-market trade in Quebec product.", "In 2017, the QMSP mandated increased output of maple syrup production, attempting to establish Quebec's dominance in the world market.The Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan produce maple syrup using the sap of the box elder or Manitoba maple (''Acer negundo'').", "In 2011, there were 67 maple syrup producers in Manitoba, and 24 in Saskatchewan.", "A Manitoba maple tree's yield is usually less than half that of a similar sugar maple tree.", "Manitoba maple syrup has a slightly different flavour from sugar-maple syrup, because it contains less sugar and the tree's sap flows more slowly.", "British Columbia is home to a growing maple sugar industry using sap from the bigleaf maple, which is native to the West Coast of the United States and Canada.", "In 2011, there were 82 maple syrup producers in British Columbia.Vermont has long been the largest US producer, with a record produced in 2022.In 2019 it led with over , followed by New York with and Maine with .", "Wisconsin, Ohio, New Hampshire, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and Connecticut all produced marketable quantities of maple syrup.Maple syrup has been produced on a small scale in some other countries, notably Japan and South Korea.", "However, in South Korea in particular, it is traditional to consume maple sap, called ''gorosoe'', instead of processing it into syrup." ], [ "Markings", "Under Canadian maple product regulations, containers of maple syrup must include the words \"maple syrup\", its grade name and net quantity in litres or millilitres, on the main display panel with a minimum font size of 1.6 mm.", "If the maple syrup is of Canada Grade A level, the name of the colour class must appear on the label in both English and French.", "Also, the lot number or production code, and either: (1) the name and address of the sugar bush establishment, packing or shipper establishment, or (2) the first dealer and the registration number of the packing establishment, must be labelled on any display panel other than the bottom." ], [ "Grades", "Following an effort from the International Maple Syrup Institute (IMSI) and many maple syrup producer associations, both Canada and the United States have altered their laws regarding the classification of maple syrup to be uniform.", "Whereas in the past each state or province had their own laws on the classification of maple syrup, now those laws define a unified grading system.", "This had been a work in progress for several years, and most of the finalization of the new grading system was made in 2014.The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) announced in the ''Canada Gazette'' on 28 June 2014 that rules for the sale of maple syrup would be amended to include new descriptors, at the request of the IMSI.As of 31 December 2014, the CFIA and as of 2 March 2015, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Marketing Service issued revised standards intended to harmonize Canadian and United States regulations on the classification of maple syrup as follows:*Grade A**Golden colour and delicate taste**Amber colour and rich taste**Dark colour and robust taste**Very dark colour and Strong taste*Processing grade*SubstandardAs long as maple syrup does not have an off-flavour, is of a uniform colour, and is free from turbidity and sediment, it can be labelled as one of the A grades.", "If it exhibits any problems, it does not meet Grade A requirements, and then must be labelled as \"processing grade\" maple syrup and may not be sold in containers smaller than .", "If maple syrup does not meet the requirements of processing-grade maple syrup (including a fairly characteristic maple taste), it is classified as substandard.This grading system was accepted and made law by most maple-producing states and provinces, and became compulsory in Canada as of 13 December 2016.Vermont, in an effort to \"jump-start\" the new grading regulations, adopted the new grading system as of 1 January 2014, after the grade changes passed the US Senate and House in 2013.Maine passed a bill to take effect as soon as both Canada and the United States adopted the new grades.", "In New York, the new grade changes became law on 1 January 2015.New Hampshire did not require legislative approval and so the new grade laws became effective as of 16 December 2014, and producer compliance was required as of 1 January 2016.Golden and amber grades typically have a milder flavour than dark and very dark, which are both dark and have an intense maple flavour.", "The darker grades of syrup are used primarily for cooking and baking, although some specialty dark syrups are produced for table use.", "Syrup harvested earlier in the season tends to yield a lighter colour.", "With the new grading system, the classification of maple syrup depends ultimately on its internal transmittance at 560 nm wavelength through a 10 mm sample.", "Golden must have 75 per cent or more transmittance, amber must have 50.0 to 74.9 per cent transmittance, dark must have 25.0 to 49.9 per cent transmittance, and very dark is any product having less than 25.0 per cent transmittance.=== Old grading system ===Old US maple syrup grades, left to right: ''Grade A Light Amber (\"Fancy\")'', ''Grade A Medium Amber'', ''Grade A Dark Amber'', ''Grade B''In Canada, maple syrup was classified prior to 31 December 2014 by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) as one of three grades, each with several colour classes:*Canada No.", "1, including **Extra light**Light**Medium*No.", "2 amber*No.", "3 dark or any other ungraded categoryProducers in Ontario or Quebec may have followed either federal or provincial grading guidelines.", "Quebec's and Ontario's guidelines differed slightly from the federal:*there were two \"number\" categories in Quebec**Number 1, with four colour classes**Number 2, with five colour classes *As in Quebec, Ontario's producers had two \"number\" grades: **Number 1, with three colour classes**Number 2, with one colour class, which was typically referred to as \"Ontario Amber\" when produced and sold in that province onlyA typical year's yield for a maple syrup producer will be about 25 to 30 per cent of each of the #1 colours, 10 per cent #2 amber, and 2 per cent #3 dark.The United States used different grading standards ⁠— ⁠some states still do as they await state regulation.", "Maple syrup was divided into two major grades: *Grade A:**Light amber (sometimes known as fancy)**Medium amber**Dark amber*Grade B.In Massachusetts, the Grade B was renamed \"Grade A Very Dark, Strong Taste\"The Vermont Agency of Agriculture Food and Markets used a similar grading system of colour, and is roughly equivalent, especially for lighter syrups, but using letters: \"AA\", \"A\", etc.", "The Vermont grading system differed from the US system in maintaining a slightly higher standard of product density (measured on the Baumé scale).", "New Hampshire maintained a similar standard, but not a separate state grading scale.", "The Vermont-graded product had 0.9 per cent more sugar and less water in its composition than US-graded.", "One grade of syrup not for table use, called commercial or Grade C, was also produced under the Vermont system." ], [ "Packing regulations", "In Canada, the packing of maple syrup must follow the \"Packing\" conditions stated in the maple products regulations, or utilize the equivalent Canadian or imported grading system.As stated in the maple products regulations, Canadian maple syrup can be classified as \"Canadian Grade A\" and \"Canadian Processing Grade\".", "Any maple syrup container under these classifications should be filled to at least 90% of the bottle size while still containing the net quantity of syrup product as stated on the label.", "Every container of maple syrup must be new if it has a capacity of 5 litres or less or is marked with a grade name.", "Every container of maple sugar must also be new if it has a capacity of less than 5 kg or is either exported out of Canada or conveyed from one province to another.Each maple syrup product must be verified clean if it follows a grade name or if it is exported out of the province in which it was originally manufactured." ], [ "Nutrition", "The basic ingredient in maple syrup is the sap from the xylem of sugar maple or various other species of maple trees.", "It consists primarily of sucrose and water, with small amounts of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose from the invert sugar created in the boiling process.In a 100g amount, maple syrup provides 260 calories and is composed of 32 per cent water by weight, 67 per cent carbohydrates (90 per cent of which are sugars), and no appreciable protein or fat (table).", "Maple syrup is generally low in overall micronutrient content, although manganese and riboflavin are at high levels along with moderate amounts of zinc and calcium (right table).", "It also contains trace amounts of amino acids which increase in content as sap flow occurs.Maple syrup contains a wide variety of polyphenols and volatile organic compounds, including vanillin, hydroxybutanone, lignans, propionaldehyde, and numerous organic acids.", "It is not yet known exactly all compounds responsible for the distinctive flavour of maple syrup, although primary flavour-contributing compounds are maple furanone (5-ethyl-3-hydroxy-4-methyl-2(5H)-furanone), strawberry furanone, and maltol.", "New compounds have been identified in maple syrup, one of which is quebecol, a natural phenolic compound created when the maple sap is boiled to create syrup.", "Its sweetness derives from a high content of sucrose (99% of total sugars).", "Its brown colour – a significant factor in the appeal and quality grading of maple syrup – develops during thermal evaporation.One author described maple syrup as \"a unique ingredient, smooth- and silky-textured, with a sweet, distinctive flavour – hints of caramel with overtones of toffee will not do – and a rare colour, amber set alight.", "Maple flavour is, well, maple flavour, uniquely different from any other.\"", "Agriculture Canada has developed a \"flavour wheel\" that details 91 unique flavours that can be present in maple syrup.", "These flavours are divided into 13 families: vanilla, burnt, milky, fruity, floral, spicy, foreign (deterioration or fermentation), foreign (environment), maple, confectionery, plant (herbaceous), plant (forest, humus or cereals), and plant (ligneous).", "These flavours are evaluated using a procedure similar to wine tasting.", "Other culinary experts praise its unique flavour.Maple syrup and its various artificial imitations are widely used as toppings for pancakes, waffles, and French toast in North America.", "They can also be used to flavour a variety of foods, including fritters, ice cream, hot cereal, fresh fruit, bacon, and sausages.", "It is also used as sweetener for granola, applesauce, baked beans, candied sweet potatoes, winter squash, cakes, pies, breads, tea, coffee, and hot toddies." ], [ "Imitations", "In Canada, maple syrup must be made entirely from maple sap, and syrup must have a density of 66° on the Brix scale to be marketed as maple syrup.", "In the United States, maple syrup must be made almost entirely from maple sap, although small amounts of substances such as salt may be added.", "Labelling laws prohibit imitation syrups from having \"maple\" in their names unless the finished product contains 10 per cent or more of natural maple syrup.Table syrup, also known as pancake syrup and waffle syrup, is often used as a substitute for maple syrup.", "Table syrups are mostly made using corn syrup and high-fructose corn syrup, giving them a less complex and more artificial flavour compared to maple syrup.", "In the United States, consumers generally prefer imitation syrups, likely because of the significantly lower cost and sweeter flavour; they typically cost about , whereas authentic maple syrup costs as of 2015.In 2016, maple syrup producers from nine US states petitioned the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to regulate labelling of products containing maple syrup or using the word \"maple\" in manufactured products, indicating that imitation maple products contained insignificant amounts of natural maple syrup.", "In September 2016, the FDA published a consumer advisory to carefully inspect the ingredient list of products labelled as \"maple\"." ], [ "Cultural significance", "The motif on the flag of Canada is a maple leaf.Maple products are considered emblematic of Canada, and are frequently sold in tourist shops and airports as souvenirs from Canada.", "The sugar maple's leaf has come to symbolize Canada, and is depicted on the country's flag.", "Several US states, including West Virginia, New York, Vermont, and Wisconsin, have the sugar maple as their state tree.", "A scene of sap collection is depicted on the Vermont state quarter, issued in 2001.Maple syrup and maple sugar were used during the American Civil War and by abolitionists in the years before the war because most cane sugar and molasses were produced by Southern slaves.", "Because of food rationing during the Second World War, people in the northeastern United States were encouraged to stretch their sugar rations by sweetening foods with maple syrup and maple sugar, and recipe books were printed to help housewives employ this alternative source." ], [ "See also", "* Canadian cuisine* List of foods made from maple* List of syrups* Mapleine* * Great Canadian Maple Syrup Heist* Treacle" ], [ "References", "===Notes====== Cited works ===* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Maple Syrup Quality Control Manual, University of Maine* UVM Center for Digital Initiatives: The Maple Research Collection by the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station* US Food and Drug Administration description of table syrup" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Matthew" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Matthew''' may refer to:* Matthew (given name)* Matthew (surname)* ''Matthew'' (album), a 2000 album by rapper Kool Keith* Matthew (elm cultivar), a cultivar of the Chinese Elm ''Ulmus parvifolia''" ], [ "Christianity", "* Matthew the Apostle, one of the apostles of Jesus* Gospel of Matthew, a book of the Bible" ], [ "Ships", "* ''Matthew'' (1497 ship), the ship sailed by John Cabot in 1497, with two 1990s replicas* MV ''Matthew I'', a suspected drug-runner scuttled in 2013* Interdiction of MV ''Matthew'', a 2023 operation of the Irish military against a 2001 Panamanian cargo ship" ], [ "See also", "* Matt (given name), the diminutive form of Matthew* Mathew, alternative spelling of Matthew* Matthews (disambiguation)* Matthew effect* Tropical Storm Matthew (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Male (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Male''', in biology, is the half of a sex system that produces sperm cells.", "'''Male''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Gender", "* Male, the gender of men and boys** Man, a male adult** Boy, a young male person, usually a child or adolescent** Masculinity, attributes associated with men and boys" ], [ "Art and entertainment", "* ''Male'' (film), a 2015 Indian film* ''Male'' (Foetus album), a 1992 live album by Foetus* ''Male'' (Natalie Imbruglia album), a 2015 studio album by Natalie Imbruglia* Male (band), a German band* ''Il Male'', an Italian satirical magazine published in Italy between 1978 and 1982" ], [ "Places", "* Malé, the capital of the Maldives** Malé Island, the island the city is on** Malé Atoll, the atoll the island is in* Malé, Italy, a municipality in the province of Trento, Italy* Małe, Łódź Voivodeship, a village in central Poland* Małe, Pomeranian Voivodeship, a village in northern Poland* Mâle, Orne, a village in France* Male, Belgium, a quarter in Bruges* Male, Vikramgad, a village in Maharashtra, India* Male (woreda), a woreda in Ethiopia* Males, Crete, a village in Greece* Maleš (mountain), a mountain in Bulgaria and North Macedonia* Male, Mauritania, a town in Mauritania" ], [ "People named ''Male''", "* Male (surname) (including a list of people with the name)* Male Rao Holkar (1745–1767), Maharaja of Indore* The Malês, as in the Malê revolt* Male Sa'u (born 1987), Japanese professional rugby union footballer" ], [ "Other uses", "* Masculine gender, in languages with grammatical gender* Male connector, in hardware and electronics* Male language, several languages* Maale people, an ethnic group of Ethiopia* Medium-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicle, an unmanned aerial vehicle* ''malE'', a bacterial gene encoding maltose-binding protein" ], [ "See also", "* Female (disambiguation)* Male and Female (disambiguation)* Masculine (disambiguation)* Feminine (disambiguation)* Mail (disambiguation)* Mele (disambiguation)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Macron (diacritic)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''macron''' ( ) is a diacritical mark: it is a straight bar placed above a letter, usually a vowel.", "Its name derives from Ancient Greek (''makrón'') 'long' because it was originally used to mark long or heavy syllables in Greco-Roman metrics.", "It now more often marks a long vowel.", "In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the macron is used to indicate a mid-tone; the sign for a long vowel is instead a modified triangular colon .The opposite is the breve , which marks a short or light syllable or a short vowel." ], [ "Uses", "===Syllable weight===In Greco-Roman metrics and in the description of the metrics of other literatures, the macron was introduced and is still widely used in dictionaries and educational materials to mark a long (heavy) syllable.", "Even relatively recent classical Greek and Latin dictionaries are still concerned with indicating only the length (weight) of syllables; that is why most still do not indicate the length of vowels in syllables that are otherwise metrically determined.", "Many textbooks about Ancient Rome and Greece use the macron, even if it was not actually used at that time (an apex was used if vowel length was marked in Latin).===Vowel length===The following languages or transliteration systems use the macron to mark long vowels:* Slavicists use the macron to indicate a non-tonic long vowel, or a non-tonic syllabic liquid, such as on ''l'', ''lj'', ''m'', ''n'', ''nj'', and ''r''.", "Languages with this feature include standard and dialect varieties of Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, and Bulgarian.", "* Transcriptions of Arabic typically use macrons to indicate long vowels – (alif when pronounced ), (waw, when pronounced or ), and (ya', when pronounced or ).", "Thus the Arabic word (three) is transliterated ''thalāthah''.", "*Transcriptions of Sanskrit typically use a macron over ā, ī, ū, ṝ, and ḹ in order to mark a long vowel (e and o are always long and consequently do not need any macron).", "* In Latin, many of the more recent dictionaries and learning materials use the macron as the modern equivalent of the ancient Roman apex to mark long vowels.", "Any of the six vowel letters ''(ā, ē, ī, ō, ū, ȳ)'' can bear it.", "It is sometimes used in conjunction with the breve, especially to distinguish the short vowels and from their semi-vowel counterparts and , originally, and often to this day, spelt with the same letters.", "However, the older of these editions are not always explicit on whether they mark long vowels or heavy syllables – a confusion that is even found in some modern learning materials.", "In addition, most of the newest academic publications use both the macron and the breve sparingly, mainly when vowel length is relevant to the discussion.", "*In romanization of classical Greek, the letters η (''eta'') and ω (''omega'') are transliterated, respectively, as ''ē'' and ''ō'', representing the long vowels of classical Greek, whereas the short vowels ε (''epsilon'') and ο (''omicron'') are always transliterated as plain ''e'' and ''o.''", "The other long vowel phonemes do not have dedicated letters in the Greek alphabet, being indicated by digraphs (transliterated likewise as digraphs) or by the letters α, ι , υ – represented as ''ā, ī, ū''.", "The same three letters are transliterated as plain ''a, i, u'' when representing short vowels.", "* The Hepburn romanization system of Japanese, for example, ''kōtsū'' (, ) \"traffic\" as opposed to ''kotsu'' (, ) \"bone\".", "* The Syriac language uses macrons to indicate long vowels in its romanized transliteration: ''ā'' for , ''ē'' for , ''ū'' for and ''ō'' for .", "* Baltic languages and Baltic-Finnic languages:** Latvian.", "''ā'', ''ē'', ''ī'', ''ū'' are separate letters but are given the same position in collation as ''a'', ''e'', ''i'', ''u'' respectively.", "''Ō'' was also used in Latvian, but it was discarded as of 1946.Some usage remains in Latgalian.", "** Lithuanian.", "''ū'' is a separate letter but is given the same position in collation as the unaccented ''u''.", "It marks a long vowel; other long vowels are indicated with an ogonek (which used to indicate nasalization, but it no longer does): ''ą'', ''ę'', ''į'', ''ų'' and ''o'' being always long in Lithuanian except for some recent loanwords.", "For the long counterpart of ''i'', ''y'' is used.", "** Livonian.", "''ā'', ''ǟ'', ''ē'', ''ī'', ''ō'', ''ȱ'', ''ȭ'' and ''ū'' are separate letters that sort in alphabetical order immediately after ''a'', ''ä'', ''e'', ''i'', ''o'', ''ȯ'', ''õ'', and ''u'', respectively.", "** Samogitian.", "''ā'', ''ē'', ''ė̄'', ''ī'', ''ū'' and ''ō'' are separate letters that sort in alphabetical order immediately after ''a'', ''e'', ''ė'', ''i'', ''u'' and ''o'' respectively.", "* Transcriptions of Nahuatl, the Aztecs' language, spoken in Mexico.", "When the Spanish conquistadors arrived, they wrote the language in their own alphabet without distinguishing long vowels.", "Over a century later, in 1645, Horacio Carochi defined macrons to mark long vowels ''ā'', ''ē'', ''ī'' and ''ō'', and short vowels with grave (`) accents.", "This is rare nowadays since many people write Nahuatl without any orthographic sign and with the letters ''k'', ''s'' and ''w'', not present in the original alphabet.", "* Modern transcriptions of Old English, for long vowels.", "* Latin transliteration of Pali and Sanskrit, and in the IAST and ISO 15919 transcriptions of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages.", "* Polynesian languages:**Cook Islands Māori.", "In Cook Islands Māori, the macron or ''mākarōna'' is not commonly used in writing, but is used in references and teaching materials for those learning the language.", "** Hawaiian.", "The macron is called ''kahakō'', and it indicates vowel length, which changes meaning and the placement of stress.**Māori.", "In modern written Māori, the macron is used to designate long vowels, with the trema mark sometimes used if the macron is unavailable (e.g.", "\"Mäori\").", "The Māori word for macron is ''tohutō.''", "The term ''pōtae'' (\"hat\") is also used.", "In the past, writing in Māori either did not distinguish vowel length, or doubled long vowels (e.g.", "\"Maaori\"), as some iwi dialects still do.", "** Niuean.", "In Niuean, \"popular spelling\" does not worry too much about vowel quantity (length), so the macron is primarily used in scholarly study of the language.", "** Tahitian.", "The use of the macron is comparatively recent in Tahitian.", "The ''Fare Vānaa'' or ''Académie Tahitienne'' (Tahitian Academy) recommends using the macron, called the ''tārava,'' to represent long vowels in written text, especially for scientific or teaching texts and it has widespread acceptance.", "(In the past, written Tahitian either did not distinguish vowel length, or used multiple other ways).", "** Tongan and Samoan.", "The macron is called the ''toloi/fakamamafa'' or ''fa'amamafa'', respectively.", "Its usage is similar to that in Māori, including its substitution by a trema.", "Its usage is not universal in Samoan, but recent academic publications and advanced study textbooks promote its use.", "* The macron is used in Fijian language dictionaries, in instructional materials for non-Fijian speakers, and in books and papers on Fijian linguistics.", "It is not typically used in Fijian publications intended for fluent speakers, where context is usually sufficient for a reader to distinguish between heteronyms.", "* Both Cyrillic and Latin transcriptions of Udege.", "* The Latin and Cyrillic alphabet transcriptions of the Tsebari dialect of Tsez.", "* In western Cree, Sauk, and Saulteaux, the Algonquianist Standard Roman Orthography (SRO) indicates long vowels either with a circumflex ⟨''â ê î ô''⟩ or with a macron ⟨''ā ē ī ō''⟩.===Tone===The following languages or alphabets use the macron to mark tones:* In the International Phonetic Alphabet, a macron over a vowel indicates a mid-level tone.", "* In Yoruba an optional macron can be used to indicate mid-level tone if it would otherwise be ambiguous.", "* In Pinyin, the official Romanization of Mandarin Chinese, macrons over a, e, i, o, u, ü (ā, ē, ī, ō, ū, ǖ) indicate the high level tone of Mandarin Chinese.", "The alternative to the macron is the number 1 after the syllable (for example, tā = ta1).", "* Similarly in the Yale romanization of Cantonese, macrons over a, e, i, o, u, m, n (ā, ē, ī, ō, ū, m̄, n̄) indicate the high level tone of Cantonese.", "Like Mandarin, the alternative to the macron is the number 1 after the syllable (for example, tā = ta1).", "* In Pe̍h-ōe-jī romanization of Hokkien, macrons over a, e, i, m, n, o, o͘, u, (ā, ē, ī, m̄, n̄, ō, ō͘, ū) indicate the mid level tone (\"light departing\" or 7th tone) of Hokkien.===Omission===Sometimes the macron marks an omitted ''n'' or ''m'', like the tilde:* In Old English texts a macron above a letter indicates the omission of an m or n that would normally follow that letter.", "* In older handwriting such as the German Kurrentschrift, the macron over an a-e-i-o-u or ä-ö-ü stood for an ''n'', or over an ''m'' or an ''n'' meant that the letter was doubled.", "This continued into print in English in the sixteenth century, and to some extent in German.", "Over a ''u'' at the end of a word, the macron indicated ''um'' as a form of scribal abbreviation.===Letter extension===In romanizations of Hebrew, the macron below is typically used to mark the begadkefat consonant lenition.", "However, for typographical reasons a regular macron is used on ''p'' and ''g'' instead: ''p̄, ḡ''.The macron is used in the orthography of a number of vernacular languages of the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, particularly those first transcribed by Anglican missionaries.", "The macron has no unique value, and is simply used to distinguish between two different phonemes.Thus, in several languages of the Banks Islands, including Mwotlap, the simple ''m'' stands for , but an ''m'' with a macron ('''m̄''') is a rounded labial-velar nasal ; while the simple ''n'' stands for the common alveolar nasal , an ''n'' with macron ('''n̄''') represents the velar nasal ; the vowel '''ē''' stands for a (short) higher by contrast with plain ''e'' ; likewise '''ō''' contrasts with plain ''o'' .In Hiw orthography, the consonant ''r̄'' stands for the prestopped velar lateral approximant .In Araki, the same symbol ''r̄'' encodes the alveolar trill – by contrast with ''r'', which encodes the alveolar flap .In Bislama (orthography before 1995), Lamenu and Lewo, a macron is used on two letters ''''.", "''m̄'' represents , and ''p̄'' represents .", "The orthography after 1995 (which has no diacritics) has these written as ''mw'' and ''pw''.In Kokota, ''ḡ'' is used for the velar stop , but ''g'' without macron is the voiced velar fricative .In Marshallese, a macron is used on four letters – '''' – whose pronunciations differ from the unmarked ''''.", "Marshallese uses a vertical vowel system with three to four vowel phonemes, but traditionally their allophones have been written out, so vowel letters with macron are used for some of these allophones.", "Though the standard diacritic involved is a macron, there are no other diacritics used ''above'' letters, so in practice other diacritics can and have been used in less polished writing or print, yielding nonstandard letters like '''', depending on displayability of letters in computer fonts.", "* The letter '''' is pronounced , the palatalized allophone of the phoneme .", "* The letter '''' represents the velar nasal phoneme and the labialized velar nasal phoneme , depending on context.", "The standard letter does not exist as a precombined glyph in Unicode, so the nonstandard variant '''' is often used in its place.", "* The letter '''' is pronounced or , which are the unrounded velarized allophones of the phonemes and respectively.", "* The letter '''' is pronounced , the unrounded velarized allophone of the phoneme .In Obolo, the simple '''n''' stands for the common alveolar nasal , while an ''n'' with macron ('''n̄''') represents the velar nasal .===Other uses===* In older German and in the German Kurrent handwriting, as well as older Danish, a macron is used on some consonants, especially n and m, as a short form for a double consonant (for example, ''n̄'' instead of ''nn'').", "* A signature of Fyodor Dostoevsky showing a stylized macron above the ⟨''т''⟩ in \"Достоевскій\" In Russian cursive, as well as in some others based on the Cyrillic script (for example, Bulgarian), a lowercase ''Т'' looks like a lowercase ''m'', and a macron is often used to distinguish it from ''Ш'', which looks like a lowercase ''w'' (see ''Т'').", "Some writers also underline the letter ''ш'' to reduce ambiguity further.Also, in some instances, a diacritic will be written like a macron, although it represents another diacritic whose standard form is different:* In some Finnish, Estonian and Swedish comic books that are hand-lettered, or in handwriting, a macron-style umlaut is used for ''ä'' or ''ö'' (also ''õ'' and ''ü'' in Estonian), sometimes known colloquially as a \"lazy man's umlaut\".", "This can also be seen in some modern handwritten German.", "* In Norwegian ''ū'', ''ā'', ''ī'', ''ē'' and ''ō'' can be used for decorative purposes both in handwritten and computed Bokmål and Nynorsk or to denote vowel length such as in ''dū'' (you), ''lā'' (infinitive form of to let), lēser (present form of \"to read\") and ''lūft'' (air).", "The diacritic is entirely optional, carries no IPA value and is seldom used in modern Norwegian outside of handwriting.", "* In informal Hungarian handwriting, a macron is often a substitute for either a double acute accent or an umlaut (e.g., ''ö'' or ''ő'').", "Because of this ambiguity, using it is often regarded as bad practice.", "* In informal handwriting, the Spanish ''ñ'' is sometimes written with a macron-shaped tilde: (''n̄'').===Medicine===Continuing previous Latin scribal abbreviations, letters with combining macron can be used in various European languages to represent the overlines indicating various medical abbreviations, particularly including:* '''ā''' for (\"before\")* '''c̄''' for (\"with\")* '''p̄''' for (\"after\")* '''q̄''' for and its inflections (\"every\", \"each\")* '''s̄''' for (\"without\")* '''x̄''' for and its inflections (\"except\")Note, however, that abbreviations involving the letter h take their macron halfway up the ascending line rather than at the normal height for unicode macrons and overlines: ħ.", "This is separately encoded in Unicode with the symbols using bar diacritics and appears shorter than other macrons in many fonts.===Mathematics and science===The overline is a typographical symbol similar to the macron, used in a number of ways in mathematics and science.", "For example, it is used to represent complex conjugation:and to represent a line segment in geometry (e.g., ), sample means in statistics (e.g., ) and negations in logic.", "It is also used in Hermann–Mauguin notation.===Music===In music, the tenuto marking resembles the macron.The macron is also used in German lute tablature to distinguish repeating alphabetic characters." ], [ "Letters with macron" ], [ "Technical notes", "The Unicode Standard encodes combining and precomposed macron characters: Description Macrons Character Unicode HTML Character Unicode HTML Macronabove Combining Spacing single U+0304 &#772; ¯mark U+00AF &macr;&#175; double U+035E &#862; ˉletter U+02C9 &#713; Macronbelow (see macron below) Additionaldiacritic Latin Upper case Lower case — Ā U+0100 &#256; ā U+0101 &#257; Ǣ U+01E2 &#482; ǣ U+01E3 &#483; Ē U+0112 &#274; ē U+0113 &#275; Ḡ U+1E20 &#7712; ḡ U+1E21 &#7713; Ī U+012A &#298; ī U+012B &#299; Ō U+014C &#332; ō U+014D &#333; Ū U+016A &#362; ū U+016B &#363; Ȳ U+0232 &#562; ȳ U+0233 &#563; Diaeresis Ǟ U+01DE &#478; ǟ U+01DF &#479; Ȫ U+022A &#554; ȫ U+022B &#555; Ǖ U+01D5 &#469; ǖ U+01D6 &#470; Ṻ U+1E7A &#7802; ṻ U+1E7B &#7803; Dot above Ǡ U+01E0 &#480; ǡ U+01E1 &#481; Ȱ U+0230 &#560; ȱ U+0231 &#561; Dot below Ḹ U+1E38 &#7736; ḹ U+1E39 &#7737; Ṝ U+1E5C &#7772; ṝ U+1E5D &#7773; Ogonek Ǭ U+01EC &#492; ǭ U+01ED &#493; Tilde Ȭ U+022C &#556; ȭ U+022D &#557; Acute Ḗ U+1E16 &#7702; ḗ U+1E17 &#7703; Ṓ U+1E52 &#7762; ṓ U+1E53 &#7763; Grave Ḕ U+1E14 &#7700; ḕ U+1E15 &#7701; Ṑ U+1E50 &#7760; ṑ U+1E51 &#7761; Cyrillic — Ӣ U+04E2 &#1250; ӣ U+04E3 &#1251; Ӯ U+04EE &#1262; ӯ U+04EF &#1263; Greek — Ᾱ U+1FB9 &#8121; ᾱ U+1FB1 &#8113; Ῑ U+1FD9 &#8153; ῑ U+1FD1 &#8145; Ῡ U+1FE9 &#8169; ῡ U+1FE1 &#8161;Macron-related Unicode characters not included in the table above:* CJK fullwidth variety:** * Kazakhstani tenge** * Overlines* Characters using a macron below instead of above* Tone contour transcription characters incorporating a macron:** ** ** ** * Two intonation marks historically used by Antanas Baranauskas for Lithuanian dialectology:** ** In LaTeX a macron is created with the command \"\\=\", for example: M\\=aori for Māori.In OpenOffice, if the extension Compose Special Characters is installed, a macron may be added by following the letter with a hyphen and pressing the user's predefined shortcut key for composing special characters.", "A macron may also be added by following the letter with the character's four-digit hex-code, and pressing the user's predefined shortcut key for adding unicode characters." ], [ "See also", "* Macron below* Vinculum (symbol)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Diacritics Project – All you need to design a font with correct accents* Kupu o te Rā How to set up the keyboard to type macrons in various operating systems." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mosque" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''mosque''' ( ), also called a '''masjid''' ( ), is a place of worship for Muslims.", "The term usually refers to a covered building, but can be any place where Islamic prayers are performed, such as an outdoor courtyard.Originally, mosques were simple places of prayer for the early Muslims, and may have been open spaces rather than elaborate buildings.", "In the first stage of Islamic architecture (650–750 CE), early mosques comprised open and closed covered spaces enclosed by walls, often with minarets, from which the Islamic call to prayer was issued on a daily basis.", "It is typical of mosque buildings to have a special ornamental niche (a ''mihrab'') set into the wall in the direction of the city of Mecca (the ''qibla''), which Muslims must face during prayer, as well as a facility for ritual cleansing (''wudu'').", "The pulpit (''minbar''), from which public sermons (''khutbah'') are delivered on the event of Friday prayer, was, in earlier times, characteristic of the central city mosque, but has since become common in smaller mosques.", "To varying degrees, mosque buildings are designed so that there are segregated spaces for men and women.", "This basic pattern of organization has assumed different forms depending on the region, period, and Islamic denomination.In addition to being places of worship in Islam, mosques also serve as locations for funeral services and funeral prayers, marriages (nikah), vigils during Ramadan, business agreements, collection and distribution of alms, and homeless shelters.", "To this end, mosques have historically been multi-purpose buildings functioning as community centres, courts of law, and religious schools.", "In modern times, they have also preserved their role as places of religious instruction and debate.", "Special importance is accorded to, in descending order of importance: al-Masjid al-Haram in the city of Mecca, where Hajj and Umrah are performed; the Prophet's Mosque in the city of Medina, where Muhammad is buried; and al-Aqsa Mosque in the city of Jerusalem, where Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven to meet God around 621 CE.During and after the early Muslim conquests, mosques were established outside of Arabia in the hundreds; many synagogues, churches, and temples were converted into mosques and thus influenced Islamic architectural styles over the centuries.", "While most pre-modern mosques were funded by charitable endowments (''waqf''), the modern-day trend of government regulation of large mosques has been countered by the rise of privately funded mosques, many of which serve as bases for different streams of Islamic revivalism and social activism." ], [ "Etymology", "The word 'mosque' entered the English language from the French word ''mosquée'', probably derived from Italian ''moschea'' (a variant of Italian ''moscheta''), from either Middle Armenian մզկիթ (''mzkit‘''), Medieval (''masgídion''), or Spanish ''mezquita'', from (meaning \"site of prostration (in prayer)\" and hence a place of worship), either from Nabataean ''masgĕdhā́'' or from Arabic (meaning \"to prostrate\"), probably ultimately from Nabataean Arabic ''masgĕdhā́'' or Aramaic ''sĕghēdh''." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Islam was established in Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad in the 7th century CE.", "The first mosque in history could be either the sanctuary built around the ''Ka'bah'' ('Cube') in Mecca, known today as ''Al-Masjid al-Haram'' ('The Sacred Mosque'), or the Quba Mosque in Medina, the first structure built by Muhammad upon his emigration from Mecca in 622 CE, both located in the Hejaz region in present-day Saudi Arabia.Other scholars reference Islamic tradition and passages of the Quran, according to which Islam as a religion precedes Muhammad, and includes previous prophets such as Abraham.", "In Islamic tradition, Abraham is credited with having built the ''Ka'bah'' in Mecca, and consequently its sanctuary, ''Al-Masjid al-Haram'', which is seen by Muslims as the first mosque that existed.", "A hadith in Sahih al-Bukhari states that the sanctuary of the ''Ka'bah'' was the first mosque on Earth, with the second mosque being Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem, which is also associated with Abraham.", "Since as early as 638 CE, the Sacred Mosque of Mecca has been expanded on several occasions to accommodate the increasing number of Muslims who either live in the area or make the annual pilgrimage known as ''Hajj'' to the city.Either way, after the Quba Mosque, Muhammad went on to establish another mosque in Medina, which is now known as ''Al-Masjid an-Nabawi'' ('The Prophet's Mosque').", "Built on the site of his home, Muhammad participated in the construction of the mosque himself and helped pioneer the concept of the mosque as the focal point of the Islamic city.", "The Prophet's Mosque is considered by some scholars of Islamic architecture to be the first mosque.", "The mosque had a roof supported by columns made of palm tree trunks and it included a large courtyard, a motif common among mosques built since then.", "Rebuilt and expanded over time, it soon became a larger hypostyle structure.", "It probably served as a model for the construction of early mosques elsewhere.", "It introduced some of the features still common in today's mosques, including the niche at the front of the prayer space known as the ''mihrab'' (first added in the Umayyad period) and the tiered pulpit called the ''minbar''.", "File:After their time in Mina has passed, pilgrims head back to Mecca.", "- Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|Aerial view of the Sacred Mosque (''Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām'') of Mecca in Saudi Arabia, the largest mosque and holiest site in Islam, with the Kaaba in the center (2010 photo)File:Madinah, Al haram at night (2512058060).jpg|The Prophet's Mosque (''al-Masjid an-Nabawi'') in Medina, Islam's second holiest siteFile:Main entrance of Masjid al-Qiblatayn.jpg|''Masjid al-Qiblatayn'' (Mosque of the two Qiblahs) in MedinaFile:Jerusalem-2013-Temple Mount-Al-Aqsa Mosque (NE exposure).jpg|The Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, Islam's third holiest site===Diffusion and evolution===The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, built during the Umayyad CaliphateThe Umayyad Caliphate was particularly instrumental in spreading Islam and establishing mosques within the Levant, as the Umayyads constructed among the most revered mosques in the region — Al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus.", "The designs of the Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque were influenced by Byzantine architecture, a trend that continued much later with the rise of the Ottoman Empire.The Great Mosque of Kairouan in present-day Tunisia was the first mosque built in the Maghreb (northwest Africa), with its present form (dating from the ninth century) serving as a model for other Islamic places of worship in the Maghreb.", "It was the first in the region to incorporate a square minaret, which was characteristic of later Maghrebi mosques, and includes naves akin to a basilica.", "Those features can also be found in Andalusi mosques, including the Great Mosque of Cordoba, as they tended to reflect the architecture of the Moors instead of their Visigoth predecessors.", "Still, some elements of Visigothic architecture, like horseshoe arches, were infused into the mosque architecture of Spain and the Maghreb.Faisal Mosque in Islamabad is the largest mosque in Pakistan and in South Asia with a capacity of 300,000Muslim empires were instrumental in the evolution and spread of mosques.", "Although mosques were first established in India during the seventh century, they were not commonplace across the subcontinent until the arrival of the Mughals in the 16th and 17th centuries.", "Reflecting their Timurid origins, Mughal-style mosques included onion domes, pointed arches, and elaborate circular minarets, features common in the Persian and Central Asian styles.", "The Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, built in a similar manner in the mid-17th century, remain two of the largest mosques on the Indian subcontinent.The first mosque in East Asia was established in the eighth century in Xi'an.", "The Great Mosque of Xi'an, whose current building dates from the 18th century, does not replicate the features often associated with mosques elsewhere.", "Minarets were initially prohibited by the state.", "Following traditional Chinese architecture, the Great Mosque of Xi'an, like many other mosques in eastern China, resembles a pagoda, with a green roof instead of the yellow roof common on imperial structures in China.", "Mosques in western China were more likely to incorporate elements, like domes and minarets, traditionally seen in mosques elsewhere.Kampung Hulu Mosque, the oldest mosque in MalaysiaA similar integration of foreign and local influences could be seen on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java, where mosques, including the Demak Great Mosque, were first established in the 15th century.", "Early Javanese mosques took design cues from Hindu, Buddhist, and Chinese architectural influences, with tall timber, multi-level roofs similar to the pagodas of Balinese Hindu temples; the ubiquitous Islamic dome did not appear in Indonesia until the 19th century.", "In turn, the Javanese style influenced the styles of mosques in Indonesia's Austronesian neighbors—Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines.Several of the early mosques in the Ottoman Empire were originally churches or cathedrals from the Byzantine Empire, with the Hagia Sophia (one of those converted cathedrals) informing the architecture of mosques from after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople.", "The Ottomans developed their own architectural style characterized by large central domes (sometimes surrounded by multiple smaller domes), pencil-shaped minarets, and open façades.Namazgah Mosque in 2018.It was the largest mosque in the Balkans at the time of completion.Mosques from the Ottoman period are still scattered across Eastern Europe, but the most rapid growth in the number of mosques in Europe has occurred within the past century as more Muslims have migrated to the continent.", "Many major European cities are home to mosques, like the Grand Mosque of Paris, that incorporate domes, minarets, and other features often found with mosques in Muslim-majority countries.", "The first mosque in North America was founded by Albanian Americans in 1915, but the continent's oldest surviving mosque, the Mother Mosque of America, was built in 1934.As in Europe, the number of American mosques has rapidly increased in recent decades as Muslim immigrants, particularly from South Asia, have come in the United States.", "Greater than forty percent of mosques in the United States were constructed after 2000.===Inter-religious conversion===The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey, was converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453According to early Muslim historians, towns that surrendered without resistance and made treaties with the Muslims were allowed to retain their churches and the towns captured by Muslims had many of their churches converted to mosques.", "One of the earliest examples of these kinds of conversions was in Damascus, Syria, where in 705 Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I bought the church of St. John from the Christians and had it rebuilt as a mosque in exchange for building a number of new churches for the Christians in Damascus.", "Overall, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (Al-Waleed's father) is said to have transformed 10 churches in Damascus into mosques.The process of turning churches into mosques were especially intensive in the villages where most of the inhabitants converted to Islam.", "The Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun turned many churches into mosques.", "Ottoman Turks converted nearly all churches, monasteries, and chapels in Constantinople, including the famous Hagia Sophia, into mosques immediately after capturing the city in 1453.In some instances mosques have been established on the places of Jewish or Christian sanctuaries associated with Biblical personalities who were also recognized by Islam.Mosques have also been converted for use by other religions, notably in southern Spain, following the conquest of the Moors in 1492.The most prominent of them is the Great Mosque of Cordoba, itself constructed on the site of a church demolished during the period of Muslim rule.", "Outside of the Iberian Peninsula, such instances also occurred in southeastern Europe once regions were no longer under Muslim rule." ], [ "Religious functions", "===Prayers===There are two holidays (''Eids'') in the Islamic calendar: ''ʿĪd al-Fiṭr'' and ''ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā'', during which there are special prayers held at mosques in the morning.", "These Eid prayers are supposed to be offered in large groups, and so, in the absence of an outdoor ''Eidgah'', a large mosque will normally host them for their congregants as well as the congregants of smaller local mosques.", "Some mosques will even rent convention centers or other large public buildings to hold the large number of Muslims who attend.", "Mosques, especially those in countries where Muslims are the majority, will also host Eid prayers outside in courtyards, town squares or on the outskirts of town in an ''Eidgah''.===Ramadan===Iftar at Taipei Grand Mosque, Taiwan during RamadanIslam's holiest month, ''Ramaḍān'', is observed through many events.", "As Muslims must fast during the day during Ramadan, mosques will host ''Ifṭār'' dinners after sunset and the fourth required prayer of the day, that is ''Maghrib''.", "Food is provided, at least in part, by members of the community, thereby creating daily potluck dinners.", "Because of the community contribution necessary to serve ''iftar'' dinners, mosques with smaller congregations may not be able to host the ''iftar'' dinners daily.", "Some mosques will also hold ''Suḥūr'' meals before dawn to congregants attending the first required prayer of the day, ''Fajr''.", "As with iftar dinners, congregants usually provide the food for suhoor, although able mosques may provide food instead.", "Mosques will often invite poorer members of the Muslim community to share in beginning and breaking the fasts, as providing charity during Ramadan is regarded in Islam as especially honorable.Following the last obligatory daily prayer (''ʿIshāʾ'') special, optional ''Tarāwīḥ'' prayers are offered in larger mosques.", "During each night of prayers, which can last for up to two hours each night, usually one member of the community who has memorized the entire Quran (a Hafiz) will recite a segment of the book.", "Sometimes, several such people (not necessarily of the local community) take turns to do this.", "During the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques will host all-night programs to observe ''Laylat al-Qadr'', the night Muslims believe that Muhammad first received Quranic revelations.", "On that night, between sunset and sunrise, mosques employ speakers to educate congregants in attendance about Islam.", "Mosques or the community usually provide meals periodically throughout the nightVault ceiling of the Nasir al-Mulk Mosque in Shiraz, IranDuring the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques within the Muslim community will host ''Iʿtikāf'', a practice in which at least one Muslim man from the community must participate.", "Muslims performing itikaf are required to stay within the mosque for ten consecutive days, often in worship or learning about Islam.", "As a result, the rest of the Muslim community is responsible for providing the participants with food, drinks, and whatever else they need during their stay.===Charity===Adina Mosque, once the largest mosque in South Asia, in Pandua, the first capital of the Bengal Sultanate.The third of the Five Pillars of Islam states that Muslims are required to give approximately one-fortieth of their wealth to charity as ''Zakat''.", "Since mosques form the center of Muslim communities, they are where Muslims go to both give ''zakat'' and, if necessary, collect it.", "Before the holiday of ''Eid ul-Fitr'', mosques also collect a special ''zakat'' that is supposed to assist in helping poor Muslims attend the prayers and celebrations associated with the holiday.===Frequency of attendance===The frequency by which Muslims attend mosque services vary greatly around the world.", "In some countries, weekly attendance at religious services is common among Muslims while in others, attendance is rare.", "A study of American Muslims did not find differences in mosque attendance by gender or age." ], [ "Architecture", "===Styles===A 14th century mosque of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India.", "''Arab-plan'' or hypostyle mosques are the earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the Umayyad Dynasty.", "These mosques have square or rectangular plans with an enclosed courtyard (''sahn'') and covered prayer hall.", "Historically, in the warm Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climates, the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers.", "Most early hypostyle mosques had flat roofs on prayer halls, which required the use of numerous columns and supports.", "One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain, the building being supported by over 850 columns.", "Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades (''riwaq'') so that visitors can enjoy the shade.", "Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties.", "The simplicity of the Arab plan limited the opportunities for further development, the mosques consequently losing popularity.Huseina Čauša džamija (a.k.a.", "Džindijska), 17th century traditional wooden mosque in Tuzla, Bosnia and HerzegovinaThe first departure within mosque design started in Persia (Iran).", "The Persians had inherited a rich architectural legacy from the earlier Persian dynasties, and they began incorporating elements from earlier Parthian and Sassanid designs into their mosques, influenced by buildings such as the Palace of Ardashir and the Sarvestan Palace.", "Thus, Islamic architecture witnessed the introduction of such structures as domes and large, arched entrances, referred to as ''iwans''.", "During Seljuq rule, as Islamic mysticism was on the rise, the four-iwan arrangement took form.", "The four-iwan format, finalized by the Seljuqs, and later inherited by the Safavids, firmly established the courtyard façade of such mosques, with the towering gateways at every side, as more important than the actual buildings themselves.", "They typically took the form of a square-shaped central courtyard with large entrances at each side, giving the impression of gateways to the spiritual world.", "The Persians also introduced Persian gardens into mosque designs.", "Soon, a distinctly Persian style of mosques started appearing that would significantly influence the designs of later Timurid, and also Mughal, mosque designs.Great Mosque of Xi'an in China built in 742The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century.", "These mosques have a large dome centered over the prayer hall.", "In addition to having a large central dome, a common feature is smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, where prayer is not performed.", "This style was heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture with its use of large central domes.Islam forbids figurative art, on the grounds that the artist must not imitate God's creation.", "Mosques are, therefore, decorated with abstract patterns and beautiful inscriptions.", "Decoration is often concentrated around doorways and the ''miḥrāb''.", "Tiles are used widely in mosques.", "They lend themselves to pattern-making, can be made with beautiful subtle colors, and can create a cool atmosphere, an advantage in the hot Arab countries.", "Quotations from the Quran often adorn mosque interiors.", "These texts are meant to inspire people by their beauty, while also reminding them of the words of Allah.===Prayer hall===The prayer hall, also known as the ''muṣallá'' (), rarely has furniture; chairs and pews are generally absent from the prayer hall so as to allow as many worshipers as possible to line the room.", "Some mosques have Islamic calligraphy and Quranic verses on the walls to assist worshippers in focusing on the beauty of Islam and its holiest book, the Quran, as well as for decoration.Often, a limited part of the prayer hall is sanctified formally as a masjid in the sharia sense (although the term masjid is also used for the larger mosque complex as well).", "Once designated, there are onerous limitations on the use of this formally designated masjid, and it may not be used for any purpose other than worship; restrictions that do not necessarily apply to the rest of the prayer area, and to the rest of the mosque complex (although such uses may be restricted by the conditions of the ''waqf'' that owns the mosque).In many mosques, especially the early congregational mosques, the prayer hall is in the hypostyle form (the roof held up by a multitude of columns).", "One of the finest examples of the hypostyle-plan mosques is the Great Mosque of Kairouan (also known as the Mosque of Uqba) in Tunisia.Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer hall is the ''qiblah'' wall, the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall.", "The qiblah wall should, in a properly oriented mosque, be set perpendicular to a line leading to Mecca, the location of the Kaaba.", "Congregants pray in rows parallel to the qiblah wall and thus arrange themselves so they face Mecca.", "In the qiblah wall, usually at its center, is the mihrab, a niche or depression indicating the direction of Mecca.", "Usually the mihrab is not occupied by furniture either.", "A raised ''minbar'' or pulpit is located to the right side of the mihrab for a ''Khaṭīb'', or some other speaker, to offer a ''Khuṭbah'' (Sermon) during Friday prayers.", "The mihrab serves as the location where the imam leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis.Left to the mihrab, in the front left corner of the mosque, sometimes there is a ''kursu'' (Turkish , Bosnian ''''), a small elevated plateau (rarely with a chair or other type of seat) used for less formal preaching and speeches.File:Great Mosque of Kairouan, prayer hall.jpg|The hypostyle prayer hall in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, TunisiaFile:İstanbul 5736.jpg|Ottoman-style prayer hall of the Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque in Istanbul, TurkeyFile:Järvenpään islamilainen rukoushuone - Keskitalontie 3 - Kinnari - Järvenpää.jpg|A wooden prayer hall of the Järvenpää Mosque in Järvenpää, FinlandFile:Зеница 20191024 192120.jpg|''Kursu'' in in Zenica, Bosnia and HerzegovinaFile:Ulu mosque, Utrecht 26.jpg|Prayer hall of the Ulu Mosque in Utrecht, Netherlands====Makhphil====Women who pray in mosques are separated from men there.", "Their part for prayer is called ''makhphil'' or ''maqfil'' (Bosnian '''').", "It is located above the main prayer hall, elevated in the background as stairs-separated gallery or plateau (surface-shortened to the back relative to the bottom main part).", "It usually has a perforated fence at the front, through which imam (and male prayers in the main hall) can be partially seen.", "Makhphil is completely used by men when Jumu'ah is practised (due to lack of space).===Mihrab===Mihrab in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina, Saudi ArabiaA ''miḥrāb'', also spelled as ''mehrab'' is a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that faces the ''qiblah'' (i.e.", "the \"front\" of the mosque); the imam stands in this niche and leads prayer.", "Given that the imam typically stands alone in the frontmost row, this niche's practical effect is to save unused space.", "The ''minbar'' is a pulpit from which the Friday sermon is delivered.", "While the ''minbar'' of Muhammad was a simple chair, later it became larger and attracted artistic attention.", "Some remained made of wood, albeit exquisitely carved, while others were made of marble and featured friezes.===Minarets===One of the oldest standing minarets in the world at the Great Mosque of Kairouan in TunisiaA common feature in mosques is the minaret, the tall, slender tower that usually is situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure.", "The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area.", "Great Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso in Burkina FasoThe origin of the minaret and its initial functions are not clearly known and have long been a topic of scholarly discussion.", "The earliest mosques lacked minarets, and the call to prayer was often performed from smaller structures or elevated platforms.", "The early Muslim community of Medina gave the call to prayer from the doorway or the roof of the house of Muhammad, which doubled as a place for prayer.", "The first confirmed minarets in the form of towers date from the early 9th century under Abbasid rule and they did not become a standard feature of mosques until the 11th century.", "These first minaret towers were placed in the middle of the wall opposite the qibla wall.", "Among them, the minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, dating from 836, is well-preserved and is one of the oldest surviving minarets in the world today.Before the five required daily prayers, a ''Mu’adhdhin'' () calls the worshippers to prayer from the minaret.", "In many countries like Singapore where Muslims are not the majority, mosques are prohibited from loudly broadcasting the ''Adhān'' (, Call to Prayer), although it is supposed to be said loudly to the surrounding community.", "The ''adhan'' is required before every prayer.", "Nearly every mosque assigns a ''muezzin'' for each prayer to say the ''adhan'' as it is a recommended practice or ''Sunnah'' () of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.", "At mosques that do not have minarets, the ''adhan'' is called instead from inside the mosque or somewhere else on the ground.", "The ''Iqâmah'' (), which is similar to the ''adhan'' and proclaimed right before the commencement of prayers, is usually not proclaimed from the minaret even if a mosque has one.===Domes===The 201 Dome Mosque in Tangail District, Bangladesh.The domes, often placed directly above the main prayer hall, may signify the vaults of the heaven and sky.", "As time progressed, domes grew, from occupying a small part of the roof near the mihrab to encompassing the whole roof above the prayer hall.", "Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, the Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped domes in South Asia which has gone on to become characteristic of the Arabic architectural style of dome.", "Some mosques have multiple, often smaller, domes in addition to the main large dome that resides at the center.", "The domes of Turkish-style mosques are influenced by Byzantine architecture, particularly from the 15th century onwards as the Balkans and Constantinople became part of the Ottoman Empire.===Ablution facilities===The ''wudu'' (\"ablution\") area, where Muslims wash their hands, forearm, face and feet before they pray.", "Example from the Badshahi Mosque, Lahore, PakistanAs ritual purification precedes all prayers, mosques often have ablution fountains or other facilities for washing in their entryways or courtyards.", "Worshippers at much smaller mosques often have to use restrooms to perform their ablutions.", "In traditional mosques, this function is often elaborated into a freestanding building in the center of a courtyard.", "This desire for cleanliness extends to the prayer halls where shoes are disallowed to be worn anywhere other than the cloakroom.", "Thus, foyers with shelves to put shoes and racks to hold coats are commonplace among mosques.===Contemporary features===Modern mosques have a variety of amenities available to their congregants.", "As mosques are supposed to appeal to the community, they may also have additional facilities, from health clinics and clubs (gyms) to libraries to gymnasiums, to serve the community.===Symbols===Certain symbols are represented in a mosque's architecture to allude to different aspects of the Islamic religion.", "One of these feature symbols is the spiral.", "The \"cosmic spiral\" found in designs and on minarets is a references to heaven as it has \"no beginning and no end\".", "Mosques also often have floral patterns or images of fruit and vegetables.", "These are allusions to the paradise after death." ], [ "Rules and etiquette", "===Prayer leading===Appointment of a prayer leader is considered desirable, but not always obligatory.", "The permanent prayer leader (imam) must be a free honest individual and is authoritative in religious matters.", "In mosques constructed and maintained by the government, the prayer leader is appointed by the ruler; in private mosques, appointment is made by members of the congregation through majority voting.", "According to the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence, the individual who built the mosque has a stronger claim to the title of imam, but this view is not shared by the other schools.Leadership at prayer falls into three categories, depending on the type of prayer: five daily prayers, Friday prayer, or optional prayers.", "According to the Hanafi and Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, appointment of a prayer leader for Friday service is mandatory because otherwise the prayer is invalid.", "The Shafi'i and Hanbali schools argue that the appointment is not necessary and the prayer is valid as long as it is performed in a congregation.", "A slave may lead a Friday prayer, but Muslim authorities disagree over whether the job can be done by a minor.", "An imam appointed to lead Friday prayers may also lead at the five daily prayers; Muslim scholars agree to the leader appointed for five daily services may lead the Friday service as well.All Muslim authorities hold the consensus opinion that only men may lead prayer for men.", "Nevertheless, women prayer leaders are allowed to lead prayer in front of all-female congregations.===Cleanliness===Storage for shoesAll mosques have rules regarding cleanliness, as it is an essential part of the worshippers' experience.", "Muslims before prayer are required to cleanse themselves in an ablution process known as ''wudu''.", "Shoes must not be worn inside the carpeted prayer hall.", "Some mosques will also extend that rule to include other parts of the facility even if those other locations are not devoted to prayer.", "Congregants and visitors to mosques are supposed to be clean themselves.", "It is also undesirable to come to the mosque after eating something that smells, such as garlic.===Dress===Islam requires that its adherents wear clothes that portray modesty.", "Men are supposed to come to the mosque wearing loose and clean clothes that do not reveal the shape of the body.", "Likewise, it is recommended that women at a mosque wear loose clothing that covers to the wrists and ankles, and cover their heads with a ''Ḥijāb'' (), or other covering.", "Many Muslims, regardless of their ethnic background, wear Middle Eastern clothing associated with Arabic Islam to special occasions and prayers at mosques.===Concentration===As mosques are places of worship, those within the mosque are required to remain respectful to those in prayer.", "Loud talking within the mosque, as well as discussion of topics deemed disrespectful, is forbidden in areas where people are praying.", "In addition, it is disrespectful to walk in front of or otherwise disturb Muslims in prayer.", "The walls within the mosque have few items, except for possibly Islamic calligraphy, so Muslims in prayer are not distracted.", "Muslims are also discouraged from wearing clothing with distracting images and symbols so as not to divert the attention of those standing behind them during prayer.", "In many mosques, even the carpeted prayer area has no designs, its plainness helping worshippers to focus.===Gender separation===A women-only mosque in Byblos, LebanonThere is nothing written in the Qur'an about the issue of space in mosques and gender separation.", "Traditional rules have segregated women and men.", "By traditional rules, women are most often told to occupy the rows behind the men.", "In part, this was a practical matter as the traditional posture for prayerkneeling on the floor, head to the groundmade mixed-gender prayer uncomfortably revealing for many women and distracting for some men.", "Traditionalists try to argue that Muhammad preferred women to pray at home rather than at a mosque, and they cite a ''ḥadīth'' in which Muhammad supposedly said: \"The best mosques for women are the inner parts of their houses,\" although women were active participants in the mosque started by Muhammad.", "Muhammad told Muslims not to forbid women from entering mosques.", "They are allowed to go in.", "The second Sunni caliph 'Umar at one time prohibited women from attending mosques especially at night because he feared they might be sexually harassed or assaulted by men, so he required them to pray at home.", "Sometimes a special part of the mosque was railed off for women; for example, the governor of Mecca in 870 had ropes tied between the columns to make a separate place for women.Many mosques today will put the women behind a barrier or partition or in another room.", "Mosques in South and Southeast Asia put men and women in separate rooms, as the divisions were built into them centuries ago.", "In nearly two-thirds of American mosques, women pray behind partitions or in separate areas, not in the main prayer hall; some mosques do not admit women at all due to the lack of space and the fact that some prayers, such as the Friday Jumuʻah, are mandatory for men but optional for women.", "Although there are sections exclusively for women and children, the Grand Mosque in Mecca is desegregated.===Non-Muslim inclusion===President George W. Bush inside the Islamic Center of Washington D.C., USUnder most interpretations of ''sharia'', non-Muslims are permitted to enter mosques provided that they respect the place and the people inside it.", "A dissenting opinion and minority view is presented by followers of the Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, who argue that non-Muslims may not be allowed into mosques under any circumstances.The Quran addresses the subject of non-Muslims, and particularly polytheists, in mosques in two verses in its ninth chapter, Sura At-Tawba.", "The seventeenth verse of the chapter prohibits those who ''join gods with Allah''—polytheists—from maintaining mosques:The twenty-eighth verse of the same chapter is more specific as it only considers polytheists in the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca:According to Ahmad ibn Hanbal, these verses were followed to the letter at the times of Muhammad, when Jews and Christians, considered monotheists, were still allowed to ''Al-Masjid Al-Haram''.", "The Umayyad caliph Umar II later forbade non-Muslims from entering mosques, and his ruling remains in practice in present-day Saudi Arabia.", "Today, the decision on whether non-Muslims should be allowed to enter mosques varies.", "With few exceptions, mosques in the Arabian Peninsula as well as Morocco do not allow entry to non-Muslims.", "For example, the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca is one of only two mosques in Morocco currently open to non-Muslims.There are many other mosques in the West and Islamic world which non-Muslims are welcome to enter.", "Most mosques in the United States, for example, report receiving non-Muslim visitors every month.", "Many mosques throughout the United States welcome non-Muslims as a sign of openness to the rest of the community as well as to encourage conversions to Islam.In modern-day Saudi Arabia, the Grand Mosque and all of Mecca are open only to Muslims.", "Likewise, Al-Masjid Al-Nabawi and the city of Medina that surrounds it are also off-limits to those who do not practice Islam.", "For mosques in other areas, it has most commonly been taken that non-Muslims may only enter mosques if granted permission to do so by Muslims, and if they have a legitimate reason.", "All entrants regardless of religious affiliation are expected to respect the rules and decorum for mosques.In modern Turkey, non-Muslim tourists are allowed to enter any mosque, but there are some strict rules.", "Visiting a mosque is allowed only between prayers; visitors are required to wear long trousers and not to wear shoes, women must cover their heads; visitors are not allowed to interrupt praying Muslims, especially by taking photos of them; no loud talk is allowed; and no references to other religions are allowed (no crosses on necklaces, no cross gestures, etc.)", "Similar rules apply to mosques in Malaysia, where larger mosques that are also tourist attractions (such as the Masjid Negara) provide robes and headscarves for visitors who are deemed inappropriately attired.In certain times and places, non-Muslims were expected to behave a certain way in the vicinity of a mosque: in some Moroccan cities, Jews were required to remove their shoes when passing by a mosque; in 18th-century Egypt, Jews and Christians had to dismount before several mosques in veneration of their sanctity.The association of the mosque with education remained one of its main characteristics throughout history, and the school became an indispensable appendage to the mosque.", "From the earliest days of Islam, the mosque was the center of the Muslim community, a place for prayer, meditation, religious instruction, political discussion, and a school.", "Anywhere Islam took hold, mosques were established, and basic religious and educational instruction began." ], [ "Role in contemporary society", "The East London Mosque was one of the first in Britain to be allowed to use loudspeakers to broadcast the adhan===Political mobilization===The late 20th century saw an increase in the number of mosques used for political purposes.", "While some governments in the Muslim world have attempted to limit the content of Friday sermons to strictly religious topics, there are also independent preachers who deliver ''khutbas'' that address social and political issues, often in emotionally charged terms.", "Common themes include social inequalities, necessity of jihad in the face of injustice, and the universal struggle between good and evil.", "In Islamic countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan, Iran, and Saudi Arabia, political subjects are preached by imams at Friday congregations on a regular basis.", "Mosques often serve as meeting points for political opposition in times of crisis.Countries with a minority Muslim population are more likely than Muslim-majority countries of the Greater Middle East to use mosques as a way to promote civic participation.", "Studies of US Muslims have consistently shown a positive correlation between mosque attendance and political involvement.", "Some of the research connects civic engagement specifically with mosque attendance for social and religious activities other than prayer.", "American mosques host voter registration and civic participation drives that promote involving Muslims, who are often first- or second-generation immigrants, in the political process.", "As a result of these efforts as well as attempts at mosques to keep Muslims informed about the issues facing the Muslim community, regular mosque attendants are more likely to participate in protests, sign petitions, and otherwise be involved in politics.", "Research on Muslim civic engagement in other Western countries \"is less conclusive but seems to indicate similar trends\".===Role in violent conflicts===Gaza, destroyed during the Gaza War in 2009|299x299pxAs they are considered important to the Muslim community, mosques, like other places of worship, can be at the heart of social conflicts.", "The Babri Mosque in India was the subject of such a conflict up until the early 1990s when it was demolished.", "Before a mutual solution could be devised, the mosque was destroyed on December 6, 1992, as the mosque was built by Babur allegedly on the site of a previous Hindu temple marking the birthplace of Rama.", "The controversy surrounded the mosque was directly linked to rioting in Bombay (present-day Mumbai) as well as bombings in 1993 that killed 257 people.Bombings in February 2006 and June 2007 seriously damaged Iraq's al-Askari Mosque and exacerbated existing tensions.", "Other mosque bombings in Iraq, both before and after the February 2006 bombing, have been part of the conflict between the country's groups of Muslims.", "In June 2005, a suicide bombing killed at least 19 people at an Afghan Shia mosque near Jade Maivand.", "In April 2006, two explosions occurred at India's Jama Masjid.", "Following the al-Askari Mosque bombing in Iraq, imams and other Islamic leaders used mosques and Friday prayers as vehicles to call for calm and peace in the midst of widespread violence.A study 2005 indicated that while support for suicide bombings is not correlated with personal devotion to Islam among Palestinian Muslims, it is correlated with mosque attendance because \"participating in communal religious rituals of any kind likely encourages support for self-sacrificing behaviors that are done for the collective good.", "\"Following the September 11 attacks, several American mosques were targeted in attacks ranging from simple vandalism to arson.", "Furthermore, the Jewish Defense League was suspected of plotting to bomb the King Fahd Mosque in Culver City, California.", "Similar attacks occurred throughout the United Kingdom following the 7 July 2005 London bombings.", "Outside the Western world, in June 2001, the Hassan Bek Mosque was the target of vandalism and attacks by hundreds of Israelis after a suicide bomber killed 19 people in a night club in Tel Aviv.", "Although mosquegoing is highly encouraged for men, it is permitted to stay at home when one feels at risk from Islamophobic persecution.===Saudi influence===Although the Saudi involvement in Sunni mosques around the world can be traced back to the 1960s, it was not until later in the 20th century that the government of Saudi Arabia became a large influence in foreign Sunni mosques.", "Beginning in the 1980s, the Saudi Arabian government began to finance the construction of Sunni mosques in countries around the world.", "An estimated US$45 billion has been spent by the Saudi Arabian government financing mosques and Sunni Islamic schools in foreign countries.", "''Ain al-Yaqeen'', a Saudi newspaper, reported in 2002 that Saudi funds may have contributed to building as many as 1,500 mosques and 2,000 other Islamic centers.Saudi citizens have also contributed significantly to mosques in the Islamic world, especially in countries where they see Muslims as poor and oppressed.", "Following the fall of the Soviet Union, in 1992, mosques in war-torn Afghanistan saw many contributions from Saudi citizens.", "The King Fahd Mosque in Culver City, California and the Islamic Cultural Center of Italy in Rome represent two of Saudi Arabia's largest investments in foreign mosques as former Saudi king Fahd bin Abdul Aziz al-Saud contributed US$8 million and US$50 million to the two mosques, respectively.=== Political controversy ===Historic wooden Kruszyniany Mosque, used by the Polish Tatar community, and targeted by an Islamophobic attack in 2014 In the western world, and in the United States in particular, anti-Muslim sentiment and targeted domestic policy has created challenges for mosques and those looking to build them.", "There has been government and police surveillance of mosques in the US and local attempts to ban mosques and block constructions, despite data showing that in fact, most Americans oppose banning the building of mosques (79%) and the surveillance of U.S. mosques (63%) as shown in a 2018 study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding.Since 2017, Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged two-thirds of the mosques in China's Xinjiang province.", "Ningxia officials were notified on 3 August 2018 that the Weizhou Grand Mosque would be forcibly demolished because it had not received the proper permits before construction.", "Officials in the town said that the mosque had not been given proper building permits, because it is built in a Middle Eastern style and includes numerous domes and minarets.", "The residents of Weizhou alarmed each other through social media and finally stopped the mosque destruction by public demonstrations." ], [ "See also", "* Dambana* Holiest sites in Islam* Jama'at Khana* Lists of mosques" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===** **** **************** **" ], [ "Further reading", "*** Campanini, Massimo, Mosque, in ''Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' (2 vols.", "), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014.", "* *************" ], [ "External links", " * Images of mosques from throughout the world, from the Aga Khan Documentation Center at MIT* Devostock Public domain images, Images of mosques from around the world" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Molecular cloud" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''molecular cloud''', sometimes called a '''stellar nursery''' (if star formation is occurring within), is a type of interstellar cloud, the density and size of which permit absorption nebulae, the formation of molecules (most commonly molecular hydrogen, H2), and the formation of H II regions.", "This is in contrast to other areas of the interstellar medium that contain predominantly ionized gas.Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H2 is carbon monoxide (CO).", "The ratio between CO luminosity and H2 mass is thought to be constant, although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other galaxies.Within molecular clouds are regions with higher density, where much dust and many gas cores reside, called clumps.", "These clumps are the beginning of star formation if gravitational forces are sufficient to cause the dust and gas to collapse." ], [ "Research and discovery", "Astronomer Henk van de Hulst first theorized hydrogen could be traceable in interstellar space using radio signals.The history pertaining to the discovery of molecular clouds is closely related to the development of radio astronomy and astrochemistry.", "During World War II, at a small gathering of scientists, Henk van de Hulst first reported he had calculated the neutral hydrogen atom should transmit a detectable radio signal.", "This discovery was an important step towards the research that would eventually lead to the detection of molecular clouds.Jansky and his rotating directional radio antenna (early 1930s), the world's first radio telescope.Once the war ended, and aware of the pioneering radio astronomical observations performed by Jansky and Rever in the US, the Dutch astronomers repurposed the dish-shaped antennas running along the Dutch coastline that was once used by the Germans as a warning radar system and modified into radio telescopes, initiating the search for the hydrogen signature in the depths of space.The neutral hydrogen atom consists of a proton with an electron in its orbit.", "Both the proton and the electron have a spin property.", "When the spin state flips from a parallel condition to antiparallel, which contains less energy, the atom gets rid of the excess energy by radiating a spectral line at a frequency of 1420.405 MHz.", "This frequency is generally known as the 21 cm line, referring to its wavelength in the radio band.", "The 21 cm line is the signature of HI and makes the gas detectable to astronomers back on earth.", "The discovery of the 21 cm line was the first step towards the technology that would allow astronomers to detect compounds and molecules in interstellar space.Plaque commemorating the discovery of 21-cm radiation from the Milky WayIn 1951, two research groups nearly simultaneously discovered radio emission from interstellar neutral hydrogen.", "Ewen and Purcell reported the detection of the 21-cm line in March, 1951.Using the radio telescope at the Kootwijk Observatory, Muller and Oort reported the detection of the hydrogen emission line in May of that same year.", "Left to right: Jan Oort, Hendrik C. van de Hulst, Pieter Oosterhoff.", "Jan Oort had a pivotal role in the research that lead to the discovery of molecular clouds.Once the 21-cm emission line was detected, radio astronomers began mapping the neutral hydrogen distribution of the Milky Way Galaxy.", "Van de Hulst, Muller, and Oort, aided by a team of astronomers from Australia, published the Leiden-Sydney map of neutral hydrogen in the galactic disk in 1958 on the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.", "This was the first neutral hydrogen map of the galactic disc and also the first map showing the spiral arm structure within it.Following the work on atomic hydrogen detection by van de Hulst, Oort and others, astronomers began to regularly use radio telescopes, this time looking for interstellar molecules.", "In 1963 Alan Barrett and Sander Weinred at MIT found the emission line of OH in the supernova remnant Cassiopeia A.", "This was the first radio detection of an interstellar molecule at radio wavelengths.", "More interstellar OH detections quickly followed and in 1965, Harold Weaver and his team of radio astronomers at Berkeley, identified OH emissions lines coming from the direction of the Orion Nebula and in the constellation of Cassiopeia.In 1968, Cheung, Rank, Townes, Thornton and Welch detected NH₃ inversion line radiation in interstellar space.", "A year later, Lewis Snyder and his colleagues found interstellar formaldehyde.", "Also in the same year George Carruthers managed to identify molecular hydrogen.", "The numerous detections of molecules in interstellar space would help pave the way to the discovery of molecular clouds in 1970.Holmdel horn antenna used to detect microwave emissions from the Big BangHydrogen is the most abundant species of atom in molecular clouds, and under the right conditions it will form the H2 molecule.", "Despite its abundance, the detection of H2 proved difficult.", "Due to its symmetrical molecule, H2 molecules have a weak rotational and vibrational modes, making it virtually invisible to direct observation.", "The solution to this problem came when Arno Penzias, Keith Jefferts, and Robert Wilson identified CO in the star-forming region in the Omega Nebula.", "Carbon monoxide is a lot easier to detect than H2 because of its rotational energy and asymmetrical structure.", "CO soon became the primary tracer of the clouds where star-formation occurs.In 1970, Penzias and his team quickly detected CO in other locations close to the galactic center, including the giant molecular cloud identified as Sagittarius B2, 390 light years from the galactic center, making it the first detection of a molecular cloud in history.", "This team later would receive the Nobel prize of physics for their discovery of microwave emission from the Big Bang.Due to their pivotal role, research about these structures have only increased over time.", "A paper published in 2022 reports over 10,000 molecular clouds detected since the discovery of Sagittarius B2." ], [ "Occurrence", "Molecular cloud Barnard 68, about 500 ly distant and 0.5 ly in diameterWithin the Milky Way, molecular gas clouds account for less than one percent of the volume of the interstellar medium (ISM), yet it is also the densest part of it.", "The bulk of the molecular gas is contained in a ring between from the center of the Milky Way (the Sun is about 8.5 kiloparsecs from the center).", "Large scale CO maps of the galaxy show that the position of this gas correlates with the spiral arms of the galaxy.", "That molecular gas occurs predominantly in the spiral arms suggests that molecular clouds must form and dissociate on a timescale shorter than 10 million years—the time it takes for material to pass through the arm region.Circinus molecular cloud has a mass around 250,000 times that of the Sun.Perpendicularly to the plane of the galaxy, the molecular gas inhabits the narrow midplane of the galactic disc with a characteristic scale height, ''Z'', of approximately 50 to 75 parsecs, much thinner than the warm atomic (''Z ''from 130 to 400 parsecs) and warm ionized (''Z ''around 1000 parsecs) gaseous components of the ISM.", "The exceptions to the ionized-gas distribution are H II regions, which are bubbles of hot ionized gas created in molecular clouds by the intense radiation given off by young massive stars; and as such they have approximately the same vertical distribution as the molecular gas.This distribution of molecular gas is averaged out over large distances; however, the small scale distribution of the gas is highly irregular, with most of it concentrated in discrete clouds and cloud complexes." ], [ "General structure and chemistry of molecular clouds", "Molecular clouds typically have interstellar medium densities of 10 to 30 , and constitute approximately 50% of the total interstellar gas in a galaxy.", "Most of the gas is found in a molecular state.", "The visual boundaries of a molecular cloud is not where the cloud effectively ends, but where molecular gas changes to atomic gas in a fast transition, forming “envelopes” of mass, giving the impression of an edge to the cloud structure.", "The structure itself is generally irregular and filamentary.Cosmic dust and ultraviolet radiation emitted by stars are key factors that determine not only gas and column density, but also the molecular composition of a cloud.", "The dust provides shielding to the molecular gas inside, preventing dissociation by the ultraviolet radiation.", "The dissociation caused by UV photons is the main mechanism for transforming molecular material back to the atomic state inside the cloud.", "Molecular content in a region of a molecular cloud can change rapidly due to variation in the radiation field and dust movement and disturbance.", "The star T Tauri with NGC 1555 cloud nearby.Most of the gas constituting a molecular cloud is molecular hydrogen, with carbon monoxide being the second most common compound.", "Molecular clouds also usually contain other elements and compounds.", "Astronomers have observed the presence of long chain compounds such as methanol, ethanol and benzene rings and their several hydrides.", "Large molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons have also been detected.The density across a molecular cloud is fragmented and its regions can be generally categorized in clumps and cores.", "Clumps form the larger substructure of the cloud, having the average size of 1 pc.", "Clumps are the precursors of star clusters, though not every clump will eventually form stars.", "Cores are much smaller (by a factor of 10) and have higher densities.", "Cores are gravitationally bound and go through a collapse during star formation.In astronomical terms, molecular clouds are short-lived structures that are either destroyed or go through major structural and chemical changes approximately 10 million years into their existence.", "Their short life span can be inferred from the range in age of young stars associated with them, of 10 to 20 million years, matching molecular clouds’ internal timescales.Direct observation of T Tauri stars inside dark clouds and OB stars in star-forming regions match this predicted age span.", "The fact OB stars older than 10 million years don’t have a significant amount of cloud material about them, seems to suggest most of the cloud is dispersed after this time.", "The lack of large amounts of frozen molecules inside the clouds also suggest a short-lived structure.", "Some astronomers propose the molecules never froze in very large quantities due to turbulence and the fast transition between atomic and molecular gas." ], [ "Cloud formation and destruction", "Due to their short lifespan, it follows that molecular clouds are constantly being assembled and destroyed.", "By calculating the rate at which stars are forming in our galaxy, astronomers are able to suggest the amount of interstellar gas being collected into star-forming molecular clouds in our galaxy.", "The rate of mass being assembled into stars in approximately 3 ''M''☉ per year.", "Only 2% of the mass of a molecular cloud is assembled into stars, giving the number of 150 ''M''☉ of gas being assembled in molecular clouds in the Milky Way per year.The Elephant's Trunk Nebula is an elongated dark globule.", "The globule is a condensation of dense gas that is barely surviving the strong ionizing radiation from a nearby massive star.Two possible mechanisms for molecular cloud formation have been suggested by astronomers.", "Cloud growth by collision and gravitational instability in the gas layer spread throughout the galaxy.", "Models for the collision theory have shown it cannot be the main mechanism for cloud formation due to the very long timescale it would take to form a molecular cloud, beyond the average lifespan of such structures.Gravitational instability is likely to be the main mechanism.", "Those regions with more gas will exert a greater gravitational force on their neighboring regions, and draw surrounding material.", "This extra material increases the density, increasing their gravitational attraction.", "Mathematical models of gravitational instability in the gas layer predict a formation time within the timescale for the estimated cloud formation time.Once a molecular cloud assembles enough mass, the densest regions of the structure will start to collapse under gravity, creating star-forming clusters.", "This process is highly destructive to the cloud itself.", "Once stars are formed, they begin to ionize portions of the cloud around it due to their heat.", "The ionized gas then evaporates and is dispersed in formations called ‘champagne flows’.", "This process begins when approximately 2% of the mass of the cloud has been converted into stars.", "Stellar winds are also known to contribute to cloud dispersal.", "The cycle of cloud formation and destruction is closed when the gas dispersed by stars cools again and is pulled into new clouds by gravitational instability." ], [ "Star Formation", "Taurus Molecular Cloud.", "Located about 430 light-years from us, this vast complex of interstellar clouds is where a myriad of stars are being born, and is the closest large region of star formation.Star formation involves the collapse of the densest part of the molecular cloud, fragmenting the collapsed region in smaller clumps.", "These clumps aggregate more interstellar material, increasing in density by gravitational contraction.", "This process continues until the temperature reaches a point where the fusion of hydrogen can occur.", "The burning of hydrogen then generates enough heat to push against gravity, creating hydrostatic equilibrium.", "At this stage, a protostar is formed and it will continue to aggregate gas and dust from the cloud around it.One of the most studied star formation regions is the Taurus molecular cloud due to its close proximity to earth (140 pc or 430 ly away), making it an excellent object to collect data about the relationship between molecular clouds and star formation.", "Embedded in the Taurus molecular cloud there are T Tauri stars.", "These are a class of variable stars in an early stage of stellar development and still gathering gas and dust from the cloud around them.", "Observation of star forming regions have helped astronomers develop theories about stellar evolution.", "Many O and B type stars have been observed in or very near molecular clouds.", "Since these star types belong to population I (some are less than 1 million years old), they cannot have moved far from their birth place.", "Many of these young stars are found embedded in cloud clusters, suggesting stars are formed inside it." ], [ "Types of molecular cloud", "===Giant molecular clouds===Within a few million years the light from bright stars will have boiled away this molecular cloud of gas and dust.", "The cloud has broken off from the Carina Nebula.", "Newly formed stars are visible nearby, their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust.", "This image spans about two light-years and was taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in 1999.Part of the Taurus molecular cloudA vast assemblage of molecular gas that has more than 10 thousand times the mass of the Sun is called a '''giant molecular cloud''' ('''GMC''').", "GMCs are around 15 to 600 light-years (5 to 200 parsecs) in diameter, with typical masses of 10 thousand to 10 million solar masses.", "Whereas the average density in the solar vicinity is one particle per cubic centimetre, the average density of a GMC is a hundred to a thousand times lower.", "Although the Sun is much denser than a GMC, the volume of a GMC is so great that it contains much more mass than the Sun.", "The substructure of a GMC is a complex pattern of filaments, sheets, bubbles, and irregular clumps.Filaments are truly ubiquitous in the molecular cloud.", "Dense molecular filaments will fragment into gravitationally bound cores, most of which will evolve into stars.", "Continuous accretion of gas, geometrical bending, and magnetic fields may control the detailed fragmentation manner of the filaments.", "In supercritical filaments, observations have revealed quasi-periodic chains of dense cores with spacing of 0.15 parsec comparable to the filament inner width.", "A substantial fraction of filaments contained prestellar and protostellar cores, supporting the important role of filaments in gravitationally bound core formation.The densest parts of the filaments and clumps are called molecular cores, while the densest molecular cores are called dense molecular cores and have densities in excess of 104 to 106 particles per cubic centimeter.", "Typical molecular cores are traced with CO and dense molecular cores are traced with ammonia.", "The concentration of dust within molecular cores is normally sufficient to block light from background stars so that they appear in silhouette as dark nebulae.GMCs are so large that local ones can cover a significant fraction of a constellation; thus they are often referred to by the name of that constellation, e.g.", "the Orion molecular cloud (OMC) or the Taurus molecular cloud (TMC).", "These local GMCs are arrayed in a ring in the neighborhood of the Sun coinciding with the Gould Belt.", "The most massive collection of molecular clouds in the galaxy forms an asymmetrical ring about the galactic center at a radius of 120 parsecs; the largest component of this ring is the Sagittarius B2 complex.", "The Sagittarius region is chemically rich and is often used as an exemplar by astronomers searching for new molecules in interstellar space.Distribution of molecular gas in 30 merging galaxies.===Small molecular clouds===Isolated gravitationally-bound small molecular clouds with masses less than a few hundred times that of the Sun are called Bok globules.", "The densest parts of small molecular clouds are equivalent to the molecular cores found in GMCs and are often included in the same studies.===High-latitude diffuse molecular clouds===In 1984 IRAS identified a new type of diffuse molecular cloud.", "These were diffuse filamentary clouds that are visible at high galactic latitudes.", "These clouds have a typical density of 30 particles per cubic centimetre.The Serpens South star cluster is embedded in a filamentary molecular cloud, seen as a dark ribbon passing vertically through the cluster.", "This cloud has served as a testbed for studies of molecular cloud stability." ], [ "List of molecular cloud complexes", "*Sagittarius B2* Serpens-Aquila Rift* Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex* Corona Australis molecular cloud* Musca–Chamaeleonis molecular cloud* Vela Molecular Ridge* Radcliff wave** Orion molecular cloud complex** Taurus molecular cloud** Perseus molecular cloud" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Minoru Yamasaki" ], [ "Introduction", " was a Japanese-American architect, best known for designing the original World Trade Center in New York City and several other large-scale projects.", "Yamasaki was one of the most prominent architects of the 20th century.", "He and fellow architect Edward Durell Stone are generally considered to be the two master practitioners of \"New Formalism\".", "During his three-decade career, he and his firm designed over 250 buildings.", "His firm, Yamasaki & Associates, closed on December 31, 2009." ], [ "Early life and education", "Yamasaki was born on December 1, 1912, in Seattle, Washington, the son of John Tsunejiro Yamasaki and Hana Yamasaki, ''issei'' Japanese immigrants.", "The family later moved to Auburn, Washington, and he graduated from Garfield Senior High School in Seattle.", "He enrolled in the University of Washington program in architecture in 1929, and graduated with a Bachelor of Architecture (BArch) in 1934.During his college years, he was strongly encouraged by faculty member Lionel Pries.", "He earned money to pay for his tuition by working at a salmon cannery in Alaska, working five summers and earning $50 a month, plus 25 cents an hour in overtime pay.", "In part to escape anti-Japanese prejudice, he moved to Manhattan in 1934, with $40 and no job prospects.", "He wrapped dishes for an importing company until he found work as a draftsman and engineer.", "He enrolled at New York University for a master's degree in architecture and got a job with the architecture firm Shreve, Lamb & Harmon, designers of the Empire State Building.", "The firm helped Yamasaki avoid internment as a Japanese-American during World War II, and he himself sheltered his parents in New York City.", "Yamasaki was politically active during his early years, particularly in efforts to relocate Japanese Americans affected by the internment program in the United States during World War II.", "After leaving Shreve, Lamb & Harmon, Yamasaki worked briefly for Harrison & Abramovitz and Raymond Loewy.", "During his time with Harrison & Abramovitz, Yamasaki, a gifted watercolors painter, moonlighted teaching drawing at Columbia University.In 1945, Yamasaki moved to Detroit, where he secured a position with Smith, Hinchman & Grylls as the chief designer.", "At the time, Smith and associates was the oldest as well as one of the largest and most prestigious architectural firms in Detroit and the United States, with recently completed projects including Detroit landmarks such as the Penobscot and Guardian Buildings.", "Yamasaki left the firm in 1949, and started his own partnership.", "He worked from Birmingham and Troy, Michigan.", "One of the first projects he designed at his own firm was Ruhl's Bakery at 7 Mile Road and Monica Street in Detroit." ], [ "Career", "=== Pruitt–Igoe and other early commissions ===Pruitt–Igoe housing project, St. Louis, 1954 (demolished 1972–1976)Yamasaki's first major project was the Pruitt–Igoe public housing project in St. Louis in 1955.Despite his love of traditional Japanese design and ornamentation, the buildings of Pruitt–Igoe were stark, modernist concrete structures, severely constricted by a tight budget.", "The housing project soon experienced so many problems that it was demolished starting in 1972, less than twenty years after its completion.", "Its destruction would be considered by architectural historian Charles Jencks to be the symbolic end of modernist architecture.In the 1950s, Yamasaki was commissioned by the Reynolds Company to design an aluminum-wrapped building in Southfield, Michigan, which would \"symbolize the auto industry's past and future progress with aluminum.\"", "The three-story glass building wrapped in aluminum, known as the Reynolds Metals Company's Great Lakes Sales Headquarters Building, was also supposed to reinforce the company's main product and showcase its admirable characteristics of strength and beauty.In 1955, he designed the \"sleek\" terminal at Lambert–St.", "Louis International Airport, which led to his 1959 commission to design the Dhahran International Airport in Saudi Arabia.", "The Dhahran International Airport terminal building was especially well received in Saudi Arabia and was featured on the one riyal bank note.", "Yamasaki's first widely-acclaimed design was the Pacific Science Center, with its iconic lacy and airy decorative arches.", "It was constructed by the City of Seattle for the 1962 Seattle World's Fair.", "The building raised his public profile so much that he was featured on the cover of ''Time'' magazine.Yamasaki was a member of the Pennsylvania Avenue Commission, created in 1961 to restore the grand avenue in Washington, D.C., but he resigned after disagreements and disillusionment with the design by committee approach.The campus for the University of Regina was designed in tandem with Yamasaki's plan for Wascana Centre, a park built around Wascana Lake in Regina, Saskatchewan.", "The original campus design was approved in 1962.Yamasaki was awarded contracts to design the first three buildings: the Classroom Building, the Laboratory Building, and the Dr. John Archer Library, which were built between 1963 and 1967.Yamasaki designed two notable synagogues, North Shore Congregation Israel in Glencoe, Illinois (1964), and Temple Beth El, in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan (1973).", "He designed a number of buildings on college campuses, including designs for Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota, and a building in Waikiki, in Honolulu, Hawaii, between 1958 and 1968 as well as being commissioned to design buildings on the campus of Wayne State University in the 1950s and 1960s, including the McGregor Memorial Conference Center, the College of Education building and the Prentis Building and DeRoy Auditorium Complex.", "The buildings at Wayne State University incorporated many architectural motifs that would become characteristic elements in Yamasaki's designs.", "With regards to the McGregor Memorial Conference Center, this included placing the building on an elevated base or pedestal to emphasize its presence, repeated geometric patterns on the exterior facade of the building (many times these exterior design features were functional as well, providing structural support to the building).", "He also used exotic materials such as white marble tiles and columns, incorporated a skylight traversing the length of the building and made extensive use of the secondary space outside the building including constructing a plaza with reflecting pools, seating areas, greenery and sculptures.", "The College of Education building featured repeating gothic arches throughout the exterior of the building which were both ornamental but also provided structural support for the building.=== World Trade Center ===The original World Trade Center (1973–2001) was the most widely-known of Yamasaki's buildings.In 1962 Yamasaki and his firm were commissioned to design his most well-known project: the World Trade Center, with Emery Roth & Sons serving as associate architects.", "The World Trade Center towers featured many innovative design elements to address many unique challenges at the site.", "One particular design challenge related to the efficacy of the elevator system, which became unique in the world when it was first opened for service.", "Yamasaki employed the fastest elevators at the time, running at per minute.", "Instead of placing a traditional large cluster of full-height elevator shafts in the core of each tower, Yamasaki created the Twin Towers' \"Skylobby\" system.", "The Skylobby design created three separate, connected elevator systems which would serve different zones of the building, depending on which floor was chosen, saving approximately 70% of the space which would have been required for traditional shafts.", "The space saved was then used for additional office space.", "Internally, each office floor was a vast open space unimpeded by support columns, ready to be subdivided as the tenants might choose.", "Other design challenges included anchoring the massively tall towers to the bedrock located about below lower Manhattan's soft soil.", "Digging a large trench to the bedrock risked flooding from nearby New York Harbor.", "The solution employed by Yamasaki and his team of engineers was to use a slurry wall; digging very narrow trenches about wide and then filling these with a slurry (a mixture of clay and water) that was dense enough to keep the surrounding water out.", "Pipes were then lowered into the slurry trench and concrete was pumped in.", "The concrete, being more dense than the slurry, sank to the bottom of the trenches all the way down to the bedrock displacing the slurry to the surface, where it was drained away.", "This process was repeated around the entire perimeter of the site and reinforced with steel cables to create a watertight concrete bathtub surrounding the excavation site.", "This slurry wall system had only been employed a few times prior in the United States and never on such a large project.A further design challenge was developing a wind-bracing system to keep the ultra tall but relatively lightweight steel and glass structures from swaying at their upper levels.", "Other contemporary modern skyscrapers had used centrally located cross-bracing systems located in the core of the interiors at the upper levels, but Yamasaki and structural engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan employed an exterior truss system; a network of vertical and horizontal structural elements on the exterior of the towers giving them structural support.", "This external structural support system also decreased the need for large internal pillars.", "The external truss support system and the unique elevator configuration created more rentable space in the World Trade Centers to satisfy the owner's (The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey) massive demand for of office space.The first of the towers was finished in 1970.Many of his buildings feature superficial details inspired by the pointed arches of Gothic architecture, and make use of extremely narrow vertical windows.", "This narrow-windowed style arose from his own personal fear of heights.", "After partnering with Emery Roth and Sons on the design of the World Trade Center, the collaboration continued with other projects including new buildings at Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, D.C.Yamasaki designed the BOK Tower in Tulsa, Oklahoma with a similar design to the World Trade Center.", "It was completed in 1976 and was the tallest building in Oklahoma at the time.=== Later years ===After criticism of his dramatically cantilevered Rainier Tower (1977) in Seattle, Yamasaki became less adventurous in his designs during the last decade of his career.In 1978, Yamasaki designed the Federal Reserve Bank tower in Richmond, Virginia.", "The work was designed with a similar external appearance as the World Trade Center complex, with its narrow fenestration, and stands at ." ], [ "Legacy", "Despite the many buildings he completed, Yamasaki's reputation faded along with the overall decline of modernism towards the end of the 20th century.", "Two of his major projects, the Pruitt-Igoe public housing complex, and the original World Trade Center, shared the dubious symbolic distinction of being destroyed while recorded by live TV broadcasts.", "The World Trade Center towers were not well received by some commentators at the time of their debut, with noted ''New York Times'' architectural critic Ada Louise Huxtable criticizing the towers as being \"pure technology, the lobbies are pure schmaltz and the impact on New York of 110-story buildings...is pure speculation\" with criticizing the gothic exterior branches at the lower levels as \"General Motors gothic\".", "In many ways, these best-known works ran counter to Yamasaki's own design principles, and he later regretted his reluctant acceptance of architectural compromises dictated by the clients of these projects.", "Several others of his buildings have also been demolished.Yamasaki collaborated closely with structural engineers, including John Skilling, Leslie Robertson, Fazlur Rahman Khan, and Jack V. Christiansen, to produce some of his innovative architectural designs.", "He strived to achieve \"serenity, surprise, and delight\" in his humanistic modernist buildings and their surrounds.Decades after his death, Yamasaki's buildings and legacy would be re-assessed more sympathetically by some architectural critics.", "Several of his buildings have now been restored in accordance with his original designs, and his McGregor Memorial Conference Center was awarded National Historic Landmark status in 2015." ], [ "Personal life", "Yamasaki was first married in 1941 to Teruko \"Teri\" Hirashiki.", "They had three children together: Carol, Taro, and Kim.", "They divorced in 1961 and Yamasaki married Peggy Watty.", "He and Watty divorced two years later, and Yamasaki married a third time briefly before remarrying Teruko in 1969.In a 1969 article in ''The Detroit News'' about the remarriage, Yamasaki said \"I'm just going to be nicer to her\".", "Yamasaki suffered from health problems for at least three decades, and ulcers caused surgical removal of much of his stomach in 1953.Over time, he endured several more operations on his stomach.", "His health was not improved by increasingly heavy drinking towards the end of his life.", "Yamasaki died of stomach cancer on February 6, 1986, at the age of 73.Yamasaki was affectionately known as \"Yama\" among his friends and associates." ], [ "Honors", "* Fellow of the American Institute of Architects, 1963* DFA from Bates College, 1964* American Institute of Architects' First Honor Award, three times* Cover story of ''TIME'' on January 18, 1963" ], [ "See also", "* Construction of the World Trade Center* List of works by Minoru Yamasaki" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* GreatBuildings.com listing* The Wayne State University Yamasaki Legacy* Minoru Yamasaki interview, - Archives of American Art* * Images from the Minoru Yamasaki Collection Walter P. Reuther Library* Researchers can access archival evidence of Yamasaki's work in The papers of Minoru Yamasaki at the Walter P. Reuther Library.", "Available materials include correspondence on projects, travel, communications with associates, speaking invitations, and involvement in professional organizations.", "Early architectural drawings, speeches and writings, photographs, awards and doctoral degrees, scrapbooks detailing the progress of his career, and various publications are also included." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Madeira" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Madeira''' (, , ), officially the '''Autonomous Region of Madeira''' (), is one of two autonomous regions of Portugal, the other being the Azores.", "It is an archipelago situated in the North Atlantic Ocean, in a region known as Macaronesia, just under to the north of the Canary Islands and west of the Kingdom of Morocco.", "Madeira is geologically located on the African Tectonic Plate, although it is culturally, politically and ethnically associated with Europe, with its population predominantly descended from original Portuguese settlers.", "Its population was 251,060 in 2021.The capital of Madeira is Funchal, which is located on the main island's south coast.The archipelago includes the islands of Madeira, Porto Santo, and the Desertas, administered together with the separate archipelago of the Savage Islands.", "Roughly half of the region's population lives in Funchal.", "The region has political and administrative autonomy through the Administrative Political Statute of the Autonomous Region of Madeira provided for in the Portuguese Constitution.", "The autonomous region is an integral part of the European Union as an outermost region.", "Madeira generally has a very mild and moderate subtropical climate with mediterranean summer droughts and winter rain.", "Many microclimates are found at different elevations.Madeira, originally uninhabited, was claimed by Portuguese sailors in the service of Prince Henry the Navigator in 1419 and settled after 1420.The archipelago is considered to be the first territorial discovery of the exploratory period of the Age of Discovery.Madeira is a popular year-round resort, particularly for fellow Portuguese, but also British (148,000 visits in 2021), and Germans (113,000).", "It is by far the most populous and densely populated Portuguese island.", "The region is noted for its Madeira wine, flora, fauna, with its pre-historic laurel forest, classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "The destination has been certified by EarthCheck.", "The main harbour in Funchal has long been the leading Portuguese port in cruise liner dockings, an important stopover for Atlantic passenger cruises between Europe, the Caribbean and North Africa.", "In addition, the International Business Centre of Madeira, also known as the Madeira Free Trade Zone, was created formally in the 1980s as a tool of regional economic policy.", "It consists of a set of incentives, mainly tax-related, granted with the objective of attracting foreign direct investment based on international services into Madeira." ], [ "History", "===Ancient===Plutarch in his ''Parallel Lives'' (''Sertorius'', 75 AD) referring to the military commander Quintus Sertorius (d. 72 BC), relates that after his return to Cádiz, he met sailors who spoke of idyllic Atlantic islands: \"The islands are said to be two in number separated by a very narrow strait and lie from Africa.", "They are called the Isles of the Blessed.", "\"Archaeological evidence suggests that the islands may have been visited by the Vikings sometime between 900 and 1030.Accounts by Muhammad al-Idrisi state that the Mugharrarin (\"the adventurers\" – seafarers from Lisbon) came across an island where they found \"a huge quantity of sheep, the meat of which was bitter and inedible\" before going to the more inhabited Canary Islands.", "This island, possibly Madeira or Hierro, must have been inhabited or previously visited by people for livestock to be present.===Legend===During the reign of King Edward III of England, lovers Robert Machim and Anna d'Arfet were said to have fled from England to France in 1346.Driven off course by a violent storm, their ship ran aground along the coast of an island that may have been Madeira.", "Later this legend was the basis of the naming of the city of Machico on the island, in memory of the young lovers.The fourth and final sheet of the four-sheet Corbitis Atlas (1384-1410)===European exploration===Madeira is described in several medieval manuscripts, including the Book of Knowledge of All Kingdoms from the early 14th century, the Medici-Laurentian Atlas from 1351, in ''Soleri Portolani'' from 1380 and 1385 and Corbitis Atlas from the late 14th century.", "These texts refer to Madeira as ''Lecmane'', ''Lolegname,'' ''Legnami'' (the isle of wood), ''Puerto'' or Porto Santo, ''deserte'' or deserta, and ''desierta''.", "It is widely accepted that knowledge of these Atlantic islands existed before their more documented and successful settlement by the Portuguese Empire.Statue of João Gonçalves ZarcoIn 1418, two captains, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira exploring under service of Prince Henry the Navigator, were driven off course by a storm to an island they named Porto Santo (English: ''holy harbour'') in gratitude for divine deliverance from a shipwreck.", "The following year, Zarco and Vaz organised an expedition with Bartolomeu Perestrello.", "The trio travelled to the island and claimed it on behalf of the Portuguese Crown and established a settlement.", "The new settlers observed \"a heavy black cloud suspended to the southwest\" and upon investigation discovered the larger island they called Madeira.===Settlement===The first Portuguese settlers began colonizing the islands around 1420 or 1425.The first settlers were the three captain-donees and their respective families, a small group of members of the gentry, people of modest conditions and some former inmates of the kingdom.The majority of settlers were fishermen and peasant farmers who willingly left Portugal for a new life on the islands, a better one, they hoped, than was possible in a Portugal which had been ravaged by the Black Death, and where the best farmlands were strictly controlled by the nobility.To have minimum conditions for the development of agriculture on the island, the settlers had to chop down part of the dense forest and build a large number of water channels, called “levadas”, to carry the abundant waters on the north coast to the south coast of the island.", "Initially, the settlers produced wheat for their own sustenance but later began to export wheat to mainland Portugal.", "In earlier times, fish and vegetables were the settlers' main means of subsistence.Grain production began to fall and the ensuing crisis forced Henry the Navigator to order other commercial crops to be planted so that the islands could be profitable.", "These specialised plants, and their associated industrial technology, created one of the major revolutions on the islands and fuelled Portuguese industry.", "Following the introduction of the first water-driven sugar mill on Madeira, sugar production increased to over 6,000 ''arrobas'' (an ''arroba'' was equal to ) by 1455, using advisers from Sicily and financed by Genoese capital (Genoa acted as an integral part of the island economy until the 17th century).", "The accessibility of Madeira attracted Genoese and Flemish traders, who were keen to bypass Venetian monopolies.Sugarcane production was the primary engine of the island's economy, which quickly afforded the Funchal metropolis economic prosperity.", "The production of sugar cane attracted adventurers and merchants from all parts of Europe, especially Italians, Basques, Catalans, and Flemish.", "This meant that, in the second half of the fifteenth century, the city of Funchal became a mandatory port of call for European trade routes.Slaves were used during the island's period of sugar trade to cultivate sugar cane alongside paid workers, though slave owners were only a small minority of the Madeiran population, and those who did own slaves owned only a few.", "Slaves consisted of Guanches from the nearby Canary islands, captured Berbers from the conquest of Ceuta and West Africans after further exploration of the African coast.", "Barbary corsairs from North Africa, who enslaved Europeans from ships and coastal communities throughout the Mediterranean region, captured 1,200 people in Porto Santo in 1617.Until the first half of the sixteenth century, Madeira was one of the major sugar markets of the Atlantic.", "Apparently it is in Madeira that, in the context of sugar production, slave labour was applied for the first time.", "The colonial system of sugar production was put into practice on the island of Madeira, on a much smaller scale, and later transferred, on a large scale, to other overseas production areas.Later on, this small scale of production was outmatched by Brazilian and São Tomean plantations.", "Madeiran sugar production declined in such a way that it was not enough for domestic needs, so that sugar was imported to the island from other Portuguese colonies.", "Sugar mills were gradually abandoned, with few remaining, which gave way to other markets in Madeira.", "In the 17th century, as Portuguese sugar production was shifted to Brazil, São Tomé and Príncipe and elsewhere, Madeira's most important commodity product became its wine.", "Sugar plantations were replaced by vineyards, originating in the so-called ‘Wine Culture’, which acquired international fame and provided the rise of a new social class, the Bourgeoisie.With the increase of commercial treaties with England, important English merchants settled on the Island and, ultimately, controlled the increasingly important island wine trade.", "The English traders settled in the Funchal as of the seventeenth century, consolidating the markets from North America, the West Indies and England itself.", "The Madeira Wine became very popular in the markets and it is also said to have been used in a toast during the Declaration of Independence by the Founding Fathers of the United States.Cathedral of Funchal with its tower of 15th-century Gothic style in the background In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Madeira stands out for its climate and therapeutic effects.", "In the nineteenth century, visitors to the island integrated four major groups: patients, travellers, tourists and scientists.", "Most visitors belonged to the moneyed aristocracy.As a result of a high demand for the season, there was a need to prepare guides for visitors.", "The first tourist guide of Madeira appeared in 1850 and focused on elements of history, geology, flora, fauna and customs of the island.", "Regarding hotel infrastructures, the British and the Germans were the first to launch the Madeiran hotel chain.", "The historic Belmond Reid's Palace opened in 1891 and is still open to this day.The British first amicably occupied the island in 1801 whereafter Colonel William Henry Clinton became governor.", "A detachment of the 85th Regiment of Foot under Lieutenant-colonel James Willoughby Gordon garrisoned the island.After the Peace of Amiens, British troops withdrew in 1802, only to reoccupy Madeira in 1807 until the end of the Peninsular War in 1814.In 1846 James Julius Wood wrote a series of seven sketches of the island.", "In 1856, British troops recovering from cholera, and widows and orphans of soldiers fallen in the Crimean War, were stationed in Funchal, Madeira.===World War I===During the Great War on 3 December 1916, a German U-boat, , captained by Max Valentiner, entered Funchal harbour on Madeira.", "''U-38'' torpedoed and sank three ships, bringing the war to Portugal by extension.", "The ships sunk were:* CS ''Dacia'' (), a British cable-laying vessel.", "''Dacia'' had previously undertaken war work off the coast of Casablanca and Dakar.", "It was in the process of diverting the German South American cable into Brest, France.", "* SS ''Kanguroo'' (), a French specialized \"heavy-lift\" transport.", "* ''Surprise'' (), a French gunboat.", "Her commander and 34 crewmen (including 7 Portuguese) were killed.After attacking the ships, ''U-38'' bombarded Funchal for two hours from a range of about .", "Batteries on Madeira returned fire and eventually forced ''U-38'' to withdraw.On 12 December 1917, two German U-boats, ''SM U-156'' and ''SM U-157'' (captained by Max Valentiner), again bombarded Funchal.", "This time the attack lasted around 30 minutes.", "The U-boats fired 40 shells.", "There were three fatalities and 17 wounded; a number of houses and Santa Clara church were hit.The last Austrian Emperor, Charles I, was exiled to Madeira after the war.", "Determined to prevent an attempt to restore Charles to the throne, the Council of Allied Powers agreed he could go into exile on Madeira because it was isolated in the Atlantic and easily guarded.", "He died there on 1 April 1922 and his coffin lies in a chapel of the Church of Our Lady of Monte." ], [ "Geography", "Distribution of the islands of the archipelago (not including the Savage Islands)Sights from Bica da Cana showing Madeira's high orographyThe archipelago of Madeira is located from the African coast and from the European continent (approximately a one-and-a-half-hour flight from the Portuguese capital of Lisbon).", "Madeira is found in the extreme south of the Tore-Madeira Ridge, a bathymetric structure of great dimensions oriented along a north-northeast to south-southwest axis that extends for .", "This submarine structure consists of long geomorphological relief that extends from the abyssal plain to ; its highest submersed point is at a depth of about (around latitude 36°N).", "The origins of the Tore-Madeira Ridge are not clearly established, but may have resulted from a morphological ''buckling'' of the lithosphere.===Islands and islets===* Madeira (), including Ilhéu de Agostinho, Ilhéu de São Lourenço, Ilhéu Mole (northwest); Total population: 262,456 (2011 Census).", "* Porto Santo (), including Ilhéu de Baixo ou da Cal, Ilhéu de Ferro, Ilhéu das Cenouras, Ilhéu de Fora, Ilhéu de Cima; Total population: 5,483 (2011 Census).", "* Desertas Islands (), including the three uninhabited islands: Deserta Grande Island, Bugio Island and Ilhéu de Chão.", "* Savage Islands (), archipelago 280 km south-southeast of Madeira Island including three main uninhabited islands and 16 islets in two groups: the Northwest Group (Selvagem Grande Island, Ilhéu de Palheiro da Terra, Ilhéu de Palheiro do Mar) and the Southeast Group (Selvagem Pequena Island, Ilhéu Grande, Ilhéu Sul, Ilhéu Pequeno, Ilhéu Fora, Ilhéu Alto, Ilhéu Comprido, Ilhéu Redondo, Ilhéu Norte).====Madeira Island====Seamounts of Northeastern Atlantic between Madeira and continental Portugal with Madeira archipelago on the bottom left cornerDetailed, true-colour image of Madeira.", "The image shows that deep green laurel forest (''laurissilva'') survives intact on the steep northern slopes of the island, but in the south, where terrain is gentler, the terracotta colour of towns and the light green colour of agriculture are more dominantThe island of Madeira is at the top of a massive shield volcano that rises about from the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, on the Tore underwater mountain range.", "The volcano formed atop an east–west rift in the oceanic crust along the African Plate, beginning during the Miocene epoch over 5 million years ago, continuing into the Pleistocene until about 700,000 years ago.", "This was followed by extensive erosion, producing two large amphitheatres open to south in the central part of the island.", "Volcanic activity later resumed, producing scoria cones and lava flows atop the older eroded shield.", "The most recent volcanic eruptions were on the west-central part of the island only 6,500 years ago, creating more cinder cones and lava flows.It is the largest island of the group with an area of , a length of (from Ponte de São Lourenço to Ponta do Pargo), while approximately at its widest point (from Ponta da Cruz to Ponta de São Jorge), with a coastline of .", "It has a mountain ridge that extends along the centre of the island, reaching at its highest point (Pico Ruivo), while much lower (below 200 metres) along its eastern extent.", "The primitive volcanic foci responsible for the central mountainous area, consisted of the peaks: Ruivo (1,862 m), Torres (1,851 m), Arieiro (1,818 m), Cidrão (1,802 m), Cedro (1,759 m), Casado (1,725 m), Grande (1,657 m), Ferreiro (1,582 m).", "At the end of this eruptive phase, an island circled by reefs was formed, its marine vestiges are evident in a calcareous layer in the area of Lameiros, in São Vicente (which was later explored for calcium oxide production).", "Sea cliffs, such as Cabo Girão, valleys and ravines extend from this central spine, making the interior generally inaccessible.", "Daily life is concentrated in the many villages at the mouths of the ravines, through which the heavy rains of autumn and winter usually travel to the sea.===Climate===Madeira has many different bioclimates.Based on differences in sun exposure, humidity, and annual mean temperature, there are clear variations between north- and south-facing regions, as well as between some islands.", "The islands are strongly influenced by the Gulf Stream and Canary Current, giving it mild to warm year-round temperatures; according to the Instituto de Meteorologia (IPMA), the average annual temperature at Funchal weather station is for the 1981–2010 period.", "Relief is a determinant factor on precipitation levels, areas such as the Madeira Natural Park can get as much as of precipitation a year hosting green lush laurel forests, while Porto Santo, being a much flatter island, has a semiarid climate (''BSh'').", "In most winters snowfall occurs in the mountains of Madeira." ], [ "Flora and fauna", "Madeira island is home to several endemic plant and animal species.In the south, there is very little left of the indigenous subtropical rainforest that once covered the whole island (the original settlers set fire to the island to clear the land for farming) and gave it the name it now bears (''Madeira'' means \"wood\" in Portuguese).", "However, in the north, the valleys contain native trees of fine growth.", "These \"laurisilva\" forests (''laurissilva'' in Portuguese), notably the forests on the northern slopes of Madeira Island, are designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.", "The paleobotanical record of Madeira reveals that laurisilva forest has existed in this island for at least 1.8 million years.", "Critically endangered species such as the vine ''Jasminum azoricum'' and the rowan ''Sorbus maderensis'' are endemic to Madeira.", "The Madeiran large white butterfly was an endemic subspecies of the Large white which inhabited the laurisilva forests but has not been seen since 1977 so may now be extinct.===Madeiran wall lizard===Madeiran wall lizard (''Teira dugesii'') captured in Levada do Norte, MadeiraThe Madeiran wall lizard (''Teira dugesii'') is a species of lizard in the family Lacertidae.", "The species is endemic to the Island where it is very common, ranging from sea coasts to altitudes of .", "It is usually found in rocky places or among scrub and may climb into trees.", "It is also found in gardens and on the walls of buildings.", "It feeds on small invertebrates such as ants and also eats some vegetable matter.", "The tail is easily shed and the stump regenerates slowly.", "The colouring is variable and tends to match the colour of the animal's surroundings, being some shade of brown or grey with occasionally a greenish tinge.", "Most animals are finely flecked with darker markings.", "The underparts are white or cream, sometimes with dark spots, with some males having orange or red underparts and blue throats, but these bright colours may fade if the animal is disturbed.", "The Madeiran wall lizard grows to a snout-to-vent length of about with a tail about 1.7 times the length of its body.", "Females lay two to three clutches of eggs in a year with the juveniles being about when they hatch.=== Madeiran wolf spider ===''Hogna ingens'', the Deserta Grande wolf spider, is endemic to the Madeira archipelago, specifically Deserta Grande Island.", "It is critically endangered.", "It is considered the largest member of its family in the world.", "Efforts are underway to restore its population.===Endemic birds===Three species of birds are endemic to Madeira: the Trocaz pigeon, the Madeira Chaffinch and the Madeira firecrest.", "In addition to these are several extinct species which may have died out soon after the islands were settled: the Madeiran scops owl, two rail species, ''Rallus adolfocaesaris'' and ''R.", "lowei'', and two quail species, ''Coturnix lignorum'' and ''C.", "alabrevis'', and the Madeiran wood pigeon, a subspecies of the widespread common wood pigeon and which was last seen in the early 20th century.A Great Auk bone is known from the Selvagens, suggesting this seabird occurred at least sporadically on these islands.===Indigenous mice===Madeira is home to six species of brown mice, believed to be descendants of common European brown mice brought to the island by Vikings in the 9th century (or conceivably by Portuguese settlers in the 15th century), but diversified to the point where they cannot breed with their ancestral species or with one another.", "They have essentially the same genes as one another, but rearranged in various ways to give different chromosome numbers: the ancestral species has 40 chromosomes, whereas the Madeira species have from 22 to 30.The deep valleys of Madeira are separated by high ground, and the different species of mice do not meet one another." ], [ "Levadas", "Levada near RabaçalThe island of Madeira is wet in the northwest, but dry in the southeast.", "In the 16th century the Portuguese started building levadas or aqueducts to carry water to the agricultural regions in the south.", "Madeira is very mountainous, and building the levadas was difficult and often convicts or slaves were used.", "Many are cut into the sides of mountains, and it was also necessary to dig of tunnels, some of which are still accessible.Today the levadas not only supply water to the southern parts of the island, but provide hydro-electric power.", "There are over of levadas and they provide a network of walking paths.", "Some provide easy and relaxing walks through the countryside, but others are narrow, crumbling ledges where a slip could result in serious injury or death.", "Since 2011, some improvements have been made to these pathways, after the 2010 Madeira floods and mudslides on the island, to clean and reconstruct some critical parts of the island, including the levadas.", "Such improvements involved the continuous maintenance of the water streams, cementing the trails, and positioning safety fences on dangerous paths.Two of the most popular levadas to hike are the ''Levada do Caldeirão Verde'' and the ''Levada do Caldeirão do Inferno'', which should not be attempted by hikers prone to vertigo or without torches and helmets.", "The ''Levada do Caniçal'' is a much easier walk, running from Maroços to the ''Caniçal Tunnel''.", "It is known as the ''mimosa levada'', because \"mimosa\" trees, (the colloquial name for invasive acacia) are found all along the route." ], [ "Politics", "=== Political autonomy ===Due to its distinct geography, economy, social and cultural situation, as well as the historical autonomic aspirations of the Madeiran island population, the Autonomous Regions of Madeira was established in 1976.Although it is a politico-administrative autonomic region the Portuguese constitution specifies both a regional and national connection, obliging their administrations to maintain democratic principles and promote regional interests, while still reinforcing national unity.As defined by the Portuguese constitution and other laws, Madeira possesses its own political and administrative statute and has its own government.", "The branches of Government are the Regional Government and the Legislative Assembly, the latter being elected by universal suffrage, using the D'Hondt method of proportional representation.The president of the Regional Government is appointed by the Representative of the Republic according to the results of the election to the legislative assemblies.The sovereignty of the Portuguese Republic was represented in Madeira by the Minister of the Republic, proposed by the Government of the Republic and appointed by the President of the Republic.", "However, after the sixth amendment to the Portuguese Constitution was passed in 2006, the Minister of the Republic was replaced by a less-powerful Representative of the Republic who is appointed by the President, after listening to the Government, but otherwise it is a presidential prerogative.", "The other tasks of Representative of the Republic are to sign and order the publication of regional legislative decrees and regional regulatory decrees or to exercise the right of veto over regional laws, should these laws be unconstitutional.=== Status within the European Union ===overseas countries and territories (OCT) and outermost regions (OMR) for which Madeira is includedMadeira is also an Outermost Region (OMR) of the European Union, meaning that due to its geographical situation, it is entitled to derogation from some EU policies despite being part of the European Union.According to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, both primary and secondary European Union law applies automatically to Madeira, with possible derogations to take account of its \"structural social and economic situation (...) which is compounded by their remoteness, insularity, small size, difficult topography and climate, economic dependence on a few products, the permanence and combination of which severely restrain their development\".", "An example of such derogation is seen in the approval of the International Business Centre of Madeira and other state aid policies to help the rum industry.It forms part of the European Union customs area, the Schengen Area and the European Union Value Added Tax Area.=== Foreign relations and defence ===As an autonomous but integral region of Portugal, foreign affairs and defence are the responsibility of the national government.", "The Madeira Military Zone is the Portuguese Army's command for ground forces stationed in the islands centering on the 3rd Garrison Regiment based at Funchal.", "The Navy tasks the patrol vessels ''Tejo'' and ''Mondego'' specifically to Madeira, as well as other vessels as required, in order to patrol Portugal's large economic zone around the islands.", "To support search and rescue, the Portuguese Air Force maintains a staging base on Porto Santo Island incorporating detachments of C-295 aircraft and Merlin helicopters.=== Administrative divisions ===Municipalities of MadeiraAdministratively, Madeira (with a population of 251,060 inhabitants in 2021) and covering an area of is organised into fifty four parishes and eleven municipalities:+'''Municipality''''''Population'''(2011)'''Area''''''Main settlement''''''Parishes'''Funchal 111,892 Funchal 10Santa Cruz 43,005 Santa Cruz 5Câmara de Lobos 35,666 Câmara de Lobos 5Machico 21,828 Machico 5Ribeira Brava 13,375 Ribeira Brava 4Calheta 11,521 Calheta 8Ponta do Sol 8,862 Ponta do Sol 3Santana 7,719 Santana 6São Vicente 5,723 São Vicente 3Porto Santo 5,483 Vila Baleira 1Porto Moniz 2,711 Porto Moniz 4===Funchal===Funchal is the capital and principal city of the Autonomous Region of Madeira, located along the southern coast of the island of Madeira.", "It is a modern city, located within a natural geological \"amphitheatre\" composed of vulcanological structure and fluvial hydrological forces.", "Beginning at the harbour (Porto de Funchal), the neighbourhoods and streets rise almost , along gentle slopes that helped to provide a natural shelter to the early settlers." ], [ "Population", "===Demographics===The island was settled by Portuguese people, especially farmers from the Minho region, meaning that Madeirans (), as they are called, are ethnically Portuguese, though they have developed their own distinct regional identity and cultural traits.The region of Madeira and Porto Santo has a total population of just under 256,060, the majority of whom live on the main island of Madeira 251,060 where the population density is ; meanwhile only around 5,000 live on the Porto Santo island where the population density is .About 247,000 (96%) of the population are Catholic and Funchal is the location of the Catholic cathedral.===Diaspora===Madeirans migrated to the United States, Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, South Africa and Trinidad and Tobago.", "Madeiran immigrants in North America mostly clustered in the New England and mid-Atlantic states, Toronto, Northern California, and Hawaii.", "The city of New Bedford is especially rich in Madeirans, hosting the Museum of Madeira Heritage, as well as the annual Madeiran and Luso-American celebration, the Feast of the Blessed Sacrament, the world's largest celebration of Madeiran heritage, regularly drawing crowds of tens of thousands to the city's Madeira Field.Portuguese immigrants in Hawaii were of Madeiran originIn 1846, when a famine struck Madeira over 6,000 of the inhabitants migrated to British Guiana.", "In 1891 they numbered 4.3% of the population.", "In 1902 in Honolulu, Hawaii there were 5,000 Portuguese people, mostly Madeirans.", "In 1910 this grew to 21,000.1849 saw an emigration of Protestant religious exiles from Madeira to the United States, by way of Trinidad and other locations in the West Indies.", "Most of them settled in Illinois with financial and physical aid of the American Protestant Society, headquartered in New York City.", "In the late 1830s the Reverend Robert Reid Kalley, from Scotland, a Presbyterian minister as well as a physician, made a stop at Funchal, Madeira on his way to a mission in China, with his wife, so that she could recover from an illness.", "The Rev.", "Kalley and his wife stayed on Madeira where he began preaching the Protestant gospel and converting islanders from Catholicism.", "Eventually, the Rev.", "Kalley was arrested for his religious conversion activities and imprisoned.", "Another missionary from Scotland, William Hepburn Hewitson, took on Protestant ministerial activities in Madeira.", "By 1846, about 1,000 Protestant Madeirenses, who were discriminated against and the subjects of mob violence because of their religious conversions, chose to immigrate to Trinidad and other locations in the West Indies in answer for a call for sugar plantation workers.", "The Madeiran exiles did not fare well in the West Indies.", "The tropical climate was unfamiliar and they found themselves in serious economic difficulties.", "By 1848, the American Protestant Society raised money and sent the Rev.", "Manuel J. Gonsalves, a Baptist minister and a naturalized U.S. citizen from Madeira, to work with the Rev.", "Arsénio da Silva, who had emigrated with the exiles from Madeira, to arrange to resettle those who wanted to come to the United States.", "The Rev.", "da Silva died in early 1849.Later in 1849, the Rev.", "Gonsalves was then charged with escorting the exiles from Trinidad to be settled in Sangamon and Morgan counties in Illinois on land purchased with funds raised by the American Protestant Society.", "Accounts state that anywhere from 700 to 1,000 exiles came to the United States at this time.There are several large Madeiran communities around the world, such as the number in the UK, including Jersey, the Portuguese British community mostly made up of Madeirans celebrate Madeira Day.In Venezuela the Madeiran Portuguese settled in cities such as Caracas and rural areas of the interior.", "According to figures from the 1990s, around 70% of the Portuguese diaspora in that country was made up of Madeirans and their descendants, initially dedicated to activities such as agriculture, but later, due to the lack of government support, the emigrants concentrated on commerce in the large Venezuelan cities.", "Among the companies founded by Portuguese Madeirans in Venezuela are Central Madeirense, Excelsior Gama, Supermercados Unicasa and Automercados Plaza.===Immigration===Madeira is part of the Schengen Area.In December 2021, the largest foreign community was the Venezuelans (2,443), followed by the British (1,220), Brazilians (1,013), Germans (890) and Italians (614).", "The Venezuelan community dramatically increased in number due to migration fueled by the socioeconomic crisis in Venezuela." ], [ "Economy", "The gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 4.9 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 2.4% of Portugal's economic output.", "GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 22,500 euros or 75% of the EU27 average in the same year.", "The GDP per employee was 71% of the EU average.Madeira has embraced Bitcoin by implementing policies that exempt Bitcoin investors from paying personal income taxes in the region.Madeira Regional Government President Miguel Albuquerque has confirmed the inauguration of a business hub focused solely on Bitcoin and related innovations.", "Speaking in a dialogue with Prince Filip Karađorđević of Serbia at Bitcoin Amsterdam 2023, the move has been framed as a significant step toward technological advancements and international partnerships.===Madeira International Business Center===View of Madeiran mountains from FunchalCaniçal on the left and Madeira Free Trade (Industrial) Zone on the rightThe setting-up of a free trade zone, also known as the Madeira International Business Center (MIBC) has led to the installation, under more favorable conditions, of infrastructure, production shops and essential services for small and medium-sized industrial enterprises.", "The International Business Centre of Madeira comprises presently three sectors of investment: the Industrial Free Trade Zone, the International Shipping Register – MAR and the International Services.", "Madeira's tax regime has been approved by the European Commission as legal State Aid and its deadline has recently been extended by the E.C.", "until the end of 2027.The International Business Center of Madeira, also known as Madeira Free Trade Zone, was created formally in the 1980s as a tool of regional economic policy.", "It consists of a set of incentives, mainly of a tax nature, granted with the objective of attracting inward investment into Madeira, recognized as the most efficient mechanism to modernize, diversify and internationalize the regional economy.", "The decision to create the International Business Center of Madeira was the result of a thorough process of analysis and study.", "Since the beginning, favorable operational and fiscal conditions have been offered in the context of a preferential tax regime, fully recognized and approved by the European Commission in the framework of State aid for regional purposes and under the terms for the Ultra-peripheral Regions set in the Treaties, namely Article 299 of the Treaty on European Union.", "The IBC of Madeira has therefore been fully integrated in the Portuguese and EU legal systems and, as a consequence, it is regulated and supervised by the competent Portuguese and EU authorities in a transparent and stable business environment, marking a clear difference from the so-called \"tax havens\" and \"offshore jurisdictions\", since its inception.", "In 2015, the European Commission authorized the new state aid regime for new companies incorporated between 2015 and 2020 and the extension of the deadline of the tax reductions until the end of 2027.The present tax regime is outlined in Article 36°-A of the Portuguese Tax Incentives Statute.", "Available data clearly demonstrates the contribution that this development programme has brought to the local economy over its 20 years of existence: impact in the local labor market, through the creation of qualified jobs for the young population but also for Madeiran professionals who have returned to Madeira thanks to the opportunities now created; an increase in productivity due to the transfer of know how and the implementation of new business practices and technologies; indirect influence on other sectors of activity: business tourism benefits from the visits of investors and their clients and suppliers, and other sectors such as real estate, telecommunications and other services benefit from the growth of their client base; impact on direct sources of revenue: the companies attracted by the IBC of Madeira represent over 40% of the revenue in terms of corporate income tax for the Government of Madeira and nearly 3.000 jobs, most of which qualified, among other benefits.", "Also there are above average salaries paid by the companies in the IBC of Madeira in comparison with the wages paid in the other sectors of activity in Madeira.=== Regional government ===Madeira has been a significant recipient of European Union funding, totaling up to €2 billion.", "In 2012, it was reported that despite a population of just 250,000, the local administration owes some €6 billion.", "Furthermore, the Portuguese treasury (IGCP) assumed Madeira's debt management between 2012 and 2015.The region continues to work with the central government on a long-term plan to reduce its debt levels and commercial debt stock.", "Moody's notes that the region has made significant fiscal consolidation efforts and that its tax revenue collection has increased significantly in recent years due to tax rate hikes.", "Madeira's tax revenues increased by 41% between 2012 and 2016, helping the region to reduce its deficit to operating revenue ratio to 10% in 2016 from 77% in 2013.===Tourism===Calheta BeachTourism is an important sector in the region's economy, contributing 20% to the region's GDP, providing support throughout the year for commercial, transport and other activities and constituting a significant market for local products.", "The share in Gross Value Added of hotels and restaurants (9%) also highlights this phenomenon.", "The island of Porto Santo, with its beach and its climate, is entirely devoted to tourism.Visitors are mainly from Europe, with Portuguese, British, German and French tourists providing the main contingents (2021).", "The average annual occupancy rate was 60.3% in 2008, reaching its maximum in March and April, when it exceeds 70%.==== Whale watching ====Whale watching has become very popular in recent years.", "Many species of dolphins, such as common dolphin, spotted dolphin, striped dolphin, bottlenose dolphin, short-finned pilot whale, and whales such as Bryde's whale, Sei whale, fin whale, sperm whale, beaked whales can be spotted near the coast or offshore." ], [ "Sustainable development", "Electricity on Madeira is provided solely through EEM (Empresa de Electricidade da Madeira, SA, which holds a monopoly for the provision of electrical supply on the autonomous region) and consists largely of fossil fuels, but with a significant supply of seasonal hydroelectricity from the levada system, wind power and a small amount of solar.", "Energy production comes from conventional thermal and hydropower, as well as wind and solar energy.", "The Ribeira dos Soccoridos hydropower plant, rated at 15MW utilises a pumped hydropower reservoir to recycle mountain water during the dry summer.In 2011, renewable energy formed 26.5% of the electricity used in Madeira.", "By 2020, half of Madeira's energy will come from renewable energy sources.", "This is due to the planned completion of the Pico da Urze / Calheta pumped storage hydropower plant, rated at 30MW.Battery technologies are being tested to minimise Madeira's reliance on fossil fuel imports.", "Renault SA and EEM piloted the Sustainable Porto Santo—Smart Fossil Free Island project on Porto Santo to demonstrate how fossil fuels can be entirely replaced with renewable energy, using a 3.3 MWh battery.", "Madeira operates a 15 MW 1-hour lithium iron phosphate battery with black start capability.In the first half of 2022, 33% of the electricity consumed on the Portuguese archipelago of Madeira was sourced from renewable energy, a milestone achieved through a collaborative initiative co-funded by the European Union (EU).Central to this accomplishment are the centuries-old stone pipes known as levadas, spanning thousands of kilometers and dating back to the fifteenth century.", "These levadas efficiently transport rainwater from northern regions to the south, serving various purposes such as human consumption, agriculture, and electricity production.The Socorridos hydroelectric power station, fueled by water conveyed through the levadas, stands as the island's principal hydraulic system, providing power consistently throughout the year.", "A significant aspect of the EU-funded multi-million euro project involved enhancing water storage capacity, including the construction of a 5.4-kilometer tunnel and additional mountain tunnels, presenting formidable engineering challenges.Wind power complements the system, facilitating the movement of stored water uphill during peak demand periods.", "The treated water serves dual purposes—human consumption and agriculture—while also functioning as a renewable energy source.", "Nuno Jorge Pereira, Water Production Director for Wood, Water, and Waste (ARM), elucidates the strategic use of water volumes to adapt to energy production levels.This ambitious €34.7 million project, with €17.3 million co-financed by the European Cohesion Policy, not only mitigates concerns about drought but also earned acclaim as one of the best EU co-funded projects in the EGIOSTAR Awards.The optimized Socorridos plant has notably alleviated water-related challenges for local farmers, exemplified by Francisco Gonçalves Faria, a banana grower, expressing enhanced efficiency and improved irrigation for his plantation.", "The success of this initiative, celebrated for its sustainable impact, underscores the EU's commitment to fostering resilient and innovative solutions in renewable energy and water management." ], [ "Transport", "A ferry makes daily trips between Madeira and Porto Santo.The islands have two airports, Cristiano Ronaldo International Airport and Porto Santo Airport, on the islands of Madeira and Porto Santo respectively.", "From Cristiano Ronaldo International Airport the most frequent flights are to Lisbon.", "There are also direct flights to over 30 other airports in Europe and nearby islands.Transport between the two main islands is by plane, or ferries from the Porto Santo Line, the latter also carrying vehicles.", "Visiting the interior of the islands is now easy thanks to construction of the ''Vias Rápidas'', major roads that cross the island.", "Modern roads reach all points of interest on the islands.Funchal has an extensive public transportation system.", "Bus companies, including Horários do Funchal, which has been operating for over a hundred years, have regularly scheduled routes to all points of interest on the island." ], [ "Culture", "===Music===Bailinho da MadeiraFolklore music in Madeira is widespread and mainly uses local musical instruments such as the machete, rajão, brinquinho and cavaquinho, which are used in traditional folkloric dances like the .Emigrants from Madeira also influenced the creation of new musical instruments.", "In the 1880s, the ukulele was created, based on two small guitar-like instruments of Madeiran origin, the cavaquinho and the rajão.", "The ukulele was introduced to the Hawaiian Islands by Portuguese immigrants from Madeira and Cape Verde.", "Three immigrants in particular, Madeiran cabinet makers Manuel Nunes, José do Espírito Santo, and Augusto Dias, are generally credited as the first ukulele makers.", "Two weeks after they disembarked from the ''SS Ravenscrag'' in late August 1879, the ''Hawaiian Gazette'' reported that \"Madeira Islanders recently arrived here, have been delighting the people with nightly street concerts.", "\"===Cuisine===\"Lapas\", the true limpet species ''Patella vulgata''Because of the geographic situation of Madeira in the Atlantic Ocean, the island has an abundance of fish of various kinds.", "The species that are consumed the most are espada (black scabbardfish), blue fin tuna, swordfish, white marlin, blue marlin, albacore, bigeye tuna, wahoo, spearfish, skipjack tuna and many others are found in the local dishes as they are found along the coast of Madeira.", "Espada is usually fried in a batter and accompanied by fried banana (Espada com banana) and sometimes a passionfruit sauce.", "Bacalhau is also popular, as it is in Mainland Portugal.Black scabbardfish ''(espada)'', São Vicente, MadeiraThere are many different meat dishes on Madeira, one of the most popular being espetada.", "Espetada is traditionally made of large chunks of beef rubbed in garlic, salt and bay leaf and marinated for 4 to 6 hours in Madeira wine, red wine vinegar and olive oil then skewered onto a bay laurel stick and left to grill over smouldering wood chips.", "These are so integral a part of traditional eating habits that a special iron stand is available with a T-shaped end, each branch of the \"T\" having a slot in the middle to hold a brochette (espeto in Portuguese); a small plate is then placed underneath to collect the juices.", "The brochettes are very long and have a V-shaped blade in order to pierce the meat more easily.", "It is usually accompanied with the local bread called bolo do caco.", "A traditional holiday dish is \"Carne de Vinho e Alhos\", which is most closely associated with the pig slaughter that was held a few weeks before Christmas.", "A big event, traditionally it was attended by everyone in the village.", "The dish is made of pork which marinates for three days in white wine, vinegar, salt, and pepper and is then cooked with small potatoes, sliced carrots, and turnip.", "Another common meat dish is “Picado\" - cubed beef cooked in a mushroom sauce and accompanied by fries.Other popular dishes in Madeira include açorda, feijoada and carne de vinha d'alhos.Traditional pastries in Madeira usually contain local ingredients, one of the most common being ''mel de cana'', literally \"sugarcane honey\" (molasses).", "The traditional cake of Madeira is called ''Bolo de Mel'', which translates as (Sugarcane) \"Honey Cake\" and according to custom, is never cut with a knife, but broken into pieces by hand.", "It is a rich and heavy cake.", "The cake commonly known as \"Madeira cake\" in England is named after Madeira wine.Malasadas are a local confection which are mainly consumed during the Carnival of Madeira.", "Pastéis de nata, as in the rest of Portugal, are also very popular.Milho frito is a popular dish in Madeira that is similar to the Italian dish polenta fritta.", "Açorda Madeirense is another popular local dish.Madeira is known for the high quality of its cherimoya fruits.", "The Annona Festival is traditional and held annually in the parish of Faial.", "This event encourages the consumption of this fruit and its derivatives, such as liqueurs, puddings, ice cream and smoothies.=== Beverages ===Bottles of Madeira labelled by the different grape varieties used to produce the many styles of wineCoral Beer, produced since 1872 in the Island's main brewery, has achieved several Monde Selection medalsMadeira is a fortified wine, produced in the Madeira Islands; varieties may be sweet or dry.", "It has a history dating back to the Age of Exploration when Madeira was a standard port of call for ships heading to the New World or East Indies.", "To prevent the wine from spoiling, neutral grape spirits were added.", "However, wine producers of Madeira discovered, when an unsold shipment of wine returned to the islands after a round trip, that the flavour of the wine had been transformed by exposure to heat and movement.", "Today, Madeira is noted for its unique winemaking process that involves heating the wine and deliberately exposing the wine to some levels of oxidation.", "Most countries limit the use of the term ''Madeira'' to those wines that come from the Madeira Islands, to which the European Union grants Protected designation of origin (PDO) status.A local beer called Coral is produced by the Madeira Brewery, which dates from 1872.It has achieved 2 Monde Selection Grand Gold Medals, 24 Monde Selection Gold Medals and 2 Monde Selection Silver Medals.", "Other alcoholic drinks are also popular in Madeira, such as the locally created Poncha, Niquita, Pé de Cabra, Aniz, as well as Portuguese drinks such as Macieira Brandy, Licor Beirão.Laranjada is a type of carbonated soft drink with an orange flavour, its name being derived from the Portuguese word ''laranja'' (\"orange\").", "Launched in 1872 it was the first soft drink to be produced in Portugal, and remains very popular to the present day.", "Brisa drinks, a brand name, are also very popular and come in a range of flavours.There is a coffee culture in Madeira." ], [ "Sports", "Monument in Camacha, celebrating the first ever organised football game in PortugalFootball is the most popular sport in Madeira and the island was indeed the first place in Portugal to host a match, organised by British residents in 1875.The island is the birthplace of international star Cristiano Ronaldo and is home to two prominent teams, C.S.", "Marítimo and C.D.", "Nacional.As well as football, the island is also home to professional sports teams in basketball (CAB Madeira) and handball (Madeira Andebol SAD, who were runners up in the 2019 European Challenge Cup).", "Madeira was also the host of the 2003 World Handball Championship.The Rally Vinho da Madeira is a rally race held annually since 1959, considered one of the biggest sporting events on the island It was part of the European Rally Championship from 1979 to 2012 and the Intercontinental Rally Challenge from 2006 to 2010.Other popular sporting activities include golf at one of the island's two courses (plus one on Porto Santo), surfing, scuba diving, and hiking." ], [ "Sister provinces", "Madeira Island has the following sister provinces:: Aosta Valley, Italy (1987): Jersey (1998): Eastern Cape, South Africa: Jeju Province, South Korea (2007): Gibraltar (2009)" ], [ "Postage stamps", "Portugal has issued postage stamps for Madeira during several periods, beginning in 1868." ], [ "See also", "* \"Have Some Madeira M'Dear\"* Geology of Madeira* List of birds of Madeira* Madeira Islands Open, an annual European Tour golf tournament* Surfing in Madeira*Islands of Macaronesia**Azores**Cabo Verde**Canary Islands" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* World History Encyclopedia - The Portuguese Colonization of Madeira* * Madeira's Government Website* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "M16 rifle" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''M16 rifle''' (officially designated '''Rifle, Caliber 5.56 mm, M16''') is a family of military rifles adapted from the ArmaLite AR-15 rifle for the United States military.", "The original M16 rifle was a 5.56×45mm automatic rifle with a 20-round magazine.In 1964, the M16 entered US military service and the following year was deployed for jungle warfare operations during the Vietnam War.", "In 1969, the M16A1 replaced the M14 rifle to become the US military's standard service rifle.", "The M16A1 incorporated numerous modifications including a bolt-assist, chrome-plated bore, protective reinforcement around the magazine release, and revised flash hider.In 1983, the US Marine Corps adopted the M16A2 rifle, and the US Army adopted it in 1986.The M16A2 fires the improved 5.56×45mm (M855/SS109) cartridge and has a newer adjustable rear sight, case deflector, heavy barrel, improved handguard, pistol grip, and buttstock, as well as a semi-auto and three-round burst fire selector.", "Adopted in July 1997, the M16A4 is the fourth generation of the M16 series.", "It is equipped with a removable carrying handle and Picatinny rail for mounting optics and other ancillary devices.The M16 has also been widely adopted by other armed forces around the world.", "Total worldwide production of M16s is approximately 8 million, making it the most-produced firearm of its 5.56 mm caliber.", "The US military has largely replaced the M16 in frontline combat units with a shorter and lighter version, the M4 carbine.In April 2022, the U.S. Army selected the SIG MCX SPEAR as the winner of the Next Generation Squad Weapon Program to replace the M16/M4.The rifle is designated XM7." ], [ "History", "===Background===In 1928, a U.S. Army 'Caliber Board' conducted firing tests at Aberdeen Proving Ground and recommended transitioning to smaller caliber rounds, mentioning, in particular caliber.", "Largely in deference to tradition, this recommendation was ignored and the Army referred to the caliber as \"full-sized\" for the next 35 years.", "After World War II, the United States military started looking for a single automatic rifle to replace the M1 Garand, M1/M2 Carbines, M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle, M3 \"Grease Gun\" and Thompson submachine gun.", "However, early experiments with select-fire versions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing.", "During the Korean War, the select-fire M2 carbine largely replaced the submachine gun in US service and became the most widely used carbine variant.", "However, combat experience suggested that the .30 Carbine round was underpowered.", "American weapons designers concluded that an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended a small-caliber, high-velocity cartridge.However, senior American commanders, having faced fanatical enemies and experienced major logistical problems during World War II and the Korean War, insisted that a single, powerful .30 caliber cartridge be developed, that could not only be used by the new automatic rifle but by the new general-purpose machine gun (GPMG) in concurrent development.", "This culminated in the development of the 7.62×51 mm NATO cartridge.The U.S. Army then began testing several rifles to replace the obsolete M1.Springfield Armory's T44E4 and heavier T44E5 were essentially updated versions of the M1 chambered for the new 7.62 mm round, while Fabrique Nationale submitted their FN FAL as the T48.ArmaLite entered the competition late, hurriedly submitting several AR-10 prototype rifles in the fall of 1956 to the U.S. Army's Springfield Armory for testing.", "The AR-10 featured an innovative straight-line barrel/stock design, forged aluminum alloy receivers, and with phenolic composite stocks.", "It had rugged elevated sights, an oversized aluminum flash suppressor and recoil compensator, and an adjustable gas system.", "The final prototype featured an upper and lower receiver with the now-familiar hinge and takedown pins, and the charging handle was on top of the receiver placed inside of the carry handle.", "For a 7.62 mm NATO rifle, the AR-10 was incredibly lightweight at only empty.", "Initial comments by Springfield Armory test staff were favorable, and some testers commented that the AR-10 was the best lightweight automatic rifle ever tested by the Armory.", "In the end, the U.S. Army chose the T44, now named the M14 rifle, which was an improved M1 Garand with a 20-round magazine and automatic fire capability.", "The U.S. also adopted the M60 general-purpose machine gun (GPMG).", "Its NATO partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 rifles, as well as the FN MAG and Rheinmetall MG3 GPMGs.The first confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14 came in the early part of the Vietnam War.", "Battlefield reports indicated that the M14 was uncontrollable in full-auto and that soldiers could not carry enough ammunition to maintain fire superiority over the AK-47.And, while the M2 carbine offered a high rate of fire, it was under-powered and ultimately outclassed by the AK-47.A replacement was needed: a medium between the traditional preference for high-powered rifles such as the M14, and the lightweight firepower of the M2 Carbine.As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957 request by General Willard G. Wyman, commander of the U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC) to develop a .223-inch caliber (5.56 mm) select-fire rifle weighing when loaded with a 20-round magazine.", "The 5.56 mm round had to penetrate a standard U.S. helmet at and retain a velocity over the speed of sound while matching or exceeding the wounding ability of the .30 Carbine cartridge.This request ultimately resulted in the development of a scaled-down version of the Armalite AR-10, named the ArmaLite AR-15.The AR-15 was first revealed by Eugene Stoner at Fort Benning in May 1957.The AR-15 used .22-caliber bullets, which destabilized when they hit a human body, as opposed to the .30 round, which typically passed through in a straight line.", "The smaller caliber meant that it could be controlled in autofire due to the reduced bolt thrust and free recoil impulse.", "Being almost one-third the weight of the .30 meant that the soldier could sustain fire for longer with the same load.", "Due to design innovations, the AR-15 could fire 600 to 700 rounds a minute with an extremely low jamming rate.", "Parts were stamped out, not hand-machined, so they could be mass-produced, and the stock was plastic to reduce weight.In 1958, the Army's Combat Developments Experimentation Command ran experiments with small squads in combat situations using the M14, AR-15, and another rifle designed by Winchester.", "The resulting study recommended adopting a lightweight rifle like the AR-15.In response, the Army declared that all rifles and machine guns should use the same ammunition and ordered full production of the M14.However, advocates for the AR-15 gained the attention of Air Force Chief of Staff General Curtis LeMay.", "After testing the AR-15 with the ammunition manufactured by Remington that Armalite and Colt recommended, the Air Force declared that the AR-15 was its 'standard model' and ordered 8,500 rifles and 8.5 million rounds.", "Advocates for the AR-15 in the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency acquired 1,000 Air Force AR-15s and shipped them to be tested by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN).", "The South Vietnam soldiers issued glowing reports of the weapon's reliability, recording zero broken parts while firing 80,000 rounds in one stage of testing, and requiring only two replacement parts for the 1,000 weapons over the entire course of testing.", "The report of the experiment recommended that the U.S. provide the AR-15 as the standard rifle of the ARVN, but Admiral Harry Felt, then Commander in Chief of Pacific Forces, rejected the recommendations on the advice of the U.S. Army.Throughout 1962 and 1963, the U.S. military extensively tested the AR-15.Positive evaluations emphasized its lightness, \"lethality\", and reliability.", "However, the Army Materiel Command criticized its inaccuracy at longer ranges and lack of penetrating power at higher ranges.", "In early 1963, the U.S. Special Forces asked and was given permission, to make the AR-15 its standard weapon.", "Other users included Army Airborne units in Vietnam and some units affiliated with the Central Intelligence Agency.", "As more units adopted the AR-15, Secretary of the Army Cyrus Vance ordered an investigation into why the weapon had been rejected by the Army.", "The resulting report found that Army Materiel Command had rigged the previous tests, selecting tests that would favor the M14 and choosing match grade M14s to compete against AR-15s out of the box.", "At this point, the bureaucratic battle lines were well-defined, with the Army ordnance agencies opposed to the AR-15 and the Air Force and civilian leadership of the Defense Department in favor.In January 1963, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded that the AR-15 was the superior weapon system and ordered a halt to M14 production.", "In late 1963, the Defense Department began mass procurement of rifles for the Air Force and special Army units.", "Secretary McNamara designated the Army as the procurer for the weapon with the Department, which allowed the Army ordnance establishment to modify the weapon as they wished.", "The first modification was the addition of a \"manual bolt closure,\" allowing a soldier to ram in a round if it failed to seat properly.", "The Air Force, which was buying the rifle, and the Marine Corps, which had tested it both objected to this addition, with the Air Force noting, \"During three years of testing and operation of the AR-15 rifle under all types of conditions the Air Force has no record of malfunctions that could have been corrected by a manual bolt closing device.\"", "They also noted that the closure added weight and complexity, reducing the reliability of the weapon.", "Colonel Harold Yount, who managed the Army procurement, would later state the bolt closure was added after direction from senior leadership, rather than as a result of any complaint or test result, and testified about the reasons: \"the M-1, the M-14, and the carbine had always had something for the soldier to push on; that maybe this would be a comforting feeling to him or something.", "\"After modifications, the new redesigned rifle was subsequently adopted as the M16 Rifle:Despite its early failures the M16 proved to be a revolutionary design and stands as the longest continuously serving rifle in US military history.", "It has been adopted by many US allies and the 5.56×45 mm NATO cartridge has become not only the NATO standard but \"the standard assault-rifle cartridge in much of the world.\"", "It also led to the development of small-caliber high-velocity service rifles by every major army in the world.", "It is a benchmark against which other assault rifles are judged.===Adoption===In July 1960, General Curtis LeMay was impressed by a demonstration of the ArmaLite AR-15.In the summer of 1961, General LeMay was promoted to U.S. Air Force chief of staff and requested 80,000 AR-15s.", "However, General Maxwell D. Taylor, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, advised President John F. Kennedy that having two different calibers within the military system at the same time would be problematic and the request was rejected.", "In October 1961, William Godel, a senior man at the Advanced Research Projects Agency, sent 10 AR-15s to South Vietnam.", "The reception was enthusiastic, and in 1962 another 1,000 AR-15s were sent.", "United States Army Special Forces personnel filed battlefield reports lavishly praising the AR-15 and the stopping power of the 5.56 mm cartridge, and pressed for its adoption.The damage caused by the 5.56 mm bullet was originally believed to be caused by \"tumbling\" due to the slow 1 turn in rifling twist rate.", "However, any pointed lead core bullet will \"tumble\" after penetration into flesh, because the center of gravity is towards the rear of the bullet.", "The large wounds observed by soldiers in Vietnam were caused by bullet fragmentation created by a combination of the bullet's velocity and construction.", "These wounds were so devastating that the photographs remained classified into the 1980s.However, despite overwhelming evidence that the AR-15 could bring more firepower to bear than the M14, the Army opposed the adoption of the new rifle.", "U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara now had two conflicting views: the ARPA report favoring the AR-15 and the Army's position favoring the M14.Even President Kennedy expressed concern, so McNamara ordered Secretary of the Army, Cyrus Vance, to test the M14, the AR-15, and the AK-47.The Army reported that only the M14 was suitable for service, but Vance wondered about the impartiality of those conducting the tests.", "He ordered the Army Inspector General to investigate the testing methods used; the inspector general confirmed that the testers were biased toward the M14.M16A1, M16A2, M4A1, M16A4 In January 1963, Secretary McNamara received reports that M14 production was insufficient to meet the needs of the armed forces and ordered a halt to M14 production.", "At the time, the AR-15 was the only rifle that could fulfill a requirement of a \"universal\" infantry weapon for issue to all services.", "McNamara ordered its adoption, despite receiving reports of several deficiencies, most notably the lack of a chrome-plated chamber.After modifications (most notably, the charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle like the AR-10, to the rear of the receiver), the newly redesigned rifle was renamed the ''Rifle, Caliber 5.56 mm, M16''.", "Inexplicably, the modification to the new M16 did not include a chrome-plated barrel.", "Meanwhile, the Army relented and recommended the adoption of the M16 for jungle warfare operations.", "However, the Army insisted on the inclusion of a forward assist to help push the bolt into battery if a cartridge failed to seat into the chamber.", "The Air Force, Colt, and Eugene Stoner believed that the addition of a forward assist was an unjustified expense.", "As a result, the design was split into two variants: the Air Force's M16 without the forward assist, and the XM16E1 with the forward assist for the other service branches.In November 1963, McNamara approved the U.S. Army's order of 85,000 XM16E1s; and to appease General LeMay, the Air Force was granted an order for another 19,000 M16s.", "In March 1964, the M16 rifle went into production and the Army accepted delivery of the first batch of 2,129 rifles later that year, and an additional 57,240 rifles the following year.In 1964, the Army was informed that DuPont could not mass-produce the IMR 4475 stick powder to the specifications demanded by the M16.Therefore, Olin Mathieson Company provided a high-performance ball propellant.", "While the Olin WC 846 powder achieved the desired per second muzzle velocity, it produced much more fouling, which quickly jammed the M16's action (unless the rifle was cleaned well and often).101st Airborne trooper cleans his XM16E1 during the Vietnam War in 1966In March 1965, the Army began to issue the XM16E1 to infantry units.", "However, the rifle was initially delivered without adequate cleaning kits or instructions because advertising from Colt asserted that the M16's materials made the weapon require little maintenance, leading to a misconception that it was capable of self-cleaning.", "Furthermore, cleaning was often conducted with improper equipment, such as insect repellent, water, and aircraft fuel, which induced further wear on the weapon.", "As a result, reports of stoppages in combat began to surface.", "The most severe problem was known as \"failure to extract\"—the spent cartridge case remained lodged in the chamber after the rifle was fired.", "Documented accounts of dead U.S. troops found next to disassembled rifles eventually led to a Congressional investigation:In February 1967, the improved XM16E1 was standardized as the M16A1.The new rifle had a chrome-plated chamber and bore to eliminate corrosion and stuck cartridges, and other minor modifications.", "New cleaning kits, powder solvents, and lubricants were also issued.", "Intensive training programs in weapons cleaning were instituted including a comic book-style operations manual.", "As a result, reliability problems were largely resolved and the M16A1 rifle achieved widespread acceptance by U.S. troops in Vietnam.In 1969, the M16A1 officially replaced the M14 rifle to become the U.S. military's standard service rifle.", "In 1970, the new WC 844 powder was introduced to reduce fouling.Colt, H&R, and GM Hydramatic Division manufactured M16A1 rifles during the Vietnam War.", "M16s were produced by Colt until the late 1980s when FN Herstal (FN USA) began to manufacture them." ], [ "Reliability", "The M16 gas redirect system, incorrectly labeled as direct impingement.", "The gif does not show the operating mechanism of the rifle, only the gas redirect system.During the early part of its service, the M16 had a reputation for poor reliability and a malfunction rate of two per 1000 rounds fired.", "The M16's action works by passing high-pressure propellant gasses, tapped from the barrel, down a tube and into the carrier group within the upper receiver.", "The gas goes from the gas tube, through the bolt carrier key, and into the inside of the carrier where it expands in a donut-shaped gas-piston cylinder.", "Because the bolt is prevented from moving forward by the barrel, the carrier is driven to the rear by the expanding gases and thus converts the energy of the gas to the movement of the rifle's parts.", "The back part of the bolt forms a piston head and the cavity in the bolt carrier is the piston sleeve.", "While the M16 is commonly said to use a direct impingement system, this is wrong, and it is instead correct to say it uses an ''internal piston'' system.This design is much lighter and more compact than a gas-piston design.", "However, this design requires that combustion byproducts from the discharged cartridge be blown into the receiver as well.", "This accumulating carbon and vaporized metal build-up within the receiver and bolt carrier negatively affects reliability and necessitates more intensive maintenance on the part of the individual soldier.", "The channeling of gasses into the bolt carrier during operation increases the amount of heat that is deposited in the receiver while firing the M16 and causes the essential lubricant to be \"burned off\".", "This requires frequent and generous applications of appropriate lubricant.", "Lack of proper lubrication is the most common source of weapon stoppages or jams.The original M16 fared poorly in the jungles of Vietnam and was infamous for reliability problems in harsh environments.", "Max Hastings was very critical of the M16's general field issue in Vietnam just as grievous design flaws were becoming apparent.", "He further states that the Shooting Times experienced repeated malfunctions with a test M16 and assumed these would be corrected before military use, but they were not.", "Many Marines and soldiers were so angry with the reliability problems they began writing home and on 26 March 1967, the Washington Daily News broke the story.", "Eventually, the M16 became the target of a Congressional investigation.The investigation found that:* The M16 was issued to troops without cleaning kits or instructions on how to clean the rifle.", "* The M16 and 5.56×45 mm cartridge was tested and approved with the use of a DuPont IMR8208M extruded powder, which was switched to Olin Mathieson WC846 ball powder which produced much more fouling, which quickly jammed the action of the M16 (unless the gun was cleaned well and often).", "* The M16 lacked a forward assist (rendering the rifle inoperable when it failed to go fully forward).", "* The M16 lacked a chrome-plated chamber, which allowed corrosion problems and contributed to case extraction failures (which was considered the most severe problem and required extreme measures to clear, such as inserting the cleaning rod down the barrel and knocking the spent cartridge out).Front cover – ''The M16A1 Rifle – Operation and Preventive Maintenance'' by Will Eisner, issued to American soldiers in the Vietnam War.When these issues were addressed and corrected by the M16A1, the reliability problems decreased greatly.", "According to a 1968 Department of Army report, the M16A1 rifle achieved widespread acceptance by U.S. troops in Vietnam.", "\"Most men armed with the M16 in Vietnam rated this rifle's performance high, however, many men entertained some misgivings about the M16's reliability.", "When asked what weapon they preferred to carry in combat, 85 percent indicated that they wanted either the M16 or its smaller carbine-length version, the XM177E2.\"", "Also, \"the M14 was preferred by 15 percent, while less than one percent wished to carry either the Stoner rifle, the AK-47, the M1 carbine or a pistol.\"", "In March 1970, the \"President's Blue Ribbon Defense Panel\" concluded that the issuance of the M16 saved the lives of 20,000 U.S. servicemen during the Vietnam War, who would have otherwise died had the M14 remained in service.", "However, the M16 rifle's reputation has suffered as of 2011.Another underlying cause of the M16's jamming problem was identified by ordnance staff that discovered that Stoner and ammunition manufacturers had initially tested the AR-15 using DuPont IMR8208M extruded (stick) powder.", "Later ammunition manufacturers adopted the more readily available Olin Mathieson WC846 ball powder.", "The ball powder produced a longer peak chamber pressure with undesired timing effects.", "Upon firing, the cartridge case expands and seals the chamber (obturation).", "When the peak pressure starts to drop the cartridge case contracts and then can be extracted.", "With ball powder, the cartridge case was not contracted enough during extraction due to the longer peak pressure period.", "The ejector would then fail to extract the cartridge case, tearing through the case rim, and leaving an obturated case behind.After the introduction of the M4 carbine, it was found that the shorter barrel length of 14.5 inches also harms the reliability, as the gas port is located closer to the chamber than the gas port of the standard length M16 rifle: 7.5 inches instead of 13 inches.", "This affects the M4's timing and increases the amount of stress and heat on the critical components, thereby reducing reliability.", "In a 2002 assessment, the USMC found that the M4 malfunctioned three times more often than the M16A4 (the M4 failed 186 times for 69,000 rounds fired, while the M16A4 failed 61 times).", "Thereafter, the Army and Colt worked to make modifications to the M4s and M16A4s to address the problems found.", "In tests conducted in 2005 and 2006 the Army found that on average, the new M4s and M16s fired approximately 5,000 rounds between stoppages.In December 2006, the Center for Naval Analyses (CNA) released a report on U.S. small arms in combat.", "The CNA conducted surveys on 2,608 troops returning from combat in Iraq and Afghanistan over the past 12 months.", "Only troops who had fired their weapons at enemy targets were allowed to participate.", "1,188 troops were armed with M16A2 or A4 rifles, making up 46 percent of the survey.", "75 percent of M16 users (891 troops) reported they were satisfied with the weapon.", "60 percent (713 troops) were satisfied with handling qualities such as handguards, size, and weight.", "Of the 40 percent dissatisfied, most were with its size.", "Only 19 percent of M16 users (226 troops) reported a stoppage, while 80 percent of those that experienced a stoppage said it had little impact on their ability to clear the stoppage and re-engage their target.", "Half of the M16 users experienced failures in their magazines to feed.", "83 percent (986 troops) did not need their rifles repaired while in the theater.", "71 percent (843 troops) were confident in the M16's reliability, defined as a level of soldier confidence their weapon will fire without malfunction, and 72 percent (855 troops) were confident in its durability, defined as a level of soldier confidence their weapon will not break or need repair.", "Both factors were attributed to high levels of soldiers performing their maintenance.", "60 percent of M16 users offered recommendations for improvements.", "Requests included greater bullet lethality, newly-built instead of rebuilt rifles, better quality magazines, decreased weight, and a collapsible stock.", "Some users recommended shorter and lighter weapons such as the M4 carbine.", "Some issues have been addressed with the issuing of the Improved STANAG magazine in March 2009, and the M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round in June 2010.In early 2010, two journalists from ''The New York Times'' spent three months with soldiers and Marines in Afghanistan.", "While there, they questioned around 100 infantry troops about the reliability of their M16 rifles, as well as the M4 carbine.", "The troops did not report reliability problems with their rifles.", "While only 100 troops were asked, they engaged in daily fighting in Marja, including at least a dozen intense engagements in Helmand Province, where the ground is covered in fine powdered sand (called \"moon dust\" by troops) that can stick to firearms.", "Weapons were often dusty, wet, and covered in mud.", "Intense firefights lasted hours with several magazines being expended.", "Only one soldier reported a jam when his M16 was covered in mud after climbing out of a canal.", "The weapon was cleared and resumed firing with the next chambered round.", "Furthermore, the Marine Chief Warrant Officer responsible for weapons training and performance of the Third Battalion, Sixth Marines, reported that \"We've had nil in the way of problems; we've had no issues\", with his battalion's 350 M16s and 700 M4s." ], [ "Design", "Video...Rifle 5.56mm, XM16E1.Operation and Cycle of Functioning.M16 internal piston action systemThe M16 is a lightweight, 5.56 mm, air-cooled, gas-operated, magazine-fed assault rifle, with a rotating bolt.", "The M16's receivers are made of 7075 aluminum alloy, its barrel, bolt, and bolt carrier of steel, and its handguards, pistol grip, and buttstock of plastics.The M16 internal piston action was derived from the original ArmaLite AR-10 and ArmaLite AR-15 actions.", "This internal piston action system designed by Eugene Stoner is commonly called a direct impingement system, but it does not use a conventional direct impingement system.", "In , the designer states: ″This invention is a true expanding gas system instead of the conventional impinging gas system.″ The gas system, bolt carrier, and bolt-locking design is ammunition specific, since it does not have an adjustable gas port or valve to adjust the weapon to various propellant and projectile or barrel length specific pressure behavior.The M16A1 was especially lightweight at with a loaded 30-round magazine.", "This was significantly less than the M14 that it replaced at with a loaded 20-round magazine.", "It is also lighter when compared to the AKM's with a loaded 30-round magazine.The M16A2 weighs loaded with a 30-round magazine, because of the adoption of a thicker barrel profile.", "The thicker barrel is more resistant to damage when handled roughly and is also slower to overheat during sustained fire.", "Unlike a traditional \"bull\" barrel that is thick its entire length, the M16A2's barrel is only thick forward of the handguards.", "The barrel profile under the handguards remained the same as the M16A1 for compatibility with the M203 grenade launcher.===Barrel===Early model M16 barrels had a rifling twist of four grooves, right-hand twist, one turn in 14 inches (1:355.6 mm or 64 calibers) bore—as it was the same rifling as used by the .222 Remington sporting cartridge.", "After finding out that under unfavorable conditions, military bullets could yaw in flight at long ranges, the rifling was soon altered.", "Later M16 models and the M16A1 had an improved rifling with six grooves, right-hand twist, one turn in 12 inches (1:304.8 mm or 54.8 calibers) for increased accuracy and was optimized to adequately stabilize the M193 ball and M196 tracer bullets.", "M16A2 and current models are optimized for firing the heavier NATO SS109 ball and long L110 tracer bullets and have six grooves, right-hand twist, one turn in 7 in (1:177.8 mm or 32 calibers).M193 ball and M196 tracer bullets may be fired in a rifle with a one turn in 7 in (1:177.8 mm or 32 calibers) twist barrel.", "NATO SS109 ball and L110 tracer bullets should only be used in emergency situations at ranges under with a one turn in 12 inches (1:304.8 mm or 54.8 calibers) twist, as this twist is insufficient to stabilize these projectiles.Weapons designed to adequately stabilize both the M193 or SS109 projectiles (like civilian market clones) usually have a six-groove, right-hand twist, one turn in 9 inches (1:228.6 mm or 41.1 calibers) or one turn in 8 inches (1:203.2 mm or 36.5 calibers) bore, although other and 1:7 inches twist rates are available as well.===Recoil===The M16 uses a \"straight-line\" recoil design, where the recoil spring is located in the stock directly behind the action, and serves the dual function of operating spring and recoil buffer.", "The stock being in line with the bore also reduces muzzle rise, especially during automatic fire.", "Because recoil does not significantly shift the point of aim, faster follow-up shots are possible and user fatigue is reduced.", "In addition, current model M16 flash-suppressors also act as compensators to reduce recoil further.Free recoil M16'''Momentum'''40.4 lb-ft/s'''Velocity''''''Energy'''Notes: Free recoil is calculated by using the rifle weight, bullet weight, muzzle velocity, and charge weight.", "It is that which would be measured if the rifle were fired suspended from strings, free to recoil.", "A rifle's perceived recoil is also dependent on many other factors which are not readily quantified.===Sights===M16 sight picture when using the rear apertureM16A2 with unmarked aperture rear sight for normal firing situations raised.", "The larger aperture, marked '0-2', is flipped down.Fully adjustable rear sight, brass deflector and forward assist of the M16A2The M16's most distinctive ergonomic feature is the carrying handle and rear sight assembly on top of the receiver.", "This is a by-product of the original AR-10 design, where the carrying handle contained a rear sight that could be set for specific range settings and also served to protect the charging handle.The M16 carry handle also provided mounting groove interfaces and a hole at the bottom of the handle groove for mounting a Colt 3×20 telescopic sight featuring a Bullet Drop Compensation elevation adjustment knob for ranges from .", "This concurs with the pre-M16A2 maximum effective range of .", "The Colt 3×20 telescopic sight was factory adjusted to be parallax-free at .", "In Delft, the Netherlands Artillerie-Inrichtingen produced a roughly similar 3×25 telescopic sight for the carrying handle mounting interfaces.The M16 elevated iron sight line has a sight radius.", "As the M16 series rear sight, front sight and sighting in targets designs were modified over time and non-iron sight (optical) aiming devices and new service ammunition were introduced zeroing procedures changed.The standard pre-M16A2 \"Daylight Sight System\" uses an AR-15-style L-type flip, two aperture rear sight featuring two combat settings: short-range and long-range , marked 'L'.", "The pre-M16A2 \"Daylight Sight System\" short-range and long-range zeros are with M193 ammunition.", "The rear sight features a windage drum that can be adjusted during zeroing with about 1 MOA increments.", "The front sight is a tapered round post of approximately diameter adjustable during zeroing in about 1 MOA increments.", "A cartridge or tool is required to (re)zero the sight line.An alternative pre-M16A2 \"Low Light Level Sight System\", includes a front sight post with a weak light source provided by tritium radioluminescence in an embedded small glass vial and a two aperture rear sight consisting of a diameter aperture marked 'L' intended for normal use out to and a diameter large aperture for night firing.", "Regulation stipulates the radioluminescent front sight post must be replaced if more than 144 months (12 years) elapsed after manufacture.", "The \"Low Light Level Sight System\" elevation and windage adjustment increments are somewhat coarser compared to the \"Daylight Sight System\".With the advent of the M16A2, a less simple fully adjustable rear sight was added, allowing the rear sight to be dialed in with an elevation wheel for specific range settings between in 100 m increments and to allow windage adjustments with a windage knob without the need of a cartridge or tool.", "The unmarked approximately diameter aperture rear sight is for normal firing situations, zeroing and with the elevation knob for target distances up to 800 meters.", "The downsides of relatively small rear sight apertures are less light transmission through the aperture and a reduced field of view.", "A new larger approximately diameter aperture, marked '0-2' and featuring a windage setting index mark, offers a larger field of view during battle conditions and is used as a ghost ring for quick target engagement and during limited visibility.", "When flipped down, the engraved windage mark on top of the '0-2' aperture ring shows the dialed in windage setting on a windage scale at the rear of the rear sight assembly.", "When the normal use rear aperture sight is zeroed at 300 m with SS109/M855 ammunition, first used in the M16A2, the '0-2' rear sight will be zeroed for 200 m. The front sight post was widened to approximately diameter and became square and became adjustable during zeroing in about 1.2 MOA increments.The M16A4 omitted the carrying handle and rear sight assembly on top of the receiver.", "Instead, it features a MIL-STD-1913 Picatinny railed flat-top upper receiver for mounting various optical sighting devices or a new detachable carrying handle and M16A2-style rear sight assembly.The current U.S. Army and Air Force issue M4(A1) Carbine comes with the M68 Close Combat Optic and Back-up Iron Sight.", "The U.S. Marine Corps uses the 4×32 ACOG Rifle Combat Opticand the U.S. Navy uses the EOTech Holographic Weapon Sight.===Range and accuracy===The M16 rifle is considered to be very accurate for a service rifle.", "Its light recoil, high-velocity and flat trajectory allow shooters to take headshots out to 300 meters.", "Newer M16s use the newer M855 cartridge increasing their effective range to 600 meters.", "They are more accurate than their predecessors and are capable of shooting 1–3-inch groups at 100 yards.", "\"In Fallujah, Iraq Marines with ACOG-equipped M16A4s created a stir by taking so many headshots that until the wounds were closely examined, some observers thought the insurgents had been executed.\"", "The newest M855A1 EPR cartridge is even more accurate and during testing \"...has shown that, on average, 95 percent of the rounds will hit within an 8 × 8-inch (20.3 × 20.3 cm) target at 600 meters.", "\"RifleCaliberCartridgeCartridge weightBullet weightVelocityEnergyRangeAccuracy Effective Horizontal Lethal Maximum 10 shot group @ 100 meters 10 shot group @ 300 metersM165.56×45 mmM193184 gr (11.9 g)55 gr (3.6 g)3,250 fps (990 m/s)1,302 ft/lb (1,764 J)500 yds (460 m)711 yds (650 m)984 yds (900 m)3000 yds (2700 m)4.3 in (11 cm)12.6 in (32 cm)NATO E-type Silhouette Target'''Single-shot hit-probability on Crouching Man (NATO E-type Silhouette) Target'''RifleChamberingHit-probability (With no range estimation or aiming errors) 50 meters 100 meters 200 meters 300 meters 400 meters 500 meters 600 meters 700 meters 800 metersM16A1 (1967)5.56×45 mm NATO M193100%100%100%100%96%87%73%56%39%M16A2 (1982)5.56×45 mm NATO SS109/M855100%100%100%100%98%90%79%63%43%===Terminal ballistics===The 5.56×45 mm cartridge had several advantages over the 7.62×51 mm NATO round used in the M14 rifle.", "It enabled each soldier to carry more ammunition and was easier to control during automatic or burst fire.", "The 5.56×45 mm NATO cartridge can also produce massive wounding effects when the bullet impacts at high speed and yaws (\"tumbles\") in tissue leading to fragmentation and rapid transfer of energy.RifleCaliberCartridgePenetration Ballistic gelatin @ 10 meters Sandbags @ 100 meters 3/4\" pine boards @ 100 meters Concrete building block (one center rib) Steel helmet 1.9mm steel (14 gauge) @ 100 meters 4mm steel (8 gauge) + layers of Kevlar-29M165.56×45 mmM193≈ (bullet fragments into smaller pieces) (complete bullet disintegration)8 boards (bullet tumbled)one side to 200 mboth sides to 300 m one side to 500 m2 layers31 layers of KevlarThe original ammunition for the M16 was the 55-grain M193 cartridge.", "When fired from a barrel at ranges of up to , the thin-jacketed lead-cored round traveled fast enough (above ) that the force of striking a human body would cause the round to yaw (or tumble) and fragment into about a dozen pieces of various sizes thus created wounds that were out of proportion to its caliber.", "These wounds were so devastating that many considered the M16 to be an inhumane weapon.", "As the 5.56 mm round's velocity decreases, so does the number of fragments that it produces.", "The 5.56 mm round does not normally fragment at distances beyond 200 meters or at velocities below 2500 ft/s, and its lethality becomes largely dependent on shot placement.With the development of the M16A2, the new 62-grain M855 cartridge was adopted in 1983.The heavier bullet had more energy and was made with a steel core to penetrate Soviet body armor.", "However, this caused less fragmentation on impact and reduced effects against targets without armor, both of which lessened kinetic energy transfer and wounding ability.", "Some soldiers and Marines coped with this through training, with requirements to shoot vital areas three times to guarantee killing the target.However, there have been repeated and consistent reports of the M855's inability to wound effectively (i.e., fragment) when fired from the short barreled M4 carbine (even at close ranges).", "The M4's 14.5-in.", "barrel length reduces muzzle velocity to about 2900 ft/s.", "This reduced wounding ability is one reason that, despite the Army's transition to short-barrel M4s, the Marine Corps has decided to continue using the M16A4 with its 20-inch barrel as the 5.56×45 mm M855 is largely dependent upon high velocity in order to wound effectively.In 2003, the U.S. Army contended that the lack of lethality of the 5.56×45 mm was more a matter of perception than fact.", "With good shot placement to the head and chest, the target was usually defeated without issue.", "The majority of failures were the result of hitting the target in non-vital areas such as extremities.", "However, a minority of failures occurred in spite of multiple hits to the chest.", "In 2006, a study found that 20% of soldiers using the M4 Carbine wanted more lethality or stopping power.", "In June 2010, the U.S. Army announced it began shipping its new 5.56 mm, lead-free, M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round to active combat zones.", "This upgrade is designed to maximize performance of the 5.56×45 mm round, to extend range, improve accuracy, increase penetration and to consistently fragment in soft-tissue when fired from not only standard length M16s, but also the short-barreled M4 carbines.", "The U.S. Army has been impressed with the new M855A1 EPR round.", "A 7.62 NATO M80A1 EPR variant was also developed.===Magazines===Vietnam War-era 20-round magazine (left) and current issue NATO STANAG 30-round magazine (right)Improved tan colored M16 magazine followerThe M16's magazine was meant to be a lightweight, disposable item.", "As such, it is made of pressed/stamped aluminum and was not designed to be durable.", "The M16 originally used a 20-round magazine which was later replaced by a bent 30-round design.", "As a result, the magazine follower tends to rock or tilt, causing malfunctions.", "Many non-U.S. and commercial magazines have been developed to effectively mitigate these shortcomings (e.g., H&K's all-stainless-steel magazine, Magpul's polymer P-MAG, etc.", ").Production of the 30-round magazine started late 1967 but did not fully replace the 20-round magazine until the mid-1970s.", "Standard USGI aluminum 30-round M16 magazines weigh empty and are long.", "The newer plastic magazines are about a half-inch longer.", "The newer steel magazines are about 0.5-inch longer and four ounces heavier.", "The M16's magazine has become the unofficial NATO STANAG magazine and is currently used by many Western nations, in numerous weapon systems.In 2009, the U.S. Military began fielding an \"improved magazine\" identified by a tan-colored follower.", "\"The new follower incorporates an extended rear leg and modified bullet protrusion for improved round stacking and orientation.", "The self-leveling/anti-tilt follower minimizes jamming while a wider spring coil profile creates even force distribution.", "The performance gains have not added weight or cost to the magazines.", "\"In July 2016, the U.S. Army introduced another improvement, the new Enhanced Performance Magazine, which it says will result in a 300% increase in reliability in the M4 Carbine.", "Developed by the United States Army Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center and the Army Research Laboratory in 2013, it is tan colored with blue follower to distinguish it from earlier, incompatible magazines.===Muzzle devices===Most M16 rifles have a barrel threaded in 1⁄2-28\" threads to incorporate the use of a muzzle device such as a flash suppressor or sound suppressor.", "The initial flash suppressor design had three tines or prongs and was designed to preserve the shooter's night vision by disrupting the flash.", "Unfortunately it was prone to breakage and getting entangled in vegetation.", "The design was later changed to close the end to avoid this and became known as the \"A1\" or \"bird cage\" flash suppressor on the M16A1.Eventually on the M16A2 version of the rifle, the bottom port was closed to reduce muzzle climb and prevent dust from rising when the rifle was fired in the prone position.", "For these reasons, the U.S. military declared the A2 flash suppressor as a compensator or a muzzle brake; but it is more commonly known as the \"GI\" or \"A2\" flash suppressor.The M16's Vortex Flash Hider weighs 3 ounces, is 2.25 inches long, and does not require a lock washer to attach to the barrel.", "It was developed in 1984 and is one of the earliest privately designed muzzle devices.", "The U.S. military uses the Vortex Flash Hider on M4 carbines and M16 rifles.", "A version of the Vortex has been adopted by the Canadian Military for the Colt Canada C8 CQB rifle.", "Other flash suppressors developed for the M16 include the Phantom Flash Suppressor by Yankee Hill Machine (YHM) and the KX-3 by Noveske Rifleworks.The threaded barrel allows sound suppressors with the same thread pattern to be installed directly to the barrel; however this can result in complications such as being unable to remove the suppressor from the barrel due to repeated firing on full auto or three-round burst.", "A number of suppressor manufacturers have designed \"direct-connect\" sound suppressors which can be installed over an existing M16's flash suppressor as opposed to using the barrel's threads.===Grenade launchers and shotguns===M203 40 mm grenade launcher attached to an M16A1 rifle with a practice roundAll current M16-type rifles can mount under-barrel 40 mm grenade launchers, such as the M203 and M320.Both use the same 40×46mm LV grenades as the older, stand-alone M79 grenade launcher.", "The M16 can also mount under-barrel 12 gauge shotguns such as KAC Masterkey or the M26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System.===Riot Control Launcher===M234 Riot Control LauncherThe M234 Riot Control Launcher is an M16-series rifle attachment firing an M755 blank round.", "The M234 mounts on the muzzle, bayonet lug, and front sight post of the M16.It fires either the M734 64 mm Kinetic Riot Control or the M742 64 mm CSI Riot Control Ring Airfoil Projectiles.", "The latter produces a 4 to 5-foot tear gas cloud on impact.", "The main advantage to using Ring Airfoil Projectiles is that their design does not allow them to be thrown back by rioters with any real effect.", "The M234 is no longer used by U.S. forces.", "It has been replaced by the M203 grenade launcher and nonlethal ammunition.===Bayonet===The M16 is long with an M7 bayonet attached.", "The M7 bayonet is based on earlier designs such as the M4, M5, & M6 bayonets, all of which are direct descendants of the M3 Fighting Knife and have spear-point blade with a half sharpened secondary edge.", "The newer M9 bayonet has a clip-point blade with saw teeth along the spine and can be used as a multi-purpose knife and wire-cutter when combined with its scabbard.", "The current USMC OKC-3S bayonet bears a resemblance to the Marines' iconic Ka-Bar fighting knife with serrations near the handle.===Bipod===For use as an ad-hoc automatic rifle, the M16 and M16A1 could be equipped with the XM3 bipod, later standardized as the ''Bipod, M3'' (1966) and ''Rifle Bipod M3'' (1983).", "Weighing only 0.6 lb, the simple and non-adjustable bipod clamps to the barrel of the rifle to allow for supported fire.The M3 bipod continues to be referenced in at least one official manual as late as 1985, where it is stated that one of the most stable firing positions is \"the prone biped sic supported for automatic fire.\"" ], [ "NATO standards", "In March 1970, the U.S. recommended that all NATO forces adopt the 5.56×45 mm cartridge.", "This shift represented a change in the philosophy of the military's long-held position about caliber size.", "By the mid 1970s, other armies were looking at M16-style weapons.", "A NATO standardization effort soon started and tests of various rounds were carried out starting in 1977.The U.S. offered the 5.56×45 mm M193 round, but there were concerns about its penetration in the face of the wider introduction of body armor.", "In the end the Belgian 5.56×45 mm SS109 round was chosen (STANAG 4172) in October 1980.The SS109 round was based on the U.S. cartridge but included a new stronger, heavier, 62 grain bullet design, with better long range performance and improved penetration (specifically, to consistently penetrate the side of a steel helmet at 600 meters).", "Due to its design and lower muzzle velocity (about 3110 ft/s) the Belgian SS109 round is considered more humane because it is less likely to fragment than the U.S. M193 round.", "The NATO 5.56×45 mm standard ammunition produced for U.S. forces is designated M855.In October 1980, shortly after NATO accepted the 5.56×45 mm NATO rifle cartridge.", "Draft Standardization Agreement 4179 (STANAG 4179) was proposed to allow NATO members to easily share rifle ammunition and magazines down to the individual soldier level.", "The magazine chosen to become the ''STANAG magazine'' was originally designed for the U.S. M16 rifle.", "Many NATO member nations, but not all, subsequently developed or purchased rifles with the ability to accept this type of magazine.", "However, the standard was never ratified and remains a 'Draft STANAG'.All current M16 type rifles are designed to fire STANAG 22 mm rifle grenades from their integral flash hiders without the use of an adapter.", "These 22 mm grenade types range from anti-tank rounds to simple finned tubes with a fragmentation hand grenade attached to the end.", "They come in the \"standard\" type which are propelled by a blank cartridge inserted into the chamber of the rifle.", "They also come in the \"bullet trap\" and \"shoot through\" types, as their names imply, they use live ammunition.", "The U.S. military does not generally use rifle grenades; however, they are used by other nations.The NATO Accessory Rail STANAG 4694, or Picatinny rail STANAG 2324, or a \"Tactical Rail\" is a bracket used on M16 type rifles to provide a standardized mounting platform.", "The rail comprises a series of ridges with a T-shaped cross-section interspersed with flat \"spacing slots\".", "Scopes are mounted either by sliding them on from one end or the other; by means of a \"rail-grabber\" which is clamped to the rail with bolts, thumbscrews or levers; or onto the slots between the raised sections.", "The rail was originally for scopes.", "However, once established, the use of the system was expanded to other accessories, such as tactical lights, laser aiming modules, night vision devices, reflex sights, foregrips, bipods, and bayonets.Currently, the M16 is in use by 15 NATO countries and more than 80 countries worldwide." ], [ "Variants", "===M16===An early M16 rifle without forward-assist.", "Note: \"duckbill\" flash suppressor and triangular handguardThis was the first M16 variant adopted operationally, originally by the U.S. Air Force.", "It was equipped with triangular handguards, buttstocks without a compartment for the storage of a cleaning kit, a three-pronged \"duckbill\" flash suppressor designed to preserve the shooter's night vision by disrupting the flash, full auto, and no forward assist.", "The M16 has a safe/semi/auto selective fire trigger group.", "Bolt carriers were originally chrome plated and slick-sided, lacking forward assist notches.", "Later, the chrome-plated carriers were dropped in favor of Army-issued notched and parkerized carriers, though the interior portion of the bolt carrier is still chrome-lined.", "The barrel rifling had a 1:12 (305 mm) twist rate to adequately stabilize the M193 ball and M196 tracer ammunition.", "The Air Force continued to operate these weapons until around 2001, at which time the Air Force converted all of its M16s to the M16A2 configuration.The M16 was also adopted by the British SAS, who used it during the Falklands War.===XM16E1 and M16A1 (Colt Model 603)===XM16E1 with XM148 grenade launcherM16A1 rifle with 30-round magazineThe U.S. Army XM16E1 was essentially the same weapon as the M16 with the addition of a forward assist and corresponding notches in the chrome bolt carrier, and even included the addition of three-pronged flash hiders.", "The M16A1 was the finalized production model in 1967 and was produced until 1982.To address issues raised by the XM16E1's testing cycle, a closed, birdcage symmetric flash suppressor with open side slots to the top, bottom, left and right replaced the XM16E1's three-pronged flash suppressor which caught on twigs and leaves from 1967 onwards.", "Various other changes were made after numerous problems in the field.", "Cleaning kits were developed and issued, while barrels with chrome-plated chambers and later fully lined bores were introduced.", "A small storage compartment inside the stock was introduced.", "The buttstock storage compartment is often used for storing a basic cleaning kit.", "To promote reliability and durability, the mechanical behavior of the operating system was revised to make it compatible for using US military issued ammunition loaded with WC846 ball powder (which reaches peak pressure significantly quicker than the extruded IMR8208M powder and increases the cyclic rate of fire for which the operating system was originally designed).", "Revisions like reducing the diameter of the gas port to mitigate the higher port pressure caused by the ball powder to properly gas the operating system again, updating the buffer assembly, changing the bolt carrier surface finish to manganese phosphate and the gas tube material to stainless steel contributed to improved mechanical behavior.With these and other changes, the malfunction rate slowly declined, and new soldiers were generally unfamiliar with early problems.", "A rib was built into the side of the receiver on the XM16E1 to help prevent accidentally pressing the magazine release button while closing the ejection port cover.", "This rib was later extended on production M16A1s to help in preventing the magazine release from inadvertently being pressed.", "The hole in the bolt that accepts the cam pin was crimped inward on one side, in such a way that the cam pin may not be inserted with the bolt installed backwards, which would cause failures to eject until corrected.", "The M16A1 saw limited use in training capacities until the early 2000s, but is no longer in active service with the U.S., although is still standard issue in many world armies.===M16A2===Spent case being deflected after firing an M16A2 (Model 705 with Safe/Semi/Burst trigger group) by a left-handed userM16A2 Enhanced rifle (Model 708 with Safe/Semi/Burst/Auto trigger group)M16A2 with a heat shield hand guard and an M203 grenade launcher under itThe development of the M16A2 rifle was originally requested by the United States Marine Corps in 1979 as a result of combat experience in Vietnam with the M16A1.It was officially adopted by the Department of Defense as the \"Rifle, 5.56 mm, M16A2\" in 1983.The Marines were the first branch of the U.S. Armed Forces to adopt it, in the early/mid-1980s, with the United States Army following suit in 1986.Modifications to the M16A2 were extensive.", "In addition to the then new STANAG 4172 5.56×45mm NATO chambering and its accompanying rifling, the barrel was made with a greater thickness in front of the front sight post, to resist bending in the field and to allow a longer period of sustained fire without overheating.", "The rest of the barrel was maintained at the original thickness to enable the M203 grenade launcher to be attached.", "The barrel rifling was revised to a faster 1:7 (178 mm) twist rate to adequately stabilize the new 5.56×45 mm NATO SS109/M855 ball and L110/M856 tracer ammunition.", "The heavier longer SS109/M855 bullet reduced muzzle velocity from , to about A new adjustable rear sight was added, allowing the rear sight to be dialed in for specific range settings between 300 and 800 meters to take full advantage of the ballistic characteristics of the SS109/M855 rounds and to allow windage adjustments without the need of a tool or cartridge The flash suppressor was again modified, this time to be closed on the bottom, so the new birdcage-type muzzle device would not kick up dirt or snow when being fired from the prone position, and additionally act as an asymmetric recoil compensator to reduce muzzle climb.A spent case deflector was incorporated into the upper receiver immediately behind the ejection port to prevent (hot) cartridge cases from striking left-handed users.", "The action was also modified, replacing the fully automatic setting with a three-round burst setting.", "When using a fully automatic weapon, inexperienced troops often hold down the trigger and \"spray\" when under fire.", "The U.S. Army concluded that three-shot groups provide an optimum combination of ammunition conservation, accuracy, and firepower.", "The number of rounds fired in a burst is determined by a cam mechanism that trips the trigger mechanism for each shot in the burst.", "For the burst the trigger must be held down for the full duration of the burst.", "The M16 series will terminate the burst if the trigger is released before the burst is complete but keep the cam in position.", "Thus, the next time the trigger is pulled, the weapon will only fire one or two rounds.", "The USMC has retired the M16A2 in favor of the newer M16A4; a few M16A2s remain in service with the U.S. Army Reserve and National Guard, Air Force, Navy and Coast Guard.The handguard was modified from the original triangular shape to a round one, which better fit smaller hands and could be fitted to older models of the M16.The new handguards were also symmetrical, so armories need not separate left- and right-hand spares.", "The handguard retention ring was tapered to make it easier to install and uninstall the handguards.The new buttstock became ten times stronger than the original due to advances in polymer technology since the early 1960s.", "Original M16 stocks were made from cellulose-impregnated phenolic resin; the newer M16A2 stocks were engineered from DuPont Zytel glass-filled thermoset polymers and became a replacement part for the preceding M16A1.The new buttstock was lengthened by and included a fully textured polymer buttplate for better grip on the shoulder and retained a panel for accessing a small compartment inside the stock, often used for storing a basic cleaning kit.A notch for the middle finger was added to the pistol grip as well as more texture to enhance the grip.", "The new pistol grips were engineered from Zytel glass-filled thermoset polymers.", "The M16A2 pistol grip became a replacement part for the preceding M16A1.The standard Model 645 M16A2 has a safe/semi/three-round burst selective fire trigger group.", "It became standard issue for the U.S. Marine Corps and Army.There is also a safe/semi/three-round burst/automatic selective fire trigger group Model 708 version of M16A2 rifle named \"M16A2 Enhanced\", used by some militaries around the world.===M16A3===M16A3 with a Safe/Semi/Auto trigger groupThe M16A3 is a modified version of the M16A2 adopted in small numbers by the U.S. Navy SEAL, Seabees, and security units.", "It features the M16A1 selective fire trigger group providing \"safe\", \"semi-automatic\" and \"fully automatic\" modes.", "Otherwise, it is externally similar to the M16A2.===M16A4===M16A4 rifle with a removable carrying handle, polymer handguards and M7 bayonet mountedM16A4 rifle with ACOG sight, railed hand guard and foregripThe M16A4 is the fourth generation of the M16 series.", "The iron sight/carrying handle assembly on the M16A2/M16A3 upper receiver, was replaced by a MIL-STD-1913 \"Picatinny railed\" flat-top upper receiver for mounting aiming optics or a removable iron sight/carrying handle assembly.", "The M16A4 rear aperture sights integrated in the Picatinny rail mounted carry handle assembly are adjustable from up to , where the further similar M16A2 iron sights line can reach up to .", "The introduction of the Picatinny rail required the use of a higher F-marked front sight base to raise the post.", "The FN M16A4, using safe/semi/three-round burst selective fire, became standard issue for the U.S. Marine Corps.Military issue rifles were also equipped with a full-length quad Knight's Armament Company M5 RAS Picatinny railed hand guard (that holds zero on the top rail), allowing vertical grips, lasers, tactical lights, and other accessories to be attached, coining the designation M16A4 MWS (or Modular Weapon System) in U.S. Army field manuals.Colt also produces M16A4 models for international purchases:* R0901 / RO901/ NSN 1005-01-383-2872 (Safe/Semi/Auto)* R0905 / RO905 (Safe/Semi/Burst)A study of significant changes to Marine M16A4 rifles released in February 2015 outlined several new features that could be added from inexpensive and available components.", "Those features included: a muzzle compensator in place of the flash suppressor to manage recoil and allow for faster follow-on shots, though at the cost of noise and flash signature and potential overpressure in close quarters; a heavier and/or free-floating barrel to increase accuracy from 4.5 MOA (Minute(s) Of Angle) to potentially 2 MOA; changing the reticle on the Rifle Combat Optic from chevron-shaped to a semi-circular reticle with a dot at the center used in the M27 IAR's Squad Day Optic so as not to obscure the target at long distance; using a trigger group with a more consistent pull force, even a reconsideration of the burst capability; and the addition of ambidextrous charging handles and bolt catch releases for easier use with left-handed shooters.In 2014, Marine units were provided with a limited number of adjustable stocks in place of the traditional fixed stock for their M16A4s to issue to smaller Marines who would have trouble comfortably reaching the trigger when wearing body armor.", "The adjustable stocks were added as a standard authorized accessory, meaning units can use operations and maintenance funds to purchase more if needed.The Marine Corps had long maintained the full-length M16 as their standard infantry rifle, but in October 2015 the switch to the M4 carbine was approved as the standard-issue weapon, giving Marine infantry a smaller and more compact weapon.", "Enough M4s were already in the inventory to re-equip all necessary units by September 2016, and M16A4s were moved to support and non-infantry Marines.===Summary of differences=== Colt model no.", "Military designation 20\" Barrel w/ bayonet lug Handguard type Buttstock type Pistol grip type Lower receiver type Upper receiver type Rear sight type Front sight type Muzzle device Forward assist?", "Case deflector?", "Trigger pack601AR-15 Designated M16 on 3 Dec 1963A1 profile (1:14 twist)Green or brown full-length triangularGreen or brown fixed A1A1A1A1A1A1Duckbill flash suppressorNoNoSafe/Semi/Auto602AR-15 Designated M16 3 Dec 1963 - there was no XM16A1 profile (1:12 twist)Full-length triangularFixed A1A1A1A1A1A1Duckbill or three-prong flash suppressorNoNoSafe/Semi/Auto603XM16E1 designation changed to M16A1 Feb1967 with standardisationA1 profile (1:12 twist)Full-length triangularFixed A1A1A1A1A1A1Three-prong or M16A1 birdcage flash suppressorYesNoSafe/Semi/Auto603M16A1A1 profile (1:12 twist)Full-length triangularFixed A1A1A1A1A1A1Three-prong or birdcage flash suppressorYesYes or NoSafe/Semi/Auto604M16A1 profile (1:12 twist)Full-length triangularFixed A1A1A1A1A1A1Three-prong or M16A1-style birdcage flash suppressorNoNoSafe/Semi/Auto645M16A1E1/PIPA2 profile (1:7 twist)Full-length ribbedFixed A2A1A1 or A2A1 or A2A1 or A2A2M16A1 or M16A2-style birdcage flash suppressorYesYes or NoSafe/Semi/Auto or Safe/Semi/Burst645M16A2A2 profile (1:7 twist)Full-length ribbedFixed A2A2A2A2A2A2M16A2-style birdcage flash suppressorYesYesSafe/Semi/Burst or Safe/Semi/Burst/Auto708M16A2 ENHANCEDA2 profile (1:7 twist)Full-length ribbedFixed A2A2A2A2A2A2M16A2-style birdcage flash suppressorYesYesSafe/Semi/Burst/Auto645EM16A2E1A2 profile (1:7 twist)Full-length ribbedFixed A2A2A2Flattop with Colt RailFlip-upFoldingM16A2-style birdcage flash suppressorYesYesSafe/Semi/Burst or Safe/Semi/Burst/AutoN/AM16A2E2A2 profile (1:7 twist)Full-length semi-beavertail w/ HEL guideRetractable ACRACRA2Flattop with Colt railNoneA2ACR muzzle brakeYesYesSafe/Semi/Burst or Safe/Semi/Burst/Auto646M16A3 (M16A2E3)A2 profile (1:7 twist)Full-length ribbedFixed A2A2A2A2A2A2M16A2-style birdcage flash suppressorYesYesSafe/Semi/Auto655M16A1 Special High ProfileHBAR profile (1:12 twist)Full-length triangularFixed A1A1A1A1A1A1M16A1-style birdcage flash suppressorYesNoSafe/Semi/Auto656M16A1 Special Low ProfileHBAR profile (1:12 twist)Full-length triangularFixed A1A1A1A1 with modified Weaver baseLow Profile A1Hooded A1M16A1-style birdcage flash suppressorYesNoSafe/Semi/Auto945M16A4 (M16A2E4)A2 profile (1:7 twist)Full-length ribbed or KAC M5 RASFixed A2/M4 Collapsed stockA2A2Flattop with MIL-STD-1913 railNoneA4M16A2-style birdcage flash suppressorYesYesSafe/Semi/Auto (RO901) or Safe/Semi/Burst (RO905)" ], [ "Derivatives", "===Colt Commando (XM177 & GAU-5)===A USAF Combat Control Team member with a GAU-5 carbine and oversized flash suppressorIn Vietnam, some soldiers were issued a carbine version of the M16 named XM177.The XM177 had a shorter barrel and a telescoping stock, which made it substantially more compact.", "It also possessed a combination flash hider/sound moderator to reduce problems with muzzle flash and loud report.", "The Air Force's GAU-5/A (XM177) and the Army's XM177E1 variants differed over the latter's inclusion of a forward assist, although some GAU-5s do have the forward assist.", "The final Air Force GAU-5/A and Army XM177E2 had an barrel with a longer flash/sound suppressor.", "The lengthening of the barrel was to support the attachment of Colt's own XM148 40 mm grenade launcher.", "These versions were also known as the Colt Commando model commonly referenced and marketed as the CAR-15.The variants were issued in limited numbers to special forces, helicopter crews, Air Force pilots, Air Force Security Police Military Working Dog (MWD) handlers, officers, radio operators, artillerymen, and troops other than front line riflemen.", "Some USAF GAU-5A/As were later equipped with even longer 1/12 rifled barrels as the two shorter versions were worn out.", "The barrel allowed the use of MILES gear and for bayonets to be used with the sub-machine guns (as the Air Force described them).", "By 1989, the Air Force started to replace the earlier barrels with 1/7 rifled models for use with the M855-round.", "The weapons were given the redesignation of GUU-5/P.These were used by the British Special Air Service during the Falklands War.===M4 carbine===M4A1 carbine (foreground) and two M16A2s (background) being fired by U.S. Marines during a live fire exercise: though adopted in the 1990s and derived from the M16A2, the M4 carbine was part of a long line of short-barreled AR-15 used in the U.S. militaryThe M4 carbine was developed from various outgrowths of these designs, including a number of -barreled A1 style carbines.", "The XM4 (Colt Model 720) started its trials in 1984, with a barrel of .", "The weapon became the M4 in 1991.Officially adopted as a replacement for the M3 \"Grease Gun\" (and the Beretta M9 and M16A2 for select troops) in 1994, it was used with great success in the Balkans and in more recent conflicts, including the Afghanistan and Iraq theaters.", "The M4 carbine has a three-round burst firing mode, while the M4A1 carbine has a fully automatic firing mode.", "Both have a Picatinny rail on the upper receiver, allowing the carry handle/rear sight assembly to be replaced with other sighting devices.====M4 Commando====Colt also returned to the original \"Commando\" idea, with its Model 733, essentially a modernized XM177E2 with many of the features introduced on the M16A2.===M5 carbine===M5 carbineThe M5 carbine system was developed by Colt as an improvement on the M4 carbine.", "It incorporates a fully ambidextrous lower receiver, free-floating barrel and lengthened upper rail.", "The M5 carbine has four possible barrel lengths: 10.3, 11.5, 14.5 and 16.1 inches.", "Other M5 variants and calibers are the: M5 SCW (Sub-compact weapon) (5.56x45mm); M5 300 (.300 AAC Blackout); M5 SMG (9x19mm); CMK (7.62x39mm); M7 Battle Rifle (7.62x51mm) and Designated Marksman and Semi-Automatic Sniper System (both 5.56x45mm).===Diemaco C7 and C8===C79A2 sight.", "This particular example is missing the standard TRIAD mount.The Diemaco C7 and C8 are updated variants of the M16 developed and used by the Canadian Forces and are now manufactured by Colt Canada.", "The C7 is a further development of the experimental M16A1E1.Like earlier M16s, it can be fired in either semi-automatic or automatic mode, instead of the burst function selected for the M16A2.The C7 also features the structural strengthening, improved handguards, and longer stock developed for the M16A2.Diemaco changed the trapdoor in the buttstock to make it easier to access and a spacer of is available to adjust stock length to user preference.", "The most easily noticeable external difference between American M16A2s and Diemaco C7s is the retention of the A1 style rear sights.", "Not easily apparent is Diemaco's use of hammer-forged barrels.", "The Canadians originally desired to use a heavy barrel profile instead.The C7 has been developed to the C7A1, with a Weaver rail on the upper receiver for a C79 3.4×28 optical sight, and to the C7A2, with different furniture and internal improvements.", "The Diemaco produced Weaver rail on the original C7A1 variants does not meet the M1913 \"Picatinny\" standard, leading to some problems with mounting commercial sights.", "This is easily remedied with minor modification to the upper receiver or the sight itself.", "Since Diemaco's acquisition by Colt to form Colt Canada, all Canadian produced flattop upper receivers are machined to the M1913 standard.The C8 is the carbine version of the C7.The C7 and C8 are also used by ''Hærens Jegerkommando'', ''Marinejegerkommandoen'' and FSK (Norway), Denmark's Armed Forces (all branches), and the Netherlands Armed Forces as its main infantry weapon.", "Following trials, variants became the weapon of choice of the British SAS.===Mk 4 Mod 0===The Mk 4 Mod 0 was a variant of the M16A1 produced for the U.S. Navy SEALs during the Vietnam War and adopted in April 1970.It differed from the basic M16A1 primarily in being optimized for maritime operations and coming equipped with a sound suppressor.", "Most of the operating parts of the rifle were coated in Kal-Guard, a hole of was drilled through the stock and buffer tube for drainage, and an O-ring was added to the end of the buffer assembly.", "The weapon could reportedly be carried to the depth of in water without damage.", "The initial Mk 2 Mod 0 Blast Suppressor was based on the U.S. Army's Human Engineering Lab's (HEL) M4 noise suppressor.", "The HEL M4 vented gas directly from the action, requiring a modified bolt carrier.", "A gas deflector was added to the charging handle to prevent gas from contacting the user.", "Thus, the HEL M4 suppressor was permanently mounted though it allowed normal semi-automatic and automatic operation.", "If the HEL M4 suppressor were removed, the weapon would have to be manually loaded after each single shot.", "On the other hand, the Mk 2 Mod 0 blast suppressor was considered an integral part of the Mk 4 Mod 0 rifle, but it would function normally if the suppressor were removed.", "The Mk 2 Mod 0 blast suppressor also drained water much more quickly and did not require any modification to the bolt carrier or to the charging handle.", "In the late 1970s, the Mk 2 Mod 0 blast suppressor was replaced by the Mk 2 blast suppressor made by Knight's Armament Company (KAC).", "The KAC suppressor can be fully submerged and water will drain out in less than eight seconds.", "It will operate without degradation even if the rifle is fired at the maximum rate of fire.", "The U.S. Army replaced the HEL M4 with the much simpler Studies in Operational Negation of Insurgency and Counter-Subversion (SIONICS) MAW-A1 noise and flash suppressor.===US Navy Mk 12 Special Purpose Rifle===US Navy Mk 12 Special Purpose RifleDeveloped to increase the effective range of soldiers in the designated marksman role, the U.S. Navy developed the Mark 12 Special Purpose Rifle (SPR).", "Configurations in service vary, but the core of the Mark 12 SPR is an 18\" heavy barrel with muzzle brake and free float tube.", "This tube relieves pressure on the barrel caused by standard handguards and greatly increases the potential accuracy of the system.", "Also common are higher magnification optics ranging from the 6× power Trijicon ACOG to the Leupold Mark 4 Tactical rifle scopes.", "Firing Mark 262 Mod 0 ammunition with a 77gr Open tip Match bullet, the system has an official effective range of 600+ meters.", "However, published reports of confirmed kills beyond 800 m from Iraq and Afghanistan were not uncommon.===M231 Firing Port Weapon (FPW)===M231 FPWThe M231 Firing Port Weapon (FPW) is an adapted version of the M16 assault rifle for firing from ports on the M2 Bradley.", "The infantry's normal M16s are too long for use in a \"buttoned up\" fighting vehicle, so the FPW was developed to provide a suitable weapon for this role.===Colt Model 655 and 656 \"Sniper\" variants===With the expanding Vietnam War, Colt developed two rifles of the M16 pattern for evaluation as possible light sniper or designated marksman rifles.", "The Colt Model 655 M16A1 Special High Profile was essentially a standard A1 rifle with a heavier barrel and a scope bracket that attached to the rifle's carry handle.", "The Colt Model 656 M16A1 Special Low Profile had a special upper receiver with no carrying handle.", "Instead, it had a low-profile iron sight adjustable for windage and a Weaver base for mounting a scope, a precursor to the Colt and Picatinny rails.", "It also had a hooded front iron sight in addition to the heavy barrel.", "Both rifles came standard with either a Leatherwood/Realist scope 3–9× Adjustable Ranging Telescope.", "Some of them were fitted with a Sionics noise and flash suppressor.", "Neither of these rifles were ever standardized.These weapons can be seen in many ways to be predecessors of the U.S. Army's SDM-R and the USMC's SAM-R weapons.===Others===* The Chinese Norinco CQ is an unlicensed derivative of the M16A1 made specifically for export, with the most obvious external differences being in its handguard and revolver-style pistol grip.", "** The '''ARMADA rifle''' (a copy of the Norinco CQ) and '''TRAILBLAZER carbine''' (a copy of the Norinco CQ Type A) are manufactured by S.A.M.", "– Shooter's Arms Manufacturing, a.k.a.", "Shooter's Arms Guns & Ammo Corporation, headquartered in Metro Cebu, Republic of the Philippines.", "** The '''S-5.56 rifle''', a clone of the Type CQ, is manufactured by the Defense Industries Organization of Iran.", "The rifle itself is offered in two variants: the '''S-5.56 A1''' with a 19.9-inch barrel and 1:12 pitch rifling (1 turn in 305 mm), optimized for the use of the M193 Ball cartridge; and the '''S-5.56 A3''' with a 20-inch barrel and a 1:7 pitch rifling (1 turn in 177, 8 mm), optimized for the use of the SS109 cartridge.", "** The '''KH-2002''' is an Iranian bullpup conversion of the locally produced S-5.56 rifle.", "Iran intends to replace the standard issue weapon of its armed forces with this rifle.", "** The '''Terab rifle''' is a copy of the '''DIO S-5.56''' manufactured by the Military Industry Corporation of Sudan.", "* The '''M16S1''' is the M16A1 rifle made under license by ST Kinetics in Singapore.", "It was the standard issue weapon of the Singapore Armed Forces.", "It is being replaced by the newer SAR 21 in most branches.", "It is, in the meantime, the standard issue weapon in the reserve forces.", "* The MSSR rifle is a sniper rifle developed by the Philippine Marine Corps Scout Snipers that serves as their primary sniper weapon system.", "* The Special Operations Assault Rifle (SOAR) assault carbine was developed by Ferfrans based on the M16 rifle.", "It is used by the Special Action Force of the Philippine National Police.", "* Taiwan uses piston-driven M16-based weapons as their standard rifle.", "These include the T65, T86 and T91 assault rifles.", "* Ukraine has announced plans in January 2017 for Ukroboronservis and Aeroscraft to produce the M16 WAC47, an accurized M4 variation that uses standard 7.62×39 mm AK-47 magazines.", "* New Zealand has adopted the Lewis Machine and Tool Company's upgraded version of the M16 system to replace the Steyr AUG.", "This CQB16 rifle will be fielded in 2017 and is named MARS-L (Modular Ambidextrous Rifle System-Light)." ], [ "Production and users", "Worldwide users of the M16 The M16 is the most commonly manufactured 5.56×45 mm rifle in the world.", "Currently, the M16 is in use by 15 NATO countries and more than 80 countries worldwide.", "Together, numerous companies in the United States, Canada, and China have produced more than 8,000,000 rifles of all variants.", "Approximately 90% are still in operation.", "The M16 replaced both the M14 rifle and M2 carbine as standard infantry rifle of the U.S. armed forces.", "Although, the M14 continues to see limited service, mostly in sniper, designated marksman, and ceremonial roles.===Users===Afghan National Army soldiers with M16A2 riflesCanadian soldiers patrol Kandahar Afghanistan armed with C7 (M16 type) riflesMalaysian Army soldier with an M16A1 equipped with an M203 grenade launcher during a CARAT Malaysia 2008Soldiers of the Israel Defense Forces in training with M16A1 rifles with the A2 style handguardPhilippine marines using M16A1 rifles with the A2 style handguard during a military exerciseSouth Korean soldiers toss bayonet mounted M16 rifles into the air at the celebration ceremony for the 65th Anniversary of the South Korean armed forcesVietnamese Army (ARVN) Rangers armed with M16s defend Saigon during the Tet OffensiveUnited States Marine firing an M16A4 equipped with an ACOGHeritage Flag Hoisting Troops are seen holding M16A1 and SS1 rifles while marching* : Taliban use M16A2 and M16A4 rifles previously supplied for Afghan National Army.", "Also in use with the Badri 313 Battalion.", "*** : Currently use the M16A2 (by all Armed Forces).", "* : M16A4, used by the special forces and State Border Service (DSX).", "* * ** : M16A1/A4* * M16A1/A2* : Used by special forces in the final phase of the Araguaia guerrilla war.", "M16A2s used by Brazilian Marine Corps* M16A2 is used by the Royal Brunei Armed Forces as their main service rifle.", "* : Burundian rebels* M16A1* * : Colt Canada C7 and C8 variants made by Colt Canada are used by the Canadian Forces.", "* * M16A1 used by Chilean Marine Corps.", "* * * * * :* * * M16A2* * * M16A1/A2/A3/A4* Ex-U.S. M16A1s** M16A1/A2* : Used by counter-terrorism and special operations forces* ** M16A2* M16A2/A3/A4/M4/A2E M4 is used by the Special Forces of the Hellenic Army, Hellenic Air Force and the Hellenic Navy.", "* * M16A1/M16A2* ** M16A1* * M16A1* M16A2/A4.", "** M16A4* M16A1/M16A2E3* * * * : M16A1 is used by Western Army Infantry Regiment along with Howa Type 89 rifles.", "* M16A1/A2* * M16A1/A2* :* M16A1/A2/A4* * M16A1/A2* : Lithuanian Armed Forces* Malaysian Armed Forces, Royal Johor Military Force, Royal Malaysia Police, Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency and RELA Corps.", "* * : M16A2 is used by the Mexican Marines in the Mexican Drug War.", "* : ''Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince''* * M16A1/M16A2/M16A3/M16A4* : M16S1s made by Chartered Industries of Singapore provided secretly in violation of license agreements with Colt.", "* M16A2 and M16A4; captured M16A2 were also used by Maoist rebels of the People's Liberation Army, Nepal during the Nepalese Civil War.", "* : C7 and C8 variants are used by the Military of the Netherlands and LSW is used by Netherlands Marine Corps.", "*: Used by the National Police of Nicaragua and army.", "** : M16A1 (probably unlicensed copies) used by KPA special forces.", "Used during the Gangneung incident in 1996.", "* M16A1* M16A1* : Used by Palestinian Security Forces and various local militant forces.", "* M16A1.", "* M16A2** : Used by Bougainville Revolutionary Army.", "Captured from Papua New Guinea Defence Force.", "* M16A2.M16A1 Used by Navy Special Operation Forces, and by Directorate of Special Operations of the national police* : Manufactured under license by Elisco Tool and Manufacturing.", "M16A1s and M653Ps in use.", "Supplemented in Special Forces by the M4 carbine.", "* : A small number of M16A2s are used by the Special Actions Detachment of the Portuguese Navy.", "* M16A1.", "* M16A2* : M16A1 and M16A2* * : 1,000+ M16A1s in use* : Local variant of the M16A1 (M16S1) manufactured under license by ST Kinetics.", "* * : Used by Special Forces.", "Likely received from Moroccan stocks.", "* : During the Vietnam War, the U.S. provided 27,000 M16 rifles to the Republic of Korea Armed Forces in Vietnam.", "Also, 600,000 M16A1s (Colt Model 603K) were manufactured under license by Daewoo Precision Industries with deliveries from 1974 to 1985.KATUSA (Korean Augmentation to the U.S. Army) soldiers who serve in the U.S. Army use the M16A2.", "* * * * A small number of M16A2s are used by the Swedish Armed Forces for familiarization training, as well as a similar number of AKMs, but they are not issued to combat units.", "The Ak 4 and Ak 5 rifles are used by Swedish Army.", "* : M16A1, as well as indigenous Type 65/65K1/65K2, Type 86 and Type 91 (with AR-18 style gas piston system).", "* M16A1/A2/A4.A variant of XM177 replica called Type 49 carbine (ปลส.49) Used in South Thailand insurgency.", "* M16A2/A4* M16A1/A2/A4* * M16A4s* * : One of first military customers as UK purchased first AR-15s to be used in jungle warfare in Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation.", "The Colt Canada C8 (L119A1/L119A2) variant is used by Royal Military Police Close Protection Units, the Pathfinder Group, United Kingdom Special Forces and 43 Commando Fleet Protection Group Royal Marines.", "* * * : Obtained from South Vietnam following Vietnam War Over 946,000 M16s were captured in 1975 alone.", "XM16E1, M16A1 used.", "*===Non-state users===* Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda* East Indonesia Mujahideen* Free Papua Movement* **Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters**Maute Group* Kurdistan Workers' Party* New People's Army: Captured from AFP and PNP, supplied by sympathizers, or purchased from the black market.", "* 22px Viet Cong: Captured from U.S. and ARVN forces.===Former users===* Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: Standard issue rifle of the Afghan National Army.", "Colt Canada C7 variants also saw limited service.", "* M16A1 introduced during the Vietnam War and replaced by the F88 Austeyr in 1989.", "* Bangsamoro Republik* FARC* Free Aceh Movement* : M16A2 variant.", "Used by the Royal Hong Kong Regiment.", "* : Received from the US government during the Vietnam War and Laotian Civil War.", "* Moro Islamic Liberation Front* M16; replaced in 1988 by Steyr AUG, which was being replaced with a non-Colt M16 variant in 2016.", "* 20px Provisional IRA – received a number of M16s during The Troubles in Northern Ireland.", "* : M16A1* : 6,000 M16 and 938,000 M16A1, 1966–1975*" ], [ "Conflicts", "===1960s===*Vietnam War (1955–1975)*Laotian Civil War (1959–1975)*Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation (1963–1966)*Dominican Civil War (1965)*The Troubles (Late 1960s–1998)*Colombian conflict (1964–present)*Rhodesian Bush War (1964–1979)*Communist insurgency in Thailand (1965–1983)*Cambodian Civil War (1968–1975)*Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)*Moro conflict (1969–2019)*Communist rebellion in the Philippines (1969–present)===1970s===*Araguaia Guerrilla War (1972–1974)*Armed resistance in Chile (1973–1990)*Yom Kippur War (1973)*Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990)*East Timor conflict (1975-1999)*Insurgency in Aceh (1976–2005)*Shaba II (1978)*Cambodian–Vietnamese War (1978–1989)*Salvadoran Civil War (1979–1992)*Sino-Vietnamese War*Sino-Vietnamese conflicts (1979–1991)*Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989)===1980s===*Falklands War (1982)*Sri Lankan Civil War (1983–2009)*United States invasion of Grenada (1983)*Thai–Laotian Border War (1987–1988)*Bougainville Civil War (1988–1998)*First Liberian Civil War (1989–1997)*United States invasion of Panama (1989–1990)===1990s===*Gulf War (1990–1991)*Somali Civil War (1991–present)*Yugoslav wars (1991–1995)*Sierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002)*Burundian Civil War (1993–2005)*Cenepa War (1995)*Nepalese Civil War (1996–2006)*First Congo War (1996–1997)*Second Liberian Civil War (1999–2003)===2000s===*War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)*War in Darfur (2003–present)*Iraq War (2003–2011)*South Thailand insurgency (2004–present)*Kivu conflict (2004–present)*Insurgency in Paraguay (2005–present)*2006 Lebanon War*Mexican drug war (2006–present)*2007 Lebanon conflict (2007)*Cambodian–Thai border dispute (2008–2011)===2010s===*Militias-Comando Vermelho conflict (2010–present)*Syrian civil war (2011–present)*Infighting in the Gulf Cartel (2011–present)*2013 Lahad Datu standoff*Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017)*Operation Madago Raya*Battle of Marawi (2017)===2020s===*Republican insurgency in Afghanistan (2021–present)*2021 Beirut clashes (2021)*Myanmar Civil War (2021–present)*Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–present)*2023 Israel–Hamas war (2023–present)" ], [ "See also", "* Adaptive Combat Rifle* List of Colt AR-15 and M16 rifle variants* List of AR platform cartridges* Colt 9mm SMG* Comparison of the AK-47 and M16* Daewoo K2, Republic of Korea Armed Forces (South Korea) assault rifle* Heckler & Koch HK416* List of individual weapons of the U.S. armed forces* M203 40 mm grenade launcher* Norinco CQ, M16 clone developed by China* Robinson Arms XCR* Rubber duck (military)* T65 assault rifle, AR-15 variant developed by ROC Army* Winchester LMR* Squad Designated Marksman Rifle* SEAL Recon Rifle* Marine Scout Sniper Rifle* List of assault rifles" ], [ "Notes and references", "'''Notes''''''References''''''Sources'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Further reading'''* Modern Warfare, Published by Mark Dartford, Marshall Cavendish (London) 1985* Afonso, Aniceto and Gomes, Carlos de Matos, ''Guerra Colonial'' (2000), * * * McNaugher, Thomas L. \" Marksmanship, Mcnamara and the M16 Rifle: Organisations, Analysis and Weapons Acquisition\"* * U.S. Army; Sadowski, Robert A., Editor.", "''The M16A1 Rifle: Operation and Preventive Maintenance'' Enhanced, hardcover edition 2013; Skyhorse, New York, NY." ], [ "External links", "* Dept of Army Field Manual FM 23-9* Colt's Manufacturing: The M16A4 Rifle* FN M16A4 website* PEO Soldier M16 fact sheet* Combat Training with the M16 Manual* * * , artwork by Will Eisner.", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marlon Brando" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marlon Brando Jr.''' (April 3, 1924 – July 1, 2004) was an American actor and activist.", "Widely considered one of the greatest and most influential actors of all time, he received numerous accolades throughout his career, which spanned six decades, including two Academy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, one Cannes Film Festival Award, and three British Academy Film Awards.", "Brando is credited with being one of the first actors to bring the Stanislavski system of acting and method acting to mainstream audiences.Brando fell under the influence of Stella Adler and Stanislavski's system in the 1940s.", "He began his career on stage, adeptly reading his characters and consistently anticipating where scenes flowed.", "He transitioned to film, initially gaining acclaim and his first Academy Award for Best Actor nomination for the role of Stanley Kowalski in ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' (1951).", "He received further praise and his first Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for his performance as Terry Malloy in ''On the Waterfront'' (1954), which remains a watershed moment in the history of Hollywood, and his work continues to be studied and interpreted.", "His portrayal of the rebellious motorcycle gang leader Johnny Strabler in ''The Wild One'' (1953) became an emblem of the era's generational gap.The 1960s saw Brando's career take a commercial and critical downturn.", "He directed and starred in ''One-Eyed Jacks'' (1961), a commercial flop, after which he delivered a series of notable box-office failures, beginning with ''Mutiny on the Bounty'' (1962), which damaged his career.", "After ten years of underachieving and markedly diminished interest in his films, he starred as Vito Corleone in ''The Godfather'' (1972), which helped him win his second Academy Award and Golden Globe Award in a performance considered among the finest in the art form's history, based on extensive surveys of critics, directors and other actors.", "With this and his Oscar-nominated performance in ''Last Tango in Paris'' (1972), Brando reestablished himself in the ranks of top box-office stars.After a hiatus in the early 1970s, Brando was generally content with being a highly paid character actor in supporting roles of varying quality such as Jor-El in ''Superman'' (1978), as Colonel Kurtz in ''Apocalypse Now'' (1979) and as Adam Steiffel in ''The Formula'' (1980) before taking a nine-year break from film.", "The last two decades of Brando's life were marked with controversy, and his troubled private life received significant attention.", "He struggled with mood disorders and legal issues.", "Brando continues to be respected and held in high regard." ], [ "Early life and education", "Brando 1934Marlon Brando Jr. was born on April 3, 1924, in Omaha, Nebraska, as the only son of Marlon Brando Sr. and Dorothy Pennebaker.", "His father was a salesman who often travelled out-of-state and his mother was a stage actress, often away from home.", "His mother's absence resulted in Brando becoming attached to the family's housekeeper, who eventually left to get married, causing Brando to develop abandonment issues.", "His two elder sisters were Jocelyn and Frances.Brando's ancestry was mostly German, Dutch, English, and Irish.", "His patrilineal immigrant ancestor, Johann Wilhelm Brandau, arrived in New York City in the early 1700s from the Palatinate in Germany.", "He is also a descendant of Louis DuBois, a French Huguenot, who arrived in New York around 1660.His maternal great-grandfather, Myles Joseph Gahan, was an Irish immigrant who served as a medic in the American Civil War.", "In 1995, he gave an interview in Ireland in which he said, \"I have never been so happy in my life.", "When I got off the plane I had this rush of emotion.", "I have never felt at home in a place as I do here.", "I am seriously contemplating Irish citizenship.", "\"In 1930, when Brando was only 6 years old, the family moved to Evanston, Illinois, where Brando mimicked other people, developed a reputation for pranking, and met Wally Cox, with whom he remained friends until Cox's death in 1973.In 1936, his parents separated and he and his siblings moved with their mother to Santa Ana, California.", "Two years later, his parents reconciled, and his father purchased a farmhouse in Libertyville, Illinois.", "Brando attended Libertyville High School, excelling at sports and drama, but failing in every other subject.", "Consequently, he was held back for a year, and with his history of misbehaving, he was expelled in 1941.Brando was sent by his father to Shattuck Military Academy, where his father had himself studied.", "There, Brando continued to excel at acting until 1943 when he was put on probation for being insubordinate to an officer during maneuvers.", "He was confined to the campus, but sneaked into town and was caught.", "The faculty voted to expel him although he was supported by the students who thought expulsion was too harsh.", "Brando was invited back for the following year but decided instead to drop out of high school.", "He then worked as a ditch-digger as a summer job arranged by his father and tried to enlist in the Army, but his routine physical revealed that a football injury he had sustained at Shattuck had left him with a trick knee; he was classified physically unfit for military service.Brando decided to follow his sisters to New York, studying at the American Theatre Wing Professional School, part of the Dramatic Workshop of the New School, with influential German director Erwin Piscator.", "In a 1988 documentary, ''Marlon Brando: The Wild One'', Brando's sister Jocelyn remembered, \"He was in a school play and enjoyed it ...", "So he decided he would go to New York and study acting because that was the only thing he had enjoyed.", "That was when he was 18.\"", "In the A&E ''Biography'' episode on Brando, George Englund said Brando fell into acting in New York because \"he was accepted there.", "He wasn't criticized.", "It was the first time in his life that he heard good things about himself.\"", "He spent his first few months in New York sleeping on friends' couches.", "For a time he lived with Roy Somlyo, who later became a four time Emmy winning Broadway producer.Brando was an avid student and proponent of Stella Adler, from whom he learned the techniques of the Stanislavski system.", "This technique encouraged the actor to explore both internal and external aspects to fully realize the character being portrayed.", "Brando's remarkable insight and sense of realism were evident early on.", "Adler used to recount that when teaching Brando, she had instructed the class to act like chickens, and added that a nuclear bomb was about to fall on them.", "Most of the class clucked and ran around wildly, but Brando sat calmly and pretended to lay an egg.", "Asked by Adler why he had chosen to react this way, he said, \"I'm a chicken—what do I know about bombs?\"", "Despite being commonly regarded as a method actor, Brando disagreed.", "He claimed to have abhorred Lee Strasberg's teachings:Brando was the first to bring a natural approach to acting on film.", "According to Dustin Hoffman in his online Masterclass, Brando would often talk to camera men and fellow actors about their weekend even after the director would call action.", "Once Brando felt he could deliver the dialogue as natural as that conversation he would start the dialogue.", "In his 2015 documentary, ''Listen To Me Marlon'', he said that prior to that, actors were like breakfast cereals, meaning they were predictable.", "Critics would later say that this was Brando being difficult, but actors who worked opposite him said it was just all part of his technique." ], [ "Career", "===Early career: 1944–1951===Brando used his Stanislavski System skills for his first summer stock roles in Sayville, New York, on Long Island.", "Brando established a pattern of erratic, insubordinate behavior in the few shows he had been in.", "His behavior had him kicked out of the cast of the New School's production in Sayville, but he was soon afterwards discovered in a locally produced play there.", "Then, in 1944, he made it to Broadway in the bittersweet drama ''I Remember Mama'', playing the son of Mady Christians.", "The Lunts wanted Brando to play the role of Alfred Lunt's son in ''O Mistress Mine'', and Lunt even coached him for the audition, but Brando made no attempt to even read his lines at the audition and was not hired.", "New York Drama Critics voted him \"Most Promising Young Actor\" for his role as an anguished veteran in ''Truckline Café'', although the play was a commercial failure.", "In 1946, he appeared on Broadway as the young hero in the political drama ''A Flag is Born'', refusing to accept wages above the Actors' Equity rate.", "In that same year, Brando played the role of Marchbanks alongside Katharine Cornell in her production's revival of ''Candida'', one of her signature roles.", "Cornell also cast him as the Messenger in her production of Jean Anouilh's ''Antigone'' that same year.", "He was also offered the opportunity to portray one of the principal characters in the Broadway premiere of Eugene O'Neill's ''The Iceman Cometh'', but turned the part down after falling asleep while trying to read the massive script and pronouncing the play \"ineptly written and poorly constructed\".Brando in 1948In 1945, Brando's agent recommended he take a co-starring role in ''The Eagle Has Two Heads'' with Tallulah Bankhead, produced by Jack Wilson.", "Bankhead had turned down the role of Blanche Dubois in ''A Streetcar Named Desire'', which Williams had written for her, to tour the play for the 1946–1947 season.", "Bankhead recognized Brando's potential, despite her disdain (which most Broadway veterans shared) for method acting, and agreed to hire him even though he auditioned poorly.", "The two clashed greatly during the pre-Broadway tour, with Bankhead reminding Brando of his mother, being her age and also having a drinking problem.", "Wilson was largely tolerant of Brando's behavior, but he reached his limit when Brando mumbled through a dress rehearsal shortly before the November 28, 1946, opening.", "\"I don't care what your grandmother did,\" Wilson exclaimed, \"and that Method stuff, I want to know what you're going to do!\"", "Brando in turn raised his voice, and acted with great power and passion.", "\"It was marvelous,\" a cast member recalled.", "\"Everybody hugged him and kissed him.", "He came ambling offstage and said to me, 'They don't think you can act unless you can yell.", "'\"Critics were not as kind, however.", "A review of Brando's performance in the opening assessed that Brando was \"still building his character, but at present fails to impress.\"", "One Boston critic remarked of Brando's prolonged death scene, \"Brando looked like a car in midtown Manhattan searching for a parking space.\"", "He received better reviews at subsequent tour stops, but what his colleagues recalled was only occasional indications of the talent he would later demonstrate.", "\"There were a few times when he was really magnificent,\" Bankhead admitted to an interviewer in 1962.", "\"He was a great young actor when he wanted to be, but most of the time I couldn't even hear him on the stage.", "\"From left to right: Jessica Tandy, Kim Hunter and Brando in the original 1947 Broadway production of ''A Streetcar Named Desire''.Brando displayed his apathy for the production by demonstrating some shocking onstage manners.", "He \"tried everything in the world to ruin it for her,\" Bankhead's stage manager claimed.", "\"He nearly drove her crazy: scratching his crotch, picking his nose, doing anything.\"", "After several weeks on the road, they reached Boston, by which time Bankhead was ready to dismiss him.", "This proved to be one of the greatest blessings of his career, as it freed him up to play the role of Stanley Kowalski in Tennessee Williams' 1947 play ''A Streetcar Named Desire'', directed by Elia Kazan.", "Moreover, to that end, Bankhead herself, in her letter declining Williams' invitation to play the role of Blanche, gave Brando this ringing—albeit acid-tongued—endorsement stating \"I do have one suggestion for casting.", "I know of an actor who can appear as this brutish Stanley Kowalski character.", "I mean, a total pig of a man without sensitivity or grace of any kind.", "Marlon Brando would be perfect as Stanley.", "I have just fired the cad from my play, The Eagle Has Two Heads, and I know for a fact that he is looking for work\".Pierpont writes that John Garfield was first choice for the role, but \"made impossible demands.\"", "It was Kazan's decision to fall back on the far less experienced (and technically too young for the role) Brando.", "In a letter dated August 29, 1947, Williams confided to his agent Audrey Wood: \"It had not occurred to me before what an excellent value would come through casting a very young actor in this part.", "It humanizes the character of Stanley in that it becomes the brutality and callousness of youth rather than a vicious old man ... A new value came out of Brando's reading which was by far the best reading I have ever heard.\"", "Brando based his portrayal of Kowalski on the boxer Rocky Graziano, whom he had studied at a local gymnasium.", "Graziano did not know who Brando was, but attended the production with tickets provided by the young man.", "He said, \"The curtain went up and on the stage is that son of a bitch from the gym, and he's playing me.", "\"Brando in 1950In 1947, Brando performed a screen test for an early Warner Brothers script for the novel ''Rebel Without a Cause'' (1944), which bore no relation to the film eventually produced in 1955.The screen test is included as an extra in the 2006 DVD release of ''A Streetcar Named Desire''.", "Brando's first screen role was a bitter paraplegic veteran in ''The Men'' (1950).", "He spent a month in bed at the Birmingham Army Hospital in Van Nuys to prepare for the role.", "''The New York Times'' reviewer Bosley Crowther wrote that Brando as Ken \"is so vividly real, dynamic and sensitive that his illusion is complete\" and noted, \"Out of stiff and frozen silences he can lash into a passionate rage with the tearful and flailing frenzy of a taut cable suddenly cut.", "\"By Brando's own account, it may have been because of this film that his draft status was changed from 4-F to 1-A.", "He had had surgery on his trick knee, and it was no longer physically debilitating enough to incur exclusion from the draft.", "When Brando reported to the induction center, he answered a questionnaire by saying his race was \"human\", his color was \"Seasonal-oyster white to beige\", and he told an Army doctor that he was psychoneurotic.", "When the draft board referred him to a psychiatrist, Brando explained that he had been expelled from military school and had severe problems with authority.", "Coincidentally, the psychiatrist knew a doctor friend of Brando.", "Brando avoided military service during the Korean War.Early in his career, Brando began using cue cards instead of memorizing his lines.", "Despite the objections of several of the film directors he worked with, Brando felt that this helped bring realism and spontaneity to his performances.", "He felt otherwise he would appear to be reciting a writer's speech.", "In the TV documentary ''The Making of Superman: The Movie'', Brando explained: \"If you don't know what the words are but you have a general idea of what they are, then you look at the cue card and it gives you the feeling to the viewer, hopefully, that the person is really searching for what he is going to say—that he doesn't know what to say\".", "Some, however, thought Brando used the cards out of laziness or an inability to memorize his lines.", "Once, on the set of ''The Godfather'', Brando was asked why he wanted his lines printed out.", "He responded: \"Because I can read them that way.", "\"===Rise to fame: 1951–1954===Brando brought his performance as Stanley Kowalski to the screen in Tennessee Williams' ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' (1951).", "It earned him his first Academy Award nomination in the Best Actor category.", "The role is regarded as one of Brando's greatest.Brando as Emiliano Zapata in ''Viva Zapata!''", "(1952)He was also nominated the next year for ''Viva Zapata!''", "(1952), a fictionalized account of the life of Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata.", "The film recounted Zapata's lower-class upbringing, his rise to power in the early 20th century, and death.", "The film was directed by Elia Kazan and co-starred Anthony Quinn.", "In the biopic ''Marlon Brando: The Wild One'', Sam Shaw says: \"Secretly, before the picture started, he went to Mexico to the very town where Zapata lived and was born in and it was there that he studied the speech patterns of people, their behavior, movement.\"", "Most critics focused on the actor rather than the film, with ''Time'' and ''Newsweek'' publishing rave reviews.Years later, in his autobiography, Brando remarked: \"Tony Quinn, whom I admired professionally and liked personally, played my brother, but he was extremely cold to me while we shot that picture.", "During our scenes together, I sensed a bitterness toward me, and if I suggested a drink after work, he either turned me down or else was sullen and said little.", "Only years later did I learn why.\"", "Brando explained that, to create on-screen tension between the two, \"Gadg\" (Kazan) had told Quinn — who had taken over the role of Stanley Kowalski from Brando on Broadway — that Brando had been unimpressed with his work.", "After achieving the desired effect, Kazan never told Quinn that he had misled him.", "It was only many years later, after comparing notes, that Brando and Quinn realized the deception.Brando's next film, ''Julius Caesar'' (1953), received highly favorable reviews.", "Brando portrayed Mark Antony.", "While most acknowledged Brando's talent, some critics felt Brando's \"mumbling\" and other idiosyncrasies betrayed a lack of acting fundamentals and, when his casting was announced, many remained dubious about his prospects for success.", "Directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz and co-starring British stage actor John Gielgud, Brando delivered an impressive performance, especially during Antony's noted \"Friends, Romans, countrymen ...\" speech.", "Gielgud was so impressed that he offered Brando a full season at the Hammersmith Theatre, an offer he declined.", "In his biography on the actor, Stefan Kanfer writes, \"Marlon's autobiography devotes one line to his work on that film: Among all those British professionals, 'for me to walk onto a movie set and play Mark Anthony was asinine'—yet another example of his persistent self-denigration, and wholly incorrect.\"", "Kanfer adds that after a screening of the film, director John Huston commented: \"Christ!", "It was like a furnace door opening—the heat came off the screen.", "I don't know another actor who could do that.\"", "During the filming of ''Julius Caesar'', Brando learned that Elia Kazan had cooperated with congressional investigators, naming a whole string of \"subversives\" to the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC).", "By all accounts, Brando was upset by his mentor's decision, but he worked with him again in ''On The Waterfront''.", "\"None of us is perfect,\" he later wrote in his memoir, \"and I think that Gadg has done injury to others, but mostly to himself.", "\"In 1953, Brando also starred in ''The Wild One'', riding his own Triumph Thunderbird 6T motorcycle.", "Triumph's importers were ambivalent at the exposure, as the subject matter was rowdy motorcycle gangs taking over a small town.", "The film was criticized for its perceived gratuitous violence at the time, with ''Time'' stating: \"The effect of the movie is not to throw light on the public problem, but to shoot adrenaline through the moviegoer's veins.\"", "Brando allegedly did not see eye to eye with the Hungarian director László Benedek and did not get on with costar Lee Marvin.To Brando's expressed puzzlement, the movie inspired teen rebellion and made him a role model to the nascent rock-and-roll generation and future stars such as James Dean and Elvis Presley.", "After the movie's release, the sales of leather jackets and motorcycles skyrocketed.", "Reflecting on the movie in his autobiography, Brando concluded that it had not aged very well but said \"More than most parts I've played in the movies or onstage, I related to Johnny, and because of this, I believe I played him as more sensitive and sympathetic than the script envisioned.", "There's a line in the picture where he snarls, 'Nobody tells me what to do.'", "That's exactly how I've felt all my life.", "\"Later that same year, Brando co-starred with fellow Studio member William Redfield in a summer stock production of George Bernard Shaw's ''Arms and the Man''.====''On the Waterfront''====In 1954, Brando starred in ''On the Waterfront'', a crime drama film about union violence and corruption among longshoremen.", "The film was directed by Elia Kazan and written by Budd Schulberg; it also starred Karl Malden, Lee J. Cobb, Rod Steiger and, in her film debut, Eva Marie Saint.", "When initially offered the role, Brando—still stung by Kazan's testimony to HUAC—demurred and the part of Terry Malloy nearly went to Frank Sinatra.", "According to biographer Stefan Kanfer, the director believed that Sinatra, who grew up in Hoboken (where the film takes place and was shot), would work as Malloy, but eventually producer Sam Spiegel wooed Brando to the part, signing him for $100,000.", "\"Kazan made no protest because, he subsequently confessed, 'I always preferred Brando to anybody.", "'\"Eva Marie Saint and Brando in ''On the Waterfront'' (1954)Brando won the Oscar for his role as Irish-American stevedore Terry Malloy in ''On the Waterfront''.", "His performance, spurred on by his rapport with Eva Marie Saint and Kazan's direction, was praised as a ''tour de force''.", "For the scene in which Terry laments his failings, saying ''I coulda been a contender'', he convinced Kazan that the scripted scene was unrealistic.", "Schulberg's script had Brando acting the entire scene with his character being held at gunpoint by his brother Charlie, played by Rod Steiger.", "Brando insisted on gently pushing away the gun, saying that Terry would never believe that his brother would pull the trigger and doubting that he could continue his speech while fearing a gun on him.", "Kazan let Brando improvise and later expressed deep admiration for Brando's instinctive understanding, saying:Upon its release, ''On the Waterfront'' received glowing reviews from critics and was a commercial success, earning an estimated $4.2 million in rentals at the North American box office in 1954.In his July 29, 1954, review, ''The New York Times'' critic A. H. Weiler praised the film, calling it \"an uncommonly powerful, exciting, and imaginative use of the screen by gifted professionals.\"", "Film critic Roger Ebert lauded the film, stating that Brando and Kazan changed acting in American films forever and added it to his \"Great Movies\" list.", "In his autobiography, Brando was typically dismissive of his performance: \"On the day Gadg showed me the complete picture, I was so depressed by my performance I got up and left the screening room ...", "I thought I was a huge failure.\"", "After Brando won the Academy Award for Best Actor, the statue was stolen.", "Much later, it turned up at a London auction house, which contacted the actor and informed him of its whereabouts.===Box office success: 1954–1959===Brando portrayed Napoleon in the 1954 film ''Désirée''.Brando was in the film adaptation of the musical ''Guys and Dolls'' (1955).", "''Guys and Dolls'' would be Brando's first and last musical role.", "''Time'' found the picture \"false to the original in its feeling\", remarking that Brando \"sings in a faraway tenor that sometimes tends to be flat.\"", "Appearing in Edward Murrow's ''Person to Person'' interview in early 1955, he admitted to having problems with his singing voice, which he called \"pretty terrible.\"", "In the 1965 documentary ''Meet Marlon Brando'', he revealed that the final product heard in the movie was a result of countless singing takes being cut into one and later joked, \"I couldn't hit a note with a baseball bat; some notes I missed by extraordinary margins ...", "They sewed my words together on one song so tightly that when I mouthed it in front of the camera, I nearly asphyxiated myself\".", "Relations between Brando and costar Frank Sinatra were also frosty, with Stefan Kanfer observing: \"The two men were diametrical opposites: Marlon required multiple takes; Frank detested repeating himself.\"", "Upon their first meeting Sinatra reportedly scoffed, \"Don't give me any of that Actors Studio shit.\"", "Brando later quipped, \"Frank is the kind of guy, when he dies, he's going to heaven and give God a hard time for making him bald.\"", "Frank Sinatra called Brando \"the world's most overrated actor\", and referred to him as \"mumbles\".", "The film was commercially though not critically successful, costing $5.5 million to make and grossing $13 million.Brando played Sakini, a Japanese interpreter for the U.S. Army in postwar Japan, in ''The Teahouse of the August Moon'' (1956).", "Pauline Kael was not particularly impressed by the movie, but noted \"Marlon Brando starved himself to play the pixie interpreter Sakini, and he looks as if he's enjoying the stunt—talking with a mad accent, grinning boyishly, bending forward, and doing tricky movements with his legs.", "He's harmlessly genial (and he is certainly missed when he's offscreen), though the fey, roguish role doesn't allow him to do what he's great at and it's possible that he's less effective in it than a lesser actor might have been.", "\"Haile Selassie I with Brando in the film set of Désirée, (behind) Princess Seble DestaIn ''Sayonara'' (1957), Brando appeared as a United States Air Force officer.", "''Newsweek'' found the film a \"dull tale of the meeting of the twain\", but it was nevertheless a box-office success.", "According to Stefan Kanfer's biography of the actor, Brando's manager Jay Kanter negotiated a profitable contract with ten percent of the gross going to Brando, which put him in the millionaire category.", "The movie was controversial due to openly discussing interracial marriage, but proved a great success, earning 10 Academy Award nominations, with Brando being nominated for Best Actor.", "The film went on to win four Academy Awards.", "''Teahouse'' and ''Sayonara'' were the first in a string of films Brando would strive to make over the next decade which contained socially relevant messages, and he formed a partnership with Paramount to establish his own production company called Pennebaker, its declared purpose to develop films that contained \"social value that would improve the world.\"", "The name was a tribute in honor of his mother, who had died in 1954.By all accounts, Brando was devastated by her death, with biographer Peter Manso telling A&E's ''Biography'', \"She was the one who could give him approval like no one else could and, after his mother died, it seems that Marlon stops caring.\"", "Brando appointed his father to run Pennebaker.", "In the same A&E special, George Englund claims that Brando gave his father the job because \"it gave Marlon a chance to take shots at him, to demean and diminish him\".In 1958, Brando appeared in ''The Young Lions'', dyeing his hair blonde and assuming a German accent for the role, which he later admitted was not convincing.", "The film is based on the novel by Irwin Shaw, and Brando's portrayal of the character Christian Diestl was controversial for its time.", "He later wrote, \"The original script closely followed the book, in which Shaw painted all Germans as evil caricatures, especially Christian, whom he portrayed as a symbol of everything that was bad about Nazism; he was mean, nasty, vicious, a cliché of evil ...", "I thought the story should demonstrate that there are no inherently 'bad' people in the world, but they can easily be misled.\"", "Shaw and Brando even appeared together for a televised interview with CBS correspondent David Schoenbrun and, during a bombastic exchange, Shaw charged that, like most actors, Brando was incapable of playing flat-out villainy; Brando responded by stating \"Nobody creates a character but an actor.", "I play the role; now he exists.", "He is my creation.\"", "''The Young Lions'' also features Brando's only appearance in a film with friend and rival Montgomery Clift (although they shared no scenes together).", "Brando closed out the decade by appearing in ''The Fugitive Kind'' (1960) opposite Anna Magnani.", "The film was based on another play by Tennessee Williams but was hardly the success ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' had been, with the ''Los Angeles Times'' labeling Williams' personae \"psychologically sick or just plain ugly\" and ''The New Yorker'' calling it a \"cornpone melodrama\".===''One-Eyed Jacks'' and ''Mutiny on the Bounty''===Brando with Pina Pellicer in a publicity photograph for ''One-Eyed Jacks'' (1961).In 1961, Brando made his directorial debut in the western ''One-Eyed Jacks''.", "The picture was originally directed by Stanley Kubrick, but he was fired early in the production.", "Paramount then made Brando the director.", "Brando portrays the lead character Rio, and Karl Malden plays his partner \"Dad\" Longworth.", "The supporting cast features Katy Jurado, Ben Johnson, and Slim Pickens.", "Brando's penchant for multiple retakes and character exploration as an actor carried over into his directing, however, and the film soon went over budget; Paramount expected the film to take three months to complete but shooting stretched to six and the cost doubled to more than six million dollars.", "Brando's inexperience as an editor also delayed postproduction and Paramount eventually took control of the film.", "Brando later wrote, \"Paramount said it didn't like my version of the story; I'd had everyone lie except Karl Malden.", "The studio cut the movie to pieces and made him a liar, too.", "By then, I was bored with the whole project and walked away from it\".", "''One-Eyed Jacks'' was received with mixed reviews by critics.Brando's revulsion with the film industry reportedly boiled over on the set of his next film, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's remake of ''Mutiny on the Bounty'', which was filmed in Tahiti.", "The actor was accused of deliberately sabotaging nearly every aspect of the production.", "On June 16, 1962, ''The Saturday Evening Post'' ran an article by Bill Davidson with the headline \"Six million dollars down the drain: the mutiny of Marlon Brando\".", "''Mutiny'' director Lewis Milestone claimed that the executives \"deserve what they get when they give a ham actor, a petulant child, complete control over an expensive picture.\"", "'' Mutiny on the Bounty'' nearly capsized MGM and, while the project had indeed been hampered with delays other than Brando's behavior, the accusations would dog the actor for years as studios began to fear Brando's difficult reputation.", "Critics also began taking note of his fluctuating weight.===Box office decline: 1963–1971===Distracted by his personal life and becoming disillusioned with his career, Brando began to view acting as a means to a financial end.", "Critics protested when he started accepting roles in films many perceived as being beneath his talent, or criticized him for failing to live up to the better roles.", "Previously only signing short-term deals with film studios, in 1961 Brando uncharacteristically signed a five-picture deal with Universal Studios that would haunt him for the rest of the decade.", "''The Ugly American'' (1963) was the first of these films.", "Based on the 1958 novel of the same title that Pennebaker had optioned, the film, which featured Brando's sister Jocelyn, was rated fairly positively but died at the box office.", "Brando was nominated for a Golden Globe for his performance.", "All of Brando's other Universal films during this period, including ''Bedtime Story'' (1964), ''The Appaloosa'' (1966), ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967) and ''The Night of the Following Day'' (1969), were also critical and commercial flops.", "''Countess'' in particular was a disappointment for Brando, who had looked forward to working with one of his heroes, director Charlie Chaplin.", "The experience turned out to be an unhappy one; Brando was horrified at Chaplin's didactic style of direction and his authoritarian approach.", "Brando had also appeared in the spy thriller ''Morituri'' in 1965; that, too, failed to attract an audience.Brando acknowledged his professional decline, writing later, \"Some of the films I made during the sixties were successful; some weren't.", "Some, like ''The Night of the Following Day'', I made only for the money; others, like ''Candy'', I did because a friend asked me to and I didn't want to turn him down ...", "In some ways I think of my middle age as the Fuck You Years.\"", "''Candy'' was especially appalling for many; a 1968 sex farce film directed by Christian Marquand and based on the 1958 novel by Terry Southern, the film satirizes pornographic stories through the adventures of its naive heroine, Candy, played by Ewa Aulin.", "It is generally regarded as the nadir of Brando's career.", "''The Washington Post'' observed: \"Brando's self-indulgence over a dozen years is costing him and his public his talents.\"", "In the March 1966 issue of ''The Atlantic'', Pauline Kael wrote that in his rebellious days, Brando \"was antisocial because he knew society was crap; he was a hero to youth because he was strong enough not to take the crap\", but now Brando and others like him had become \"buffoons, shamelessly, pathetically mocking their public reputations.\"", "In an earlier review of ''The Appaloosa'' in 1966, Kael wrote that the actor was \"trapped in another dog of a movie ... Not for the first time, Mr. Brando gives us a heavy-lidded, adenoidally openmouthed caricature of the inarticulate, stalwart loner.\"", "Although he feigned indifference, Brando was hurt by the critical mauling, admitting in the 2015 film ''Listen to Me Marlon'', \"They can hit you every day and you have no way of fighting back.", "I was very convincing in my pose of indifference, but I was very sensitive and it hurt a lot.", "\"Brando portrayed a repressed gay army officer in ''Reflections in a Golden Eye'', directed by John Huston and co-starring Elizabeth Taylor.", "The role turned out as one of his most acclaimed in years, with Stanley Crouch marveling, \"Brando's main achievement was to portray the taciturn but stoic gloom of those pulverized by circumstances.\"", "The film overall received mixed reviews.", "Another notable film was ''The Chase'' (1966), which paired the actor with director Arthur Penn, Jane Fonda, Robert Redford and Robert Duvall.", "The film deals with themes of racism, sexual revolution, small-town corruption, and vigilantism.", "The film was received mostly positively.Brando cited ''Burn!''", "(1969) as his personal favorite of the films he had made, writing in his autobiography: \"I think I did some of the best acting I've ever done in that picture, but few people came to see it.\"", "Brando dedicated a full chapter to the film in his memoir, stating that the director, Gillo Pontecorvo, was the best director he had ever worked with next to Kazan and Bernardo Bertolucci.", "Brando also detailed his clashes with Pontecorvo on the set and how \"we nearly killed each other.\"", "Loosely based on events in the history of Guadeloupe, the film got a hostile reception from critics.", "In 1971, Michael Winner directed him in the British horror film ''The Nightcomers'' with Stephanie Beacham, Thora Hird, Harry Andrews and Anna Palk.", "It is a prequel to ''The Turn of the Screw'', which had previously been filmed as ''The Innocents'' (1961).", "Brando's performance earned him a nomination for a Best Actor BAFTA, but the film bombed at the box office.===''The Godfather'' and ''Last Tango in Paris''===During the 1970s, Brando was considered \"unbankable\".", "Critics were becoming increasingly dismissive of his work and he had not appeared in a box office hit since ''The Young Lions'' in 1958, the last year he had ranked as one of the Top Ten Box Office Stars and the year of his last Academy Award nomination, for ''Sayonara.''", "Brando's performance as Vito Corleone, the \"Don,\" in ''The Godfather'' (1972), Francis Ford Coppola's adaptation of Mario Puzo's 1969 bestselling novel of the same name, was a career turning point, putting him back in the Top Ten and winning him his second Best Actor Oscar.Paramount production chief Robert Evans, who had given Puzo an advance to write ''The Godfather'' so that Paramount would own the film rights, hired Coppola after many major directors had turned the film down.", "Evans wanted an Italian-American director who could provide the film with cultural authenticity.", "Coppola also came cheap.", "Evans was conscious of the fact that Paramount's last Mafia film, ''The Brotherhood'' (1968) had been a box office bomb, and he believed it was partly due to the fact that the director, Martin Ritt, and the star, Kirk Douglas, were Jewish, and the film lacked an authentic Italian flavor.", "The studio originally intended the film to be a low-budget production set in contemporary times without any major actors, but the phenomenal success of the novel gave Evans the clout to turn ''The Godfather'' into a prestige picture.Coppola had developed a list of actors for all the roles, and his list of potential Dons included the Oscar-winning Italian-American Ernest Borgnine, the Italian-American Frank de Kova (best known for playing Chief Wild Eagle on the TV sitcom ''F-Troop''), John Marley (a Best Supporting Oscar-nominee for Paramount's 1970 hit film ''Love Story'' who was cast as the film producer Jack Woltz in the picture), the Italian-American Richard Conte (who was cast as Don Corleone's deadly rival Don Emilio Barzini), and Italian film producer Carlo Ponti.", "Coppola admitted in a 1975 interview, \"We finally figured we had to lure the ''best'' actor in the world.", "It was that simple.", "That boiled down to Laurence Olivier or Marlon Brando, who ''are'' the greatest actors in the world.\"", "Coppola's hand-written cast list has Brando's name underlined.Evans told Coppola that he had been thinking of Brando for the part two years earlier, and Puzo had imagined Brando in the part when he wrote the novel and had actually written to him about the part, so Coppola and Evans narrowed it down to Brando.", "(Coincidentally, Olivier would compete with Brando for the Best Actor Oscar for his part in ''Sleuth.''", "He bested Brando at the 1972 New York Film Critics Circle Awards.)", "Albert S. Ruddy, whom Paramount assigned to produce the film, agreed with the choice of Brando.", "However, Paramount studio executives were opposed to casting Brando, due to his reputation for difficulty and his long string of box office flops.", "Brando also had ''One-Eyed Jacks'' working against him, a troubled production that lost money for Paramount when it was released in 1961.Paramount Pictures President Stanley Jaffe told an exasperated Coppola: \"As long as I'm president of this studio, Marlon Brando will not be in this picture, and I will no longer allow you to discuss it.", "\"Jaffe eventually set three conditions for the casting of Brando: That he would have to take a fee far below what he typically received; he would have to agree to accept financial responsibility for any production delays his behavior cost; and he had to submit to a screen test.", "Coppola convinced Brando to do a videotaped \"make-up\" test, in which Brando did his own makeup (he used cotton balls to simulate the character's puffed cheeks).", "Coppola had feared Brando might be too young to play the Don, but was electrified by the actor's characterization as the head of a crime family.", "Even so, he had to fight the studio in order to cast the temperamental actor.", "Brando had doubts himself, stating in his autobiography, \"I had never played an Italian before, and I didn't think I could do it successfully.\"", "Eventually, Charles Bluhdorn, the president of Paramount parent Gulf+Western, was won over to letting Brando have the role; when he saw the screen test, he asked in amazement, \"What are we watching?", "Who is this old guinea?\"", "Brando was signed for a low fee of $50,000, but in his contract, he was given a percentage of the gross on a sliding scale: 1% of the gross for each $10 million over a $10 million threshold, up to 5% if the picture exceeded $60 million.", "According to Evans, Brando sold back his points in the picture for $100,000, as he was in dire need of funds.", "\"That $100,000 cost him $11 million,\" Evans claimed.In a 1994 interview that can be found on the Academy of Achievement website, Coppola insisted: \"''The Godfather'' was a very unappreciated movie when we were making it.", "They were very unhappy with it.", "They didn't like the cast.", "They didn't like the way I was shooting it.", "I was always on the verge of getting fired.\"", "When word of this reached Brando, he threatened to walk off the picture, writing in his memoir: \"I strongly believe that directors are entitled to independence and freedom to realize their vision, though Francis left the characterizations in our hands and we had to figure out what to do.\"", "In a 2010 television interview with Larry King, Al Pacino also talked about how Brando's support helped him keep the role of Michael Corleone in the movie—despite the fact Coppola wanted to fire him.", "Pacino also explained in the Larry King interview that, while Coppola expressed disappointment in Pacino's early scenes, he did not specifically threaten to fire him; Coppola himself was feeling pressure from studio executives who were puzzled by Pacino's performance.", "In the same interview, Pacino credits Coppola with getting him the part.", "Brando was on his best behavior during filming, buoyed by a cast that included Pacino, Robert Duvall, James Caan, and Diane Keaton.", "In the ''Vanity Fair'' article \"The Godfather Wars\", Mark Seal writes, \"With the actors, as in the movie, Brando served as the head of the family.", "He broke the ice by toasting the group with a glass of wine.\"", "'When we were young, Brando was like the godfather of actors,' says Robert Duvall.", "'I used to meet with Dustin Hoffman in Cromwell's Drugstore, and if we mentioned his name once, we mentioned it 25 times in a day.'", "Caan adds, 'The first day we met Brando everybody was in awe.", "'\"Brando's performance was glowingly reviewed by critics.", "\"I thought it would be interesting to play a gangster, maybe for the first time in the movies, who wasn't like those bad guys Edward G. Robinson played, but who is kind of a hero, a man to be respected,\" Brando recalled in his autobiography.", "\"Also, because he had so much power and unquestioned authority, I thought it would be an interesting contrast to play him as a gentle man, unlike Al Capone, who beat up people with baseball bats.\"", "Duvall later marveled to A&E's ''Biography'', \"He minimized the sense of beginning.", "In other words he, like, deemphasized the word ''action''.", "He would go in front of that camera just like he was before.", "''Cut!''", "It was all the same.", "There was really no beginning.", "I learned a lot from watching that.\"", "Brando won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance, but he declined it, becoming the second actor to refuse a Best Actor award (after George C. Scott for ''Patton'').", "Brando did not attend the award ceremony; instead, he sent actress Sacheen Littlefeather (who appeared in Plains Indian-style regalia) to decline the Oscar on his behalf.", "After refusing to touch the statue at the podium, she announced to the crowd that Brando was rejecting the award in protest of \"the treatment of American Indians today by the film industry … and on television and movie reruns and also with recent happenings at Wounded Knee.\"", "The Wounded Knee Occupation of 1973 was occurring at the time of the ceremony.", "Brando had written a longer speech for her to read but, as she explained, this was not permitted due to time constraints.", "In the written speech Brando added that he hoped his declining the Oscar would be seen as \"an earnest effort to focus attention on an issue that might very well determine whether or not this country has the right to say from this point forward we believe in the inalienable rights of all people to remain free and independent on lands that have supported their life beyond living memory.", "\"The actor followed ''The Godfather'' with Bernardo Bertolucci's 1972 film ''Last Tango in Paris'', playing opposite Maria Schneider, but Brando's highly noted performance threatened to be overshadowed by an uproar over the sexual content of the film.", "Brando portrays a recent American widower named Paul, who begins an anonymous sexual relationship with a young, betrothed Parisian woman named Jeanne.", "As with previous films, Brando refused to memorize his lines for many scenes; instead, he wrote his lines on cue cards and posted them around the set for easy reference, leaving Bertolucci with the problem of keeping them out of the picture frame.", "The film features several intense, graphic scenes involving Brando, including Paul anally raping Jeanne using butter as a lubricant, which it was alleged was not consensual.", "The actress confirmed that no actual sex occurred, but she complained that she was not told what the scene would include until shortly prior to filming.Bertolucci also shot a scene which showed Brando's genitals, but in 1973 explained, \"I had so identified myself with Brando that I cut it out of shame for myself.", "To show him naked would have been like showing me naked.\"", "Schneider declared in an interview that \"Marlon said he felt raped and manipulated by it and he was 48.And he was Marlon Brando!\".", "Like Schneider, Brando confirmed that the sex was simulated.", "Bertolucci said about Brando that he was \"a monster as an actor and a darling as a human being\".", "Brando refused to speak to Bertolucci for 15 years after the production was completed.", "Bertolucci said:However;The film also features Paul's angry, emotionally charged final confrontation with the corpse of his dead wife.", "The controversial movie was a hit however, and Brando made the list of Top Ten Box Office Stars for the last time.", "His gross participation deal earned him $3 million.", "The voting membership of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences again nominated Brando for Best Actor, his seventh nomination.", "Brando won the 1973 New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor.Pauline Kael, in ''The New Yorker'' review, wrote \"The movie breakthrough has finally come.", "Bertolucci and Brando have altered the face of an art form.\"", "Brando confessed in his autobiography, \"To this day I can't say what ''Last Tango in Paris'' was about\", and added the film \"required me to do a lot of emotional arm wrestling with myself, and when it was finished, I decided that I wasn't ever again going to destroy myself emotionally to make a movie\".In 1973, Brando was devastated by the death of his childhood best friend Wally Cox.", "Brando wrenched his ashes from his widow, who was going to sue for their return, but finally said, \"Marlon needed the ashes more than I did.", "\"===Late 1970s===In 1976, Brando appeared in ''The Missouri Breaks'' with his friend Jack Nicholson.", "The movie also reunited the actor with director Arthur Penn.", "As biographer Stefan Kanfer describes, Penn had difficulty controlling Brando, who seemed intent on going over the top with his border-ruffian-turned-contract-killer Robert E. Lee Clayton: \"Marlon made him a cross-dressing psychopath.", "Absent for the first hour of the movie, Clayton enters on horseback, dangling upside down, caparisoned in white buckskin, Littlefeather-style.", "He speaks in an Irish accent for no apparent reason.", "Over the next hour, also for no apparent reason, Clayton assumes the intonation of a British upper-class twit and an elderly frontier woman, complete with a granny dress and matching bonnet.", "Penn, who believed in letting actors do their thing, indulged Marlon all the way.\"", "Critics were unkind, with ''The Observer'' calling Brando's performance \"one of the most extravagant displays of ''grandedamerie'' since Sarah Bernhardt\", while ''The Sun'' complained, \"Marlon Brando at fifty-two has the sloppy belly of a sixty-two-year-old, the white hair of a seventy-two-year-old, and the lack of discipline of a precocious twelve-year-old.\"", "However, Kanfer noted: \"Even though his late work was met with disapproval, a re-examination shows that often, in the middle of the most pedestrian scene, there would be a sudden, luminous occurrence, a flash of the old Marlon that showed how capable he remained.", "\"In 1978, Brando narrated the English version of ''Raoni'', a French-Belgian documentary film directed by Jean-Pierre Dutilleux and Luiz Carlos Saldanha that focused on the life of Raoni Metuktire and issues surrounding the survival of the Indigenous tribes in north central Brazil.", "Brando portrayed Superman's father Jor-El in the 1978 film ''Superman''.", "He agreed to the role only on assurance that he would be paid a large sum for what amounted to a small part, that he would not have to read the script beforehand, and that his lines would be displayed somewhere off-camera.", "It was revealed in a documentary contained in the 2001 DVD release of ''Superman'' that he was paid $3.7 million for two weeks of work.", "Brando also filmed scenes for the movie's sequel, ''Superman II'', but after producers refused to pay him the same percentage he received for the first movie, he denied them permission to use the footage.", "\"I asked for my usual percentage,\" he recollected in his memoir, \"but they refused, and so did I.\"", "However, after Brando's death, the footage was reincorporated into the 2006 recut of the film, ''Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut'' and in the 2006 \"loose sequel\" ''Superman Returns'', in which both used and unused archive footage of him as Jor-El from the first two ''Superman'' films was remastered for a scene in the Fortress of Solitude, and Brando's voice-overs were used throughout the film.", "In 1979, he made a rare television appearance in the miniseries ''Roots: The Next Generations'', portraying George Lincoln Rockwell; he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for his performance.Brando starred as Colonel Walter E. Kurtz in Francis Ford Coppola's Vietnam epic ''Apocalypse Now'' (1979).", "He plays a highly decorated U.S. Army Special Forces officer who goes renegade, running his own operation based in Cambodia and is feared by the U.S. military as much as the Vietnamese.", "Brando was paid $1 million a week for 3 weeks work.", "The film drew attention for its lengthy and troubled production, as Eleanor Coppola's documentary ''Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse'' documents: Brando showed up on the set overweight, Martin Sheen suffered a heart attack, and severe weather destroyed several expensive sets.", "The film's release was also postponed several times while Coppola edited millions of feet of footage.", "In the documentary, Coppola talks about how astonished he was when an overweight Brando turned up for his scenes and, feeling desperate, decided to portray Kurtz, who appears emaciated in the original story, as a man who had indulged every aspect of himself.", "Coppola: \"He was already heavy when I hired him and he promised me that he was going to get in shape and I imagined that I would, if he were heavy, I could use that.", "But he was ''so'' fat, he was very, very shy about it ...", "He was very, very adamant about how he didn't want to portray himself that way.\"", "Brando admitted to Coppola that he had not read the book, ''Heart of Darkness'', as the director had asked him to, and the pair spent days exploring the story and the character of Kurtz, much to the actor's financial benefit, according to producer Fred Roos: \"The clock was ticking on this deal he had and we had to finish him within three weeks or we'd go into this very expensive overage ... And Francis and Marlon would be talking about the character and whole days would go by.", "And this is at Marlon's urging—and yet he's getting paid for it.", "\"Upon release, ''Apocalypse Now'' earned critical acclaim, as did Brando's performance.", "His whispering of Kurtz's final words ''\"The horror!", "The horror!", "\"'', has become particularly famous.", "Roger Ebert, writing in the ''Chicago Sun-Times'', defended the movie's controversial ''denouement'', opining that the ending, \"with Brando's fuzzy, brooding monologues and the final violence, feels much more satisfactory than any conventional ending possibly could.\"", "Brando received a fee of $2 million plus 10% of the gross theatrical rental and 10% of the TV sale rights, earning him around $9 million.===Later work===After appearing as oil tycoon Adam Steiffel in 1980's ''The Formula'', which was poorly received critically, Brando announced his retirement from acting.", "However, he returned in 1989 in ''A Dry White Season'', based on André Brink's 1979 anti-apartheid novel.", "Brando agreed to do the film for free, but fell out with director Euzhan Palcy over how the film was edited; he even made a rare television appearance in an interview with Connie Chung to voice his disapproval.", "In his memoir, he maintained that Palcy \"had cut the picture so poorly, I thought, that the inherent drama of this conflict was vague at best.\"", "Brando received praise for his performance, earning an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor and winning the Best Actor Award at the Tokyo Film Festival.Brando scored enthusiastic reviews for his caricature of his Vito Corleone role as Carmine Sabatini in 1990's ''The Freshman.''", "In his original review, Roger Ebert wrote, \"There have been a lot of movies where stars have repeated the triumphs of their parts—but has any star ever done it more triumphantly than Marlon Brando does in ''The Freshman''?\"", "''Variety'' also praised Brando's performance as Sabatini and noted, \"Marlon Brando's sublime comedy performance elevates ''The Freshman'' from screwball comedy to a quirky niche in film history.\"", "Brando starred alongside his friend Johnny Depp on the box office hit ''Don Juan DeMarco'' (1995), in which he also shared credits with singer Selena in her only filming appearance, and in Depp's controversial ''The Brave'' (1997), which was never released in the United States.Later performances, such as his appearance in ''Christopher Columbus: The Discovery'' (1992) (for which he was nominated for a Raspberry as \"Worst Supporting Actor\"), ''The Island of Dr. Moreau'' (in which he won a \"Worst Supporting Actor\" Raspberry) (1996), and his barely recognizable appearance in ''Free Money'' (1998), resulted in some of the worst reviews of his career.", "''The Island of Dr. Moreau'' screenwriter Ron Hutchinson would later say in his memoir, ''Clinging to the Iceberg: Writing for a Living on the Stage and in Hollywood'' (2017), that Brando sabotaged the film's production by feuding and refusing to cooperate with his colleagues and the film crew.Unlike its immediate predecessors, Brando's last completed film, ''The Score'' (2001), was received generally positively.", "In the film, in which he portrays a fence, he starred with Robert De Niro.After Brando's death, the novel ''Fan-Tan'' was released.", "Brando conceived the novel with director Donald Cammell in 1979, but it was not released until 2005." ], [ "Final years and death", "Brando's notoriety, his troubled family life and his obesity attracted more attention than his later acting career.", "He gained a great deal of weight in the 1970s; by the early-to-mid-1990s, he weighed over and suffered from Type 2 diabetes.", "He had a history of weight fluctuation throughout his career that, by and large, he attributed to his years of stress-related overeating, followed by compensatory dieting.", "He also earned a reputation for being difficult on the set, often unwilling or unable to memorize his lines and less interested in taking direction than in confronting the film director with odd demands.", "He also dabbled with some innovation in his last years.", "He had several patents issued in his name from the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, all of which involve a method of tensioning drumheads, between June 2002 and November 2004 (for example, see ).", "His assistant, Alice Marchak, resigned from her role due to his eccentric and unpredictable behavior.", "Brando also made sketches and art as hobby.In 2004, Brando recorded voice tracks for the character Mrs.", "Sour in the unreleased animated film ''Big Bug Man''.", "This was his last role and his only role as a female character.A longtime close friend of entertainer Michael Jackson, Brando paid regular visits to his Neverland Ranch, resting there for weeks at a time.", "Brando also participated in the singer's two-day solo career 30th-anniversary celebration concerts in 2001 and starred in his 13-minute-long music video \"You Rock My World\", in the same year.The actor's son, Miko, was Jackson's bodyguard and assistant for several years and was a friend of the singer.", "\"The last time my father left his house to go anywhere, to spend any kind of time, it was with Michael Jackson\", Miko stated.", "\"He loved it ...", "He had a 24-hour chef, 24-hour security, 24-hour help, 24-hour kitchen, 24-hour maid service.", "Just carte blanche.\"", "\"Michael was instrumental helping my father through the last few years of his life.", "For that I will always be indebted to him.", "Dad had a hard time breathing in his final days and he was on oxygen much of the time.", "He loved the outdoors, so Michael would invite him over to Neverland.", "Dad could name all the trees there and the flowers, but being on oxygen it was hard for him to get around and see them all, it's such a big place.", "So Michael got Dad a golf cart with a portable oxygen tank so he could go around and enjoy Neverland.", "They'd just drive around—Michael Jackson, Marlon Brando, with an oxygen tank in a golf cart.\"", "In April 2001, Brando was hospitalized with pneumonia.In 2004, Brando signed with film director Ridha Behi and began preproduction on a project to be titled ''Brando and Brando''.", "Up to a week before his death, he was working on the script in anticipation of a July/August 2004 start date.", "Production was suspended in July 2004 following Brando's death, at which time Behi stated that he would continue the film as an homage to Brando, with a new title of ''Citizen Brando''.On July 1, 2004, Brando died of respiratory failure from pulmonary fibrosis with congestive heart failure at the UCLA Medical Center.", "The cause of death was initially withheld, with his lawyer citing privacy concerns.", "He also suffered from diabetes and liver cancer.", "Shortly before his death and despite needing an oxygen mask to breathe, he recorded his voice to appear in ''The Godfather: The Game'', once again as Don Vito Corleone.", "Brando recorded only one line due to his health and an impersonator was hired to finish his lines.", "His single recorded line was included within the final game as a tribute to the actor.", "Some additional lines from his character were directly lifted from the film.", "Karl Malden—Brando's co-star in three films (''A Streetcar Named Desire'', ''On the Waterfront'', and ''One-Eyed Jacks'')—spoke in a documentary accompanying the DVD of ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' about a phone call he received from Brando shortly before Brando's death.", "A distressed Brando told Malden he kept falling over.", "Malden wanted to come over, but Brando put him off, telling him there was no point.", "Three weeks later, Brando was dead.", "Shortly before his death, he had apparently refused permission for tubes carrying oxygen to be inserted into his lungs, which, he was told, was the only way to prolong his life.Brando was cremated and his ashes were put in with those of Wally Cox.", "They were then scattered partly in Tahiti and partly in Death Valley." ], [ "Personal life", "Brando was known for his tumultuous personal life and his large number of partners and children.", "He was the father to at least 11 children, three of whom were adopted.", "In 1976, he told a French journalist, \"Homosexuality is so much in fashion, it no longer makes news.", "Like a large number of men, I, too, have had homosexual experiences, and I am not ashamed.", "I have never paid much attention to what people think about me.", "But if there is someone who is convinced that Jack Nicholson and I are lovers, may they continue to do so.", "I find it amusing.", "\"During the 1947 production of ''A Streetcar Named'' Desire, Brando became enamored with fellow cast member Sandy Campbell, who played the minor role of the young collector.", "Brando had asked Campbell to have an affair with him and was often seen standing in the wings with Campbell and holding his hand.", "According to Truman Capote, both Campbell and Brando confessed to having been in a sexual relationship.", "\"I asked Marlon, and he admitted it.", "He said he went to bed with lots of other men, too, but that he didn't consider himself a homosexual.", "He said they were all so attracted to him.", "'I just thought that I was doing them a favor,' he said.\"", "In his 1957 interview with Brando for ''The New Yorker'', Capote claimed to have first encountered Brando at a rehearsal for ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' while he was sleeping on a table on the stage in an empty auditorium.", "However, the story was appropriated from Sandy Campbell, as confirmed by his partner, Donald Windham.In ''Songs My Mother Taught Me'', Brando wrote that he met Marilyn Monroe at a party where she played piano, unnoticed by anybody else there, that they had an affair and maintained an intermittent relationship for many years, and that he received a telephone call from her several days before she died.", "He also claimed numerous other romances, although he did not discuss his marriages, his wives or his children in his autobiography.He met nisei actress and dancer Reiko Sato in the early 1950s.", "Though their relationship cooled, they remained friends for the rest of Sato's life, with her dividing her time between Los Angeles and Tetiaroa in her later years.", "In 1954 Dorothy Kilgallen reported they were an item.", "Brando also dated actress Ariane \"Pat\" Quinn.Katy Jurado in 1953Brando was smitten with the Mexican actress Katy Jurado after seeing her in ''High Noon''.", "They met when Brando was filming ''Viva Zapata!''", "in Mexico.", "Brando told Joseph L. Mankiewicz that he was attracted to \"her enigmatic eyes, black as hell, pointing at you like fiery arrows\".", "Their first date became the beginning of an extended affair that lasted many years and peaked at the time they worked together on ''One-Eyed Jacks'' (1961), a film directed by Brando.Brando met actress Rita Moreno in 1954, and they began a love affair.", "Moreno later revealed in her memoir that when she became pregnant by Brando, he arranged for an abortion.", "After the abortion was botched, and Brando fell in love with Tarita Teriipaia, Moreno attempted suicide by overdosing on Brando's sleeping pills.", "Years after they broke up, Moreno played his love interest in the film ''The Night of the Following Day''.Brando was briefly engaged to the 19 year-old French actress Josanne Mariani, whom he met in 1954.They broke their engagement when Brando discovered that his other girlfriend, Anna Kashfi, was pregnant and went on to marry her instead in 1957.Kashfi was born in Calcutta and moved to Wales from India in 1947.She is the daughter of a Welsh steel worker of Irish descent, William O'Callaghan, who had been superintendent on the Indian State railways, and his Welsh wife Phoebe.", "However, in her book, ''Brando for Breakfast'', Kashfi claimed that she was half Indian and that O'Callaghan was her stepfather.", "She claimed that her biological father was Indian and that she was the result of an \"unregistered alliance\" between her parents.", "Brando and Kashfi had a son, Christian Brando, on May 11, 1958; they divorced in 1959.Movita Castaneda in ''Paradise Isle'' (1937)In 1960, Brando married Movita Castaneda, a Mexican-American actress; the marriage was annulled in 1968, after it was discovered her previous marriage was still active.", "Castaneda had appeared in the first ''Mutiny on the Bounty'' film in 1935, some 27 years before the 1962 remake with Brando as Fletcher Christian.", "They had two children together: Miko Castaneda Brando (born 1961) and Rebecca Brando (born 1966).French actress Tarita Teriipaia, who played Brando's love interest in ''Mutiny on the Bounty'', became his third wife on August 10, 1962.She was twenty years old, 18 years younger than Brando, who was reportedly delighted by her naïveté.", "Because Teriipaia was a native French speaker, Brando became fluent in the language and gave numerous interviews in French.", "Brando and Teriipaia had two children together: Simon Teihotu Brando (born 1963) and Tarita Cheyenne Brando (1970–1995).", "Brando also adopted Teriipaia's daughter, Maimiti Brando (born 1977) and niece, Raiatua Brando (born 1982).", "Brando and Teriipaia divorced in July 1972.After Brando's death, the daughter of actress Cynthia Lynn claimed that Brando had had a short-lived affair with her mother, who appeared with Brando in ''Bedtime Story'', and that this affair resulted in her birth in 1964.Throughout the late 1960s and into the early 1980s, he had a tempestuous, long-term relationship with actress Jill Banner.Brando had a long-term relationship with his housekeeper Maria Cristina Ruiz, with whom he had three children: Ninna Priscilla Brando (born May 13, 1989), Myles Jonathan Brando (born January 16, 1992) and Timothy Gahan Brando (born January 6, 1994).", "Brando also adopted Petra Brando-Corval (born 1972), the daughter of his assistant Caroline Barrett and novelist James Clavell.Brando's close friendship with Wally Cox was the subject of rumors.", "Brando told a journalist: \"If Wally had been a woman, I would have married him and we would have lived happily ever after.\"", "Two of Cox's wives, however, dismissed the suggestion that the love was more than platonic.Brando's grandson Tuki Brando (born 1990), son of Cheyenne Brando, is a fashion model.", "His numerous grandchildren also include Prudence Brando and Shane Brando, children of Miko C. Brando; the children of Rebecca Brando; and the three children of Teihotu Brando among others.Stephen Blackehart has been reported to be the son of Brando, but Blackehart disputes this claim.In 2018, Quincy Jones and Jennifer Lee claimed that Brando had had a sexual relationship with comedian and ''Superman III'' actor Richard Pryor.", "Pryor's daughter Rain Pryor later disputed the claim.===Lifestyle===Brando earned a reputation as a \"bad boy\" for his public outbursts and antics.", "According to ''Los Angeles'': \"Brando was rock and roll before anybody knew what rock and roll was.\"", "His behavior during the filming of ''Mutiny on the Bounty'' (1962) seemed to bolster his reputation as a difficult star.", "He was blamed for a change in director and a runaway budget, though he denied responsibility for both.", "On June 12, 1973, Brando broke paparazzo Ron Galella's jaw.", "Galella had followed Brando, who was accompanied by talk show host Dick Cavett, after a taping of ''The Dick Cavett Show'' in New York City.", "He paid a $40,000 out-of-court settlement and suffered an infected hand as a result.", "Galella wore a football helmet the next time he photographed Brando at a gala benefiting the American Indians Development Association in 1974.The filming of ''Mutiny on the Bounty'' affected Brando's life in a profound way, as he fell in love with Tahiti and its people.", "He bought a twelve-island atoll, Tetiaroa, and in 1970, hired an award-winning young Los Angeles architect, Bernard Judge, to build his home and natural village there without despoiling the environment.", "An environmental laboratory protecting sea birds and turtles was established, and for many years student groups visited.", "The 1983 hurricane destroyed many of the structures, including his resort.", "A hotel using Brando's name, The Brando Resort opened in 2014.Brando was an active ham radio operator, with the call signs KE6PZH and FO5GJ (the latter from his island).", "He was listed in the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) records as Martin Brandeaux to preserve his privacy.In the A&E ''Biography'' episode on Brando, biographer Peter Manso comments: \"On the one hand, being a celebrity allowed Marlon to take his revenge on the world that had so deeply hurt him, so deeply scarred him.", "On the other hand he hated it because he knew it was false and ephemeral.\"", "In the same program another biographer, David Thomson, says: \"Many, many people who worked with him, and came to work with him with the best intentions, went away in despair saying he's a spoiled kid.", "It has to be done his way or he goes away with some vast story about how he was wronged, he was offended, and I think that fits with the psychological pattern that he was a wronged kid\".===Political activism===In 1946, Brando performed in Ben Hecht's Zionist play ''A Flag Is Born''.", "He attended some fundraisers for John F. Kennedy in the 1960 presidential election.", "In August 1963, he participated in the March on Washington along with fellow celebrities Harry Belafonte, James Garner, Charlton Heston, Burt Lancaster and Sidney Poitier.", "Along with Paul Newman, Brando also participated in the Freedom Rides.", "Brando supported Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1964 United States presidential election.Brando with the Finnish First Lady, Sylvi Kekkonen, in 1967In autumn of 1967, Brando visited Helsinki, Finland at a charity party organized by UNICEF at the Helsinki City Theatre.", "The gala was televised in thirteen countries.", "Brando's visit was based on the famine he had seen in Bihar, India, and he presented the film he shot there to the press and invited guests.", "He spoke in favor of children's rights and development aid in developing countries.In the aftermath of the 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., Brando made one of the strongest commitments to furthering King's work.", "Shortly after King's death, he announced that he was bowing out of the lead role of a major film,''The Arrangement'' (1969), which was about to begin production, in order to devote himself to the civil rights movement.", "\"I felt I'd better go find out where it is; what it is to be black in this country; what this rage is all about,\" Brando said on the late-night ABC-TV talk show ''Joey Bishop Show''.", "In A&E's ''Biography'' episode on Brando, actor and co-star Martin Sheen states: \"I'll never forget the night that Reverend King was shot and I turned on the news and Marlon was walking through Harlem with Mayor Lindsay.", "And there were snipers and there was a lot of unrest and he kept walking and talking through those neighborhoods with Mayor Lindsay.", "It was one of the most incredible acts of courage I ever saw, and it meant a lot and did a lot.", "\"Brando's participation in the civil rights movement actually began well before King's death.", "In the early 1960s, he contributed thousands of dollars to both the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (S.C.L.C.)", "and to a scholarship fund established for the children of slain Mississippi N.A.A.C.P.", "leader Medgar Evers.", "In 1964, Brando was arrested at a \"fish-in\" held to protest a broken treaty that had promised Native Americans fishing rights in Puget Sound.", "By this time, Brando was already involved in films that carried messages about human rights: ''Sayonara'', which addressed interracial romance, and ''The Ugly American'', depicting the conduct of U.S. officials abroad and the deleterious effect on the citizens of foreign countries.", "For a time, he was also donating money to the Black Panther Party and considered himself a friend of founder Bobby Seale.", "He also gave a eulogy after Bobby Hutton was shot by the police.", "Brando ended his financial support for the group over his perception of its increasing radicalization, specifically a passage in a Panther pamphlet put out by Eldridge Cleaver advocating indiscriminate violence, \"for the Revolution.", "\"Brando (right) with Charlton Heston, James Baldwin, Sidney Poitier and Harry Belafonte at the March on Washington in 1963.Brando was also a supporter of Native American rights and the American Indian Movement.", "The March 1964 fish-in protest near Tacoma, Washington, where he was arrested while protesting for fishing treaty rights, won him respect from members of the Puyallup tribe, who reportedly dubbed the spot where he was arrested \"Brando's Landing.\"", "At the 1973 Academy Awards ceremony, Brando refused to accept the Oscar for his career-reviving performance in ''The Godfather''.", "Sacheen Littlefeather represented him at the ceremony.", "She appeared in full Apache attire and stated that owing to the \"poor treatment of Native Americans in the film industry\", Brando would not accept the award.", "This occurred while the standoff at Wounded Knee was ongoing.", "The event grabbed the attention of the US and the world media.", "This was considered a major event and victory for the movement by its supporters and participants.Outside of his film work, Brando appeared before the California Assembly in support of a fair housing law, and personally joined picket lines in demonstrations protesting discrimination in housing developments in 1963.He was also an activist against apartheid.", "In 1964, he favored a boycott of his films in South Africa to prevent them from being shown to a segregated audience.", "He took part at a 1975 protest rally against American investments in South Africa and for the release of Nelson Mandela.", "In 1989, Brando also starred in the film ''A Dry White Season'', based upon André Brink's novel of the same name.===Comments on Jews and Hollywood===In an interview in ''Playboy'' magazine in January 1979, Brando said: \"You've seen every single race besmirched, but you never saw an image of the kike because the Jews were ever so watchful for that—and rightly so.", "They never allowed it to be shown on screen.", "The Jews have done so much for the world that, I suppose, you get extra disappointed because they didn't pay attention to that.", "\"Brando made a similar comment on ''Larry King Live'' in April 1996, saying: Larry King, who was Jewish, replied: \"When you say—when you say something like that, you are playing right in, though, to anti-Semitic people who say the Jews are—\" Brando interrupted: \"No, no, because I will be the first one who will appraise the Jews honestly and say 'Thank God for the Jews'.", "\"Jay Kanter, Brando's agent, producer, and friend, defended him in ''Daily Variety'': \"Marlon has spoken to me for hours about his fondness for the Jewish people, and he is a well-known supporter of Israel;\" Kanter himself was Jewish.", "Similarly, Louie Kemp, in his article for ''Jewish Journal'', wrote: \"You might remember him as Don Vito Corleone, Stanley Kowalski or the eerie Col. Walter E. Kurtz in 'Apocalypse Now', but I remember Marlon Brando as a mensch and a personal friend of the Jewish people when they needed it most.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Brando was one of the most respected actors of the post-war era.", "He is listed by the American Film Institute as the fourth greatest male star whose screen debut occurred before or during 1950 (it occurred in 1950).", "He earned respect among critics for his memorable performances and charismatic screen presence.", "He helped popularize 'method acting'.", "He is regarded as one of the greatest cinema actors of the 20th century.", "Furthermore, he was one of only six actors named in 1999 by ''Time'' magazine in its list of the 100 Most Important People of the Century.", "In this list, ''Time'' also designated Brando as the \"Actor of the Century\".", "''Encyclopædia Britannica'' describes him as \"the most celebrated of the method actors, and his slurred, mumbling delivery marked his rejection of classical dramatic training.", "His true and passionate performances proved him one of the greatest actors of his generation.\"", "It also notes the apparent paradox of his talent: \"He is regarded as the most influential actor of his generation, yet his open disdain for the acting profession ... often manifested itself in the form of questionable choices and uninspired performances.", "Nevertheless, he remains a riveting screen presence with a vast emotional range and an endless array of compulsively watchable idiosyncrasies.", "\"===Cultural influence===Madame Tussauds waxwork exhibit of Brando in ''The Wild One'' albeit with a later 1957/58 model Triumph Thunderbird.Marlon Brando is a cultural icon with enduring popularity.", "His rise to national attention in the 1950s had a profound effect on American culture.", "According to film critic Pauline Kael, \"Brando represented a reaction against the post-war mania for security.", "As a protagonist, the Brando of the early fifties had no code, only his instincts.", "He was a development from the gangster leader and the outlaw.", "He was antisocial because he knew society was crap; he was a hero to youth because he was strong enough not to take the crap ... Brando represented a contemporary version of the free American ... Brando is still the most exciting American actor on the screen.", "\"Sociologist Suzanne McDonald-Walker states: \"Marlon Brando, sporting leather jacket, jeans, and moody glare, became a cultural icon summing up 'the road' in all its maverick glory.\"", "His portrayal of the gang leader Johnny Strabler in ''The Wild One'' has become an enduring image, used both as a symbol of rebelliousness and a fashion accessory that includes a Perfecto style motorcycle jacket, a tilted cap, jeans and sunglasses.", "Johnny's haircut inspired a craze for sideburns, followed by James Dean and Elvis Presley, among others.", "Dean copied Brando's acting style extensively and Presley used Brando's image as a model for his role in ''Jailhouse Rock''.", "The \"I coulda been a contender\" scene from ''On the Waterfront'', according to the author of'' Brooklyn Boomer'', Martin H. Levinson, is \"one of the most famous scenes in motion picture history, and the line itself has become part of America's cultural lexicon.\"", "An example of the endurance of Brando's popular \"Wild One\" image was the 2009 release of replicas of the leather jacket worn by Brando's Johnny Strabler character.", "The jackets were marketed by Triumph, the manufacturer of the Triumph Thunderbird motorcycles featured in ''The Wild One'', and were officially licensed by Brando's estate.Brando was also considered a male sex symbol.", "Linda Williams writes: \"Marlon Brando was the quintessential American male sex symbol of the late fifties and early sixties\".", "Brando was an early lesbian icon who, along with James Dean, influenced the butch look and self-image in the 1950s and after.Brando has also been immortalized in music; most notably, he was mentioned in the lyrics of \"It's Hard to Be a Saint in the City\" by Bruce Springsteen, in which one of the opening lines read \"I could walk like Brando right in to the sun\", and in Neil Young's \"Pocahontas\" as a tribute to his lifetime support of Native Americans and in which he is depicted sitting by a fire with Neil and Pocahontas.", "He was also mentioned in \"Vogue\" by Madonna, \"Is This What You Wanted\" by Leonard Cohen on the album New Skin for the Old Ceremony, \"Eyeless\" by Slipknot on their self-titled album, and most recently in the song simply titled \"Marlon Brando\" off the Australian singer Alex Cameron's 2017 album Forced Witness.", "Bob Dylan's 2020 song \"My Own Version of You\" references one of his most famous performances in the line, \"I'll take the ''Scarface'' Pacino and the ''Godfather'' Brando / Mix 'em up in a tank and get a robot commando\".Brando is also visible on the cover of the Beatles' 1967 album ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'', among a tableau of celebrities and historical figures.Brando's films, along with those of James Dean, caused Honda to come forward with its \"You Meet the Nicest People on a Honda\" ads, in order to curb the negative association motorcycles had gotten with rebels and outlaws.===Views on acting===In his autobiography ''Songs My Mother Taught Me'', Brando observed:He also confessed that, while having great admiration for the theater, he did not return to it after his initial success primarily because the work left him drained emotionally:Brando repeatedly credited Stella Adler and her understanding of the Stanislavski acting technique for bringing realism to American cinema, but also added:In the 2015 documentary ''Listen to Me Marlon'', Brando shared his thoughts on playing a death scene, stating, \"That's a tough scene to play.", "You have to make 'em believe that you are dying ...", "Try to think of the most intimate moment you've ever had in your life.\"", "His favorite actors were Spencer Tracy, John Barrymore, Fredric March, James Cagney and Paul Muni.", "He also showed admiration for Sean Penn, Jack Nicholson, Johnny Depp and Daniel Day-Lewis." ], [ "Filmography and accolades" ], [ "See also", "*List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees* List of actors with Academy Award nominations*List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories* List of actors with two or more Academy Awards in acting categories* List of LGBT Academy Award winners and nominees" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Works cited", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bain, David Haward.", "''The Old Iron Road: An Epic of Rails, Roads, and the Urge to Go West''.", "New York: Penguin Books, 2004..* Brando, Marlon and Donald Cammell.", "''Fan-Tan''.", "New York: Knopf, 2005..* Englund, George.", "''The Way It's Never Been Done Before: My Friendship With Marlon Brando''.", "New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2004..* Grobel, Lawrence.", "\"Conversations with Brando.\"", "New York, Hyperion, 1990.Cooper Square Press 1999.Rat Press, 2009* Judge, Bernard.", "''Waltzing With Brando: Planning a Paradise in Tahiti''.", "New York: ORO Editions, 2011.", "* McDonough, Jimmy.", "''Big Bosoms and Square Jaws: The Biography of Russ Meyer, King of the Sex Film''.", "New York: Crown, 2005..* Pendergast, Tom and Sara.", "''St.", "James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, Volume 1''.", "Detroit, Michigan: St. James Press, 2000..* Petkovich, Anthony.", "\"Burn, Brando, Burn!\".", "UK: ''Headpress 19: World Without End'' (1999), pp. 91–112.", "* Schoell, William.", "''The Sundance Kid: A Biography of Robert Redford.''", "Boulder, CO: Taylor Trade Publishing, 2006.." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * ''Vanity Fair'': \"The King Who Would Be Man\" by Budd Schulberg* ''The New Yorker'': \"The Duke in His Domain\" – Truman Capote's influential 1957 interview.", "* ''Excess after success: Marlon Brando''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Meteorology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Meteorology''' is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather forecasting.", "The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not begin until the 18th century.", "The 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions.", "Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data.", "It was not until after the elucidation of the laws of physics, and more particularly in the latter half of the 20th century, the development of the computer (allowing for the automated solution of a great many modelling equations) that significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved.", "An important branch of weather forecasting is marine weather forecasting as it relates to maritime and coastal safety, in which weather effects also include atmospheric interactions with large bodies of water.Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology.", "Meteorological phenomena are described and quantified by the variables of Earth's atmosphere: temperature, air pressure, water vapour, mass flow, and the variations and interactions of these variables, and how they change over time.", "Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, and global levels.", "Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences.", "Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology.", "The interactions between Earth's atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system.", "Meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture, and construction.The word ''meteorology'' is from the Ancient Greek μετέωρος ''metéōros'' (''meteor'') and -λογία ''-logia'' (''-(o)logy''), meaning \"the study of things high in the air\"." ], [ "History", "===Ancient meteorology up to the time of Aristotle===Parhelion (sundog) in SavoieEarly attempts at predicting weather were often related to prophecy and divining, and were sometimes based on astrological ideas.", "Ancient religions believed meteorological phenomena to be under the control of the gods.", "The ability to predict rains and floods based on annual cycles was evidently used by humans at least from the time of agricultural settlement if not earlier.", "Early approaches to predicting weather were based on astrology and were practiced by priests.", "The Egyptians had rain-making rituals as early as 3500 BC.", "Ancient Indian Upanishads contain mentions of clouds and seasons.", "The Samaveda mentions sacrifices to be performed when certain phenomena were noticed.", "Varāhamihira's classical work ''Brihatsamhita'', written about 500 AD, provides evidence of weather observation.Cuneiform inscriptions on Babylonian tablets included associations between thunder and rain.", "The Chaldeans differentiated the 22° and 46° halos.The ancient Greeks were the first to make theories about the weather.", "Many natural philosophers studied the weather.", "However, as meteorological instruments did not exist, the inquiry was largely qualitative, and could only be judged by more general theoretical speculations.", "Herodotus states that Thales predicted the solar eclipse of 585 BC.", "He studied Babylonian equinox tables.", "According to Seneca, he gave the explanation that the cause of the Nile's annual floods was due to northerly winds hindering its descent by the sea.", "Anaximander and Anaximenes thought that thunder and lightning was caused by air smashing against the cloud, thus kindling the flame.", "Early meteorological theories generally considered that there was a fire-like substance in the atmosphere.", "Anaximander defined wind as a flowing of air, but this was not generally accepted for centuries.", "A theory to explain summer hail was first proposed by Anaxagoras.", "He observed that air temperature decreased with increasing height and that clouds contain moisture.", "He also noted that heat caused objects to rise, and therefore the heat on a summer day would drive clouds to an altitude where the moisture would freeze.", "Empedocles theorized on the change of the seasons.", "He believed that fire and water opposed each other in the atmosphere, and when fire gained the upper hand, the result was summer, and when water did, it was winter.", "Democritus also wrote about the flooding of the Nile.", "He said that during the summer solstice, snow in northern parts of the world melted.", "This would cause vapors to form clouds, which would cause storms when driven to the Nile by northerly winds, thus filling the lakes and the Nile.", "Hippocrates inquired into the effect of weather on health.", "Eudoxus claimed that bad weather followed four-year periods, according to Pliny.=== Aristotelian meteorology ===These early observations would form the basis for Aristotle's ''Meteorology'', written in 350 BC.", "Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology.", "One of the most impressive achievements described in the ''Meteorology'' is the description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle.", "His work would remain an authority on meteorology for nearly 2,000 years.The book De Mundo (composed before 250 BC or between 350 and 200 BC) noted::If the flashing body is set on fire and rushes violently to the Earth it is called a thunderbolt; if it is only half of fire, but violent also and massive, it is called a ''meteor''; if it is entirely free from fire, it is called a smoking bolt.", "They are all called 'swooping bolts' because they swoop down upon the Earth.", "Lightning is sometimes smoky and is then called 'smoldering lightning\"; sometimes it darts quickly along and is then said to be ''vivid''.", "At other times, it travels in crooked lines, and is called ''forked lightning''.", "When it swoops down upon some object it is called 'swooping lightning'After Aristotle, progress in meteorology stalled for a long time.", "Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the ''Book of Signs'', as well as ''On Winds''.", "He gave hundreds of signs for weather phenomena for a period up to a year.", "His system was based on dividing the year by the setting and the rising of the Pleiad, halves into solstices and equinoxes, and the continuity of the weather for those periods.", "He also divided months into the new moon, fourth day, eighth day and full moon, in likelihood of a change in the weather occurring.", "The day was divided into sunrise, mid-morning, noon, mid-afternoon and sunset, with corresponding divisions of the night, with change being likely at one of these divisions.", "Applying the divisions and a principle of balance in the yearly weather, he came up with forecasts like that if a lot of rain falls in the winter, the spring is usually dry.", "Rules based on actions of animals are also present in his work, like that if a dog rolls on the ground, it is a sign of a storm.", "Shooting stars and the Moon were also considered significant.", "However, he made no attempt to explain these phenomena, referring only to the Aristotelian method.", "The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in weather forecasting for nearly 2,000 years.=== Meteorology after Aristotle ===Meteorology continued to be studied and developed over the centuries, but it was not until the Renaissance in the 14th to 17th centuries that significant advancements were made in the field.", "Scientists such as Galileo and Descartes introduced new methods and ideas, leading to the scientific revolution in meteorology.Speculation on the cause of the flooding of the Nile ended when Eratosthenes, according to Proclus, stated that it was known that man had gone to the sources of the Nile and observed the rains, although interest in its implications continued.During the era of Roman Greece and Europe, scientific interest in meteorology waned.", "In the 1st century BC, most natural philosophers claimed that the clouds and winds extended up to 111 miles, but Posidonius thought that they reached up to five miles, after which the air is clear, liquid and luminous.", "He closely followed Aristotle's theories.", "By the end of the second century BC, the center of science shifted from Athens to Alexandria, home to the ancient Library of Alexandria.", "In the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy's Almagest dealt with meteorology, because it was considered a subset of astronomy.", "He gave several astrological weather predictions.", "He constructed a map of the world divided into climatic zones by their illumination, in which the length of the Summer solstice increased by half an hour per zone between the equator and the Arctic.", "Ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of light in the context of astronomical observations.In 25 AD, Pomponius Mela, a Roman geographer, formalized the climatic zone system.", "In 63–64 AD, Seneca wrote ''Naturales quaestiones''.", "It was a compilation and synthesis of ancient Greek theories.", "However, theology was of foremost importance to Seneca, and he believed that phenomena such as lightning were tied to fate.", "The second book(chapter) of Pliny's Natural History covers meteorology.", "He states that more than twenty ancient Greek authors studied meteorology.", "He did not make any personal contributions, and the value of his work is in preserving earlier speculation, much like Seneca's work.Twilight at thumbFrom 400 to 1100, scientific learning in Europe was preserved by the clergy.", "Isidore of Seville devoted a considerable attention to meteorology in ''Etymologiae'', ''De ordine creaturum'' and ''De natura rerum''.", "Bede the Venerable was the first Englishman to write about the weather in ''De Natura Rerum'' in 703.The work was a summary of then extant classical sources.", "However, Aristotle's works were largely lost until the twelfth century, including ''Meteorologica''.", "Isidore and Bede were scientifically minded, but they adhered to the letter of Scripture.Islamic civilization translated many ancient works into Arabic which were transmitted and translated in western Europe to Latin.In the 9th century, Al-Dinawari wrote the ''Kitab al-Nabat'' (Book of Plants), in which he deals with the application of meteorology to agriculture during the Arab Agricultural Revolution.", "He describes the meteorological character of the sky, the planets and constellations, the sun and moon, the lunar phases indicating seasons and rain, the ''anwa'' (heavenly bodies of rain), and atmospheric phenomena such as winds, thunder, lightning, snow, floods, valleys, rivers, lakes.In 1021, Alhazen showed that atmospheric refraction is also responsible for twilight in ''Opticae thesaurus''; he estimated that twilight begins when the sun is 19 degrees below the horizon, and also used a geometric determination based on this to estimate the maximum possible height of the Earth's atmosphere as 52,000 ''passim'' (about 49 miles, or 79 km).Adelard of Bath was one of the early translators of the classics.", "He also discussed meteorological topics in his ''Quaestiones naturales''.", "He thought dense air produced propulsion in the form of wind.", "He explained thunder by saying that it was due to ice colliding in clouds, and in Summer it melted.", "In the thirteenth century, Aristotelian theories reestablished dominance in meteorology.", "For the next four centuries, meteorological work by and large was mostly commentary.", "It has been estimated over 156 commentaries on the ''Meteorologica'' were written before 1650.Experimental evidence was less important than appeal to the classics and authority in medieval thought.", "In the thirteenth century, Roger Bacon advocated experimentation and the mathematical approach.", "In his ''Opus majus'', he followed Aristotle's theory on the atmosphere being composed of water, air, and fire, supplemented by optics and geometric proofs.", "He noted that Ptolemy's climatic zones had to be adjusted for topography.", "St. Albert the Great was the first to propose that each drop of falling rain had the form of a small sphere, and that this form meant that the rainbow was produced by light interacting with each raindrop.", "Roger Bacon was the first to calculate the angular size of the rainbow.", "He stated that a rainbow summit cannot appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon.", "In the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary rainbow phenomenon.", "Theoderic went further and also explained the secondary rainbow.By the middle of the sixteenth century, meteorology had developed along two lines: theoretical science based on ''Meteorologica'', and astrological weather forecasting.", "The pseudoscientific prediction by natural signs became popular and enjoyed protection of the church and princes.", "This was supported by scientists like Johannes Muller, Leonard Digges, and Johannes Kepler.", "However, there were skeptics.", "In the 14th century, Nicole Oresme believed that weather forecasting was possible, but that the rules for it were unknown at the time.", "Astrological influence in meteorology persisted until the eighteenth century.Gerolamo Cardano's ''De Subilitate'' (1550) was the first work to challenge fundamental aspects of Aristotelian theory.", "Cardano maintained that there were only three basic elements- earth, air, and water.", "He discounted fire because it needed material to spread and produced nothing.", "Cardano thought there were two kinds of air: free air and enclosed air.", "The former destroyed inanimate things and preserved animate things, while the latter had the opposite effect.Rene Descartes's Discourse on the Method (1637) typifies the beginning of the scientific revolution in meteorology.", "His scientific method had four principles: to never accept anything unless one clearly knew it to be true; to divide every difficult problem into small problems to tackle; to proceed from the simple to the complex, always seeking relationships; to be as complete and thorough as possible with no prejudice.In the appendix ''Les Meteores'', he applied these principles to meteorology.", "He discussed terrestrial bodies and vapors which arise from them, proceeding to explain the formation of clouds from drops of water, and winds, clouds then dissolving into rain, hail and snow.", "He also discussed the effects of light on the rainbow.", "Descartes hypothesized that all bodies were composed of small particles of different shapes and interwovenness.", "All of his theories were based on this hypothesis.", "He explained the rain as caused by clouds becoming too large for the air to hold, and that clouds became snow if the air was not warm enough to melt them, or hail if they met colder wind.", "Like his predecessors, Descartes's method was deductive, as meteorological instruments were not developed and extensively used yet.", "He introduced the Cartesian coordinate system to meteorology and stressed the importance of mathematics in natural science.", "His work established meteorology as a legitimate branch of physics.In the 18th century, the invention of the thermometer and barometer allowed for more accurate measurements of temperature and pressure, leading to a better understanding of atmospheric processes.", "This century also saw the birth of the first meteorological society, the Societas Meteorologica Palatina in 1780.In the 19th century, advances in technology such as the telegraph and photography led to the creation of weather observing networks and the ability to track storms.", "Additionally, scientists began to use mathematical models to make predictions about the weather.", "The 20th century saw the development of radar and satellite technology, which greatly improved the ability to observe and track weather systems.", "In addition, meteorologists and atmospheric scientists started to create the first weather forecasts and temperature predictions.In the 20th and 21st centuries, with the advent of computer models and big data, meteorology has become increasingly dependent on numerical methods and computer simulations.", "This has greatly improved weather forecasting and climate predictions.", "Additionally, meteorology has expanded to include other areas such as air quality, atmospheric chemistry, and climatology.", "The advancement in observational, theoretical and computational technologies has enabled ever more accurate weather predictions and understanding of weather pattern and air pollution.", "In current time, with the advancement in weather forecasting and satellite technology, meteorology has become an integral part of everyday life, and is used for many purposes such as aviation, agriculture, and disaster management.=== Instruments and classification scales ===A hemispherical cup anemometerIn 1441, King Sejong's son, Prince Munjong of Korea, invented the first standardized rain gauge.", "These were sent throughout the Joseon dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmer's potential harvest.", "In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and was known as the first ''anemometer''.", "In 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope.", "In 1611, Johannes Kepler wrote the first scientific treatise on snow crystals: \"Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow).\"", "In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli invented the mercury barometer.", "In 1662, Sir Christopher Wren invented the mechanical, self-emptying, tipping bucket rain gauge.", "In 1714, Gabriel Fahrenheit created a reliable scale for measuring temperature with a mercury-type thermometer.", "In 1742, Anders Celsius, a Swedish astronomer, proposed the \"centigrade\" temperature scale, the predecessor of the current Celsius scale.", "In 1783, the first hair hygrometer was demonstrated by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure.", "In 1802–1803, Luke Howard wrote ''On the Modification of Clouds'', in which he assigns cloud types Latin names.", "In 1806, Francis Beaufort introduced his system for classifying wind speeds.", "Near the end of the 19th century the first cloud atlases were published, including the ''International Cloud Atlas'', which has remained in print ever since.", "The April 1960 launch of the first successful weather satellite, TIROS-1, marked the beginning of the age where weather information became available globally.===Atmospheric composition research===In 1648, Blaise Pascal rediscovered that atmospheric pressure decreases with height, and deduced that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere.", "In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published ''Hydrodynamics'', initiating the Kinetic theory of gases and established the basic laws for the theory of gases.", "In 1761, Joseph Black discovered that ice absorbs heat without changing its temperature when melting.", "In 1772, Black's student Daniel Rutherford discovered nitrogen, which he called ''phlogisticated air'', and together they developed the phlogiston theory.", "In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier discovered oxygen and developed an explanation for combustion.", "In 1783, in Lavoisier's essay \"Reflexions sur le phlogistique,\" he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a caloric theory.", "In 1804, John Leslie observed that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black-body radiation.", "In 1808, John Dalton defended caloric theory in ''A New System of Chemistry'' and described how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposed that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight.", "In 1824, Sadi Carnot analyzed the efficiency of steam engines using caloric theory; he developed the notion of a reversible process and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, laid the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics.", "In 1716, Edmund Halley suggested that aurorae are caused by \"magnetic effluvia\" moving along the Earth's magnetic field lines.===Research into cyclones and air flow===General circulation of the Earth's atmosphere: The westerlies and trade winds are part of the Earth's atmospheric circulation.In 1494, Christopher Columbus experienced a tropical cyclone, which led to the first written European account of a hurricane.", "In 1686, Edmund Halley presented a systematic study of the trade winds and monsoons and identified solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions.", "In 1735, an ''ideal'' explanation of global circulation through study of the trade winds was written by George Hadley.", "In 1743, when Benjamin Franklin was prevented from seeing a lunar eclipse by a hurricane, he decided that cyclones move in a contrary manner to the winds at their periphery.", "Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first.", "Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels.", "In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid-latitudes, and the air within deflected by the Coriolis force resulting in the prevailing westerly winds.", "Late in the 19th century, the motion of air masses along isobars was understood to be the result of the large-scale interaction of the pressure gradient force and the deflecting force.", "By 1912, this deflecting force was named the Coriolis effect.", "Just after World War I, a group of meteorologists in Norway led by Vilhelm Bjerknes developed the Norwegian cyclone model that explains the generation, intensification and ultimate decay (the life cycle) of mid-latitude cyclones, and introduced the idea of fronts, that is, sharply defined boundaries between air masses.", "The group included Carl-Gustaf Rossby (who was the first to explain the large scale atmospheric flow in terms of fluid dynamics), Tor Bergeron (who first determined how rain forms) and Jacob Bjerknes.===Observation networks and weather forecasting===Cloud classification by altitude of occurrenceAlexander Keith Johnston.This \"Hyetographic or Rain Map of Europe\" was also published in 1848 as part of \"The Physical Atlas\".In the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century a range of meteorological instruments were invented – the thermometer, barometer, hydrometer, as well as wind and rain gauges.", "In the 1650s natural philosophers started using these instruments to systematically record weather observations.", "Scientific academies established weather diaries and organised observational networks.", "In 1654, Ferdinando II de Medici established the first ''weather observing'' network, that consisted of meteorological stations in Florence, Cutigliano, Vallombrosa, Bologna, Parma, Milan, Innsbruck, Osnabrück, Paris and Warsaw.", "The collected data were sent to Florence at regular time intervals.", "In the 1660s Robert Hooke of the Royal Society of London sponsored networks of weather observers.", "Hippocrates' treatise ''Airs, Waters, and Places'' had linked weather to disease.", "Thus early meteorologists attempted to correlate weather patterns with epidemic outbreaks, and the climate with public health.During the Age of Enlightenment meteorology tried to rationalise traditional weather lore, including astrological meteorology.", "But there were also attempts to establish a theoretical understanding of weather phenomena.", "Edmond Halley and George Hadley tried to explain trade winds.", "They reasoned that the rising mass of heated equator air is replaced by an inflow of cooler air from high latitudes.", "A flow of warm air at high altitude from equator to poles in turn established an early picture of circulation.", "Frustration with the lack of discipline among weather observers, and the poor quality of the instruments, led the early modern nation states to organise large observation networks.", "Thus, by the end of the 18th century, meteorologists had access to large quantities of reliable weather data.", "In 1832, an electromagnetic telegraph was created by Baron Schilling.", "The arrival of the electrical telegraph in 1837 afforded, for the first time, a practical method for quickly gathering surface weather observations from a wide area.This data could be used to produce maps of the state of the atmosphere for a region near the Earth's surface and to study how these states evolved through time.", "To make frequent weather forecasts based on these data required a reliable network of observations, but it was not until 1849 that the Smithsonian Institution began to establish an observation network across the United States under the leadership of Joseph Henry.", "Similar observation networks were established in Europe at this time.", "The Reverend William Clement Ley was key in understanding of cirrus clouds and early understandings of Jet Streams.", "Charles Kenneth Mackinnon Douglas, known as 'CKM' Douglas read Ley's papers after his death and carried on the early study of weather systems.Nineteenth century researchers in meteorology were drawn from military or medical backgrounds, rather than trained as dedicated scientists.", "In 1854, the United Kingdom government appointed Robert FitzRoy to the new office of ''Meteorological Statist to the Board of Trade'' with the task of gathering weather observations at sea.", "FitzRoy's office became the United Kingdom Meteorological Office in 1854, the second oldest national meteorological service in the world (the Central Institution for Meteorology and Geodynamics (ZAMG) in Austria was founded in 1851 and is the oldest weather service in the world).", "The first daily weather forecasts made by FitzRoy's Office were published in ''The Times'' newspaper in 1860.The following year a system was introduced of hoisting storm warning cones at principal ports when a gale was expected.FitzRoy coined the term \"weather forecast\" and tried to separate scientific approaches from prophetic ones.Over the next 50 years, many countries established national meteorological services.", "The India Meteorological Department (1875) was established to follow tropical cyclone and monsoon.", "The Finnish Meteorological Central Office (1881) was formed from part of Magnetic Observatory of Helsinki University.", "Japan's Tokyo Meteorological Observatory, the forerunner of the Japan Meteorological Agency, began constructing surface weather maps in 1883.The United States Weather Bureau (1890) was established under the United States Department of Agriculture.", "The Australian Bureau of Meteorology (1906) was established by a Meteorology Act to unify existing state meteorological services.===Numerical weather prediction===A meteorologist at the console of the IBM 7090 in the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit.", "c. 1965In 1904, Norwegian scientist Vilhelm Bjerknes first argued in his paper ''Weather Forecasting as a Problem in Mechanics and Physics'' that it should be possible to forecast weather from calculations based upon natural laws.It was not until later in the 20th century that advances in the understanding of atmospheric physics led to the foundation of modern numerical weather prediction.", "In 1922, Lewis Fry Richardson published \"Weather Prediction By Numerical Process,\" after finding notes and derivations he worked on as an ambulance driver in World War I.", "He described how small terms in the prognostic fluid dynamics equations that govern atmospheric flow could be neglected, and a numerical calculation scheme that could be devised to allow predictions.", "Richardson envisioned a large auditorium of thousands of people performing the calculations.", "However, the sheer number of calculations required was too large to complete without electronic computers, and the size of the grid and time steps used in the calculations led to unrealistic results.", "Though numerical analysis later found that this was due to numerical instability.Starting in the 1950s, numerical forecasts with computers became feasible.", "The first weather forecasts derived this way used barotropic (single-vertical-level) models, and could successfully predict the large-scale movement of midlatitude Rossby waves, that is, the pattern of atmospheric lows and highs.", "In 1959, the UK Meteorological Office received its first computer, a Ferranti Mercury.In the 1960s, the chaotic nature of the atmosphere was first observed and mathematically described by Edward Lorenz, founding the field of chaos theory.", "These advances have led to the current use of ensemble forecasting in most major forecasting centers, to take into account uncertainty arising from the chaotic nature of the atmosphere.", "Mathematical models used to predict the long term weather of the Earth (climate models), have been developed that have a resolution today that are as coarse as the older weather prediction models.", "These climate models are used to investigate long-term climate shifts, such as what effects might be caused by human emission of greenhouse gases." ], [ "Meteorologists", "'''Meteorologists''' are scientists who study and work in the field of meteorology.", "The American Meteorological Society publishes and continually updates an authoritative electronic ''Meteorology Glossary''.", "Meteorologists work in government agencies, private consulting and research services, industrial enterprises, utilities, radio and television stations, and in education.", "In the United States, meteorologists held about 10,000 jobs in 2018.Although weather forecasts and warnings are the best known products of meteorologists for the public, weather presenters on radio and television are not necessarily professional meteorologists.", "They are most often reporters with little formal meteorological training, using unregulated titles such as ''weather specialist'' or ''weatherman''.", "The American Meteorological Society and National Weather Association issue \"Seals of Approval\" to weather broadcasters who meet certain requirements but this is not mandatory to be hired by the media." ], [ "Equipment", "Satellite image of Hurricane Hugo with a polar low visible at the top of the imageEach science has its own unique sets of laboratory equipment.", "In the atmosphere, there are many things or qualities of the atmosphere that can be measured.", "Rain, which can be observed, or seen anywhere and anytime was one of the first atmospheric qualities measured historically.", "Also, two other accurately measured qualities are wind and humidity.", "Neither of these can be seen but can be felt.", "The devices to measure these three sprang up in the mid-15th century and were respectively the rain gauge, the anemometer, and the hygrometer.", "Many attempts had been made prior to the 15th century to construct adequate equipment to measure the many atmospheric variables.", "Many were faulty in some way or were simply not reliable.", "Even Aristotle noted this in some of his work as the difficulty to measure the air.Sets of surface measurements are important data to meteorologists.", "They give a snapshot of a variety of weather conditions at one single location and are usually at a weather station, a ship or a weather buoy.", "The measurements taken at a weather station can include any number of atmospheric observables.", "Usually, temperature, pressure, wind measurements, and humidity are the variables that are measured by a thermometer, barometer, anemometer, and hygrometer, respectively.", "Professional stations may also include air quality sensors (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, dust, and smoke), ceilometer (cloud ceiling), falling precipitation sensor, flood sensor, lightning sensor, microphone (explosions, sonic booms, thunder), pyranometer/pyrheliometer/spectroradiometer (IR/Vis/UV photodiodes), rain gauge/snow gauge, scintillation counter (background radiation, fallout, radon), seismometer (earthquakes and tremors), transmissometer (visibility), and a GPS clock for data logging.", "Upper air data are of crucial importance for weather forecasting.", "The most widely used technique is launches of radiosondes.", "Supplementing the radiosondes a network of aircraft collection is organized by the World Meteorological Organization.Remote sensing, as used in meteorology, is the concept of collecting data from remote weather events and subsequently producing weather information.", "The common types of remote sensing are Radar, Lidar, and satellites (or photogrammetry).", "Each collects data about the atmosphere from a remote location and, usually, stores the data where the instrument is located.", "Radar and Lidar are not passive because both use EM radiation to illuminate a specific portion of the atmosphere.", "Weather satellites along with more general-purpose Earth-observing satellites circling the earth at various altitudes have become an indispensable tool for studying a wide range of phenomena from forest fires to El Niño." ], [ "Spatial scales", "The study of the atmosphere can be divided into distinct areas that depend on both time and spatial scales.", "At one extreme of this scale is climatology.", "In the timescales of hours to days, meteorology separates into micro-, meso-, and synoptic scale meteorology.", "Respectively, the geospatial size of each of these three scales relates directly with the appropriate timescale.Other subclassifications are used to describe the unique, local, or broad effects within those subclasses.+ '''Scales of Atmospheric Motion Systems''' Type of motion Horizontal scale (meter) Molecular mean free path 10−7 Minute turbulent eddies 10−2 – 10−1 Small eddies 10−1 – 1 Dust devils 1–10 Gusts 10 – 102 Tornadoes 102 Cumulonimbus clouds 103 Fronts, squall lines 104 – 105 Hurricanes 105 Synoptic Cyclones 106 Planetary waves 107===Microscale===Microscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena on a scale of about or less.", "Individual thunderstorms, clouds, and local turbulence caused by buildings and other obstacles (such as individual hills) are modeled on this scale.===Mesoscale===Mesoscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena that has horizontal scales ranging from 1 km to 1000 km and a vertical scale that starts at the Earth's surface and includes the atmospheric boundary layer, troposphere, tropopause, and the lower section of the stratosphere.", "Mesoscale timescales last from less than a day to multiple weeks.", "The events typically of interest are thunderstorms, squall lines, fronts, precipitation bands in tropical and extratropical cyclones, and topographically generated weather systems such as mountain waves and sea and land breezes.===Synoptic scale===NOAA: Synoptic scale weather analysisSynoptic scale meteorology predicts atmospheric changes at scales up to 1000 km and 105 sec (28 days), in time and space.", "At the synoptic scale, the Coriolis acceleration acting on moving air masses (outside of the tropics) plays a dominant role in predictions.", "The phenomena typically described by synoptic meteorology include events such as extratropical cyclones, baroclinic troughs and ridges, frontal zones, and to some extent jet streams.", "All of these are typically given on weather maps for a specific time.", "The minimum horizontal scale of synoptic phenomena is limited to the spacing between surface observation stations.===Global scale===Annual mean sea surface temperaturesGlobal scale meteorology is the study of weather patterns related to the transport of heat from the tropics to the poles.", "Very large scale oscillations are of importance at this scale.", "These oscillations have time periods typically on the order of months, such as the Madden–Julian oscillation, or years, such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and the Pacific decadal oscillation.", "Global scale meteorology pushes into the range of climatology.", "The traditional definition of climate is pushed into larger timescales and with the understanding of the longer time scale global oscillations, their effect on climate and weather disturbances can be included in the synoptic and mesoscale timescales predictions.Numerical Weather Prediction is a main focus in understanding air–sea interaction, tropical meteorology, atmospheric predictability, and tropospheric/stratospheric processes.", "The Naval Research Laboratory in Monterey, California, developed a global atmospheric model called Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System (NOGAPS).", "NOGAPS is run operationally at Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center for the United States Military.", "Many other global atmospheric models are run by national meteorological agencies." ], [ "Some meteorological principles", "===Boundary layer meteorology===Boundary layer meteorology is the study of processes in the air layer directly above Earth's surface, known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL).", "The effects of the surface – heating, cooling, and friction – cause turbulent mixing within the air layer.", "Significant movement of heat, matter, or momentum on time scales of less than a day are caused by turbulent motions.", "Boundary layer meteorology includes the study of all types of surface–atmosphere boundary, including ocean, lake, urban land and non-urban land for the study of meteorology.===Dynamic meteorology===Dynamic meteorology generally focuses on the fluid dynamics of the atmosphere.", "The idea of ''air parcel'' is used to define the smallest element of the atmosphere, while ignoring the discrete molecular and chemical nature of the atmosphere.", "An air parcel is defined as an infinitesimal region in the fluid continuum of the atmosphere.", "The fundamental laws of fluid dynamics, thermodynamics, and motion are used to study the atmosphere.", "The physical quantities that characterize the state of the atmosphere are temperature, density, pressure, etc.", "These variables have unique values in the continuum." ], [ "Applications", "===Weather forecasting===Forecast of surface pressures five days into the future for the north Pacific, North America, and north Atlantic OceanWeather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere at a future time and given location.", "Humans have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia and formally since at least the 19th century.", "Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve.Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure, current weather conditions, and sky condition, forecast models are now used to determine future conditions.", "Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, teleconnections, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases.", "The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the ''range'' of the forecast) increases.", "The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome.There are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts.", "Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property.", "Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture, and therefore to commodity traders within stock markets.", "Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days.", "On an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear.", "Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow, and wind chill, forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them.===Aviation meteorology===Aviation meteorology deals with the impact of weather on air traffic management.", "It is important for air crews to understand the implications of weather on their flight plan as well as their aircraft, as noted by the ''Aeronautical Information Manual'':The effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative—thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and weight increases.", "The results are an increase in stall speed and a deterioration of aircraft performance.", "In extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5 minutes.", "It takes but 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the frictional drag by an equal percentage.===Agricultural meteorology===Meteorologists, soil scientists, agricultural hydrologists, and agronomists are people concerned with studying the effects of weather and climate on plant distribution, crop yield, water-use efficiency, phenology of plant and animal development, and the energy balance of managed and natural ecosystems.", "Conversely, they are interested in the role of vegetation on climate and weather.===Hydrometeorology===Hydrometeorology is the branch of meteorology that deals with the hydrologic cycle, the water budget, and the rainfall statistics of storms.", "A hydrometeorologist prepares and issues forecasts of accumulating (quantitative) precipitation, heavy rain, heavy snow, and highlights areas with the potential for flash flooding.", "Typically the range of knowledge that is required overlaps with climatology, mesoscale and synoptic meteorology, and other geosciences.The multidisciplinary nature of the branch can result in technical challenges, since tools and solutions from each of the individual disciplines involved may behave slightly differently, be optimized for different hard- and software platforms and use different data formats.", "There are some initiatives – such as the DRIHM project – that are trying to address this issue.===Nuclear meteorology===Nuclear meteorology investigates the distribution of radioactive aerosols and gases in the atmosphere.===Maritime meteorology===Maritime meteorology deals with air and wave forecasts for ships operating at sea.", "Organizations such as the Ocean Prediction Center, Honolulu National Weather Service forecast office, United Kingdom Met Office, KNMI and JMA prepare high seas forecasts for the world's oceans.===Military meteorology===Military meteorology is the research and application of meteorology for military purposes.", "In the United States, the United States Navy's Commander, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command oversees meteorological efforts for the Navy and Marine Corps while the United States Air Force's Air Force Weather Agency is responsible for the Air Force and Army.===Environmental meteorology===Environmental meteorology mainly analyzes industrial pollution dispersion physically and chemically based on meteorological parameters such as temperature, humidity, wind, and various weather conditions.===Renewable energy===Meteorology applications in renewable energy includes basic research, \"exploration,\" and potential mapping of wind power and solar radiation for wind and solar energy." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Byers, Horace.", "General Meteorology.", "New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.", "******* ===Dictionaries and encyclopedias===* * * ===History===*" ], [ "External links", "''Please see weather forecasting for weather forecast sites.", "''* Air Quality Meteorology – Online course that introduces the basic concepts of meteorology and air quality necessary to understand meteorological computer models.", "Written at a bachelor's degree level.", "* The GLOBE Program – (Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment) An international environmental science and education program that links students, teachers, and the scientific research community in an effort to learn more about the environment through student data collection and observation.", "* Glossary of Meteorology – From the American Meteorological Society, an excellent reference of nomenclature, equations, and concepts for the more advanced reader.", "* JetStream – An Online School for Weather – National Weather Service* Learn About Meteorology – Australian Bureau of Meteorology* The Weather Guide – Weather Tutorials and News at About.com* Meteorology Education and Training (MetEd) – The COMET Program* NOAA Central Library – National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration* The World Weather 2010 Project The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign* Ogimet – online data from meteorological stations of the world, obtained through NOAA free services* National Center for Atmospheric Research Archives, documents the history of meteorology* Weather forecasting and Climate science – United Kingdom Meteorological Office* Meteorology, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Vladimir Janković, Richard Hambyn and Iba Taub (''In Our Time'', 6 March 2003)* Virtual exhibition about meteorology on the digital library of Paris Observatory" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mount" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mount''' is often used as part of the name of specific mountains, e.g.", "Mount Everest.", "'''Mount''' or '''Mounts''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Mount, Cornwall, a village in Warleggan parish, England* Mount, Perranzabuloe, a hamlet in Perranzabuloe parish, Cornwall, England* Mounts, Indiana, a community in Gibson County, Indiana, United States" ], [ "People", "* Mount (surname)* William L. Mounts (1862–1929), American lawyer and politician" ], [ "Computing and software", "* Mount (computing), the process of making a file system accessible* Mount (Unix), the utility in Unix-like operating systems which mounts file systems" ], [ "Displays and equipment", "* Mount, a fixed point for attaching equipment, such as a hardpoint on an airframe* Mounting board, in picture framing* Mount, a hanging scroll for mounting paintings* Mount, to display an item on a heavy backing such as foamcore, e.g.", ":** To pin a biological specimen, on a heavy backing in a stretched stable position for ease of dissection or display** To prepare dead animals for display in taxidermy* Lens mount, an interface used to fix a lens to a camera* Mounting, placing a cover slip on a specimen on a microscopic slide* Telescope mount, a device used to support a telescope* Weapon mount, equipment used to secure an armament* Picture mount" ], [ "Sports", "* Mount (grappling), a grappling position* Mount, to board an apparatus used for gymnastics, such as a balance beam" ], [ "Other uses", "* Mount, in copulation, the union of the sex organs in mating* Mount, a riding animal* Mount, or Vahana, an animal or mythical entity closely associated with a particular deity in Hindu mythology* Mount, to add butter to a sauce in order to thicken it, as with ''beurre monté''" ], [ "See also", "* * * The Mount (disambiguation)* Mountain (disambiguation)* Massif (disambiguation)* Hill (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Meitnerium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Meitnerium''' () is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol '''Mt''' and atomic number 109.It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element (an element not found in nature, but can be created in a laboratory).", "The most stable known isotope, meitnerium-278, has a half-life of 4.5 seconds, although the unconfirmed meitnerium-282 may have a longer half-life of 67 seconds.", "The GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt, Germany, first created this element in 1982.It is named after Lise Meitner.In the periodic table, meitnerium is a d-block transactinide element.", "It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 9 elements, although no chemical experiments have yet been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to iridium in group 9 as the seventh member of the 6d series of transition metals.", "Meitnerium is calculated to have properties similar to its lighter homologues, cobalt, rhodium, and iridium." ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "History", "Meitnerium was named after the physicist Lise Meitner, one of the discoverers of nuclear fission.===Discovery===Meitnerium was first synthesized on August 29, 1982, by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt.", "The team bombarded a target of bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of iron-58 and detected a single atom of the isotope meitnerium-266:: + → + This work was confirmed three years later at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna (then in the Soviet Union).===Naming===Using Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, meitnerium should be known as ''eka-iridium''.", "In 1979, during the Transfermium Wars (but before the synthesis of meitnerium), IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called ''unnilennium'' (with the corresponding symbol of ''Une''), a systematic element name as a placeholder, until the element was discovered (and the discovery then confirmed) and a permanent name was decided on.", "Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field, who either called it \"element 109\", with the symbol of ''E109'', ''(109)'' or even simply ''109'', or used the proposed name \"meitnerium\".The naming of meitnerium was discussed in the element naming controversy regarding the names of elements 104 to 109, but ''meitnerium'' was the only proposal and thus was never disputed.", "The name ''meitnerium'' (Mt) was suggested by the GSI team in September 1992 in honor of the Austrian physicist Lise Meitner, a co-discoverer of protactinium (with Otto Hahn), and one of the discoverers of nuclear fission.", "In 1994 the name was recommended by IUPAC, and was officially adopted in 1997.It is thus the only element named specifically after a non-mythological woman (curium being named for both Pierre and Marie Curie)." ], [ "Isotopes", "Meitnerium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes.", "Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements.", "Eight different isotopes of meitnerium have been reported with mass numbers 266, 268, 270, and 274–278, two of which, meitnerium-268 and meitnerium-270, have unconfirmed metastable states.", "A ninth isotope with mass number 282 is unconfirmed.", "Most of these decay predominantly through alpha decay, although some undergo spontaneous fission.===Stability and half-lives===All meitnerium isotopes are extremely unstable and radioactive; in general, heavier isotopes are more stable than the lighter.", "The most stable known meitnerium isotope, 278Mt, is also the heaviest known; it has a half-life of 4.5 seconds.", "The unconfirmed 282Mt is even heavier and appears to have a longer half-life of 67 seconds.", "The isotopes 276Mt and 274Mt have half-lives of 0.62 and 0.64 seconds respectively.", "The remaining five isotopes have half-lives between 1 and 20 milliseconds.The isotope 277Mt, created as the final decay product of 293Ts for the first time in 2012, was observed to undergo spontaneous fission with a half-life of 5 milliseconds.", "Preliminary data analysis considered the possibility of this fission event instead originating from 277Hs, for it also has a half-life of a few milliseconds, and could be populated following undetected electron capture somewhere along the decay chain.", "This possibility was later deemed very unlikely based on observed decay energies of 281Ds and 281Rg and the short half-life of 277Mt, although there is still some uncertainty of the assignment.", "Regardless, the rapid fission of 277Mt and 277Hs is strongly suggestive of a region of instability for superheavy nuclei with ''N'' = 168–170.The existence of this region, characterized by a decrease in fission barrier height between the deformed shell closure at ''N'' = 162 and spherical shell closure at ''N'' = 184, is consistent with theoretical models." ], [ "Predicted properties", "Other than nuclear properties, no properties of meitnerium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that meitnerium and its parents decay very quickly.", "Properties of meitnerium metal remain unknown and only predictions are available.===Chemical===Meitnerium is the seventh member of the 6d series of transition metals, and should be much like the platinum group metals.", "Calculations on its ionization potentials and atomic and ionic radii are similar to that of its lighter homologue iridium, thus implying that meitnerium's basic properties will resemble those of the other group 9 elements, cobalt, rhodium, and iridium.Prediction of the probable chemical properties of meitnerium has not received much attention recently.", "Meitnerium is expected to be a noble metal.", "The standard electrode potential for the Mt3+/Mt couple is expected to be 0.8 V. Based on the most stable oxidation states of the lighter group 9 elements, the most stable oxidation states of meitnerium are predicted to be the +6, +3, and +1 states, with the +3 state being the most stable in aqueous solutions.", "In comparison, rhodium and iridium show a maximum oxidation state of +6, while the most stable states are +4 and +3 for iridium and +3 for rhodium.", "The oxidation state +9, represented only by iridium in IrO4+, might be possible for its congener meitnerium in the nonafluoride (MtF9) and the MtO4+ cation, although IrO4+ is expected to be more stable than these meitnerium compounds.", "The tetrahalides of meitnerium have also been predicted to have similar stabilities to those of iridium, thus also allowing a stable +4 state.", "It is further expected that the maximum oxidation states of elements from bohrium (element 107) to darmstadtium (element 110) may be stable in the gas phase but not in aqueous solution.===Physical and atomic===Meitnerium is expected to be a solid under normal conditions and assume a face-centered cubic crystal structure, similarly to its lighter congener iridium.", "It should be a very heavy metal with a density of around 27–28 g/cm3, which would be among the highest of any of the 118 known elements.", "Meitnerium is also predicted to be paramagnetic.Theoreticians have predicted the covalent radius of meitnerium to be 6 to 10 pm larger than that of iridium.", "The atomic radius of meitnerium is expected to be around 128 pm." ], [ "Experimental chemistry", "Meitnerium is the first element on the periodic table whose chemistry has not yet been investigated.", "Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of meitnerium has yet to have been established due to the short half-lives of meitnerium isotopes and a limited number of likely volatile compounds that could be studied on a very small scale.", "One of the few meitnerium compounds that are likely to be sufficiently volatile is meitnerium hexafluoride (), as its lighter homologue iridium hexafluoride () is volatile above 60 °C and therefore the analogous compound of meitnerium might also be sufficiently volatile; a volatile octafluoride () might also be possible.", "For chemical studies to be carried out on a transactinide, at least four atoms must be produced, the half-life of the isotope used must be at least 1 second, and the rate of production must be at least one atom per week.", "Even though the half-life of 278Mt, the most stable confirmed meitnerium isotope, is 4.5 seconds, long enough to perform chemical studies, another obstacle is the need to increase the rate of production of meitnerium isotopes and allow experiments to carry on for weeks or months so that statistically significant results can be obtained.", "Separation and detection must be carried out continuously to separate out the meitnerium isotopes and have automated systems experiment on the gas-phase and solution chemistry of meitnerium, as the yields for heavier elements are predicted to be smaller than those for lighter elements; some of the separation techniques used for bohrium and hassium could be reused.", "However, the experimental chemistry of meitnerium has not received as much attention as that of the heavier elements from copernicium to livermorium.The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory attempted to synthesize the isotope 271Mt in 2002–2003 for a possible chemical investigation of meitnerium, because it was expected that it might be more stable than nearby isotopes due to having 162 neutrons, a magic number for deformed nuclei; its half-life was predicted to be a few seconds, long enough for a chemical investigation.", "However, no atoms of 271Mt were detected; this isotope of meitnerium is currently unknown.An experiment determining the chemical properties of a transactinide would need to compare a compound of that transactinide with analogous compounds of some of its lighter homologues: for example, in the chemical characterization of hassium, hassium tetroxide (HsO4) was compared with the analogous osmium compound, osmium tetroxide (OsO4).", "In a preliminary step towards determining the chemical properties of meitnerium, the GSI attempted sublimation of the rhodium compounds rhodium(III) oxide (Rh2O3) and rhodium(III) chloride (RhCl3).", "However, macroscopic amounts of the oxide would not sublimate until 1000 °C and the chloride would not until 780 °C, and then only in the presence of carbon aerosol particles: these temperatures are far too high for such procedures to be used on meitnerium, as most of the current methods used for the investigation of the chemistry of superheavy elements do not work above 500 °C.Following the 2014 successful synthesis of seaborgium hexacarbonyl, Sg(CO)6, studies were conducted with the stable transition metals of groups 7 through 9, suggesting that carbonyl formation could be extended to further probe the chemistries of the early 6d transition metals from rutherfordium to meitnerium inclusive.", "Nevertheless, the challenges of low half-lives and difficult production reactions make meitnerium difficult to access for radiochemists, though the isotopes 278Mt and 276Mt are long-lived enough for chemical research and may be produced in the decay chains of 294Ts and 288Mc respectively.", "276Mt is likely more suitable, since producing tennessine requires a rare and rather short-lived berkelium target.", "The isotope 270Mt, observed in the decay chain of 278Nh with a half-life of 0.69 seconds, may also be sufficiently long-lived for chemical investigations, though a direct synthesis route leading to this isotope and more precise measurements of its decay properties would be required." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Meitnerium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Megabyte" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''megabyte''' is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information.", "Its recommended unit symbol is '''MB'''.", "The unit prefix ''mega'' is a multiplier of (106) in the International System of Units (SI).", "Therefore, one megabyte is one million bytes of information.", "This definition has been incorporated into the International System of Quantities.In the computer and information technology fields, other definitions have been used that arose for historical reasons of convenience.", "A common usage has been to designate one megabyte as (220 B), a quantity that conveniently expresses the binary architecture of digital computer memory.", "The standards bodies have deprecated this usage of the megabyte in favor of a new set of binary prefixes, in which this quantity is designated by the unit mebibyte (MiB)." ], [ "Definitions", "The unit megabyte is commonly used for 10002 (one million) bytes or 10242 bytes.", "The interpretation of using base 1024 originated as technical jargon for the byte multiples that needed to be expressed by the powers of 2 but lacked a convenient name.", "As 1024 (210) approximates 1000 (103), roughly corresponding to the SI prefix kilo-, it was a convenient term to denote the binary multiple.", "In 1999, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) published standards for binary prefixes requiring the use of ''megabyte'' to denote 10002 bytes, and ''mebibyte'' to denote 10242 bytes.", "By the end of 2009, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE, EU, ISO and NIST.", "Nevertheless, the term megabyte continues to be widely used with different meanings.", "; Base 10: 1 MB = bytes (= 10002 B = 106 B) is the definition following the rules of the International System of Units (SI), and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).", "This definition is used in computer networking contexts and most storage media, particularly hard drives, flash-based storage, and DVDs, and is also consistent with the other uses of the SI prefix in computing, such as CPU clock speeds or measures of performance.", "The Mac OS X 10.6 file manager is a notable example of this usage in software.", "Since Snow Leopard, file sizes are reported in decimal units.In this convention, one thousand megabytes (1000 MB) is equal to one gigabyte (1 GB), where 1 GB is one billion bytes.", ";Base 2: 1 MB = bytes (= 10242 B = 220 B) is the definition used by Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory, such as random-access memory (RAM).", "This definition is synonymous with the unambiguous binary unit mebibyte.", "In this convention, one thousand and twenty-four megabytes (1024 MB) is equal to one gigabyte (1 GB), where 1 GB is 10243 bytes (i.e., 1 GiB).", ";Mixed: 1 MB = bytes (= 1000×1024 B) is the definition used to describe the formatted capacity of the 1.44 MB HD floppy disk, which actually has a capacity of .Randomly addressable semiconductor memory doubles in size for each address lane added to an integrated circuit package, which favors counts that are powers of two.", "The capacity of a disk drive is the product of the sector size, number of sectors per track, number of tracks per side, and the number of disk platters in the drive.", "Changes in any of these factors would not usually double the size." ], [ "Examples of use", "1.44 MB floppy disks can store 1,474,560 bytes of data.", "MB in this context means 1,000×1,024 bytes.Depending on compression methods and file format, '''a megabyte of data''' can roughly be:* a 1megapixel bitmap image (e.g.", "~1152 × 864) with 256 colors (8 bits/pixel color depth) stored without any compression.", "* 6seconds of 44.1 kHz/16 bit uncompressed CD audio.", "* 1minute of 128kbit/s MP3 lossy compressed audio.", "* a typical English book volume in plain text format (500 pages × 2000 characters per page).The novel ''Great Expectations'' by Charles Dickens, hosted on Project Gutenberg as an uncompressed plain text file, is 993,639 bytes; ''Moby Dick'' is 1,191,763 bytes.", "The human genome consists of DNA representing 800MB of data.", "The parts that differentiate one person from another can be compressed to 4MB." ], [ "See also", "* Timeline of binary prefixes*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Historical Notes About The Cost Of Hard Drive Storage Space* the megabyte (established definition in Networking and Storage industries; from whatis.com)* International Electrotechnical Commission definitions* IEC prefixes and symbols for binary multiples * Added Archived to How Many MB in a GB" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monosaccharide" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Monosaccharides''' (from Greek ''monos'': single, ''sacchar'': sugar), also called '''simple sugars''', are the simplest forms of sugar and the most basic units (monomers) from which all carbohydrates are built.", "Simply, this is the structural unit of carbohydrates.They are usually colorless, water-soluble, and crystalline shaped organic solids.", "Contrary to their name (sugars), only some monosaccharides have a sweet taste.", "Most monosaccharides have the formula (CH2O)''x'' (though not all molecules with this formula are monosaccharides).Examples of monosaccharides include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose), and galactose.", "Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose) and polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch).", "The table sugar used in everyday vernacular is itself a disaccharide sucrose comprising one molecule of each of the two monosaccharides -glucose and -fructose.Each carbon atom that supports a hydroxyl group is chiral, except those at the end of the chain.", "This gives rise to a number of isomeric forms, all with the same chemical formula.", "For instance, galactose and glucose are both aldohexoses, but have different physical structures and chemical properties.The monosaccharide glucose plays a pivotal role in metabolism, where the chemical energy is extracted through glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to provide energy to living organisms.Maltose is the condensation of monosaccharides." ], [ "Structure and nomenclature", "With few exceptions (e.g., deoxyribose), monosaccharides have this chemical formula: (CH2O)''x'', where conventionally ''x'' ≥ 3.Monosaccharides can be classified by the number ''x'' of carbon atoms they contain: triose (3), tetrose (4), pentose (5), hexose (6), heptose (7), and so on.Glucose, used as an energy source and for the synthesis of starch, glycogen and cellulose, is a hexose.", "Ribose and deoxyribose (in RNA and DNA, respectively) are pentose sugars.", "Examples of heptoses include the ketoses, mannoheptulose and sedoheptulose.", "Monosaccharides with eight or more carbons are rarely observed as they are quite unstable.", "In aqueous solutions monosaccharides exist as rings if they have more than four carbons.===Linear-chain monosaccharides===Simple monosaccharides have a linear and unbranched carbon skeleton with one carbonyl (C=O) functional group, and one hydroxyl (OH) group on each of the remaining carbon atoms.", "Therefore, the molecular structure of a simple monosaccharide can be written as H(CHOH)''n''(C=O)(CHOH)''m''H, where ; so that its elemental formula is C''x''H2''x''O''x''.By convention, the carbon atoms are numbered from 1 to ''x'' along the backbone, starting from the end that is closest to the C=O group.", "Monosaccharides are the simplest units of carbohydrates and the simplest form of sugar.If the carbonyl is at position 1 (that is, ''n'' or ''m'' is zero), the molecule begins with a formyl group H(C=O)− and is technically an aldehyde.", "In that case, the compound is termed an aldose.", "Otherwise, the molecule has a ketone group, a carbonyl −(C=O)− between two carbons; then it is formally a ketone, and is termed a ketose.", "Ketoses of biological interest usually have the carbonyl at position 2.The various classifications above can be combined, resulting in names such as \"aldohexose\" and \"ketotriose\".A more general nomenclature for open-chain monosaccharides combines a Greek prefix to indicate the number of carbons (tri-, tetr-, pent-, hex-, etc.)", "with the suffixes \"-ose\" for aldoses and \"-ulose\" for ketoses.", "In the latter case, if the carbonyl is not at position 2, its position is then indicated by a numeric infix.", "So, for example, H(C=O)(CHOH)4H is pentose, H(CHOH)(C=O)(CHOH)3H is pentulose, and H(CHOH)2(C=O)(CHOH)2H is pent-3-ulose.===Open-chain stereoisomers===Two monosaccharides with equivalent molecular graphs (same chain length and same carbonyl position) may still be distinct stereoisomers, whose molecules differ in spatial orientation.", "This happens only if the molecule contains a stereogenic center, specifically a carbon atom that is chiral (connected to four distinct molecular sub-structures).", "Those four bonds can have any of two configurations in space distinguished by their handedness.", "In a simple open-chain monosaccharide, every carbon is chiral except the first and the last atoms of the chain, and (in ketoses) the carbon with the keto group.For example, the triketose H(CHOH)(C=O)(CHOH)H (glycerone, dihydroxyacetone) has no stereogenic center, and therefore exists as a single stereoisomer.", "The other triose, the aldose H(C=O)(CHOH)2H (glyceraldehyde), has one chiral carbon—the central one, number 2—which is bonded to groups −H, −OH, −C(OH)H2, and −(C=O)H. Therefore, it exists as two stereoisomers whose molecules are mirror images of each other (like a left and a right glove).", "Monosaccharides with four or more carbons may contain multiple chiral carbons, so they typically have more than two stereoisomers.", "The number of distinct stereoisomers with the same diagram is bounded by 2''c'', where ''c'' is the total number of chiral carbons.The Fischer projection is a systematic way of drawing the skeletal formula of an acyclic monosaccharide so that the handedness of each chiral carbon is well specified.", "Each stereoisomer of a simple open-chain monosaccharide can be identified by the positions (right or left) in the Fischer diagram of the chiral hydroxyls (the hydroxyls attached to the chiral carbons).Most stereoisomers are themselves chiral (distinct from their mirror images).", "In the Fischer projection, two mirror-image isomers differ by having the positions of all chiral hydroxyls reversed right-to-left.", "Mirror-image isomers are chemically identical in non-chiral environments, but usually have very different biochemical properties and occurrences in nature.While most stereoisomers can be arranged in pairs of mirror-image forms, there are some non-chiral stereoisomers that are identical to their mirror images, in spite of having chiral centers.", "This happens whenever the molecular graph is symmetrical, as in the 3-ketopentoses H(CHOH)2(CO)(CHOH)2H, and the two halves are mirror images of each other.", "In that case, mirroring is equivalent to a half-turn rotation.", "For this reason, there are only three distinct 3-ketopentose stereoisomers, even though the molecule has two chiral carbons.Distinct stereoisomers that are not mirror-images of each other usually have different chemical properties, even in non-chiral environments.", "Therefore, each mirror pair and each non-chiral stereoisomer may be given a specific monosaccharide name.", "For example, there are 16 distinct aldohexose stereoisomers, but the name \"glucose\" means a specific pair of mirror-image aldohexoses.", "In the Fischer projection, one of the two glucose isomers has the hydroxyl at left on C3, and at right on C4 and C5; while the other isomer has the reversed pattern.", "These specific monosaccharide names have conventional three-letter abbreviations, like \"Glu\" for glucose and \"Thr\" for threose.Generally, a monosaccharide with ''n'' asymmetrical carbons has 2''n'' stereoisomers.", "The number of open chain stereoisomers for an aldose monosaccharide is larger by one than that of a ketose monosaccharide of the same length.", "Every ketose will have 2(''n''−3) stereoisomers where ''n'' > 2 is the number of carbons.", "Every aldose will have 2(''n''−2) stereoisomers where ''n'' > 2 is the number of carbons.These are also referred to as epimers which have the different arrangement of −OH and −H groups at the asymmetric or chiral carbon atoms (this does not apply to those carbons having the carbonyl functional group).===Configuration of monosaccharides===Like many chiral molecules, the two stereoisomers of glyceraldehyde will gradually rotate the polarization direction of linearly polarized light as it passes through it, even in solution.", "The two stereoisomers are identified with the prefixes - and -, according to the sense of rotation: -glyceraldehyde is dextrorotatory (rotates the polarization axis clockwise), while -glyceraldehyde is levorotatory (rotates it counterclockwise).- and -glucoseThe - and - prefixes are also used with other monosaccharides, to distinguish two particular stereoisomers that are mirror-images of each other.", "For this purpose, one considers the chiral carbon that is furthest removed from the C=O group.", "Its four bonds must connect to −H, −OH, −C(OH)H, and the rest of the molecule.", "If the molecule can be rotated in space so that the directions of those four groups match those of the analog groups in -glyceraldehyde's C2, then the isomer receives the - prefix.", "Otherwise, it receives the - prefix.In the Fischer projection, the - and - prefixes specifies the configuration at the carbon atom that is second from bottom: - if the hydroxyl is on the right side, and - if it is on the left side.Note that the - and - prefixes do not indicate the direction of rotation of polarized light, which is a combined effect of the arrangement at all chiral centers.", "However, the two enantiomers will always rotate the light in opposite directions, by the same amount.", "See also system.=== of monosaccharides (hemiacetal formation) ===A monosaccharide often switches from the acyclic (open-chain) form to a cyclic form, through a nucleophilic addition reaction between the carbonyl group and one of the hydroxyl groups of the same molecule.", "The reaction creates a ring of carbon atoms closed by one bridging oxygen atom.", "The resulting molecule has a hemiacetal or hemiketal group, depending on whether the linear form was an aldose or a ketose.", "The reaction is easily reversed, yielding the original open-chain form.In these cyclic forms, the ring usually has five or six atoms.", "These forms are called furanoses and pyranoses, respectively—by analogy with furan and pyran, the simplest compounds with the same carbon-oxygen ring (although they lack the double bonds of these two molecules).", "For example, the aldohexose glucose may form a hemiacetal linkage between the aldehyde group on carbon 1 and the hydroxyl on carbon 4, yielding a molecule with a 5-membered ring, called glucofuranose.", "The same reaction can take place between carbons 1 and 5 to form a molecule with a ring, called glucopyranose.", "Cyclic forms with a seven-atom ring (the same of oxepane), rarely encountered, are called heptoses.Conversion between the furanose, acyclic, and pyranose forms of -glucosePyranose forms of some pentose sugarsPyranose forms of some hexose sugarsFor many monosaccharides (including glucose), the cyclic forms predominate, in the solid state and in solutions, and therefore the same name commonly is used for the open- and closed-chain isomers.", "Thus, for example, the term \"glucose\" may signify glucofuranose, glucopyranose, the open-chain form, or a mixture of the three.Cyclization creates a new stereogenic center at the carbonyl-bearing carbon.", "The −OH group that replaces the carbonyl's oxygen may end up in two distinct positions relative to the ring's midplane.", "Thus each open-chain monosaccharide yields two cyclic isomers (anomers), denoted by the prefixes α- and β-.", "The molecule can change between these two forms by a process called mutarotation, that consists in a reversal of the ring-forming reaction followed by another ring formation.====Haworth projection====The stereochemical structure of a cyclic monosaccharide can be represented in a Haworth projection.", "In this diagram, the α-isomer for the pyranose form of a -aldohexose has the −OH of the anomeric carbon below the plane of the carbon atoms, while the β-isomer has the −OH of the anomeric carbon above the plane.", "Pyranoses typically adopt a chair conformation, similar to that of cyclohexane.", "In this conformation, the α-isomer has the −OH of the anomeric carbon in an axial position, whereas the β-isomer has the −OH of the anomeric carbon in equatorial position (considering -aldohexose sugars).Alpha-D-Glucopyranose.svg|α--GlucopyranoseBeta-D-Glucopyranose.svg|β--Glucopyranose" ], [ "Derivatives", "A large number of biologically important modified monosaccharides exist:* Amino sugars such as:** galactosamine** glucosamine** sialic acid** ''N''-acetylglucosamine* Sulfosugars such as:** sulfoquinovose* Others such as:** ascorbic acid** mannitol** glucuronic acid" ], [ "See also", "* Monosaccharide nomenclature* Reducing sugar* Sugar acid* Sugar alcohol" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* McMurry, John.", "Organic Chemistry.", "7th ed.", "Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2008.Print." ], [ "External links", "* Nomenclature of Carbohydrates" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Microscopium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Microscopium''' (\"the Microscope\") is a minor constellation in the southern celestial hemisphere, one of twelve created in the 18th century by French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille and one of several depicting scientific instruments.", "The name is a Latinised form of the Greek word for microscope.", "Its stars are faint and hardly visible from most of the non-tropical Northern Hemisphere.The constellation's brightest star is Gamma Microscopii of apparent magnitude 4.68, a yellow giant 2.5 times the Sun's mass located 223 ± 8 light-years distant.", "It passed within 1.14 and 3.45 light-years of the Sun some 3.9 million years ago, possibly disturbing the outer Solar System.", "Three star systems—WASP-7, AU Microscopii and HD 205739—have been determined to have planets, while other star —the Sun-like star HD 202628— has a debris disk.", "AU Microscopii and the binary red dwarf system AT Microscopii are probably a wide triple system and members of the Beta Pictoris moving group.", "Nicknamed \"Speedy Mic\", BO Microscopii is a star with an extremely fast rotation period of 9 hours, 7 minutes." ], [ "Characteristics", "Microscopium is a small constellation bordered by Capricornus to the north, Piscis Austrinus and Grus to the east, Sagittarius to the west, and Indus to the south, touching on Telescopium to the southwest.", "The recommended three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is \"Mic\".", "The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of four segments (''illustrated in infobox'').", "In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −27.45° and −45.09°.", "The whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 45°N.", "Given that its brightest stars are of fifth magnitude, the constellation is invisible to the naked eye in areas with light polluted skies." ], [ "Features", "The constellation Microscopium as it can be seen by the naked eye.===Stars===French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille charted and designated ten stars with the Bayer designations Alpha through to Iota in 1756.A star in neighbouring Indus that Lacaille had labelled Nu Indi turned out to be in Microscopium, so Gould renamed it Nu Microscopii.", "Francis Baily considered Gamma and Epsilon Microscopii to belong to the neighbouring constellation Piscis Austrinus, but subsequent cartographers did not follow this.", "In his 1725 ''Catalogus Britannicus'', John Flamsteed labelled the stars 1, 2, 3 and 4 Piscis Austrini, which became Gamma Microscopii, HR 8076, HR 8110 and Epsilon Microscopii respectively.", "Within the constellation's borders, there are 43 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5.Depicting the eyepiece of the microscope is Gamma Microscopii, which—at magnitude of 4.68—is the brightest star in the constellation.", "Having spent much of its 620-million-year lifespan as a blue-white main sequence star, it has swollen and cooled to become a yellow giant of spectral type G6III, with a diameter ten times that of the Sun.", "Measurement of its parallax yields a distance of 223 ± 8 light years from Earth.", "It likely passed within 1.14 and 3.45 light-years of the Sun some 3.9 million years ago, at around 2.5 times the mass of the Sun, it is possibly massive enough and close enough to disturb the Oort cloud.", "Alpha Microscopii is also an ageing yellow giant star of spectral type G7III with an apparent magnitude of 4.90.Located 400 ± 30 light-years away from Earth, it has swollen to 17.5 times the diameter of the Sun.", "Alpha has a 10th magnitude companion, visible in 7.5 cm telescopes, though this is a coincidental closeness rather than a true binary system.", "Epsilon Microscopii lies 166 ± 5 light-years away, and is a white star of apparent magnitude 4.7, and spectral type A1V.", "Theta1 and Theta2 Microscopii make up a wide double whose components are splittable to the naked eye.", "Both are white A-class magnetic spectrum variable stars with strong metallic lines, similar to Cor Caroli.", "They mark the constellation's specimen slide.Many notable objects are too faint to be seen with the naked eye.", "AX Microscopii, better known as Lacaille 8760, is a red dwarf which lies only 12.9 light-years from the Solar System.", "At magnitude 6.68, it is the brightest red dwarf in the sky.", "BO Microscopii is a rapidly rotating star that has 80% the diameter of the Sun.", "Nicknamed \"Speedy Mic\", it has a rotation period of 9 hours 7 minutes.", "An active star, it has prominent stellar flares that average 100 times stronger than those of the Sun, and are emitting energy mainly in the X-ray and ultraviolet bands of the spectrum.", "It lies 218 ± 4 light-years away from the Sun.", "AT Microscopii is a binary star system, both members of which are flare star red dwarfs.", "The system lies close to and may form a very wide triple system with AU Microscopii, a young star which has a planetary system in the making with a debris disk.", "The three stars are candidate members of the Beta Pictoris moving group, one of the nearest associations of stars that share a common motion through space.The Astronomical Society of Southern Africa in 2003 reported that observations of four of the Mira variables in Microscopium were very urgently needed as data on their light curves was incomplete.", "Two of them—R and S Microscopii—are challenging stars for novice amateur astronomers, and the other two, U and RY Microscopii, are more difficult still.", "Another red giant, T Microscopii, is a semiregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 7.7 and 9.6 over 344 days.", "Of apparent magnitude 11, DD Microscopii is a symbiotic star system composed of an orange giant of spectral type K2III and white dwarf in close orbit, with the smaller star ionizing the stellar wind of the larger star.", "The system has a low metallicity.", "Combined with its high galactic latitude, this indicates that the star system has its origin in the galactic halo of the Milky Way.HD 205739 is a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F7V that is around 1.22 times as massive and 2.3 times as luminous as the Sun.", "It has a Jupiter-sized planet with an orbital period of 280 days that was discovered by the radial velocity method.", "WASP-7 is a star of spectral type F5V with an apparent magnitude of 9.54, about 1.28 times as massive as the Sun.", "Its hot Jupiter planet—WASP-7b—was discovered by transit method and found to orbit the star every 4.95 days.", "HD 202628 is a sunlike star of spectral type G2V with a debris disk that ranges from 158 to 220 AU distant.", "Its inner edge is sharply defined, indicating a probable planet orbiting between 86 and 158 AU from the star.===Deep sky objects===Arp-Madore 2026-424 taken by Hubble.Describing Microscopium as \"totally unremarkable\", astronomer Patrick Moore concluded there was nothing of interest for amateur observers.", "NGC 6925 is a barred spiral galaxy of apparent magnitude 11.3 which is lens-shaped, as it lies almost edge-on to observers on Earth, 3.7 degrees west-northwest of Alpha Microscopii.", "SN 2011ei, a Type II Supernova in NGC 6925, was discovered by Stu Parker in New Zealand in July 2011.NGC 6923 lies nearby and is a magnitude fainter still.", "The Microscopium Void is a roughly rectangular region of relatively empty space, bounded by incomplete sheets of galaxies from other voids.", "The Microscopium Supercluster is an overdensity of galaxy clusters that was first noticed in the early 1990s.", "The component Abell clusters 3695 and 3696 are likely to be gravitationally bound, while the relations of Abell clusters 3693 and 3705 in the same field are unclear.===Meteor showers===Seen in the 1824 star chart set ''Urania's Mirror'' (in the lower left)The Microscopids are a minor meteor shower that appear from June to mid-July." ], [ "History", "Microscopium lies in a region where Ptolemy had listed six 'unformed' stars behind the tail of Piscis Austrinus.", "Al-Sufi did not include these stars in his revision of the ''Almagest'', presumably because he could not identify them.", "Microscopium was introduced in 1751–52 by Lacaille with the French name ''le Microscope'', after he had observed and catalogued 10,000 southern stars during a two-year stay at the Cape of Good Hope.", "He devised fourteen new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe.", "All but one honoured instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment.", "Commemorating the compound microscope, the Microscope's name had been Latinised by Lacaille to ''Microscopium'' by 1763." ], [ "See also", "* Microscopium (Chinese astronomy)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Cited texts===*" ], [ "External links", "* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Microscopium* The clickable Microscopium" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "IC 342/Maffei Group" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''IC 342/Maffei Group''' (also known as the '''IC 342 Group''' or the '''Maffei 1 Group''') corresponds to one or two galaxy groups close to the Local Group.", "The member galaxies are mostly concentrated around either IC 342 or Maffei 1, which would be the brightest two galaxies in the group.", "The group is part of the Virgo Supercluster.", "However, recent studies have found that the two subgroups are unrelated; while the IC 342 group is the nearest galaxy group to the Milky Way, the Maffei 1 group is several times farther away, and is not gravitationally bound to the IC 342 group." ], [ "Members", "The table below lists galaxies that have been identified as associated with the IC342/Maffei 1 Group by I. D. Karachentsev.", "Note that Karachentsev divides this group into two subgroups centered around IC 342 and Maffei 1.+'''Members of the IC 342 Subgroup''' Name Type R.A. (J2000) Dec. (J2000) Redshift (km/s) Apparent Magnitude Camelopardalis A Irr -46 ± 1 14.8 Camelopardalis B Irr 77 16.1 IC 342 SAB(rs)cd 31 ± 3 9.1 KK 35 Irr 105 ± 1 17.2 KKH 22 dSph 30 ± 10 15.3 NGC 1560 SA(s)d -36 ± 5 12.2 NGC 1569 Sbrst\t \t -104 ± 4 11.2 UGCA 86 Im 67 ± 4 13.5 UGCA 92 Im -99 ± 5 13.8 UGCA 105 Im 111 ± 5 13.9+'''Members of the Maffei 1 Subgroup''' Name Type R.A. (J2000) Dec. (J2000) Redshift (km/s) Apparent Magnitude Dwingeloo 1 SB(s)cd 110 8.3 Dwingeloo 2 Im 94 ± 1 20.5 KKH 11 dE 310 16.2 KKH 12 Irr 70 17.8 Maffei 1 S0 pec 13 ± 22 11.4 Maffei 2 SAB(rs)bc -17 ± 5 16.0 MB 1 SAB(s)d 190 ± 1 20.5 MB 3 dSph 59 ± 1 17.33Additionally, KKH 37 is listed as possibly being a member of the IC 342 Subgroup, and KKH 6 is listed as possibly being a member of the Maffei 1 Subgroup." ], [ "Foreground dust obscuration", "As seen from Earth, the group lies near the plane of the Milky Way (a region sometimes called the Zone of Avoidance).", "Consequently, the light from many of the galaxies is severely affected by dust obscuration within the Milky Way.", "This complicates observational studies of the group, as uncertainties in the dust obscuration also affect measurements of the galaxies' luminosities and distances as well as other related quantities.Moreover, the galaxies within the group have historically been difficult to identify.", "Many galaxies have only been discovered using late 20th century astronomical instrumentation.", "For example, while many fainter, more distant galaxies, such as the galaxies in the New General Catalogue, were already identified visually by the end of the nineteenth century, Maffei 1 and Maffei 2 were only discovered in 1968 using infrared photographic images of the region.", "Furthermore, it is difficult to determine whether some objects near IC 342 or Maffei 1 are galaxies associated with the IC 342/Maffei Group or diffuse foreground objects within the Milky Way that merely look like galaxies.", "For example, the objects MB 2 and Camelopardalis C were once thought to be dwarf galaxies in the IC 342/Maffei Group but are now known to be objects within the Milky Way." ], [ "Group formation and possible interactions with the Local Group", "Since the IC 342/Maffei Group and the Local Group are located physically close to each other, the two groups may have influenced each other's evolution during the early stages of galaxy formation.", "An analysis of the velocities and distances to the IC 342/Maffei Group as measured by M. J. Valtonen and collaborators suggested that IC 342 and Maffei 1 were moving faster than what could be accounted for in the expansion of the universe.", "They therefore suggested that IC 342 and Maffei 1 were ejected from the Local Group after a violent gravitational interaction with the Andromeda Galaxy during the early stages of the formation of the two groups.However, this interpretation is dependent on the distances measured to the galaxies in the group, which in turn is dependent on accurately measuring the degree to which interstellar dust in the Milky Way obscures the group.", "More recent observations have demonstrated that the dust obscuration may have been previously overestimated, so the distances may have been underestimated.", "If these new distance measurements are correct, then the galaxies in the IC 342/Maffei Group appear to be moving at the rate expected from the expansion of the universe, and the scenario of a collision between the IC 342/Maffei Group and the Local Group would be implausible." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "M81 Group" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''M81 Group''' is a galaxy group in the constellations Ursa Major and Camelopardalis that includes the galaxies Messier 81 and Messier 82, as well as several other galaxies with high apparent brightnesses.", "The approximate center of the group is located at a distance of 3.6 Mpc, making it one of the nearest groups to the Local Group.", "The group is estimated to have a total mass of (1.03 ± 0.17).The M81 Group, the Local Group, and other nearby groups all lie within the Virgo Supercluster (i.e.", "the Local Supercluster)." ], [ "Members", "The table below lists galaxies that have been identified as associated with the M81 Group by I. D. Karachentsev.+'''Members of the M81 Group''' Name Type R.A. (J2000) Dec. (J2000) Redshift (km/s) Apparent Magnitude Arp's Loop 99 16.1 DDO 78 Im 55 ± 10 15.8 F8D1 dE 13.9 FM1 dSph 17.5 HIJASS J1021+6842 46 20 HS 117 I -37 16.5 Holmberg I IAB(s)m 139 ± 0 13.0 Holmberg II Im 142 ± 1 11.1 Holmberg IX Im 46 ± 6 14.3 IC 2574 SAB(s)m 57 ± 2 13.2 IKN 17.0 KKH 57 dSph 18.5 Messier 81 SA(s)ab -34 ± 4 6.9 Messier 81 Dwarf A I 113 ± 0 16.5 Messier 82 I0 203 ± 4 9.3 NGC 2366 IB(s)m 80 ± 1 11.4 NGC 2403 SAB(s)cd 131 ± 3 8.9 NGC 2976 SAc pec 3 ± 5 10.8 NGC 3077 I0 pec 14 ± 4 10.6 NGC 4236 SB(s)dm 0 ± 4 10.1 PGC 28529 Im -40 17.1 PGC 28731 dE -135 ± 30 15.6 PGC 29231 dE 16.7 PGC 31286 dSph 16.7 PGC 32667 Im 116 ± 1 14.9 UGC 4459 Im 20 ± 0 14.5 UGC 4483 156 ± 0 15.1 UGC 5428 Im -129 ± 0 18 UGC 5442 Im -18 ± 14 18 UGC 5692 13.5 56 ± 3 13.5 UGC 6456 Pec -103 ± 0 14.5 UGC 7242 Scd 68 ± 2 14.6 UGC 8201 Im 31 ± 0 12.8 UGCA 133 dSph 15.6Note that the object names used in the above table differ from the names used by Karachentsev.", "NGC, IC, UGC, and PGC numbers have been used in many cases to allow for easier referencing." ], [ "Interactions within the group", "Messier 81, Messier 82, and NGC 3077 are all strongly interacting with each other.", "Observations of the 21-centimeter hydrogen line indicate how the galaxies are connected.", "The gravitational interactions have stripped some hydrogen gas away from all three galaxies, leading to the formation of filamentary gas structures within the group.", "Bridges of neutral hydrogen have been shown to connect M81 with M82 and NGC 3077.Moreover, the interactions have also caused some interstellar gas to fall into the centers of Messier 82 and NGC 3077, which has led to strong starburst activity (or the formation of many stars) within the centers of these two galaxies.", "Computer simulations of tidal interactions have been used to show how the current structure of the group could have been created." ], [ "Gallery", "The mysteries of UGC 8201.jpg|Galaxy UGC 8201 is a dwarf irregular galaxy member of the M81 galaxy group.M81+M82-and other galaxies.jpg|Amateur picture Messier 81 + 82 and NGC 3077 all of the M81 group, 33 frames stacked of 1 minute each.Image:M81m82 galex f.jpg|The spiral galaxies Messier 81 and 82 and the dwarf galaxy Holmberg IX from GALEXImage:M81 wide Galex.jpg|Close up view of Messier 81 from GALEXImage:Messier81 highres.jpg|The spiral galaxy Messier 81 from Spitzer Space TelescopeImage:Ssc2003-06c.jpg|The spiral galaxy Messier 81 from Spitzer Space TelescopeImage:M82 HST ACS 2006-14-a-large web.jpg|Starburst galaxy Messier 82 from Hubble Space TelescopeImage:NGC2403 3.6 5.8 8.0 microns spitzer.png|NGC 2403 in mid-infrared view, combining the 3.6, 5.8 and 8.0 µm bands of the Spitzer Space TelescopeImage:NGC2403 3.6 8.0 24 microns spitzer.png|NGC 2403 in Mid-infrared view, combining the 3.6, 8.0 and 24 µm bands of the Spitzer Space TelescopeImage:NGC 2403HST.jpg|NGC 2403 from Hubble Space TelescopeImage:NGC 2403HSTSN.jpg|NGC 2403 from Hubble Space Telescope illustratedImage:Galaxy-NGC-2403-with-SN2004DJ.jpeg|Supernova SN2004DJ in the spiral galaxy NGC 2403Image:NGC2403-SN2004dj.jpg|Supernova 2004dj in NGC 2403Image:NGC 4236 I FUV g2006.jpg|NGC 4236 from GALEXImage:NGC 2366HST.jpg|NGC 2366 from Hubble Space TelescopeImage:NGC 2976SSTFull.jpg|Galaxy NGC 2976 from Spitzer Space Telescope in infraredImage:NGC2976.jpg|Galaxy NGC 2976 from an amateur AstronomerImage:NGC 4605 GALEX WikiSky.jpg|Galaxy NGC 4605 from GALEXImage:Ngc2363HST.jpg|NGC 2363 from Hubble Space TelescopeImage:NGC 2537 I FUV g2006.jpeg| NGC 2537 from GALEXImage:Holmberg IISST.jpg| Holmberg II from Spitzer Space Telescope in infraredImage:M81DwarBSST.jpg|UGC 5423 / M81 dwarf B from Spitzer Space Telescope in infraredImage:NGC 3077 2MASS.jpg|NGC 3077 from 2MASSImage:IC 2574 Hubble WikiSky.jpg|IC 2574" ], [ "See also", "* UGC 5497" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* M81 Group @ SEDS* M81 Group from An Atlas of The Universe" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Metre (poetry)" ], [ "Introduction", "In poetry, '''metre''' (Commonwealth spelling) or '''meter''' (American spelling; see spelling differences) is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse.", "Many traditional verse forms prescribe a specific verse metre, or a certain set of metres alternating in a particular order.", "The study and the actual use of metres and forms of versification are both known as '''prosody'''.", "(Within linguistics, \"prosody\" is used in a more general sense that includes not only poetic metre but also the rhythmic aspects of prose, whether formal or informal, that vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic traditions.)" ], [ "Characteristics", "An assortment of features can be identified when classifying poetry and its metre.===Qualitative versus quantitative metre===The metre of most poetry of the Western world and elsewhere is based on patterns of syllables of particular types.", "The familiar type of metre in English-language poetry is called '''qualitative metre''', with stressed syllables coming at regular intervals (e.g.", "in iambic pentameters, usually every even-numbered syllable).", "Many Romance languages use a scheme that is somewhat similar but where the position of only one particular stressed syllable (e.g.", "the last) needs to be fixed.", "The alliterative metre of the old Germanic poetry of languages such as Old Norse and Old English was radically different, but was still based on stress patterns.Some classical languages, in contrast, used a different scheme known as '''quantitative metre''', where patterns were based on syllable weight rather than stress.", "In the dactylic hexameters of Classical Latin and Classical Greek, for example, each of the six feet making up the line was either a dactyl (long-short-short) or a spondee (long-long): a \"long syllable\" was literally one that took longer to pronounce than a short syllable: specifically, a syllable consisting of a long vowel or diphthong or followed by two consonants.", "The stress pattern of the words made no difference to the metre.", "A number of other ancient languages also used quantitative metre, such as Sanskrit, Persian, Old Church Slavonic and Classical Arabic (but not Biblical Hebrew).Finally, non-stressed languages that have little or no differentiation of syllable length, such as French or Chinese, base their verses on the number of syllables only.", "The most common form in French is the , with twelve syllables a verse, and in classical Chinese five characters, and thus five syllables.", "But since each Chinese character is pronounced using one syllable in a certain tone, classical Chinese poetry also had more strictly defined rules, such as thematic parallelism or tonal antithesis between lines.===Feet===In many Western classical poetic traditions, the metre of a verse can be described as a sequence of ''feet'', each foot being a specific sequence of syllable types – such as relatively unstressed/stressed (the norm for English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical Latin and Greek poetry).Iambic pentameter, a common metre in English poetry, is based on a sequence of five ''iambic feet'' or ''iambs'', each consisting of a relatively unstressed syllable (here represented with \"˘\" above the syllable) followed by a relatively stressed one (here represented with \"/\" above the syllable) – ˘ / ˘ / ˘ / ˘ / ˘ /So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, ˘ / ˘ / ˘ / ˘ / ˘ /So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.This approach to analyzing and classifying metres originates from Ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as Homer, Pindar, Hesiod, and Sappho.However some metres have an overall rhythmic pattern to the line that cannot easily be described using feet.", "This occurs in Sanskrit poetry; see Vedic metre and Sanskrit metre.", "It also occurs in some Western metres, such as the hendecasyllable favoured by Catullus and Martial, which can be described as:x x — ∪ ∪ — ∪ — ∪ — —(where \"—\" = long, \"∪\" = short, and \"x x\" can be realized as \"— ∪\" or \"— —\" or \"∪ —\")===Disyllables===''Macron and breve notation:''16px = stressed/long syllable, 16px = unstressed/short syllable16px16px pyrrhus, dibrach16px16px iamb (or iambus or jambus)16px16px trochee, choree (or choreus)16px16px spondee===Trisyllables===16px16px16px tribrach16px16px16px dactyl16px16px16px amphibrach16px16px16px anapest, antidactylus16px16px16px bacchius16px16px16px cretic, amphimacer16px16px16px antibacchius16px16px16px molossusIf the line has only one foot, it is called a ''monometer''; two feet, ''dimeter''; three is ''trimeter''; four is ''tetrameter''; five is ''pentameter''; six is ''hexameter'', seven is ''heptameter'' and eight is ''octameter''.", "For example, if the feet are iambs, and if there are five feet to a line, then it is called an iambic pentameter.", "If the feet are primarily ''dactyls'' and there are six to a line, then it is a dactylic hexameter.In classical Greek and Latin, however, the name \"iambic trimeter\" refers to a line with six iambic feet.===Caesura===Sometimes a natural pause occurs in the middle of a line rather than at a line-break.", "This is a caesura (cut).", "A good example is from ''The Winter's Tale'' by William Shakespeare; the caesurae are indicated by '/'::It is for you we speak, / not for ourselves::You are abused / and by some putter-on:That will be damn'd for't; / would I knew the villain,:I would land-damn him.", "/ Be she honour-flaw'd,:I have three daughters; / the eldest is elevenIn Latin and Greek poetry, a caesura is a break within a foot caused by the end of a word.Each line of traditional Germanic alliterative verse is divided into two half-lines by a caesura.", "This can be seen in Piers Plowman::A fair feeld ful of folk / fond I ther bitwene—:Of alle manere of men / the meene and the riche,:Werchynge and wandrynge / as the world asketh.", ":Somme putten hem to the plough / pleiden ful selde,:In settynge and sowynge / swonken ful harde,:And wonnen that thise wastours / with glotonye destruyeth.===Enjambment===By contrast with caesura, enjambment is incomplete syntax at the end of a line; the meaning runs over from one poetic line to the next, without terminal punctuation.", "Also from Shakespeare's ''The Winter's Tale''::I am not prone to weeping, as our sex:Commonly are; the want of which vain dew:Perchance shall dry your pities; but I have:That honourable grief lodged here which burns:Worse than tears drown.===Metric variations===Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines that violate that pattern.", "A common variation is the ''inversion'' of a foot, which turns an iamb (\"da-DUM\") into a trochee (\"DUM-da\").", "A second variation is a ''headless'' verse, which lacks the first syllable of the first foot.", "A third variation is catalexis, where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof – an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' \"La Belle Dame sans Merci\"::And on thy cheeks a fading rose (4 feet):Fast withereth too (2 feet)" ], [ "Modern English", "Most English metre is classified according to the same system as Classical metre with an important difference.", "English is an accentual language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical systems.", "In most English verse, the metre can be considered as a sort of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively.", "The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the iamb in two syllables and the anapest in three.", "(See Metrical foot for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.", ")===Metrical systems===The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon.", "The four major types are: accentual verse, accentual-syllabic verse, syllabic verse and quantitative verse.", "The alliterative verse found in Old English, Middle English, and some modern English poems can be added to this list, as it operates on somewhat different principles than accentual verse.", "Alliterative verse pairs two phrases (half-lines) joined by alliteration; while there are usually two stresses per half-line, variations in the number of stresses do occur.", "Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables; accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse is often considered alien to English).", "The use of foreign metres in English is all but exceptional.===Frequently used metres===The most frequently encountered metre of English verse is the iambic pentameter, in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic variations are practically inexhaustible.", "John Milton's ''Paradise Lost'', most sonnets, and much else besides in English are written in iambic pentameter.", "Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly known as blank verse.", "Blank verse in the English language is most famously represented in the plays of William Shakespeare and the great works of Milton, though Tennyson (''Ulysses'', ''The Princess'') and Wordsworth (''The Prelude'') also make notable use of it.A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a heroic couplet, a verse form which was used so often in the 18th century that it is now used mostly for humorous effect (although see ''Pale Fire'' for a non-trivial case).", "The most famous writers of heroic couplets are Dryden and Pope.Another important metre in English is the common metre, also called the \"ballad metre\", which is a four-line stanza, with two pairs of a line of iambic tetrameter followed by a line of iambic trimeter; the rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter, although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes.", "This is the metre of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads.", "In hymnody it is called the \"common metre\", as it is the most common of the named hymn metres used to pair many hymn lyrics with melodies, such as ''Amazing Grace''::Amazing Grace!", "how sweet the sound::That saved a wretch like me;:I once was lost, but now am found;::Was blind, but now I see.Emily Dickinson is famous for her frequent use of ballad metre::Great streets of silence led away:To neighborhoods of pause —:Here was no notice — no dissent —:No universe — no laws." ], [ "Other languages", "===Sanskrit===Versification in Classical Sanskrit poetry is of three kinds.#Syllabic () metres depend on the number of syllables in a verse, with relative freedom in the distribution of light and heavy syllables.", "This style is derived from older Vedic forms.", "An example is the Anuṣṭubh metre found in the great epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, which has exactly eight syllables in each line, of which only some are specified as to length.#Syllabo-quantitative () metres depend on syllable count, but the light-heavy patterns are fixed.", "An example is the Mandākrāntā metre, in which each line has 17 syllables in a fixed pattern.#Quantitative () metres depend on duration, where each line has a fixed number of ''morae'', grouped in feet with usually 4 ''morae'' in each foot.", "An example is the Arya metre, in which each verse has four lines of 12, 18, 12, and 15 ''morae'' respectively.", "In each 4-''mora'' foot there can be two long syllables, four short syllables, or one long and two short in any order.Standard traditional works on metre are Pingala's and Kedāra's .", "The most exhaustive compilations, such as the modern ones by Patwardhan and Velankar contain over 600 metres.", "This is a substantially larger repertoire than in any other metrical tradition.===Greek and Latin===The '''metrical \"feet\"''' in the classical languages were based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized according to their weight as either \"long\" syllables or \"short\" syllables (indicated as ''dum'' and ''di'' below).", "These are also called \"heavy\" and \"light\" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long and short vowels.", "The foot is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes.", "In English poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and short syllables in classical metre.The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a mora, which is defined as a single short syllable.", "A long syllable is equivalent to two morae.", "A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants.", "Various rules of elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and shortening rules (such as correption) can create long or short syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite.The most important Classical metre is the dactylic hexameter, the metre of Homer and Virgil.", "This form uses verses of six feet.", "The word ''dactyl'' comes from the Greek word ''daktylos'' meaning ''finger'', since there is one long part followed by two short stretches.", "The first four feet are dactyls (''daa-duh-duh''), but can be spondees (''daa-daa'').", "The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl.", "The sixth foot is either a spondee or a trochee (''daa-duh'').", "The initial syllable of either foot is called the ''ictus'', the basic \"beat\" of the verse.", "There is usually a caesura after the ictus of the third foot.", "The opening line of the ''Aeneid'' is a typical line of dactylic hexameter::Armă vĭ | rumquĕ că | nō, Troi | ae quī | prīmŭs ăb | ōrīs:(\"I sing of arms and the man, who first from the shores of Troy...\")In this example, the first and second feet are dactyls; their first syllables, \"Ar\" and \"rum\" respectively, contain short vowels, but count as long because the vowels are both followed by two consonants.", "The third and fourth feet are spondees, the first of which is divided by the main caesura of the verse.", "The fifth foot is a dactyl, as is nearly always the case.", "The final foot is a spondee.The dactylic hexameter was imitated in English by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his poem ''Evangeline''::This is the forest primeval.", "The murmuring pines and the hemlocks,:Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight,:Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic,:Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms.Notice how the first line::''This'' is the | ''for''-est pri | ''me''-val.", "The | ''mur''-muring | ''pines'' and the | ''hem-locks''Follows this pattern::dum diddy | dum diddy | dum diddy | dum diddy | dum diddy | dum dumAlso important in Greek and Latin poetry is the dactylic pentameter.", "This was a line of verse, made up of two equal parts, each of which contains two dactyls followed by a long syllable, which counts as a half foot.", "In this way, the number of feet amounts to five in total.", "Spondees can take the place of the dactyls in the first half, but never in the second.", "The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word, giving rise to a caesura.Dactylic pentameter is never used in isolation.", "Rather, a line of dactylic pentameter follows a line of dactylic hexameter in the elegiac distich or elegiac couplet, a form of verse that was used for the composition of elegies and other tragic and solemn verse in the Greek and Latin world, as well as love poetry that was sometimes light and cheerful.", "An example from Ovid's ''Tristia''::Vergĭlĭ | um vī | dī tan | tum, nĕc ă | māră Tĭ | bullō::Tempŭs ă | mīcĭtĭ | ae ae.", ":(\"Virgil I merely saw, and the harsh Fates gave Tibullus no time for my friendship.", "\")The Greeks and Romans also used a number of lyric metres, which were typically used for shorter poems than elegiacs or hexameter.", "In Aeolic verse, one important line was called the hendecasyllabic, a line of eleven syllables.", "This metre was used most often in the Sapphic stanza, named after the Greek poet Sappho, who wrote many of her poems in the form.", "A hendecasyllabic is a line with a never-varying structure: two trochees, followed by a dactyl, then two more trochees.", "In the Sapphic stanza, three hendecasyllabics are followed by an \"Adonic\" line, made up of a dactyl and a trochee.", "This is the form of Catullus 51 (itself an homage to Sappho 31)::Illĕ mī pār essĕ dĕō vĭdētur;:illĕ, sī fās est, sŭpĕrārĕ dīvōs,:quī sĕdēns adversŭs ĭdentĭdem tē::spectăt ĕt audit:(\"He seems to me to be like a god; if it is permitted, he seems above the gods, who sitting across from you gazes at you and hears you again and again.", "\")The Sapphic stanza was imitated in English by Algernon Charles Swinburne in a poem he simply called ''Sapphics''::Saw the white implacable Aphrodite,:Saw the hair unbound and the feet unsandalled:Shine as fire of sunset on western waters;::Saw the reluctant...thumbnail===Classical Arabic===The metrical system of Classical Arabic poetry, like those of classical Greek and Latin, is based on the weight of syllables classified as either \"long\" or \"short\".", "The basic principles of Arabic poetic metre ''Arūḍ'' or Arud ( '''') Science of Poetry ( ''''), were put forward by Al-Farahidi (718 - 786 CE) who did so after noticing that poems consisted of repeated syllables in each verse.", "In his first book, ''Al-Ard'' ( ''''), he described 15 types of verse.", "Al-Akhfash described one extra, the 16th.A short syllable contains a short vowel with no following consonants.", "For example, the word ''kataba,'' which syllabifies as ''ka-ta-ba'', contains three short vowels and is made up of three short syllables.", "A long syllable contains either a long vowel or a short vowel followed by a consonant as is the case in the word ''maktūbun'' which syllabifies as ''mak-tū-bun''.", "These are the only syllable types possible in Classical Arabic phonology which, by and large, does not allow a syllable to end in more than one consonant or a consonant to occur in the same syllable after a long vowel.", "In other words, syllables of the type ''-āk-'' or ''-akr-'' are not found in classical Arabic.Each verse consists of a certain number of metrical feet (''tafāʿīl'' or ''ʾaǧzāʾ'') and a certain combination of possible feet constitutes a metre (''baḥr'').The traditional Arabic practice for writing out a poem's metre is to use a concatenation of various derivations of the verbal root ''F-ʿ-L'' (فعل).", "Thus, the following hemistichقفا نبك من ذكرى حبيبٍ ومنزلِWould be traditionally scanned as:فعولن مفاعيلن فعولن مفاعلنThat is, Romanized and with traditional Western scansion: '''Western:''' ⏑ – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – ⏑ – ⏑ – '''Verse:''' ''Qifā nabki min ḏikrā ḥabībin wa-manzili'' '''Mnemonic:''' fa`ūlun mafā`īlun fa`ūlun mafā`ilunAl-Kʰalīl b. ˀAḫmad al-Farāhīdī's contribution to the study of Arabic prosody is undeniably significant: he was the first scholar to subject Arabic poetry to a meticulous, painstaking metrical analysis.", "Unfortunately, he fell short of producing a coherent theory; instead, he was content to merely gather, classify, and categorize the primary data—a first step which, though insufficient, represents no mean accomplishment.", "Therefore, al-Kʰalīl has left a formulation of utmost complexity and difficulty which requires immense effort to master; even the accomplished scholar cannot utilize and apply it with ease and total confidence.", "Dr. ˀIbrāhīm ˀAnīs, one of the most distinguished and celebrated pillars of Arabic literature and the Arabic language in the 20th century, states the issue clearly in his book Mūsīqā al-Sʰiˁr:“I am aware of no other branch of Arabic studies which embodies as many technical terms as does al-Kʰalīl’s prosody, few and distinct as the meters are: al-Kʰalīl’s disciples employed a large number of infrequent items, assigning to those items certain technical denotations which—invariably—require definition and explanation.", "….", "As to the rules of metric variation, they are numerous to the extent that they defy memory and impose a taxing course of study.", "….", "In learning them, a student faces severe hardship which obscures all connection with an artistic genre—indeed, the most artistic of all—namely, poetry.", "……….", "It is in this fashion that various authors dealt with the subject under discussion over a period of eleven centuries: none of them attempted to introduce a new approach or to simplify the rules.", "……….", "Is it not time for a new, simple presentation which avoids contrivance, displays close affinity to the art of poetry, and perhaps renders the science of prosody palatable as well as manageable?”In the 20th and the 21st centuries, numerous scholars have endeavored to supplement al-Kʰalīl's contribution.====The Arabic metres====Classical Arabic has sixteen established metres.", "Though each of them allows for a certain amount of variation, their basic patterns are as follows, using:* \"–\" for 1 long syllable* \"⏑\" for 1 short syllable* \"x\" for a position that can contain 1 long or 1 short* \"o\" for a position that can contain 1 long or 2 shorts* \"S\" for a position that can contain 1 long, 2 shorts, or 1 long + 1 short Circle Name(Romanized) Name(Arabic) Scansion Mnemonic 1 Ṭawīl ⏑ – x ⏑ – x – ⏑ – x ⏑ – ⏑ – 1 Madīd x ⏑ – – x ⏑ – x ⏑ – – 1 Basīṭ x – ⏑ – x ⏑ – x – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ – 2 Kāmil o – ⏑ – o – ⏑ – o – ⏑ – 2 Wāfir ⏑ – o – ⏑ – o – ⏑ – – 3 Hazaj ⏑ – – x ⏑ – – x 3 Rajaz x – ⏑ – x – ⏑ – x – ⏑ – 3 Ramal x ⏑ – – x ⏑ – – x ⏑ – 4 Sarī` x x ⏑ – x x ⏑ – – ⏑ – 4 Munsariħ x – ⏑ – – x – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ – 4 Khafīf x ⏑ – x – – ⏑ – x ⏑ – x 4 Muḍāri` ⏑ – x x – ⏑ – – 4 Muqtaḍab x ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ – 4 Mujtathth x – ⏑ – x ⏑ – – 5 Mutadārik S – S – S – 5 Mutaqārib ⏑ – x ⏑ – x ⏑ – x ⏑ – ===Classical Persian===The terminology for metrical system used in classical and classical-style Persian poetry is the same as that of Classical Arabic, even though these are quite different in both origin and structure.", "This has led to serious confusion among prosodists, both ancient and modern, as to the true source and nature of the Persian metres, the most obvious error being the assumption that they were copied from Arabic.Persian poetry is quantitative, and the metrical patterns are made of long and short syllables, much as in Classical Greek, Latin and Arabic.", "''Anceps'' positions in the line, however, that is places where either a long or short syllable can be used (marked \"x\" in the schemes below), are not found in Persian verse except in some metres at the beginning of a line.Persian poetry is written in couplets, with each half-line (hemistich) being 10-14 syllables long.", "Except in the ruba'i (quatrain), where either of two very similar metres may be used, the same metre is used for every line in the poem.", "Rhyme is always used, sometimes with double rhyme or internal rhymes in addition.", "In some poems, known as masnavi, the two halves of each couplet rhyme, with a scheme ''aa'', ''bb'', ''cc'' and so on.", "In lyric poetry, the same rhyme is used throughout the poem at the end of each couplet, but except in the opening couplet, the two halves of each couplet do not rhyme; hence the scheme is ''aa'', ''ba'', ''ca'', ''da''.", "A ''ruba'i'' (quatrain) also usually has the rhyme ''aa, ba''.A particular feature of classical Persian prosody, not found in Latin, Greek or Arabic, is that instead of two lengths of syllables (long and short), there are three lengths (short, long, and overlong).", "Overlong syllables can be used anywhere in the line in place of a long + a short, or in the final position in a line or half line.", "When a metre has a pair of short syllables (⏑ ⏑), it is common for a long syllable to be substituted, especially at the end of a line or half-line.About 30 different metres are commonly used in Persian.", "70% of lyric poems are written in one of the following seven metres:*⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ –*– – ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ – ⏑ –*– ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ –*x ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ –*x ⏑ – – ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ –*⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – –*– – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – –''Masnavi'' poems (that is, long poems in rhyming couplets) are always written in one of the shorter 11 or 10-syllable metres (traditionally seven in number) such as the following:*⏑ – – ⏑ – – ⏑ – – ⏑ – (e.g.", "Ferdowsi's Shahnameh)*⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – (e.g.", "Gorgani's Vis o Ramin)*– ⏑ – – – ⏑ – – – ⏑ – (e.g.", "Rumi's Masnavi-e Ma'navi)*– – ⏑ ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ – – (e.g.", "Nezami's Leyli o Majnun)The two metres used for ''ruba'iyat'' (quatrains), which are only used for this, are the following, of which the second is a variant of the first:*– – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ –*– – ⏑ ⏑ – ⏑ – ⏑ – – ⏑ ⏑ –===Classical Chinese===Classical Chinese poetic metric may be divided into fixed and variable length line types, although the actual scansion of the metre is complicated by various factors, including linguistic changes and variations encountered in dealing with a tradition extending over a geographically extensive regional area for a continuous time period of over some two-and-a-half millennia.", "Beginning with the earlier recorded forms: the Classic of Poetry tends toward couplets of four-character lines, grouped in rhymed quatrains; and, the Chuci follows this to some extent, but moves toward variations in line length.", "Han Dynasty poetry tended towards the variable line-length forms of the folk ballads and the Music Bureau yuefu.", "Jian'an poetry, Six Dynasties poetry, and Tang Dynasty poetry tend towards a poetic metre based on fixed-length lines of five, seven, (or, more rarely six) characters/verbal units tended to predominate, generally in couplet/quatrain-based forms, of various total verse lengths.", "The Song poetry is specially known for its use of the ''ci'', using variable line lengths which follow the specific pattern of a certain musical song's lyrics, thus ''ci'' are sometimes referred to as \"fixed-rhythm\" forms.", "Yuan poetry metres continued this practice with their ''qu'' forms, similarly fixed-rhythm forms based on now obscure or perhaps completely lost original examples (or, ur-types).", "Not that Classical Chinese poetry ever lost the use of the ''shi'' forms, with their metrical patterns found in the \"old style poetry\" (''gushi'') and the regulated verse forms of (''lüshi'' or ''jintishi'').", "The regulated verse forms also prescribed patterns based upon linguistic tonality.", "The use of caesura is important in regard to the metrical analysis of Classical Chinese poetry forms.===Old English===The metric system of Old English poetry was different from that of modern English, and related more to the verse forms of most of the older Germanic languages such as Old Norse.", "It used alliterative verse, a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number (usually four) of strong stresses in each line.", "The unstressed syllables were relatively unimportant, but the caesurae (breaks between the half-lines) played a major role in Old English poetry.In place of using feet, alliterative verse divided each line into two '''half-lines'''.", "Each half-line had to follow one of five or so patterns, each of which defined a sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables, typically with two stressed syllables per half line.", "Unlike typical Western poetry, however, the number of unstressed syllables could vary somewhat.", "For example, the common pattern \"DUM-da-DUM-da\" could allow between one and five unstressed syllables between the two stresses.The following is a famous example, taken from The Battle of Maldon, a poem written shortly after the date of that battle (AD 991):''Hige sceal þe heardra,'' ''heorte þe cēnre,''''mōd sceal þe māre,'' ''swā ūre mægen lȳtlað''(\"Will must be the harder, courage the bolder,spirit must be the more, as our might lessens.", "\")In the quoted section, the stressed syllables have been underlined.", "(Normally, the stressed syllable must be long if followed by another syllable in a word.", "However, by a rule known as ''syllable resolution'', two short syllables in a single word are considered equal to a single long syllable.", "Hence, sometimes two syllables have been underlined, as in ''hige'' and ''mægen''.)", "The German philologist Eduard Sievers (died 1932) identified five different patterns of half-line in Anglo-Saxon alliterative poetry.", "The first three half-lines have the type A pattern \"DUM-da-(da-)DUM-da\", while the last one has the type C pattern \"da-(da-da-)DUM-DUM-da\", with parentheses indicating optional unstressed syllables that have been inserted.", "Note also the pervasive pattern of alliteration, where the first and/or second stressed syllables alliterate with the third, but not with the fourth.===French===In French poetry, metre is determined solely by the number of syllables in a line.", "A silent 'e' counts as a syllable before a consonant, but is elided before a vowel (where ''h aspiré'' counts as a consonant).", "At the end of a line, the \"e\" remains unelided but is hypermetrical (outside the count of syllables, like a feminine ending in English verse), in that case, the rhyme is also called \"feminine\", whereas it is called \"masculine\" in the other cases.The most frequently encountered metre in Classical French poetry is the alexandrine, composed of two hemistiches of six syllables each.", "Two famous alexandrines are:''La fille de Minos et de Pasiphaë''::(Jean Racine)(the daughter of Minos and of Pasiphaë), and:''Waterloo !", "Waterloo !", "Waterloo !", "Morne plaine!", "''::(Victor Hugo)(Waterloo!", "Waterloo!", "Waterloo!", "Gloomy plain!", ")Classical French poetry also had a complex set of rules for rhymes that goes beyond how words merely sound.", "These are usually taken into account when describing the metre of a poem.===Spanish===In Spanish poetry the metre is determined by the number of syllables the verse has.", "Still it is the phonetic accent in the last word of the verse that decides the final count of the line.", "If the accent of the final word is at the last syllable, then the poetic rule states that one syllable shall be added to the actual count of syllables in the said line, thus having a higher number of poetic syllables than the number of grammatical syllables.", "If the accent lies on the second to last syllable of the last word in the verse, then the final count of poetic syllables will be the same as the grammatical number of syllables.", "Furthermore, if the accent lies on the third to last syllable, then one syllable is subtracted from the actual count, having then less poetic syllables than grammatical syllables.Spanish poetry uses poetic licenses, unique to Romance languages, to change the number of syllables by manipulating mainly the vowels in the line.Regarding these poetic licenses one must consider three kinds of phenomena: (1) syneresis, (2) dieresis and (3) hiatusThere are many types of licenses, used either to add or subtract syllables, that may be applied when needed after taking in consideration the poetic rules of the last word.", "Yet all have in common that they only manipulate vowels that are close to each other and not interrupted by consonants.Some common metres in Spanish verse are:* Septenary: A line with seven poetic syllables* Octosyllable: A line with eight poetic syllables.", "This metre is commonly used in ''romances'', narrative poems similar to English ballads, and in most proverbs.", "* Hendecasyllable: A line with eleven poetic syllables.", "This metre plays a similar role to pentameter in English verse.", "It is commonly used in sonnets, among other things.", "* Alexandrine: A line consisting of fourteen syllables, commonly separated into two hemistichs of seven syllables each (In most languages, this term denotes a line of twelve or sometimes thirteen syllables, but not in Spanish).===Italian===In Italian poetry, metre is determined solely by the position of the last accent in a line, the position of the other accents being however important for verse equilibrium.", "Syllables are enumerated with respect to a verse which ends with a paroxytone, so that a Septenary (having seven syllables) is defined as a verse whose last accent falls on the sixth syllable: it may so contain eight syllables (''Ei fu.", "Siccome immobile'') or just six (''la terra al nunzio sta'').", "Moreover, when a word ends with a vowel and the next one starts with a vowel, they are considered to be in the same syllable (synalepha): so ''Gli anni e i giorni'' consists of only four syllables (\"Gli an\" \"ni e i\" \"gior\" \"ni\").", "Even-syllabic verses have a fixed stress pattern.", "Because of the mostly trochaic nature of the Italian language, verses with an even number of syllables are far easier to compose, and the Novenary is usually regarded as the most difficult verse.Some common metres in Italian verse are:* Sexenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is on the fifth, with a fixed stress on the second one as well (''Al Re Travicello / Piovuto ai ranocchi'', Giusti)* Septenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is the sixth one.", "* Octosyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the seventh syllable.", "More often than not, the secondary accents fall on the first, third and fifth syllable, especially in nursery rhymes for which this metre is particularly well-suited.", "* Hendecasyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the tenth syllable.", "It therefore usually consists of eleven syllables; there are various kinds of possible accentuations.", "It is used in sonnets, in ''ottava rima'', and in many other types of poetry.", "The Divine Comedy, in particular, is composed entirely of hendecasyllables, whose main stress pattern is on the 4th and 10th syllable.===Turkish===Apart from Ottoman poetry, which was heavily influenced by Persian traditions and created a unique Ottoman style, traditional Turkish poetry features a system in which the number of syllables in each verse must be the same, most frequently 7, 8, 11, 14 syllables.", "These verses are then divided into syllable groups depending on the number of total syllables in a verse: 4+3 for 7 syllables, 4+4 or 5+3 for 8, 4+4+3 or 6+5 for 11 syllables.", "The end of each group in a verse is called a \"durak\" (stop), and must coincide with the last syllable of a word.The following example is by Faruk Nafiz Çamlıbel (died 1973), one of the most devoted users of traditional Turkish metre:In this poem the 6+5 metre is used, so that there is a word-break (''durak''=\"stop\") after the sixth syllable of every line, as well as at the end of each line.===Ottoman Turkish===In the Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot (تفعل ''tef'ile'') and of poetic metre (وزن ''vezin'') were imitated from Persian poetry.", "About twelve of the most common Persian metres were used for writing Turkish poetry.", "As was the case with Persian, no use at all was made of the commonest metres of Arabic poetry (the ''tawīl'', ''basīt'', ''kāmil'', and ''wāfir'').", "However, the terminology used to describe the metres was indirectly borrowed from the Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of the Persian language.As a result, Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written in quantitative, mora-timed metre.", "The moras, or syllables, are divided into three basic types:* Open, or light, syllables (''açık hece'') consist of either a short vowel alone, or a consonant followed by a short vowel.", "** Examples: '''''a'''''-''dam'' (\"man\"); ''zir''-'''''ve''''' (\"summit, peak\")* Closed, or heavy, syllables (''kapalı hece'') consist of either a long vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant** Examples: '''''Â'''''-''dem'' (\"Adam\"); '''''kâ'''''-''fir'' (\"non-Muslim\"); '''''at''''' (\"horse\")* Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (''meddli hece'') count as one closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant** Examples: '''''kürk''''' (\"fur\"); '''''âb''''' (\"water\")In writing out a poem's poetic metre, open syllables are symbolized by \".\"", "and closed syllables are symbolized by \"–\".", "From the different syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot—the majority of which are either three or four syllables in length—are constructed, which are named and scanned as follows:     ''fa‘'' ('''–''')''fe ul'' ('''.", "–''')''fa‘ lün'' ('''– –''')''fe i lün'' ('''.", ".", "–''')     ''fâ i lün'' ('''– .", "–''')''fe û lün'' ('''.", "– –''')''mef’ û lü'' ('''– – .", "''')''fe i lâ tün'' ('''.", ".", "– –''')     ''fâ i lâ tün'' ('''– .", "– –''')''fâ i lâ tü'' ('''– .", "– .", "''')''me fâ i lün'' ('''.", "– .", "–''')''me fâ’ î lün'' ('''.", "– – –''')     ''me fâ î lü'' ('''.", "– – .", "''')''müf te i lün'' ('''– .", ".", "–''')''müs tef i lün'' ('''– – .", "–''')''mü te fâ i lün'' ('''.", ".", "– .", "–''')These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic metre for a line of verse.", "Some of the most commonly used metres are the following:* ''me fâ’ î lün'' / ''me fâ’ î lün'' / ''me fâ’ î lün'' / ''me fâ’ î lün'''''.", "– – – / .", "– – – / .", "– – – / .", "– – –'''     ''Ezelden şāh-ı ‘aşḳuñ bende-i fermānıyüz cānāMaḥabbet mülkinüñ sulţān-ı ‘ālī-şānıyüz cānā'' Oh beloved, since the origin we have been the slaves of the shah of loveOh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain::—Bâkî (1526–1600)* ''me fâ i lün'' / ''fe i lâ tün'' / ''me fâ i lün'' / ''fe i lün'''''.", "– .", "– / .", ".", "– – / .", "– .", "– / .", ".", "–'''     ''Ḥaţā’ o nerkis-i şehlādadır sözümde degilEgerçi her süḥanim bī-bedel beġendiremem'' Though I may fail to please with my matchless verseThe fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words::—Şeyh Gâlib (1757–1799)* ''fâ i lâ tün'' / ''fâ i lâ tün'' / ''fâ i lâ tün'' / ''fâ i lün'''''– .", "– – / – .", "– – / – .", "– – / – .", "–'''     ''Bir şeker ḥand ile bezm-i şevķa cām ettiñ beniNīm ṣun peymāneyi sāḳī tamām ettiñ beni'' At the gathering of desire you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smileOh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk enough::—Nedîm (1681?–1730)* ''fe i lâ tün'' / ''fe i lâ tün'' / ''fe i lâ tün'' / ''fe i lün'''''.", ".", "– – / .", ".", "– – / .", ".", "– – / .", ".", "–'''     ''Men ne ḥācet ki ḳılam derd-i dilüm yāra ‘ayānḲamu derd-i dilümi yār bilübdür bilübem'' What use in revealing my sickness of heart to my loveI know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart::—Fuzûlî (1483?–1556)* ''mef’ û lü'' / ''me fâ î lü'' / ''me fâ î lü'' / ''fâ û lün'''''– – .", "/ .", "– – .", "/ .", "– – .", "/ – – .'''", "''Şevḳuz ki dem-i bülbül-i şeydāda nihānuzḤūnuz ki dil-i ġonçe-i ḥamrāda nihānuz'' We are desire hidden in the love-crazed call of the nightingaleWe are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose::—Neşâtî (?–1674)===Portuguese===Portuguese poetry uses a syllabic metre in which the verse is classified according to the last stressed syllable.", "The Portuguese system is quite similar to those of Spanish and Italian, as they are closely related languages.", "The most commonly used verses are:* ''Redondilha menor'': composed of 5 syllables.", "* ''Redondilha maior'': composed of 7 syllables.", "* Decasyllable (''decassílabo''): composed of 10 syllables.", "Mostly used in Parnassian sonnets.", "It is equivalent to the Italian hendecasyllable.", "** Heroic (''heróico''): stresses on the sixth and tenth syllables.", "** Sapphic (''sáfico''): stresses on the fourth, eighth and tenth syllables.", "** ''Martelo'': stresses on the third, sixth and tenth syllables.", "** ''Gaita galega'' or ''moinheira'': stresses on the fourth, seventh and tenth syllables.", "* Dodecasyllable (''dodecassílabo''): composed of 12 syllables.", "** Alexandrine (''alexandrino''): divided into two hemistiches, the sixth and the twelfth syllables are stressed.", "* Barbarian (''bárbaro''): composed of 13 or more syllables.", "** Lucasian (''lucasiano''): composed of 16 syllables, divided into two hemistiches of 8 syllables each.===Welsh===There is a continuing tradition of strict metre poetry in the Welsh language that can be traced back to at least the sixth century.", "At the annual National Eisteddfod of Wales a bardic chair is awarded to the best , a long poem that follows the conventions of regarding stress, alliteration and rhyme.===Hungarian===Metre has been applied in Hungarian since 1541 up to the 20th century, partly in hexameter, and partly in other forms, such as the Alcaic, the Asclepiadic, and the Sapphic stanza.", "Early 19th-century poet Dániel Berzsenyi's poetry has been rendered into English faithfully to his original metre in some translations, namely by Peter Zollman, Adam Makkai, and others.", "20th-century poets such as Mihály Babits, Árpád Tóth, Miklós Radnóti, Attila József, and Ágnes Nemes Nagy wrote poetry in metre.", "The Iliad, the Odyssey, the Aeneid and epic and lyric poetry by Horace, Ovid, and Catullus, have been translated into Hungarian in their original metre, most notably by Gábor Devecseri, as well as by other 20th-century translators." ], [ "History", "Metrical texts are first attested in early Indo-European languages.", "The earliest known unambiguously metrical texts, and at the same time the only metrical texts with a claim of dating to the Late Bronze Age, are the hymns of the Rigveda.", "That the texts of the Ancient Near East (Sumerian, Egyptian or Semitic) should not exhibit metre is surprising, and may be partly due to the nature of Bronze Age writing.", "There were, in fact, attempts to reconstruct metrical qualities of the poetic portions of the Hebrew Bible, e.g.", "by Gustav Bickell or Julius Ley, but they remained inconclusive (see Biblical poetry).", "Early Iron Age metrical poetry is found in the Iranian Avesta and in the Greek works attributed to Homer and Hesiod.Latin verse survives from the Old Latin period (), in the Saturnian metre.", "Persian poetry arises in the Sassanid era.", "Tamil poetry of the early centuries AD may be the earliest known non-Indo-EuropeanMedieval poetry was metrical without exception, spanning traditions as diverse as European Minnesang, Trouvère or Bardic poetry, Classical Persian and Sanskrit poetry, Tang dynasty Chinese poetry or the Japanese Nara period ''Man'yōshū''.", "Renaissance and Early Modern poetry in Europe is characterized by a return to templates of Classical Antiquity, a tradition begun by Petrarca's generation and continued into the time of Shakespeare and Milton." ], [ "Dissent", "Not all poets accept the idea that metre is a fundamental part of poetry.", "20th-century American poets Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams and Robinson Jeffers believed that metre was an artificial construct imposed upon poetry rather than being innate to poetry.", "In an essay titled \"Robinson Jeffers, & The Metric Fallacy\" Dan Schneider echoes Jeffers' sentiments: \"What if someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just 2 notes?", "Or if someone claimed that there were just 2 colors in creation?", "Now, ponder if such a thing were true.", "Imagine the clunkiness & mechanicality of such music.", "Think of the visual arts devoid of not just color, but sepia tones, & even shades of gray.\"", "Jeffers called his technique \"rolling stresses\".Moore went further than Jeffers, openly declaring her poetry was written in syllabic form, and wholly denying metre.", "These syllabic lines from her famous poem \"Poetry\" illustrate her contempt for metre and other poetic tools.", "Even the syllabic pattern of this poem does not remain perfectly consistent:::::nor is it valid::::::to discriminate against \"business documents and::school-books\": all these phenomena are important.", "One must make a distinction:::::however: when dragged into prominence by half poets, the result is not poetryWilliams tried to form poetry whose subject matter was centered on the lives of common people.", "He came up with the concept of the variable foot.", "Williams spurned traditional metre in most of his poems, preferring what he called \"colloquial idioms.\"", "Another poet who turned his back on traditional concepts of metre was Britain's Gerard Manley Hopkins.", "Hopkins' major innovation was what he called sprung rhythm.", "He claimed most poetry was written in this older rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of the English literary heritage, based on repeating groups of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition.", "Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot." ], [ "See also", "* Anisometric verse* Foot (prosody)* Generative metrics* Line (poetry)* List of classical metres* Metre (hymn)* Metre (music)* Scansion" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* Abdel-Malek, Zaki N. (2019), ''Towards a New Theory of Arabic Prosody'', 5th edition (Revised), Posed online with free access.", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* ." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Majed Moqed" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Majed Mashaan Ghanem Moqed''' (; 18 June 197711 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker who was one of five hijackers of American Airlines Flight 77 as part of the 11 September attacks in 2001.A Saudi, Moqed was studying law at a university in Saudi Arabia before joining al-Qaeda in 1999 and being chosen to participate in the 9/11 attacks.", "He arrived in the United States in May 2001 and helped with the planning of how the attacks would be carried out.On 11 September 2001, Moqed boarded American Airlines Flight 77 and assisted in the hijacking of the plane so that it could be crashed into the Pentagon." ], [ "Early life and activities", "Moqed was a law student from the small town of Al-Nakhil, Saudi Arabia (west of Medina), studying at King Fahd University's Faculty of Administration and Economics.", "Before he dropped out, he was apparently recruited into al-Qaeda in 1999 along with friend Satam al-Suqami, a hijacker of American Airlines Flight 11, with whom he had earlier shared a college room.The two trained at Khalden, a large training facility near Kabul that was run by Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi.", "A friend in Saudi Arabia claimed he was last seen there in 2000, before leaving to study English in the United States.", "In November 2000, Moqed and al-Suqami flew into Iran from Bahrain together.Some time late in 2000, Moqed traveled to the United Arab Emirates, where he purchased traveler's cheques presumed to have been paid for by 9/11 financier Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi.", "Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including Wail al-Shehri, Saeed al-Ghamdi, Hamza al-Ghamdi, Ahmed al-Haznawi and Ahmed al-Nami.Known as ''al-Ahlaf'' during the preparations, Moqed then moved in with hijackers Salem al-Hazmi, Abdulaziz al-Omari and Khalid al-Mihdhar in an apartment in Paterson, New Jersey.===2001===According to the FBI, Moqed first arrived to the United States on 2 May 2001 with Ahmed al-Ghamdi.Later that year, Moqed, Hani Hanjour, Hazmi and Ahmed al-Ghamdi rented a minivan and travelled to Fairfield, Connecticut.", "There they met a contact in the parking lot of a local convenience store who provided them with false IDs.", "(This was possibly Eyad Alrababah, a Jordanian charged with document fraud).Moqed was one of the five hijackers who asked for a state identity card on 2 August 2001.On 24 August, both Mihdhar and Moqed tried to purchase flight tickets from the American Airlines online ticket-merchant, but had technical difficulties resolving their address and gave up.Employees at Advance Travel Service in Totowa, New Jersey, later claimed that Moqed and Hanjour had both purchased tickets there.", "They claimed that Hani Hanjour spoke very little English, and Moqed did most of the speaking.", "Hanjour requested a seat in the front row of the airplane.", "Their credit card failed to authorize, and after being told the agency did not accept personal cheques, the pair left to withdraw cash.", "They returned shortly afterwards and paid $1842.25 in cash.", "During this time, Moqed was staying in Room 343 of the ''Valencia Motel''.", "On 2 September, Moqed paid cash for a $30 weekly membership at Gold's Gym in Greenbelt, Maryland.Three days later he was seen on an ATM camera with Hani Hanjour.", "After the attacks, the manager at an adult video store, ''Adult Lingerie Center'', in Beltsville claimed that Moqed had been in the store three times." ], [ "Attacks", "On 11 September 2001, Moqed arrived at Washington Dulles International Airport.According to the 9/11 Commission Report, Moqed set off the metal detector at the airport and was screened with a hand-wand.", "He passed the cursory inspection, and was able to board his flight at 7:50.He was seated in 12A, adjacent to Mihdhar who was in 12B.", "Moqed helped to hijack the plane and assisted Hani Hanjour in crashing the plane into the Pentagon at 9:37 a.m., killing 189 people (64 on the plane and 125 on the ground).The flight was scheduled to depart at 08:10, but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles.", "The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to air traffic control occurred at 08:50:51.At 08:54, Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south, and then hijackers set the flight's autopilot heading for Washington, D.C.", "Passenger Barbara Olson called her husband, United States Solicitor General Theodore Olson, and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives.", "At 09:37, American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the west facade of the Pentagon, killing all 64 aboard (including the hijackers), along with 125 on the ground in the Pentagon.", "In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any DNA samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI.After the attacks his family told Arab News that Moqed had been a fan of sports, and enjoyed travelling.", "Additionally, the U.S. announced it had found a \"Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Student Identity Card\" bearing Moqed's name in the rubble surrounding the Pentagon.", "They also stated that it appeared to have been a forgery." ], [ "See also", "* PENTTBOM* Hijackers in the 11 September attacks" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Final 9/11 Commission Report* Photo gallery" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Matthew Perry (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Matthew Perry''' (1969–2023) was an American and Canadian actor.", "'''Matthew''' or '''Matt Perry''' may also refer to:* Matthew C. Perry (1794–1858), American naval officer who forcibly opened Japan to trade with the West** Matthew Perry Monument (Newport, Rhode Island)** USNS ''Matthew Perry'' (T-AKE-9)* Matthew J. Perry (1921–2011), South Carolina's first African-American US District Court judge* Matt Perry (rugby union) (born 1977), English rugby union footballer" ], [ "See also", "* Matt Parry (born 1994), British racing driver* Matthew Parry (cricketer) (1885–1931), Irish cricketer" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mimeograph" ], [ "Introduction", "Illustration of a typical mimeograph machineA '''mimeograph machine''' (often abbreviated to '''mimeo''', sometimes called a '''stencil duplicator''') was a low-cost duplicating machine that worked by forcing ink through a stencil onto paper.", "The process was called '''mimeography''', and a copy made by the process was a '''mimeograph'''.Mimeographs, along with spirit duplicators and hectographs, were common technologies for printing small quantities of a document, as in office work, classroom materials, and church bulletins.", "For even smaller quantities, up to about five, a typist would use carbon paper.", "Early fanzines were printed by mimeograph because the machines and supplies were widely available and inexpensive.", "Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing into the 1970s, photocopying gradually displaced mimeographs, spirit duplicators, and hectographs." ], [ "Origins", "Use of stencils is an ancient art, butthrough chemistry, papers, and pressestechniques advanced rapidly in the late nineteenth century:===Papyrograph ===A description of the Papyrograph method of duplication was published by David Owen: A major beneficiary of the invention of synthetic dyes was a document reproduction technique known as stencil duplicating.", "Its earliest form was invented in 1874 by Eugenio de Zuccato, a young Italian studying law in London, who called his device the Papyrograph.", "Zuccato's system involved writing on a sheet of varnished paper with caustic ink, which ate through the varnish and paper fibers, leaving holes where the writing had been.", "This sheet – which had now become a stencil – was placed on a blank sheet of paper, and ink rolled over it so that the ink oozed through the holes, creating a duplicate on the second sheet.The process was commercialized and Zuccato applied for a patent in 1895 having stencils prepared by typewriting.===Electric pen===Thomas Edison received US patent 180,857 for Autographic Printing on August 8, 1876.The patent covered the electric pen, used for making the stencil, and the flatbed duplicating press.", "In 1880, Edison obtained a further patent, US 224,665: \"Method of Preparing Autographic Stencils for Printing,\" which covered the making of stencils using a file plate, a grooved metal plate on which the stencil was placed which perforated the stencil when written on with a blunt metal stylus.The word ''mimeograph'' was first used by Albert Blake Dick when he licensed Edison's patents in 1887.Dick received Trademark Registration no.", "0356815 for the term ''mimeograph'' in the US Patent Office.", "It is currently listed as a dead entry, but shows the A.B.", "Dick Company of Chicago as the owner of the name.Over time, the term became generic and is now an example of a genericized trademark.", "(''Roneograph'', also ''Roneo machine'', was another trademark used for mimeograph machines, the name being a contraction of ''Rotary Neostyle''.", ")===Cyclostyle=== In 1891, David Gestetner patented his Automatic Cyclostyle.", "This was one of the first rotary machines that retained the flatbed, which passed back and forth under inked rollers.", "This invention provided for more automated, faster reproductions since the pages were produced and moved by rollers instead of pressing one single sheet at a time.By 1900, two primary types of mimeographs had come into use: a single-drum machine and a dual-drum machine.", "The single-drum machine used a single drum for ink transfer to the stencil, and the dual-drum machine used two drums and silk-screens to transfer the ink to the stencils.", "The single drum (example Roneo) machine could be easily used for multi-color work by changing the drum – each of which contained ink of a different color.", "This was spot color for mastheads.", "Colors could not be mixed.The mimeograph became popular because it was much cheaper than traditional print – there was neither typesetting nor skilled labor involved.", "One individual with a typewriter and the necessary equipment became their own printing factory, allowing for greater circulation of printed material.File:1889 Edison Mimeograph.jpg|Advertisement from 1889 for the Edison MimeographFile:Edison's* mimeograph box.jpg|A wooden Edison's mimeograph size 12\"File:Mimeograph, 1918.png|1918 illustration of a mimeograph machineFile:Mimeograph - The National Duplicator.JPG|Jackson & O'Sullivan's \"The National\" Duplicator.", "Produced in Brisbane, Queensland during World War II.File:Resistance mimeograph machines.JPG|Mimeograph machines used by the Belgian resistance during World War II to produce underground newspapers and pamphlets" ], [ "Mimeography process", "The image transfer medium was originally a stencil made from waxed mulberry paper.", "Later this became an immersion-coated long-fiber paper, with the coating being a plasticized nitrocellulose.", "This flexible waxed or coated sheet is backed by a sheet of stiff card stock, with the two sheets bound at the top.Once prepared, the stencil is wrapped around the ink-filled drum of the rotary machine.", "When a blank sheet of paper is drawn between the rotating drum and a pressure roller, ink is forced through the holes on the stencil onto the paper.", "Early flatbed machines used a kind of squeegee.The ink originally had a lanolin base and later became an oil in water emulsion.", "This emulsion commonly uses turkey-red oil (sulfated castor oil) which gives it a distinctive and heavy scent.===Preparing stencils===One uses a regular typewriter, with a stencil setting, to create a stencil.", "The operator loads a stencil assemblage into the typewriter like paper and uses a switch on the typewriter to put it in stencil mode.", "In this mode, the part of the mechanism which lifts the ribbon between the type element and the paper is disabled so that the bare, sharp type element strikes the stencil directly.", "The impact of the type element displaces the coating, making the tissue paper permeable to the oil-based ink.", "This is called \"cutting a stencil\".A variety of specialized styluses were used on the stencil to render lettering, illustrations, or other artistic features by hand against a textured plastic backing plate.Mistakes were corrected by brushing them out with a specially formulated correction fluid, and retyping once it has dried.", "(Obliterine was a popular brand of correction fluid in Australia and the United Kingdom.", ")Stencils were also made with a thermal process, an infrared method similar to that used by early photocopiers.", "The common machine was a Thermofax.Another device, called an electrostencil machine, sometimes was used to make mimeo stencils from a typed or printed original.", "It worked by scanning the original on a rotating drum with a moving optical head and burning through the blank stencil with an electric spark in the places where the optical head detected ink.", "It was slow and produced ozone.", "Text from electrostencils had lower resolution than that from typed stencils, although the process was good for reproducing illustrations.", "A skilled mimeo operator using an electrostencil and a very coarse halftone screen could make acceptable printed copies of a photograph.During the declining years of the mimeograph, some people made stencils with early computers and dot-matrix impact printers.===Limitations===Unlike spirit duplicators (where the only ink available is depleted from the master image), mimeograph technology works by forcing a replenishable supply of ink through the stencil master.", "In theory, the mimeography process could be continued indefinitely, especially if a durable stencil master were used (e.g.", "a thin metal foil).", "In practice, most low-cost mimeo stencils gradually wear out over the course of producing several hundred copies.", "Typically the stencil deteriorates gradually, producing a characteristic degraded image quality until the stencil tears, abruptly ending the print run.", "If further copies are desired at this point, another stencil must be made.Often, the stencil material covering the interiors of closed letterforms (e.g.", "''a'', ''b'', ''d'', ''e'', ''g'', etc.)", "would fall away during continued printing, causing ink-filled letters in the copies.", "The stencil would gradually stretch, starting near the top where the mechanical forces were greatest, causing a characteristic \"mid-line sag\" in the textual lines of the copies, that would progress until the stencil failed completely.", "The Gestetner Company (and others) devised various methods to make mimeo stencils more durable.Compared to spirit duplication, mimeography produced a darker, more legible image.", "Spirit duplicated images were usually tinted a light purple or lavender, which gradually became lighter over the course of some dozens of copies.", "Mimeography was often considered \"the next step up\" in quality, capable of producing hundreds of copies.", "Print runs beyond that level were usually produced by professional printers or, as the technology became available, xerographic copiers." ], [ "Durability", "Mimeographed images generally have much better durability than spirit-duplicated images, since the inks are more resistant to ultraviolet light.", "The primary preservation challenge is the low-quality paper often used, which would yellow and degrade due to residual acid in the treated pulp from which the paper was made.", "In the worst case, old copies can crumble into small particles when handled.", "Mimeographed copies have moderate durability when acid-free paper is used." ], [ "Contemporary use", "Gestetner, Risograph, and other companies still make and sell highly automated mimeograph-like machines that are externally similar to photocopiers.", "The modern version of a mimeograph, called a digital duplicator, or copyprinter, contains a scanner, a thermal head for stencil cutting, and a large roll of stencil material entirely inside the unit.", "The stencil material consists of a very thin polymer film laminated to a long-fiber non-woven tissue.", "It makes the stencils and mounts and unmounts them from the print drum automatically, making it almost as easy to operate as a photocopier.", "The Risograph is the best known of these machines.Although mimeographs remain more economical and energy-efficient in mid-range quantities, easier-to-use photocopying and offset printing have replaced mimeography almost entirely in developed countries.", "Mimeography continues to be used in developing countries because it is a simple, cheap, and robust technology.", "Many mimeographs can be hand-cranked, requiring no electricity." ], [ "Uses and art", "Mimeographs and the closely related but distinctly different spirit duplicator process were both used extensively in schools to copy homework assignments and tests.", "They were also commonly used for low-budget amateur publishing, including club newsletters and church bulletins.", "They were especially popular with science fiction fans, who used them extensively in the production of fanzines in the middle 20th century, before photocopying became inexpensive.Letters and typographical symbols were sometimes used to create illustrations, in a precursor to ASCII art.", "Because changing ink color in a mimeograph could be a laborious process, involving extensively cleaning the machine or, on newer models, replacing the drum or rollers, and then running the paper through the machine a second time, some fanzine publishers experimented with techniques for painting several colors on the pad.In addition, mimeographs were used by many resistance groups during World War Two as a way to print illegal newspapers and publications in countries such as Belgium." ], [ "See also", "* Duplicating machines* Gocco* List of duplicating processes* Mimeoscope* Mimeo Revolution* Spirit duplicator (also known as a \"Rexograph\" or \"Ditto machine\" in the US or a \"Banda machine\" in the UK)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Hutchison, Howard.", "''Mimeograph: Operation Maintenance and Repair''.", "Blue Ridge Summit: Tab Books, 1979." ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Meteorite" ], [ "Introduction", "The 60-tonne, long Hoba meteorite in Namibia is the largest known intact meteorite.A '''meteorite''' is a solid piece of debris from an object, such as a comet, asteroid, or meteoroid, that originates in outer space and survives its passage through the atmosphere to reach the surface of a planet or moon.", "When the original object enters the atmosphere, various factors such as friction, pressure, and chemical interactions with the atmospheric gases cause it to heat up and radiate energy.", "It then becomes a meteor and forms a fireball, also known as a shooting star; astronomers call the brightest examples \"bolides\".", "Once it settles on the larger body's surface, the meteor becomes a meteorite.", "Meteorites vary greatly in size.", "For geologists, a bolide is a meteorite large enough to create an impact crater.Meteorites that are recovered after being observed as they transit the atmosphere and impact the Earth are called meteorite falls.", "All others are known as meteorite finds.", "Meteorites have traditionally been divided into three broad categories: stony meteorites that are rocks, mainly composed of silicate minerals; iron meteorites that are largely composed of ferronickel; and stony-iron meteorites that contain large amounts of both metallic and rocky material.", "Modern classification schemes divide meteorites into groups according to their structure, chemical and isotopic composition and mineralogy.", "\"Meteorites\" less than ~1 mm in diameter are classified as micrometeorites, however micrometeorites differ from meteorites in that they typically melt completely in the atmosphere and fall to Earth as quenched droplets.", "Extraterrestrial meteorites have been found on the Moon and on Mars." ], [ "Fall phenomena", "Most meteoroids disintegrate when entering the Earth's atmosphere.", "Usually, five to ten a year are observed to fall and are subsequently recovered and made known to scientists.", "Few meteorites are large enough to create large impact craters.", "Instead, they typically arrive at the surface at their terminal velocity and, at most, create a small pit.NWA 859 iron meteorite showing effects of atmospheric ablationThe impact pit made by a 61.9-gram Novato meteorite when it hit the roof of a house on 17 October 2012.Meteorite fallen near Flensburg in 2019.Large meteoroids may strike the earth with a significant fraction of their escape velocity (second cosmic velocity), leaving behind a hypervelocity impact crater.", "The kind of crater will depend on the size, composition, degree of fragmentation, and incoming angle of the impactor.", "The force of such collisions has the potential to cause widespread destruction.", "The most frequent hypervelocity cratering events on the Earth are caused by iron meteoroids, which are most easily able to transit the atmosphere intact.", "Examples of craters caused by iron meteoroids include Barringer Meteor Crater, Odessa Meteor Crater, Wabar craters, and Wolfe Creek crater; iron meteorites are found in association with all of these craters.", "In contrast, even relatively large stony or icy bodies such as small comets or asteroids, up to millions of tons, are disrupted in the atmosphere, and do not make impact craters.", "Although such disruption events are uncommon, they can cause a considerable concussion to occur; the famed Tunguska event probably resulted from such an incident.", "Very large stony objects, hundreds of meters in diameter or more, weighing tens of millions of tons or more, can reach the surface and cause large craters but are very rare.", "Such events are generally so energetic that the impactor is completely destroyed, leaving no meteorites.", "(The very first example of a stony meteorite found in association with a large impact crater, the Morokweng impact structure in South Africa, was reported in May 2006.", ")Several phenomena are well documented during witnessed meteorite falls too small to produce hypervelocity craters.", "The fireball that occurs as the meteoroid passes through the atmosphere can appear to be very bright, rivaling the sun in intensity, although most are far dimmer and may not even be noticed during the daytime.", "Various colors have been reported, including yellow, green, and red.", "Flashes and bursts of light can occur as the object breaks up.", "Explosions, detonations, and rumblings are often heard during meteorite falls, which can be caused by sonic booms as well as shock waves resulting from major fragmentation events.", "These sounds can be heard over wide areas, with a radius of a hundred or more kilometers.", "Whistling and hissing sounds are also sometimes heard but are poorly understood.", "Following the passage of the fireball, it is not unusual for a dust trail to linger in the atmosphere for several minutes.As meteoroids are heated during atmospheric entry, their surfaces melt and experience ablation.", "They can be sculpted into various shapes during this process, sometimes resulting in shallow thumbprint-like indentations on their surfaces called regmaglypts.", "If the meteoroid maintains a fixed orientation for some time, without tumbling, it may develop a conical \"nose cone\" or \"heat shield\" shape.", "As it decelerates, eventually the molten surface layer solidifies into a thin fusion crust, which on most meteorites is black (on some achondrites, the fusion crust may be very light-colored).", "On stony meteorites, the heat-affected zone is at most a few mm deep; in iron meteorites, which are more thermally conductive, the structure of the metal may be affected by heat up to below the surface.", "Reports vary; some meteorites are reported to be \"burning hot to the touch\" upon landing, while others are alleged to have been cold enough to condense water and form a frost.Meteoroids that disintegrate in the atmosphere may fall as meteorite showers, which can range from only a few up to thousands of separate individuals.", "The area over which a meteorite shower falls is known as its strewn field.", "Strewn fields are commonly elliptical in shape, with the major axis parallel to the direction of flight.", "In most cases, the largest meteorites in a shower are found farthest down-range in the strewn field." ], [ "Classification", "Most meteorites are stony meteorites, classed as chondrites and achondrites.", "Only about 6% of meteorites are iron meteorites or a blend of rock and metal, the stony-iron meteorites.", "Modern classification of meteorites is complex.", "The review paper of Krot et al.", "(2007) summarizes modern meteorite taxonomy.About 86% of the meteorites are chondrites, which are named for the small, round particles they contain.", "These particles, or chondrules, are composed mostly of silicate minerals that appear to have been melted while they were free-floating objects in space.", "Certain types of chondrites also contain small amounts of organic matter, including amino acids, and presolar grains.", "Chondrites are typically about 4.55 billion years old and are thought to represent material from the asteroid belt that never coalesced into large bodies.", "Like comets, chondritic asteroids are some of the oldest and most primitive materials in the Solar System.", "Chondrites are often considered to be \"the building blocks of the planets\".About 8% of the meteorites are achondrites (meaning they do not contain chondrules), some of which are similar to terrestrial igneous rocks.", "Most achondrites are also ancient rocks, and are thought to represent crustal material of differentiated planetesimals.", "One large family of achondrites (the HED meteorites) may have originated on the parent body of the Vesta Family, although this claim is disputed.", "Others derive from unidentified asteroids.", "Two small groups of achondrites are special, as they are younger and do not appear to come from the asteroid belt.", "One of these groups comes from the Moon, and includes rocks similar to those brought back to Earth by Apollo and Luna programs.", "The other group is almost certainly from Mars and constitutes the only materials from other planets ever recovered by humans.About 5% of meteorites that have been seen to fall are iron meteorites composed of iron-nickel alloys, such as kamacite and/or taenite.", "Most iron meteorites are thought to come from the cores of planetesimals that were once molten.", "As with the Earth, the denser metal separated from silicate material and sank toward the center of the planetesimal, forming its core.", "After the planetesimal solidified, it broke up in a collision with another planetesimal.", "Due to the low abundance of iron meteorites in collection areas such as Antarctica, where most of the meteoric material that has fallen can be recovered, it is possible that the percentage of iron-meteorite falls is lower than 5%.", "This would be explained by a recovery bias; laypeople are more likely to notice and recover solid masses of metal than most other meteorite types.", "The abundance of iron meteorites relative to total Antarctic finds is 0.4%.Stony-iron meteorites constitute the remaining 1%.", "They are a mixture of iron-nickel metal and silicate minerals.", "One type, called pallasites, is thought to have originated in the boundary zone above the core regions where iron meteorites originated.", "The other major type of stony-iron meteorites is the mesosiderites.Tektites (from Greek ''tektos'', molten) are not themselves meteorites, but are rather natural glass objects up to a few centimeters in size that were formed—according to most scientists—by the impacts of large meteorites on Earth's surface.", "A few researchers have favored tektites originating from the Moon as volcanic ejecta, but this theory has lost much of its support over the last few decades." ], [ "Frequency", "The diameter of the largest impactor to hit Earth on any given day is likely to be about , in a given year about , and in a given century about .", "These statistics are obtained by the following:Over at least the range from to roughly , the rate at which Earth receives meteors obeys a power-law distribution as follows::where ''N'' (>''D'') is the expected number of objects larger than a diameter of ''D'' meters to hit Earth in a year.", "This is based on observations of bright meteors seen from the ground and space, combined with surveys of near-Earth asteroids.", "Above in diameter, the predicted rate is somewhat higher, with a 2 km (1.2 mi) asteroid (one teraton TNT equivalent) every couple of million yearsabout 10 times as often as the power-law extrapolation would predict." ], [ "Chemistry", "In March 2015, NASA scientists reported that complex organic compounds found in DNA and RNA, including uracil, cytosine, and thymine, have been formed in the laboratory under outer space conditions, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites.", "Pyrimidine and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar dust and gas clouds, according to the scientists.In January 2018, researchers found that 4.5 billion-year-old meteorites found on Earth contained liquid water along with prebiotic complex organic substances that may be ingredients for life.In November 2019, scientists reported detecting sugar molecules in meteorites for the first time, including ribose, suggesting that chemical processes on asteroids can produce some organic compounds fundamental to life, and supporting the notion of an RNA world prior to a DNA-based origin of life on Earth.In April 2022, a Japanese group reported that they had found adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and uracil (U) inside carbon-rich meteorites.", "These compounds are building blocks of DNA and RNA, the genetic code of all life on Earth.", "These compounds have also occurred spontaneously in laboratory settings emulating conditions in outer space." ], [ "Weathering", "Most meteorites date from the early Solar System and are by far the oldest extant material on Earth.", "Analysis of terrestrial weathering due to water, salt, oxygen, etc.", "is used to quantify the degree of alteration that a meteorite has experienced.", "Several qualitative weathering indices have been applied to Antarctic and desertic samples.The most commonly employed weathering scale, used for ordinary chondrites, ranges from W0 (pristine state) to W6 (heavy alteration).===Fossil meteorites===\"Fossil\" meteorites are sometimes discovered by geologists.", "They represent the highly weathered remains of meteorites that fell to Earth in the remote past and were preserved in sedimentary deposits sufficiently well that they can be recognized through mineralogical and geochemical studies.", "The Thorsberg limestone quarry in Sweden has produced an anomalously large number – exceeding one hundred – fossil meteorites from the Ordovician, nearly all of which are highly weathered L-chondrites that still resemble the original meteorite under a petrographic microscope, but which have had their original material almost entirely replaced by terrestrial secondary mineralization.", "The extraterrestrial provenance was demonstrated in part through isotopic analysis of relict spinel grains, a mineral that is common in meteorites, is insoluble in water, and is able to persist chemically unchanged in the terrestrial weathering environment.", "Scientists believe that these meteorites, which have all also been found in Russia and China, all originated from the same source, a collision that occurred somewhere between Jupiter and Mars.", "One of these fossil meteorites, dubbed Österplana 065, appears to represent a distinct type of meteorite that is \"extinct\" in the sense that it is no longer falling to Earth, the parent body having already been completely depleted from the reservoir of near-Earth objects." ], [ "Collection", "A \"meteorite fall\", also called an \"observed fall\", is a meteorite collected after its arrival was observed by people or automated devices.", "Any other meteorite is called a \"meteorite find\".", "There are more than 1,100 documented falls listed in widely used databases, most of which have specimens in modern collections.", ", the ''Meteoritical Bulletin Database'' had 1,180 confirmed falls.===Falls===Benld meteorite in 1938, with the meteorite inset.", "An observed fall.Most meteorite falls are collected on the basis of eyewitness accounts of the fireball or the impact of the object on the ground, or both.", "Therefore, despite the fact that meteorites fall with virtually equal probability everywhere on Earth, verified meteorite falls tend to be concentrated in areas with higher human population densities such as Europe, Japan, and northern India.A small number of meteorite falls have been observed with automated cameras and recovered following calculation of the impact point.", "The first of these was the Přibram meteorite, which fell in Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic) in 1959.In this case, two cameras used to photograph meteors captured images of the fireball.", "The images were used both to determine the location of the stones on the ground and, more significantly, to calculate for the first time an accurate orbit for a recovered meteorite.Following the Pribram fall, other nations established automated observing programs aimed at studying infalling meteorites.", "One of these was the ''Prairie Network'', operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory from 1963 to 1975 in the midwestern US.", "This program also observed a meteorite fall, the ''Lost City'' chondrite, allowing its recovery and a calculation of its orbit.", "Another program in Canada, the Meteorite Observation and Recovery Project, ran from 1971 to 1985.It too recovered a single meteorite, ''Innisfree'', in 1977.Finally, observations by the European Fireball Network, a descendant of the original Czech program that recovered Pribram, led to the discovery and orbit calculations for the ''Neuschwanstein'' meteorite in 2002.NASA has an automated system that detects meteors and calculates the orbit, magnitude, ground track, and other parameters over the southeast USA, which often detects a number of events each night.===Finds===Until the twentieth century, only a few hundred meteorite finds had ever been discovered.", "More than 80% of these were iron and stony-iron meteorites, which are easily distinguished from local rocks.", "To this day, few stony meteorites are reported each year that can be considered to be \"accidental\" finds.", "The reason there are now more than 30,000 meteorite finds in the world's collections started with the discovery by Harvey H. Nininger that meteorites are much more common on the surface of the Earth than was previously thought.====United States====Nininger's strategy was to search for meteorites in the Great Plains of the United States, where the land was largely cultivated and the soil contained few rocks.", "Between the late 1920s and the 1950s, he traveled across the region, educating local people about what meteorites looked like and what to do if they thought they had found one, for example, in the course of clearing a field.", "The result was the discovery of more than 200 new meteorites, mostly stony types.In the late 1960s, Roosevelt County, New Mexico was found to be a particularly good place to find meteorites.", "After the discovery of a few meteorites in 1967, a public awareness campaign resulted in the finding of nearly 100 new specimens in the next few years, with many being by a single person, Ivan Wilson.", "In total, nearly 140 meteorites were found in the region since 1967.In the area of the finds, the ground was originally covered by a shallow, loose soil sitting atop a hardpan layer.", "During the dustbowl era, the loose soil was blown off, leaving any rocks and meteorites that were present stranded on the exposed surface.Barstow, California, in 2006Beginning in the mid-1960s, amateur meteorite hunters began scouring the arid areas of the southwestern United States.", "To date, thousands of meteorites have been recovered from the Mojave, Sonoran, Great Basin, and Chihuahuan Deserts, with many being recovered on dry lake beds.", "Significant finds include the three-tonne Old Woman meteorite, currently on display at the Desert Discovery Center in Barstow, California, and the Franconia and Gold Basin meteorite strewn fields; hundreds of kilograms of meteorites have been recovered from each.", "A number of finds from the American Southwest have been submitted with false find locations, as many finders think it is unwise to publicly share that information for fear of confiscation by the federal government and competition with other hunters at published find sites.", "Several of the meteorites found recently are currently on display in the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, and at UCLA's Meteorite Gallery.====Antarctica====A scanning electron microscope revealed structures resembling bacteria fossils – in the meteorite ALH84001 discovered in Antarctica in 1984.Microscopically, the features were initially interpreted as fossils of bacteria-like lifeforms.", "It has since been shown that similar magnetite structures can form without the presence of microbial life in hydrothermal systems.", "A few meteorites were found in Antarctica between 1912 and 1964.In 1969, the 10th Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition found nine meteorites on a blue ice field near the Yamato Mountains.", "With this discovery, came the realization that movement of ice sheets might act to concentrate meteorites in certain areas.", "After a dozen other specimens were found in the same place in 1973, a Japanese expedition was launched in 1974 dedicated to the search for meteorites.", "This team recovered nearly 700 meteorites.Shortly thereafter, the United States began its own program to search for Antarctic meteorites, operating along the Transantarctic Mountains on the other side of the continent: the Antarctic Search for Meteorites (ANSMET) program.", "European teams, starting with a consortium called \"EUROMET\" in the 1990/91 season, and continuing with a program by the Italian Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Antartide have also conducted systematic searches for Antarctic meteorites.The Antarctic Scientific Exploration of China has conducted successful meteorite searches since 2000.A Korean program (KOREAMET) was launched in 2007 and has collected a few meteorites.", "The combined efforts of all of these expeditions have produced more than 23,000 classified meteorite specimens since 1974, with thousands more that have not yet been classified.", "For more information see the article by Harvey (2003).====Australia====At about the same time as meteorite concentrations were being discovered in the cold desert of Antarctica, collectors discovered that many meteorites could also be found in the hot deserts of Australia.", "Several dozen meteorites had already been found in the Nullarbor region of Western and South Australia.", "Systematic searches between about 1971 and the present recovered more than 500 others, ~300 of which are currently well characterized.", "The meteorites can be found in this region because the land presents a flat, featureless, plain covered by limestone.", "In the extremely arid climate, there has been relatively little weathering or sedimentation on the surface for tens of thousands of years, allowing meteorites to accumulate without being buried or destroyed.", "The dark-colored meteorites can then be recognized among the very different looking limestone pebbles and rocks.====The Sahara====This small meteorite is from the NWA 869 strewn field, near Tindouf, Algeria.", "Currently classified as an L3.8-6 ordinary chondrite it shows brecciation and abundant chondrules.In 1986–87, a German team installing a network of seismic stations while prospecting for oil discovered about 65 meteorites on a flat, desert plain about southeast of Dirj (Daraj), Libya.", "A few years later, a desert enthusiast saw photographs of meteorites being recovered by scientists in Antarctica, and thought that he had seen similar occurrences in northern Africa.", "In 1989, he recovered about 100 meteorites from several distinct locations in Libya and Algeria.", "Over the next several years, he and others who followed found at least 400 more meteorites.", "The find locations were generally in regions known as regs or hamadas: flat, featureless areas covered only by small pebbles and minor amounts of sand.", "Dark-colored meteorites can be easily spotted in these places.", "In the case of several meteorite fields, such as Dar al Gani, Dhofar, and others, favorable light-colored geology consisting of basic rocks (clays, dolomites, and limestones) makes meteorites particularly easy to identify.Although meteorites had been sold commercially and collected by hobbyists for many decades, up to the time of the Saharan finds of the late 1980s and early 1990s, most meteorites were deposited in or purchased by museums and similar institutions where they were exhibited and made available for scientific research.", "The sudden availability of large numbers of meteorites that could be found with relative ease in places that were readily accessible (especially compared to Antarctica), led to a rapid rise in commercial collection of meteorites.", "This process was accelerated when, in 1997, meteorites coming from both the Moon and Mars were found in Libya.", "By the late 1990s, private meteorite-collecting expeditions had been launched throughout the Sahara.", "Specimens of the meteorites recovered in this way are still deposited in research collections, but most of the material is sold to private collectors.", "These expeditions have now brought the total number of well-described meteorites found in Algeria and Libya to more than 500.====Northwest Africa====Meteorite markets came into existence in the late 1990s, especially in Morocco.", "This trade was driven by Western commercialization and an increasing number of collectors.", "The meteorites were supplied by nomads and local people who combed the deserts looking for specimens to sell.", "Many thousands of meteorites have been distributed in this way, most of which lack any information about how, when, or where they were discovered.", "These are the so-called \"Northwest Africa\" meteorites.", "When they get classified, they are named \"Northwest Africa\" (abbreviated NWA) followed by a number.", "It is generally accepted that NWA meteorites originate in Morocco, Algeria, Western Sahara, Mali, and possibly even further afield.", "Nearly all of these meteorites leave Africa through Morocco.", "Scores of important meteorites, including Lunar and Martian ones, have been discovered and made available to science via this route.", "A few of the more notable meteorites recovered include Tissint and Northwest Africa 7034.Tissint was the first witnessed Martian meteorite fall in more than fifty years; NWA 7034 is the oldest meteorite known to come from Mars, and is a unique water-bearing regolith breccia.====Arabian Peninsula====Meteorite find in situ on desert pavement, Rub' al Khali, Saudi Arabia.", "Probable chondrite, weight 408.5 grams.In 1999, meteorite hunters discovered that the desert in southern and central Oman were also favorable for the collection of many specimens.", "The gravel plains in the Dhofar and Al Wusta regions of Oman, south of the sandy deserts of the Rub' al Khali, had yielded about 5,000 meteorites as of mid-2009.Included among these are a large number of lunar and Martian meteorites, making Oman a particularly important area both for scientists and collectors.", "Early expeditions to Oman were mainly done by commercial meteorite dealers, however, international teams of Omani and European scientists have also now collected specimens.The recovery of meteorites from Oman is currently prohibited by national law, but a number of international hunters continue to remove specimens now deemed national treasures.", "This new law provoked a small international incident, as its implementation preceded any public notification of such a law, resulting in the prolonged imprisonment of a large group of meteorite hunters, primarily from Russia, but whose party also consisted of members from the US as well as several other European countries." ], [ "In human affairs", "A lance made from a Narwhal tusk with a meteorite iron headMeteorites have figured into human culture since their earliest discovery as ceremonial or religious objects, as the subject of writing about events occurring in the sky and as a source of peril.", "The oldest known iron artifacts are nine small beads hammered from meteoritic iron.", "They were found in northern Egypt and have been securely dated to 3200 BC.===Ceremonial or religious use===Although the use of the metal found in meteorites is also recorded in myths of many countries and cultures where the celestial source was often acknowledged, scientific documentation only began in the last few centuries.Meteorite falls may have been the source of cultish worship.", "The cult in the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, possibly originated with the observation and recovery of a meteorite that was understood by contemporaries to have fallen to the earth from Jupiter, the principal Roman deity.", "There are reports that a sacred stone was enshrined at the temple that may have been a meteorite.The Black Stone set into the wall of the Kaaba has often been presumed to be a meteorite, but the little available evidence for this is inconclusive.Some Native Americans treated meteorites as ceremonial objects.", "In 1915, a iron meteorite was found in a Sinagua (c. 1100–1200 AD) burial cyst near Camp Verde, Arizona, respectfully wrapped in a feather cloth.", "A small pallasite was found in a pottery jar in an old burial found at Pojoaque Pueblo, New Mexico.", "Nininger reports several other such instances, in the Southwest US and elsewhere, such as the discovery of Native American beads of meteoric iron found in Hopewell burial mounds, and the discovery of the Winona meteorite in a Native American stone-walled crypt.===Historical writings===In medieval China during the Song dynasty, a meteorite strike event was recorded by Shen Kuo in 1064 AD near Changzhou.", "He reported \"a loud noise that sounded like a thunder was heard in the sky; a giant star, almost like the moon, appeared in the southeast\" and later finding the crater and the still-hot meteorite within, nearby.Two of the oldest recorded meteorite falls in Europe are the Elbogen (1400) and Ensisheim (1492) meteorites.", "The German physicist, Ernst Florens Chladni, was the first to publish (in 1794) the idea that meteorites might be rocks that originated not from Earth, but from space.", "His booklet was ''\"On the Origin of the Iron Masses Found by Pallas and Others Similar to it, and on Some Associated Natural Phenomena\"''.", "In this he compiled all available data on several meteorite finds and falls concluded that they must have their origins in outer space.", "The scientific community of the time responded with resistance and mockery.", "It took nearly ten years before a general acceptance of the origin of meteorites was achieved through the work of the French scientist Jean-Baptiste Biot and the British chemist, Edward Howard.", "Biot's study, initiated by the French Academy of Sciences, was compelled by a fall of thousands of meteorites on 26 April 1803 from the skies of L'Aigle, France.=== Striking people or property ===Throughout history, many first- and second-hand reports speak of meteorites killing humans and other animals.", "One example is from 1490 AD in China, which purportedly killed thousands of people.", "John Lewis has compiled some of these reports, and summarizes, \"No one in recorded history has ever been killed by a meteorite in the presence of a meteoriticist and a medical doctor\" and \"reviewers who make sweeping negative conclusions usually do not cite any of the primary publications in which the eyewitnesses describe their experiences, and give no evidence of having read them\".Modern reports of meteorite strikes include:*In 1954 in Sylacauga, Alabama.", "A stone chondrite, the Hodges meteorite or Sylacauga meteorite, crashed through a roof and injured an occupant.", "*An approximately fragment of the Mbale meteorite fall from Uganda struck a youth, causing no injury.", "*In October 2021 a meteorite penetrated the roof of a house in Golden, British Columbia landing on an occupant's bed." ], [ "Notable examples", "===Naming===Meteorites are always named for the places they were found, where practical, usually a nearby town or geographic feature.", "In cases where many meteorites were found in one place, the name may be followed by a number or letter (e.g., Allan Hills 84001 or Dimmitt (b)).", "The name designated by the Meteoritical Society is used by scientists, catalogers, and most collectors.===Terrestrial===*Allende – largest known carbonaceous chondrite (Chihuahua, Mexico, 1969).", "*Allan Hills A81005 – First meteorite determined to be of lunar origin.", "*Allan Hills 84001 – Mars meteorite that was claimed to prove the existence of life on Mars.", "* The Bacubirito Meteorite (Meteorito de Bacubirito) – A meteorite estimated to weigh .", "*Campo del Cielo – a group of iron meteorites associated with a crater field (of the same name) of at least 26 craters in West Chaco Province, Argentina.", "The total weight of meteorites recovered exceeds 100 tonnes.", "*Canyon Diablo – Associated with Meteor Crater in Arizona.", "*Cape York – One of the largest meteorites in the world.", "A 34-ton fragment called \"Ahnighito\", is exhibited at the American Museum of Natural History; the largest meteorite on exhibit in any museum.", "*Gibeon – A large Iron meteorite in Namibia, created the largest known strewn field.", "*Hoba – The largest known intact meteorite.", "*Kaidun – An unusual carbonaceous chondrite.", "*Mbozi meteorite – A 16-metric-ton ungrouped iron meteorite in Tanzania.", "*Murchison – A carbonaceous chondrite found to contain nucleobases – the building block of life.", "*Nōgata – The oldest meteorite whose fall can be dated precisely (to 19 May 861, at Nōgata)*Orgueil – A famous meteorite due to its especially primitive nature and high presolar grain content.", "*Sikhote-Alin – Massive iron meteorite impact event that occurred on 12 February 1947.", "*Tucson Ring – Ring shaped meteorite, used by a blacksmith as an anvil, in Tucson AZ.", "Currently at the Smithsonian.", "*Willamette – The largest meteorite ever found in the United States.", "* 2007 Carancas impact event – On 15 September 2007, a stony meteorite that may have weighed as much as 4000 kilograms created a crater 13 meters in diameter near the village of Carancas, Peru.", "* 2013 Russian meteor event – a 17-metre diameter, 10 000 ton asteroid hit the atmosphere above Chelyabinsk, Russia at 18 km/s around 09:20 local time (03:20 UTC) 15 February 2013, producing a very bright fireball in the morning sky.", "A number of small meteorite fragments have since been found nearby.===Extraterrestrial===*Bench Crater meteorite (Apollo 12, 1969) and the Hadley Rille meteorite (Apollo 15, 1971) − Fragments of asteroids were found among the samples collected on the Moon.", "*Block Island meteorite and Heat Shield Rock – Discovered on Mars by Opportunity rover among four other iron meteorites.", "Two nickel-iron meteorites were identified by the Spirit rover.", "(See also: Mars rocks)===Large impact craters===* Acraman crater in South Australia ( diameter)* Ames crater in Major County, Oklahoma diameter* Brent crater in northern Ontario ( diameter)* Chesapeake Bay impact crater ( diameter)* Chicxulub crater off the coast of Yucatán Peninsula ( diameter)* Clearwater Lakes a double crater impact in Québec, Canada ( in diameter)* Lonar crater in India ( diameter)* Lumparn in Åland, in the Baltic Sea ( diameter)* Manicouagan Reservoir in Québec, Canada ( diameter)* Manson crater in Iowa ( crater is buried)* Meteor Crater in Arizona, also known as \"Barringer Crater\", the first confirmed terrestrial impact crater.", "( diameter)* Mjølnir impact crater in the Barents Sea ( diameter)* Nördlinger Ries crater in Bavaria, Germany ( diameter)* Popigai impact structure in Russia ( diameter)* Siljan Ring in Sweden, largest crater in Europe ( diameter)* Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada ( diameter).", "* Ungava Bay in Québec, Canada ()* Vredefort impact structure in South Africa, the largest known impact structure on Earth ( diameter from an estimated wide meteorite).===Disintegrating meteoroids===* Tunguska event in Siberia 1908 (no crater)* Chelyabinsk event in Russia 2013 (no known crater)" ], [ "See also", "* Atmospheric focusing*Barringer Medal* Glossary of meteoritics* List of impact craters on Earth* List of Martian meteorites* List of meteorite minerals* List of rocks on Mars* List of possible impact structures on Earth* Meteor shower* Meteorite find* Meteoroid* Micrometeorite* Panspermia" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * Current meteorite news articles* The British and Irish Meteorite Society* The Natural History Museum's meteorite catalogue database* Meteoritical Society* Earth Impact Database * Every Recorded Meteorite Impact on Earth from Tableau Software* Meteor Impact Craters Around the World" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mega-" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mega''' is a unit prefix in metric systems of units denoting a factor of one million (106 or ).", "It has the unit symbol '''M'''.", "It was confirmed for use in the International System of Units (SI) in 1960.", "''Mega'' comes from ." ], [ "Common examples of usage", "* Megapixel: 1 million pixels in a digital camera* One megatonne of TNT equivalent amounts to approx.", "4 petajoules and is the approximate energy released on igniting one million tonnes of TNT.", "The unit is often used in measuring the explosive power of nuclear weapons.", "* Megahertz: frequency of electromagnetic radiation for radio and television broadcasting, GSM, etc.", "1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz.", "* Megabyte: unit of information equal to one million bytes (SI standard).", "* Megawatt: equal to one million watts of power.", "It is commonly used to measure the output of power plants, as well as the power consumption of electric locomotives, data centers, and other entities that heavily consume electricity.", "* Megadeath: (or megacorpse) is one million human deaths, usually used in reference to projected number of deaths from a nuclear explosion.", "The term was used by scientists and thinkers who strategized likely outcomes of all-out nuclear warfare." ], [ "Exponentiation", "When units occur in exponentiation, such as in square and cubic forms, any multiples-prefix is considered part of the unit, and thus included in the exponentiation.", "* 1 Mm2 means one square megametre or the size of a square of by or , and not (106 m2).", "* 1 Mm3 means one cubic megametre or the size of a cube of by by or 1018 m3, and not (106 m3)" ], [ "Computing", "In some fields of computing, ''mega'' may sometimes denote 1,048,576 (220) of information units, for example, a megabyte, a megaword, but denotes (106) units of other quantities, for example, transfer rates: = .", "The prefix ''mebi-'' has been suggested as a prefix for 220 to avoid ambiguity." ], [ "See also", "* Binary prefix* Mebibyte* Order of magnitude* RKM code" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BIPM website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maciej Płażyński" ], [ "Introduction", "Maciej Plazynski tomb in St. Mary's Church, GdańskPlaque to Maciej Płażyński commemorating on the wall of his former parliamentary office in Gdańsk.In this building at ulica Szeroka in Gdańsk was the parliamentary office of the deceased.", "'''Maciej Płażyński''' (; 10 February 1958 – 10 April 2010) was a Polish liberal-conservative politician." ], [ "Biography", "Płażyński was born in Młynary.", "He began his political career in 1980 / 1981 as one of the leaders of the Students' Solidarity; he was governor of the Gdańsk Voivodship from August 1990 to July 1996, and was elected to the Sejm (the lower house of the Polish parliament) in September 1997.To date he is longest serving Marshal of the Sejm of the Third Republic of Poland.In January 2001, he founded the Civic Platform political party with Donald Tusk and Andrzej Olechowski.", "He left Civic Platform for personal reasons and at the time of his death was an independent MP.", "He was member of Kashubian-Pomeranian Association.", "He was later chosen as a chairman of the Association \"Polish Community\".Maciej Płażyński was married to Elżbieta Płażyńska and together they had three children: Jakub, Katarzyna, and Kacper.He died in the plane crash which occurred while landing at Smolensk-North airport near Smolensk, Russia, on 10 April 2010.The crash also involved President Lech Kaczyński and 94 others." ], [ "Honours and awards", "In 2000, Płażyński was awarded the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, First Class.", "He received the titles of honorary citizen of Młynary, Puck, Pionki and Lidzbark Warmiński.On 16 April 2010 he was posthumously awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta.", "He was also awarded a Gold Medal of Gloria Artis." ], [ "See also", "* Solidarity" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official site" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mark Bingham" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mark Kendall Bingham''' (May 22, 1970 – September 11, 2001) was an American public relations executive who founded his own company, the Bingham Group.", "During the September 11 attacks in 2001, he was a passenger on board United Airlines Flight 93.Bingham was among the passengers who, along with Todd Beamer, Tom Burnett and Jeremy Glick, formed the plan to retake the plane from the hijackers, and led the effort that resulted in the crash of the plane into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, thwarting the hijackers' plan to crash the plane into a building in Washington, D.C., most likely either the U.S. Capitol Building or the White House.His heroic efforts on United Flight 93, as well as his athletic physique, were noted for having prompted a reassessment of gay stereotypes." ], [ "Early life", "Mark Bingham was born on May 22, 1970, the only child of Alice Hoagland and Gerald Bingham.", "When Mark was two years old, his parents divorced.", "Raised by his mother and her family, Mark grew up in Miami, Florida, and Southern California before moving to the San Jose area in 1983.Bingham was an aspiring filmmaker, and as a teenager, he began using a video camera as a personal diary to document his life and those of his family and friends.", "He graduated from Los Gatos High School as a two-year captain of his rugby team in 1988.As an undergraduate at the University of California, Berkeley, Bingham played on two of Coach Jack Clark's national-championship-winning rugby teams in the early 1990s.", "He also joined the Chi Psi fraternity, eventually becoming its president.", "Upon graduation at the age of 21, Bingham came out as gay to his family and friends." ], [ "Rugby and business career", "A large athlete at and , Bingham also played for the gay-inclusive rugby union team San Francisco Fog RFC.", "Bingham played No.", "8 in their first two friendly matches.", "He played in their first tournament, and taught his teammates his favorite rugby songs.At the time of his death, Bingham had recently opened a satellite office of his public relations firm in New York City and was spending more time on the East Coast.", "He discussed plans with his friend Scott Glaessgen to form a New York City rugby team, the Gotham Knights." ], [ "September 11, 2001", "On the morning of September 11, Bingham overslept and nearly missed his flight, on his way to San Francisco to be an usher in his fraternity brother Joseph Salama's wedding.", "He arrived at Terminal A at Newark International Airport at 7:40 am, ran to Gate 17, and was the last passenger to board United Airlines Flight 93, taking seat 4D, next to passenger Tom Burnett.United Airlines Flight 93 was scheduled to depart at 8:00 am, but the plane did not depart until 42 minutes later due to runway traffic delays.", "Four minutes later, American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the World Trade Center's North Tower.", "At 9:03 am, as United Airlines Flight 175 crashed into the South Tower, Flight 93 climbed to cruising altitude, heading west over New Jersey and into Pennsylvania.", "At 9:25 am, Flight 93 was above eastern Ohio, and pilots Jason Dahl and LeRoy Homer received an alert, \"Beware of cockpit intrusion,\" on the cockpit computer device ACARS (Aircraft Communications and Reporting System).", "Three minutes later, Cleveland controllers could hear screams over the cockpit's open microphone.", "Moments later, the hijackers, led by the Lebanese Ziad Jarrah, took over the plane's controls and told passengers, \"Keep remaining sitting.", "We have a bomb on board\".", "Bingham and the other passengers were herded into the back of the plane.", "Within six minutes, the plane changed course and headed for Washington, D.C. Several of the passengers made phone calls to loved ones, who informed them about the two planes that had crashed into the World Trade Center.After the hijackers veered the plane sharply south, the passengers decided to act.", "Bingham, along with Todd Beamer, Tom Burnett, and Jeremy Glick, formed a plan to take the plane back from the hijackers.", "They relayed this plan to their loved ones and the authorities via telephone.", "Bingham got through to his aunt's home in California.", "Bingham stated, \"This is Mark Bingham.", "I want to let you guys know that I love you, in case I don't see you again...I'm on United Airlines, Flight 93.It's being hijacked.\"", "According to ''The Week'', Hoagland formed the impression that her son spoke \"confidentially\" with a fellow passenger, to form a plan to retake the plane.", "According to ABC News, the call cut off after about three minutes.", "Hoagland, after seeing news reports of the plane's hijacking, called him back and left two messages for him, calmly saying, \"Mark, this is your mom.", "The news is that it's been hijacked by terrorists.", "They are planning to probably use the plane as a target to hit some site on the ground.", "I would say go ahead and do everything you can to overpower them, because they are hellbent.", "Try to call me back if you can.\"", "Bingham, Burnett, and Glick were each more than tall, well-built and fit.", "As they made their decision to retake the plane, Glick related this over the phone to his wife, Lyz.", "Fellow passenger Todd Beamer, speaking to GTE-Verizon Lisa Jefferson and the FBI, related that he too was part of this group.", "They were joined by other passengers, including Lou Nacke, Rich Guadagno, Alan Beaven, Honor Elizabeth Wainio, Linda Gronlund, and William Cashman, along with flight attendants Sandra Bradshaw and Cee Cee Ross-Lyles, in discussing their options and voting on a course of action, ultimately deciding to storm the cockpit and take over the plane.According to the ''9/11 Commission Report'', after the plane's voice data recorder was recovered, it revealed pounding and crashing sounds against the cockpit door and shouts and screams in English.", "\"Let's get them!\"", "a passenger cries.", "A hijacker shouts, \"Allāhu ʾakbar!\"", "(\"God is great\").", "Jarrah repeatedly pitched the plane to knock passengers off their feet, but the passengers apparently managed to invade the cockpit, where one was heard shouting, \"In the cockpit.", "If we don't, we'll die.\"", "At 10:02 am, a hijacker ordered, \"Pull it down!", "Pull it down!\"", "The 9/11 Commission later reported that the plane's control wheel was turned hard to the right, causing it to roll on its back and plow into an empty field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, at , killing everyone on board.", "The plane was 20 minutes of flying time away from its suspected target, the White House or the U.S. Capitol Building in Washington, D.C.", "According to Vice President Dick Cheney, President George W. Bush gave the order to shoot the plane down." ], [ "Legacy", "Bingham's name is located on Panel S-67 of the National September 11 Memorial's South Pool, along with those of other passengers of Flight 93.Bingham is survived by his parents and the Hoagland family members who played a part in his upbringing, by his stepmother and various stepsiblings, and by his partner of six years, Paul Holm.", "Holm described Bingham as a brave, competitive man, saying, \"He hated to lose—at anything.\"", "He was known to proudly display a scar he received after being gored at the Running of the Bulls in Pamplona, Spain.", "He is buried at Madronia Cemetery, Saratoga, California.Bingham's name on the Flight 93 National MemorialU.S.", "Senators John McCain and Barbara Boxer honored Bingham on September 17, 2001, in a ceremony for San Francisco Bay Area victims of the attacks, presenting a folded American flag to Paul Holm.The Mark Kendall Bingham Memorial Tournament (referred to as the Bingham Cup), a biennial international rugby union competition predominantly for gay and bisexual men, was established in 2002 in his memory.Bingham, along with the other passengers on Flight 93, was posthumously awarded the Arthur Ashe Courage Award in 2002.The Eureka Valley Recreation Center's Gymnasium in San Francisco was renamed the Mark Bingham Gymnasium in August 2002.Singer Melissa Etheridge dedicated the song \"Tuesday Morning\" in 2004 to his memory.Beginning in 2005, the UC Berkeley Foundation and the California Alumni Association named the Mark Bingham Award for Excellence in Achievement by Young Alumni in his honor.", "According to the university, the goal of the award is to honor \"a young alumnus/a who graduated within the last 10 years who has made a significant contribution to his/her community, country, or the world at large.\"", "The award is presented at the school's annual Berkeley Charter Gala.At the National 9/11 Memorial, Bingham and other passengers from Flight 93 are memorialized at the South Pool, on Panel S-67.At the Flight 93 National Memorial in Pennsylvania, Bingham's name is located on one of the 40 panels of polished, granite that comprise the Memorial's Wall of Names.The 2013 feature-length documentary ''The Rugby Player'' focuses on Bingham and the bond he had with his mother, Alice Hoagland, a former United Airlines flight attendant who, following his death, became an authority on airline safety and a champion of LGBT rights.", "Described by ESPN as \"an insightful and stereotype-shattering exploration\" of Bingham's life, the film, directed by Scott Gracheff, relies on the vast amount of video footage Bingham himself shot beginning in his teens until weeks before his death.", "The film's alternate title, ''With You'', is a popular rugby term, and one of Bingham's favorite expressions.", "The film premiered on Australia's ABC2 on August 20, 2014." ], [ "In popular culture", "*Television film ''The Flight That Fought Back'' (2005) portrays the passenger uprising inside the hijacked United Airlines 93, with actor Jason LeGrande portraying Mark Bingham.", "*He has been portrayed by American actor Cheyenne Jackson in ''United 93'' and Canadian actor Ty Olsson in ''Flight 93''.", "* Mark was also referenced, although not by name, in the song Tuesday Morning by Melissa Etheridge on her Breakdown album." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Barrett, Jon ''Hero of Flight 93: Mark Bingham'', Advocate Books, 2002 * \"UNITED FLIGHT 93: On Doomed Flight, Passengers Vowed to Perish Fighting\" ''The New York Times''.", "September 13, 2001" ], [ "External links", "* Mark Bingham: a Tribute to a Wonderful Man, a Great Friend, a Loving Brother, and an American Hero.", "* sffog.org: Mark's rugby team, the S.F.", "Fog (Mark's Memorial page).", "* Advocate Magazine article on Bingham.", "* Daily Cal Article referencing Mark attacking Stanford tree.", "* Mark Bingham Scholarship Fund.", "* Official Website of The Bingham Cup.", "* Team Bingham - Mark Bingham Scholarship fundraising Organization.", "* * After September 11: Farewell to a Hero (California Monthly tribute).", "* ''With You: The Mark Bingham Story''*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Manner of articulation" ], [ "Introduction", "Human vocal tractArticulation visualized by real-time MRI.In articulatory phonetics, the '''manner of articulation''' is the configuration and interaction of the articulators (speech organs such as the tongue, lips, and palate) when making a speech sound.", "One parameter of manner is ''stricture,'' that is, how closely the speech organs approach one another.", "Others include those involved in the r-like sounds (taps and trills), and the sibilancy of fricatives.The concept of manner is mainly used in the discussion of consonants, although the movement of the articulators will also greatly alter the resonant properties of the vocal tract, thereby changing the formant structure of speech sounds that is crucial for the identification of vowels.", "For consonants, the place of articulation and the degree of phonation or voicing are considered separately from manner, as being independent parameters.", "Homorganic consonants, which have the same place of articulation, may have different manners of articulation.", "Often nasality and laterality are included in manner, but some phoneticians, such as Peter Ladefoged, consider them to be independent." ], [ "Broad classifications", "Euler diagram showing a typical classification of sounds (in IPA) and their manners of articulation and phonological featuresManners of articulation with substantial obstruction of the airflow (stops, fricatives, affricates) are called '''obstruents'''.", "These are prototypically voiceless, but voiced obstruents are extremely common as well.", "Manners without such obstruction (nasals, liquids, approximants, and also vowels) are called '''sonorants''' because they are nearly always voiced.", "Voiceless sonorants are uncommon, but are found in Welsh and Classical Greek (the spelling \"rh\"), in Standard Tibetan (the \"lh\" of Lhasa), and the \"wh\" in those dialects of English that distinguish \"which\" from \"witch\".Sonorants may also be called '''resonants''', and some linguists prefer that term, restricting the word 'sonorant' to non-vocoid resonants (that is, nasals and liquids, but not vowels or semi-vowels).", "Another common distinction is between '''occlusives''' (stops, nasals and affricates) and '''continuants''' (all else)." ], [ "Structure", "From greatest to least stricture, speech sounds may be classified along a cline as stop consonants (with ''occlusion'', or blocked airflow), fricative consonants (with partially blocked and therefore strongly turbulent airflow), approximants (with only slight turbulence), tense vowels, and finally lax vowels (with full unimpeded airflow).", "Affricates often behave as if they were intermediate between stops and fricatives, but phonetically they are sequences of a stop and fricative.Over time, sounds in a language may move along the cline toward less stricture in a process called lenition or towards more stricture in a process called fortition." ], [ "Other parameters", "Sibilants are distinguished from other fricatives by the shape of the tongue and how the airflow is directed over the teeth.", "Fricatives at coronal places of articulation may be sibilant or non-sibilant, sibilants being the more common.Flaps (also called taps) are similar to very brief stops.", "However, their articulation and behavior are distinct enough to be considered a separate manner, rather than just length.", "The main articulatory difference between flaps and stops is that, due to the greater length of stops compared to flaps, a build-up of air pressure occurs behind a stop which does not occur behind a flap.", "This means that when the stop is released, there is a burst of air as the pressure is relieved, while for flaps there is no such burst.Trills involve the vibration of one of the speech organs.", "Since trilling is a separate parameter from stricture, the two may be combined.", "Increasing the stricture of a typical trill results in a trilled fricative.", "Trilled affricates are also known.Nasal airflow may be added as an independent parameter to any speech sound.", "It is most commonly found in nasal occlusives and nasal vowels, but nasalized fricatives, taps, and approximants are also found.", "When a sound is not nasal, it is called ''oral.", "''Laterality is the release of airflow at the side of the tongue.", "This can be combined with other manners, resulting in lateral approximants (such as the pronunciation of the letter L in the English word \"let\"), lateral flaps, and lateral fricatives and affricates." ], [ "Individual manners", "* '''Plosive''', often called '''stop''', is an oral occlusive, where there is ''occlusion'' (blocking) of the oral vocal tract, and no nasal air flow, so the air flow stops completely.", "Examples include English (voiceless) and (voiced).", "If the consonant is voiced, the voicing is the only sound made during occlusion; if it is voiceless, a stop is completely silent.", "What we hear as a /p/ or /k/ is the effect that the ''onset'' of the occlusion has on the preceding vowel, as well as the release burst and its effect on the following vowel.", "The shape and position of the tongue (the ''place'' of articulation) determine the resonant cavity that gives different stops their characteristic sounds.", "All languages have stops.", "* '''Nasal''', a nasal occlusive, where there is occlusion of the oral tract, but air passes through the nose.", "The shape and position of the tongue determine the resonant cavity that gives different nasals their characteristic sounds.", "Examples include English .", "Nearly all languages have nasals, the only exceptions being in the area of Puget Sound and a single language on Bougainville Island.", "* '''Fricative''', sometimes called '''spirant''', where there is continuous ''frication'' (turbulent and noisy airflow) at the place of articulation.", "Examples include English (voiceless), (voiced), etc.", "Most languages have fricatives, though many have only an .", "However, the Indigenous Australian languages are almost completely devoid of fricatives of any kind.", "** '''Sibilants''' are a type of fricative where the airflow is guided by a groove in the tongue toward the teeth, creating a high-pitched and very distinctive sound.", "These are by far the most common fricatives.", "Fricatives at coronal (front of tongue) places of articulation are usually, though not always, sibilants.", "English sibilants include and .", "** '''Lateral fricatives''' are a rare type of fricative, where the frication occurs on one or both sides of the edge of the tongue.", "The \"ll\" of Welsh and the \"hl\" of Zulu are lateral fricatives.", "* '''Affricate''', which begins like a stop, but this releases into a fricative rather than having a separate release of its own.", "The English letters \"ch\" and \"j\" represent affricates.", "Affricates are quite common around the world, though less common than fricatives.", "* '''Flap''', often called a '''tap''', is a momentary closure of the oral cavity.", "The \"tt\" of \"utter\" and the \"dd\" of \"udder\" are pronounced as a flap in North American and Australian English.", "Many linguists distinguish ''taps'' from ''flaps'', but there is no consensus on what the difference might be.", "No language relies on such a difference.", "There are also '''lateral flaps'''.", "* '''Trill''', in which the articulator (usually the tip of the tongue) is held in place, and the airstream causes it to vibrate.", "The double \"r\" of Spanish \"perro\" is a trill.", "Trills and flaps, where there are one or more brief occlusions, constitute a class of consonant called '''rhotics'''.", "* '''Approximant''', where there is very little obstruction.", "Examples include English and .", "In some languages, such as Spanish, there are sounds that seem to fall between ''fricative'' and ''approximant''.", "** One use of the word '''semivowel''', sometimes called a '''glide''', is a type of approximant, pronounced like a vowel but with the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth, so that there is slight turbulence.", "In English, is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel , and (spelled \"y\") is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel in this usage.", "Other descriptions use ''semivowel'' for vowel-like sounds that are not syllabic, but do not have the increased stricture of approximants.", "These are found as elements in diphthongs.", "The word may also be used to cover both concepts.", "The term '''glide''' is newer than '''semivowel''', being used to indicate an essential quality of sounds such as and , which is the movement (or '''glide''') from their initial position ( and , respectively) to a following vowel.", "** '''Lateral approximants''', usually shortened to '''lateral''', are a type of approximant pronounced with the side of the tongue.", "English is a lateral.", "Together with the ''rhotics'', which have similar behavior in many languages, these form a class of consonant called '''liquids'''." ], [ "Other airstream initiations", "All of these manners of articulation are pronounced with an airstream mechanism called pulmonic egressive, meaning that the air flows outward, and is powered by the lungs (actually the ribs and diaphragm).", "Other airstream mechanisms are possible.", "Sounds that rely on some of these include:* '''Ejectives''', which are ''glottalic egressive''.", "That is, the airstream is powered by an upward movement of the glottis rather than by the lungs or diaphragm.", "Stops, affricates, and occasionally fricatives may occur as ejectives.", "All ejectives are voiceless, or at least transition from voiced to voiceless.", "* '''Implosives''', which are ''glottalic ingressive''.", "Here the glottis moves downward, but the lungs may be used simultaneously (to provide voicing), and in some languages no air may actually flow into the mouth.", "Implosive stops are not uncommon, but implosive affricates and fricatives are rare.", "Voiceless implosives are also rare.", "* '''Clicks''', which are ''lingual ingressive''.", "Here the back of the tongue is used to create a vacuum in the mouth, causing air to rush in when the forward occlusion (tongue or lips) is released.", "Clicks may be oral or nasal, stop or affricate, central or lateral, voiced or voiceless.", "They are extremely rare in normal words outside Southern Africa.", "However, English has a click in its \"tsk tsk\" (or \"tut tut\") sound, and another is often used to say \"giddy up\" to a horse.", "* '''Percussives''' are generated by striking one organ against another.", "No standalone percussive occurs in any language, but alveolar clicks may have a sublingual percussive release in Sandawe, where after the click is pronounced, the tongue strikes the floor of the mouth.", "* Combinations of these, in some analyses, in a single consonant: ''linguo-pulmonic'' and ''linguo-glottalic (ejective)'' consonants, which are clicks released into either a pulmonic or ejective stop/fricative." ], [ "See also", "*Airstream mechanism*Articulatory phonetics*Basis of articulation*Diction*Human voice*Index of phonetics articles*Nonexplosive stop*Phonation*Place of articulation*Relative articulation*Source-filter model of speech production*Vocal tract" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Movie clip showing the human articulators in action* Interactive place and manner of articulation * Marire Buze * Interactive Flash website for American English, Spanish and German sounds" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mostaganem Province" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mostaganem''' () is a province (''wilaya'') of Algeria.", "Its capital is Mostaganem." ], [ "Geography", "The land relief in Mostaganem Province can be divided into four regions: the Dahra Range to the east, the Mostaganem Plateau to the south, the Chelif River valley which separates the two highland regions, and the plains on the province's southern border which lie next to the marshes of the Macta.The Mostaganem Plateau covers eleven municipalities in the southern part of the province: Mostaganem, Ain Tedles, Sour, Bouguirat, Sirat, Souaflia, Mesra, Ain Sidi Cherif, Mansourah, Touahria and Sayada.", "It is a semi-arid and sandy plateau, in the shape of a triangle and bounded to the north by the Chelif River.", "It receives 350 mm of rainfall per year.During French colonization, viticulture was introduced on the plateau.", "After the country's independence, it was replaced by irrigated market gardening and the culture of citrus fruits and cereals.", "However, in certain sectors east of Mostaganem, the replacement of the vineyards caused the appearance of small dunes as a consequence of the resumption of soil movement." ], [ "History", "In 1984 Relizane Province was carved out of its territory." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "The province is divided into 10 districts (''daïras''), which are further divided into 32 ''communes'' or municipalities.===Districts===# Achacha# Aïn Nouïssy# Aïn Tédelès# Bouguirat# Hassi Mamèche# Kheïr Eddine# Mesra# '''Mostaganem'''# Sidi Ali# Sidi Lakhdar===Communes===# Achacha (Achaacha)# Aïn Boudinar# Aïn Nouïssy# Aïn Sidi Chérif# Aïn Tédelès (Ain Tedles)# Benabdelmalek Ramdane (Abdelmalek Ramdane)# Bouguirat# El Hassaine# Fornaka# Hadjadj# Hassi Mamèche (Hasi Mameche)# Khadra# Kheïr Eddine (Kheiredine)# Mansourah# Mazagran (Mazagrain, Mezghrane)# Mesra# Mostaganem# Nékmaria# Oued El Kheïr# Ouled Boughalem# Ouled Malah (Ouled Maalef)# Safsaf (Saf Saf)# Sayada# Sidi Ali# Sidi Bellater (Sidi Belatar)# Sidi Lakhdar (Sidi Lakhdaara)# Sirat# Souaflia# Sour# Stidia# Tazgait# Touahria" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Motherboard" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''motherboard''' (also called '''mainboard''', '''main''' '''circuit board''', '''MB''', '''mboard''', '''backplane board''', '''base board''', '''system board''', '''mobo'''; or in Apple computers '''logic board''') is the main printed circuit board (PCB) in general-purpose computers and other expandable systems.", "It holds and allows communication between many of the crucial electronic components of a system, such as the central processing unit (CPU) and memory, and provides connectors for other peripherals.", "Unlike a backplane, a motherboard usually contains significant sub-systems, such as the central processor, the chipset's input/output and memory controllers, interface connectors, and other components integrated for general use.", "''Motherboard'' means specifically a PCB with expansion capabilities.", "As the name suggests, this board is often referred to as the \"mother\" of all components attached to it, which often include peripherals, interface cards, and daughterboards: sound cards, video cards, network cards, host bus adapters, TV tuner cards, IEEE 1394 cards, and a variety of other custom components.Dell Precision T3600 System Motherboard, used in professional CAD Workstations.", "Manufactured in 2012Similarly, the term ''mainboard'' describes a device with a single board and no additional expansions or capability, such as controlling boards in laser printers, television sets, washing machines, mobile phones, and other embedded systems with limited expansion abilities.Motherboard for a personal desktop computer; showing the typical components and interfaces which are found on a motherboard.", "This model follows the Baby AT (form factor), used in many desktop PCs." ], [ "History", "Mainboard of a NeXTcube computer (1990) with microprocessor Motorola 68040 operated at 25 MHz and a digital signal processor Motorola 56001 at 25 MHz, which was directly accessible via a connector on the back of the casingPrior to the invention of the microprocessor, the CPU of a digital computer consisted of multiple circuit boards in a card-cage case with components connected by a backplane containing a set of interconnected sockets into which the circuit boards are plugged.", "In very old designs, copper wires were the discrete connections between card connector pins, but printed circuit boards soon became the standard practice.", "The central processing unit (CPU), memory, and peripherals were housed on individually printed circuit boards, which were plugged into the backplane.In older microprocessor-based systems, the CPU and some support circuitry would fit on a single CPU board, with memory and peripherals on additional boards, all plugged into the backplane.", "The ubiquitous S-100 bus of the 1970s is an example of this type of backplane system.The most popular computers of the 1980s such as the Apple II and IBM PC had published schematic diagrams and other documentation which permitted rapid reverse engineering and third-party replacement motherboards.", "Usually intended for building new computers compatible with the exemplars, many motherboards offered additional performance or other features and were used to upgrade the manufacturer's original equipment.During the late 1980s and early 1990s, it became economical to move an increasing number of peripheral functions onto the motherboard.", "In the late 1980s, personal computer motherboards began to include single ICs (also called Super I/O chips) capable of supporting a set of low-speed peripherals: PS/2 keyboard and mouse, floppy disk drive, serial ports, and parallel ports.", "By the late 1990s, many personal computer motherboards included consumer-grade embedded audio, video, storage, and networking functions without the need for any expansion cards at all; higher-end systems for 3D gaming and computer graphics typically retained only the graphics card as a separate component.", "Business PCs, workstations, and servers were more likely to need expansion cards, either for more robust functions, or for higher speeds; those systems often had fewer embedded components.Laptop and notebook computers that were developed in the 1990s integrated the most common peripherals.", "This even included motherboards with no upgradeable components, a trend that would continue as smaller systems were introduced after the turn of the century (like the tablet computer and the netbook).", "Memory, processors, network controllers, power source, and storage would be integrated into some systems." ], [ "Design", "ISA cards and the lack of other built-in external interface connectors.", "Note the large AT keyboard connector at the back right is its only peripheral interface.The motherboard of a Samsung Galaxy SII; almost all functions of the device are integrated into a very small board.A motherboard provides the electrical connections by which the other components of the system communicate.", "Unlike a backplane, it also contains the central processing unit and hosts other subsystems and devices.A typical desktop computer has its microprocessor, main memory, and other essential components connected to the motherboard.", "Other components such as external storage, controllers for video display and sound, and peripheral devices may be attached to the motherboard as plug-in cards or via cables; in modern microcomputers, it is increasingly common to integrate some of these peripherals into the motherboard itself.An important component of a motherboard is the microprocessor's supporting chipset, which provides the supporting interfaces between the CPU and the various buses and external components.", "This chipset determines, to an extent, the features and capabilities of the motherboard.Modern motherboards include:* CPU sockets (or CPU slots) in which one or more microprocessors may be installed.", "In the case of CPUs in ball grid array packages, such as the VIA Nano and the Goldmont Plus, the CPU is directly soldered to the motherboard.", "* Memory slots into which the system's main memory is to be installed, typically in the form of DIMM modules containing DRAM chips.", "Can be DDR3, DDR4, DDR5, or onboard LPDDRx.", "* The chipset which forms an interface between the CPU, main memory, and peripheral buses* Non-volatile memory chips (usually flash memory in modern motherboards) containing the system's firmware or BIOS* The clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various components* Slots for expansion cards (the interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset)* Power connectors, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply and distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards.", ", some graphics cards (e.g.", "GeForce 8 and Radeon R600) require more power than the motherboard can provide, and thus dedicated connectors have been introduced to attach them directly to the power supply.", "* Connectors for hard disk drives, optical disc drives, or solid-state drives, typically SATA and NVMe nowAdditionally, nearly all motherboards include logic and connectors to support commonly used input devices, such as USB for mouse devices and keyboards.", "Early personal computers such as the Apple II or IBM PC included only this minimal peripheral support on the motherboard.", "Occasionally video interface hardware was also integrated into the motherboard; for example, on the Apple II and rarely on IBM-compatible computers such as the IBM PCjr.", "Additional peripherals such as disk controllers and serial ports were provided as expansion cards.Given the high thermal design power of high-speed computer CPUs and components, modern motherboards nearly always include heat sinks and mounting points for fans to dissipate excess heat.===Form factor===Motherboards are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes called form factors, some of which are specific to individual computer manufacturers.", "However, the motherboards used in IBM-compatible systems are designed to fit various case sizes.", ", most desktop computer motherboards use the ATX standard form factor — even those found in Macintosh and Sun computers, which have not been built from commodity components.", "A case's motherboard and power supply unit (PSU) form factor must all match, though some smaller form factor motherboards of the same family will fit larger cases.", "For example, an ATX case will usually accommodate a microATX motherboard.", "Laptop computers generally use highly integrated, miniaturized, and customized motherboards.", "This is one of the reasons that laptop computers are difficult to upgrade and expensive to repair.", "Often the failure of one laptop component requires the replacement of the entire motherboard, which is usually more expensive than a desktop motherboard.===CPU sockets===A CPU socket (central processing unit) or slot is an electrical component that attaches to a printed circuit board (PCB) and is designed to house a CPU (also called a microprocessor).", "It is a special type of integrated circuit socket designed for very high pin counts.", "A CPU socket provides many functions, including a physical structure to support the CPU, support for a heat sink, facilitating replacement (as well as reducing cost), and most importantly, forming an electrical interface both with the CPU and the PCB.", "CPU sockets on the motherboard can most often be found in most desktop and server computers (laptops typically use surface mount CPUs), particularly those based on the Intel x86 architecture.", "A CPU socket type and motherboard chipset must support the CPU series and speed.===Integrated peripherals===Block diagram of an early 2000s motherboard, which supports many on-board peripheral functions as well as several expansion slotsWith the steadily declining costs and size of integrated circuits, it is now possible to include support for many peripherals on the motherboard.", "By combining many functions on one PCB, the physical size and total cost of the system may be reduced; highly integrated motherboards are thus especially popular in small form factor and budget computers.", "* Disk controllers for SATA drives, and historical PATA drives* Historical floppy-disk controller* Integrated graphics controller supporting 2D and 3D graphics, with VGA, DVI, HDMI, DisplayPort, and TV output* integrated sound card supporting 8-channel (7.1) audio and S/PDIF output* Ethernet network controller for connection to a LAN and to receive Internet* USB controller* Wireless network interface controller* Bluetooth controller* Temperature, voltage, and fan-speed sensors that allow software to monitor the health of computer components.===Peripheral card slots===A typical motherboard will have a different number of connections depending on its standard and form factor.A standard, modern ATX motherboard will typically have two or three PCI-Express x16 connection for a graphics card, one or two legacy PCI slots for various expansion cards, and one or two PCI-E x1 (which has superseded PCI).", "A standard EATX motherboard will have two to four PCI-E x16 connection for graphics cards, and a varying number of PCI and PCI-E x1 slots.", "It can sometimes also have a PCI-E x4 slot (will vary between brands and models).Some motherboards have two or more PCI-E x16 slots, to allow more than 2 monitors without special hardware, or use a special graphics technology called SLI (for Nvidia) and Crossfire (for AMD).", "These allow 2 to 4 graphics cards to be linked together, to allow better performance in intensive graphical computing tasks, such as gaming, video editing, etc.In newer motherboards, the M.2 slots are for SSD and/or wireless network interface controller.===Temperature and reliability===A motherboard of a Vaio E series laptop (right)A microATX motherboard with some faulty capacitorsMotherboards are generally air cooled with heat sinks often mounted on larger chips in modern motherboards.", "Insufficient or improper cooling can cause damage to the internal components of the computer, or cause it to crash.", "Passive cooling, or a single fan mounted on the power supply, was sufficient for many desktop computer CPU's until the late 1990s; since then, most have required CPU fans mounted on heat sinks, due to rising clock speeds and power consumption.", "Most motherboards have connectors for additional computer fans and integrated temperature sensors to detect motherboard and CPU temperatures and controllable fan connectors which the BIOS or operating system can use to regulate fan speed.", "Alternatively computers can use a water cooling system instead of many fans.Some small form factor computers and home theater PCs designed for quiet and energy-efficient operation boast fan-less designs.", "This typically requires the use of a low-power CPU, as well as a careful layout of the motherboard and other components to allow for heat sink placement.A 2003 study found that some spurious computer crashes and general reliability issues, ranging from screen image distortions to I/O read/write errors, can be attributed not to software or peripheral hardware but to aging capacitors on PC motherboards.", "Ultimately this was shown to be the result of a faulty electrolyte formulation, an issue termed capacitor plague.Modern motherboards use electrolytic capacitors to filter the DC power distributed around the board.", "These capacitors age at a temperature-dependent rate, as their water based electrolytes slowly evaporate.", "This can lead to loss of capacitance and subsequent motherboard malfunctions due to voltage instabilities.", "While most capacitors are rated for 2000 hours of operation at , their expected design life roughly doubles for every below this.", "At a lifetime of 3 to 4 years can be expected.", "However, many manufacturers deliver substandard capacitors, which significantly reduce life expectancy.", "Inadequate case cooling and elevated temperatures around the CPU socket exacerbate this problem.", "With top blowers, the motherboard components can be kept under , effectively doubling the motherboard lifetime.Mid-range and high-end motherboards, on the other hand, use solid capacitors exclusively.", "For every 10 °C less, their average lifespan is multiplied approximately by three, resulting in a 6-times higher lifetime expectancy at .", "These capacitors may be rated for 5000, 10000 or 12000 hours of operation at , extending the projected lifetime in comparison with standard solid capacitors.In desktop PCs and notebook computers, the motherboard cooling and monitoring solutions are usually based on a super I/O chip or an embedded controller." ], [ "Bootstrapping", "Motherboards contain a ROM (and later EPROM, EEPROM, NOR flash) that stores to initialize hardware devices and boot an operating system from a peripheral device.Microcomputers such as the Apple II and IBM PC used ROM chips mounted in sockets on the motherboard.", "At power-up, the central processor unit would load its program counter with the address of the Boot ROM and start executing instructions from the Boot ROM.", "These instructions initialized and tested the system hardware, displayed system information on the screen, performed RAM checks, and then attempts to boot an operating system from a peripheral device.", "If no peripheral device containing an operating system was available, then the computer would perform tasks from other ROM stores or display an error message, depending on the model and design of the computer.", "For example, both the Apple II and the original IBM PC had Cassette BASIC (ROM BASIC) and would start that if no operating system could be loaded from the floppy disk or hard disk.The boot firmware in modern IBM PC compatible motherboard designs contains either a BIOS, as did the boot ROM on the original IBM PC, or UEFI.", "UEFI is a successor to BIOS that became popular after Microsoft began requiring it for a system to be certified to run Windows 8.When the computer is powered on, the boot firmware tests and configures memory, circuitry, and peripherals.", "This Power-On Self Test (POST) may include testing some of the following things:* Video card* Expansion cards inserted into slots, such as conventional PCI and PCI Express* Historical floppy drive* Temperatures, voltages, and fan speeds for hardware monitoring* CMOS memory used to store BIOS configuration* Keyboard and mouse* Sound card* Network adapter* Optical drives: CD-ROM or DVD-ROM* Hard disk drive and solid-state drive* Security devices, such as a fingerprint reader* USB devices, such as a USB mass storage device" ], [ "See also", "* Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)* Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)* Chip creep* CMOS battery* Computer case screws* Expansion card* List of computer hardware manufacturers* M.2* Overclocking* Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)** PCI-X** PCI Express (PCIe)* Single-board computer* Switched-mode power supply#Applications* Symmetric multiprocessing* System on a chip* U.2* UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Making of a Motherboard: ECS Factory Tour* The Making of a Motherboard: Gigabyte Factory Tour* Front Panel I/O Connectivity Design Guide - v1.3 (pdf file)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mannerism" ], [ "Introduction", "In Parmigianino's ''Madonna with the Long Neck'' (1534–1540), Mannerism makes itself known by elongated proportions, highly stylized poses, and lack of clear perspective.", "'''Mannerism''' is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, spreading by about 1530 and lasting until about the end of the 16th century in Italy, when the Baroque style largely replaced it.", "Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century.Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Vasari, and early Michelangelo.", "Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, often resulting in compositions that are asymmetrical or unnaturally elegant.", "Notable for its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities, this artistic style privileges compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance painting.", "Mannerism in literature and music is notable for its highly florid style and intellectual sophistication.The definition of Mannerism and the phases within it continues to be a subject of debate among art historians.", "For example, some scholars have applied the label to certain early modern forms of literature (especially poetry) and music of the 16th and 17th centuries.", "The term is also used to refer to some late Gothic painters working in northern Europe from about 1500 to 1530, especially the Antwerp Mannerists—a group unrelated to the Italian movement.", "Mannerism has also been applied by analogy to the Silver Age of Latin literature." ], [ "Nomenclature", "Mannerism role-model: ''Laocoön and His Sons'', an ancient sculpture, rediscovered in 1506; now in the Vatican Museums.", "The artists of Mannerism greatly admired this piece of sculpture.The word \"Mannerism\" derives from the Italian ''maniera'', meaning \"style\" or \"manner\".", "Like the English word \"style\", ''maniera'' can either indicate a specific type of style (a beautiful style, an abrasive style) or indicate an absolute that needs no qualification (someone \"has style\").", "In the second edition of his ''Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects'' (1568), Giorgio Vasari used ''maniera'' in three different contexts: to discuss an artist's manner or method of working; to describe a personal or group style, such as the term ''maniera greca'' to refer to the medieval Italo-Byzantine style or simply to the ''maniera'' of Michelangelo; and to affirm a positive judgment of artistic quality.", "Vasari was also a Mannerist artist, and he described the period in which he worked as \"la maniera moderna\", or the \"modern style\".", "James V. Mirollo describes how \"bella maniera\" poets attempted to surpass in virtuosity the sonnets of Petrarch.", "This notion of \"bella maniera\" suggests that artists who were thus inspired looked to copying and bettering their predecessors, rather than confronting nature directly.", "In essence, \"bella maniera\" utilized the best from a number of source materials, synthesizing it into something new.As a stylistic label, \"Mannerism\" is not easily defined.", "It was used by Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt and popularized by German art historians in the early 20th century to categorize the seemingly uncategorizable art of the Italian 16th century—art that was no longer found to exhibit the harmonious and rational approaches associated with the High Renaissance.", "\"High Renaissance\" connoted a period distinguished by harmony, grandeur and the revival of classical antiquity.", "The term \"Mannerist\" was redefined in 1967 by John Shearman following the exhibition of Mannerist paintings organised by Fritz Grossmann at Manchester City Art Gallery in 1965.Yet historians differ as to whether Mannerism is a style, a movement, or a period.", "Some authors have called it \"Late Renaissance\".", "Although the term remains controversial, it is still commonly used to identify European art and culture in the 16th century." ], [ "Origin and development", "By the end of the High Renaissance, young artists experienced a crisis: it seemed that everything that could be achieved was already achieved.", "No more difficulties, technical or otherwise, remained to be solved.", "The detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, physiognomy and the way in which humans register emotion in expression and gesture, the innovative use of the human form in figurative composition, the use of the subtle gradation of tone, all had reached near perfection.", "The young artists needed to find a new goal, and they sought new approaches.", "At this point Mannerism started to emerge.", "The new style developed between 1510 and 1520 either in Florence, or in Rome, or in both cities simultaneously.Collected figures, ''ignudi'', from Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling===Origins and role models===This period has been described as a \"natural extension\" of the art of Andrea del Sarto, Michelangelo, and Raphael.", "Michelangelo developed his own style at an early age, a deeply original one which was greatly admired at first, then often copied and imitated by other artists of the era.", "One of the qualities most admired by his contemporaries was his ''terribilità'', a sense of awe-inspiring grandeur, and subsequent artists attempted to imitate it.", "Other artists learned Michelangelo's impassioned and highly personal style by copying the works of the master, a standard way that students learned to paint and sculpt.", "His Sistine Chapel ceiling provided examples for them to follow, in particular his representation of collected figures often called ''ignudi'' and of the Libyan Sibyl, his vestibule to the Laurentian Library, the figures on his Medici tombs, and above all his ''Last Judgment''.", "The later Michelangelo was one of the great role models of Mannerism.", "Young artists broke into his house and stole drawings from him.", "In his book ''Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects'', Giorgio Vasari noted that Michelangelo stated once: \"Those who are followers can never pass by whom they follow\".====The competitive spirit====The competitive spirit was cultivated by patrons who encouraged sponsored artists to emphasize virtuosic technique and to compete with one another for commissions.", "It drove artists to look for new approaches and dramatically illuminated scenes, elaborate clothes and compositions, elongated proportions, highly stylized poses, and a lack of clear perspective.", "Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo were each given a commission by Gonfaloniere Piero Soderini to decorate a wall in the Hall of Five Hundred in Florence.", "These two artists were set to paint side by side and compete against each other, fueling the incentive to be as innovative as possible.Copy after lost original, Michelangelo's ''Battaglia di Cascina'', by Bastiano da Sangallo, originally intended by Michelangelo to compete with Leonardo's entry for the same commissionCopy after lost original, Leonardo da Vinci's ''Battaglia di Anghiari'', by Rubens, originally intended by Leonardo to compete with Michelangelo's entry for the same commission===Early mannerism===Jacopo Pontormo, ''Entombment'', 1528; Santa Felicita, FlorenceThe early Mannerists in Florence—especially the students of Andrea del Sarto such as Jacopo da Pontormo and Rosso Fiorentino—are notable for elongated forms, precariously balanced poses, a collapsed perspective, irrational settings, and theatrical lighting.", "Parmigianino (a student of Correggio) and Giulio Romano (Raphael's head assistant) were moving in similarly stylized aesthetic directions in Rome.", "These artists had matured under the influence of the High Renaissance, and their style has been characterized as a reaction to or exaggerated extension of it.", "Instead of studying nature directly, younger artists began studying Hellenistic sculpture and paintings of masters past.", "Therefore, this style is often identified as \"anti-classical\", yet at the time it was considered a natural progression from the High Renaissance.", "The earliest experimental phase of Mannerism, known for its \"anti-classical\" forms, lasted until about 1540 or 1550.Marcia B.", "Hall, professor of art history at Temple University, notes in her book ''After Raphael'' that Raphael's premature death marked the beginning of Mannerism in Rome.In past analyses, it has been noted that mannerism arose in the early 16th century contemporaneously with a number of other social, scientific, religious and political movements such as the Copernican heliocentrism, the Sack of Rome in 1527, and the Protestant Reformation's increasing challenge to the power of the Catholic Church.", "Because of this, the style's elongated forms and distorted forms were once interpreted as a reaction to the idealized compositions prevalent in High Renaissance art.", "This explanation for the radical stylistic shift has fallen out of scholarly favor, though early Mannerist art is still sharply contrasted with High Renaissance conventions; the accessibility and balance achieved by Raphael's ''School of Athens'' no longer seemed to interest young artists.===High maniera===The second period of Mannerism is commonly differentiated from the earlier, so-called \"anti-classical\" phase.Subsequent mannerists stressed intellectual conceits and artistic virtuosity, features that have led later critics to accuse them of working in an unnatural and affected \"manner\" (''maniera'').", "Maniera artists looked to their older contemporary Michelangelo as their principal model; theirs was an art imitating art, rather than an art imitating nature.", "Art historian Sydney Joseph Freedberg argues that the intellectualizing aspect of maniera art involves expecting its audience to notice and appreciate this visual reference—a familiar figure in an unfamiliar setting enclosed between \"unseen, but felt, quotation marks\".", "The height of artifice is the Maniera painter's penchant for deliberately misappropriating a quotation.", "Agnolo Bronzino and Giorgio Vasari exemplify this strain of Maniera that lasted from about 1530 to 1580.Based largely at courts and in intellectual circles around Europe, Maniera art couples exaggerated elegance with exquisite attention to surface and detail: porcelain-skinned figures recline in an even, tempered light, acknowledging the viewer with a cool glance, if they make eye contact at all.", "The Maniera subject rarely displays much emotion, and for this reason works exemplifying this trend are often called 'cold' or 'aloof.'", "This is typical of the so-called \"stylish style\" or ''Maniera'' in its maturity." ], [ "Spread", "English Mannerism: Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, 1546, a rare English Mannerist portrait by a Flemish immigrantThe cities Rome, Florence, and Mantua were Mannerist centers in Italy.", "Venetian painting pursued a different course, represented by Titian in his long career.", "A number of the earliest Mannerist artists who had been working in Rome during the 1520s fled the city after the Sack of Rome in 1527.As they spread out across the continent in search of employment, their style was disseminated throughout Italy and Northern Europe.", "The result was the first international artistic style since the Gothic.", "Other parts of Northern Europe did not have the advantage of such direct contact with Italian artists, but the Mannerist style made its presence felt through prints and illustrated books.", "European rulers, among others, purchased Italian works, while northern European artists continued to travel to Italy, helping to spread the Mannerist style.", "Individual Italian artists working in the North gave birth to a movement known as the Northern Mannerism.", "Francis I of France, for example, was presented with Bronzino's ''Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time''.", "The style waned in Italy after 1580, as a new generation of artists, including the Carracci brothers, Caravaggio and Cigoli, revived naturalism.", "Walter Friedlaender identified this period as \"anti-mannerism\", just as the early Mannerists were \"anti-classical\" in their reaction away from the aesthetic values of the High Renaissance and today the Carracci brothers and Caravaggio are agreed to have begun the transition to Baroque-style painting which was dominant by 1600.Outside of Italy, however, Mannerism continued into the 17th century.", "In France, where Rosso traveled to work for the court at Fontainebleau, it is known as the \"Henry II style\" and had a particular impact on architecture.", "Other important continental centers of Northern Mannerism include the court of Rudolf II in Prague, as well as Haarlem and Antwerp.", "Mannerism as a stylistic category is less frequently applied to English visual and decorative arts, where native labels such as \"Elizabethan\" and \"Jacobean\" are more commonly applied.", "Seventeenth-century Artisan Mannerism is one exception, applied to architecture that relies on pattern books rather than on existing precedents in Continental Europe.Of particular note is the Flemish influence at Fontainebleau that combined the eroticism of the French style with an early version of the vanitas tradition that would dominate seventeenth-century Dutch and Flemish painting.", "Prevalent at this time was the ''pittore vago'', a description of painters from the north who entered the workshops in France and Italy to create a truly international style." ], [ "Sculpture", "As in painting, early Italian Mannerist sculpture was very largely an attempt to find an original style that would top the achievement of the High Renaissance, which in sculpture essentially meant Michelangelo, and much of the struggle to achieve this was played out in commissions to fill other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, next to Michelangelo's ''David''.", "Baccio Bandinelli took over the project of ''Hercules and Cacus'' from the master himself, but it was little more popular then than it is now, and maliciously compared by Benvenuto Cellini to \"a sack of melons\", though it had a long-lasting effect in apparently introducing relief panels on the pedestal of statues.", "Like other works of his and other Mannerists, it removes far more of the original block than Michelangelo would have done.", "Cellini's bronze ''Perseus with the Head of Medusa'' is certainly a masterpiece, designed with eight angles of view, another Mannerist characteristic, and artificially stylized in comparison with the ''David''s of Michelangelo and Donatello.", "Originally a goldsmith, his famous gold and enamel Salt Cellar (1543) was his first sculpture, and shows his talent at its best.Small bronze figures for collector's cabinets, often mythological subjects with nudes, were a popular Renaissance form at which Giambologna, originally Flemish but based in Florence, excelled in the later part of the century.", "He also created life-size sculptures, of which two entered the collection in the Piazza della Signoria.", "He and his followers devised elegant elongated examples of the ''figura serpentinata'', often of two intertwined figures, that were interesting from all angles.File:1993-1994-Giardino Giusti (Verona)-testo e photo Paolo Villa-nB08 Cortile-Statua di Apollo - scultura Arte Manierista - parete di rampicanti - Kodak EktachromeElite 100 5045 EB 100.jpg|Apollo's sculpture, Palazzo Giusti, Verona, Mannerism art with typical ''contrapposto''File:Fontainebleau escalier roi.jpg|Stucco overdoor at Fontainebleau, probably designed by Primaticcio, who painted the oval inset, 1530s or 1540sFile:03 2015 Perseo con la testa di Medusa-Benvenuto Cellini-Piazza della Signoria-Loggia dei Lanzi-volta a crociera-ordine corinzio (Firenze) Photo Paolo Villa FOTO9260.JPG|Benvenuto Cellini, ''Perseus with the Head of Medusa'', 1545–1554File:Samson slaying a philistine.jpg|Giambologna, ''Samson Slaying a Philistine'', about 1562File:Giambologna raptodasabina.jpg|Giambologna, ''Abduction of a Sabine Woman'', completed in 1583, Florence, 13' 6\" high, marbleFile:Devries-mercuriocrop.jpg|Adriaen de Vries, ''Mercury and Psyche'', Northern Mannerist life-size bronze, made in 1593 for Rudolf II, Holy Roman EmperorFile:Statue Of Venus.jpg|''Venus'', , marble, Roman, British Museum" ], [ "Early theorists", "Pietro Francavilla, ''Apollo Victorious over the Python'', 1591.The Walters Art Museum.===Giorgio Vasari===Giorgio Vasari's opinions about the art of painting emerge in the praise he bestows on fellow artists in his multi-volume ''Lives of the Artists'': he believed that excellence in painting demanded refinement, richness of invention (''invenzione''), expressed through virtuoso technique (''maniera''), and wit and study that appeared in the finished work, all criteria that emphasized the artist's intellect and the patron's sensibility.", "The artist was now no longer just a trained member of a local Guild of St Luke.", "Now he took his place at court alongside scholars, poets, and humanists, in a climate that fostered an appreciation for elegance and complexity.", "The coat-of-arms of Vasari's Medici patrons appears at the top of his portrait, quite as if it were the artist's own.", "The framing of the woodcut image of Vasari's ''Lives'' would be called \"Jacobean\" in an English-speaking milieu.", "In it, Michelangelo's Medici tombs inspire the anti-architectural \"architectural\" features at the top, the papery pierced frame, the satyr nudes at the base.", "As a mere frame it is extravagant: Mannerist, in short..===Gian Paolo Lomazzo===Another literary figure from the period is Gian Paolo Lomazzo, who produced two works—one practical and one metaphysical—that helped define the Mannerist artist's self-conscious relation to his art.", "His ''Trattato dell'arte della pittura, scoltura et architettura'' (Milan, 1584) is in part a guide to contemporary concepts of decorum, which the Renaissance inherited in part from Antiquity but Mannerism elaborated upon.", "Lomazzo's systematic codification of aesthetics, which typifies the more formalized and academic approaches typical of the later 16th century, emphasized a consonance between the functions of interiors and the kinds of painted and sculpted decors that would be suitable.", "Iconography, often convoluted and abstruse, is a more prominent element in the Mannerist styles.", "His less practical and more metaphysical ''Idea del tempio della pittura'' (''The ideal temple of painting'', Milan, 1590) offers a description along the lines of the \"four temperaments\" theory of human nature and personality, defining the role of individuality in judgment and artistic invention." ], [ "Characteristics of artworks", "Mannerism was an anti-classical movement which differed greatly from the aesthetic ideologies of the Renaissance.", "Though Mannerism was initially accepted with positivity based on the writings of Vasari, it was later regarded in a negative light because it solely view as \"an alteration of natural truth and a trite repetition of natural formulas.\"", "As an artistic moment, Mannerism involves many characteristics that are unique and specific to experimentation of how art is perceived.", "Below is a list of many specific characteristics that Mannerist artists would employ in their artworks.", "* Elongation of figures: often Mannerist work featured the elongation of the human figure – occasionally this contributed to the bizarre imagery of some Mannerist art.", "* Distortion of perspective: in paintings, the distortion of perspective explored the ideals for creating a perfect space.", "However, the idea of perfection sometimes alluded to the creation of unique imagery.", "One way in which distortion was explored was through the technique of foreshortening.", "At times, when extreme distortion was utilized, it would render the image nearly impossible to decipher.", "* Black backgrounds: Mannerist artists often utilized flat black backgrounds to present a full contrast of contours in order to create dramatic scenes.", "Black backgrounds also contributed to a creating sense of fantasy within the subject matter.", "* Use of darkness and light: many Mannerists were interested in capturing the essence of the night sky through the use of intentional illumination, often creating a sense of fantasy scenes.", "Notably, special attention was paid to torch and moonlight to create dramatic scenes.", "* Sculptural forms: Mannerism was greatly influenced by sculpture, which gained popularity in the sixteenth century.", "As a result, Mannerist artists often based their depictions of human bodies in reference to sculptures and prints.", "This allowed Mannerist artists to focus on creating dimension.", "* Clarity of line: the attention that was paid to clean outlines of figures was prominent within Mannerism and differed largely from the Baroque and High Renaissance.The outlines of figures often allowed for more attention to detail.", "*Composition and space: Mannerist artists rejected the ideals of the Renaissance, notably the technique of one-point perspective.", "Instead, there was an emphasis on atmospheric effects and distortion of perspective.", "The use of space in Mannerist works instead privileged crowded compositions with various forms and figures or scant compositions with emphasis on black backgrounds.", "* Mannerist movement: the interest in the study of human movement often lead to Mannerist artists rendering a unique type of movement linked to serpentine positions.", "These positions often anticipate the movements of future positions because of their often-unstable motions figures.", "In addition, this technique attributes to the artist's experimentation of form.", "* Painted frames: in some Mannerist works, painted frames were utilized to blend in with the background of paintings and at times, contribute to the overall composition of the artwork.", "This is at times prevalent when there is special attention paid to ornate detailing.", "* Atmospheric effects: many Mannerists utilized the technique of sfumato, known as, \"the rendering of soft and hazy contours or surfaces\" in their paintings for rendering the streaming of light.", "* Mannerist colour: a unique aspect of Mannerism was in addition to the experimentation of form, composition, and light, much of the same curiosity was applied to color.", "Many artworks toyed with pure and intense hues of blues, green, pinks, and yellows, which at times detract from the overall design of artworks, and at other times, complement it.", "When painting the figure, artists would often emphasize the lightness of complexions and utilize undertones of blue." ], [ "Artists and examples of their work", "Joachim Wtewael ''Perseus and Andromeda'', 1616, Louvre, the composition displaying a ''Vanité'' of bones and seashells in the foreground and an elaborate academic nude with a palette borrowing from the forefront for Andromeda's cheeks.", "The dragon seems of Chinese influence.===Jacopo da Pontormo===Jacopo da Pontormo's work is one of the most important contributions to Mannerism.", "He often drew his subject matter from religious narratives; heavily influenced by the works of Michelangelo, he frequently alludes to or uses sculptural forms as models for his compositions.", "A well-known element of his work is the rendering of gazes by various figures which often pierce out at the viewer in various directions.", "Dedicated to his work, Pontormo often expressed anxiety about its quality and was known to work slowly and methodically.", "His legacy is highly regarded, as he influenced artists such as Agnolo Bronzino and the aesthetic ideals of late Mannerism.Pontormo's ''Joseph in Egypt'', painted in 1517, portrays a running narrative of four Biblical scenes in which Joseph reconnects with his family.", "On the left side of the composition, Pontomoro depicts a scene of Joseph introducing his family to the Pharaoh of Egypt.", "On the right, Joseph is riding on a rolling bench, as cherubs fill the composition around him in addition to other figures and large rocks on a path in the distance.", "Above these scenes, is a spiral staircase which Joseph guides one his sons to their mother at the top.", "The final scene, on the right, is the final stage of Jacob's death as his sons watch nearby.Pontormo's ''Joseph in Egypt'' features many Mannerist elements.", "One element is utilization of incongruous colors such as various shades of pinks and blues which make up a majority of the canvas.", "An additional element of Mannerism is the incoherent handling of time about the story of Joseph through various scenes and use of space.", "Through the inclusion of the four different narratives, Ponotormo creates a cluttered composition and overall sense of busyness.===Rosso Fiorentino and the School of Fontainebleau===Rosso Fiorentino, who had been a fellow pupil of Pontormo in the studio of Andrea del Sarto, in 1530 brought Florentine Mannerism to Fontainebleau, where he became one of the founders of French 16th-century Mannerism, popularly known as the School of Fontainebleau.The examples of a rich and hectic decorative style at Fontainebleau further disseminated the Italian style through the medium of engravings to Antwerp, and from there throughout Northern Europe, from London to Poland.", "Mannerist design was extended to luxury goods like silver and carved furniture.", "A sense of tense, controlled emotion expressed in elaborate symbolism and allegory, and an ideal of female beauty characterized by elongated proportions are features of this style.===Agnolo Bronzino===High Mannerism: ''Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time'' by Bronzino, ; National Gallery, LondonAgnolo Bronzino was a pupil of Pontormo, whose style was very influential and often confusing in terms of figuring out the attribution of many artworks.", "During his career, Bronzino also collaborated with Vasari as a set designer for the production \"Comedy of Magicians\", where he painted many portraits.", "Bronzino's work was sought after, and he enjoyed great success when he became a court painter for the Medici family in 1539.A unique Mannerist characteristic of Bronzino's work was the rendering of milky complexions.In the painting, ''Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time'', Bronzino portrays an erotic scene that leaves the viewer with more questions than answers.", "In the foreground, Cupid and Venus are nearly engaged in a kiss, but pause as if caught in the act.", "Above the pair are mythological figures, Father Time on the right, who pulls a curtain to reveal the pair and the representation of the goddess of the night on the left.", "The composition also involves a grouping of masks, a hybrid creature composed of features of a girl and a serpent, and a man depicted in agonizing pain.", "Many theories are available for the painting, such as it conveying the dangers of syphilis, or that the painting functioned as a court game.Mannerist portraits by Bronzino are distinguished by a serene elegance and meticulous attention to detail.", "As a result, Bronzino's sitters have been said to project an aloofness and marked emotional distance from the viewer.", "There is also a virtuosic concentration on capturing the precise pattern and sheen of rich textiles.", "Specifically, within the ''Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time'', Bronzino utilizes the tactics of Mannerist movement, attention to detail, color, and sculptural forms.", "Evidence of Mannerist movement is apparent in the awkward movements of Cupid and Venus, as they contort their bodies to partly embrace.", "Particularly, Bronzino paints the complexion with the many forms as a perfect porcelain white with a smooth effacement of their muscles which provides a reference to the smoothness of sculpture.===Alessandro Allori===Alessandro Allori's (1535–1607) ''Susanna and the Elders'' (''below'') is distinguished by latent eroticism and consciously brilliant still life detail, in a crowded, contorted composition.===Jacopo Tintoretto===Jacopo Tintoretto, ''Last Supper'', 1592–1594Jacopo Tintoretto has been known for his vastly different contributions to Venetian painting after the legacy of Titian.", "His work, which differed greatly from his predecessors, had been criticized by Vasari for its, \"fantastical, extravagant, bizarre style.\"", "Within his work, Tintoretto adopted Mannerist elements that have distanced him from the classical notion of Venetian painting, as he often created artworks which contained elements of fantasy and retained naturalism.", "Other unique elements of Tintoretto's work include his attention to color through the regular utilization of rough brushstrokes and experimentation with pigment to create illusion.An artwork that is associated with Mannerist characteristics is the ''Last Supper''; it was commissioned by Michele Alabardi for the San Giorgio Maggiore in 1591.In Tintoretto's ''Last Supper'', the scene is portrayed from the angle of group of people along the right side of the composition.", "On the left side of the painting, Christ and the Apostles occupy one side of the table and single out Judas.", "Within the dark space, there are few sources of light; one source is emitted by Christ's halo and hanging torch above the table.In its distinct composition, the ''Last Supper'' portrays Mannerist characteristics.", "One characteristic that Tintoretto utilizes is a black background.", "Though the painting gives some indication of an interior space through the use of perspective, the edges of the composition are mostly shrouded in shadow which provides drama for the central scene of the ''Last Supper''.", "Additionally, Tintoretto utilizes the spotlight effects with light, especially with the halo of Christ and the hanging torch above the table.", "A third Mannerist characteristic that Tintoretto employs are the atmospheric effects of figures shaped in smoke and float about the composition.===El Greco===El Greco attempted to express religious emotion with exaggerated traits.", "After the realistic depiction of the human form and the mastery of perspective achieved in High Renaissance, some artists started to deliberately distort proportions in disjointed, irrational space for emotional and artistic effect.", "El Greco still is a deeply original artist.", "He has been characterized by modern scholars as an artist so individual that he belongs to no conventional school.", "Key aspects of Mannerism in El Greco include the jarring \"acid\" palette, elongated and tortured anatomy, irrational perspective and light, and obscure and troubling iconography.", "El Greco's style was a culmination of unique developments based on his Greek heritage and travels to Spain and Italy.El Greco's work reflects a multitude of styles including Byzantine elements as well as the influence of Caravaggio and Parmigianino in addition to Venetian coloring.", "An important element is his attention to color as he regarded it to be one of the most important aspects of his painting.", "Over the course of his career, El Greco's work remained in high demand as he completed important commissions in locations such as the Colegio de la Encarnación de Madrid.El Greco, ''Laocoön'' (), National Gallery of Art El Greco's unique painting style and connection to Mannerist characteristics is especially prevalent in the work ''Laocoön''.", "Painted in 1610, it depicts the mythological tale of Laocoön, who warned the Trojans about the danger of the wooden horse which was presented by the Greeks as peace offering to the goddess Minerva.", "As a result, Minerva retaliated in revenge by summoning serpents to kill Laocoön and his two sons.", "Instead of being set against the backdrop of Troy, El Greco situated the scene near Toledo, Spain in order to \"universalize the story by drawing out its relevance for the contemporary world.", "\"El Greco's unique style in ''Laocoön'' exemplifies many Mannerist characteristics.", "Prevalent is the elongation of many of the human forms throughout the composition in conjunction with their serpentine movement, which provides a sense of elegance.", "An additional element of Mannerist style is the atmospheric effects in which El Greco creates a hazy sky and blurring of landscape in the background.", "===Benvenuto Cellini===Benvenuto Cellini created the ''Cellini Salt Cellar'' of gold and enamel in 1540 featuring Poseidon and Amphitrite (water and earth) placed in uncomfortable positions and with elongated proportions.", "It is considered a masterpiece of Mannerist sculpture.", "''Minerva Dressing'' (1613) by Lavinia Fontana (1552–1614).", "Galleria Borghese, Rome.=== Lavinia Fontana ===Lavinia Fontana (1552–1614) was a Mannerist portraitist often acknowledged to be the first female career artist in Western Europe.", "She was appointed to be the Portraitist in Ordinary at the Vatican.", "Her style is characterized as being influenced by the Carracci family of painters by the colors of the Venetian School.", "She is known for her portraits of noblewomen, and for her depiction of nude figures, which was unusual for a woman of her time.===Taddeo Zuccaro (or Zuccari)===Taddeo Zuccaro was born in Sant'Angelo in Vado, near Urbino, the son of Ottaviano Zuccari, an almost unknown painter.", "His brother Federico, born around 1540, was also a painter and architect.===Federico Zuccaro (or Zuccari)===Federico Zuccaro's documented career as a painter began in 1550, when he moved to Rome to work under Taddeo, his elder brother.", "He went on to complete decorations for Pius IV, and help complete the fresco decorations at the Villa Farnese at Caprarola.", "Between 1563 and 1565, he was active in Venice with the Grimani family of Santa Maria Formosa.", "During his Venetian period, he traveled alongside Palladio in Friuli.===Joachim Wtewael===Joachim Wtewael (1566–1638) continued to paint in a Northern Mannerist style until the end of his life, ignoring the arrival of the Baroque art, and making him perhaps the last significant Mannerist artist still to be working.", "His subjects included large scenes with still life in the manner of Pieter Aertsen, and mythological scenes, many small cabinet paintings beautifully executed on copper, and most featuring nudity.===Giuseppe Arcimboldo===Giuseppe Arcimboldo is most readily known for his artworks that incorporate still life and portraiture.", "His style is viewed as Mannerist with the assemblage style of fruits and vegetables in which its composition can be depicted in various ways—right side up and upside down.", "Arcimboldo's artworks have also applied to Mannerism in terms of humor that it conveys to viewers, because it does not hold the same degree of seriousness as Renaissance works.", "Stylistically, Arcimboldo's paintings are known for their attention to nature and concept of a \"monstrous appearance\".One of Arcimboldo's paintings which contains various Mannerist characteristics is, ''Vertumnus''.", "Painted against a black background is a portrait of Rudolf II, whose body is composed of various vegetables, flowers, and fruits.", "The joke of the painting communicates the humor of power which is that Emperor Rudolf II is hiding a dark inner self behind his public image.", "On the other hand, the serious tone of the painting foreshadows the good fortune that would be prevalent during his reign.", "''Vertumnus'' contains various Mannerist elements in terms of its composition and message.", "One element is the flat, black background which Arcimboldo utilizes to emphasize the status and identity of the Emperor, as well as highlighting the fantasy of his reign.", "In the portrait of Rudolf II, Arcimboldo also strays away from the naturalistic representation of the Renaissance, and explores the construction of composition by rendering him from a jumble of fruits, vegetables, plants and flowers.", "Another element of Mannerism which the painting portrays is the dual narrative of a joke and serious message; humor wasn't normally utilized in Renaissance artworks.File:Jacopo Pontormo 032.jpg|Jacopo Pontormo, ''Joseph in Egypt'', 1515–1518, oil on wood, 96 x 109 cm, National Gallery, LondonFile:Fontainebleau interior francois I gallery 02.JPG|Rosso Fiorentino, Francois I Gallery, ''Château de Fontainebleau'', FranceFile:AN00056627 001 l Caraglio Juno in niche.jpg|Juno in a niche, engraving by Jacopo Caraglio, probably from a drawing of 1526 by Rosso FiorentinoFile:Bibliotekarien konserverad - Skoklosters slott - 97136.tif|Giuseppe Arcimboldo, ''The Librarian'', 1562, Skokloster CastleFile:Arcimboldo, Giuseppe ~ Autumn, 1573, oil on canvas, Musée du Louvre, Paris.jpg|Giuseppe Arcimboldo, ''Autumn'', 1573, oil on canvas, Louvre Museum, ParisFile:Vertumnus årstidernas gud målad av Guiseppe Arcimboldo 1591 - Skoklosters slott - 91503.tif|Giuseppe Arcimboldo, ''Vertumnus the god of seasons'', 1591, Skokloster CastleFile:Angelo Bronzino 037.jpg|Bronzino, ''Portrait of Bia de' Medici'', File:Alessandro Allori - Susanna and The Elders - WGA00186.jpg|Alessandro Allori, ''Susanna and the Elders'', 1561File:Elgreco.christ.200pix.jpg|El Greco, ''Baptism''," ], [ "Architecture", "The Vleeshal in Haarlem, NetherlandsThe Town Hall in Zamość, Poland, designed by Bernardo MorandoMannerist architecture was characterized by visual trickery and unexpected elements that challenged the Renaissance norms.", "Flemish artists, many of whom had traveled to Italy and were influenced by Mannerist developments there, were responsible for the spread of Mannerist trends into Europe north of the Alps, including into the realm of architecture.", "During the period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships.", "The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms.", "The best known architect associated with the Mannerist style, and a pioneer at the Laurentian Library, was Michelangelo (1475–1564).", "He is credited with inventing the giant order, a large pilaster or column that stretches from the bottom to the top of a multi-storey façade.", "He used this in his design for the Piazza del Campidoglio in Rome.", "The Herrerian style ( or ''arquitectura herreriana'') of architecture was developed in Spain during the last third of the 16th century under the reign of Philip II (1556–1598), and continued in force in the 17th century, but transformed by the Baroque style of the time.", "It corresponds to the third and final stage of the Spanish Renaissance architecture, which evolved into a progressive purification ornamental, from the initial Plateresque to classical Purism of the second third of the 16th century and total nudity decorative that introduced the Herrerian style.Prior to the 20th century, the term ''Mannerism'' had negative connotations, but it is now used to describe the historical period in more general, non-judgmental terms.", "Mannerist architecture has also been used to describe a trend in the 1960s and 1970s that involved breaking the norms of modernist architecture while at the same time recognizing their existence.", "Defining Mannerism in this context, architect and author Robert Venturi wrote \"Mannerism for architecture of our time that acknowledges conventional order rather than original expression but breaks the conventional order to accommodate complexity and contradiction and thereby engages ambiguity unambiguously.", "\"===Renaissance examples===An example of Mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola, in the rugged countryside outside of Rome.", "The proliferation of engravers during the 16th century spread Mannerist styles more quickly than any previous styles.Dense with ornament of \"Roman\" detailing, the display doorway at Colditz Castle exemplifies the northern style, characteristically applied as an isolated \"set piece\" against unpretentious vernacular walling.From the late 1560s onwards, many buildings in Valletta, the new capital city of Malta, were designed by the architect Girolamo Cassar in the Mannerist style.", "Such buildings include St. John's Co-Cathedral, the Grandmaster's Palace and the seven original auberges.", "Many of Cassar's buildings were modified over the years, especially in the Baroque period.", "However, a few buildings, such as Auberge d'Aragon and the exterior of St. John's Co-Cathedral, retain most of Cassar's original Mannerist design.File:Palazzo Te Mantova 1.jpg|One of the best examples of Mannerist architecture: Palazzo Te in Mantua, designed by Giulio RomanoFile:3538MantovaPalazzoDucale.jpg|Giulio Romano, Ducal Palace, MantuaFile:3579MantovaCasaGiulioRomano.jpg|Own house of Giulio Romano, in MantuaFile:Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne.jpg|Baldassare Peruzzi, Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne, in RomeFile:Biblioteca laurenziana, vestibolo 04.JPG|Michelangelo, vestibule of Laurentian LibraryFile:St Johns Co-Cathedral.jpg|St.", "John's Co-Cathedral, in Valletta, MaltaFile:Catedral Basílica Salvador 2019-6527.jpg|Cathedral Basilica of Salvador, Brazil, built between 1657 and 1746, a UNESCO World Heritage SiteFile:Iglesia de San Francisco, Quito, Ecuador, 2015-07-22, DD 152 (cropped).JPG|The large Basilica of San Francisco, in Quito, Ecuador, built between 1535 and 1650The rhyolitic tuff portal of the \"church house\" at Colditz Castle, Saxony, designed by Andreas Walther II (1584), is an example of the exuberance of Antwerp MannerismWhile many architectural styles explore harmonious ideals, Mannerism wants to take style a step further and explores the aesthetics of hyperbole and exaggeration.", "Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities.", "Mannerism favours compositional tension and instability rather than balance and clarity.", "The definition of Mannerism, and the phases within it, continues to be the subject of debate among art historians.A centre of Mannerist design was Antwerp during its 16th-century boom.", "Through Antwerp, Renaissance and Mannerist styles were widely introduced in England, Germany, and northern and eastern Europe in general." ], [ "Literature and music", "Literary mannerism involved such figures as Michelangelo, Clément Marot, Giovanni della Casa, Giovanni Battista Guarini, Torquato Tasso, Veronica Franco, Miguel de Cervantes, and others.In English literature, Mannerism is commonly identified with the qualities of the \"Metaphysical poets\" of whom the most famous is John Donne.", "The witty sally of a Baroque writer, John Dryden, against the verse of Donne in the previous generation, affords a concise contrast between Baroque and Mannerist aims in the arts:The rich musical possibilities in the poetry of the late 16th and early 17th centuries provided an attractive basis for the madrigal, which quickly rose to prominence as the pre-eminent musical form in Italian musical culture, as discussed by Tim Carter:The word Mannerism has also been used to describe the style of highly florid and contrapuntally complex polyphonic music made in France in the late 14th century.", "This period is now usually referred to as the ''ars subtilior''.===Mannerism and theatre===''The Early Commedia dell'Arte (1550–1621): The Mannerist Context'' by Paul Castagno discusses Mannerism's effect on the contemporary professional theatre.", "Castagno's was the first study to define a theatrical form as Mannerist, employing the vocabulary of Mannerism and maniera to discuss the typification, exaggerated, and ''effetto meraviglioso'' of the ''comici dell'arte''.", "See Part II of the above book for a full discussion of Mannerist characteristics in the commedia dell'arte.", "The study is largely iconographic, presenting a pictorial evidence that many of the artists who painted or printed commedia images were in fact, coming from the workshops of the day, heavily ensconced in the maniera tradition.The preciosity in Jacques Callot's minute engravings seem to belie a much larger scale of action.", "Callot's ''Balli di Sfessania'' () celebrates the commedia's blatant eroticism, with protruding phalli, spears posed with the anticipation of a comic ream, and grossly exaggerated masks that mix the bestial with human.", "The eroticism of the ''innamorate'' (\"lovers\") including the baring of breasts, or excessive veiling, was quite in vogue in the paintings and engravings from the second School of Fontainebleau, particularly those that detect a Franco-Flemish influence.", "Castagno demonstrates iconographic linkages between genre painting and the figures of the commedia dell'arte that demonstrate how this theatrical form was embedded within the cultural traditions of the late cinquecento.====Commedia dell'arte, ''disegno interno'', and the ''discordia concors''====Important corollaries exist between the ''disegno interno'', which substituted for the ''disegno esterno'' (external design) in Mannerist painting.", "This notion of projecting a deeply subjective view as superseding nature or established principles (perspective, for example), in essence, the emphasis away from the object to its subject, now emphasizing execution, displays of virtuosity, or unique techniques.", "This inner vision is at the heart of commedia performance.", "For example, in the moment of improvisation the actor expresses his virtuosity without heed to formal boundaries, decorum, unity, or text.", "Arlecchino became emblematic of the mannerist ''discordia concors'' (the union of opposites), at one moment he would be gentle and kind, then, on a dime, become a thief violently acting out with his battle.", "Arlecchino could be graceful in movement, only in the next beat, to clumsily trip over his feet.", "Freed from the external rules, the actor celebrated the evanescence of the moment; much the way Benvenuto Cellini would dazzle his patrons by draping his sculptures, unveiling them with lighting effects and a sense of the marvelous.", "The presentation of the object became as important as the object itself." ], [ "Neo-Mannerism", "In the 20th century, the rise of Neo-Mannerism stemmed from artist Ernie Barnes.", "The style was heavily influenced by both the Jewish Community, as well as the African-American Community, leading to \"The Beauty of the Ghetto\" exhibition between 1972 and 1979.The Exhibition toured major American cities, and was hosted by dignitaries, professional athletes, and celebrities.", "When the exhibition was on view in 1974 at the Museum of African Art in Washington, D.C., Rep. John Conyers stressed the important positive message of the exhibit in the ''Congressional Record''.The style of Neo-Mannerism, as developed by Barnes, includes subjects with elongated limbs and bodies, as well as exaggerated movement.", "Another common theme was closed eyes of the subjects, as a visual representation of \"how blind we are to one another's humanity\".", "\"We look upon each other and decide immediately: This person is black, so he must be ...", "This person lives in poverty, so he must be ...\".===Theatre and cinema===In an interview, film director Peter Greenaway mentions Federico Fellini and Bill Viola as two major inspirations for his exhaustive and self-referential play with the insoluble tension between the database form of images and the various analogous and digital interfaces that structure them cinematically.", "This play can be called neo-mannerist precisely insofar as it is distinguished from the (neo-)baroque: \"Just as Roman Catholicism would offer you paradise and heaven, there is an equivalent commercial paradise being offered very largely by the whole capitalistic effect, which is associated with Western cinema.", "This is my political analogy in terms of the use of multimedia as a political weapon.", "I would equate, in a sense, the great baroque Counter-Reformation, its cultural activity, with what cinema, American cinema predominantly, has been doing in the last seventy years.", "\"===As a term of criticism===According to art critic Jerry Saltz, \"Neo-Mannerism\" (new Mannerism) is among several clichés that are \"squeezing the life out of the art world.\"", "Neo-Mannerism describes art of the 21st century that is turned out by students whose academic teachers \"have scared them into being pleasingly meek, imitative, and ordinary\"." ], [ "See also", "* Counter-Maniera* Mannerist architecture and sculpture in Poland* Timeline of Italian artists to 1800* Mannerism in Brazil* Philippe Millereau" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "*Apel, Willi.", "1946–47.", "\"The French Secular Music of the Late Fourteenth Century\".", "''Acta Musicologica'' 18: 17–29.", "**Briganti, Giuliano.", "1962.", "''Italian Mannerism'', translated from the Italian by Margaret Kunzle.", "London: Thames and Hudson; Princeton: Van Nostrand; Leipzig: VEB Edition.", "(Originally published in Italian, as ''La maniera italiana'', La pittura italiana 10.Rome: Editori Riuniti, 1961).", "*Carter, Tim.", "1991.", "''Music in Late Renaissance and Early Baroque Italy''.", "London: Amadeus Press.", "*Castagno, Paul C.", "1994.", "''The Early Commedia Dell'arte (1550–1621): The Mannerist Context''.", "New York: P. Lang.", ".", "*Cheney, Liana de Girolami (ed.).", "2004.", "''Readings in Italian Mannerism'', second printing, with a foreword by Craig Hugh Smyth.", "New York: Peter Lang.", ".", "(Previous edition, without the foreword by Smyth, New York: Peter Lang, 1997.).", "*Cox-Rearick, Janet.", "\"Pontormo, Jacopo da.\"", "Grove Art Online.11 Apr 2019.http://www.oxfordartonline.com/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000068662.", "*Davies, David, Greco, J. H Elliott, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.), and National Gallery (Great Britain).", "El Greco.", "London: National Gallery Company, 2003.", "*Freedberg, Sidney J.", "1965.", "\"Observations on the Painting of the Maniera\".", "Reprinted in Cheney 2004, 116–23.", "*Freedberg, Sidney J.", "1971.", "''Painting in Italy, 1500–1600'', first edition.", "The Pelican History of Art.", "Harmondsworth and Baltimore: Penguin Books.", "*Freedberg, Sidney J.", "1993.", "''Painting in Italy, 1500–1600'', 3rd edition, New Haven and London: Yale University Press.", "(cloth) (pbk)*Friedländer, Walter.", "1965.", "''Mannerism and Anti-Mannerism in Italian Painting''.", "New York: Schocken.", "LOC 578295 (First edition, New York: Columbia University Press, 1958.", ")* Gombrich, Ernst Hans.", "1995.", "''The Story of Art'', sixteenth edition.", "London: Phaidon Press.", ".", "**Kaufmann, Thomas DaCosta.", "''Arcimboldo : Visual Jokes, Natural History, and Still-Life Painting''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010.ProQuest Ebook Central.", "*Lambraki-Plaka, Marina (1999).", "El Greco-The Greek.", "Kastaniotis.", ".", "* Marchetti Letta, Elisabetta, Jacopo Da Pontormo, and Rosso Fiorentino.", "Pontormo, Rosso Fiorentino.", "The Library of Great Masters.", "Antella, Florence: Scala, 199* Marías, Fernando.", "2003 \"Greco, El.\"", "Grove Art Online.", "2 April 2019.http://www.oxfordartonline.com/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000034199* Mirollo, James V.", "1984.", "''Mannerism and Renaissance Poetry: Concept, Mode, Inner Design''.", "New Haven: Yale University Press.", ".", "*Nichols, Tom.", "Tintoretto : Tradition and Identity.", "London: Reaktion, 1999.", "*Shearman, John K. G.", "1967.''Mannerism''.", "Style and Civilization.", "Harmondsworth: Penguin.", "Reprinted, London and New York: Penguin, 1990.", "* Olson, Roberta J.M., ''Italian Renaissance Sculpture'', 1992, Thames & Hudson (World of Art), *Smart, Alastair.", "The Renaissance and Mannerism in Northern Europe and Spain.", "The Harbrace History of Art.", "New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972.", "*Smyth, Craig Hugh.", "1992.", "''Mannerism and Maniera'', with an introduction by Elizabeth Cropper.", "Vienna: IRSA.", ".", "*Summerson, John.", "1983.", "''Architecture in Britain 1530–1830'', 7th revised and enlarged (3rd integrated) edition.", "The Pelican History of Art.", "Harmondsworth and New York: Penguin.", "(cased) (pbk) Reprinted with corrections, 1986; 8th edition, Harmondsworth and New York: Penguin, 1991.", "*Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt Cothren.", "Art History.", "4th ed.", "Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2011." ], [ "Further reading", "*Gardner, Helen Louise.", "1972.", "''The Metaphysical Poets, Selected and Edited,'' revised edition.", "Introduction.", "Harmondsworth, England; New York: Penguin Books.", ".", "*Grossmann F.", "1965.", "''Between Renaissance and Baroque: European Art: 1520–1600''.", "Manchester City Art Gallery*Hall, Marcia B .", "2001.", "''After Raphael: Painting in Central Italy in the Sixteenth Century'', Cambridge University Press.", ".", "*Pinelli, Antonio.", "1993.", "''La bella maniera: artisti del Cinquecento tra regola e licenza''.", "Turin: Piccola biblioteca Einaudi.", "*Sypher, Wylie.", "1955.", "''Four Stages of Renaissance Style: Transformations in Art and Literature, 1400–1700''.", "Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.", "A classic analysis of Renaissance, Mannerism, Baroque, and Late Baroque.", "*Würtenberger, Franzsepp.", "1963.", "''Mannerism: The European Style of the Sixteenth Century''.", "New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston (Originally published in German, as ''Der Manierismus; der europäische Stil des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts''.", "Vienna: A. Schroll, 1962)." ], [ "External links", "* \"Mannerism: Bronzino (1503–1572) and his Contemporaries\", on the Metropolitan Museum of Art's website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monica Lewinsky" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Monica Samille Lewinsky''' (born July 23, 1973) is an American activist and writer.", "A former White House intern, Lewinsky gained international celebrity status in the late 1990s as a result of the public coverage of a political scandal when U.S. President Bill Clinton admitted to having an affair with her during her days as an intern between 1995 and 1997.The affair, and its repercussions (which included Clinton's impeachment), became known later as the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal.She subsequently engaged in a variety of ventures that included designing a line of handbags under her name, serving as an advertising spokesperson for a diet plan, and working as a television personality.", "Lewinsky left the public spotlight in the mid-2000s to pursue a master's degree in psychology in London.", "In 2014, she returned to public view as a social activist speaking out against cyberbullying, based on her experiences dealing with the media coverage regarding the scandal." ], [ "Early life", "Lewinsky was born in San Francisco, California, and grew up in an affluent family in Southern California in the Westside Brentwood area of Los Angeles and later in Beverly Hills.", "Her father is Bernard Lewinsky, an oncologist, who is the son of German Jews who escaped from Nazi Germany, first moving to El Salvador and then finally to the United States when he was 14.Her mother, born Marcia Kay Vilensky, is an author who uses the name Marcia Lewis.", "In 1996, she wrote a \"gossip biography\", ''The Private Lives of the Three Tenors''.", "Lewinsky’s maternal grandfather, Samuel M. Vilensky, was a Lithuanian Jew, and her maternal grandmother, Bronia Poleshuk, was born in the British Concession of Tianjin, China, to a Russian Jewish family.", "Lewinsky’s parents divorced in 1988 and each has remarried.The family attended Sinai Temple in Los Angeles and Lewinsky attended Sinai Akiba Academy, the school affiliated with the Temple.", "For her primary education, she attended the John Thomas Dye School in Bel-Air.", "Lewinsky attended Beverly Hills High School for three years before transferring to Bel Air Prep (later known as Pacific High School), graduating in 1991.Following her high school graduation, Lewinsky attended Santa Monica College.", "while working for the drama department at Beverly Hills High School and at a tie shop.", "In 1992, she began a five-year affair with Andy Bleiler, her married former high school drama instructor.", "In 1993, she enrolled at Lewis & Clark College in Portland, Oregon, graduating with a bachelor's degree in psychology in 1995.In an appearance on ''Larry King Live'' in 2000, she revealed that she started an affair with a 40-year-old married man in Los Angeles when she was 18 years old, and that the affair continued while she was attending Lewis & Clark College in the early 1990s; she did not disclose the man's identity.With the assistance of a family connection, Lewinsky secured an unpaid summer White House internship in the office of White House Chief of Staff Leon Panetta.", "Lewinsky moved to Washington, D.C. and took up the position in July 1995.She moved to a paid posting in the White House Office of Legislative Affairs in December 1995." ], [ "Scandal", "Clinton with Lewinsky in February 1997Lewinsky's May 1997 government identification photographLewinsky stated that she had nine sexual encounters with President Bill Clinton in the Oval Office between November 1995 and March 1997.According to her testimony, these involved fellatio and other sexual acts, but not sexual intercourse.Clinton had previously been confronted with allegations of sexual misconduct during his time as Governor of Arkansas.", "Former Arkansas state employee Paula Jones filed a civil lawsuit against him alleging that he had sexually harassed her.", "Lewinsky's name surfaced during the discovery phase of Jones' case, when Jones' lawyers sought to show a pattern of behavior by Clinton which involved inappropriate sexual relationships with other government employees.In April 1996, Lewinsky's superiors transferred her from the White House to the Pentagon because they felt that she was spending too much time with Clinton.", "At the Pentagon, she worked as an assistant to chief Pentagon spokesman Kenneth Bacon.", "Lewinsky told co-worker Linda Tripp about her relationship with Clinton and Tripp began secretly recording their telephone conversations beginning in September 1997.She left her position at the Pentagon in December 1997.Lewinsky submitted an affidavit in the Paula Jones case in January 1998 denying any physical relationship with Clinton and she attempted to persuade Tripp to lie under oath in that case.", "Tripp gave the tapes to Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr, adding to his ongoing investigation into the Whitewater controversy.", "Starr then broadened his investigation beyond the Arkansas land use deal to include Lewinsky, Clinton, and others for possible perjury and subornation of perjury in the Jones case.", "Tripp reported the taped conversations to literary agent Lucianne Goldberg.", "She also convinced Lewinsky to save the gifts that Clinton had given her during their relationship and not to dry clean a blue dress that was stained with Clinton's semen.", "Under oath, Clinton denied having had \"a sexual affair\", \"sexual relations\", or \"a sexual relationship\" with Lewinsky.News of the Clinton–Lewinsky relationship broke in January 1998.On January 26, 1998, Clinton stated, \"I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky\" in a nationally televised White House news conference.", "The matter instantly occupied the news media, and Lewinsky spent the next weeks hiding from public attention in her mother's residence at the Watergate complex.", "News of Lewinsky's affair with Andy Bleiler, her former high school drama instructor, also came to light, and he turned over to Starr various souvenirs, photographs, and documents that Lewinsky had sent him and his wife during the time that she was in the White House.Clinton had also said, \"There is not a sexual relationship, an improper sexual relationship or any other kind of improper relationship\" which he defended as truthful on August 17, 1998, because of his use of the present tense, arguing \"it depends on what the meaning of the word 'is' is\".", "Starr obtained a blue dress from Lewinsky with Clinton's semen stained on it, as well as testimony from her that the President had inserted a cigar into her vagina.", "Clinton stated, \"I did have a relationship with Miss Lewinsky that was not appropriate\", but he denied committing perjury because, according to Clinton, the legal definition of oral sex was not encompassed by \"sex\" ''per se''.", "In addition, he relied on the definition of \"sexual relations\" as proposed by the prosecution and agreed by the defense and by Judge Susan Webber Wright, who was hearing the Paula Jones case.", "Clinton claimed that certain acts were performed ''on'' him, not ''by'' him, and therefore he did not engage in sexual relations.", "Lewinsky's testimony to the Starr Commission, however, contradicted Clinton's claim of being totally passive in their encounters.Clinton and Lewinsky were both called before a grand jury.", "Clinton testified via closed-circuit television, while Lewinsky testified in person.", "She was granted transactional immunity by the Office of the Independent Counsel in exchange for her testimony." ], [ "Life after the scandal", "The affair led to pop culture celebrity for Lewinsky, as she had become the focus of a political storm.", "Her immunity agreement restricted what she could talk about publicly, but she was able to cooperate with Andrew Morton in his writing of ''Monica's Story'', her biography which included her side of the Clinton affair.", "The book was published in March 1999; it was also excerpted as a cover story in ''Time'' magazine.", "On March 3, 1999, Barbara Walters interviewed Lewinsky on ABC's ''20/20''.", "The program was watched by 70 million Americans, which ABC said was a record for a news show.", "Lewinsky made about $500,000 from her participation in the book and another $1 million from international rights to the Walters interview, but was still beset by high legal bills and living costs.In June 1999, ''Ms.''", "magazine published a series of articles by writer Susan Jane Gilman, sexologist Susie Bright, and author-host Abiola Abrams arguing from three generations of women whether Lewinsky's behavior had any meaning for feminism.", "Also in 1999, Lewinsky declined to sign an autograph in an airport, saying, \"I'm kind of known for something that's not so great to be known for.\"", "She made a cameo appearance as herself in two sketches during the May 8, 1999, episode of NBC's ''Saturday Night Live'', a program that had lampooned her relationship with Clinton over the prior 16 months.By her own account, Lewinsky had survived the intense media attention during the scandal period by knitting.", "In September 1999, she took this interest further by beginning to sell a line of handbags bearing her name, under the company name The Real Monica, Inc.", "They were sold online as well as at Henri Bendel in New York, Fred Segal in California, and The Cross in London.", "Lewinsky designed the bags—described by ''New York'' magazine as \"hippie-ish, reversible totes\"—and traveled frequently to supervise their manufacture in Louisiana.At the start of 2000, Lewinsky began appearing in television commercials for the diet company Jenny Craig, Inc.", "The $1 million endorsement deal, which required Lewinsky to lose 40 or more pounds in six months, gained considerable publicity at the time.", "Lewinsky said that despite her desire to return to a more private life, she needed the money to pay off legal fees, and she believed in the product.", "A Jenny Craig spokesperson said of Lewinsky, \"She represents a busy active woman of today with a hectic lifestyle.", "And she has had weight issues and weight struggles for a long time.", "That represents a lot of women in America.\"", "The choice of Lewinsky as a role model proved controversial for Jenny Craig, and some of its private franchises switched to an older advertising campaign.", "The company stopped running the Lewinsky ads in February 2000, concluded her campaign entirely in April 2000, and paid her only $300,000 of the $1 million contracted for her involvement.Also at the start of 2000, Lewinsky moved to New York City, lived in the West Village, and became an A-list guest in the Manhattan social scene.", "In February 2000, she appeared on MTV's ''The Tom Green Show'', in an episode in which the host took her to his parents' home in Ottawa in search of fabric for her new handbag business.", "Later in 2000, Lewinsky worked as a correspondent for Channel 5 in the UK, on the show ''Monica's Postcards'', reporting on U.S. culture and trends from a variety of locations.In March 2002, Lewinsky, no longer bound by the terms of her immunity agreement, appeared in the HBO special, \"Monica in Black and White\", part of the ''America Undercover'' series.", "In it she answered a studio audience's questions about her life and the Clinton affair.Lewinsky hosted a reality television dating program, ''Mr.", "Personality'', on Fox Television Network in 2003, where she advised young women contestants who were picking men hidden by masks.", "Some Americans tried to organize a boycott of advertisers on the show, to protest Lewinsky's capitalizing on her notoriety.", "Nevertheless, the show debuted to very high ratings, and Alessandra Stanley wrote in ''The New York Times'': \"after years of trying to cash in on her fame by designing handbags and other self-marketing schemes, Ms. Lewinsky has finally found a fitting niche on television.\"", "The same year she appeared as a guest on the programs ''V Graham Norton'' in the UK, ''High Chaparall'' in Sweden, and ''The View'' and ''Jimmy Kimmel Live!''", "in the U.S.After Clinton's autobiography, ''My Life'', appeared in 2004, Lewinsky said in an interview with the British tabloid ''Daily Mail'':By 2005, Lewinsky found that she could not escape the spotlight in the U.S., which made both her professional and personal life difficult.", "She stopped selling her handbag line and moved to London to study social psychology at the London School of Economics.", "In December 2006, Lewinsky graduated with a Master of Science degree.", "Her thesis was titled, \"In Search of the Impartial Juror: An Exploration of the Third-Person Effect and Pre-Trial Publicity.\"", "For the next decade, she tried to avoid publicity.Lewinsky did correspond in 2009 with scholar Ken Gormley, who was writing an in-depth study of the Clinton scandals, maintaining that Clinton had lied under oath when asked detailed and specific questions about his relationship with her.", "In 2013, the items associated with Lewinsky that Bleiler had turned over to Starr were put up for auction by Bleiler's ex-wife, who had come into possession of them.During her decade out of the public eye, Lewinsky lived in London, Los Angeles, New York, and Portland but, due to her notoriety, had trouble finding employment in the communications and marketing jobs for nonprofit organizations where she had been interviewed." ], [ "Public re-emergence", "Lewinsky at the 2014 International Documentary Association AwardsIn May 2014, Lewinsky wrote an essay for ''Vanity Fair'' magazine titled \"Shame and Survival\", wherein she discussed her life and the scandal.", "She continued to maintain that the relationship was mutual and wrote that while Clinton took advantage of her, it was a consensual relationship.", "She added: \"I, myself, deeply regret what happened between me and President Clinton.", "Let me say it again: I.", "Myself.", "Deeply.", "Regret.", "What.", "Happened.\"", "However, she said it was now time to \"stick my head above the parapet so that I can take back my narrative and give a purpose to my past.\"", "The magazine later announced her as a ''Vanity Fair'' contributor, stating she would \"contribute to their website on an ongoing basis, on the lookout for relevant topics of interest\".", "In July 2014, Lewinsky was interviewed in a three-part television special for the National Geographic Channel, titled ''The 90s: The Last Great Decade''.", "The series looked at various events of the 1990s, including the scandal that brought Lewinsky into the national spotlight.", "This was Lewinsky's first such interview in more than ten years.In October 2014, she took a public stand against cyberbullying, calling herself \"patient zero\" of online harassment.", "Speaking at a ''Forbes'' magazine \"30 Under 30\" summit about her experiences in the aftermath of the scandal, she said, \"Having survived myself, what I want to do now is help other victims of the shame game survive, too.\"", "She said she was influenced by reading about the suicide of Tyler Clementi, a Rutgers University freshman, involving cyberbullying and joined Twitter to facilitate her efforts.", "In March 2015, Lewinsky continued to speak out publicly against cyberbullying, delivering a TED talk calling for a more compassionate Internet.", "In June 2015, she became an ambassador and strategic advisor for anti-bullying organization Bystander Revolution.", "The same month, she gave an anti-cyberbullying speech at the Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity.", "In September 2015, Lewinsky was interviewed by Amy Robach on ''Good Morning America'', about Bystander Revolution's Month of Action campaign for National Bullying Prevention Month.", "Lewinsky wrote the foreword to an October 2017 book by Sue Scheff and Melissa Schorr, ''Shame Nation: The Global Epidemic of Online Hate''.In October 2017, Lewinsky tweeted the #MeToo hashtag to indicate that she was a victim of sexual harassment and/or sexual assault, but did not provide details.", "She wrote an essay in the March 2018 issue of ''Vanity Fair'' in which she did not directly explain why she used the #MeToo hashtag in October.", "She did write that looking back at her relationship with Bill Clinton, although it was consensual, because he was 27 years older than she and in a position with a lot more power than she had, in her opinion the relationship constituted an \"abuse of power\" on Clinton's part.", "She added that she had been diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder due to what she had experienced after the relationship was disclosed.", "In May 2018, Lewinsky was disinvited from an event hosted by ''Town & Country'' when Bill Clinton accepted an invitation to the event.In September 2018, Lewinsky spoke at a conference in Jerusalem.", "Following her speech, she sat for a Q&A session with the host, journalist Yonit Levi.", "The first question Levi asked was whether Lewinsky thinks that Clinton owes her a private apology.", "Lewinsky refused to answer the question, and walked off the stage.", "She later tweeted that the question was posed in a pre-event meeting with Levi, and Lewinsky told her that such a question was off limits.", "A spokesman for the Israel Television News Company, which hosted the conference and is Levi's employer, responded that Levi had kept all the agreements she made with Lewinsky and honored her requests.In 2019, she was interviewed by John Oliver on his HBO show ''Last Week Tonight with John Oliver'', where they discussed the importance of solving the problem of public shaming and how her situation may have been different if social media had existed at the time that the scandal broke in the late 1990s.", "More recently, she started Alt Ending Productions with a first look deal at 20th Television.On August 6, 2019, it was announced that the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal would be the focus of the third season of the television series ''American Crime Story'' with the title ''Impeachment''.", "The season began production in October 2020.Lewinsky was a co-producer.", "It consists of 10 episodes and premiered on September 7, 2021.The season portrays the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal and is based on the book ''A Vast Conspiracy: The Real Story of the Sex Scandal That Nearly Brought Down a President'' by Jeffrey Toobin.", "The 28-year-old actress Beanie Feldstein plays Monica Lewinsky.", "In discussing the series and her observations on social media and cancel culture today in an interview with Kara Swisher for the New York Times Opinion podcast ''Sway'', Lewinsky noted that:" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Berlant, Lauren, and Duggan, Lisa.", "''Our Monica, Ourselves: The Clinton Affair and the Public Interest''.", "Sexual Cultures.", "New York: New York University Press, 2001..* Kalb, Marvin.", "''One Scandalous Story: Clinton, Lewinsky, and Thirteen Days That Tarnished American Journalism''.", "New York: Free Press, 2001..*" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Pressure measurement" ], [ "Introduction", "Example of the widely used Bourdon pressure gaugeChecking tire pressure with a spring and piston tire-pressure gauge'''Pressure measurement''' is the measurement of an applied force by a fluid (liquid or gas) on a surface.", "Pressure is typically measured in units of force per unit of surface area.", "Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum.", "Instruments used to measure and display pressure mechanically are called '''pressure gauges,''' '''vacuum gauges''' or '''compound gauges''' (vacuum & pressure).", "The widely used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device, which both measures and indicates and is probably the best known type of gauge.A vacuum gauge is used to measure pressures lower than the ambient atmospheric pressure, which is set as the zero point, in negative values (for instance, −1 bar or −760 mmHg equals total vacuum).", "Most gauges measure pressure relative to atmospheric pressure as the zero point, so this form of reading is simply referred to as \"gauge pressure\".", "However, anything greater than total vacuum is technically a form of pressure.", "For very low pressures, a gauge that uses total vacuum as the zero point reference must be used, giving pressure reading as an absolute pressure.Other methods of pressure measurement involve sensors that can transmit the pressure reading to a remote indicator or control system (telemetry)." ], [ "Absolute, gauge and differential pressures — zero reference", "Natural gas pressure gaugesilicon piezoresistive pressure sensorsEveryday pressure measurements, such as for vehicle tire pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air pressure.", "In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other specific reference.", "When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:*'''''' is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.", "Absolute pressure sensors are used in applications where a constant reference is required, like for example, high-performance industrial applications such as monitoring vacuum pumps, liquid pressure measurement, industrial packaging, industrial process control and aviation inspection.", "*'''''' is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure.", "A tire pressure gauge is an example of gauge pressure measurement; when it indicates zero, then the pressure it is measuring is the same as the ambient pressure.", "Most sensors for measuring up to 50 bar are manufactured in this way, since otherwise the atmospheric pressure fluctuation (weather) is reflected as an error in the measurement result.", "*'''''' is the difference in pressure between two points.", "Differential pressure sensors are used to measure many properties, such as pressure drops across oil filters or air filters, fluid levels (by comparing the pressure above and below the liquid) or flow rates (by measuring the change in pressure across a restriction).", "Technically speaking, most pressure sensors are really differential pressure sensors; for example a gauge pressure sensor is merely a differential pressure sensor in which one side is open to the ambient atmosphere.", "A DP cell is a device that measures the differential pressure between two inputs.The zero reference in use is usually implied by context, and these words are added only when clarification is needed.", "Tire pressure and blood pressure are gauge pressures by convention, while atmospheric pressures, deep vacuum pressures, and altimeter pressures must be absolute.For most working fluids where a fluid exists in a closed system, gauge pressure measurement prevails.", "Pressure instruments connected to the system will indicate pressures relative to the current atmospheric pressure.", "The situation changes when extreme vacuum pressures are measured, then absolute pressures are typically used instead and measuring instruments used will be different.Differential pressures are commonly used in industrial process systems.", "Differential pressure gauges have two inlet ports, each connected to one of the volumes whose pressure is to be monitored.", "In effect, such a gauge performs the mathematical operation of subtraction through mechanical means, obviating the need for an operator or control system to watch two separate gauges and determine the difference in readings.Moderate ''vacuum pressure'' readings can be ambiguous without the proper context, as they may represent absolute pressure or gauge pressure without a negative sign.", "Thus a vacuum of 26 inHg gauge is equivalent to an absolute pressure of 4 inHg, calculated as 30 inHg (typical atmospheric pressure) − 26 inHg (gauge pressure).Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 kPa at sea level, but is variable with altitude and weather.", "If the absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge pressure of the same fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure changes.", "For example, when a car drives up a mountain, the (gauge) tire pressure goes up because atmospheric pressure goes down.", "The absolute pressure in the tire is essentially unchanged.Using atmospheric pressure as reference is usually signified by a \"g\" for gauge after the pressure unit, e.g.", "70 psig, which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus atmospheric pressure.", "There are two types of gauge reference pressure: vented gauge (vg) and sealed gauge (sg).A vented-gauge pressure transmitter, for example, allows the outside air pressure to be exposed to the negative side of the pressure-sensing diaphragm, through a vented cable or a hole on the side of the device, so that it always measures the pressure referred to ambient barometric pressure.", "Thus a vented-gauge reference pressure sensor should always read zero pressure when the process pressure connection is held open to the air.A sealed gauge reference is very similar, except that atmospheric pressure is sealed on the negative side of the diaphragm.", "This is usually adopted on high pressure ranges, such as hydraulics, where atmospheric pressure changes will have a negligible effect on the accuracy of the reading, so venting is not necessary.", "This also allows some manufacturers to provide secondary pressure containment as an extra precaution for pressure equipment safety if the burst pressure of the primary pressure sensing diaphragm is exceeded.There is another way of creating a sealed gauge reference, and this is to seal a high vacuum on the reverse side of the sensing diaphragm.", "Then the output signal is offset, so the pressure sensor reads close to zero when measuring atmospheric pressure.A sealed gauge reference pressure transducer will never read exactly zero because atmospheric pressure is always changing and the reference in this case is fixed at 1 bar.To produce an absolute pressure sensor, the manufacturer seals a high vacuum behind the sensing diaphragm.", "If the process-pressure connection of an absolute-pressure transmitter is open to the air, it will read the actual barometric pressure.A '''sealed pressure sensor''' is similar to a gauge pressure sensor except that it measures pressure relative to some fixed pressure rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure (which varies according to the location and the weather)." ], [ "History", "For much of human history, the pressure of gases like air was ignored, denied, or taken for granted, but as early as the 6th century BC, Greek philosopher Anaximenes of Miletus claimed that all things are made of air that is simply changed by varying levels of pressure.", "He could observe water evaporating, changing to a gas, and felt that this applied even to solid matter.", "More condensed air made colder, heavier objects, and expanded air made lighter, hotter objects.", "This was akin to how gases really do become less dense when warmer, more dense when cooler.In the 17th century, Evangelista Torricelli conducted experiments with mercury that allowed him to measure the presence of air.", "He would dip a glass tube, closed at one end, into a bowl of mercury and raise the closed end up out of it, keeping the open end submerged.", "The weight of the mercury would pull it down, leaving a partial vacuum at the far end.", "This validated his belief that air/gas has mass, creating pressure on things around it.", "Previously, the more popular conclusion, even for Galileo, was that air was weightless and it is vacuum that provided force, as in a siphon.", "The discovery helped bring Torricelli to the conclusion:This test, known as Torricelli's experiment, was essentially the first documented pressure gauge.Blaise Pascal went further, having his brother-in-law try the experiment at different altitudes on a mountain, and finding indeed that the farther down in the ocean of atmosphere, the higher the pressure." ], [ "Units", "A pressure gauge reading in psi (red scale) and kPa (black scale)The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square metre (N·m−2 or kg·m−1·s−2).", "This special name for the unit was added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was expressed in units such as N·m−2.When indicated, the zero reference is stated in parentheses following the unit, for example 101 kPa (abs).", "The pound per square inch (psi) is still in widespread use in the US and Canada, for measuring, for instance, tire pressure.", "A letter is often appended to the psi unit to indicate the measurement's zero reference; psia for absolute, psig for gauge, psid for differential, although this practice is discouraged by the NIST.Because pressure was once commonly measured by its ability to displace a column of liquid in a manometer, pressures are often expressed as a depth of a particular fluid (''e.g.,'' inches of water).", "Manometric measurement is the subject of pressure head calculations.", "The most common choices for a manometer's fluid are mercury (Hg) and water; water is nontoxic and readily available, while mercury's density allows for a shorter column (and so a smaller manometer) to measure a given pressure.", "The abbreviation \"W.C.\" or the words \"water column\" are often printed on gauges and measurements that use water for the manometer.Fluid density and local gravity can vary from one reading to another depending on local factors, so the height of a fluid column does not define pressure precisely.", "So measurements in \"millimetres of mercury\" or \"inches of mercury\" can be converted to SI units as long as attention is paid to the local factors of fluid density and gravity.", "Temperature fluctuations change the value of fluid density, while location can affect gravity.Although no longer preferred, these '''manometric units''' are still encountered in many fields.", "Blood pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury (see torr) in most of the world, central venous pressure and lung pressures in centimeters of water are still common, as in settings for CPAP machines.", "Natural gas pipeline pressures are measured in inches of water, expressed as \"inches W.C.\"Underwater divers use manometric units: the ambient pressure is measured in units of metres sea water (msw) which is defined as equal to one tenth of a bar.", "The unit used in the US is the foot sea water (fsw), based on standard gravity and a sea-water density of 64 lb/ft3.According to the US Navy Diving Manual, one fsw equals 0.30643 msw, , or , though elsewhere it states that 33 fsw is (one atmosphere), which gives one fsw equal to about 0.445 psi.", "The msw and fsw are the conventional units for measurement of diver pressure exposure used in decompression tables and the unit of calibration for pneumofathometers and hyperbaric chamber pressure gauges.", "Both msw and fsw are measured relative to normal atmospheric pressure.In vacuum systems, the units torr (millimeter of mercury), micron (micrometer of mercury), and inch of mercury (inHg) are most commonly used.", "Torr and micron usually indicates an absolute pressure, while inHg usually indicates a gauge pressure.Atmospheric pressures are usually stated using hectopascal (hPa), kilopascal (kPa), millibar (mbar) or atmospheres (atm).", "In American and Canadian engineering, stress is often measured in kip.", "Stress is not a true pressure since it is not scalar.", "In the cgs system the unit of pressure was the barye (ba), equal to 1 dyn·cm−2.In the mts system, the unit of pressure was the pieze, equal to 1 sthene per square metre.Many other hybrid units are used such as mmHg/cm2 or grams-force/cm2 (sometimes as kg/cm2 without properly identifying the force units).", "Using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force (or their symbols) as a unit of force is prohibited in SI; the unit of force in SI is the newton (N)." ], [ "Static and dynamic pressure", "Static pressure is uniform in all directions, so pressure measurements are independent of direction in an immovable (static) fluid.", "Flow, however, applies additional pressure on surfaces perpendicular to the flow direction, while having little impact on surfaces parallel to the flow direction.", "This directional component of pressure in a moving (dynamic) fluid is called dynamic pressure.", "An instrument facing the flow direction measures the sum of the static and dynamic pressures; this measurement is called the total pressure or stagnation pressure.", "Since dynamic pressure is referenced to static pressure, it is neither gauge nor absolute; it is a differential pressure.While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on pipe walls, dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed.", "Dynamic pressure can be measured by taking the differential pressure between instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow.", "Pitot-static tubes, for example perform this measurement on airplanes to determine airspeed.", "The presence of the measuring instrument inevitably acts to divert flow and create turbulence, so its shape is critical to accuracy and the calibration curves are often non-linear." ], [ "Instruments", "A pressure gauge in actionPressure transmitterDigital air pressure sensorMiniature digital barometric pressure sensorFront and back of a silicon pressure sensor chip.", "Note the etched depression in the front; the sensitive area is extremely thin.", "The back side shows the circuitry, and rectangular contact pads at top and bottom.", "Size: 4×4 mm.A '''pressure sensor''' is a device for pressure measurement of gases or liquids.", "Pressure sensors can alternatively be called '''pressure transducers''', '''pressure transmitters''', '''pressure senders''', '''pressure indicators''', '''piezometers''' and '''manometers''', among other names.Pressure is an expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of force per unit area.", "A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed.", "Pressure sensors can vary drastically in technology, design, performance, application suitability and cost.", "A conservative estimate would be that there may be over 50 technologies and at least 300 companies making pressure sensors worldwide.", "There is also a category of pressure sensors that are designed to measure in a dynamic mode for capturing very high speed changes in pressure.", "Example applications for this type of sensor would be in the measuring of combustion pressure in an engine cylinder or in a gas turbine.", "These sensors are commonly manufactured out of piezoelectric materials such as quartz.Some pressure sensors are pressure switches, which turn on or off at a particular pressure.", "For example, a water pump can be controlled by a pressure switch so that it starts when water is released from the system, reducing the pressure in a reservoir.Pressure range, sensitivity, dynamic response and cost all vary by several orders of magnitude from one instrument design to the next.", "The oldest type is the liquid column (a vertical tube filled with mercury) manometer invented by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643.The U-Tube was invented by Christiaan Huygens in 1661.There are two basic categories of analog pressure sensors: force collector and other types.", "; Force collector types: These types of electronic pressure sensors generally use a force collector (such a diaphragm, piston, Bourdon tube, or bellows) to measure strain (or deflection) due to applied force over an area (pressure).", "* '''''Piezoresistive strain gauge''''': Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect strain due to an applied pressure, electrical resistance increasing as pressure deforms the material.", "Common technology types are silicon (monocrystalline), polysilicon thin film, bonded metal foil, thick film, silicon-on-sapphire and sputtered thin film.", "Generally, the strain gauges are connected to form a Wheatstone bridge circuit to maximize the output of the sensor and to reduce sensitivity to errors.", "This is the most commonly employed sensing technology for general purpose pressure measurement.", "*'''''Capacitive''''': Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to applied pressure, capacitance decreasing as pressure deforms the diaphragm.", "Common technologies use metal, ceramic, and silicon diaphragms.", "Capacitive pressure sensors are being integrated into CMOS technology and it is being explored if thin 2D materials can be used as diaphragm material.", "*'''''Electromagnetic''''': Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes in inductance (reluctance), linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), Hall effect, or by eddy current principle.", "*'''''Piezoelectric''''': Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon the sensing mechanism due to pressure.", "This technology is commonly employed for the measurement of highly dynamic pressures.", "As the basic principle is dynamic no static pressures can be measured with piezoelectric sensors.", "*'''''Strain-Gauge''''': Strain gauge based pressure sensors also use a pressure sensitive element where metal strain gauges are glued on or thin-film gauges are applied on by sputtering.", "This measuring element can either be a diaphragm or for metal foil gauges measuring bodies in can-type can also be used.", "The big advantages of this monolithic can-type design are an improved rigidity and the capability to measure highest pressures of up to 15,000 bar.", "The electrical connection is normally done via a Wheatstone bridge, which allows for a good amplification of the signal and precise and constant measuring results.", "*'''''Optical''''': Techniques include the use of the physical change of an optical fiber to detect strain due to applied pressure.", "A common example of this type utilizes Fiber Bragg Gratings.", "This technology is employed in challenging applications where the measurement may be highly remote, under high temperature, or may benefit from technologies inherently immune to electromagnetic interference.", "Another analogous technique utilizes an elastic film constructed in layers that can change reflected wavelengths according to the applied pressure (strain).", "*'''''Potentiometric''''': Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by applied pressure.A force-balanced fused quartz Bourdon tube pressure sensor.", "The mirror that should be mounted to the armature is absent.", "* '''''Force balancing''''': Force-balanced fused quartz Bourdon tubes use a spiral Bourdon tube to exert force on a pivoting armature containing a mirror, the reflection of a beam of light from the mirror senses the angular displacement and current is applied to electromagnets on the armature to balance the force from the tube and bring the angular displacement to zero, the current that is applied to the coils is used as the measurement.", "Due to the extremely stable and repeatable mechanical and thermal properties of fused quartz and the force balancing which eliminates most non-linear effects these sensors can be accurate to around 1PPM of full scale.", "Due to the extremely fine fused quartz structures which are made by hand and require expert skill to construct these sensors are generally limited to scientific and calibration purposes.", "Non force-balancing sensors have lower accuracy and reading the angular displacement cannot be done with the same precision as a force-balancing measurement, although easier to construct due to the larger size these are no longer used.", "; Other types: These types of electronic pressure sensors use other properties (such as density) to infer pressure of a gas, or liquid.", "*'''''Resonant''''': Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or changes in gas density, caused by applied pressure.", "This technology may be used in conjunction with a force collector, such as those in the category above.", "Alternatively, resonant technology may be employed by exposing the resonating element itself to the media, whereby the resonant frequency is dependent upon the density of the media.", "Sensors have been made out of vibrating wire, vibrating cylinders, quartz, and silicon MEMS.", "Generally, this technology is considered to provide very stable readings over time.", "The squeeze-film pressure sensor is a type of MEMS resonant pressure sensor that operates by a thin membrane that compresses a thin film of gas at high frequency.", "Since the compressibility and stiffness of the gas film are pressure dependent, the resonance frequency of the squeeze-film pressure sensor is used as a measure of the gas pressure.", "*'''''Thermal''''': Uses the changes in thermal conductivity of a gas due to density changes to measure pressure.", "A common example of this type is the Pirani gauge.", "*'''''Ionization''''': Measures the flow of charged gas particles (ions) which varies due to density changes to measure pressure.", "Common examples are the Hot and Cold Cathode gauges.A pressure sensor, a resonant quartz crystal strain gauge with a Bourdon tube force collector, is the critical sensor of DART.", "DART detects tsunami waves from the bottom of the open ocean.", "It has a pressure resolution of approximately 1mm of water when measuring pressure at a depth of several kilometers.===Hydrostatic==='''Hydrostatic''' gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic force per unit area at the base of a column of fluid.", "Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured, and can be designed to have a very linear calibration.", "They have poor dynamic response.====Piston====Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a spring (for example tire-pressure gauges of comparatively low accuracy) or a solid weight, in which case it is known as a deadweight tester and may be used for calibration of other gauges.====Liquid column (manometer)====The difference in fluid height in a liquid-column manometer is proportional to the pressure difference: Ring balance manometerLiquid-column gauges consist of a column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to different pressures.", "The column will rise or fall until its weight (a force applied due to gravity) is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube (a force applied due to fluid pressure).", "A very simple version is a U-shaped tube half-full of liquid, one side of which is connected to the region of interest while the reference pressure (which might be the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is applied to the other.", "The difference in liquid levels represents the applied pressure.", "The pressure exerted by a column of fluid of height ''h'' and density ''ρ'' is given by the hydrostatic pressure equation, ''P'' = ''hgρ''.", "Therefore, the pressure difference between the applied pressure ''Pa'' and the reference pressure ''P''0 in a U-tube manometer can be found by solving .", "In other words, the pressure on either end of the liquid (shown in blue in the figure) must be balanced (since the liquid is static), and so .In most liquid-column measurements, the result of the measurement is the height ''h'', expressed typically in mm, cm, or inches.", "The ''h'' is also known as the pressure head.", "When expressed as a pressure head, pressure is specified in units of length and the measurement fluid must be specified.", "When accuracy is critical, the temperature of the measurement fluid must likewise be specified, because liquid density is a function of temperature.", "So, for example, pressure head might be written \"742.2 mmHg\" or \"4.2 inH2O at 59 °F\" for measurements taken with mercury or water as the manometric fluid respectively.", "The word \"gauge\" or \"vacuum\" may be added to such a measurement to distinguish between a pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure.", "Both mm of mercury and inches of water are common pressure heads, which can be converted to S.I.", "units of pressure using unit conversion and the above formulas.If the fluid being measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height between the moving surface of the manometer working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is desired, except when measuring differential pressure of a fluid (for example, across an orifice plate or venturi), in which case the density ρ should be corrected by subtracting the density of the fluid being measured.Although any fluid can be used, mercury is preferred for its high density (13.534 g/cm3) and low vapour pressure.", "Its convex meniscus is advantageous since this means there will be no pressure errors from wetting the glass, though under exceptionally clean circumstances, the mercury will stick to glass and the barometer may become stuck (the mercury can sustain a negative absolute pressure) even under a strong vacuum.", "For low pressure differences, light oil or water are commonly used (the latter giving rise to units of measurement such as inches water gauge and millimetres H2O).", "Liquid-column pressure gauges have a highly linear calibration.", "They have poor dynamic response because the fluid in the column may react slowly to a pressure change.When measuring vacuum, the working liquid may evaporate and contaminate the vacuum if its vapor pressure is too high.", "When measuring liquid pressure, a loop filled with gas or a light fluid can isolate the liquids to prevent them from mixing, but this can be unnecessary, for example, when mercury is used as the manometer fluid to measure differential pressure of a fluid such as water.", "Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from a few torrs (a few 100 Pa) to a few atmospheres (approximately ).A single-limb liquid-column manometer has a larger reservoir instead of one side of the U-tube and has a scale beside the narrower column.", "The column may be inclined to further amplify the liquid movement.", "Based on the use and structure, following types of manometers are used# Simple manometer# Micromanometer# Differential manometer# Inverted differential manometer====McLeod gauge====A McLeod gauge, drained of mercuryA McLeod gauge isolates a sample of gas and compresses it in a modified mercury manometer until the pressure is a few millimetres of mercury.", "The technique is very slow and unsuited to continual monitoring, but is capable of good accuracy.", "Unlike other manometer gauges, the McLeod gauge reading is dependent on the composition of the gas, since the interpretation relies on the sample compressing as an ideal gas.", "Due to the compression process, the McLeod gauge completely ignores partial pressures from non-ideal vapors that condense, such as pump oils, mercury, and even water if compressed enough.0.1 mPa is the lowest direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology.", "Other vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of other pressure-dependent properties.", "These indirect measurements must be calibrated to SI units by a direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge.===Aneroid==='''Aneroid''' gauges are based on a metallic pressure-sensing element that flexes elastically under the effect of a pressure difference across the element.", "\"Aneroid\" means \"without fluid\", and the term originally distinguished these gauges from the hydrostatic gauges described above.", "However, aneroid gauges can be used to measure the pressure of a liquid as well as a gas, and they are not the only type of gauge that can operate without fluid.", "For this reason, they are often called '''mechanical''' gauges in modern language.", "Aneroid gauges are not dependent on the type of gas being measured, unlike thermal and ionization gauges, and are less likely to contaminate the system than hydrostatic gauges.", "The pressure sensing element may be a '''Bourdon tube''', a diaphragm, a capsule, or a set of bellows, which will change shape in response to the pressure of the region in question.", "The deflection of the pressure sensing element may be read by a linkage connected to a needle, or it may be read by a secondary transducer.", "The most common secondary transducers in modern vacuum gauges measure a change in capacitance due to the mechanical deflection.", "Gauges that rely on a change in capacitance are often referred to as capacitance manometers.====Bourdon tube====Membrane-type manometerThe Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to straighten or regain its circular form in cross-section when pressurized.", "(A party horn illustrates this principle.)", "This change in cross-section may be hardly noticeable, involving moderate stresses within the elastic range of easily workable materials.", "The strain of the material of the tube is magnified by forming the tube into a C shape or even a helix, such that the entire tube tends to straighten out or uncoil elastically as it is pressurized.", "Eugène Bourdon patented his gauge in France in 1849, and it was widely adopted because of its superior simplicity, linearity, and accuracy; Bourdon is now part of the Baumer group and still manufacture Bourdon tube gauges in France.", "Edward Ashcroft purchased Bourdon's American patent rights in 1852 and became a major manufacturer of gauges.", "Also in 1849, Bernard Schaeffer in Magdeburg, Germany patented a successful diaphragm (see below) pressure gauge, which, together with the Bourdon gauge, revolutionized pressure measurement in industry.", "But in 1875 after Bourdon's patents expired, his company Schaeffer and Budenberg also manufactured Bourdon tube gauges.An original 19th century Eugene Bourdon compound gauge, reading pressure both below and above atmospheric with great sensitivityIn practice, a flattened thin-wall, closed-end tube is connected at the hollow end to a fixed pipe containing the fluid pressure to be measured.", "As the pressure increases, the closed end moves in an arc, and this motion is converted into the rotation of a (segment of a) gear by a connecting link that is usually adjustable.", "A small-diameter pinion gear is on the pointer shaft, so the motion is magnified further by the gear ratio.", "The positioning of the indicator card behind the pointer, the initial pointer shaft position, the linkage length and initial position, all provide means to calibrate the pointer to indicate the desired range of pressure for variations in the behavior of the Bourdon tube itself.", "Differential pressure can be measured by gauges containing two different Bourdon tubes, with connecting linkages (but is more usually measured via diaphragms or bellows and a balance system).Bourdon tubes measures gauge pressure, relative to ambient atmospheric pressure, as opposed to absolute pressure; vacuum is sensed as a reverse motion.", "Some aneroid barometers use Bourdon tubes closed at both ends (but most use diaphragms or capsules, see below).", "When the measured pressure is rapidly pulsing, such as when the gauge is near a reciprocating pump, an orifice restriction in the connecting pipe is frequently used to avoid unnecessary wear on the gears and provide an average reading; when the whole gauge is subject to mechanical vibration, the case (including the pointer and dial) can be filled with an oil or glycerin.", "Typical high-quality modern gauges provide an accuracy of ±1% of span (Nominal diameter 100mm, Class 1 EN837-1), and a special high-accuracy gauge can be as accurate as 0.1% of full scale.Force-balanced fused quartz Bourdon tube sensors work on the same principle but uses the reflection of a beam of light from a mirror to sense the angular displacement and current is applied to electromagnets to balance the force of the tube and bring the angular displacement back to zero, the current that is applied to the coils is used as the measurement.", "Due to the extremely stable and repeatable mechanical and thermal properties of quartz and the force balancing which eliminates nearly all physical movement these sensors can be accurate to around 1 PPM of full scale.", "Due to the extremely fine fused quartz structures which must be made by hand these sensors are generally limited to scientific and calibration purposes.In the following illustrations of a compound gauge (vacuum and gauge pressure), the case and window has been removed to show only the dial, pointer and process connection.", "This particular gauge is a combination vacuum and pressure gauge used for automotive diagnosis:Indicator front with pointer and dialMechanical side with Bourdon tube* The left side of the face, used for measuring vacuum, is calibrated in inches of mercury on its outer scale and centimetres of mercury on its inner scale* The right portion of the face is used to measure fuel pump pressure or turbo boost and is scaled in pounds per square inch on its outer scale and kg/cm2 on its inner scale.Mechanical details include stationary and moving parts.Mechanical detailsStationary parts:Moving parts:# Stationary end of Bourdon tube.", "This communicates with the inlet pipe through the receiver block.# Moving end of Bourdon tube.", "This end is sealed.# Pivot and pivot pin# Link joining pivot pin to lever (5) with pins to allow joint rotation# Lever, an extension of the sector gear (7)# Sector gear axle pin# Sector gear# Indicator needle axle.", "This has a spur gear that engages the sector gear (7) and extends through the face to drive the indicator needle.", "Due to the short distance between the lever arm link boss and the pivot pin and the difference between the effective radius of the sector gear and that of the spur gear, any motion of the Bourdon tube is greatly amplified.", "A small motion of the tube results in a large motion of the indicator needle.# Hair spring to preload the gear train to eliminate gear lash and hysteresis====Diaphragm (membrane) ====A second type of aneroid gauge uses deflection of a flexible membrane that separates regions of different pressure.", "The amount of deflection is repeatable for known pressures so the pressure can be determined by using calibration.", "The deformation of a thin diaphragm is dependent on the difference in pressure between its two faces.", "The reference face can be open to atmosphere to measure gauge pressure, open to a second port to measure differential pressure, or can be sealed against a vacuum or other fixed reference pressure to measure absolute pressure.", "The deformation can be measured using mechanical, optical or capacitive techniques.", "Ceramic and metallic diaphragms are used.The useful range is above 10−2 Torr (roughly 1 Pa).For absolute measurements, welded pressure capsules with diaphragms on either side are often used.Membrane shapes include:* Flat* Corrugated* Flattened tube* Capsule====Bellows====A pile of pressure capsules with corrugated diaphragms in an aneroid barographIn gauges intended to sense small pressures or pressure differences, or require that an absolute pressure be measured, the gear train and needle may be driven by an enclosed and sealed bellows chamber, called an '''aneroid'''.", "(Early barometers used a column of liquid such as water or the liquid metal mercury suspended by a vacuum.)", "This bellows configuration is used in aneroid barometers (barometers with an indicating needle and dial card), altimeters, altitude recording barographs, and the altitude telemetry instruments used in weather balloon radiosondes.", "These devices use the sealed chamber as a reference pressure and are driven by the external pressure.", "Other sensitive aircraft instruments such as air speed indicators and rate of climb indicators (variometers) have connections both to the internal part of the aneroid chamber and to an external enclosing chamber.====Magnetic coupling====These gauges use the attraction of two magnets to translate differential pressure into motion of a dial pointer.", "As differential pressure increases, a magnet attached to either a piston or rubber diaphragm moves.", "A rotary magnet that is attached to a pointer then moves in unison.", "To create different pressure ranges, the spring rate can be increased or decreased.===Spinning-rotor gauge===The spinning-rotor gauge works by measuring how a rotating ball is slowed by the viscosity of the gas being measured.", "The ball is made of steel and is magnetically levitated inside a steel tube closed at one end and exposed to the gas to be measured at the other.", "The ball is brought up to speed (about 2500 or 3800 rad/s), and the deceleration rate is measured after switching off the drive, by electromagnetic transducers.", "The range of the instrument is 5−5 to 102 Pa (103 Pa with less accuracy).", "It is accurate and stable enough to be used as a secondary standard.", "During the last years this type of gauge became much more user friendly and easier to operate.", "In the past the instrument was famous for requiring some skill and knowledge to use correctly.", "For high accuracy measurements various corrections must be applied and the ball must be spun at a pressure well below the intended measurement pressure for five hours before using.", "It is most useful in calibration and research laboratories where high accuracy is required and qualified technicians are available.", "Insulation vacuum monitoring of cryogenic liquids is a well suited application for this system too.", "With the inexpensive and long term stable, weldable sensor, that can be separated from the more costly electronics, it is a perfect fit to all static vacuums." ], [ "Electronic pressure instruments{{anchor|Electronic}}", "; Metal strain gauge:The strain gauge is generally glued (foil strain gauge) or deposited (thin-film strain gauge) onto a membrane.", "Membrane deflection due to pressure causes a resistance change in the strain gauge which can be electronically measured.", "; Piezoresistive strain gauge:Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect strain due to applied pressure.", "; Piezoresistive silicon pressure sensor:The sensor is generally a temperature compensated, piezoresistive silicon pressure sensor chosen for its excellent performance and long-term stability.", "Integral temperature compensation is provided over a range of 0–50°C using laser-trimmed resistors.", "An additional laser-trimmed resistor is included to normalize pressure sensitivity variations by programming the gain of an external differential amplifier.", "This provides good sensitivity and long-term stability.", "The two ports of the sensor, apply pressure to the same single transducer, please see pressure flow diagram below.thumbThis is an over-simplified diagram, but you can see the fundamental design of the internal ports in the sensor.", "The important item here to note is the \"diaphragm\" as this is the sensor itself.", "Is it slightly convex in shape (highly exaggerated in the drawing); this is important as it affects the accuracy of the sensor in use.The shape of the sensor is important because it is calibrated to work in the direction of air flow as shown by the RED arrows.", "This is normal operation for the pressure sensor, providing a positive reading on the display of the digital pressure meter.", "Applying pressure in the reverse direction can induce errors in the results as the movement of the air pressure is trying to force the diaphragm to move in the opposite direction.", "The errors induced by this are small, but can be significant, and therefore it is always preferable to ensure that the more positive pressure is always applied to the positive (+ve) port and the lower pressure is applied to the negative (-ve) port, for normal 'gauge pressure' application.", "The same applies to measuring the difference between two vacuums, the larger vacuum should always be applied to the negative (-ve) port.The measurement of pressure via the Wheatstone Bridge looks something like this....Application schematicThe effective electrical model of the transducer, together with a basic signal conditioning circuit, is shown in the application schematic.", "The pressure sensor is a fully active Wheatstone bridge which has been temperature compensated and offset adjusted by means of thick film, laser trimmed resistors.", "The excitation to the bridge is applied via a constant current.", "The low-level bridge output is at +O and -O, and the amplified span is set by the gain programming resistor (r).", "The electrical design is microprocessor controlled, which allows for calibration, the additional functions for the user, such as Scale Selection, Data Hold, Zero and Filter functions, the Record function that stores/displays MAX/MIN.", "; Capacitive:Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to applied pressure.", "; Magnetic:Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes in inductance (reluctance), LVDT, Hall effect, or by eddy current principle.", "; Piezoelectric:Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon the sensing mechanism due to pressure.", "; Optical:Uses the physical change of an optical fiber to detect strain due to applied pressure.", "; Potentiometric:Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by applied pressure.", "; Resonant:Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or changes in gas density, caused by applied pressure.===Thermal conductivity===Generally, as a real gas increases in density -which may indicate an increase in pressure- its ability to conduct heat increases.", "In this type of gauge, a wire filament is heated by running current through it.", "A thermocouple or resistance thermometer (RTD) can then be used to measure the temperature of the filament.", "This temperature is dependent on the rate at which the filament loses heat to the surrounding gas, and therefore on the thermal conductivity.", "A common variant is the Pirani gauge, which uses a single platinum filament as both the heated element and RTD.", "These gauges are accurate from 10−3 Torr to 10 Torr, but their calibration is sensitive to the chemical composition of the gases being measured.====Pirani (one wire)====Pirani vacuum gauge (open)A Pirani gauge consists of a metal wire open to the pressure being measured.", "The wire is heated by a current flowing through it and cooled by the gas surrounding it.", "If the gas pressure is reduced, the cooling effect will decrease, hence the equilibrium temperature of the wire will increase.", "The resistance of the wire is a function of its temperature: by measuring the voltage across the wire and the current flowing through it, the resistance (and so the gas pressure) can be determined.", "This type of gauge was invented by Marcello Pirani.====Two-wire====In two-wire gauges, one wire coil is used as a heater, and the other is used to measure temperature due to convection.", "'''Thermocouple gauges''' and '''thermistor gauges''' work in this manner using a thermocouple or thermistor, respectively, to measure the temperature of the heated wire.===Ionization gauge==='''Ionization gauges''' are the most sensitive gauges for very low pressures (also referred to as hard or high vacuum).", "They sense pressure indirectly by measuring the electrical ions produced when the gas is bombarded with electrons.", "Fewer ions will be produced by lower density gases.", "The calibration of an ion gauge is unstable and dependent on the nature of the gases being measured, which is not always known.", "They can be calibrated against a McLeod gauge which is much more stable and independent of gas chemistry.Thermionic emission generates electrons, which collide with gas atoms and generate positive ions.", "The ions are attracted to a suitably biased electrode known as the collector.", "The current in the collector is proportional to the rate of ionization, which is a function of the pressure in the system.", "Hence, measuring the collector current gives the gas pressure.", "There are several sub-types of ionization gauge.Most ion gauges come in two types: hot cathode and cold cathode.", "In the hot cathode version, an electrically heated filament produces an electron beam.", "The electrons travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them.", "The resulting ions are collected at a negative electrode.", "The current depends on the number of ions, which depends on the pressure in the gauge.", "Hot cathode gauges are accurate from 10−3 Torr to 10−10 Torr.", "The principle behind cold cathode version is the same, except that electrons are produced in the discharge of a high voltage.", "Cold cathode gauges are accurate from 10−2 Torr to 10−9 Torr.", "Ionization gauge calibration is very sensitive to construction geometry, chemical composition of gases being measured, corrosion and surface deposits.", "Their calibration can be invalidated by activation at atmospheric pressure or low vacuum.", "The composition of gases at high vacuums will usually be unpredictable, so a mass spectrometer must be used in conjunction with the ionization gauge for accurate measurement.====Hot cathode====Bayard–Alpert hot-cathode ionization gaugeA hot-cathode ionization gauge is composed mainly of three electrodes acting together as a triode, wherein the cathode is the filament.", "The three electrodes are a collector or plate, a filament, and a grid.", "The collector current is measured in picoamperes by an electrometer.", "The filament voltage to ground is usually at a potential of 30 volts, while the grid voltage at 180–210 volts DC, unless there is an optional electron bombardment feature, by heating the grid, which may have a high potential of approximately 565 volts.The most common ion gauge is the hot-cathode '''Bayard–Alpert gauge''', with a small ion collector inside the grid.", "A glass envelope with an opening to the vacuum can surround the electrodes, but usually the '''nude gauge''' is inserted in the vacuum chamber directly, the pins being fed through a ceramic plate in the wall of the chamber.", "Hot-cathode gauges can be damaged or lose their calibration if they are exposed to atmospheric pressure or even low vacuum while hot.", "The measurements of a hot-cathode ionization gauge are always logarithmic.Electrons emitted from the filament move several times in back-and-forth movements around the grid before finally entering the grid.", "During these movements, some electrons collide with a gaseous molecule to form a pair of an ion and an electron (electron ionization).", "The number of these ions is proportional to the gaseous molecule density multiplied by the electron current emitted from the filament, and these ions pour into the collector to form an ion current.", "Since the gaseous molecule density is proportional to the pressure, the pressure is estimated by measuring the ion current.The low-pressure sensitivity of hot-cathode gauges is limited by the photoelectric effect.", "Electrons hitting the grid produce x-rays that produce photoelectric noise in the ion collector.", "This limits the range of older hot-cathode gauges to 10−8 Torr and the Bayard–Alpert to about 10−10 Torr.", "Additional wires at cathode potential in the line of sight between the ion collector and the grid prevent this effect.", "In the extraction type the ions are not attracted by a wire, but by an open cone.", "As the ions cannot decide which part of the cone to hit, they pass through the hole and form an ion beam.", "This ion beam can be passed on to a:* Faraday cup* Microchannel plate detector with Faraday cup* Quadrupole mass analyzer with Faraday cup* Quadrupole mass analyzer with microchannel plate detector and Faraday cup* Ion lens and acceleration voltage and directed at a target to form a sputter gun.", "In this case a valve lets gas into the grid-cage.====Cold cathode====Penning vacuum gauge (cut-away)There are two subtypes of cold-cathode ionization gauges: the '''Penning gauge''' (invented by Frans Michel Penning), and the '''inverted magnetron''', also called a '''Redhead gauge'''.", "The major difference between the two is the position of the anode with respect to the cathode.", "Neither has a filament, and each may require a DC potential of about 4 kV for operation.", "Inverted magnetrons can measure down to 1  Torr.Likewise, cold-cathode gauges may be reluctant to start at very low pressures, in that the near-absence of a gas makes it difficult to establish an electrode current - in particular in Penning gauges, which use an axially symmetric magnetic field to create path lengths for electrons that are of the order of metres.", "In ambient air, suitable ion-pairs are ubiquitously formed by cosmic radiation; in a Penning gauge, design features are used to ease the set-up of a discharge path.", "For example, the electrode of a Penning gauge is usually finely tapered to facilitate the field emission of electrons.Maintenance cycles of cold cathode gauges are, in general, measured in years, depending on the gas type and pressure that they are operated in.", "Using a cold cathode gauge in gases with substantial organic components, such as pump oil fractions, can result in the growth of delicate carbon films and shards within the gauge that eventually either short-circuit the electrodes of the gauge or impede the generation of a discharge path.+ Comparison of pressure measurement instruments Physical phenomena Instrument Governing equation Limiting factors Practical pressure range Ideal accuracy Response time Mechanical Liquid column manometer atm.", "to 1 mbar Mechanical Capsule dial gauge Friction 1000 to 1 mbar ±5% of full scale Slow Mechanical Strain gauge 1000 to 1 mbar Fast Mechanical Capacitance manometer Temperature fluctuations atm to 10−6 mbar ±1% of reading Slower when filter mounted Mechanical McLeod Boyle's law 10 to 10−3 mbar ±10% of reading between 10−4 and 5⋅10−2 mbar Transport Spinning rotor (drag) 10−1 to 10−7 mbar ±2.5% of reading between 10−7 and 10−2 mbar2.5 to 13.5% between 10−2 and 1 mbar Transport Pirani (Wheatstone bridge) Thermal conductivity 1000 to 10−3 mbar (const.", "temperature)10 to 10−3 mbar (const.", "voltage) ±6% of reading between 10−2 and 10 mbar Fast Transport Thermocouple (Seebeck effect) Thermal conductivity 5 to 10−3 mbar ±10% of reading between 10−2 and 1 mbar Ionization Cold cathode (Penning) Ionization yield 10−2 to 10−7 mbar +100 to -50% of reading Ionization Hot cathode (ionization induced by thermionic emission) Low current measurement; parasitic x-ray emission 10−3 to 10−10 mbar ±10% between 10−7 and 10−4 mbar±20% at 10−3 and 10−9 mbar±100% at 10−10 mbar" ], [ "Dynamic transients", "When fluid flows are not in equilibrium, local pressures may be higher or lower than the average pressure in a medium.", "These disturbances propagate from their source as longitudinal pressure variations along the path of propagation.", "This is also called sound.", "Sound pressure is the instantaneous local pressure deviation from the average pressure caused by a sound wave.", "Sound pressure can be measured using a microphone in air and a hydrophone in water.", "The effective sound pressure is the root mean square of the instantaneous sound pressure over a given interval of time.", "Sound pressures are normally small and are often expressed in units of microbar.", "* frequency response of pressure sensors* resonance" ], [ "Calibration and standards", "Dead-weight tester.", "This uses known calibrated weights on a piston to generate a known pressure.The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) has developed two separate and distinct standards on pressure measurement, B40.100 and PTC 19.2.B40.100 provides guidelines on Pressure Indicated Dial Type and Pressure Digital Indicating Gauges, Diaphragm Seals, Snubbers, and Pressure Limiter Valves.", "PTC 19.2 provides instructions and guidance for the accurate determination of pressure values in support of the ASME Performance Test Codes.", "The choice of method, instruments, required calculations, and corrections to be applied depends on the purpose of the measurement, the allowable uncertainty, and the characteristics of the equipment being tested.The methods for pressure measurement and the protocols used for data transmission are also provided.", "Guidance is given for setting up the instrumentation and determining the uncertainty of the measurement.", "Information regarding the instrument type, design, applicable pressure range, accuracy, output, and relative cost is provided.", "Information is also provided on pressure-measuring devices that are used in field environments i.e., piston gauges, manometers, and low-absolute-pressure (vacuum) instruments.These methods are designed to assist in the evaluation of measurement uncertainty based on current technology and engineering knowledge, taking into account published instrumentation specifications and measurement and application techniques.", "This Supplement provides guidance in the use of methods to establish the pressure-measurement uncertainty.===European (CEN) Standard===* EN 472 : Pressure gauge - Vocabulary.", "* EN 837-1 : Pressure gauges.", "Bourdon tube pressure gauges.", "Dimensions, metrology, requirements and testing.", "* EN 837-2 : Pressure gauges.", "Selection and installation recommendations for pressure gauges.", "* EN 837-3 : Pressure gauges.", "Diaphragm and capsule pressure gauges.", "Dimensions, metrology, requirements, and testing.===US ASME Standards===* B40.100-2013: Pressure gauges and Gauge attachments.", "* PTC 19.2-2010 : The Performance test code for pressure measurement." ], [ "Applications", "Industrial wireless pressure sensorThere are many applications for pressure sensors:*'''Pressure sensing'''This is where the measurement of interest is pressure, expressed as a force per unit area.", "This is useful in weather instrumentation, aircraft, automobiles, and any other machinery that has pressure functionality implemented.", "*'''Altitude sensing'''This is useful in aircraft, rockets, satellites, weather balloons, and many other applications.", "All these applications make use of the relationship between changes in pressure relative to the altitude.", "This relationship is governed by the following equation:This equation is calibrated for an altimeter, up to 36,090 feet (11,000 m).", "Outside that range, an error will be introduced which can be calculated differently for each different pressure sensor.", "These error calculations will factor in the error introduced by the change in temperature as we go up.Barometric pressure sensors can have an altitude resolution of less than 1 meter, which is significantly better than GPS systems (about 20 meters altitude resolution).", "In navigation applications altimeters are used to distinguish between stacked road levels for car navigation and floor levels in buildings for pedestrian navigation.", "*'''Flow sensing'''This is the use of pressure sensors in conjunction with the venturi effect to measure flow.", "Differential pressure is measured between two segments of a venturi tube that have a different aperture.", "The pressure difference between the two segments is directly proportional to the flow rate through the venturi tube.", "A low pressure sensor is almost always required as the pressure difference is relatively small.", "*'''Level / depth sensing''' A pressure sensor may also be used to calculate the level of a fluid.", "This technique is commonly employed to measure the depth of a submerged body (such as a diver or submarine), or level of contents in a tank (such as in a water tower).", "For most practical purposes, fluid level is directly proportional to pressure.", "In the case of fresh water where the contents are under atmospheric pressure, 1psi = 27.7 inH2O / 1Pa = 9.81 mmH2O.", "The basic equation for such a measurement iswhere ''P'' = pressure, ''ρ'' = density of the fluid, ''g'' = standard gravity, ''h'' = height of fluid column above pressure sensor*'''Leak testing'''A pressure sensor may be used to sense the decay of pressure due to a system leak.", "This is commonly done by either comparison to a known leak using differential pressure, or by means of utilizing the pressure sensor to measure pressure change over time.", "*'''Groundwater measurement'''Above-ground casing of a piezometerSymbol used in drawingsA '''piezometer''' is either a device used to measure liquid pressure in a system by measuring the height to which a column of the liquid rises against gravity, or a device which measures the pressure (more precisely, the piezometric head) of groundwater at a specific point.", "A piezometer is designed to measure static pressures, and thus differs from a pitot tube by not being pointed into the fluid flow.", "Observation wells give some information on the water level in a formation, but must be read manually.", "Electrical pressure transducers of several types can be read automatically, making data acquisition more convenient.The first piezometers in geotechnical engineering were open wells or standpipes (sometimes called '''Casagrande piezometers''') installed into an aquifer.", "A Casagrande piezometer will typically have a solid casing down to the depth of interest, and a slotted or screened casing within the zone where water pressure is being measured.", "The casing is sealed into the drillhole with clay, bentonite or concrete to prevent surface water from contaminating the groundwater supply.", "In an unconfined aquifer, the water level in the piezometer would not be exactly coincident with the water table, especially when the vertical component of flow velocity is significant.", "In a confined aquifer under artesian conditions, the water level in the piezometer indicates the pressure in the aquifer, but not necessarily the water table.", "Piezometer wells can be much smaller in diameter than production wells, and a 5 cm diameter standpipe is common.Piezometers in durable casings can be buried or pushed into the ground to measure the groundwater pressure at the point of installation.", "The pressure gauges (transducer) can be vibrating-wire, pneumatic, or strain-gauge in operation, converting pressure into an electrical signal.", "These piezometers are cabled to the surface where they can be read by data loggers or portable readout units, allowing faster or more frequent reading than is possible with open standpipe piezometers." ], [ "See also", "*Air core gauge*Barometer*Deadweight tester*Dynamic pressure*Force gauge*Gauge*List of sensors *Isoteniscope*Pressure*Piezometer*Sphygmomanometer*Vacuum engineering===Applications===* Altimeter* Atmospheric pressure* Barometer* Brake fluid pressure sensor* Depth gauge* List of MOSFET applications* MAP sensor* MOSFET* Pitot tube* Sphygmomanometer* Tensiometer (soil science)* Time pressure gauge* Tire-pressure gauge" ], [ "References", "===Sources===*" ], [ "External links", "* Home Made Manometer* Manometer" ] ]
wikipedia