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[ [ "Microprocessor" ], [ "Introduction", "TMS1000Intel 4004 Motorola 6800 (MC6800)64 bit x86-64 processor (AMD Ryzen 5 2600, based on Zen+, 2018)Zen) processor in a AM4 socket on a motherboardA '''microprocessor''' is a computer processor for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single integrated circuit (IC), or a small number of ICs.", "The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU).", "The IC is capable of interpreting and executing program instructions and performing arithmetic operations.", "The microprocessor is a multipurpose, clock-driven, register-based, digital integrated circuit that accepts binary data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results (also in binary form) as output.", "Microprocessors contain both combinational logic and sequential digital logic, and operate on numbers and symbols represented in the binary number system.The integration of a whole CPU onto a single or a few integrated circuits using Very-Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) greatly reduced the cost of processing power.", "Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) fabrication processes, resulting in a relatively low unit price.", "Single-chip processors increase reliability because there are fewer electrical connections that can fail.", "As microprocessor designs improve, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size) generally stays the same according to Rock's law.Before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of circuit boards with many medium- and small-scale integrated circuits, typically of TTL type.", "Microprocessors combined this into one or a few large-scale ICs.", "While there is disagreement over who deserves credit for the invention of the microprocessor, the first commercially available microprocessor was the Intel 4004, designed by Federico Faggin and introduced in 1971.Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have since rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete (see history of computing hardware), with one or more microprocessors used in everything from the smallest embedded systems and handheld devices to the largest mainframes and supercomputers.A microprocessor is related but distinct from a system on a chip, microcontroller, and digital signal processor." ], [ "Structure", "Z80 microprocessor, showing the arithmetic and logic section, register file, control logic section, and buffers to external address and data linesThe complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of transistors that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can dissipate.", "Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.A minimal hypothetical microprocessor might include only an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and a control logic section.", "The ALU performs addition, subtraction, and operations such as AND or OR.", "Each operation of the ALU sets one or more flags in a status register, which indicate the results of the last operation (zero value, negative number, overflow, or others).", "The control logic retrieves instruction codes from memory and initiates the sequence of operations required for the ALU to carry out the instruction.", "A single operation code might affect many individual data paths, registers, and other elements of the processor.As integrated circuit technology advanced, it was feasible to manufacture more and more complex processors on a single chip.", "The size of data objects became larger; allowing more transistors on a chip allowed word sizes to increase from 4- and 8-bit words up to today's 64-bit words.", "Additional features were added to the processor architecture; more on-chip registers sped up programs, and complex instructions could be used to make more compact programs.", "Floating-point arithmetic, for example, was often not available on 8-bit microprocessors, but had to be carried out in software.", "Integration of the floating-point unit, first as a separate integrated circuit and then as part of the same microprocessor chip, sped up floating-point calculations.Occasionally, physical limitations of integrated circuits made such practices as a bit slice approach necessary.", "Instead of processing all of a long word on one integrated circuit, multiple circuits in parallel processed subsets of each word.", "While this required extra logic to handle, for example, carry and overflow within each slice, the result was a system that could handle, for example, 32-bit words using integrated circuits with a capacity for only four bits each.The ability to put large numbers of transistors on one chip makes it feasible to integrate memory on the same die as the processor.", "This CPU cache has the advantage of faster access than off-chip memory and increases the processing speed of the system for many applications.", "Processor clock frequency has increased more rapidly than external memory speed, so cache memory is necessary if the processor is not to be delayed by slower external memory.The design of some processors has become complicated enough to be difficult to fully test, and this has caused problems at large cloud providers.===Special-purpose designs===A microprocessor is a general - purpose entity.", "Several specialized processing devices have followed:* A digital signal processor (DSP) is specialized for signal processing.", "* Graphics processing units (GPUs) are processors designed primarily for realtime rendering of images.", "* Other specialized units exist for video processing and machine vision.", "(See: Hardware acceleration.", ")* Microcontrollers in embedded systems and peripheral devices.", "* Systems on chip (SoCs) often integrate one or more microprocessor and microcontroller cores with other components such as radio modems, and are used in smartphones and tablet computers.===Speed and power considerations===Intel Core i9-9900K (2018, based on Coffee Lake)Microprocessors can be selected for differing applications based on their word size, which is a measure of their complexity.", "Longer word sizes allow each clock cycle of a processor to carry out more computation, but correspond to physically larger integrated circuit dies with higher standby and operating power consumption.", "4-, 8- or 12-bit processors are widely integrated into microcontrollers operating embedded systems.", "Where a system is expected to handle larger volumes of data or require a more flexible user interface, 16-, 32- or 64-bit processors are used.", "An 8- or 16-bit processor may be selected over a 32-bit processor for system on a chip or microcontroller applications that require extremely low-power electronics, or are part of a mixed-signal integrated circuit with noise-sensitive on-chip analog electronics such as high-resolution analog to digital converters, or both.Some people say that running 32-bit arithmetic on an 8-bit chip could end up using more power, as the chip must execute software with multiple instructions.However, others say that modern 8-bit chips are always more power-efficient than 32-bit chips when running equivalent software routines." ], [ "Embedded applications", "Thousands of items that were traditionally not computer-related include microprocessors.", "These include household appliances, vehicles (and their accessories), tools and test instruments, toys, light switches/dimmers and electrical circuit breakers, smoke alarms, battery packs, and hi-fi audio/visual components (from DVD players to phonograph turntables).", "Such products as cellular telephones, DVD video system and HDTV broadcast systems fundamentally require consumer devices with powerful, low-cost, microprocessors.", "Increasingly stringent pollution control standards effectively require automobile manufacturers to use microprocessor engine management systems to allow optimal control of emissions over the widely varying operating conditions of an automobile.", "Non-programmable controls would require bulky, or costly implementation to achieve the results possible with a microprocessor.A microprocessor control program (embedded software) can be tailored to fit the needs of a product line, allowing upgrades in performance with minimal redesign of the product.", "Unique features can be implemented in product line's various models at negligible production cost.Microprocessor control of a system can provide control strategies that would be impractical to implement using electromechanical controls or purpose-built electronic controls.", "For example, an internal combustion engine's control system can adjust ignition timing based on engine speed, load, temperature, and any observed tendency for knocking—allowing the engine to operate on a range of fuel grades." ], [ "History", "The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has transformed modern society.", "General-purpose microprocessors in personal computers are used for computation, text editing, multimedia display, and communication over the Internet.", "Many more microprocessors are part of embedded systems, providing digital control over myriad objects from appliances to automobiles to cellular phones and industrial process control.", "Microprocessors perform binary operations based on Boolean logic, named after George Boole.", "The ability to operate computer systems using Boolean Logic was first proven in a 1938 thesis by master's student Claude Shannon, who later went on to become a professor.", "Shannon is considered \"The Father of Information Theory\".", "In 1951 Microprogramming was invented by Maurice Wilkes at the University of Manchester, UK, from the realisation that the central processor could be controlled by a specialised program in a dedicated ROM.", "Wilkes is also credited with the idea of symbolic labels, macros and subroutine libraries.", "Following the development of MOS integrated circuit chips in the early 1960s, MOS chips reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar integrated circuits by 1964.MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s.", "The application of MOS LSI chips to computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete computer processor could be contained on several MOS LSI chips.", "Designers in the late 1960s were striving to integrate the central processing unit (CPU) functions of a computer onto a handful of MOS LSI chips, called microprocessor unit (MPU) chipsets.While there is disagreement over who invented the microprocessor, the first commercially available microprocessor was the Intel 4004, released as a single MOS LSI chip in 1971.The single-chip microprocessor was made possible with the development of MOS silicon-gate technology (SGT).", "The earliest MOS transistors had aluminium metal gates, which Italian physicist Federico Faggin replaced with silicon self-aligned gates to develop the first silicon-gate MOS chip at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968.Faggin later joined Intel and used his silicon-gate MOS technology to develop the 4004, along with Marcian Hoff, Stanley Mazor and Masatoshi Shima in 1971.The 4004 was designed for Busicom, which had earlier proposed a multi-chip design in 1969, before Faggin's team at Intel changed it into a new single-chip design.", "Intel introduced the first commercial microprocessor, the 4-bit Intel 4004, in 1971.It was soon followed by the 8-bit microprocessor Intel 8008 in 1972.The MP944 chipset used in the F-14 Central Air Data Computer in 1970 has also been cited as an early microprocessor, but was not known to the public until declassified in 1998.Other embedded uses of 4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors, such as terminals, printers, various kinds of automation etc., followed soon after.", "Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with 16-bit addressing also led to the first general-purpose microcomputers from the mid-1970s on.The first use of the term \"microprocessor\" is attributed to Viatron Computer Systems describing the custom integrated circuit used in their System 21 small computer system announced in 1968.Since the early 1970s, the increase in capacity of microprocessors has followed Moore's law; this originally suggested that the number of components that can be fitted onto a chip doubles every year.", "With present technology, it is actually every two years, and as a result Moore later changed the period to two years.===First projects===These projects delivered a microprocessor at about the same time: Garrett AiResearch's Central Air Data Computer (CADC) (1970), Texas Instruments' TMS 1802NC (September 1971) and Intel's 4004 (November 1971, based on an earlier 1969 Busicom design).", "Arguably, Four-Phase Systems AL1 microprocessor was also delivered in 1969.====Four-Phase Systems AL1 (1969)====The Four-Phase Systems AL1 was an 8-bit bit slice chip containing eight registers and an ALU.", "It was designed by Lee Boysel in 1969.At the time, it formed part of a nine-chip, 24-bit CPU with three AL1s.", "It was later called a microprocessor when, in response to 1990s litigation by Texas Instruments, Boysel constructed a demonstration system where a single AL1 formed part of a courtroom demonstration computer system, together with RAM, ROM, and an input-output device.====Garrett AiResearch CADC (1970)====In 1968, Garrett AiResearch (who employed designers Ray Holt and Steve Geller) was invited to produce a digital computer to compete with electromechanical systems then under development for the main flight control computer in the US Navy's new F-14 Tomcat fighter.", "The design was complete by 1970, and used a MOS-based chipset as the core CPU.", "The design was significantly (approximately 20 times) smaller and much more reliable than the mechanical systems it competed against and was used in all of the early Tomcat models.", "This system contained \"a 20-bit, pipelined, parallel multi-microprocessor\".", "The Navy refused to allow publication of the design until 1997.Released in 1998, the documentation on the CADC, and the MP944 chipset, are well known.", "Ray Holt's autobiographical story of this design and development is presented in the book: The Accidental Engineer.Ray Holt graduated from California State Polytechnic University, Pomona in 1968, and began his computer design career with the CADC.", "From its inception, it was shrouded in secrecy until 1998 when at Holt's request, the US Navy allowed the documents into the public domain.", "Holt has claimed that no one has compared this microprocessor with those that came later.", "According to Parab et al.", "(2007), This convergence of DSP and microcontroller architectures is known as a digital signal controller.====Gilbert Hyatt (1970) ====In 1990, American engineer Gilbert Hyatt was awarded U.S. Patent No.", "4,942,516, which was based on a 16-bit serial computer he built at his Northridge, California, home in 1969 from boards of bipolar chips after quitting his job at Teledyne in 1968; though the patent had been submitted in December 1970 and prior to Texas Instruments' filings for the TMX 1795 and TMS 0100, Hyatt's invention was never manufactured.", "This nonetheless led to claims that Hyatt was the inventor of the microprocessor and the payment of substantial royalties through a Philips N.V. subsidiary, until Texas Instruments prevailed in a complex legal battle in 1996, when the U.S. Patent Office overturned key parts of the patent, while allowing Hyatt to keep it.", "Hyatt said in a 1990 ''Los Angeles Times'' article that his invention would have been created had his prospective investors backed him, and that the venture investors leaked details of his chip to the industry, though he did not elaborate with evidence to support this claim.", "In the same article, ''The Chip'' author T.R.", "Reid was quoted as saying that historians may ultimately place Hyatt as a co-inventor of the microprocessor, in the way that Intel's Noyce and TI's Kilby share credit for the invention of the chip in 1958: \"Kilby got the idea first, but Noyce made it practical.", "The legal ruling finally favored Noyce, but they are considered co-inventors.", "The same could happen here.\"", "Hyatt would go on to fight a decades-long legal battle with the state of California over alleged unpaid taxes on his patent's windfall after 1990, which would culminate in a landmark Supreme Court case addressing states' sovereign immunity in ''Franchise Tax Board of California v. Hyatt (2019)''.====Texas Instruments TMX 1795 (1970–1971)====Along with Intel (who developed the 8008), Texas Instruments developed in 1970–1971 a one-chip CPU replacement for the Datapoint 2200 terminal, the TMX 1795 (later TMC 1795.)", "Like the 8008, it was rejected by customer Datapoint.", "According to Gary Boone, the TMX 1795 never reached production.", "Still it reached a working prototype state at 1971 February 24, therefore it is the world's first 8-bit microprocessor.", "Since it was built to the same specification, its instruction set was very similar to the Intel 8008.====Texas Instruments TMS 1802NC (1971)====The TMS1802NC was announced September 17, 1971, and implemented a four-function calculator.", "The TMS1802NC, despite its designation, was not part of the TMS 1000 series; it was later redesignated as part of the TMS 0100 series, which was used in the TI Datamath calculator.", "Although marketed as a calculator-on-a-chip, the TMS1802NC was fully programmable, including on the chip a CPU with an 11-bit instruction word, 3520 bits (320 instructions) of ROM and 182 bits of RAM.====Pico/General Instrument (1971)====The PICO1/GI250 chip introduced in 1971: It was designed by Pico Electronics (Glenrothes, Scotland) and manufactured by General Instrument of Hicksville NY.In 1971, Pico Electronics and General Instrument (GI) introduced their first collaboration in ICs, a complete single-chip calculator IC for the Monroe/Litton Royal Digital III calculator.", "This chip could also arguably lay claim to be one of the first microprocessors or microcontrollers having ROM, RAM and a RISC instruction set on-chip.", "The layout for the four layers of the PMOS process was hand drawn at x500 scale on mylar film, a significant task at the time given the complexity of the chip.Pico was a spinout by five GI design engineers whose vision was to create single-chip calculator ICs.", "They had significant previous design experience on multiple calculator chipsets with both GI and Marconi-Elliott.", "The key team members had originally been tasked by Elliott Automation to create an 8-bit computer in MOS and had helped establish a MOS Research Laboratory in Glenrothes, Scotland in 1967.Calculators were becoming the largest single market for semiconductors so Pico and GI went on to have significant success in this burgeoning market.", "GI continued to innovate in microprocessors and microcontrollers with products including the CP1600, IOB1680 and PIC1650.In 1987, the GI Microelectronics business was spun out into the Microchip PIC microcontroller business.====Intel 4004 (1971) ====4004 with cover removed (left) and as actually used (right)The Intel 4004 is often (falsely) regarded as the first true microprocessor built on a single chip, priced at .", "The claim of being the first is definitely false, as the earlier TMS1802NC was also a true microprocessor built on a single chip and the same applies for the - prototype only - 8-bit TMX 1795.The first known advertisement for the 4004 is dated November 15, 1971, and appeared in ''Electronic News''.", "The microprocessor was designed by a team consisting of Italian engineer Federico Faggin, American engineers Marcian Hoff and Stanley Mazor, and Japanese engineer Masatoshi Shima.The project that produced the 4004 originated in 1969, when Busicom, a Japanese calculator manufacturer, asked Intel to build a chipset for high-performance desktop calculators.", "Busicom's original design called for a programmable chip set consisting of seven different chips.", "Three of the chips were to make a special-purpose CPU with its program stored in ROM and its data stored in shift register read-write memory.", "Ted Hoff, the Intel engineer assigned to evaluate the project, believed the Busicom design could be simplified by using dynamic RAM storage for data, rather than shift register memory, and a more traditional general-purpose CPU architecture.", "Hoff came up with a four-chip architectural proposal: a ROM chip for storing the programs, a dynamic RAM chip for storing data, a simple I/O device, and a 4-bit central processing unit (CPU).", "Although not a chip designer, he felt the CPU could be integrated into a single chip, but as he lacked the technical know-how the idea remained just a wish for the time being.First microprocessor by Intel, the 4004While the architecture and specifications of the MCS-4 came from the interaction of Hoff with Stanley Mazor, a software engineer reporting to him, and with Busicom engineer Masatoshi Shima, during 1969, Mazor and Hoff moved on to other projects.", "In April 1970, Intel hired Italian engineer Federico Faggin as project leader, a move that ultimately made the single-chip CPU final design a reality (Shima meanwhile designed the Busicom calculator firmware and assisted Faggin during the first six months of the implementation).", "Faggin, who originally developed the silicon gate technology (SGT) in 1968 at Fairchild Semiconductor and designed the world's first commercial integrated circuit using SGT, the Fairchild 3708, had the correct background to lead the project into what would become the first commercial general purpose microprocessor.", "Since SGT was his very own invention, Faggin also used it to create his new methodology for random logic design that made it possible to implement a single-chip CPU with the proper speed, power dissipation and cost.", "The manager of Intel's MOS Design Department was Leslie L. Vadász at the time of the MCS-4 development but Vadász's attention was completely focused on the mainstream business of semiconductor memories so he left the leadership and the management of the MCS-4 project to Faggin, who was ultimately responsible for leading the 4004 project to its realization.", "Production units of the 4004 were first delivered to Busicom in March 1971 and shipped to other customers in late 1971.===8-bit designs===The Intel 4004 was followed in 1972 by the Intel 8008, intel's first 8-bit microprocessor.", "The 8008 was not, however, an extension of the 4004 design, but instead the culmination of a separate design project at Intel, arising from a contract with Computer Terminals Corporation, of San Antonio TX, for a chip for a terminal they were designing, the Datapoint 2200—fundamental aspects of the design came not from Intel but from CTC.", "In 1968, CTC's Vic Poor and Harry Pyle developed the original design for the instruction set and operation of the processor.", "In 1969, CTC contracted two companies, Intel and Texas Instruments, to make a single-chip implementation, known as the CTC 1201.In late 1970 or early 1971, TI dropped out being unable to make a reliable part.", "In 1970, with Intel yet to deliver the part, CTC opted to use their own implementation in the Datapoint 2200, using traditional TTL logic instead (thus the first machine to run \"8008 code\" was not in fact a microprocessor at all and was delivered a year earlier).", "Intel's version of the 1201 microprocessor arrived in late 1971, but was too late, slow, and required a number of additional support chips.", "CTC had no interest in using it.", "CTC had originally contracted Intel for the chip, and would have owed them for their design work.", "To avoid paying for a chip they did not want (and could not use), CTC released Intel from their contract and allowed them free use of the design.", "Intel marketed it as the 8008 in April, 1972, as the world's first 8-bit microprocessor.", "It was the basis for the famous \"Mark-8\" computer kit advertised in the magazine ''Radio-Electronics'' in 1974.This processor had an 8-bit data bus and a 14-bit address bus.The 8008 was the precursor to the successful Intel 8080 (1974), which offered improved performance over the 8008 and required fewer support chips.", "Federico Faggin conceived and designed it using high voltage N channel MOS.", "The Zilog Z80 (1976) was also a Faggin design, using low voltage N channel with depletion load and derivative Intel 8-bit processors: all designed with the methodology Faggin created for the 4004.Motorola released the competing 6800 in August 1974, and the similar MOS Technology 6502 was released in 1975 (both designed largely by the same people).", "The 6502 family rivaled the Z80 in popularity during the 1980s.A low overall cost, little packaging, simple computer bus requirements, and sometimes the integration of extra circuitry (e.g.", "the Z80's built-in memory refresh circuitry) allowed the home computer \"revolution\" to accelerate sharply in the early 1980s.", "This delivered such inexpensive machines as the Sinclair ZX81, which sold for .", "A variation of the 6502, the MOS Technology 6510 was used in the Commodore 64 and yet another variant, the 8502, powered the Commodore 128.The Western Design Center, Inc (WDC) introduced the CMOS WDC 65C02 in 1982 and licensed the design to several firms.", "It was used as the CPU in the Apple IIe and IIc personal computers as well as in medical implantable grade pacemakers and defibrillators, automotive, industrial and consumer devices.", "WDC pioneered the licensing of microprocessor designs, later followed by ARM (32-bit) and other microprocessor intellectual property (IP) providers in the 1990s.Motorola introduced the MC6809 in 1978.It was an ambitious and well thought-through 8-bit design that was source compatible with the 6800, and implemented using purely hard-wired logic (subsequent 16-bit microprocessors typically used microcode to some extent, as CISC design requirements were becoming too complex for pure hard-wired logic).Another early 8-bit microprocessor was the Signetics 2650, which enjoyed a brief surge of interest due to its innovative and powerful instruction set architecture.A seminal microprocessor in the world of spaceflight was RCA's RCA 1802 (aka CDP1802, RCA COSMAC) (introduced in 1976), which was used on board the ''Galileo'' probe to Jupiter (launched 1989, arrived 1995).", "RCA COSMAC was the first to implement CMOS technology.", "The CDP1802 was used because it could be run at very low power, and because a variant was available fabricated using a special production process, silicon on sapphire (SOS), which provided much better protection against cosmic radiation and electrostatic discharge than that of any other processor of the era.", "Thus, the SOS version of the 1802 was said to be the first radiation-hardened microprocessor.The RCA 1802 had a static design, meaning that the clock frequency could be made arbitrarily low, or even stopped.", "This let the ''Galileo'' spacecraft use minimum electric power for long uneventful stretches of a voyage.", "Timers or sensors would awaken the processor in time for important tasks, such as navigation updates, attitude control, data acquisition, and radio communication.", "Current versions of the Western Design Center 65C02 and 65C816 also have static cores, and thus retain data even when the clock is completely halted.===12-bit designs===The Intersil 6100 family consisted of a 12-bit microprocessor (the 6100) and a range of peripheral support and memory ICs.", "The microprocessor recognised the DEC PDP-8 minicomputer instruction set.", "As such it was sometimes referred to as the '''CMOS-PDP8'''.", "Since it was also produced by Harris Corporation, it was also known as the '''Harris HM-6100'''.", "By virtue of its CMOS technology and associated benefits, the 6100 was being incorporated into some military designs until the early 1980s.===16-bit designs===The first multi-chip 16-bit microprocessor was the National Semiconductor IMP-16, introduced in early 1973.An 8-bit version of the chipset was introduced in 1974 as the IMP-8.Other early multi-chip 16-bit microprocessors include the MCP-1600 that Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) used in the LSI-11 OEM board set and the packaged PDP-11/03 minicomputer—and the Fairchild Semiconductor MicroFlame 9440, both introduced in 1975–76.In late 1974, National introduced the first 16-bit single-chip microprocessor, the National Semiconductor PACE, which was later followed by an NMOS version, the INS8900.Next in list is the General Instrument CP1600, released in February 1975, which was used mainly in the Intellivision console.Another early single-chip 16-bit microprocessor was TI's TMS 9900, which was also compatible with their TI-990 line of minicomputers.", "The 9900 was used in the TI 990/4 minicomputer, the TI-99/4A home computer, and the TM990 line of OEM microcomputer boards.", "The chip was packaged in a large ceramic 64-pin DIP package, while most 8-bit microprocessors such as the Intel 8080 used the more common, smaller, and less expensive plastic 40-pin DIP.", "A follow-on chip, the TMS 9980, was designed to compete with the Intel 8080, had the full TI 990 16-bit instruction set, used a plastic 40-pin package, moved data 8 bits at a time, but could only address 16 KB.", "A third chip, the TMS 9995, was a new design.", "The family later expanded to include the 99105 and 99110.The Western Design Center (WDC) introduced the CMOS 65816 16-bit upgrade of the WDC CMOS 65C02 in 1984.The 65816 16-bit microprocessor was the core of the Apple IIGS and later the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, making it one of the most popular 16-bit designs of all time.Intel \"upsized\" their 8080 design into the 16-bit Intel 8086, the first member of the x86 family, which powers most modern PC type computers.", "Intel introduced the 8086 as a cost-effective way of porting software from the 8080 lines, and succeeded in winning much business on that premise.", "The 8088, a version of the 8086 that used an 8-bit external data bus, was the microprocessor in the first IBM PC.", "Intel then released the 80186 and 80188, the 80286 and, in 1985, the 32-bit 80386, cementing their PC market dominance with the processor family's backwards compatibility.", "The 80186 and 80188 were essentially versions of the 8086 and 8088, enhanced with some onboard peripherals and a few new instructions.", "Although Intel's 80186 and 80188 were not used in IBM PC type designs, second source versions from NEC, the V20 and V30 frequently were.", "The 8086 and successors had an innovative but limited method of memory segmentation, while the 80286 introduced a full-featured segmented memory management unit (MMU).", "The 80386 introduced a flat 32-bit memory model with paged memory management.The 16-bit Intel x86 processors up to and including the 80386 do not include floating-point units (FPUs).", "Intel introduced the 8087, 80187, 80287 and 80387 math coprocessors to add hardware floating-point and transcendental function capabilities to the 8086 through 80386 CPUs.", "The 8087 works with the 8086/8088 and 80186/80188, the 80187 works with the 80186 but not the 80188, the 80287 works with the 80286 and the 80387 works with the 80386.The combination of an x86 CPU and an x87 coprocessor forms a single multi-chip microprocessor; the two chips are programmed as a unit using a single integrated instruction set.", "The 8087 and 80187 coprocessors are connected in parallel with the data and address buses of their parent processor and directly execute instructions intended for them.", "The 80287 and 80387 coprocessors are interfaced to the CPU through I/O ports in the CPU's address space, this is transparent to the program, which does not need to know about or access these I/O ports directly; the program accesses the coprocessor and its registers through normal instruction opcodes.===32-bit designs===Upper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486DX2 die16-bit designs had only been on the market briefly when 32-bit implementations started to appear.The most significant of the 32-bit designs is the Motorola MC68000, introduced in 1979.The 68k, as it was widely known, had 32-bit registers in its programming model but used 16-bit internal data paths, three 16-bit Arithmetic Logic Units, and a 16-bit external data bus (to reduce pin count), and externally supported only 24-bit addresses (internally it worked with full 32 bit addresses).", "In PC-based IBM-compatible mainframes the MC68000 internal microcode was modified to emulate the 32-bit System/370 IBM mainframe.", "Motorola generally described it as a 16-bit processor.", "The combination of high performance, large (16 megabytes or 224 bytes) memory space and fairly low cost made it the most popular CPU design of its class.", "The Apple Lisa and Macintosh designs made use of the 68000, as did other designs in the mid-1980s, including the Atari ST and Amiga.The world's first single-chip fully 32-bit microprocessor, with 32-bit data paths, 32-bit buses, and 32-bit addresses, was the AT&T Bell Labs BELLMAC-32A, with first samples in 1980, and general production in 1982.After the divestiture of AT&T in 1984, it was renamed the WE 32000 (WE for Western Electric), and had two follow-on generations, the WE 32100 and WE 32200.These microprocessors were used in the AT&T 3B5 and 3B15 minicomputers; in the 3B2, the world's first desktop super microcomputer; in the \"Companion\", the world's first 32-bit laptop computer; and in \"Alexander\", the world's first book-sized super microcomputer, featuring ROM-pack memory cartridges similar to today's gaming consoles.", "All these systems ran the UNIX System V operating system.The first commercial, single chip, fully 32-bit microprocessor available on the market was the HP FOCUS.Intel's first 32-bit microprocessor was the iAPX 432, which was introduced in 1981, but was not a commercial success.", "It had an advanced capability-based object-oriented architecture, but poor performance compared to contemporary architectures such as Intel's own 80286 (introduced 1982), which was almost four times as fast on typical benchmark tests.", "However, the results for the iAPX432 was partly due to a rushed and therefore suboptimal Ada compiler.Motorola's success with the 68000 led to the MC68010, which added virtual memory support.", "The MC68020, introduced in 1984 added full 32-bit data and address buses.", "The 68020 became hugely popular in the Unix supermicrocomputer market, and many small companies (e.g., Altos, Charles River Data Systems, Cromemco) produced desktop-size systems.", "The MC68030 was introduced next, improving upon the previous design by integrating the MMU into the chip.", "The continued success led to the MC68040, which included an FPU for better math performance.", "The 68050 failed to achieve its performance goals and was not released, and the follow-up MC68060 was released into a market saturated by much faster RISC designs.", "The 68k family faded from use in the early 1990s.Other large companies designed the 68020 and follow-ons into embedded equipment.", "At one point, there were more 68020s in embedded equipment than there were Intel Pentiums in PCs.", "The ColdFire processor cores are derivatives of the 68020.During this time (early to mid-1980s), National Semiconductor introduced a very similar 16-bit pinout, 32-bit internal microprocessor called the NS 16032 (later renamed 32016), the full 32-bit version named the NS 32032.Later, National Semiconductor produced the NS 32132, which allowed two CPUs to reside on the same memory bus with built in arbitration.", "The NS32016/32 outperformed the MC68000/10, but the NS32332—which arrived at approximately the same time as the MC68020—did not have enough performance.", "The third generation chip, the NS32532, was different.", "It had about double the performance of the MC68030, which was released around the same time.", "The appearance of RISC processors like the AM29000 and MC88000 (now both dead) influenced the architecture of the final core, the NS32764.Technically advanced—with a superscalar RISC core, 64-bit bus, and internally overclocked—it could still execute Series 32000 instructions through real-time translation.When National Semiconductor decided to leave the Unix market, the chip was redesigned into the Swordfish Embedded processor with a set of on-chip peripherals.", "The chip turned out to be too expensive for the laser printer market and was killed.", "The design team went to Intel and there designed the Pentium processor, which is very similar to the NS32764 core internally.", "The big success of the Series 32000 was in the laser printer market, where the NS32CG16 with microcoded BitBlt instructions had very good price/performance and was adopted by large companies like Canon.", "By the mid-1980s, Sequent introduced the first SMP server-class computer using the NS 32032.This was one of the design's few wins, and it disappeared in the late 1980s.", "The MIPS R2000 (1984) and R3000 (1989) were highly successful 32-bit RISC microprocessors.", "They were used in high-end workstations and servers by SGI, among others.", "Other designs included the Zilog Z80000, which arrived too late to market to stand a chance and disappeared quickly.The ARM first appeared in 1985.This is a RISC processor design, which has since come to dominate the 32-bit embedded systems processor space due in large part to its power efficiency, its licensing model, and its wide selection of system development tools.", "Semiconductor manufacturers generally license cores and integrate them into their own system on a chip products; only a few such vendors such as Apple are licensed to modify the ARM cores or create their own.", "Most cell phones include an ARM processor, as do a wide variety of other products.", "There are microcontroller-oriented ARM cores without virtual memory support, as well as symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) applications processors with virtual memory.From 1993 to 2003, the 32-bit x86 architectures became increasingly dominant in desktop, laptop, and server markets, and these microprocessors became faster and more capable.", "Intel had licensed early versions of the architecture to other companies, but declined to license the Pentium, so AMD and Cyrix built later versions of the architecture based on their own designs.", "During this span, these processors increased in complexity (transistor count) and capability (instructions/second) by at least three orders of magnitude.", "Intel's Pentium line is probably the most famous and recognizable 32-bit processor model, at least with the public at broad.===64-bit designs in personal computers===While 64-bit microprocessor designs have been in use in several markets since the early 1990s (including the Nintendo 64 gaming console in 1996), the early 2000s saw the introduction of 64-bit microprocessors targeted at the PC market.With AMD's introduction of a 64-bit architecture backwards-compatible with x86, x86-64 (also called '''AMD64'''), in September 2003, followed by Intel's near fully compatible 64-bit extensions (first called IA-32e or EM64T, later renamed '''Intel 64'''), the 64-bit desktop era began.", "Both versions can run 32-bit legacy applications without any performance penalty as well as new 64-bit software.", "With operating systems Windows XP x64, Windows Vista x64, Windows 7 x64, Linux, BSD, and macOS that run 64-bit natively, the software is also geared to fully utilize the capabilities of such processors.", "The move to 64 bits is more than just an increase in register size from the IA-32 as it also doubles the number of general-purpose registers.The move to 64 bits by PowerPC had been intended since the architecture's design in the early 90s and was not a major cause of incompatibility.", "Existing integer registers are extended as are all related data pathways, but, as was the case with IA-32, both floating-point and vector units had been operating at or above 64 bits for several years.", "Unlike what happened when IA-32 was extended to x86-64, no new general purpose registers were added in 64-bit PowerPC, so any performance gained when using the 64-bit mode for applications making no use of the larger address space is minimal.In 2011, ARM introduced the new 64-bit ARM architecture.===RISC===In the mid-1980s to early 1990s, a crop of new high-performance reduced instruction set computer (RISC) microprocessors appeared, influenced by discrete RISC-like CPU designs such as the IBM 801 and others.", "RISC microprocessors were initially used in special-purpose machines and Unix workstations, but then gained wide acceptance in other roles.The first commercial RISC microprocessor design was released in 1984, by MIPS Computer Systems, the 32-bit R2000 (the R1000 was not released).", "In 1986, HP released its first system with a PA-RISC CPU.", "In 1987, in the non-Unix Acorn computers' 32-bit, then cache-less, ARM2-based Acorn Archimedes became the first commercial success using the ARM architecture, then known as Acorn RISC Machine (ARM); first silicon ARM1 in 1985.The R3000 made the design truly practical, and the R4000 introduced the world's first commercially available 64-bit RISC microprocessor.", "Competing projects would result in the IBM POWER and Sun SPARC architectures.", "Soon every major vendor was releasing a RISC design, including the AT&T CRISP, AMD 29000, Intel i860 and Intel i960, Motorola 88000, DEC Alpha.In the late 1990s, only two 64-bit RISC architectures were still produced in volume for non-embedded applications: SPARC and Power ISA, but as ARM has become increasingly powerful, in the early 2010s, it became the third RISC architecture in the general computing segment.===SMP and multi-core design===ABIT BP6 motherboard supported two Intel Celeron 366Mhz processors picture shows Zalman heatsinks.", "'''Abit BP6''' dual-socket motherboard shown with Zalman Flower heatsinksSMP ''symmetric multiprocessing'' is a configuration of two, four, or more CPU's (in pairs) that are typically used in servers, certain workstations and in desktop personal computers, since the 1990s.", "A multi-core processor is a single CPU that contains more than one microprocessor core.This popular two-socket motherboard from Abit was released in 1999 as the first SMP enabled PC motherboard, the Intel Pentium Pro was the first commercial CPU offered to system builders and enthusiasts.", "The Abit BP9 supports two Intel Celeron CPU's and when used with a SMP enabled operating system (Windows NT/2000/Linux) many applications obtain much higher performance than a single CPU.", "The early Celerons are easily overclockable and hobbyists used these relatively inexpensive CPU's clocked as high as 533Mhz - far beyond Intel's specification.", "After discovering the capacity of these motherboards Intel removed access to the multiplier in later CPU's.In 2001 IBM released the POWER4 CPU, it was a processor that was developed over five years of research, began in 1996 using a team of 250 researchers.", "The effort to accomplish the impossible was buttressed by development of and through—remote-collaboration and assigning younger engineers to work with more experienced engineers.", "The teams work achieved success with the new microprocessor, Power4.It is a two-in-one CPU that more than doubled performance at half the price of the competition, and a major advance in computing.", "The business magazine ''eWeek'' wrote: ''\"The newly designed 1GHz Power4 represents a tremendous leap over its predecessor\"''.", "An industry analyst, Brad Day of Giga Information Group said: ''\"IBM is getting very aggressive, and this server is a game changer\".", "''The Power4 won \"''Analysts’ Choice Award for Best Workstation/Server Processor of 2001\", and'' it broke notable records, including winning a contest against the best players on the Jeopardy!", "U.S. television show.Intel's codename Yonah CPU's launched on Jan 6, 2006, and were manufactured with two dies packaged on a multi-chip module.", "In a hotly-contested marketplace AMD and others released new versions of multi-core CPU's, AMD's SMP enabled Athlon MP CPU's from the AthlonXP line in 2001, Sun released the Niagara and Niagara 2 with eight-cores, AMD's Athlon X2 was released in June 2007.The companies were engaged in a never-ending race for speed, indeed more demanding software mandated more processing power and faster CPU speeds.By 2012 ''dual and quad-core'' processors became widely used in PCs and laptops, newer processors - similar to the higher cost professional level Intel Xeon's - with additional cores that execute instructions in parallel so software performance typically increases, provided the software is designed to utilize advanced hardware.", "Operating systems provided support for multiple-cores and SMD CPU's, many software applications including large workload and resource intensive applications - such as 3-D games - are programmed to take advantage of multiple core and multi-CPU systems.Apple, Intel, and AMD currently lead the market with multiple core desktop and workstation CPU's.", "Although they frequently leapfrog each other for the lead in the performance tier.", "Intel retains higher frequencies and thus has the fastest single core performance, while AMD is often the leader in multi-threaded routines due to a more advanced ISA and the process node the CPU's are fabricated on.Multiprocessing concepts for multi-core/multi-cpu configurations are related to Amdahl's law." ], [ "Market statistics", "In 1997, about 55% of all CPUs sold in the world were 8-bit microcontrollers, of which over 2 billion were sold.In 2002, less than 10% of all the CPUs sold in the world were 32-bit or more.", "Of all the 32-bit CPUs sold, about 2% are used in desktop or laptop personal computers.", "Most microprocessors are used in embedded control applications such as household appliances, automobiles, and computer peripherals.", "Taken as a whole, the average price for a microprocessor, microcontroller, or DSP is just over .In 2003, about $44 billion (equivalent to about $ billion in ) worth of microprocessors were manufactured and sold.", "Although about half of that money was spent on CPUs used in desktop or laptop personal computers, those count for only about 2% of all CPUs sold.", "The quality-adjusted price of laptop microprocessors improved −25% to −35% per year in 2004–2010, and the rate of improvement slowed to −15% to −25% per year in 2010–2013.About 10 billion CPUs were manufactured in 2008.Most new CPUs produced each year are embedded." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of instruction set architectures* Computer architecture* Computer engineering* List of microprocessors* Microarchitecture* Microprocessor chronology" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Patent problems* * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Molecule" ], [ "Introduction", "Atomic force microscopy (AFM) image of a PTCDA molecule, in which the five six-carbon rings are visible.A scanning tunneling microscopy image of pentacene molecules, which consist of linear chains of five carbon rings.AFM image of 1,5,9-trioxo-13-azatriangulene and its chemical structure.A '''molecule''' is a group of two or more atoms held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions which satisfy this criterion.", "In quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the distinction from ions is dropped and ''molecule'' is often used when referring to polyatomic ions.A molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one chemical element, e.g.", "two atoms in the oxygen molecule (O2); or it may be heteronuclear, a chemical compound composed of more than one element, e.g.", "water (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom; H2O).", "In the kinetic theory of gases, the term ''molecule'' is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition.", "This relaxes the requirement that a molecule contains two or more atoms, since the noble gases are individual atoms.", "Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are typically not considered single molecules.Concepts similar to molecules have been discussed since ancient times, but modern investigation into the nature of molecules and their bonds began in the 17th century.", "Refined over time by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Amedeo Avogadro, Jean Perrin, and Linus Pauling, the study of molecules is today known as molecular physics or molecular chemistry." ], [ "Etymology", "According to Merriam-Webster and the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word \"molecule\" derives from the Latin \"moles\" or small unit of mass.", "The word is derived from French '''' (1678), from Neo-Latin '''', diminutive of Latin '''' \"mass, barrier\".", "The word, which until the late 18th century was used only in Latin form, became popular after being used in works of philosophy by Descartes." ], [ "History", "The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased.", "Earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties.", "This definition often breaks down since many substances in ordinary experience, such as rocks, salts, and metals, are composed of large crystalline networks of chemically bonded atoms or ions, but are not made of discrete molecules.The modern concept of molecules can be traced back towards pre-scientific and Greek philosophers such as Leucippus and Democritus who argued that all the universe is composed of atoms and voids.", "Circa 450 BC Empedocles imagined fundamental elements (fire (20x20px), earth (20x20px), air (20x20px), and water (20x20px)) and \"forces\" of attraction and repulsion allowing the elements to interact.A fifth element, the incorruptible quintessence aether, was considered to be the fundamental building block of the heavenly bodies.", "The viewpoint of Leucippus and Empedocles, along with the aether, was accepted by Aristotle and passed to medieval and renaissance Europe.", "In a more concrete manner, however, the concept of aggregates or units of bonded atoms, i.e.", "\"molecules\", traces its origins to Robert Boyle's 1661 hypothesis, in his famous treatise ''The Sceptical Chymist'', that matter is composed of ''clusters of particles'' and that chemical change results from the rearrangement of the clusters.", "Boyle argued that matter's basic elements consisted of various sorts and sizes of particles, called \"corpuscles\", which were capable of arranging themselves into groups.", "In 1789, William Higgins published views on what he called combinations of \"ultimate\" particles, which foreshadowed the concept of valency bonds.", "If, for example, according to Higgins, the force between the ultimate particle of oxygen and the ultimate particle of nitrogen were 6, then the strength of the force would be divided accordingly, and similarly for the other combinations of ultimate particles.Amedeo Avogadro created the word \"molecule\".", "His 1811 paper \"Essay on Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules of Bodies\", he essentially states, i.e.", "according to Partington's ''A Short History of Chemistry'', that:In coordination with these concepts, in 1833 the French chemist Marc Antoine Auguste Gaudin presented a clear account of Avogadro's hypothesis, regarding atomic weights, by making use of \"volume diagrams\", which clearly show both semi-correct molecular geometries, such as a linear water molecule, and correct molecular formulas, such as H2O:Marc Antoine Auguste Gaudin's volume diagrams of molecules in the gas phase (1833)In 1917, an unknown American undergraduate chemical engineer named Linus Pauling was learning the Dalton hook-and-eye bonding method, which was the mainstream description of bonds between atoms at the time.", "Pauling, however, was not satisfied with this method and looked to the newly emerging field of quantum physics for a new method.", "In 1926, French physicist Jean Perrin received the Nobel Prize in physics for proving, conclusively, the existence of molecules.", "He did this by calculating the Avogadro constant using three different methods, all involving liquid phase systems.", "First, he used a gamboge soap-like emulsion, second by doing experimental work on Brownian motion, and third by confirming Einstein's theory of particle rotation in the liquid phase.In 1927, the physicists Fritz London and Walter Heitler applied the new quantum mechanics to the deal with the saturable, nondynamic forces of attraction and repulsion, i.e., exchange forces, of the hydrogen molecule.", "Their valence bond treatment of this problem, in their joint paper, was a landmark in that it brought chemistry under quantum mechanics.", "Their work was an influence on Pauling, who had just received his doctorate and visited Heitler and London in Zürich on a Guggenheim Fellowship.Subsequently, in 1931, building on the work of Heitler and London and on theories found in Lewis' famous article, Pauling published his ground-breaking article \"The Nature of the Chemical Bond\" in which he used quantum mechanics to calculate properties and structures of molecules, such as angles between bonds and rotation about bonds.", "On these concepts, Pauling developed hybridization theory to account for bonds in molecules such as CH4, in which four sp³ hybridised orbitals are overlapped by hydrogen's ''1s'' orbital, yielding four sigma (σ) bonds.", "The four bonds are of the same length and strength, which yields a molecular structure as shown below:A schematic presentation of hybrid orbitals overlapping hydrogens' s orbitals" ], [ "Molecular science", "The science of molecules is called ''molecular chemistry'' or ''molecular physics'', depending on whether the focus is on chemistry or physics.", "Molecular chemistry deals with the laws governing the interaction between molecules that results in the formation and breakage of chemical bonds, while molecular physics deals with the laws governing their structure and properties.", "In practice, however, this distinction is vague.", "In molecular sciences, a molecule consists of a stable system (bound state) composed of two or more atoms.", "Polyatomic ions may sometimes be usefully thought of as electrically charged molecules.", "The term ''unstable molecule'' is used for very reactive species, i.e., short-lived assemblies (resonances) of electrons and nuclei, such as radicals, molecular ions, Rydberg molecules, transition states, van der Waals complexes, or systems of colliding atoms as in Bose–Einstein condensate." ], [ "Prevalence", "Molecules as components of matter are common.", "They also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere.", "Most organic substances are molecules.", "The substances of life are molecules, e.g.", "proteins, the amino acids of which they are composed, the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), sugars, carbohydrates, fats, and vitamins.", "The nutrient minerals are generally ionic compounds, thus they are not molecules, e.g.", "iron sulfate.However, the majority of familiar solid substances on Earth are made partly or completely of crystals or ionic compounds, which are not made of molecules.", "These include all of the minerals that make up the substance of the Earth, sand, clay, pebbles, rocks, boulders, bedrock, the molten interior, and the core of the Earth.", "All of these contain many chemical bonds, but are ''not'' made of identifiable molecules.No typical molecule can be defined for salts nor for covalent crystals, although these are often composed of repeating unit cells that extend either in a plane, e.g.", "graphene; or three-dimensionally e.g.", "diamond, quartz, sodium chloride.", "The theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most metals which are condensed phases with metallic bonding.", "Thus solid metals are not made of molecules.", "In glasses, which are solids that exist in a vitreous disordered state, the atoms are held together by chemical bonds with no presence of any definable molecule, nor any of the regularity of repeating unit-cellular-structure that characterizes salts, covalent crystals, and metals." ], [ "Bonding", "Molecules are generally held together by covalent bonding.", "Several non-metallic elements exist only as molecules in the environment either in compounds or as homonuclear molecules, not as free atoms: for example, hydrogen.While some people say a metallic crystal can be considered a single giant molecule held together by metallic bonding, others point out that metals behave very differently than molecules.=== Covalent ===A covalent bond forming H2 (right) where two hydrogen atoms share the two electronsA covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.", "These electron pairs are termed ''shared pairs'' or ''bonding pairs'', and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is termed ''covalent bonding''.=== Ionic === Sodium and fluorine undergoing a redox reaction to form sodium fluoride.", "Sodium loses its outer electron to give it a stable electron configuration, and this electron enters the fluorine atom exothermically.Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds.", "The ions are atoms that have lost one or more electrons (termed cations) and atoms that have gained one or more electrons (termed anions).", "This transfer of electrons is termed ''electrovalence'' in contrast to covalence.", "In the simplest case, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom, but these ions can be of a more complicated nature, e.g.", "molecular ions like NH4+ or SO42−.", "At normal temperatures and pressures, ionic bonding mostly creates solids (or occasionally liquids) without separate identifiable molecules, but the vaporization/sublimation of such materials does produce separate molecules where electrons are still transferred fully enough for the bonds to be considered ionic rather than covalent." ], [ "Molecular size", "Most molecules are far too small to be seen with the naked eye, although molecules of many polymers can reach macroscopic sizes, including biopolymers such as DNA.", "Molecules commonly used as building blocks for organic synthesis have a dimension of a few angstroms (Å) to several dozen Å, or around one billionth of a meter.", "Single molecules cannot usually be observed by light (as noted above), but small molecules and even the outlines of individual atoms may be traced in some circumstances by use of an atomic force microscope.", "Some of the largest molecules are macromolecules or supermolecules.The smallest molecule is the diatomic hydrogen (H2), with a bond length of 0.74 Å.Effective molecular radius is the size a molecule displays in solution.The table of permselectivity for different substances contains examples." ], [ "Molecular formulas", "=== Chemical formula types ===The chemical formula for a molecule uses one line of chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, and ''plus'' (+) and ''minus'' (−) signs.", "These are limited to one typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts.A compound's empirical formula is a very simple type of chemical formula.", "It is the simplest integer ratio of the chemical elements that constitute it.", "For example, water is always composed of a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms, and ethanol (ethyl alcohol) is always composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 2:6:1 ratio.", "However, this does not determine the kind of molecule uniquely – dimethyl ether has the same ratios as ethanol, for instance.", "Molecules with the same atoms in different arrangements are called isomers.", "Also carbohydrates, for example, have the same ratio (carbon:hydrogen:oxygen= 1:2:1) (and thus the same empirical formula) but different total numbers of atoms in the molecule.The molecular formula reflects the exact number of atoms that compose the molecule and so characterizes different molecules.", "However different isomers can have the same atomic composition while being different molecules.The empirical formula is often the same as the molecular formula but not always.", "For example, the molecule acetylene has molecular formula C2H2, but the simplest integer ratio of elements is CH.The molecular mass can be calculated from the chemical formula and is expressed in conventional atomic mass units equal to 1/12 of the mass of a neutral carbon-12 (12C isotope) atom.", "For network solids, the term formula unit is used in stoichiometric calculations.=== Structural formula ===3D (left and center) and 2D (right) representations of the terpenoid molecule atisaneFor molecules with a complicated 3-dimensional structure, especially involving atoms bonded to four different substituents, a simple molecular formula or even semi-structural chemical formula may not be enough to completely specify the molecule.", "In this case, a graphical type of formula called a structural formula may be needed.", "Structural formulas may in turn be represented with a one-dimensional chemical name, but such chemical nomenclature requires many words and terms which are not part of chemical formulas." ], [ "Molecular geometry", "STM image of a \"cyanostar\" dendrimer molecule.Molecules have fixed equilibrium geometries—bond lengths and angles— about which they continuously oscillate through vibrational and rotational motions.", "A pure substance is composed of molecules with the same average geometrical structure.", "The chemical formula and the structure of a molecule are the two important factors that determine its properties, particularly its reactivity.", "Isomers share a chemical formula but normally have very different properties because of their different structures.", "Stereoisomers, a particular type of isomer, may have very similar physico-chemical properties and at the same time different biochemical activities." ], [ "Molecular spectroscopy", "H2TPP molecules by applying excess voltage to the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope (STM, a); this removal alters the current-voltage (I-V) curves of TPP molecules, measured using the same STM tip, from diode like (red curve in b) to resistor like (green curve).", "Image (c) shows a row of TPP, H2TPP and TPP molecules.", "While scanning image (d), excess voltage was applied to H2TPP at the black dot, which instantly removed hydrogen, as shown in the bottom part of (d) and in the rescan image (e).", "Such manipulations can be used in single-molecule electronics.", "'''Molecular spectroscopy''' deals with the response (spectrum) of molecules interacting with probing signals of known energy (or frequency, according to the Planck relation).", "Molecules have quantized energy levels that can be analyzed by detecting the molecule's energy exchange through absorbance or emission.Spectroscopy does not generally refer to diffraction studies where particles such as neutrons, electrons, or high energy X-rays interact with a regular arrangement of molecules (as in a crystal).Microwave spectroscopy commonly measures changes in the rotation of molecules, and can be used to identify molecules in outer space.", "Infrared spectroscopy measures the vibration of molecules, including stretching, bending or twisting motions.", "It is commonly used to identify the kinds of bonds or functional groups in molecules.", "Changes in the arrangements of electrons yield absorption or emission lines in ultraviolet, visible or near infrared light, and result in colour.", "Nuclear resonance spectroscopy measures the environment of particular nuclei in the molecule, and can be used to characterise the numbers of atoms in different positions in a molecule." ], [ "Theoretical aspects", "The study of molecules by molecular physics and theoretical chemistry is largely based on quantum mechanics and is essential for the understanding of the chemical bond.", "The simplest of molecules is the hydrogen molecule-ion, H2+, and the simplest of all the chemical bonds is the one-electron bond.", "H2+ is composed of two positively charged protons and one negatively charged electron, which means that the Schrödinger equation for the system can be solved more easily due to the lack of electron–electron repulsion.", "With the development of fast digital computers, approximate solutions for more complicated molecules became possible and are one of the main aspects of computational chemistry.When trying to define rigorously whether an arrangement of atoms is ''sufficiently stable'' to be considered a molecule, IUPAC suggests that it \"must correspond to a depression on the potential energy surface that is deep enough to confine at least one vibrational state\".", "This definition does not depend on the nature of the interaction between the atoms, but only on the strength of the interaction.", "In fact, it includes weakly bound species that would not traditionally be considered molecules, such as the helium dimer, He2, which has one vibrational bound state and is so loosely bound that it is only likely to be observed at very low temperatures.Whether or not an arrangement of atoms is ''sufficiently stable'' to be considered a molecule is inherently an operational definition.", "Philosophically, therefore, a molecule is not a fundamental entity (in contrast, for instance, to an elementary particle); rather, the concept of a molecule is the chemist's way of making a useful statement about the strengths of atomic-scale interactions in the world that we observe." ], [ "See also", "* Atom* Chemical polarity* Chemical structure* Covalent bond* Diatomic molecule* List of compounds* List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules* Molecular biology* Molecular design software* Molecular engineering* Molecular geometry* Molecular Hamiltonian* Molecular ion* Molecular modelling* Molecular promiscuity* Molecular orbital* Non-covalent bonding* Periodic systems of small molecules* Small molecule* Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling* Van der Waals molecule* World Wide Molecular Matrix" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Molecule of the MonthSchool of Chemistry, University of Bristol" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mode (music)" ], [ "Introduction", "In music theory, the term '''mode''' or '''''modus''''' is used in a number of distinct senses, depending on context.Its most common use may be described as a type of musical scale coupled with a set of characteristic melodic and harmonic behaviors.", "It is applied to major and minor keys as well as the seven diatonic modes (including the former as Ionian and Aeolian) which are defined by their starting note or tonic.", "(Olivier Messiaen's modes of limited transposition are strictly a scale type.)", "Related to the diatonic modes are the eight '''church modes''' or Gregorian modes, in which authentic and plagal forms of scales are distinguished by ambitus and tenor or reciting tone.", "Although both diatonic and gregorian modes borrow terminology from ancient Greece, the Greek ''tonoi'' do not otherwise resemble their mediaeval/modern counterparts.In the Middle Ages the term '''modus''' was used to describe both intervals and rhythm.", "Modal rhythm was an essential feature of the modal notation system of the Notre-Dame school at the turn of the 12th century.", "In the mensural notation that emerged later, '''modus''' specifies the subdivision of the ''longa''.Outside of Western classical music, \"mode\" is sometimes used to embrace similar concepts such as ''Octoechos'', ''maqam'', ''pathet'' etc.", "(see below)." ], [ "Mode as a general concept", "Regarding the concept of mode as applied to pitch relationships generally, Harold S. Powers proposed that \"mode\" has \"a twofold sense\", denoting either a \"particularized scale\" or a \"generalized tune\", or both.", "\"If one thinks of scale and tune as representing the poles of a continuum of melodic predetermination, then most of the area between can be designated one way or the other as being in the domain of mode\".In 1792, Sir Willam Jones applied the term \"mode\" to the music of \"the Persians and the Hindoos\".", "As early as 1271, Amerus applied the concept to ''cantilenis organicis'', i.e.", "most probably polyphony.", "It is still heavily used with regard to Western polyphony before the onset of the common practice period, as for example \"modale Mehrstimmigkeit\" by Carl Dahlhaus or \"Alte Tonarten\" of the 16th and 17th centuries found by Bernhard Meier.The word encompasses several additional meanings.", "Authors from the 9th century until the early 18th century (e.g., Guido of Arezzo) sometimes employed the Latin ''modus'' for interval, or for qualities of individual notes.", "In the theory of late-medieval mensural polyphony (e.g., Franco of Cologne), ''modus'' is a rhythmic relationship between long and short values or a pattern made from them; in mensural music most often theorists applied it to division of longa into 3 or 2 breves." ], [ "Modes and scales", "A musical scale is a series of pitches in a distinct order.The concept of \"mode\" in Western music theory has three successive stages: in Gregorian chant theory, in Renaissance polyphonic theory, and in tonal harmonic music of the common practice period.", "In all three contexts, \"mode\" incorporates the idea of the diatonic scale, but differs from it by also involving an element of melody type.", "This concerns particular repertories of short musical figures or groups of tones within a certain scale so that, depending on the point of view, mode takes on the meaning of either a \"particularized scale\" or a \"generalized tune\".", "Modern musicological practice has extended the concept of mode to earlier musical systems, such as those of Ancient Greek music, Jewish cantillation, and the Byzantine system of ''octoechoi'', as well as to other non-Western types of music.By the early 19th century, the word \"mode\" had taken on an additional meaning, in reference to the difference between major and minor keys, specified as \"major mode\" and \"minor mode\".", "At the same time, composers were beginning to conceive \"modality\" as something outside of the major/minor system that could be used to evoke religious feelings or to suggest folk-music idioms." ], [ "Greek modes", "Early Greek treatises describe three interrelated concepts that are related to the later, medieval idea of \"mode\": (1) scales (or \"systems\"), (2) ''tonos'' – pl.", "''tonoi'' – (the more usual term used in medieval theory for what later came to be called \"mode\"), and (3) ''harmonia'' (harmony) – pl.", "''harmoniai'' – this third term subsuming the corresponding ''tonoi'' but not necessarily the converse.===Greek scales===The Greek scales in the Aristoxenian tradition were:* Mixolydian: ''hypate hypaton–paramese'' (b–b′)* Lydian: ''parhypate hypaton–trite diezeugmenon'' (c′–c″)* Phrygian: ''lichanos hypaton–paranete diezeugmenon'' (d′–d″)* Dorian: ''hypate meson–nete diezeugmenon'' (e′–e″)* Hypolydian: ''parhypate meson–trite hyperbolaion'' (f′–f″)* Hypophrygian: ''lichanos meson–paranete hyperbolaion'' (g′–g″)* Common, Locrian, or Hypodorian: ''mese–nete hyperbolaion'' or ''proslambnomenos–mese'' (a′–a″ or a–a′)These names are derived from an ancient Greek subgroup (Dorians), a small region in central Greece (Locris), and certain neighboring peoples (non-Greek but related to them) from Asia Minor (Lydia, Phrygia).", "The association of these ethnic names with the octave species appears to precede Aristoxenus, who criticized their application to the ''tonoi'' by the earlier theorists whom he called the \"Harmonicists.\"", "According to Bélis (2001), he felt that their diagrams, which exhibit 28 consecutive dieses, were \"... devoid of any musical reality since more than two quarter-tones are never heard in succession.", "\"Depending on the positioning (spacing) of the interposed tones in the tetrachords, three ''genera'' of the seven octave species can be recognized.", "The diatonic genus (composed of tones and semitones), the chromatic genus (semitones and a minor third), and the enharmonic genus (with a major third and two quarter tones or dieses).", "The framing interval of the perfect fourth is fixed, while the two internal pitches are movable.", "Within the basic forms, the intervals of the chromatic and diatonic genera were varied further by three and two \"shades\" (''chroai''), respectively.In contrast to the medieval modal system, these scales and their related ''tonoi'' and ''harmoniai'' appear to have had no hierarchical relationships amongst the notes that could establish contrasting points of tension and rest, although the ''mese'' (\"middle note\") may have had some sort of gravitational function.===''Tonoi''===The term ''tonos'' (pl.", "''tonoi'') was used in four senses: \"as note, interval, region of the voice, and pitch.", "We use it of the region of the voice whenever we speak of Dorian, or Phrygian, or Lydian, or any of the other tones\".", "Cleonides attributes thirteen ''tonoi'' to Aristoxenus, which represent a progressive transposition of the entire system (or scale) by semitone over the range of an octave between the Hypodorian and the Hypermixolydian.", "According to Cleonides, Aristoxenus's transpositional ''tonoi'' were named analogously to the octave species, supplemented with new terms to raise the number of degrees from seven to thirteen.", "However, according to the interpretation of at least three modern authorities, in these transpositional ''tonoi'' the Hypodorian is the lowest, and the Mixolydian next-to-highest – the reverse of the case of the octave species, with nominal base pitches as follows (descending order):* F: Hypermixolydian (or Hyperphrygian)* E: High Mixolydian or Hyperiastian* E: Low Mixolydian or Hyperdorian* D: Lydian* C: Low Lydian or Aeolian* C: Phrygian* B: Low Phrygian or Iastian* B: Dorian* A: Hypolydian* G: Low Hypolydian or Hypoaeolian* G: Hypophrygian* F: Low Hypophrygian or Hypoiastian* F: HypodorianPtolemy, in his ''Harmonics'', ii.3–11, construed the ''tonoi'' differently, presenting all seven octave species within a fixed octave, through chromatic inflection of the scale degrees (comparable to the modern conception of building all seven modal scales on a single tonic).", "In Ptolemy's system, therefore there are only seven ''tonoi''.", "Pythagoras also construed the intervals arithmetically (if somewhat more rigorously, initially allowing for 1:1 = Unison, 2:1 = Octave, 3:2 = Fifth, 4:3 = Fourth and 5:4 = Major Third within the octave).", "In their diatonic genus, these ''tonoi'' and corresponding ''harmoniai'' correspond with the intervals of the familiar modern major and minor scales.", "See Pythagorean tuning and Pythagorean interval.===''Harmoniai''===+''Harmoniai'' of the School of Eratocles (enharmonic genus) Mixolydian 2 2 1 Lydian 2 2 1 Phrygian 2 2 1 Dorian 2 1 2 Hypolydian 2 1 2 Hypophrygian 2 1 2 Hypodorian 1 2 2In music theory the Greek word ''harmonia'' can signify the enharmonic genus of tetrachord, the seven octave species, or a style of music associated with one of the ethnic types or the ''tonoi'' named by them.Particularly in the earliest surviving writings, ''harmonia'' is regarded not as a scale, but as the epitome of the stylised singing of a particular district or people or occupation.", "When the late-6th-century poet Lasus of Hermione referred to the Aeolian ''harmonia'', for example, he was more likely thinking of a melodic style characteristic of Greeks speaking the Aeolic dialect than of a scale pattern.", "By the late 5th century BC, these regional types are being described in terms of differences in what is called ''harmonia'' – a word with several senses, but here referring to the pattern of intervals between the notes sounded by the strings of a lyra or a kithara.However, there is no reason to suppose that, at this time, these tuning patterns stood in any straightforward and organised relations to one another.", "It was only around the year 400 that attempts were made by a group of theorists known as the harmonicists to bring these ''harmoniai'' into a single system and to express them as orderly transformations of a single structure.", "Eratocles was the most prominent of the harmonicists, though his ideas are known only at second hand, through Aristoxenus, from whom we learn they represented the ''harmoniai'' as cyclic reorderings of a given series of intervals within the octave, producing seven octave species.", "We also learn that Eratocles confined his descriptions to the enharmonic genus.In the ''Republic'', Plato uses the term inclusively to encompass a particular type of scale, range and register, characteristic rhythmic pattern, textual subject, etc.", "He held that playing music in a particular ''harmonia'' would incline one towards specific behaviors associated with it, and suggested that soldiers should listen to music in Dorian or Phrygian ''harmoniai'' to help make them stronger but avoid music in Lydian, Mixolydian or Ionian ''harmoniai'', for fear of being softened.", "Plato believed that a change in the musical modes of the state would cause a wide-scale social revolution.The philosophical writings of Plato and Aristotle (c. 350 BC) include sections that describe the effect of different ''harmoniai'' on mood and character formation.", "For example, Aristotle stated in his ''Politics'':Aristotle continues by describing the effects of rhythm, and concludes about the combined effect of rhythm and ''harmonia'' (viii:1340b:10–13): The word ''ethos'' (ἦθος) in this context means \"moral character\", and Greek ethos theory concerns the ways that music can convey, foster, and even generate ethical states.===''Melos''===Some treatises also describe \"melic\" composition (μελοποιΐα), \"the employment of the materials subject to harmonic practice with due regard to the requirements of each of the subjects under consideration\" – which, together with the scales, ''tonoi'', and ''harmoniai'' resemble elements found in medieval modal theory.", "According to Aristides Quintilianus, melic composition is subdivided into three classes: dithyrambic, nomic, and tragic.", "These parallel his three classes of rhythmic composition: systaltic, diastaltic and hesychastic.", "Each of these broad classes of melic composition may contain various subclasses, such as erotic, comic and panegyric, and any composition might be elevating (diastaltic), depressing (systaltic), or soothing (hesychastic).According to Thomas J. Mathiesen, music as a performing art was called ''melos'', which in its perfect form (μέλος τέλειον) comprised not only the melody and the text (including its elements of rhythm and diction) but also stylized dance movement.", "Melic and rhythmic composition (respectively, μελοποιΐα and ῥυθμοποιΐα) were the processes of selecting and applying the various components of melos and rhythm to create a complete work.", "According to Aristides Quintilianus:" ], [ "Western Church", "Excerpt from Boethius' ''De musica'' depicting a scaleTonaries, lists of chant titles grouped by mode, appear in western sources around the turn of the 9th century.", "The influence of developments in Byzantium, from Jerusalem and Damascus, for instance the works of Saints John of Damascus (d. 749) and Cosmas of Maiouma, are still not fully understood.", "The eight-fold division of the Latin modal system, in a four-by-two matrix, was certainly of Eastern provenance, originating probably in Syria or even in Jerusalem, and was transmitted from Byzantine sources to Carolingian practice and theory during the 8th century.", "However, the earlier Greek model for the Carolingian system was probably ordered like the later Byzantine ''oktōēchos'', that is, with the four principal (authentic) modes first, then the four plagals, whereas the Latin modes were always grouped the other way, with the authentics and plagals paired.The 6th-century scholar Boethius had translated Greek music theory treatises by Nicomachus and Ptolemy into Latin.", "Later authors created confusion by applying mode as described by Boethius to explain plainchant modes, which were a wholly different system.", "In his ''De institutione musica'', book 4 chapter 15, Boethius, like his Hellenistic sources, twice used the term ''harmonia'' to describe what would likely correspond to the later notion of \"mode\", but also used the word \"modus\" – probably translating the Greek word τρόπος (''tropos''), which he also rendered as Latin ''tropus'' – in connection with the system of transpositions required to produce seven diatonic octave species, so the term was simply a means of describing transposition and had nothing to do with the church modes.Later, 9th-century theorists applied Boethius's terms ''tropus'' and ''modus'' (along with \"tonus\") to the system of church modes.", "The treatise ''De Musica'' (or ''De harmonica institutione'') of Hucbald synthesized the three previously disparate strands of modal theory: chant theory, the Byzantine ''oktōēchos'' and Boethius's account of Hellenistic theory.", "The late-9th- and early 10th-century compilation known as the ''Alia musica'' imposed the seven octave transpositions, known as ''tropus'' and described by Boethius, onto the eight church modes, but its compilator also mentions the Greek (Byzantine) echoi translated by the Latin term ''sonus''.", "Thus, the names of the modes became associated with the eight church tones and their modal formulas – but this medieval interpretation does not fit the concept of the ancient Greek harmonics treatises.", "The modern understanding of mode does not reflect that it is made of different concepts that do not all fit.The introit ''Jubilate Deo'', from which Jubilate Sunday gets its name, is in Mode 8.According to Carolingian theorists the eight church modes, or Gregorian modes, can be divided into four pairs, where each pair shares the \"final\" note and the four notes above the final, but they have different intervals concerning the species of the fifth.", "If the octave is completed by adding three notes above the fifth, the mode is termed ''authentic'', but if the octave is completed by adding three notes below, it is called ''plagal'' (from Greek πλάγιος, \"oblique, sideways\").", "Otherwise explained: if the melody moves mostly above the final, with an occasional cadence to the sub-final, the mode is authentic.", "Plagal modes shift range and also explore the fourth below the final as well as the fifth above.", "In both cases, the strict ambitus of the mode is one octave.", "A melody that remains confined to the mode's ambitus is called \"perfect\"; if it falls short of it, \"imperfect\"; if it exceeds it, \"superfluous\"; and a melody that combines the ambituses of both the plagal and authentic is said to be in a \"mixed mode\".Although the earlier (Greek) model for the Carolingian system was probably ordered like the Byzantine ''oktōēchos'', with the four authentic modes first, followed by the four plagals, the earliest extant sources for the Latin system are organized in four pairs of authentic and plagal modes sharing the same final: protus authentic/plagal, deuterus authentic/plagal, tritus authentic/plagal, and tetrardus authentic/plagal.Each mode has, in addition to its final, a \"reciting tone\", sometimes called the \"dominant\".", "It is also sometimes called the \"tenor\", from Latin ''tenere'' \"to hold\", meaning the tone around which the melody principally centres.", "The reciting tones of all authentic modes began a fifth above the final, with those of the plagal modes a third above.", "However, the reciting tones of modes 3, 4, and 8 rose one step during the 10th and 11th centuries with 3 and 8 moving from B to C (half step) and that of 4 moving from G to A (whole step).Kyrie \"orbis factor\", in mode 1 (Dorian) with B on scale-degree 6, descends from the reciting tone, A, to the final, D, and uses the ''subtonium'' (tone below the final).After the reciting tone, every mode is distinguished by scale degrees called \"mediant\" and \"participant\".", "The mediant is named from its position between the final and reciting tone.", "In the authentic modes it is the third of the scale, unless that note should happen to be B, in which case C substitutes for it.", "In the plagal modes, its position is somewhat irregular.", "The participant is an auxiliary note, generally adjacent to the mediant in authentic modes and, in the plagal forms, coincident with the reciting tone of the corresponding authentic mode (some modes have a second participant).Only one accidental is used commonly in Gregorian chant – B may be lowered by a half-step to B.", "This usually (but not always) occurs in modes V and VI, as well as in the upper tetrachord of IV, and is optional in other modes except III, VII and VIII.Mode I (Dorian) II (Hypodorian) III (Phrygian) IV (Hypophrygian) V (Lydian) VI (Hypolydian) VII (Mixolydian) VIII (Hypomixolydian)FinalD (re)D (re)E (mi)E (mi)F (fa)F (fa)G (sol)G (sol)DominantA (la)F (fa)B (si) or C (do)G (sol) or A (la)C (do)A (la)D (re)B (si) or C (do)In 1547, the Swiss theorist Henricus Glareanus published the ''Dodecachordon'', in which he solidified the concept of the church modes, and added four additional modes: the Aeolian (mode 9), Hypoaeolian (mode 10), Ionian (mode 11), and Hypoionian (mode 12).", "A little later in the century, the Italian Gioseffo Zarlino at first adopted Glarean's system in 1558, but later (1571 and 1573) revised the numbering and naming conventions in a manner he deemed more logical, resulting in the widespread promulgation of two conflicting systems.Zarlino's system reassigned the six pairs of authentic–plagal mode numbers to finals in the order of the natural hexachord, C–D–E–F–G–A, and transferred the Greek names as well, so that modes 1 through 8 now became C-authentic to F-plagal, and were now called by the names Dorian to Hypomixolydian.", "The pair of G modes were numbered 9 and 10 and were named Ionian and Hypoionian, while the pair of A modes retained both the numbers and names (11, Aeolian, and 12 Hypoaeolian) of Glarean's system.", "While Zarlino's system became popular in France, Italian composers preferred Glarean's scheme because it retained the traditional eight modes, while expanding them.", "Luzzasco Luzzaschi was an exception in Italy, in that he used Zarlino's new system.In the late-18th and 19th centuries, some chant reformers (notably the editors of the Mechlin, Pustet-Ratisbon (Regensburg), and Rheims-Cambrai Office-Books, collectively referred to as the Cecilian Movement) renumbered the modes once again, this time retaining the original eight mode numbers and Glareanus's modes 9 and 10, but assigning numbers 11 and 12 to the modes on the final B, which they named Locrian and Hypolocrian (even while rejecting their use in chant).", "The Ionian and Hypoionian modes (on C) become in this system modes 13 and 14.Given the confusion between ancient, medieval, and modern terminology, \"today it is more consistent and practical to use the traditional designation of the modes with numbers one to eight\", using Roman numeral (I–VIII), rather than using the pseudo-Greek naming system.", "Medieval terms, first used in Carolingian treatises, later in Aquitanian tonaries, are still used by scholars today: the Greek ordinals (\"first\", \"second\", etc.)", "transliterated into the Latin alphabet protus (πρῶτος), deuterus (δεύτερος), tritus (τρίτος), and tetrardus (τέταρτος).", "In practice they can be specified as authentic or as plagal like \"protus authentus / plagalis\".The eight musical modes.", "'''f''' indicates \"final\".===Use===A mode indicated a primary pitch (a final), the organization of pitches in relation to the final, the suggested range, the melodic formulas associated with different modes, the location and importance of cadences, and the affect (i.e., emotional effect/character).", "Liane Curtis writes that \"Modes should not be equated with scales: principles of melodic organization, placement of cadences, and emotional affect are essential parts of modal content\" in Medieval and Renaissance music.Dahlhaus lists \"three factors that form the respective starting points for the modal theories of Aurelian of Réôme, Hermannus Contractus, and Guido of Arezzo\":* the relation of modal formulas to the comprehensive system of tonal relationships embodied in the diatonic scale* the partitioning of the octave into a modal framework* the function of the modal final as a relational center.The oldest medieval treatise regarding modes is ''Musica disciplina'' by Aurelian of Réôme (dating from around 850) while Hermannus Contractus was the first to define modes as partitionings of the octave.", "However, the earliest Western source using the system of eight modes is the Tonary of St Riquier, dated between about 795 and 800.Various interpretations of the \"character\" imparted by the different modes have been suggested.", "Three such interpretations, from Guido of Arezzo (995–1050), Adam of Fulda (1445–1505), and Juan de Espinosa Medrano (1632–1688), follow:NameModeD'Arezzo FuldaEspinosaExample chantDorianIseriousany feelinghappy, taming the passionsFile:Venisancte.ogg ''Veni sancte spiritus''HypodorianIIsadsadserious and tearfulFile:Iesudulcis.ogg ''Iesu dulcis amor meus''PhrygianIIImysticvehementinciting angerFile:Kyrie.ogg ''Kyrie, fons bonitatis''HypophrygianIVharmonioustenderinciting delights, tempering fiercenessFile:Conditor.ogg ''Conditor alme siderum''LydianVhappyhappyhappyFile:Salve.ogg ''Salve Regina''HypolydianVIdevoutpioustearful and piousFile:Ubicaritas.ogg ''Ubi caritas''MixolydianVIIangelicalof youthuniting pleasure and sadnessFile:Introibo.ogg ''Introibo''HypomixolydianVIIIperfectof knowledgevery happyFile:Adcenam.ogg ''Ad cenam agni providi''" ], [ "Modern modes", "Modern Western modes use the same set of notes as the major scale, in the same order, but starting from one of its seven degrees in turn as a tonic, and so present a different sequence of whole and half steps.", "With the interval sequence of the major scale being W–W–H–W–W–W–H, where \"W\" means a whole tone (whole step) and \"H\" means a semitone (half step), it is thus possible to generate the following modes: Mode Tonic relativeto major scale Interval sequence Example Ionian I W–W–H–W–W–W–H C–D–E–F–G–A–B–C Dorian ii W–H–W–W–W–H–W D–E–F–G–A–B–C–D Phrygian iii H–W–W–W–H–W–W E–F–G–A–B–C–D–E Lydian IV W–W–W–H–W–W–H F–G–A–B–C–D–E–F Mixolydian V W–W–H–W–W–H–W G–A–B–C–D–E–F–G Aeolian vi W–H–W–W–H–W–W A–B–C–D–E–F–G–A Locrian viiø H–W–W–H–W–W–W B–C–D–E–F–G–A–BFor the sake of simplicity, the examples shown above are formed by natural notes (also called \"white notes\", as they can be played using the white keys of a piano keyboard).", "However, any transposition of each of these scales is a valid example of the corresponding mode.", "In other words, transposition preserves mode.Interval sequences for each of the modern modes, showing the relationship between the modes as a shifted grid of intervals.Although the names of the modern modes are Greek and some have names used in ancient Greek theory for some of the ''harmoniai'', the names of the modern modes are conventional and do not refer to the sequences of intervals found even in the diatonic genus of the Greek octave species sharing the same name.===Analysis===Each mode has characteristic intervals and chords that give it its distinctive sound.", "The following is an analysis of each of the seven modern modes.", "The examples are provided in a key signature with no sharps or flats (scales composed of natural notes).====Ionian (I)====The Ionian mode is the modern major scale.", "The example composed of natural notes begins on C, and is also known as the C-major scale: Natural notes C D E F G A B C Interval from C P1 M2 M3 P4 P5 M6 M7 P8*'''Tonic triad''': C major*'''Tonic seventh chord''': CM7*'''Dominant triad''': G (in modern tonal thinking, the fifth or dominant scale degree, which in this case is G, is the next-most important chord root after the tonic)*'''Seventh chord on the dominant''': G7 (a dominant seventh chord, so-called because of its position in this – and only this – modal scale)====Dorian (II)====The Dorian mode is the second mode.", "The example composed of natural notes begins on D: Natural notes D E F G A B C D Interval from D P1 M2 m3 P4 P5 M6 m7 P8The Dorian mode is very similar to the modern natural minor scale (see Aeolian mode below).", "The only difference with respect to the natural minor scale is in the sixth scale degree, which is a major sixth (M6) above the tonic, rather than a minor sixth (m6).", "*'''Tonic triad''': Dm*'''Tonic seventh chord''': Dm7*'''Dominant triad''': Am*'''Seventh chord on the dominant''': Am7 (a minor seventh chord)====Phrygian (III)====The Phrygian mode is the third mode.", "The example composed of natural notes starts on E: Natural notes E F G A B C D E Interval from E P1 m2 m3 P4 P5 m6 m7 P8The Phrygian mode is very similar to the modern natural minor scale (see Aeolian mode below).", "The only difference with respect to the natural minor scale is in the second scale degree, which is a minor second (m2) above the tonic, rather than a major second (M2).", "*'''Tonic triad''': Em*'''Tonic seventh chord''': Em7*'''Dominant triad''': Bdim*'''Seventh chord on the dominant''': Bø7 (a half-diminished seventh chord)====Lydian (IV)====The Lydian mode is the fourth mode.", "The example composed of natural notes starts on F: Natural notes F G A B C D E F Interval from F P1 M2 M3 A4 P5 M6 M7 P8The single tone that differentiates this scale from the major scale (Ionian mode) is its fourth degree, which is an augmented fourth (A4) above the tonic (F), rather than a perfect fourth (P4).", "*'''Tonic triad''': F*'''Tonic seventh chord''': FM7*'''Dominant triad''': C*'''Seventh chord on the dominant''': CM7 (a major seventh chord)====Mixolydian (V)====The Mixolydian mode is the fifth mode.", "The example composed of natural notes begins on G: Natural notes G A B C D E F G Interval from G P1 M2 M3 P4 P5 M6 m7 P8The single tone that differentiates this scale from the major scale (Ionian mode) is its seventh degree, which is a minor seventh (m7) above the tonic (G), rather than a major seventh (M7).", "Therefore, the seventh scale degree becomes a subtonic to the tonic because it is now a whole tone lower than the tonic, in contrast to the seventh degree in the major scale, which is a semitone tone lower than the tonic (leading-tone).", "*'''Tonic triad''': G*'''Tonic seventh chord''': G7 (the dominant seventh chord in this mode is the seventh chord built on the tonic degree)*'''Dominant triad''': Dm*'''Seventh chord on the dominant''': Dm7 (a minor seventh chord)====Aeolian (VI)====The Aeolian mode is the sixth mode.", "It is also called the natural minor scale.", "The example composed of natural notes begins on A, and is also known as the A natural-minor scale: Natural notes A B C D E F G A Interval from A P1 M2 m3 P4 P5 m6 m7 P8*'''Tonic triad''': Am*'''Tonic seventh chord''': Am7*'''Dominant triad''': Em*'''Seventh chord on the dominant''': Em7 (a minor seventh chord)====Locrian (VII)====The Locrian mode is the seventh mode.", "The example composed of natural notes begins on B: Natural notes B C D E F G A B Interval from B P1 m2 m3 P4 d5 m6 m7 P8The distinctive scale degree here is the diminished fifth (d5).", "This makes the tonic triad diminished, so this mode is the only one in which the chords built on the tonic and dominant scale degrees have their roots separated by a diminished, rather than perfect, fifth.", "Similarly the tonic seventh chord is half-diminished.", "*'''Tonic triad''': Bdim or B°*'''Tonic seventh chord''': Bm75 or Bø7*'''Dominant triad''': F*'''Seventh chord on the dominant''': FM7 (a major seventh chord)=== Summary ===The modes can be arranged in the following sequence, which follows the circle of fifths.", "In this sequence, each mode has one more lowered interval relative to the tonic than the mode preceding it.", "Thus, taking Lydian as reference, Ionian (major) has a lowered fourth; Mixolydian, a lowered fourth and seventh; Dorian, a lowered fourth, seventh, and third; Aeolian (natural minor), a lowered fourth, seventh, third, and sixth; Phrygian, a lowered fourth, seventh, third, sixth, and second; and Locrian, a lowered fourth, seventh, third, sixth, second, and fifth.", "Put another way, the augmented fourth of the Lydian mode has been reduced to a perfect fourth in Ionian, the major seventh in Ionian to a minor seventh in Mixolydian, etc.", "Mode Whitenote Intervals with respect to the tonic unison second third fourth fifth sixth seventh octave Lydian F perfect major major augmented perfect major major perfect Ionian C perfect Mixolydian G minor Dorian D minor Aeolian A minor Phrygian E minor Locrian B diminishedThe first three modes are sometimes called major, the next three minor, and the last one diminished (Locrian), according to the quality of their tonic triads.", "The Locrian mode is traditionally considered theoretical rather than practical because the triad built on the first scale degree is diminished.", "Because diminished triads are not consonant they do not lend themselves to cadential endings and cannot be tonicized according to traditional practice.", "* The Ionian mode corresponds to the major scale.", "Scales in the Lydian mode are major scales with an augmented fourth.", "The Mixolydian mode corresponds to the major scale with a minor seventh.", "* The Aeolian mode is identical to the natural minor scale.", "The Dorian mode corresponds to the natural minor scale with a major sixth.", "The Phrygian mode corresponds to the natural minor scale with a minor second.", "* The Locrian is neither a major nor a minor mode because, although its third scale degree is minor, the fifth degree is diminished instead of perfect.", "For this reason it is sometimes called a \"diminished\" scale, though in jazz theory this term is also applied to the octatonic scale.", "This interval is enharmonically equivalent to the augmented fourth found between scale degrees 1 and 4 in the Lydian mode and is also referred to as the tritone.===Use===Use and conception of modes or modality today is different from that in early music.", "As Jim Samson explains, \"Clearly any comparison of medieval and modern modality would recognize that the latter takes place against a background of some three centuries of harmonic tonality, permitting, and in the 19th century requiring, a dialogue between modal and diatonic procedure\".", "Indeed, when 19th-century composers revived the modes, they rendered them more strictly than Renaissance composers had, to make their qualities distinct from the prevailing major-minor system.", "Renaissance composers routinely sharped leading tones at cadences and lowered the fourth in the Lydian mode.The Ionian, or Iastian, mode is another name for the major scale used in much Western music.", "The Aeolian forms the base of the most common Western minor scale; in modern practice the Aeolian mode is differentiated from the minor by using only the seven notes of the Aeolian mode.", "By contrast, minor mode compositions of the common practice period frequently raise the seventh scale degree by a semitone to strengthen the cadences, and in conjunction also raise the sixth scale degree by a semitone to avoid the awkward interval of an augmented second.", "This is particularly true of vocal music.Traditional folk music provides countless examples of modal melodies.", "For example, Irish traditional music makes extensive usage not only of the major and minor (Aeolian) modes, but also the Mixolydian and Dorian modes.", "Within the context of Irish traditional music, the tunes are most commonly played in the keys of G-Major/A-Dorian/D-Mixolydian/E-Aeolian (minor) and D-Major/E-Dorian/A-Mixolydian/B-Aeolian (minor).", "Some Irish music is written in A-Major/F#-Aeolian (minor), with B-Dorian and E-Mixolydian tunes not being completely unheard of.", "Rarer still are Irish tunes in E-Major/F#-Dorian/B-Mixolydian.", "In some regions of Ireland, such as the west-central coast area of counties Galway and Clare, “flat” keys are far more prevalent than in other areas.", "Instruments will be constructed or pitched accordingly to allow for modal playing in C-Major/D-Dorian/G-Mixolydian or F-Major/G-Dorian/C-Mixolydian/D-Aeolian (minor), with some rare exceptions in Eb-Major/C-minor being played regionally.", "Some tunes are even composed in Bb-Major, with modulating sections in F-Mixolydian.", "Interestingly, A-minor is less popularly played in the region, despite the localised prevalence of tunes in C-Major and related modes.", "Much Flamenco music is in the Phrygian mode, though frequently with the third and seventh degrees raised by a semitone.Zoltán Kodály, Gustav Holst, and Manuel de Falla use modal elements as modifications of a diatonic background, while modality replaces diatonic tonality in the music of Claude Debussy and Béla Bartók." ], [ "Other types", "While the term \"mode\" is still most commonly understood to refer to Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian, or Locrian modes, in modern music theory the word is often applied to scales other than the diatonic.", "This is seen, for example, in melodic minor scale harmony, which is based on the seven rotations of the ascending melodic minor scale, yielding some interesting scales as shown below.", "The \"chord\" row lists tetrads that can be built from the pitches in the given mode (in jazz notation, the symbol Δ is for a major seventh).ModeIIIIIIIVVVIVIINameAscending melodic minorDorian 2 orPhrygian 6Lydian augmentedAcousticAeolian dominant or Mixolydian 6Half-diminishedAlteredNotes1 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 7ChordC–D–7E5F711G76AB7altModeIIIIIIIVVVIVIINameHarmonic minorLocrian 6Ionian 5Ukrainian DorianPhrygian DominantLydian 2Altered DiminishedNotes1 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 7ChordC–DE5F–7G79A or A–B7ModeIIIIIIIVVVIVIINameHarmonic majorDorian ♭5 or Locrian 2 6Phrygian ♭4 or Altered Dominant 5Lydian ♭3 or Melodic Minor 4Mixolydian ♭2Lydian Augmented ♯2Locrian 7Notes1 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 7ChordCD7E–7or E7F–G7A +B7ModeIIIIIIIVVVIVIINameDouble harmonicLydian 2 6Phrygian 7 4 (or Altered Diminished 5)Hungarian minorLocrian 6 3 orMixolydian 5 2Ionian 5 2Locrian 3 7Notes1 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 7ChordCD11E–6 or E6F–G75A5B3The number of possible modes for any intervallic set is dictated by the pattern of intervals in the scale.", "For scales built of a pattern of intervals that only repeats at the octave (like the diatonic set), the number of modes is equal to the number of notes in the scale.", "Scales with a recurring interval pattern smaller than an octave, however, have only as many modes as notes within that subdivision: e.g., the diminished scale, which is built of alternating whole and half steps, has only two distinct modes, since all odd-numbered modes are equivalent to the first (starting with a whole step) and all even-numbered modes are equivalent to the second (starting with a half step).The chromatic and whole-tone scales, each containing only steps of uniform size, have only a single mode each, as any rotation of the sequence results in the same sequence.", "Another general definition excludes these equal-division scales, and defines modal scales as subsets of them: according to Karlheinz Stockhausen, \"If we leave out certain steps of an equal-step scale we get a modal construction\".", "In \"Messiaen's narrow sense, ''a mode is any scale'' made up from the 'chromatic total,' the twelve tones of the tempered system\"." ], [ "Analogues in different musical traditions", "*Cantillation (Jewish music)* Echos (Byzantine music)* Dastgah (Persian traditional music)* Maqam (Arabic music)* Makam (Arabic, Persian and Turkish classical music)* Raga (Indian classical music)* Thaat (North Indian or Hindustani music)* Melakarta (South Indian or Carnatic music)* Pann (Ancient Tamil music)* Pathet (Javanese music for gamelan)* Pentatonic scale" ], [ "See also", "* Gamut (music)* Jewish prayer modes* List of musical scales and modes* Modal jazz* Znamenny chant" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Bibliography===* * *** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * * * ** *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Brent, Jeff, with Schell Barkley (2011).", "''Modalogy: Scales, Modes & Chords: The Primordial Building Blocks of Music''.", "Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation.", "* Chalmers, John H. (1993). ''", "Divisions of the Tetrachord / Peri ton tou tetrakhordou katatomon / Sectiones tetrachordi: A Prolegomenon to the Construction of Musical Scales'', edited by Larry Polansky and Carter Scholz, foreword by Lou Harrison.", "Hanover, New Hampshire: Frog Peak Music.", ".", "* Fellerer, Karl Gustav (1982).", "\"Kirchenmusikalische Reformbestrebungen um 1800\".", "''Analecta Musicologica: Veröffentlichungen der Musikgeschichtlichen Abteilung des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom'' 21:393–408.", "* Grout, Donald, Claude V. Palisca, and J. Peter Burkholder (2006).", "''A History of Western Music''.", "New York: W. W. Norton.", "7th edition.", ".", "* Jowett, Benjamin (1937).", "''The Dialogues of Plato'', translated by Benjamin Jowett, third edition, 2 vols.", "New York: Random House.", "* Jowett, Benjamin (1943).", "''Aristotle's Politics'', translated by Benjamin Jowett.", "New York: Modern Library.", "* Judd, Cristle (ed) (1998).", "''Tonal Structures in Early Music: Criticism and Analysis of Early Music'', 1st ed.", "New York: Garland.", ".", "* Levine, Mark (1989).", "''The Jazz Piano Book.''", "Petaluma, California: Sher Music Co.", ".", "* Lonnendonker, Hans.", "1980.", "\"Deutsch-französische Beziehungen in Choralfragen.", "Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des gregorianischen Chorals in der zweiten Hälfte des 19.Jahrhunderts\".", "In ''Ut mens concordet voci: Festschrift Eugène Cardine zum 75.Geburtstag'', edited by Johannes Berchmans Göschl, 280–295.St.", "Ottilien: EOS-Verlag.", "* Mathiesen, Thomas J.", "(1999).", "''Apollo's Lyre: Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity and the Middle Ages''.", "Publications of the Center for the History of Music Theory and Literature 2.Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.", ".", "*McAlpine, Fiona (2004).", "\"Beginnings and Endings: Defining the Mode in a Medieval Chant\".", "''Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae'' 45, nos.", "1 & 2 (17th International Congress of the International Musicological Society IMS Study Group Cantus Planus): 165–177.", "* (1997).", "\"Mode et système.", "Conceptions ancienne et moderne de la modalité\".", "''Musurgia'' 4, no.", "3:67–80.", "* Meeùs, Nicolas (2000).", "\"Fonctions modales et qualités systémiques\".", "''Musicae Scientiae, Forum de discussion'' 1:55–63.", "* Meier, Bernhard (1974).", "''Die Tonarten der klassischen Vokalpolyphonie: nach den Quellen dargestellt''.", "Utrecht.", "* Meier, Bernhard (1988).", "''The Modes of Classical Vocal Polyphony: Described According to the Sources,'' translated from the German by Ellen S. Beebe, with revisions by the author.", "New York: Broude Brothers.", "* Meier, Bernhard (1992).", "''Alte Tonarten: dargestellt an der Instrumentalmusik des 16.und 17.Jahrhunderts.''", "Kassel* Miller, Ron (1996).", "''Modal Jazz Composition and Harmony'', Vol.", "1.Rottenburg, Germany: Advance Music.", "* Ordoulidis, Nikos.", "(2011). \"", "The Greek Popular Modes\".", "''British Postgraduate Musicology'' 11 (December).", "(Online journal, accessed 24 December 2011)* Pfaff, Maurus (1974).", "\"Die Regensburger Kirchenmusikschule und der cantus gregorianus im 19.und 20.Jahrhundert\".", "''Gloria Deo-pax hominibus.", "Festschrift zum hundertjährigen Bestehen der Kirchenmusikschule Regensburg'', Schriftenreihe des Allgemeinen Cäcilien-Verbandes für die Länder der Deutschen Sprache 9, edited by Franz Fleckenstein, 221–252.Bonn: Allgemeiner Cäcilien-Verband, 1974.", "* Powers, Harold (1998).", "\"From Psalmody to Tonality\".", "In ''Tonal Structures in Early Music'', edited by Cristle Collins Judd, 275–340.Garland Reference Library of the Humanities 1998; Criticism and Analysis of Early Music 1.New York: Garland Publishing.", ".", "* Ruff, Anthony, and Raphael Molitor (2008). \"", "Beyond Medici: The Struggle for Progress in Chant\".", "''Sacred Music'' 135, no.", "2 (Summer): 26–44.", "* Scharnagl, August (1994).", "\"Carl Proske (1794–1861)\".", "In ''Musica divina: Ausstellung zum 400.Todesjahr von Giovanni Pierluigi Palestrina und Orlando di Lasso und zum 200.Geburtsjahr von Carl Proske.", "Ausstellung in der Bischöflichen Zentralbibliothek Regensburg, 4.November 1994 bis 3.Februar 1995'', Bischöfliches Zentralarchiv und Bischöfliche Zentralbibliothek Regensburg: Kataloge und Schriften, no.", "11, edited by Paul Mai, 12–52.Regensburg: Schnell und Steiner, 1994.", "* Schnorr, Klemens (2004).", "\"El cambio de la edición oficial del canto gregoriano de la editorial Pustet/Ratisbona a la de Solesmes en la época del Motu proprio\".", "In ''El Motu proprio de San Pío X y la Música (1903–2003).", "Barcelona, 2003'', edited by Mariano Lambea, introduction by María Rosario Álvarez Martínez and José Sierra Pérez.", "''Revista de musicología'' 27, no.", "1 (June) 197–209.", "* Street, Donald (1976).", "\"The Modes of Limited Transposition\".", "''The Musical Times'' 117, no.", "1604 (October): 819–823.", "* Vieru, Anatol (1980).", "''Cartea modurilor''.", "Bucharest: Editura Muzicală.", "English edition, as ''The Book of Modes'', translated by Yvonne Petrescu and Magda Morait.", "Bucharest: Editura Muzicală, 1993.", "* Vieru, Anatol (1992).", "\"Generating Modal Sequences (A Remote Approach to Minimal Music)\".", "''Perspectives of New Music'' 30, no.", "2 (Summer): 178–200.", "* Vincent, John (1974).", "''The Diatonic Modes in Modern Music'', revised edition.", "Hollywood: Curlew Music.", "* Wellesz, Egon (1954).", "\"Music of the Eastern Churches\".", "''The New Oxford History of Music'', vol.", "2:14–57.Oxford University Press.", "*Wiering, Frans (1998).", "\"Internal and External Views of the Modes\".", "In ''Tonal Structures in Early Music'', edited by Cristle Collins Judd, 87–107.Garland Reference Library of the Humanities 1998; Criticism and Analysis of Early Music 1.New York: Garland Publishing.", "." ], [ "External links", "* All modes mapped out in all positions for 6, 7 and 8 string guitar* The use of guitar modes in jazz music* Neume Notation Project * Division of the Tetrachord, John Chalmers* Greek and Liturgical Modes* The Ancient Musical Modes: What Were They?, Eric Friedlander MD* An interactive demonstration of many scales and modes* The Music of Ancient Greeks, an approach to the original singing of the Homeric epics and early Greek epic and lyrical poetry by Ioannidis Nikolaos* '' Ἀριστοξενου ἁρμονικα στοιχεια: The Harmonics of Aristoxenus'', edited with translation notes introduction and index of words by Henry S. Macran.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1902.", "* Monzo, Joe.", "2004.\"", "The Measurement of Aristoxenus's Divisions of the Tetrachord\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mechanics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mechanics''' (from Ancient Greek: μηχανική, ''mēkhanikḗ'', \"of machines\") is the area of mathematics and physics concerned with the relationships between force, matter, and motion among physical objects.", "Forces applied to objects result in displacements or changes of an object's position relative to its environment.Theoretical expositions of this branch of physics has its origins in Ancient Greece, for instance, in the writings of Aristotle and Archimedes (see History of classical mechanics and Timeline of classical mechanics).", "During the early modern period, scientists such as Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Christiaan Huygens, and Isaac Newton laid the foundation for what is now known as classical mechanics.As a branch of classical physics, mechanics deals with bodies that are either at rest or are moving with velocities significantly less than the speed of light.", "It can also be defined as the physical science that deals with the motion of and forces on bodies not in the quantum realm." ], [ "History", "=== Antiquity ===The ancient Greek philosophers were among the first to propose that abstract principles govern nature.", "The main theory of mechanics in antiquity was Aristotelian mechanics, though an alternative theory is exposed in the pseudo-Aristotelian ''Mechanical Problems'', often attributed to one of his successors.There is another tradition that goes back to the ancient Greeks where mathematics is used more extensively to analyze bodies statically or dynamically, an approach that may have been stimulated by prior work of the Pythagorean Archytas.", "Examples of this tradition include pseudo-Euclid (''On the Balance''), Archimedes (''On the Equilibrium of Planes'', ''On Floating Bodies''), Hero (''Mechanica''), and Pappus (''Collection'', Book VIII).=== Medieval age ===Arabic machine in a manuscript of unknown date.In the Middle Ages, Aristotle's theories were criticized and modified by a number of figures, beginning with John Philoponus in the 6th century.", "A central problem was that of projectile motion, which was discussed by Hipparchus and Philoponus.Persian Islamic polymath Ibn Sīnā published his theory of motion in ''The Book of Healing'' (1020).", "He said that an impetus is imparted to a projectile by the thrower, and viewed it as persistent, requiring external forces such as air resistance to dissipate it.", "Ibn Sina made distinction between 'force' and 'inclination' (called \"mayl\"), and argued that an object gained mayl when the object is in opposition to its natural motion.", "So he concluded that continuation of motion is attributed to the inclination that is transferred to the object, and that object will be in motion until the mayl is spent.", "He also claimed that a projectile in a vacuum would not stop unless it is acted upon, consistent with Newton's first law of motion.On the question of a body subject to a constant (uniform) force, the 12th-century Jewish-Arab scholar Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (born Nathanel, Iraqi, of Baghdad) stated that constant force imparts constant acceleration.", "According to Shlomo Pines, al-Baghdaadi's theory of motion was \"the oldest negation of Aristotle's fundamental dynamic law namely, that a constant force produces a uniform motion, and is thus an anticipation in a vague fashion of the fundamental law of classical mechanics namely, that a force applied continuously produces acceleration.\"(cf.", "Abel B. Franco (October 2003).", "\"Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory\", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4), p. 521-546 528.", ")Influenced by earlier writers such as Ibn Sina and al-Baghdaadi, the 14th-century French priest Jean Buridan developed the theory of impetus, which later developed into the modern theories of inertia, velocity, acceleration and momentum.", "This work and others was developed in 14th-century England by the Oxford Calculators such as Thomas Bradwardine, who studied and formulated various laws regarding falling bodies.", "The concept that the main properties of a body are uniformly accelerated motion (as of falling bodies) was worked out by the 14th-century Oxford Calculators.=== Early modern age ===First European depiction of a piston pump, by Taccola, .Two central figures in the early modern age are Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.", "Galileo's final statement of his mechanics, particularly of falling bodies, is his ''Two New Sciences'' (1638).", "Newton's 1687 ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' provided a detailed mathematical account of mechanics, using the newly developed mathematics of calculus and providing the basis of Newtonian mechanics.There is some dispute over priority of various ideas: Newton's ''Principia'' is certainly the seminal work and has been tremendously influential, and many of the mathematics results therein could not have been stated earlier without the development of the calculus.", "However, many of the ideas, particularly as pertain to inertia and falling bodies, had been developed by prior scholars such as Christiaan Huygens and the less-known medieval predecessors.", "Precise credit is at times difficult or contentious because scientific language and standards of proof changed, so whether medieval statements are ''equivalent'' to modern statements or ''sufficient'' proof, or instead ''similar'' to modern statements and ''hypotheses'' is often debatable.=== Modern age ===Two main modern developments in mechanics are general relativity of Einstein, and quantum mechanics, both developed in the 20th century based in part on earlier 19th-century ideas.", "The development in the modern continuum mechanics, particularly in the areas of elasticity, plasticity, fluid dynamics, electrodynamics, and thermodynamics of deformable media, started in the second half of the 20th century." ], [ "Types of mechanical bodies", "The often-used term '''body''' needs to stand for a wide assortment of objects, including particles, projectiles, spacecraft, stars, parts of machinery, parts of solids, parts of fluids (gases and liquids), etc.Other distinctions between the various sub-disciplines of mechanics concern the nature of the bodies being described.", "Particles are bodies with little (known) internal structure, treated as mathematical points in classical mechanics.", "Rigid bodies have size and shape, but retain a simplicity close to that of the particle, adding just a few so-called degrees of freedom, such as orientation in space.Otherwise, bodies may be semi-rigid, i.e.", "elastic, or non-rigid, i.e.", "fluid.", "These subjects have both classical and quantum divisions of study.For instance, the motion of a spacecraft, regarding its orbit and attitude (rotation), is described by the relativistic theory of classical mechanics, while the analogous movements of an atomic nucleus are described by quantum mechanics." ], [ "Sub-disciplines", "The following are the three main designations consisting of various subjects that are studied in mechanics.Note that there is also the \"theory of fields\" which constitutes a separate discipline in physics, formally treated as distinct from mechanics, whether it be classical fields or quantum fields.", "But in actual practice, subjects belonging to mechanics and fields are closely interwoven.", "Thus, for instance, forces that act on particles are frequently derived from fields (electromagnetic or gravitational), and particles generate fields by acting as sources.", "In fact, in quantum mechanics, particles themselves are fields, as described theoretically by the wave function.=== Classical ===Prof.", "Walter Lewin explains Newton's law of gravitation in MIT course 8.01.The following are described as forming classical mechanics:* Newtonian mechanics, the original theory of motion (kinematics) and forces (dynamics)* Analytical mechanics is a reformulation of Newtonian mechanics with an emphasis on system energy, rather than on forces.", "There are two main branches of analytical mechanics:** Hamiltonian mechanics, a theoretical formalism, based on the principle of conservation of energy** Lagrangian mechanics, another theoretical formalism, based on the principle of the least action* Classical statistical mechanics generalizes ordinary classical mechanics to consider systems in an unknown state; often used to derive thermodynamic properties.", "* Celestial mechanics, the motion of bodies in space: planets, comets, stars, galaxies, etc.", "* Astrodynamics, spacecraft navigation, etc.", "* Solid mechanics, elasticity, plasticity, or viscoelasticity exhibited by deformable solids* Fracture mechanics * Acoustics, sound (density, variation, propagation) in solids, fluids and gases* Statics, semi-rigid bodies in mechanical equilibrium* Fluid mechanics, the motion of fluids* Soil mechanics, mechanical behavior of soils* Continuum mechanics, mechanics of continua (both solid and fluid)* Hydraulics, mechanical properties of liquids* Fluid statics, liquids in equilibrium* Applied mechanics (also known as engineering mechanics)* Biomechanics, solids, fluids, etc.", "in biology* Biophysics, physical processes in living organisms* Relativistic or Einsteinian mechanics=== Quantum ===The following are categorized as being part of quantum mechanics:* Schrödinger wave mechanics, used to describe the movements of the wavefunction of a single particle.", "* Matrix mechanics is an alternative formulation that allows considering systems with a finite-dimensional state space.", "* Quantum statistical mechanics generalizes ordinary quantum mechanics to consider systems in an unknown state; often used to derive thermodynamic properties.", "* Particle physics, the motion, structure, and reactions of particles* Nuclear physics, the motion, structure, and reactions of nuclei* Condensed matter physics, quantum gases, solids, liquids, etc.Historically, classical mechanics had been around for nearly a quarter millennium before quantum mechanics developed.", "Classical mechanics originated with Isaac Newton's laws of motion in Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, developed over the seventeenth century.", "Quantum mechanics developed later, over the nineteenth century, precipitated by Planck's postulate and Albert Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect.", "Both fields are commonly held to constitute the most certain knowledge that exists about physical nature.Classical mechanics has especially often been viewed as a model for other so-called exact sciences.", "Essential in this respect is the extensive use of mathematics in theories, as well as the decisive role played by experiment in generating and testing them.Quantum mechanics is of a bigger scope, as it encompasses classical mechanics as a sub-discipline which applies under certain restricted circumstances.", "According to the correspondence principle, there is no contradiction or conflict between the two subjects, each simply pertains to specific situations.", "The correspondence principle states that the behavior of systems described by quantum theories reproduces classical physics in the limit of large quantum numbers, i.e.", "if quantum mechanics is applied to large systems (for e.g.", "a baseball), the result would almost be the same if classical mechanics had been applied.", "Quantum mechanics has superseded classical mechanics at the foundation level and is indispensable for the explanation and prediction of processes at the molecular, atomic, and sub-atomic level.", "However, for macroscopic processes classical mechanics is able to solve problems which are unmanageably difficult (mainly due to computational limits) in quantum mechanics and hence remains useful and well used.Modern descriptions of such behavior begin with a careful definition of such quantities as displacement (distance moved), time, velocity, acceleration, mass, and force.", "Until about 400 years ago, however, motion was explained from a very different point of view.", "For example, following the ideas of Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle, scientists reasoned that a cannonball falls down because its natural position is in the Earth; the Sun, the Moon, and the stars travel in circles around the Earth because it is the nature of heavenly objects to travel in perfect circles.Often cited as father to modern science, Galileo brought together the ideas of other great thinkers of his time and began to calculate motion in terms of distance travelled from some starting position and the time that it took.", "He showed that the speed of falling objects increases steadily during the time of their fall.", "This acceleration is the same for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction (air resistance) is discounted.", "The English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton improved this analysis by defining force and mass and relating these to acceleration.", "For objects traveling at speeds close to the speed of light, Newton's laws were superseded by Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.", "A sentence illustrating the computational complication of Einstein's theory of relativity.", "For atomic and subatomic particles, Newton's laws were superseded by quantum theory.", "For everyday phenomena, however, Newton's three laws of motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics, which is the study of what causes motion.=== Relativistic ===Akin to the distinction between quantum and classical mechanics, Albert Einstein's general and special theories of relativity have expanded the scope of Newton and Galileo's formulation of mechanics.", "The differences between relativistic and Newtonian mechanics become significant and even dominant as the velocity of a body approaches the speed of light.", "For instance, in Newtonian mechanics, the kinetic energy of a free particle is , whereas in relativistic mechanics, it is (where is the Lorentz factor; this formula reduces to the Newtonian expression in the low energy limit).For high-energy processes, quantum mechanics must be adjusted to account for special relativity; this has led to the development of quantum field theory." ], [ "Professional organizations", "*Applied Mechanics Division, American Society of Mechanical Engineers*Fluid Dynamics Division, American Physical Society*Society for Experimental Mechanics* Institution of Mechanical Engineers is the United Kingdom's qualifying body for mechanical engineers and has been the home of Mechanical Engineers for over 150 years.", "* International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics" ], [ "See also", "*Action principles*Applied mechanics*Dynamics*Engineering*Index of engineering science and mechanics articles*Kinematics*Kinetics*Non-autonomous mechanics*Statics*Wiesen Test of Mechanical Aptitude (WTMA)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Robert Stawell Ball (1871) Experimental Mechanics from Google books.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips from the University of New South Wales* The Archimedes Project" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mandelbrot set" ], [ "Introduction", "alt=The '''Mandelbrot set''' () is a two-dimensional set with a relatively simple definition that exhibits great complexity, especially as it is magnified.", "It is popular for its aesthetic appeal and fractal structures.", "The set is defined in the complex plane as the complex numbers for which the function does not diverge to infinity when iterated starting at , i.e., for which the sequence , , etc., remains bounded in absolute value.This set was first defined and drawn by Robert W. Brooks and Peter Matelski in 1978, as part of a study of Kleinian groups.", "Afterwards, in 1980, Benoit Mandelbrot obtained high-quality visualizations of the set while working at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York.Zooming into the boundary of the Mandelbrot setImages of the Mandelbrot set exhibit an infinitely complicated boundary that reveals progressively ever-finer recursive detail at increasing magnifications; mathematically, the boundary of the Mandelbrot set is a ''fractal curve''.", "The \"style\" of this recursive detail depends on the region of the set boundary being examined.", "Mandelbrot set images may be created by sampling the complex numbers and testing, for each sample point , whether the sequence goes to infinity.", "Treating the real and imaginary parts of as image coordinates on the complex plane, pixels may then be colored according to how soon the sequence crosses an arbitrarily chosen threshold (the threshold must be at least 2, as -2 is the complex number with the largest magnitude within the set, but otherwise the threshold is arbitrary).", "If is held constant and the initial value of is varied instead, the corresponding Julia set for the point is obtained.The Mandelbrot set has become popular outside mathematics both for its aesthetic appeal and as an example of a complex structure arising from the application of simple rules.", "It is one of the best-known examples of mathematical visualization, mathematical beauty, and motif." ], [ "History", "The first published picture of the Mandelbrot set, by Robert W. Brooks and Peter Matelski in 1978The Mandelbrot set has its origin in complex dynamics, a field first investigated by the French mathematicians Pierre Fatou and Gaston Julia at the beginning of the 20th century.", "The fractal was first defined and drawn in 1978 by Robert W. Brooks and Peter Matelski as part of a study of Kleinian groups.", "On 1 March 1980, at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York, Benoit Mandelbrot first visualized the set.Mandelbrot studied the parameter space of quadratic polynomials in an article that appeared in 1980.The mathematical study of the Mandelbrot set really began with work by the mathematicians Adrien Douady and John H. Hubbard (1985), who established many of its fundamental properties and named the set in honor of Mandelbrot for his influential work in fractal geometry.The mathematicians Heinz-Otto Peitgen and Peter Richter became well known for promoting the set with photographs, books (1986), and an internationally touring exhibit of the German Goethe-Institut (1985).The cover article of the August 1985 ''Scientific American'' introduced the algorithm for computing the Mandelbrot set.", "The cover was created by Peitgen, Richter and Saupe at the University of Bremen.", "The Mandelbrot set became prominent in the mid-1980s as a computer-graphics demo, when personal computers became powerful enough to plot and display the set in high resolution.The work of Douady and Hubbard occurred during an increase in interest in complex dynamics and abstract mathematics, and the study of the Mandelbrot set has been a centerpiece of this field ever since." ], [ "Formal definition", "The Mandelbrot set is the set of values of ''c'' in the complex plane for which the orbit of the critical point under iteration of the quadratic map: remains bounded.", "Thus, a complex number ''c'' is a member of the Mandelbrot set if, when starting with and applying the iteration repeatedly, the absolute value of remains bounded for all .For example, for ''c'' = 1, the sequence is 0, 1, 2, 5, 26, ..., which tends to infinity, so 1 is not an element of the Mandelbrot set.", "On the other hand, for , the sequence is 0, −1, 0, −1, 0, ..., which is bounded, so −1 does belong to the set.The Mandelbrot set can also be defined as the connectedness locus of the family of quadratic polynomials , the subset of the space of parameters for which the Julia set of the corresponding polynomial forms a connected set.", "In the same way, the boundary of the Mandelbrot set can be defined as the bifurcation locus of this quadratic family, the subset of parameters near which the dynamic behavior of the polynomial (when it is iterated repeatedly) changes drastically." ], [ "Basic properties", "The Mandelbrot set is a compact set, since it is closed and contained in the closed disk of radius 2 around the origin.", "A point belongs to the Mandelbrot set if and only if for all .", "In other words, the absolute value of must remain at or below 2 for to be in the Mandelbrot set, , and if that absolute value exceeds 2, the sequence will escape to infinity.", "Since , it follows that , establishing that will always be in the closed disk of radius 2 around the origin.Correspondence between the Mandelbrot set and the bifurcation diagram of the quadratic mapWith iterates plotted on the vertical axis, the Mandelbrot set can be seen to bifurcate at the period-2k components.The intersection of with the real axis is the interval .", "The parameters along this interval can be put in one-to-one correspondence with those of the real logistic family,:The correspondence is given by:This gives a correspondence between the entire parameter space of the logistic family and that of the Mandelbrot set.Douady and Hubbard showed that the Mandelbrot set is connected.", "They constructed an explicit conformal isomorphism between the complement of the Mandelbrot set and the complement of the closed unit disk.", "Mandelbrot had originally conjectured that the Mandelbrot set is disconnected.", "This conjecture was based on computer pictures generated by programs that are unable to detect the thin filaments connecting different parts of .", "Upon further experiments, he revised his conjecture, deciding that should be connected.", "A topological proof of the connectedness was discovered in 2001 by Jeremy Kahn.External rays of wakes near the period 1 continent in the Mandelbrot setThe dynamical formula for the uniformisation of the complement of the Mandelbrot set, arising from Douady and Hubbard's proof of the connectedness of , gives rise to external rays of the Mandelbrot set.", "These rays can be used to study the Mandelbrot set in combinatorial terms and form the backbone of the Yoccoz parapuzzle.The boundary of the Mandelbrot set is the bifurcation locus of the family of quadratic polynomials.", "In other words, the boundary of the Mandelbrot set is the set of all parameters for which the dynamics of the quadratic map exhibits sensitive dependence on i.e.", "changes abruptly under arbitrarily small changes of It can be constructed as the limit set of a sequence of plane algebraic curves, the ''Mandelbrot curves'', of the general type known as polynomial lemniscates.", "The Mandelbrot curves are defined by setting , and then interpreting the set of points in the complex plane as a curve in the real Cartesian plane of degree in ''x'' and ''y''.", "Each curve is the mapping of an initial circle of radius 2 under .", "These algebraic curves appear in images of the Mandelbrot set computed using the \"escape time algorithm\" mentioned below." ], [ "Other properties", "===Main cardioid and period bulbs===Periods of hyperbolic componentsThe ''main cardioid'' is the period 1 continent.", "It is the region of parameters for which the map:has an attracting fixed point.", "It consists of all parameters of the form:for some in the open unit disk.To the left of the main cardioid, attached to it at the point , a circular bulb, the ''period-2 bulb'' is visible.", "The bulb consists of for which has an attracting cycle of period 2.It is the filled circle of radius 1/4 centered around −1.More generally, for every positive integer , there are circular bulbs tangent to the main cardioid called ''period-q bulbs'' (where denotes the Euler phi function), which consist of parameters for which has an attracting cycle of period .", "More specifically, for each primitive th root of unity (where ), there is one period-q bulb called the bulb, which is tangent to the main cardioid at the parameter:Attracting cycle in 2/5-bulb plotted over Julia set (animation)and which contains parameters with -cycles having combinatorial rotation number .", "More precisely, the periodic Fatou components containing the attracting cycle all touch at a common point (commonly called the ''-fixed point'').", "If we label these components in counterclockwise orientation, then maps the component to the component .Attracting cycles and Julia sets for parameters in the 1/2, 3/7, 2/5, 1/3, 1/4, and 1/5 bulbsThe change of behavior occurring at is known as a bifurcation: the attracting fixed point \"collides\" with a repelling period-''q'' cycle.", "As we pass through the bifurcation parameter into the -bulb, the attracting fixed point turns into a repelling fixed point (the -fixed point), and the period-''q'' cycle becomes attracting.===Hyperbolic components===Bulbs that are interior components of the Mandelbrot set in which the maps have an attracting periodic cycle are called ''hyperbolic components''.It is conjectured that these are the ''only'' interior regions of and that they are dense in .", "This problem, known as ''density of hyperbolicity'', is one of the most important open problems in complex dynamics.", "Hypothetical non-hyperbolic components of the Mandelbrot set are often referred to as \"queer\" or ghost components.", "For real quadratic polynomials, this question was proved in the 1990s independently by Lyubich and by Graczyk and Świątek.", "(Note that hyperbolic components intersecting the real axis correspond exactly to periodic windows in the Feigenbaum diagram.", "So this result states that such windows exist near every parameter in the diagram.", ")Not every hyperbolic component can be reached by a sequence of direct bifurcations from the main cardioid of the Mandelbrot set.", "Such a component can be reached by a sequence of direct bifurcations from the main cardioid of a little Mandelbrot copy (see below).Centers of 983 hyperbolic components of the Mandelbrot set.Each of the hyperbolic components has a ''center'', which is a point ''c'' such that the inner Fatou domain for has a super-attracting cycle—that is, that the attraction is infinite.", "This means that the cycle contains the critical point 0, so that 0 is iterated back to itself after some iterations.", "Therefore, for some ''n''.", "If we call this polynomial (letting it depend on ''c'' instead of ''z''), we have that and that the degree of is .", "Therefore, constructing the centers of the hyperbolic components is possible by successively solving the equations .", "The number of new centers produced in each step is given by Sloane's .===Local connectivity===It is conjectured that the Mandelbrot set is locally connected.", "This conjecture is known as ''MLC'' (for ''Mandelbrot locally connected'').", "By the work of Adrien Douady and John H. Hubbard, this conjecture would result in a simple abstract \"pinched disk\" model of the Mandelbrot set.", "In particular, it would imply the important ''hyperbolicity conjecture'' mentioned above.The work of Jean-Christophe Yoccoz established local connectivity of the Mandelbrot set at all finitely renormalizable parameters; that is, roughly speaking those contained only in finitely many small Mandelbrot copies.", "Since then, local connectivity has been proved at many other points of , but the full conjecture is still open.===Self-similarity===Self-similarity in the Mandelbrot set shown by zooming in on a round feature while panning in the negative-''x'' direction.", "The display center pans left from the fifth to the seventh round feature (-1.4002, 0) to (-1.4011, 0) while the view magnifies by a factor of 21.78 to approximate the square of the Feigenbaum ratio.The Mandelbrot set is self-similar under magnification in the neighborhoods of the Misiurewicz points.", "It is also conjectured to be self-similar around generalized Feigenbaum points (e.g., −1.401155 or −0.1528 + 1.0397''i''), in the sense of converging to a limit set.", "The Mandelbrot set in general is quasi-self-similar, as small slightly different versions of itself can be found at arbitrarily small scales.", "These copies of the Mandelbrot set are all slightly different, mostly because of the thin threads connecting them to the main body of the set.===Further results===The Hausdorff dimension of the boundary of the Mandelbrot set equals 2 as determined by a result of Mitsuhiro Shishikura.", "The fact that this is greater by a whole integer than its topological dimension, which is 1, reflects the extreme fractal nature of the Mandelbrot set boundary.", "Roughly speaking, Shishikura's result states that the Mandelbrot set boundary is so \"wiggly\" that it locally fills space as efficiently as a two-dimensional planar region.", "Curves with Hausdorff dimension 2, despite being (topologically) 1-dimensional, are oftentimes capable of having nonzero area (more formally, a nonzero planar Lebesgue measure).", "Whether this is the case for the Mandelbrot set boundary is an unsolved problem.It has been shown that the generalized Mandelbrot set in higher-dimensional hypercomplex number spaces (i.e.", "when the power of the iterated variable tends to infinity) is convergent to the unit (-1)-sphere.In the Blum–Shub–Smale model of real computation, the Mandelbrot set is not computable, but its complement is computably enumerable.", "Many simple objects (e.g., the graph of exponentiation) are also not computable in the BSS model.", "At present, it is unknown whether the Mandelbrot set is computable in models of real computation based on computable analysis, which correspond more closely to the intuitive notion of \"plotting the set by a computer\".", "Hertling has shown that the Mandelbrot set is computable in this model if the hyperbolicity conjecture is true.===Relationship with Julia sets===A mosaic made by matching Julia sets to their values of c on the complex plane.", "The Mandelbrot set is a map of connected Julia sets.As a consequence of the definition of the Mandelbrot set, there is a close correspondence between the geometry of the Mandelbrot set at a given point and the structure of the corresponding Julia set.", "For instance, a value of c belongs to the Mandelbrot set if and only if the corresponding Julia set is connected.", "Thus, the Mandelbrot set may be seen as a map of the connected Julia sets.This principle is exploited in virtually all deep results on the Mandelbrot set.", "For example, Shishikura proved that, for a dense set of parameters in the boundary of the Mandelbrot set, the Julia set has Hausdorff dimension two, and then transfers this information to the parameter plane.", "Similarly, Yoccoz first proved the local connectivity of Julia sets, before establishing it for the Mandelbrot set at the corresponding parameters.== Geometry ==For every rational number , where ''p'' and ''q'' are relatively prime, a hyperbolic component of period ''q'' bifurcates from the main cardioid at a point on the edge of the cardioid corresponding to an internal angle of .", "The part of the Mandelbrot set connected to the main cardioid at this bifurcation point is called the '''''p''/''q''-limb'''.", "Computer experiments suggest that the diameter of the limb tends to zero like .", "The best current estimate known is the Yoccoz-inequality, which states that the size tends to zero like .A period-''q'' limb will have \"antennae\" at the top of its limb.", "The period of a given bulb is determined by counting these antennas.", "The numerator of the rotation number, ''p'', is found by numbering each antenna counterclockwise from the limb from 1 to and finding which antenna is the shortest.=== Pi in the Mandelbrot set ===In an attempt to demonstrate that the thickness of the ''p''/''q''-limb is zero, David Boll carried out a computer experiment in 1991, where he computed the number of iterations required for the series to diverge for ( being the location thereof).", "As the series does not diverge for the exact value of , the number of iterations required increases with a small .", "It turns out that multiplying the value of with the number of iterations required yields an approximation of that becomes better for smaller ''''.", "For example, for '''' = 0.0000001, the number of iterations is 31415928 and the product is 3.1415928.In 2001, Aaron Klebanoff proved Boll's discovery.=== Fibonacci sequence in the Mandelbrot set ===The Mandelbrot Set features a fundamental cardioid shape adorned with numerous bulbs directly attached to it.", "Understanding the arrangement of these bulbs requires a detailed examination of the Mandelbrot Set's boundary.", "As one zooms into specific portions with a geometric perspective, precise deducible information about the location within the boundary and the corresponding dynamical behavior for parameters drawn from associated bulbs emerges.The iteration of the quadratic polynomial , where  is a parameter drawn from one of the bulbs attached to the main cardioid within the Mandelbrot Set, gives rise to maps featuring attracting cycles of a specified period  and a rotation number .", "In this context, the attracting cycle of  exhibits rotational motion around a central fixed point, completing an average of  revolutions at each iteration.The bulbs within the Mandelbrot Set are distinguishable by both their attracting cycles and the geometric features of their structure.", "Each bulb is characterized by an antenna attached to it, emanating from a junction point and displaying a certain number of spokes indicative of its period.", "For instance, the bulb is identified by its attracting cycle with a rotation number of .", "Its distinctive antenna-like structure comprises a junction point from which five spokes emanate.", "Among these spokes, called the principal spoke is directly attached to the bulb, and the 'smallest' non-principal spoke is positioned approximately of a turn counterclockwise from the principal spoke, providing a distinctive identification as a -bulb.", "This raises the question: how does one discern which among these spokes is the 'smallest'?", "In the theory of external rays developed by Douady and Hubbard.", "there are precisely two external rays landing at the root point of a satellite hyperbolic component of the Mandelbrot Set.", "Each of these rays possesses an external angle that undergoes doubling under the angle doubling map .", "According to this theorem, when two rays land at the same point, no other rays between them can intersect.", "Thus, the 'size' of this region is measured by determining the length of the arc between the two angles.If the root point of the main cardioid is the cusp at , then the main cardioid is the -bulb.", "The root point of any other bulb is just the point where this bulb is attached to the main cardioid.", "This prompts the inquiry: which is the largest bulb between the root points of the and -bulbs?", "It is clearly the -bulb.", "And note that is obtained from the previous two fractions by Farey addition, i.e., adding the numerators and adding the denominators Similarly, the largest bulb between the and -bulbs is the -bulb, again given by Farey addition.", "The largest bulb between the and -bulb is the -bulb, while the largest bulb between the and -bulbs is the -bulb, and so on.", "The arrangement of bulbs within the Mandelbrot set follows a remarkable pattern governed by the Farey tree, a structure encompassing all rationals between and .", "This ordering positions the bulbs along the boundary of the main cardioid precisely according to the rational numbers in the unit interval.Fibonacci sequence within the Mandelbrot setStarting with the bulb at the top and progressing towards the circle, the sequence unfolds systematically: the largest bulb between and is , between and is , and so forth.", "Intriguingly, the denominators of the periods of circular bulbs at sequential scales in the Mandelbrot Set conform to the Fibonacci number sequence, the sequence that is made by adding the previous two terms – 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21...The Fibonacci sequence manifests in the number of spiral arms at a unique spot on the Mandelbrot set, mirrored both at the top and bottom.", "This distinctive location demands the highest number of iterations of  for a detailed fractal visual, with intricate details repeating as one zooms in.===Image gallery of a zoom sequence===The boundary of the Mandelbrot set shows more intricate detail the closer one looks or magnifies the image.", "The following is an example of an image sequence zooming to a selected ''c'' value.The magnification of the last image relative to the first one is about 1010 to 1.Relating to an ordinary computer monitor, it represents a section of a Mandelbrot set with a diameter of 4 million kilometers.Mandel zoom 00 mandelbrot set.jpg|Start.", "Mandelbrot set with continuously colored environment.Mandel zoom 01 head and shoulder.jpg|Gap between the \"head\" and the \"body\", also called the \"seahorse valley\"Mandel zoom 02 seehorse valley.jpg|Double-spirals on the left, \"seahorses\" on the rightMandel zoom 03 seehorse.jpg|\"Seahorse\" upside downThe seahorse \"body\" is composed by 25 \"spokes\" consisting of two groups of 12 \"spokes\" each and one \"spoke\" connecting to the main cardioid.", "These two groups can be attributed by some metamorphosis to the two \"fingers\" of the \"upper hand\" of the Mandelbrot set; therefore, the number of \"spokes\" increases from one \"seahorse\" to the next by 2; the \"hub\" is a Misiurewicz point.", "Between the \"upper part of the body\" and the \"tail\", there is a distorted copy of the Mandelbrot set, called a \"satellite\".File:Mandel zoom 04 seehorse tail.jpg|The central endpoint of the \"seahorse tail\" is also a Misiurewicz point.File:Mandel zoom 05 tail part.jpg|Part of the \"tail\" – there is only one path consisting of the thin structures that lead through the whole \"tail\".", "This zigzag path passes the \"hubs\" of the large objects with 25 \"spokes\" at the inner and outer border of the \"tail\"; thus the Mandelbrot set is a simply connected set, which means there are no islands and no loop roads around a hole.File:Mandel zoom 06 double hook.jpg|Satellite.", "The two \"seahorse tails\" are the beginning of a series of concentric crowns with the satellite in the center.File:Mandel zoom 07 satellite.jpg|Each of these crowns consists of similar \"seahorse tails\"; their number increases with powers of 2, a typical phenomenon in the environment of satellites.", "The unique path to the spiral center passes the satellite from the groove of the cardioid to the top of the \"antenna\" on the \"head\".File:Mandel zoom 08 satellite antenna.jpg|\"Antenna\" of the satellite.", "There are several satellites of second order.File:Mandel zoom 09 satellite head and shoulder.jpg|The \"seahorse valley\" of the satellite.", "All the structures from the start reappear.File:Mandel zoom 10 satellite seehorse valley.jpg|Double-spirals and \"seahorses\" – unlike the second image from the start, they have appendices consisting of structures like \"seahorse tails\"; this demonstrates the typical linking of ''n'' + 1 different structures in the environment of satellites of the order ''n'', here for the simplest case ''n'' = 1.File:Mandel zoom 11 satellite double spiral.jpg|Double-spirals with satellites of second order – analogously to the \"seahorses\", the double-spirals may be interpreted as a metamorphosis of the \"antenna\".File:Mandel zoom 12 satellite spirally wheel with julia islands.jpg|In the outer part of the appendices, islands of structures may be recognized; they have a shape like Julia sets ''Jc''; the largest of them may be found in the center of the \"double-hook\" on the right side.File:Mandel zoom 13 satellite seehorse tail with julia island.jpg|Part of the \"double-hook\".File:Mandel zoom 14 satellite julia island.jpg|Islands.File:Mandel zoom 15 one island.jpg|A detail of one island.File:Mandel zoom 16 spiral island.jpg|Detail of the spiral.The islands in the third-to-last step seem to consist of infinitely many parts, as is the case for the corresponding Julia set .", "They are connected by tiny structures, so that the whole represents a simply connected set.", "The tiny structures meet each other at a satellite in the center that is too small to be recognized at this magnification.", "The value of '''' for the corresponding '''' is not the image center but, relative to the main body of the Mandelbrot set, has the same position as the center of this image relative to the satellite shown in the 6th step.===Inner structure===While the Mandelbrot set is typically rendered showing outside boundary detail, structure within the bounded set can also be revealed.", "For example, while calculating whether or not a given c value is bound or unbound, while it remains bound, the maximum value that this number reaches can be compared to the c value at that location.", "If the sum of squares method is used, the calculated number would be max:(real^2 + imaginary^2) - c:(real^2 + imaginary^2).", "The magnitude of this calculation can be rendered as a value on a gradient.This produces results like the following, gradients with distinct edges and contours as the boundaries are approached.", "The animations serve to highlight the gradient boundaries.File:Mandelbrot full gradient.gif|Animated gradient structure inside the Mandelbrot setFile:Mandelbrot inner gradient.gif|Animated gradient structure inside the Mandelbrot set, detailFile:Mandelbrot gradient iterations.gif|Rendering of progressive iterations from 285 to approximately 200,000 with corresponding bounded gradients animatedFile:Mandelbrot gradient iterations thumb.gif|Thumbnail for gradient in progressive iterations" ], [ "Generalizations", "A 4D Julia set may be projected or cross-sectioned into 3D, and because of this a 4D Mandelbrot is also possible.===Multibrot sets===Multibrot sets are bounded sets found in the complex plane for members of the general monic univariate polynomial family of recursions:.For an integer ''d'', these sets are connectedness loci for the Julia sets built from the same formula.", "The full cubic connectedness locus has also been studied; here one considers the two-parameter recursion , whose two critical points are the complex square roots of the parameter ''k''.", "A parameter is in the cubic connectedness locus if both critical points are stable.", "For general families of holomorphic functions, the ''boundary'' of the Mandelbrot set generalizes to the bifurcation locus.The Multibrot set is obtained by varying the value of the exponent ''d''.", "The article has a video that shows the development from ''d'' = 0 to 7, at which point there are 6 i.e.", "lobes around the perimeter.", "In general, when ''d'' is a positive integer, the central region in each of these sets is always an epicycloid of cusps.", "A similar development with negative integral exponents results in clefts on the inside of a ring, where the main central region of the set is a hypocycloid of cusps.===Higher dimensions===There is no perfect extension of the Mandelbrot set into 3D, because there is no 3D analogue of the complex numbers for it to iterate on.", "There is an extension of the complex numbers into 4 dimensions, the quaternions, that creates a perfect extension of the Mandelbrot set and the Julia sets into 4 dimensions.", "These can then be either cross-sectioned or projected into a 3D structure.", "The quaternion (4-dimensional) Mandelbrot set is simply a solid of revolution of the 2-dimensional Mandelbrot set (in the j-k plane), and is therefore uninteresting to look at.", "Taking a 3-dimensional cross section at results in a solid of revolution of the 2-dimensional Mandelbrot set around the real axis.===Other non-analytic mappings===Image of the Tricorn / Mandelbar fractalOf particular interest is the tricorn fractal, the connectedness locus of the anti-holomorphic family:.The tricorn (also sometimes called the ''Mandelbar'') was encountered by Milnor in his study of parameter slices of real cubic polynomials.", "It is not locally connected.", "This property is inherited by the connectedness locus of real cubic polynomials.Another non-analytic generalization is the Burning Ship fractal, which is obtained by iterating the following::." ], [ "Computer drawings", "There exist a multitude of various algorithms for plotting the Mandelbrot set via a computing device.", "Here, the most widely used and simplest algorithm will be demonstrated, namely, the naïve \"escape time algorithm\".", "In the escape time algorithm, a repeating calculation is performed for each ''x'', ''y'' point in the plot area and based on the behavior of that calculation, a color is chosen for that pixel.The ''x'' and ''y'' locations of each point are used as starting values in a repeating, or iterating calculation (described in detail below).", "The result of each iteration is used as the starting values for the next.", "The values are checked during each iteration to see whether they have reached a critical \"escape\" condition, or \"bailout\".", "If that condition is reached, the calculation is stopped, the pixel is drawn, and the next ''x'', ''y'' point is examined.The color of each point represents how quickly the values reached the escape point.", "Often black is used to show values that fail to escape before the iteration limit, and gradually brighter colors are used for points that escape.", "This gives a visual representation of how many cycles were required before reaching the escape condition.To render such an image, the region of the complex plane we are considering is subdivided into a certain number of pixels.", "To color any such pixel, let be the midpoint of that pixel.", "Iterate the critical point 0 under , checking at each step whether the orbit point has a radius larger than 2.When this is the case, does not belong to the Mandelbrot set, and color the pixel according to the number of iterations used to find out.", "Otherwise, keep iterating up to a fixed number of steps, after which we decide that our parameter is \"probably\" in the Mandelbrot set, or at least very close to it, and color the pixel black.In pseudocode, this algorithm would look as follows.", "The algorithm does not use complex numbers and manually simulates complex-number operations using two real numbers, for those who do not have a complex data type.", "The program may be simplified if the programming language includes complex-data-type operations.", "'''for each''' pixel (Px, Py) on the screen '''do''' x0 := scaled x coordinate of pixel (scaled to lie in the Mandelbrot X scale (-2.00, 0.47)) y0 := scaled y coordinate of pixel (scaled to lie in the Mandelbrot Y scale (-1.12, 1.12)) x := 0.0 y := 0.0 iteration := 0 max_iteration := 1000 '''while''' (x*x + y*y ≤ 2*2 AND iteration < max_iteration) '''do''' xtemp := x*x - y*y + x0 y := 2*x*y + y0 x := xtemp iteration := iteration + 1 color := paletteiteration plot(Px, Py, color)Here, relating the pseudocode to , and :* * * and so, as can be seen in the pseudocode in the computation of ''x'' and ''y'':* and .To get colorful images of the set, the assignment of a color to each value of the number of executed iterations can be made using one of a variety of functions (linear, exponential, etc.", ")." ], [ "References in popular culture", "The Mandelbrot set is widely considered the most popular fractal, and has been referenced several times in popular culture.", "* The Jonathan Coulton song \"Mandelbrot Set\" is a tribute to both the fractal itself and to the man it is named after, Benoit Mandelbrot.", "* Multiple track titles on the 1999 debut album by the Blue Man Group, ''Audio'', refer to the Mandelbrot set.", "These are \"Opening Mandelbrot\", \"Mandelgroove\", and \"Klein Mandelbrot\".", "* The second book of the ''Mode series'' by Piers Anthony, ''Fractal Mode'', describes a world that is a perfect 3D model of the set.", "* The Arthur C. Clarke novel ''The Ghost from the Grand Banks'' features an artificial lake made to replicate the shape of the Mandelbrot set.", "* Benoit Mandelbrot and the eponymous set were the subjects of the Google Doodle on 20 November 2020 (the late Benoit Mandelbrot's 96th birthday).", "* The American rock band Heart has an image of a Mandelbrot set on the cover of their 2004 album, ''Jupiters Darling''.", "* The British black metal band Anaal Nathrakh uses an image resembling the Mandelbrot set on their Eschaton album cover art.", "* The television series ''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency'' (2016) prominently features the Mandelbrot set in connection with the visions of the character Amanda.", "In the second season, her jacket has a large image of the fractal on the back.", "* In Ian Stewart's 2001 book ''Flatterland'', there is a character called the Mandelblot, who helps explain fractals to the characters and reader.", "* The unfinished Alan Moore 1990 comic book series ''Big Numbers'' used Mandelbrot's work on fractal geometry and chaos theory to underpin the structure of that work.", "Moore at one point was going to the name the comic book series ''The Mandelbrot Set''.", "* In the manga ''The Summer Hikaru Died'', Yoshiki hallucinates the Mandelbrot set when he reaches into the body of the false Hikaru." ], [ "See also", "* Buddhabrot* Collatz fractal* Fractint* Gilbreath permutation* Mandelbox* Mandelbulb* Menger sponge* Newton fractal* Orbit portrait* Orbit trap* Pickover stalk* Plotting algorithms for the Mandelbrot set" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* (First appeared in 1990 as a Stony Brook IMS Preprint, available as arXiV:math.DS/9201272 )* (includes a DVD featuring Arthur C. Clarke and David Gilmour)*" ], [ "External links", "* * Video: Mandelbrot fractal zoom to 6.066 e228* Relatively simple explanation of the mathematical process, by Dr Holly Krieger, MIT* Mandelbrot Viewer: Browser based Mandelbrot set renderer including a gallery with examples.", "* Various algorithms for calculating the Mandelbrot set (on Rosetta Code)* Fractal calculator written in Lua by Deyan Dobromiroiv, Sofia, Bulgaria" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Michael Mann" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Michael Kenneth Mann''' (born February 5, 1943) is an American film director, screenwriter, author, and producer, best known for his stylized crime dramas.", "Mann has received numerous accolades including a BAFTA Award and two Primetime Emmy Awards as well as nominations for four Academy Awards and two Golden Globe Awards.", "His most acclaimed works include the films ''Thief'' (1981), ''Manhunter'' (1986), ''The Last of the Mohicans'' (1992), ''Heat'' (1995), ''The Insider'' (1999), ''Ali'' (2001), ''Collateral'' (2004), ''Public Enemies'' (2009), and ''Ferrari'' (2023).", "He is also known for his role as executive producer on the popular TV series ''Miami Vice'' (1984–90), which he adapted into a 2006 feature film." ], [ "Early life and education", "Mann was born February 5, 1943, in Chicago, Illinois.", "He is Jewish and the son of Esther and Jack Mann.Mann graduated from Amundsen High School, also the alma mater of Bob Fosse.", "He then studied English literature at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.", "While a student, he saw Stanley Kubrick's ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' and fell in love with movies.", "In an ''LA Weekly'' interview, he described the film's impact on him:Mann graduated from the University of Wisconsin with a B.A.", "in 1965.In 1967 he earned an M.A.", "from the London Film School." ], [ "Career", "===1967–1978: Rise to prominence ===Mann later moved to London in the mid-1960s to go to graduate school in cinema.", "He went on to receive a graduate degree at the London Film School in 1967.He spent seven years in the United Kingdom going to film school and then working on commercials along with contemporaries Alan Parker, Ridley Scott and Adrian Lyne.", "In 1968, footage he shot of the Paris student revolt for a documentary, ''Insurrection'', aired on NBC's ''First Tuesday'' news program and he developed his '68 experiences into the short film ''Jaunpuri'' which won the Jury Prize at Cannes in 1970.Mann returned to United States after divorcing his first wife in 1971.He went on to direct a road trip documentary, ''17 Days Down the Line''.", "Three years later, ''Hawaii Five-O'' veteran Robert Lewin gave Mann a shot and a crash course on television writing and story structure.", "Mann wrote four episodes of ''Starsky and Hutch'' (three in the first season and one in the second) and the pilot episode for ''Vega$''.", "Around this time, he worked on a show called ''Police Story'' with cop-turned-novelist Joseph Wambaugh.", "''Police Story'' concentrated on the detailed realism of a real cop's life and taught Mann that first-hand research was essential to bring authenticity to his work.", "Mann also wrote an early draft of the 1978 film ''Straight Time''.=== 1979–1999: Career breakthrough and acclaim ===His first feature movie was a television special called ''The Jericho Mile'', which was released theatrically in Europe.", "It won the Emmy for Outstanding Writing in a Limited Series or a Special in 1979 and the DGA Best Director award.His television work also includes being the executive producer on ''Miami Vice'' and ''Crime Story''.", "Contrary to popular belief, he was not the creator of these shows, but the executive producer and showrunner, produced by his production company.Mann's debut feature in cinema as director was ''Thief'' (1981) starring James Caan, a relatively accurate depiction of thieves that operated in New York City and Chicago at that time.", "Mann used actual former professional burglars to keep the technical scenes as genuine as possible.", "His next film was ''The Keep'' (1983), a supernatural thriller set in Nazi-occupied Romania.", "Though it was a commercial flop, the film has since attained cult status amongst fans.", "In 1986, Mann was the first to bring Thomas Harris' character of serial killer Hannibal Lecter to the screen with ''Manhunter'', his adaptation of the novel ''Red Dragon'', which starred Brian Cox as Hannibal.", "In an interview on the ''Manhunter'' DVD, star William Petersen comments that because Mann is so focused on his creations, it takes several years for him to complete a film; Petersen believes that this is why Mann does not make films very often.Mann gained widespread recognition in 1992 for his film adaptation of James Fenimore Cooper's novel into the epic historical drama ''The Last of the Mohicans'' starring Daniel Day-Lewis.", "The film is set during the French and Indian War.", "Film critic Owen Gleiberman of ''Entertainment Weekly'' described Mann's directorial style, writing that \"Mann, at his best, is a master of violence and lyrical anxiety\".", "Peter Travers of ''Rolling Stone'' praised Mann's directing, writing that \"the action is richly detailed and thrillingly staged.\"", "This was followed by crime drama ''Heat'' (1995) starring Al Pacino, Robert De Niro, and Val Kilmer.", "The film, a remake of his TV movie ''L.A.", "Takedown'', was a critical success with Kenneth Turan of the ''Los Angeles Times'' calling the film a \"sleek, accomplished piece of work, meticulously controlled and completely involving.", "The dark end of the street doesn't get much more inviting than this.\"", "Todd McCarthy of ''Variety'' wrote, \"Stunningly made and incisively acted by a large and terrific cast, Michael Mann's ambitious study of the relativity of good and evil stands apart from other films of its type by virtue of its extraordinarily rich characterizations and its thoughtful, deeply melancholy take on modern life.", "\"In 1999, Mann filmed ''The Insider'' about the ''60 Minutes'' segment about Jeffrey Wigand, a whistleblower in the tobacco industry.", "Russell Crowe portrayed Wigand, with Al Pacino playing Lowell Bergman, and Christopher Plummer as Mike Wallace.", "The film showcased Mann's cinematic style and garnered the most critical recognition of his career up to this point.", "''The Insider'' was nominated for seven Academy Awards as a result, including a nomination for Mann's direction.", "Critic Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' praised the film writing, \"''The Insider'' had a greater impact on me than ''All the President's Men'', because you know what?", "Watergate didn't kill my parents.", "Cigarettes did.", "\"===2001–present ===Mann in 2012With his next film, ''Ali'' (2001), starring Will Smith, Mann started experimenting with digital cameras.", "For his action thriller film ''Collateral'', which cast Tom Cruise against type by giving him the role of a hitman, Mann shot all of the exterior scenes digitally so that he could achieve more depth and detail during the night scenes while shooting most of the interiors on film stock.", "Jamie Foxx was nominated for an Academy Award for his performance in ''Collateral''.", "In 2004, Mann produced Martin Scorsese's ''The Aviator'', based on the life of Howard Hughes, which he had developed with Leonardo DiCaprio.", "''The Aviator'' was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture but lost to ''Million Dollar Baby''.", "After ''Collateral'', Mann directed the film adaptation of ''Miami Vice'' which he also executive produced.", "The film starred Colin Farrell as Don Johnson's character Sonny Crockett, and Jamie Foxx filling Philip Michael Thomas' shoes.Mann directed the 2002 \"Lucky Star\" advertisement for Mercedes-Benz, which took the form of a film trailer for a purported thriller featuring Benicio del Toro.", "In the fall of 2007, Mann directed two commercials for Nike.", "The ad campaign \"Leave Nothing\" features football action scenes with former NFL players Shawne Merriman and Steven Jackson, as well as using the score \"Promontory\" from the soundtrack of ''The Last of the Mohicans''.", "Mann directed the 2008 promotional video for Ferrari's California sports car.", "Mann was producer with Peter Berg as director for ''The Kingdom'' and ''Hancock''.", "''Hancock'' stars Will Smith as a hard-drinking superhero who has fallen out of favor with the public and who begins to have a relationship with the wife (Charlize Theron) of a public relations expert (Jason Bateman), who is helping him to repair his image.", "Mann makes a cameo appearance in the film as an executive.", "In 2009, Mann wrote and directed ''Public Enemies'' for Universal Pictures, about the Depression-era crime wave, based on Bryan Burrough's nonfiction book, ''Public Enemies: America's Greatest Crime Wave and the Birth of the FBI, 1933–34''.", "It starred Johnny Depp and Christian Bale.", "Depp played John Dillinger in the film, and Bale played Melvin Purvis, the FBI agent in charge of capturing Dillinger.Mann signed a petition in support of film director Roman Polanski in 2009, calling for his release after Polanski was arrested in Switzerland in relation to his 1977 charge for drugging and raping a 13-year-old girl.", "In January 2010, it was reported by ''Variety'' that Mann, alongside David Milch, would serve as co-executive producer of new TV series ''Luck'' starring Dustin Hoffman and Dennis Farina.", "The series was an hour-long HBO production, and Mann directed the series' pilot.", "Although initially renewed for a second season after the airing of the pilot, it was eventually cancelled due to the death of three horses during production.", "In February 2013, it was announced that Mann had been developing an untitled thriller film with screenwriter Morgan Davis Foehl for over a year, for Legendary Pictures.", "In May 2013, Mann started filming the action thriller, named ''Blackhat'', in Los Angeles, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong and Jakarta.", "The film, starring Chris Hemsworth as a hacker who gets released from prison to pursue a cyberterrorist across the globe, was released in January 2015 by Universal.", "It received mixed reviews and was a commercial disaster, although several critics included it in their year-end \"best-of\" lists.Mann directed the first episode of the 2022 crime series ''Tokyo Vice'' for HBO Max, his first directing work since ''Blackhat''.", "In August the same year, Mann released ''Heat 2, a'' novel he had co-written with Meg Gardiner.", "The book takes place from 1988 to 2000, covering events that happen before and after the 1995 film.", "The same month, Mann began shooting ''Ferrari'' starring Adam Driver and Penélope Cruz in Modena.", "The film premiered at the 80th Venice International Film Festival in August 2023." ], [ "Directorial style", "Michael Mann in 2023Mann's trademarks include powerfully-lit nighttime scenes and unusual scores, such as Tangerine Dream in ''Thief'' and the new-age score to ''Manhunter''.", "A common stylistic device in several films (''Last of the Mohicans, Heat, Manhunter, The Insider, Miami Vice'') is to show principal characters being forced to make critical decisions affecting the plot while overlooking large bodies of water.Dante Spinotti is a frequent cinematographer of Mann's films.", "F. X. Feeney describes Mann's body of work in ''DGA Quarterly'' as \"abundantly energetic in its precision and variety\" and \"psychologically layered\".", "''IndieWire''s 2014 retrospective of the director's filmography focused on the intensity of Mann's ongoing interest in \"stories pitting criminals against those who seek to put them behind bars (''Heat'', ''Public Enemies'', ''Thief'', ''Collateral'', ''Miami Vice'').", "His films frequently suggest that in fact, at the top of their respective games, crooks and cops are not so dissimilar as men: they each live and die by their own codes and they each recognize themselves in the other.", "\"Mann's films have been noted for their realism when it comes to capturing the sounds of gunfire, with him preferring to use raw audio captured from the scene, rather than a sound mix.", "Many of his films feature practical effects to produce the action scenes, with actors attending boot camps for weapons handling and firing 'full load' blanks in scenes to accurately represent the sound of live ammunition." ], [ "Personal life", "Mann's daughter Ami Canaan Mann is also a film director and producer." ], [ "Filmography", "+Directed features Year Title Distributor 1981 ''Thief'' United Artists 1983 ''The Keep'' Paramount Pictures 1986 ''Manhunter'' De Laurentiis Entertainment Group 1992 ''The Last of the Mohicans'' 20th Century Fox / Warner Bros. 1995 ''Heat'' Warner Bros. 1999 ''The Insider'' Buena Vista Pictures 2001 ''Ali'' Sony Pictures Releasing / Initial Entertainment Group 2004 ''Collateral'' DreamWorks Pictures / Paramount Pictures 2006 ''Miami Vice''Universal Pictures 2009 ''Public Enemies'' 2015 ''Blackhat'' 2023 ''Ferrari'' STX Entertainment / Neon" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "For his work, he has received nominations from international organizations and juries, including the British Academy of Film and Television Arts, Cannes, and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.", "As a producer, Mann has twice received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Picture, first for ''The Insider'' and then ''The Aviator'' (2004), which Mann had been hired to direct before the project was transferred to Martin Scorsese.", "''Total Film'' ranked Mann No.", "28 on its 2007 list of the 100 Greatest Directors Ever, and ''Sight and Sound'' ranked him No.", "5 on their list of the 10 Best Directors of the Last 25 Years (for the years 1977–2002).", "Year Title Academy Awards BAFTA Awards Golden Globe Awards Nominations Wins Nominations Wins Nominations Wins1992''The Last of the Mohicans''11721 1999 ''The Insider''715 2001 ''Ali''2213 2004 ''Collateral''2511 2023 ''Ferrari''1'''Total'''121164100" ], [ "Bibliography", "*Wildermuth, Mark E. (2005).", "''Blood in the Moonlight: Michael Mann and Information Age Cinema'' (Paperback Ed.).", "Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Company and Inc.", ".", "*F.", "X. Feeney, Paul Duncan (2006).", "''Michael Mann'' (Hardcover Ed.)", "Taschen.", ".", "*Cadieux, Axel (2015).", "''L'Horizon de Michael Mann'', Playlist Society.", "*Jean-Baptiste Thoret, ''Michael Mann.", "Mirages du contemporain'', Flammarion, 2021.", "*Mann, Michael and Gardiner, Meg (2022) ''Heat 2''.", "(Hardcover Ed.)", "HarperCollins." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database* Literature on Michael Mann'''Interviews'''* ''Entertainment Weekly'': Part I Part II* ''L.A.", "Weekly''* DGA magazine* ''Salon''* \"Paint It Black\" – ''Sight and Sound''* ''Variety''" ] ]
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[ [ "Main-group element" ], [ "Introduction", "The periodic table of the chemical elements.", "The columns represent the groups.", "Groups 1, 2 and 13 to 18 constitute the main group.", "Sometimes groups 3 and 12, as well as the lanthanides and actinides (the two rows at the bottom), are also included in the main group.In chemistry and atomic physics, the '''main group''' is the group of elements (sometimes called the '''representative elements''') whose lightest members are represented by helium, lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine as arranged in the periodic table of the elements.", "The main group includes the elements (except hydrogen, which is sometimes not included) in groups 1 and 2 (s-block), and groups 13 to 18 (p-block).", "The s-block elements are primarily characterised by one main oxidation state, and the p-block elements, when they have multiple oxidation states, often have common oxidation states separated by two units.Main-group elements (with some of the lighter transition metals) are the most abundant elements on Earth, in the Solar System, and in the universe.", "Group 12 elements are often considered to be transition metals; however, zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg) share some properties of both groups, and some scientists believe they should be included in the main group.Occasionally, even the group 3 elements as well as the lanthanides and actinides have been included, because especially the group 3 elements and many lanthanides are electropositive elements with only one main oxidation state like the group 1 and 2 elements.", "The position of the actinides is more questionable, but the most common and stable of them, thorium (Th) and uranium (U), are similar to main-group elements as thorium is an electropositive element with only one main oxidation state (+4), and uranium has two main ones separated by two oxidation units (+4 and +6).In older nomenclature, the main-group elements are groups IA and IIA, and groups IIIB to 0 (CAS groups IIIA to VIIIA).", "Group 12 is labelled as group IIB in both systems.", "Group 3 is labelled as group IIIA in the older nomenclature (CAS group IIIB)." ], [ "See also", "*Abundance of elements in Earth's crust" ], [ "References", "* Ralf Steudel, \"Chemie der Nichtmetalle\" (Chemistry of the nonmetals), 2nd Edition.", "Walter deGruyter, Berlin 1998." ] ]
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[ [ "Microscopy" ], [ "Introduction", "Scanning electron microscope image of pollen (false colors)Microscopic examination in a biochemical laboratory'''Microscopy''' is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye).", "There are three well-known branches of microscopy: optical, electron, and scanning probe microscopy, along with the emerging field of X-ray microscopy.Optical microscopy and electron microscopy involve the diffraction, reflection, or refraction of electromagnetic radiation/electron beams interacting with the specimen, and the collection of the scattered radiation or another signal in order to create an image.", "This process may be carried out by wide-field irradiation of the sample (for example standard light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy) or by scanning a fine beam over the sample (for example confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy).", "Scanning probe microscopy involves the interaction of a scanning probe with the surface of the object of interest.", "The development of microscopy revolutionized biology, gave rise to the field of histology and so remains an essential technique in the life and physical sciences.", "X-ray microscopy is three-dimensional and non-destructive, allowing for repeated imaging of the same sample for in situ or 4D studies, and providing the ability to \"see inside\" the sample being studied before sacrificing it to higher resolution techniques.", "A 3D X-ray microscope uses the technique of computed tomography (microCT), rotating the sample 360 degrees and reconstructing the images.", "CT is typically carried out with a flat panel display.", "A 3D X-ray microscope employs a range of objectives, e.g., from 4X to 40X, and can also include a flat panel." ], [ "History", "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723)The field of microscopy (optical microscopy) dates back to at least the 17th-century.", "Earlier microscopes, single lens magnifying glasses with limited magnification, date at least as far back as the wide spread use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century but more advanced compound microscopes first appeared in Europe around 1620 The earliest practitioners of microscopy include Galileo Galilei, who found in 1610 that he could close focus his telescope to view small objects close up and Cornelis Drebbel, who may have invented the compound microscope around 1620 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek developed a very high magnification simple microscope in the 1670s and is often considered to be the first acknowledged microscopist and microbiologist." ], [ "Optical microscopy", "Stereo microscopeOptical or light microscopy involves passing visible light transmitted through or reflected from the sample through a single lens or multiple lenses to allow a magnified view of the sample.", "The resulting image can be detected directly by the eye, imaged on a photographic plate, or captured digitally.", "The single lens with its attachments, or the system of lenses and imaging equipment, along with the appropriate lighting equipment, sample stage, and support, makes up the basic light microscope.", "The most recent development is the digital microscope, which uses a CCD camera to focus on the exhibit of interest.", "The image is shown on a computer screen, so eye-pieces are unnecessary.=== Limitations ===Limitations of standard optical microscopy (bright field microscopy) lie in three areas;* The technique can only image dark or strongly refracting objects effectively.", "* There is a diffraction-limited resolution depending on incident wavelength; in visible range, the resolution of optical microscopy is limited to approximately 0.2  micrometres (''see: microscope'') and the practical magnification limit to ~1500x.", "* Out-of-focus light from points outside the focal plane reduces image clarity.Live cells in particular generally lack sufficient contrast to be studied successfully, since the internal structures of the cell are colorless and transparent.", "The most common way to increase contrast is to stain the structures with selective dyes, but this often involves killing and fixing the sample.", "Staining may also introduce artifacts, which are apparent structural details that are caused by the processing of the specimen and are thus not features of the specimen.", "In general, these techniques make use of differences in the refractive index of cell structures.", "Bright-field microscopy is comparable to looking through a glass window: one sees not the glass but merely the dirt on the glass.", "There is a difference, as glass is a denser material, and this creates a difference in phase of the light passing through.", "The human eye is not sensitive to this difference in phase, but clever optical solutions have been devised to change this difference in phase into a difference in amplitude (light intensity).=== Techniques ===To improve specimen contrast or highlight structures in a sample, special techniques must be used.", "A huge selection of microscopy techniques are available to increase contrast or label a sample.Image:Paper_Micrograph_Bright.png|Bright field illumination, sample contrast comes from absorbance of light in the sampleImage:Paper_Micrograph_Cross-Polarised.png|Cross-polarized light illumination, sample contrast comes from rotation of polarized light through the sampleImage:Paper_Micrograph_Dark.png|Dark field illumination, sample contrast comes from light scattered by the sampleImage:Paper_Micrograph_Phase.png|Phase contrast illumination, sample contrast comes from interference of different path lengths of light through the sample==== Bright field ====Bright field microscopy is the simplest of all the light microscopy techniques.", "Sample illumination is via transmitted white light, i.e.", "illuminated from below and observed from above.", "Limitations include low contrast of most biological samples and low apparent resolution due to the blur of out-of-focus material.", "The simplicity of the technique and the minimal sample preparation required are significant advantages.==== Oblique illumination ====The use of oblique (from the side) illumination gives the image a three-dimensional appearance and can highlight otherwise invisible features.", "A more recent technique based on this method is ''Hoffmann's modulation contrast'', a system found on inverted microscopes for use in cell culture.", "Oblique illumination enhances contrast even in clear specimens; however, because light enters off-axis, the position of an object will appear to shift as the focus is changed.", "This limitation makes techniques like optical sectioning or accurate measurement on the z-axis impossible.==== Dark field ====Dark field microscopy is a technique for improving the contrast of unstained, transparent specimens.", "Dark field illumination uses a carefully aligned light source to minimize the quantity of directly transmitted (unscattered) light entering the image plane, collecting only the light scattered by the sample.", "Dark field can dramatically improve image contrast – especially of transparent objects – while requiring little equipment setup or sample preparation.", "However, the technique suffers from low light intensity in the final image of many biological samples and continues to be affected by low apparent resolution.A diatom under Rheinberg illumination''Rheinberg illumination'' is a variant of dark field illumination in which transparent, colored filters are inserted just before the condenser so that light rays at high aperture are differently colored than those at low aperture (i.e., the background to the specimen may be blue while the object appears self-luminous red).", "Other color combinations are possible, but their effectiveness is quite variable.==== Dispersion staining ====Dispersion staining is an optical technique that results in a colored image of a colorless object.", "This is an optical staining technique and requires no stains or dyes to produce a color effect.", "There are five different microscope configurations used in the broader technique of dispersion staining.", "They include brightfield Becke line, oblique, darkfield, phase contrast, and objective stop dispersion staining.==== Phase contrast ==== Phase-contrast light micrograph of undecalcified hyaline cartilage showing chondrocytes and organelles, lacunae and extracellular matrix: ''In electron microscopy: Phase-contrast imaging''More sophisticated techniques will show proportional differences in optical density.", "'''Phase contrast''' is a widely used technique that shows differences in refractive index as difference in contrast.", "It was developed by the Dutch physicist Frits Zernike in the 1930s (for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1953).", "The nucleus in a cell for example will show up darkly against the surrounding cytoplasm.", "Contrast is excellent; however it is not for use with thick objects.", "Frequently, a halo is formed even around small objects, which obscures detail.", "The system consists of a circular annulus in the condenser, which produces a cone of light.", "This cone is superimposed on a similar sized ring within the phase-objective.", "Every objective has a different size ring, so for every objective another condenser setting has to be chosen.", "The ring in the objective has special optical properties: it, first of all, reduces the direct light in intensity, but more importantly, it creates an artificial phase difference of about a quarter wavelength.", "As the physical properties of this direct light have changed, interference with the diffracted light occurs, resulting in the phase contrast image.", "One disadvantage of phase-contrast microscopy is halo formation (halo-light ring).==== Differential interference contrast ====Superior and much more expensive is the use of '''interference contrast'''.", "Differences in optical density will show up as differences in relief.", "A nucleus within a cell will actually show up as a globule in the most often used '''differential interference contrast''' system according to Georges Nomarski.", "However, it has to be kept in mind that this is an ''optical effect'', and the relief does not necessarily resemble the true shape.", "Contrast is very good and the condenser aperture can be used fully open, thereby reducing the depth of field and maximizing resolution.The system consists of a special prism (Nomarski prism, Wollaston prism) in the condenser that splits light in an ordinary and an extraordinary beam.", "The spatial difference between the two beams is minimal (less than the maximum resolution of the objective).", "After passage through the specimen, the beams are reunited by a similar prism in the objective.In a homogeneous specimen, there is no difference between the two beams, and no contrast is being generated.", "However, near a refractive boundary (say a nucleus within the cytoplasm), the difference between the ordinary and the extraordinary beam will generate a relief in the image.", "Differential interference contrast requires a polarized light source to function; two polarizing filters have to be fitted in the light path, one below the condenser (the polarizer), and the other above the objective (the analyzer).Note: In cases where the optical design of a microscope produces an appreciable lateral separation of the two beams we have the case of classical interference microscopy, which does not result in relief images, but can nevertheless be used for the quantitative determination of mass-thicknesses of microscopic objects.==== Interference reflection ====An additional technique using interference is '''interference reflection microscopy''' (also known as reflected interference contrast, or RIC).", "It relies on cell adhesion to the slide to produce an interference signal.", "If there is no cell attached to the glass, there will be no interference.Interference reflection microscopy can be obtained by using the same elements used by DIC, but without the prisms.", "Also, the light that is being detected is reflected and not transmitted as it is when DIC is employed.==== Fluorescence ====artifacts.", "This is a confocal laser scanning fluorescence micrograph of thale cress anther (part of stamen).", "The picture shows among other things a nice red flowing collar-like structure just below the anther.", "However, an intact thale cress stamen does not have such collar, this is a fixation artifact: the stamen has been cut below the picture frame, and epidermis (upper layer of cells) of stamen stalk has peeled off, forming a non-characteristic structure.", "Photo: Heiti Paves from Tallinn University of Technology.When certain compounds are illuminated with high energy light, they emit light of a lower frequency.", "This effect is known as fluorescence.", "Often specimens show their characteristic autofluorescence image, based on their chemical makeup.This method is of critical importance in the modern life sciences, as it can be extremely sensitive, allowing the detection of single molecules.", "Many fluorescent dyes can be used to stain structures or chemical compounds.", "One powerful method is the combination of antibodies coupled to a fluorophore as in immunostaining.", "Examples of commonly used fluorophores are fluorescein or rhodamine.The antibodies can be tailor-made for a chemical compound.", "For example, one strategy often in use is the artificial production of proteins, based on the genetic code (DNA).", "These proteins can then be used to immunize rabbits, forming antibodies which bind to the protein.", "The antibodies are then coupled chemically to a fluorophore and used to trace the proteins in the cells under study.Highly efficient fluorescent proteins such as the green fluorescent protein (GFP) have been developed using the molecular biology technique of gene fusion, a process that links the expression of the fluorescent compound to that of the target protein.", "This combined fluorescent protein is, in general, non-toxic to the organism and rarely interferes with the function of the protein under study.", "Genetically modified cells or organisms directly express the fluorescently tagged proteins, which enables the study of the function of the original protein in vivo.Growth of protein crystals results in both protein and salt crystals.", "Both are colorless and microscopic.", "Recovery of the protein crystals requires imaging which can be done by the intrinsic fluorescence of the protein or by using transmission microscopy.", "Both methods require an ultraviolet microscope as protein absorbs light at 280 nm.", "Protein will also fluorescence at approximately 353 nm when excited with 280 nm light.Since fluorescence emission differs in wavelength (color) from the excitation light, an ideal fluorescent image shows only the structure of interest that was labeled with the fluorescent dye.", "This high specificity led to the widespread use of fluorescence light microscopy in biomedical research.", "Different fluorescent dyes can be used to stain different biological structures, which can then be detected simultaneously, while still being specific due to the individual color of the dye.To block the excitation light from reaching the observer or the detector, filter sets of high quality are needed.", "These typically consist of an excitation filter selecting the range of excitation wavelengths, a dichroic mirror, and an emission filter blocking the excitation light.", "Most fluorescence microscopes are operated in the Epi-illumination mode (illumination and detection from one side of the sample) to further decrease the amount of excitation light entering the detector.See also:total internal reflection fluorescence microscopeNeuroscience==== Confocal ====Confocal laser scanning microscopy uses a focused laser beam (e.g.", "488 nm) that is scanned across the sample to excite fluorescence in a point-by-point fashion.", "The emitted light is directed through a pinhole to prevent out-of-focus light from reaching the detector, typically a photomultiplier tube.", "The image is constructed in a computer, plotting the measured fluorescence intensities according to the position of the excitation laser.", "Compared to full sample illumination, confocal microscopy gives slightly higher lateral resolution and significantly improves optical sectioning (axial resolution).", "Confocal microscopy is, therefore, commonly used where 3D structure is important.A subclass of confocal microscopes are '''spinning disc microscopes''' which are able to scan multiple points simultaneously across the sample.", "A corresponding disc with pinholes rejects out-of-focus light.", "The light detector in a spinning disc microscope is a digital camera, typically EM-CCD or sCMOS.==== Two-photon microscopy ====A two-photon microscope is also a laser-scanning microscope, but instead of UV, blue or green laser light, a pulsed infrared laser is used for excitation.", "Only in the tiny focus of the laser is the intensity high enough to generate fluorescence by two-photon excitation, which means that no out-of-focus fluorescence is generated, and no pinhole is necessary to clean up the image.", "This allows imaging deep in scattering tissue, where a confocal microscope would not be able to collect photons efficiently.", "Two-photon microscopes with wide-field detection are frequently used for functional imaging, e.g.", "calcium imaging, in brain tissue.", "They are marketed as '''Multiphoton microscopes''' by several companies, although the gains of using 3-photon instead of 2-photon excitation are marginal.==== Single plane illumination microscopy and light sheet fluorescence microscopy ====Using a plane of light formed by focusing light through a cylindrical lens at a narrow angle or by scanning a line of light in a plane perpendicular to the axis of objective, high resolution optical sections can be taken.", "Single plane illumination, or light sheet illumination, is also accomplished using beam shaping techniques incorporating multiple-prism beam expanders.", "The images are captured by CCDs.", "These variants allow very fast and high signal to noise ratio image capture.==== Wide-field multiphoton microscopy ====Wide-field multiphoton microscopy refers to an optical non-linear imaging technique in which a large area of the object is illuminated and imaged without the need for scanning.", "High intensities are required to induce non-linear optical processes such as two-photon fluorescence or second harmonic generation.", "In scanning multiphoton microscopes the high intensities are achieved by tightly focusing the light, and the image is obtained by beam scanning.", "In '''wide-field multiphoton microscopy''' the high intensities are best achieved using an optically amplified pulsed laser source to attain a large field of view (~100 µm).", "The image in this case is obtained as a single frame with a CCD camera without the need of scanning, making the technique particularly useful to visualize dynamic processes simultaneously across the object of interest.", "With wide-field multiphoton microscopy the frame rate can be increased up to a 1000-fold compared to multiphoton scanning microscopy.", "In scattering tissue, however, image quality rapidly degrades with increasing depth.==== Deconvolution ====Fluorescence microscopy is a powerful technique to show specifically labeled structures within a complex environment and to provide three-dimensional information of biological structures.", "However, this information is blurred by the fact that, upon illumination, all fluorescently labeled structures emit light, irrespective of whether they are in focus or not.", "So an image of a certain structure is always blurred by the contribution of light from structures that are out of focus.", "This phenomenon results in a loss of contrast especially when using objectives with a high resolving power, typically oil immersion objectives with a high numerical aperture.Mathematically modeled Point Spread Function of a pulsed THz laser imaging system.However, blurring is not caused by random processes, such as light scattering, but can be well defined by the optical properties of the image formation in the microscope imaging system.", "If one considers a small fluorescent light source (essentially a bright spot), light coming from this spot spreads out further from our perspective as the spot becomes more out of focus.", "Under ideal conditions, this produces an \"hourglass\" shape of this point source in the third (axial) dimension.", "This shape is called the point spread function (PSF) of the microscope imaging system.", "Since any fluorescence image is made up of a large number of such small fluorescent light sources, the image is said to be \"convolved by the point spread function\".", "The mathematically modeled PSF of a terahertz laser pulsed imaging system is shown on the right.The output of an imaging system can be described using the equation:Where is the additive noise.", "Knowing this point spread function means that it is possible to reverse this process to a certain extent by computer-based methods commonly known as deconvolution microscopy.", "There are various algorithms available for 2D or 3D deconvolution.", "They can be roughly classified in ''nonrestorative'' and ''restorative'' methods.", "While the nonrestorative methods can improve contrast by removing out-of-focus light from focal planes, only the restorative methods can actually reassign light to its proper place of origin.", "Processing fluorescent images in this manner can be an advantage over directly acquiring images without out-of-focus light, such as images from confocal microscopy, because light signals otherwise eliminated become useful information.", "For 3D deconvolution, one typically provides a series of images taken from different focal planes (called a Z-stack) plus the knowledge of the PSF, which can be derived either experimentally or theoretically from knowing all contributing parameters of the microscope.=== Sub-diffraction techniques ===Example of super-resolution microscopy.", "Image of Her3 and Her2, target of the breast cancer drug Trastuzumab, within a cancer cell.A multitude of super-resolution microscopy techniques have been developed in recent times which circumvent the diffraction limit.This is mostly achieved by imaging a sufficiently static sample multiple times and either modifying the excitation light or observing stochastic changes in the image.", "The deconvolution methods described in the previous section, which removes the PSF induced blur and assigns a mathematically 'correct' origin of light, are used, albeit with slightly different understanding of what the value of a pixel mean.", "Assuming ''most of the time'', one single fluorophore contributes to one single blob on one single taken image, the blobs in the images can be replaced with their calculated position, vastly improving resolution to well below the diffraction limit.To realize such assumption, Knowledge of and chemical control over fluorophore photophysics is at the core of these techniques, by which resolutions of ~20 nanometers are obtained.=== Serial time-encoded amplified microscopy ===Serial time encoded amplified microscopy (STEAM) is an imaging method that provides ultrafast shutter speed and frame rate, by using optical image amplification to circumvent the fundamental trade-off between sensitivity and speed, and a single-pixel photodetector to eliminate the need for a detector array and readout time limitations The method is at least 1000 times faster than the state-of-the-art CCD and CMOS cameras.", "Consequently, it is potentially useful for scientific, industrial, and biomedical applications that require high image acquisition rates, including real-time diagnosis and evaluation of shockwaves, microfluidics, MEMS, and laser surgery.=== Extensions ===Most modern instruments provide simple solutions for micro-photography and image recording electronically.", "However such capabilities are not always present and the more experienced microscopist may prefer a hand drawn image to a photograph.", "This is because a microscopist with knowledge of the subject can accurately convert a three-dimensional image into a precise two-dimensional drawing.", "In a photograph or other image capture system however, only one thin plane is ever in good focus.The creation of accurate micrographs requires a microscopical technique using a monocular eyepiece.", "It is essential that both eyes are open and that the eye that is not observing down the microscope is instead concentrated on a sheet of paper on the bench besides the microscope.", "With practice, and without moving the head or eyes, it is possible to accurately trace the observed shapes by simultaneously \"seeing\" the pencil point in the microscopical image.It is always less tiring to observe with the microscope focused so that the image is seen at infinity and with both eyes open at all times.", "=== Other enhancements ===Microspectroscopy:spectroscopy with a microscope=== X-ray ===As resolution depends on the wavelength of the light.", "Electron microscopy has been developed since the 1930s that use electron beams instead of light.", "Because of the much smaller wavelength of the electron beam, resolution is far higher.Though less common, X-ray microscopy has also been developed since the late 1940s.", "The resolution of X-ray microscopy lies between that of light microscopy and electron microscopy." ], [ "Electron microscopy", "Until the invention of sub-diffraction microscopy, the wavelength of the light limited the resolution of traditional microscopy to around 0.2 micrometers.", "In order to gain higher resolution, the use of an electron beam with a far smaller wavelength is used in electron microscopes.", "* Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is quite similar to the compound light microscope, by sending an electron beam through a very thin slice of the specimen.", "The resolution limit in 2005 was around 0.05 nanometer and has not increased appreciably since that time.", "* Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) visualizes details on the surfaces of specimens and gives a very nice 3D view.", "It gives results much like those of the stereo light microscope.", "The best resolution for SEM in 2011 was 0.4 nanometer.Electron microscopes equipped for X-ray spectroscopy can provide qualitative and quantitative elemental analysis.", "This type of electron microscope, also known as analytical electron microscope, can be a very powerful tool for investigation of nanomaterials." ], [ "Scanning probe microscopy", "This is a sub-diffraction technique.", "Examples of scanning probe microscopes are the atomic force microscope (AFM), the scanning tunneling microscope, the photonic force microscope and the recurrence tracking microscope.", "All such methods use the physical contact of a solid probe tip to scan the surface of an object, which is supposed to be almost flat.=== Ultrasonic force ===Ultrasonic force microscopy (UFM) has been developed in order to improve the details and image contrast on \"flat\" areas of interest where AFM images are limited in contrast.", "The combination of AFM-UFM allows a near field acoustic microscopic image to be generated.", "The AFM tip is used to detect the ultrasonic waves and overcomes the limitation of wavelength that occurs in acoustic microscopy.", "By using the elastic changes under the AFM tip, an image of much greater detail than the AFM topography can be generated.Ultrasonic force microscopy allows the local mapping of elasticity in atomic force microscopy by the application of ultrasonic vibration to the cantilever or sample.", "To analyze the results of ultrasonic force microscopy in a quantitative fashion, a force-distance curve measurement is done with ultrasonic vibration applied to the cantilever base, and the results are compared with a model of the cantilever dynamics and tip-sample interaction based on the finite-difference technique." ], [ "Ultraviolet microscopy", "Ultraviolet microscopes have two main purposes.", "The first is to use the shorter wavelength of ultraviolet electromagnetic energy to improve the image resolution beyond that of the diffraction limit of standard optical microscopes.", "This technique is used for non-destructive inspection of devices with very small features such as those found in modern semiconductors.", "The second application for UV microscopes is contrast enhancement where the response of individual samples is enhanced, relative to their surrounding, due to the interaction of light with the molecules within the sample itself.", "One example is in the growth of protein crystals.", "Protein crystals are formed in salt solutions.", "As salt and protein crystals are both formed in the growth process, and both are commonly transparent to the human eye, they cannot be differentiated with a standard optical microscope.", "As the tryptophan of protein absorbs light at 280 nm, imaging with a UV microscope with 280 nm bandpass filters makes it simple to differentiate between the two types of crystals.", "The protein crystals appear dark while the salt crystals are transparent." ], [ "Infrared microscopy", "The term ''infrared microscopy'' refers to microscopy performed at infrared wavelengths.", "In the typical instrument configuration, a Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR) is combined with an optical microscope and an infrared detector.", "The infrared detector can be a single point detector, a linear array or a 2D focal plane array.", "FTIR provides the ability to perform chemical analysis via infrared spectroscopy and the microscope and point or array detector enable this chemical analysis to be spatially resolved, i.e.", "performed at different regions of the sample.", "As such, the technique is also called infrared microspectroscopyAn alternative architecture called Laser Direct Infrared (LDIR) Imaging involves the combination of a tuneable infrared light source and single point detector on a flying objective.", "This technique is frequently used for infrared chemical imaging, where the image contrast is determined by the response of individual sample regions to particular IR wavelengths selected by the user, usually specific IR absorption bands and associated molecular resonances.", "A key limitation of conventional infrared microspectroscopy is that the spatial resolution is diffraction-limited.", "Specifically the spatial resolution is limited to a figure related to the wavelength of the light.", "For practical IR microscopes, the spatial resolution is limited to 1-3x the wavelength, depending on the specific technique and instrument used.", "For mid-IR wavelengths, this sets a practical spatial resolution limit of ~3-30 μm.IR versions of sub-diffraction microscopy also exist.", "These include IR Near-field scanning optical microscope (NSOM), photothermal microspectroscopy and atomic force microscope based infrared spectroscopy (AFM-IR), as well as scattering-type Scanning Near-field Optical Microscopy (s-SNOM) & nano-FTIR that provide nanoscale spatial resolution at IR wavelengths." ], [ "Digital holographic microscopy", "Human cells imaged by DHM phase shift (left) and phase contrast microscopy (right)In digital holographic microscopy (DHM), interfering wave fronts from a coherent (monochromatic) light-source are recorded on a sensor.", "The image is digitally reconstructed by a computer from the recorded hologram.", "Besides the ordinary bright field image, a phase shift image is created.DHM can operate both in reflection and transmission mode.", "In reflection mode, the phase shift image provides a relative distance measurement and thus represents a topography map of the reflecting surface.", "In transmission mode, the phase shift image provides a label-free quantitative measurement of the optical thickness of the specimen.", "Phase shift images of biological cells are very similar to images of stained cells and have successfully been analyzed by high content analysis software.A unique feature of DHM is the ability to adjust focus after the image is recorded, since all focus planes are recorded simultaneously by the hologram.", "This feature makes it possible to image moving particles in a volume or to rapidly scan a surface.", "Another attractive feature is The ability of DHM to use low cost optics by correcting optical aberrations by software." ], [ "Digital pathology (virtual microscopy)", "Digital pathology is an image-based information environment enabled by computer technology that allows for the management of information generated from a digital slide.", "Digital pathology is enabled in part by virtual microscopy, which is the practice of converting glass slides into digital slides that can be viewed, managed, and analyzed." ], [ "Laser microscopy", "Laser microscopy is a rapidly growing field that uses laser illumination sources in various forms of microscopy.", "For instance, laser microscopy focused on biological applications uses ultrashort pulse lasers, in a number of techniques labeled as nonlinear microscopy, saturation microscopy, and two-photon excitation microscopy.High-intensity, short-pulse laboratory x-ray lasers have been under development for several years.", "When this technology comes to fruition, it will be possible to obtain magnified three-dimensional images of elementary biological structures in the living state at a precisely defined instant.", "For optimum contrast between water and protein and for best sensitivity and resolution, the laser should be tuned near the nitrogen line at about 0.3 nanometers.", "Resolution will be limited mainly by the hydrodynamic expansion that occurs while the necessary number of photons is being registered.", "Thus, while the specimen is destroyed by the exposure, its configuration can be captured before it explodes.Scientists have been working on practical designs and prototypes for x-ray holographic microscopes, despite the prolonged development of the appropriate laser." ], [ "Photoacoustic microscopy", "Photoacoustic micrograph of human red blood cells.A microscopy technique relying on the photoacoustic effect, i.e.", "the generation of (ultra)sound caused by light absorption.A focused and intensity modulated laser beam is raster scanned over a sample.", "The generated (ultra)sound is detected via an ultrasound transducer.", "Commonly piezoelectric ultrasound transducers are employed.The image contrast is related to the sample's absorption coefficient .", "This is in contrast to bright or dark field microscopy, where the image contrast is due to transmittance or scattering.", "In principle, the contrast of fluorescence microscopy is proportional to the sample's absorption too.", "However, in fluorescence microscopy the fluorescence quantum yield needs to be unequal to zero in order that a signal can be detected.", "In photoacoustic microscopy, however, every absorbing substance gives a photoacoustic signal which is proportional toHere is the Grüneisen coefficient, is the laser's photon energy and is the sample's band gap energy.", "Therefore, photoacoustic microscopy seems well suited as a complementary technique to fluorescence microscopy, as a high fluorescence quantum yield leads to high fluorescence signals and a low fluorescence quantum yield leads to high photoacoustic signals.Neglecting non-linear effects, the lateral resolution is limited by the Abbe diffraction limit:where is the wavelength of the excitation laser and is the numerical aperture of the objective lens.", "The Abbe diffraction limit holds if the incoming wave front is parallel.", "In reality, however, the laser beam profile is Gaussian.", "Therefore, in order to the calculate the achievable resolution, formulas for truncated Gaussian beams have to be used." ], [ "Amateur microscopy", "''Amateur Microscopy'' is the investigation and observation of biological and non-biological specimens for recreational purposes.", "Collectors of minerals, insects, seashells, and plants may use microscopes as tools to uncover features that help them classify their collected items.", "Other amateurs may be interested in observing the life found in pond water and of other samples.", "Microscopes may also prove useful for the water quality assessment for people that keep a home aquarium.", "Photographic documentation and drawing of the microscopic images are additional pleasures.", "There are competitions for photomicrograph art.", "Participants of this pastime may use commercially prepared microscopic slides or prepare their own slides.While microscopy is a central tool in the documentation of biological specimens, it is often insufficient to justify the description of a new species based on microscopic investigations alone.", "Often genetic and biochemical tests are necessary to confirm the discovery of a new species.", "A laboratory and access to academic literature is a necessity.", "There is, however, one advantage that amateurs have above professionals: time to explore their surroundings.", "Often, advanced amateurs team up with professionals to validate their findings and possibly describe new species.In the late 1800s, amateur microscopy became a popular hobby in the United States and Europe.", "Several 'professional amateurs' were being paid for their sampling trips and microscopic explorations by philanthropists, to keep them amused on the Sunday afternoon (e.g., the diatom specialist A. Grunow, being paid by (among others) a Belgian industrialist).", "Professor John Phin published \"Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the Microscope (Second Edition, 1878),\" and was also the editor of the \"American Journal of Microscopy.", "\"'''Examples of amateur microscopy images:'''Image:Housebeemouth100x.jpg|\"house bee\" Mouth 100XImage:RiceStemcs400x1.jpg|Rice Stem cs 400XImage:Rabbitttestis100x2.jpg|Rabbit Testis 100XImage:FernProthallium400x.jpg|Fern Prothallium 400X" ], [ "Application in forensic science", "Microscopy has applications in the forensic sciences.", "The microscope can detect, resolve and image the smallest items of evidence, often without any alteration or destruction.", "The microscope is used to identify and compare fibers, hairs, soils, and dust...etc.In ink markings, blood stains or bullets, no specimen treatment is required and the evidence shows directly from microscopical examination.", "For traces of particular matter, the sample preparation must be done before microscopical examination occurs.Light microscopes are the most use in forensics, using photons to form images, microscopes which are most applicable for examining forensic specimens are as follows:1.The compound microscope2.The comparison microscope3.The stereoscopic microscope4.The polarizing microscope5.The micro spectrophotometerThis diversity of the types of microscopes in forensic applications comes mainly from their magnification ranges, which are (1- 1200X), (50 -30,000X) and (500- 250,000X) for the optical microscopy, SEM and TEM respectively." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * Theoretical basis of super resolution 4Pi microscopy & design of a confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscope* , a feature article on sub-diffraction microscopy from the March 1, 2007 issue of ''Analytical Chemistry''" ], [ "External links", "=== General ===* Microscopy glossary, Common terms used in amateur light microscopy.", "* Nikon MicroscopyU Extensive information on light microscopy* Olympus Microscopy Microscopy Resource center* Carl Zeiss \"Microscopy from the very beginning\", a step by step tutorial into the basics of microscopy.", "* Microscopy in Detail - A resource with many illustrations elaborating the most common microscopy techniques* Manawatu Microscopy - first known collaboration environment for Microscopy and Image Analysis.", "* Audio microscope glossary=== Techniques ===* Ratio-metric Imaging Applications For Microscopes Examples of Ratiometric Imaging Work on a Microscope* Interactive Fluorescence Dye and Filter Database Carl Zeiss Interactive Fluorescence Dye and Filter Database.", "* New approaches to microscopy Eric Betzig: Beyond the Nobel Prize—New approaches to microscopy." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Microscope" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''microscope''' () is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye.", "Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope.", "Microscopic means being invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.There are many types of microscopes, and they may be grouped in different ways.", "One way is to describe the method an instrument uses to interact with a sample and produce images, either by sending a beam of light or electrons through a sample in its optical path, by detecting photon emissions from a sample, or by scanning across and a short distance from the surface of a sample using a probe.", "The most common microscope (and the first to be invented) is the optical microscope, which uses lenses to refract visible light that passed through a thinly sectioned sample to produce an observable image.", "Other major types of microscopes are the fluorescence microscope, electron microscope (both the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope) and various types of scanning probe microscopes." ], [ "History", "18th-century microscopes from the Musée des Arts et Métiers, ParisAlthough objects resembling lenses date back 4,000 years and there are Greek accounts of the optical properties of water-filled spheres (5th century BC) followed by many centuries of writings on optics, the earliest known use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) dates back to the widespread use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century.", "The earliest known examples of compound microscopes, which combine an objective lens near the specimen with an eyepiece to view a real image, appeared in Europe around 1620.The inventor is unknown, even though many claims have been made over the years.", "Several revolve around the spectacle-making centers in the Netherlands, including claims it was invented in 1590 by Zacharias Janssen (claim made by his son) or Zacharias' father, Hans Martens, or both, claims it was invented by their neighbor and rival spectacle maker, Hans Lippershey (who applied for the first telescope patent in 1608), and claims it was invented by expatriate Cornelis Drebbel, who was noted to have a version in London in 1619.Galileo Galilei (also sometimes cited as compound microscope inventor) seems to have found after 1610 that he could close focus his telescope to view small objects and, after seeing a compound microscope built by Drebbel exhibited in Rome in 1624, built his own improved version.", "Giovanni Faber coined the name ''microscope'' for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to the in 1625 (Galileo had called it the ''occhiolino'' 'little eye').", "René Descartes (''Dioptrique'', 1637) describes microscopes wherein a concave mirror, with its concavity towards the object, is used, in conjunction with a lens, for illuminating the object, which is mounted on a point fixing it at the focus of the mirror.===Rise of modern light microscopes===uprightThe first detailed account of the microscopic anatomy of organic tissue based on the use of a microscope did not appear until 1644, in Giambattista Odierna's ''L'occhio della mosca'', or ''The Fly's Eye''.The microscope was still largely a novelty until the 1660s and 1670s when naturalists in Italy, the Netherlands and England began using them to study biology.", "Italian scientist Marcello Malpighi, called the father of histology by some historians of biology, began his analysis of biological structures with the lungs.", "The publication in 1665 of Robert Hooke's ''Micrographia'' had a huge impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations.", "Hooke created tiny lenses of small glass globules made by fusing the ends of threads of spun glass.", "A significant contribution came from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek who achieved up to 300 times magnification using a simple single lens microscope.", "He sandwiched a very small glass ball lens between the holes in two metal plates riveted together, and with an adjustable-by-screws needle attached to mount the specimen.", "Then, Van Leeuwenhoek re-discovered red blood cells (after Jan Swammerdam) and spermatozoa, and helped popularise the use of microscopes to view biological ultrastructure.", "On 9 October 1676, van Leeuwenhoek reported the discovery of micro-organisms.The performance of a compound light microscope depends on the quality and correct use of the condensor lens system to focus light on the specimen and the objective lens to capture the light from the specimen and form an image.", "Early instruments were limited until this principle was fully appreciated and developed from the late 19th to very early 20th century, and until electric lamps were available as light sources.", "In 1893 August Köhler developed a key principle of sample illumination, Köhler illumination, which is central to achieving the theoretical limits of resolution for the light microscope.", "This method of sample illumination produces even lighting and overcomes the limited contrast and resolution imposed by early techniques of sample illumination.", "Further developments in sample illumination came from the discovery of phase contrast by Frits Zernike in 1953, and differential interference contrast illumination by Georges Nomarski in 1955; both of which allow imaging of unstained, transparent samples.===Electron microscopes===Electron microscope constructed by Ernst Ruska in 1933In the early 20th century a significant alternative to the light microscope was developed, an instrument that uses a beam of electrons rather than light to generate an image.", "The German physicist, Ernst Ruska, working with electrical engineer Max Knoll, developed the first prototype electron microscope in 1931, a transmission electron microscope (TEM).", "The transmission electron microscope works on similar principles to an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light and electromagnets in the place of glass lenses.", "Use of electrons, instead of light, allows for much higher resolution.Development of the transmission electron microscope was quickly followed in 1935 by the development of the scanning electron microscope by Max Knoll.", "Although TEMs were being used for research before WWII, and became popular afterwards, the SEM was not commercially available until 1965.Transmission electron microscopes became popular following the Second World War.", "Ernst Ruska, working at Siemens, developed the first commercial transmission electron microscope and, in the 1950s, major scientific conferences on electron microscopy started being held.", "In 1965, the first commercial scanning electron microscope was developed by Professor Sir Charles Oatley and his postgraduate student Gary Stewart, and marketed by the Cambridge Instrument Company as the \"Stereoscan\".One of the latest discoveries made about using an electron microscope is the ability to identify a virus.", "Since this microscope produces a visible, clear image of small organelles, in an electron microscope there is no need for reagents to see the virus or harmful cells, resulting in a more efficient way to detect pathogens.===Scanning probe microscopes===First atomic force microscopeFrom 1981 to 1983 Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer worked at IBM in Zürich, Switzerland to study the quantum tunnelling phenomenon.", "They created a practical instrument, a scanning probe microscope from quantum tunnelling theory, that read very small forces exchanged between a probe and the surface of a sample.", "The probe approaches the surface so closely that electrons can flow continuously between probe and sample, making a current from surface to probe.", "The microscope was not initially well received due to the complex nature of the underlying theoretical explanations.", "In 1984 Jerry Tersoff and D.R.", "Hamann, while at AT&T's Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey began publishing articles that tied theory to the experimental results obtained by the instrument.", "This was closely followed in 1985 with functioning commercial instruments, and in 1986 with Gerd Binnig, Quate, and Gerber's invention of the atomic force microscope, then Binnig's and Rohrer's Nobel Prize in Physics for the SPM.New types of scanning probe microscope have continued to be developed as the ability to machine ultra-fine probes and tips has advanced.===Fluorescence microscopes===Fluorescence microscope with the filter cube turret above the objective lenses, coupled with a cameraThe most recent developments in light microscope largely centre on the rise of fluorescence microscopy in biology.", "During the last decades of the 20th century, particularly in the post-genomic era, many techniques for fluorescent staining of cellular structures were developed.", "The main groups of techniques involve targeted chemical staining of particular cell structures, for example, the chemical compound DAPI to label DNA, use of antibodies conjugated to fluorescent reporters, seeimmunofluorescence, and fluorescent proteins, such as green fluorescent protein.", "These techniques use these different fluorophores for analysis of cell structure at a molecular level in both live and fixed samples.The rise of fluorescence microscopy drove the development of a major modern microscope design, the confocal microscope.", "The principle was patented in 1957 by Marvin Minsky, although laser technology limited practical application of the technique.", "It was not until 1978 when Thomas and Christoph Cremer developed the first practical confocal laser scanning microscope and the technique rapidly gained popularity through the 1980s.===Super resolution microscopes===Much current research (in the early 21st century) on optical microscope techniques is focused on development of superresolution analysis of fluorescently labelled samples.", "Structured illumination can improve resolution by around two to four times and techniques like stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy are approaching the resolution of electron microscopes.", "This occurs because the diffraction limit is occurred from light or excitation, which makes the resolution must be doubled to become super saturated.", "Stefan Hell was awarded the 2014 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the development of the STED technique, along with Eric Betzig and William Moerner who adapted fluorescence microscopy for single-molecule visualization.===X-ray microscopes===X-ray microscopes are instruments that use electromagnetic radiation usually in the soft X-ray band to image objects.", "Technological advances in X-ray lens optics in the early 1970s made the instrument a viable imaging choice.", "They are often used in tomography (see micro-computed tomography) to produce three dimensional images of objects, including biological materials that have not been chemically fixed.", "Currently research is being done to improve optics for hard X-rays which have greater penetrating power." ], [ "Types", "Types of microscopes illustrated by the principles of their beam pathsEvolution of spatial resolution achieved with optical, transmission (TEM) and aberration-corrected electron microscopes (ACTEM)Microscopes can be separated into several different classes.", "One grouping is based on what interacts with the sample to generate the image, i.e., light or photons (optical microscopes), electrons (electron microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes).", "Alternatively, microscopes can be classified based on whether they analyze the sample via a scanning point (confocal optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyze the sample all at once (wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes).Wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes both use the theory of lenses (optics for light microscopes and electromagnet lenses for electron microscopes) in order to magnify the image generated by the passage of a wave transmitted through the sample, or reflected by the sample.", "The waves used are electromagnetic (in optical microscopes) or electron beams (in electron microscopes).", "Resolution in these microscopes is limited by the wavelength of the radiation used to image the sample, where shorter wavelengths allow for a higher resolution.Scanning optical and electron microscopes, like the confocal microscope and scanning electron microscope, use lenses to focus a spot of light or electrons onto the sample then analyze the signals generated by the beam interacting with the sample.", "The point is then scanned over the sample to analyze a rectangular region.", "Magnification of the image is achieved by displaying the data from scanning a physically small sample area on a relatively large screen.", "These microscopes have the same resolution limit as wide field optical, probe, and electron microscopes.Scanning probe microscopes also analyze a single point in the sample and then scan the probe over a rectangular sample region to build up an image.", "As these microscopes do not use electromagnetic or electron radiation for imaging they are not subject to the same resolution limit as the optical and electron microscopes described above.===Optical microscope===The most common type of microscope (and the first invented) is the optical microscope.", "This is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses producing an enlarged image of a sample placed in the focal plane.", "Optical microscopes have refractive glass (occasionally plastic or quartz), to focus light on the eye or on to another light detector.", "Mirror-based optical microscopes operate in the same manner.", "Typical magnification of a light microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1,250× with a theoretical resolution limit of around 0.250 micrometres or 250 nanometres.", "This limits practical magnification to ~1,500×.", "Specialized techniques (e.g., scanning confocal microscopy, Vertico SMI) may exceed this magnification but the resolution is diffraction limited.", "The use of shorter wavelengths of light, such as ultraviolet, is one way to improve the spatial resolution of the optical microscope, as are devices such as the near-field scanning optical microscope.Sarfus is a recent optical technique that increases the sensitivity of a standard optical microscope to a point where it is possible to directly visualize nanometric films (down to 0.3 nanometre) and isolated nano-objects (down to 2 nm-diameter).", "The technique is based on the use of non-reflecting substrates for cross-polarized reflected light microscopy.Ultraviolet light enables the resolution of microscopic features as well as the imaging of samples that are transparent to the eye.", "Near infrared light can be used to visualize circuitry embedded in bonded silicon devices, since silicon is transparent in this region of wavelengths.In fluorescence microscopy many wavelengths of light ranging from the ultraviolet to the visible can be used to cause samples to fluoresce, which allows viewing by eye or with specifically sensitive cameras.Unstained cells viewed by typical brightfield (left) compared to phase-contrast microscopy (right)Phase-contrast microscopy is an optical microscopic illumination technique in which small phase shifts in the light passing through a transparent specimen are converted into amplitude or contrast changes in the image.", "The use of phase contrast does not require staining to view the slide.", "This microscope technique made it possible to study the cell cycle in live cells.The traditional optical microscope has more recently evolved into the digital microscope.", "In addition to, or instead of, directly viewing the object through the eyepieces, a type of sensor similar to those used in a digital camera is used to obtain an image, which is then displayed on a computer monitor.", "These sensors may use CMOS or charge-coupled device (CCD) technology, depending on the application.Digital microscopy with very low light levels to avoid damage to vulnerable biological samples is available using sensitive photon-counting digital cameras.", "It has been demonstrated that a light source providing pairs of entangled photons may minimize the risk of damage to the most light-sensitive samples.", "In this application of ghost imaging to photon-sparse microscopy, the sample is illuminated with infrared photons, each of which is spatially correlated with an entangled partner in the visible band for efficient imaging by a photon-counting camera.Modern transmission electron microscope===Electron microscope===Transmission electron micrograph of a dividing cell undergoing cytokinesisThe two major types of electron microscopes are transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) and scanning electron microscopes (SEMs).", "They both have series of electromagnetic and electrostatic lenses to focus a high energy beam of electrons on a sample.", "In a TEM the electrons pass through the sample, analogous to basic optical microscopy.", "This requires careful sample preparation, since electrons are scattered strongly by most materials.", "The samples must also be very thin (below 100 nm) in order for the electrons to pass through it.", "Cross-sections of cells stained with osmium and heavy metals reveal clear organelle membranes and proteins such as ribosomes.", "With a 0.1 nm level of resolution, detailed views of viruses (20 – 300 nm) and a strand of DNA (2 nm in width) can be obtained.", "In contrast, the SEM has raster coils to scan the surface of bulk objects with a fine electron beam.", "Therefore, the specimen do not necessarily need to be sectioned, but coating with a nanometric metal or carbon layer may be needed for nonconductive samples.", "SEM allows fast surface imaging of samples, possibly in thin water vapor to prevent drying.===Scanning probe===The different types of scanning probe microscopes arise from the many different types of interactions that occur when a small probe is scanned over and interacts with a specimen.", "These interactions or modes can be recorded or mapped as function of location on the surface to form a characterization map.", "The three most common types of scanning probe microscopes are atomic force microscopes (AFM), near-field scanning optical microscopes (NSOM or SNOM, scanning near-field optical microscopy), and scanning tunneling microscopes (STM).", "An atomic force microscope has a fine probe, usually of silicon or silicon nitride, attached to a cantilever; the probe is scanned over the surface of the sample, and the forces that cause an interaction between the probe and the surface of the sample are measured and mapped.", "A near-field scanning optical microscope is similar to an AFM but its probe consists of a light source in an optical fiber covered with a tip that has usually an aperture for the light to pass through.", "The microscope can capture either transmitted or reflected light to measure very localized optical properties of the surface, commonly of a biological specimen.", "Scanning tunneling microscopes have a metal tip with a single apical atom; the tip is attached to a tube through which a current flows.", "The tip is scanned over the surface of a conductive sample until a tunneling current flows; the current is kept constant by computer movement of the tip and an image is formed by the recorded movements of the tip.Leaf surface viewed by a scanning electron microscope=== Other types ===Scanning acoustic microscopes use sound waves to measure variations in acoustic impedance.", "Similar to Sonar in principle, they are used for such jobs as detecting defects in the subsurfaces of materials including those found in integrated circuits.", "On February 4, 2013, Australian engineers built a \"quantum microscope\" which provides unparalleled precision.====Mobile apps====Mobile app microscopes can optionally be used as optical microscope when the flashlight is activated.", "However, mobile app microscopes are harder to use due to visual noise, are often limited to 40x, and the resolution limits of the camera lens itself." ], [ "See also", "* Fluorescence interference contrast microscopy* Laser capture microdissection* Microscope image processing* Microscope slide* Multifocal plane microscopy* Royal Microscopical Society" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Milestones in Light Microscopy, ''Nature Publishing''* FAQ on Optical Microscopes (archived 4 April 2009)* Nikon MicroscopyU, tutorials from Nikon* Molecular Expressions : ''Exploring the World of Optics and Microscopy'', Florida State University." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Midrash" ], [ "Introduction", "Title page, Midrash Tehillim'''''Midrash''''' (; ; or ''midrashot'') is expansive Jewish Biblical exegesis using a rabbinic mode of interpretation prominent in the Talmud.", "The word itself means \"textual interpretation\", \"study\", or \"exegesis\", derived from the root verb (), which means \"resort to, seek, seek with care, enquire, require\", forms of which appear frequently in the Hebrew Bible.Midrash and rabbinic readings \"discern value in texts, words, and letters, as potential revelatory spaces\", writes the Hebrew scholar Wilda Gafney.", "\"They reimagine dominant narratival readings while crafting new ones to stand alongside—not replace—former readings.", "Midrash also asks questions of the text; sometimes it provides answers, sometimes it leaves the reader to answer the questions\".", "Vanessa Lovelace defines midrash as \"a Jewish mode of interpretation that not only engages the words of the text, behind the text, and beyond the text, but also focuses on each letter, and the words left unsaid by each line\".The term is also used of a rabbinic work that interprets Scripture in that manner.", "Such works contain early interpretations and commentaries on the Written Torah and Oral Torah (spoken law and sermons), as well as non-legalistic rabbinic literature () and occasionally Jewish religious laws (), which usually form a running commentary on specific passages in the Hebrew Scripture (Tanakh).The word ''Midrash'', especially if capitalized, can refer to a specific compilation of these rabbinic writings composed between 400 and 1200 CE.", "According to Gary Porton and Jacob Neusner, ''midrash'' has three technical meanings:# Judaic biblical interpretation; # the method used in interpreting; # a collection of such interpretations." ], [ "Etymology", "The Hebrew word ''midrash'' is derived from the root of the verb (), which means \"resort to, seek, seek with care, enquire, require\", forms of which appear frequently in the Bible.The word ''midrash'' occurs twice in the Hebrew Bible: 2 Chronicles 13:22 \"in the ''midrash'' of the prophet Iddo\", and 24:27 \"in the ''midrash'' of the book of the kings\".", "Both the King James Version (KJV) and English Standard Version (ESV) translate the word as \"story\" in both instances; the Septuagint translates it as (book) in the first, as (writing) in the second.", "The meaning of the Hebrew word in these contexts is uncertain: it has been interpreted as referring to \"a body of authoritative narratives, or interpretations thereof, concerning historically important figures\" and seems to refer to a \"book\", perhaps even a \"book of interpretation\", which might make its use a foreshadowing of the technical sense that the rabbis later gave to the word.Since the early Middle Ages the function of much of midrashic interpretation has been distinguished from that of , straight or direct interpretation aiming at the original literal meaning of a scriptural text." ], [ "As a genre", "A definition of \"midrash\" repeatedly quoted by other scholars is that given by Gary G. Porton in 1981: \"a type of literature, oral or written, which stands in direct relationship to a fixed, canonical text, considered to be the authoritative and revealed word of God by the midrashist and his audience, and in which this canonical text is explicitly cited or clearly alluded to\".Lieve M. Teugels, who would limit midrash to rabbinic literature, offered a definition of midrash as \"rabbinic interpretation of Scripture that bears the lemmatic form\", a definition that, unlike Porton's, has not been adopted by others.", "While some scholars agree with the limitation of the term \"midrash\" to rabbinic writings, others apply it also to certain Qumran writings, to parts of the New Testament, and of the Hebrew Bible (in particular the superscriptions of the Psalms, Deuteronomy, and Chronicles), and even modern compositions are called midrashim." ], [ "As method", "Midrash is now viewed more as method than genre, although the rabbinic midrashim do constitute a distinct literary genre.", "According to the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', \"Midrash was initially a philological method of interpreting the literal meaning of biblical texts.", "In time it developed into a sophisticated interpretive system that reconciled apparent biblical contradictions, established the scriptural basis of new laws, and enriched biblical content with new meaning.", "Midrashic creativity reached its peak in the schools of Rabbi Ishmael and Akiba, where two different hermeneutic methods were applied.", "The first was primarily logically oriented, making inferences based upon similarity of content and analogy.", "The second rested largely upon textual scrutiny, assuming that words and letters that seem superfluous teach something not openly stated in the text.", "\"Many different exegetical methods are employed to derive deeper meaning from a text.", "This is not limited to the traditional thirteen textual tools attributed to the Tanna Rabbi Ishmael, which are used in the interpretation of (Jewish law).", "The presence of words or letters which are seen to be apparently superfluous, and the chronology of events, parallel narratives or what are seen as other textual \"anomalies\" are often used as a springboard for interpretation of segments of Biblical text.", "In many cases, a handful of lines in the Biblical narrative may become a long philosophical discussionJacob Neusner distinguishes three midrash processes:# paraphrase: recounting the content of the biblical text in different language that may change the sense;# prophecy: reading the text as an account of something happening or about to happen in the interpreter's time;# parable or allegory: indicating deeper meanings of the words of the text as speaking of something other than the superficial meaning of the words or of everyday reality, as when the love of man and woman in the Song of Songs is interpreted as referring to the love between God and Israel or the Church as in Isaiah 5 and in the New Testament." ], [ "Jewish midrashic literature", "Numerous Jewish midrashim previously preserved in manuscript form have been published in print, including those denominated as smaller or minor midrashim.", "Bernard H. Mehlman and Seth M. Limmer deprecate this usage claiming that the term \"minor\" seems judgmental and \"small\" is inappropriate for midrashim some of which are lengthy.", "They propose instead the term \"medieval midrashim\", since the period of their production extended from the twilight of the rabbinic age to the dawn of the Age of Enlightenment.Generally speaking, rabbinic midrashim either focus on religious law and practice () or interpret biblical narrative in relation to non-legal ethics or theology, creating homilies and parables based on the text.", "In the latter case they are described as .=== Halakhic midrashim ===''Midrash halakha'' is the name given to a group of tannaitic expositions on the first five books of the Hebrew Bible.", "These midrashim, written in Mishnaic Hebrew, clearly distinguish between the Biblical texts that they discuss, and the rabbinic interpretation of that text.", "They often go well beyond simple interpretation, and derive or provide support for halakha.", "This work is based on pre-set assumptions about the sacred and divine nature of the text, and the belief in the legitimacy that accords with rabbinic interpretation.Although this material treats the biblical texts as the authoritative word of God, it is clear that not all of the Hebrew Bible was fixed in its wording at this time, as some verses that are cited differ from the Masoretic, and accord with the Septuagint, or Samaritan Torah instead.=== Origins ===With the growing canonization of the contents of the Hebrew Bible, both in terms of the books that it contained, and the version of the text in them, and an acceptance that new texts could not be added, there came a need to produce material that would clearly differentiate between that text, and rabbinic interpretation of it.", "By collecting and compiling these thoughts they could be presented in a manner which helped to refute claims that they were only human interpretations—the argument being that, by presenting the various collections of different schools of thought, each of which relied upon close study of the text, the growing difference between early biblical law and its later rabbinic interpretation could be reconciled.=== Aggadic midrashim ===Midrashim that seek to explain the non-legal portions of the Hebrew Bible are sometimes referred to as or .Aggadic discussions of the non-legal parts of Scripture are characterized by a much greater freedom of exposition than the halakhic midrashim (midrashim on Jewish law).", "Aggadic expositors availed themselves of various techniques, including sayings of prominent rabbis.", "These aggadic explanations could be philosophical or mystical disquisitions concerning angels, demons, paradise, hell, the messiah, Satan, feasts and fasts, parables, legends, satirical assaults on those who practice idolatry, etc.Some of these midrashim entail mystical teachings.", "The presentation is such that the midrash is a simple lesson to the uninitiated, and a direct allusion, or analogy, to a mystical teaching for those educated in this area.An example of a midrashic interpretation:" ], [ "Classical compilations", "=== Tannaitic ===* '''Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva'''.", "This book is a midrash on the names of the letters of the hebrew alphabet.", "* '''Mekhilta'''.", "The Mekhilta essentially functions as a commentary on the Book of Exodus.", "There are two versions of this midrash collection.", "One is ''Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael'', the other is ''Mekhilta of Rabbi Shimon ben Yochai''.", "The former is still studied today, while the latter was used by many medieval Jewish authorities.", "While the latter (bar Yohai) text was popularly circulated in manuscript form from the 11th to 16th centuries, it was lost for all practical purposes until it was rediscovered and printed in the 19th century.", "** ''Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael''.", "This is a halakhic commentary on Exodus, concentrating on the legal sections, from Exodus 12 to 35.It derives halakha from Biblical verses.", "This midrash collection was redacted into its final form around the 3rd or 4th century; its contents indicate that its sources are some of the oldest midrashim, dating back possibly to the time of Rabbi Akiva.", "The midrash on Exodus that was known to the Amoraim is not the same as our current mekhilta; their version was only the core of what later grew into the present form.", "** ''Mekhilta of Rabbi Shimon''.", "Based on the same core material as Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael, it followed a second route of commentary and editing, and eventually emerged as a distinct work.", "The Mekhilta of Rabbi Shimon is an exegetical midrash on Exodus 3 to 35, and is very roughly dated to near the fourth century.", "* '''Seder Olam Rabbah''' (or simply '''Seder Olam''').", "Traditionally attributed to the Tanna Jose ben Halafta.", "This work covers topics from the creation of the universe to the construction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem.", "* '''Sifra''' on Leviticus.", "The Sifra work follows the tradition of Rabbi Akiva with additions from the School of Rabbi Ishmael.", "References in the Talmud to the Sifra are ambiguous; It is uncertain whether the texts mentioned in the Talmud are to an earlier version of our Sifra, or to the sources that the Sifra also drew upon.", "References to the Sifra from the time of the early medieval rabbis (and after) are to the text extant today.", "The core of this text developed in the mid-3rd century as a critique and commentary of the Mishnah, although subsequent additions and editing went on for some time afterwards.", "* '''Sifre''' on Numbers and Deuteronomy, going back mainly to the schools of the same two Rabbis.", "This work is mainly a halakhic midrash, yet includes a long haggadic piece in sections 78–106.References in the Talmud, and in the later Geonic literature, indicate that the original core of Sifre was on the Book of Numbers, Exodus and Deuteronomy.", "However, transmission of the text was imperfect, and by the Middle Ages, only the commentary on Numbers and Deuteronomy remained.", "The core material was redacted around the middle of the 3rd century.", "* '''Sifri Zutta''' (\"The small Sifre\").", "This work is a halakhic commentary on the book of Numbers.", "The text of this midrash is only partially preserved in medieval works, while other portions were discovered by Solomon Schechter in his research in the famed Cairo Geniza.", "It seems to be older than most other midrash, coming from the early third century.=== Post-Talmudic ===* ''Midrash Qohelet'', on Ecclesiastes (probably before middle of 9th century).", "* ''Midrash Esther'', on Esther (940 CE).", "* The ''Pesikta'', a compilation of homilies on special Pentateuchal and Prophetic lessons (early 8th century), in two versions:** Pesikta Rabbati** Pesikta de-Rav Kahana* '''Pirqe Rabbi Eliezer''' (not before 8th century), a midrashic narrative of the more important events of the Pentateuch.", "* '''Tanchuma''' or '''Yelammedenu''' (9th century) on the whole Pentateuch; its homilies often consist of a halakhic introduction, followed by several poems, exposition of the opening verses, and the Messianic conclusion.", "There are actually a number of different Midrash Tanhuma collections.", "The two most important are ''Midrash Tanhuma Ha Nidpas'', literally the published text.", "This is also sometimes referred to as ''Midrash Tanhuma Yelamdenu''.", "The other is based on a manuscript published by Solomon Buber and is usually known as ''Midrash Tanhuma Buber'', much to many students' confusion, this too is sometimes referred to as ''Midrash Tanhuma Yelamdenu.''", "Although the first is the one most widely distributed today, when the medieval authors refer to Midrash Tanchuma, they usually mean the second.", "* '''Midrash Shmuel''', on the first two Books of Kings (I, II Samuel).", "* '''Midrash Tehillim''', on the Psalms.", "* '''Midrash Mishlé''', a commentary on the book of Proverbs.", "* '''Yalkut Shimoni'''.", "A collection of midrash on the entire Hebrew Scriptures (Tanakh) containing both halakhic and aggadic midrash.", "It was compiled by Shimon ha-Darshan in the 13th century CE and is collected from over 50 other midrashic works.", "* '''Midrash HaGadol''' (in English: the great midrash) (in Hebrew: מדרש הגדול) was written by Rabbi David Adani of Yemen (14th century).", "It is a compilation of aggadic midrashim on the Pentateuch taken from the two Talmuds and earlier Midrashim of Yemenite provenance.", "* '''Tanna Devei Eliyahu'''.", "This work that stresses the reasons underlying the commandments, the importance of knowing Torah, prayer, and repentance, and the ethical and religious values that are learned through the Bible.", "It consists of two sections, Seder Eliyahu Rabbah and Seder Eliyahu Zuta.", "It is not a compilation but a uniform work with a single author.", "* ''Midrash Tadshe'' (also called Baraita de-Rabbi Pinehas ben Yair):=== Midrash Rabbah ===* '''Midrash Rabba''' — widely studied are the ''Rabboth'' (great commentaries), a collection of ten midrashim on different books of the Bible (namely, the five books of the Torah and the Five Megillot).", "Although referred to collectively as the Midrash Rabbah, they are not a cohesive work, being written by different authors in different locales in different historical eras.", "The ones on Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy are chiefly made up of homilies on the Scripture sections for the Sabbath or festival, while the others are rather exegetical.", "** Genesis Rabba, This text dates from the sixth century.", "A midrash on Genesis, it offers explanations of words and sentences and haggadic interpretations and expositions, many of which are only loosely tied to the text.", "It is often interlaced with maxims and parables.", "Its redactor drew upon earlier rabbinic sources, including the Mishnah, Tosefta, the halakhic midrashim the Targums.", "It apparently drew upon a version of Talmud Yerushalmi that resembles, yet was not identical to, the text that survived to present times.", "It was redacted sometime in the early fifth century.", "** Exodus Rabbah (tenth or eleventh and twelfth century)** Leviticus Rabbah (middle seventh century)** Numbers Rabbah (twelfth century)** Deuteronomy Rabbah (tenth century)** Shir HaShirim Rabbah (Song of Songs) (probably before the middle of ninth century)** Ruth Rabbah, (probably before the middle of ninth century)** Lamentations Rabbah, (seventh century).", "''Lamentations Rabbah'' has been transmitted in two versions.", "One edition is represented by the first printed edition (at Pesaro in 1519); the other is the Salomon Buber edition, based on manuscript J.I.4 from the Biblioteca Casanatense in Rome.", "This latter version (Buber's) is quoted by the Shulkhan Arukh, as well as medieval Jewish authorities.", "It was probably redacted sometime in the fifth century.", "** ''Ecclesiastes Rabbah''** ''Esther Rabbah''" ], [ "Contemporary Jewish midrash", "A wealth of literature and artwork has been created in the 20th and 21st centuries by people aspiring to create \"contemporary midrash\".", "Forms include poetry, prose, Bibliodrama (the acting out of Bible stories), murals, masks, and music, among others.", "The Institute for Contemporary Midrash was formed to facilitate these reinterpretations of sacred texts.", "The institute hosted several week-long intensives between 1995 and 2004, and published eight issues of ''Living Text: The Journal of Contemporary Midrash'' from 1997 to 2000." ], [ "Contemporary views", "According to Carol Bakhos, recent studies that use literary-critical tools to concentrate on the cultural and literary aspects of midrash have led to a rediscovery of the importance of these texts for finding insights into the rabbinic culture that created them.", "Midrash is increasingly seen as a literary and cultural construction, responsive to literary means of analysis.Frank Kermode has written that midrash is an imaginative way of \"updating, enhancing, augmenting, explaining, and justifying the sacred text\".", "Because the Tanakh came to be seen as unintelligible or even offensive, midrash could be used as a means of rewriting it in a way that both makes it more acceptable to later ethical standards and conforms more to later notions of plausibility.James L. Kugel, in ''The Bible as It Was'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997), examines a number of early Jewish and Christian texts that comment on, expand, or re-interpret passages from the first five books of the Tanakh between the third century BCE and the second century CE.Kugel traces how and why biblical interpreters produced new meanings by the use of exegesis on ambiguities, syntactical details, unusual or awkward vocabulary, repetitions, etc.", "in the text.", "As an example, Kugel examines the different ways in which the biblical story that God's instructions are not to be found in heaven (Deuteronomy 30:12) has been interpreted.", "Baruch 3:29-4:1 states that this means that divine wisdom is not available anywhere other than in the Torah.", "Targum Neophyti (Deuteronomy 30:12) and b. Baba Metzia 59b claim that this text means that Torah is no longer hidden away, but has been given to humans who are then responsible for following it." ], [ "See also", "* Allegory in the Middle Ages* Archetype* Biblical studies* Lectio Divina* Icon* Midrasz, a Polish-language journal on Polish Jewish matters* Madrasa* Pardes (exegesis)* Semiotics* Symbol* Typology" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Midrash Section of Chabad.org Includes a five-part series on the classic approaches to reading Midrash.", "* Sacred Texts: Judaism: Tales and Maxims from the Midrash extracted and translated by Samuel Rapaport, 1908.", "* Midrash—entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith* ;Full text resources* Tanchuma (Hebrew)* Abridged translations of Tanchuma in English.", "* Yalkut Shimoni (Hebrew)* English translation and Hebrew text" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Missouri" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Missouri''' is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States.", "Ranking 21st in land area, it borders Iowa to the north, Illinois, Kentucky and Tennessee to the east, Arkansas to the south and Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska to the west.", "In the south are the Ozarks, a forested highland, providing timber, minerals, and recreation.", "The Missouri River, after which the state is named, flows through the center and into the Mississippi River, which makes up the eastern border.", "With over six million residents, it is the 19th-most populous state of the country.", "The largest urban areas are St. Louis, Kansas City, Springfield, and Columbia; the capital is Jefferson City.Humans have inhabited present-day Missouri for at least 12,000 years.", "The Mississippian culture, which emerged at least in the ninth century, built cities and mounds before declining in the 14th century.", "When European explorers arrived in the 17th century, they encountered the Osage and Missouria nations.", "The French incorporated the territory into Louisiana, founding Ste.", "Genevieve in 1735 and St. Louis in 1764.After a brief period of Spanish rule, the United States acquired Missouri as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803.Americans from the Upland South rushed into the new Missouri Territory.", "Missouri was admitted as a slave state as part of the Missouri Compromise of 1820.Many from Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee settled in the Boonslick area of Mid-Missouri.", "Soon after, heavy German immigration formed the Missouri Rhineland.Missouri played a central role in the westward expansion of the United States, as memorialized by the Gateway Arch.", "The Pony Express, Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail and California Trail all began in Missouri.", "As a border state, Missouri's role in the American Civil War was complex, and it was subject to rival governments, raids, and guerilla warfare.", "After the war, both Greater St. Louis and the Kansas City metropolitan area became centers of industrialization and business.", "Today the state is divided into 114 counties and the independent city of St. Louis.Missouri's culture blends elements of the Midwestern and Southern United States.", "It is the birthplace of the musical genres ragtime, Kansas City jazz and St. Louis blues.", "The well-known Kansas City-style barbecue, and the lesser-known St. Louis-style barbecue, can be found across the state and beyond.", "Missouri is a major center of beer brewing and has some of the most permissive alcohol laws in the U.S.", "It is home to Anheuser-Busch, the world's largest beer producer, and produces an eponymous wine produced in the Missouri Rhineland and Ozarks.", "Outside the state's major cities, popular tourist destinations include the Lake of the Ozarks, Table Rock Lake and Branson.Well-known Missourians include Chuck Berry, Sheryl Crow, Walt Disney, Edwin Hubble, Nelly, Brad Pitt, Harry S. Truman, and Mark Twain.", "Some of the largest companies based in the state include Cerner, Express Scripts, Monsanto, Emerson Electric, Edward Jones, H&R Block, Wells Fargo Advisors, Centene Corporation, and O'Reilly Auto Parts.", "Well-known universities in Missouri include the University of Missouri, Saint Louis University, and Washington University in St. Louis.", "Missouri has been called the \"Mother of the West\", the \"Cave State\", and the \"Show Me State\"." ], [ "Etymology and pronunciation", "The state is named for the Missouri River, which was named after the indigenous Missouria, a Siouan-language tribe.", "French colonists adapted a form of the Illinois language-name for the people: ''Wimihsoorita''.", "Their name means \"One who has dugout canoes\".The name ''Missouri'' has several different pronunciations even among its present-day inhabitants, the two most common being and .", "Further pronunciations also exist in Missouri or elsewhere in the United States, involving the realization of the medial consonant as either or ; the vowel in the second syllable as either or ; and the third syllable as or .", "Any combination of these phonetic realizations may be observed coming from speakers of American English.", "In British received pronunciation, the preferred variant is , with being a possible alternative.The linguistic history was treated definitively by Donald M. Lance, who acknowledged that the question is sociologically complex, but no pronunciation could be declared \"correct\", nor could any be clearly defined as native or outsider, rural or urban, southern or northern, educated or otherwise.", "Politicians often employ multiple pronunciations, even during a single speech, to appeal to a greater number of listeners.", "In informal contexts respellings of the state's name, such as \"Missour-''ee''\" or \"Missour-''uh''\", are occasionally used to distinguish pronunciations phonetically.=== Nicknames===There is no official state nickname.", "However, Missouri's unofficial nickname is the \"Show Me State\", which appears on its license plates.", "This phrase has several origins.", "One is popularly ascribed to a speech by Congressman Willard Vandiver in 1899, who declared that \"I come from a state that raises corn and cotton, cockleburs and Democrats, and frothy eloquence neither convinces nor satisfies me.", "I'm from Missouri, and you have got to show me.\"", "This is in keeping with the saying \"I'm from Missouri\", which means \"I'm skeptical of the matter and not easily convinced.\"", "However, according to researchers, the phrase \"show me\" was already in use before the 1890s.", "Another one states that it is a reference to Missouri miners who were taken to Leadville, Colorado to replace striking workers.", "Since the new miners were unfamiliar with the mining methods, they required frequent instruction.Other nicknames for Missouri include \"The Lead State\", \"The Bullion State\", \"The Ozark State\", \"The Mother of the West\", \"The Iron Mountain State\", and \"Pennsylvania of the West\".", "It is also known as the \"Cave State\" because there are more than 7,300 recorded caves in the state (second to Tennessee).", "Perry County is the county with the largest number of caves and the single longest cave.The official state motto is , which means \"Let the welfare of the people be the supreme law.\"" ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===Archaeological excavations along river valleys have shown continuous habitation since about 9000 BCE.", "Beginning before 1000 CE, the people of the Mississippian culture created regional political centers at present-day St. Louis and across the Mississippi River at Cahokia, near present-day Collinsville, Illinois.", "Their large cities included thousands of individual residences.", "Still, they are known for their surviving massive earthwork mounds, built for religious, political and social reasons, in platform, ridgetop and conical shapes.", "Cahokia was the center of a regional trading network that reached from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.", "The civilization declined by 1400 CE, and most descendants left the area long before the arrival of Europeans.", "St. Louis was at one time known as Mound City by the European Americans because of the numerous surviving prehistoric mounds since lost to urban development.", "The Mississippian culture left mounds throughout the middle Mississippi and Ohio river valleys, extending into the southeast and the upper river.The Gateway Arch in St. LouisThe land that became the state of Missouri was part of numerous different territories possessed changing and often indeterminate borders and had many different Native American and European names between the 1600s and statehood.", "For much of the first half of the 1700s, the west bank of the Mississippi River that would become Missouri was mostly uninhabited, something of a no man's land that kept peace between the Illinois on the east bank of the Mississippi River and to the North, and the Osage and Missouri Indians of the lower Missouri Valley.", "In the early 1700s, French traders and missionaries explored the whole of the Mississippi Valley, named the region \"Louisiana\".", "Around the same time, a different group of French Canadians who established five villages on the east bank of the Mississippi River placed their settlements in the le pays des Illinois, \"the country of the Illinois\".", "When habitantssettlers of French Canadian descentbegan crossing the Mississippi River to establish settlements such as Ste.", "Genevieve, they continued to place their settlements in the Illinois Country.", "At the same time, the French settlements on both sides of the Mississippi River were part of the French province of Louisiana.", "To distinguish the settlements in the Middle Mississippi Valley from French settlements in the lower Mississippi Valley around New Orleans, French officials and inhabitants referred to the Middle Mississippi Valley as La Haute Louisiane, \"The High Louisiana\", or \"Upper Louisiana\".The first European settlers were mostly ethnic French Canadians, who created their first settlement in Missouri at present-day Ste.", "Genevieve, about an hour south of St. Louis.", "They had migrated about 1750 from the Illinois Country.", "They came from colonial villages on the east side of the Mississippi River, where soils were becoming exhausted, and there was insufficient river bottom land for the growing population.", "The early Missouri settlements included many enslaved Africans and Native Americans, and slave labor was central to both commercial agriculture and the fur trade.", "Sainte-Geneviève became a thriving agricultural center, producing enough surplus wheat, corn and tobacco to ship tons of grain annually downriver to Lower Louisiana for trade.", "Grain production in the Illinois Country was critical to the survival of Lower Louisiana and especially the city of New Orleans.St.", "Louis was founded soon after by French fur traders, Pierre Laclède and stepson Auguste Chouteau from New Orleans in 1764.From 1764 to 1803, European control of the area west of the Mississippi to the northernmost part of the Missouri River basin, called Louisiana, was assumed by the Spanish as part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, due to Treaty of Fontainebleau (in order to have Spain join with France in the war against England).", "The arrival of the Spanish in St. Louis was in September 1767.St.", "Louis became the center of a regional fur trade with Native American tribes that extended up the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, which dominated the regional economy for decades.", "Trading partners of major firms shipped their furs from St. Louis by river down to New Orleans for export to Europe.", "They provided a variety of goods to traders for sale and trade with their Native American clients.", "The fur trade and associated businesses made St. Louis an early financial center and provided the wealth for some to build fine houses and import luxury items.", "Its location near the confluence of the Illinois River meant it also handled produce from the agricultural areas.", "River traffic and trade along the Mississippi were integral to the state's economy.", "As the area's first major city, St. Louis expanded greatly after the invention of the steamboat and the increased river trade.===19th century===''Fur Traders Descending the Missouri'' by Missouri painter George Caleb BinghamNapoleon Bonaparte had gained Louisiana for French ownership from Spain in 1800 under the Treaty of San Ildefonso after it had been a Spanish colony since 1762, but the treaty was kept secret.", "Louisiana remained nominally under Spanish control until a transfer of power to France on November 30, 1803, just three weeks before the cession to the United States.Part of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase by the United States, Missouri earned the nickname ''Gateway to the West'' because it served as a significant departure point for expeditions and settlers heading to the West during the 19th century.", "St. Charles, just west of St. Louis, was the starting point and the return destination of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, which ascended the Missouri River in 1804, to explore the western lands to the Pacific Ocean.", "St. Louis was a major supply point for decades, for parties of settlers heading west.As many of the early settlers in western Missouri migrated from the Upper South, they brought enslaved African Americans as agricultural laborers, and they desired to continue their culture and the institution of slavery.", "They settled predominantly in 17 counties along the Missouri River, in an area of flatlands that enabled plantation agriculture and became known as \"Little Dixie\".The state was rocked by the 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes.", "Casualties were few due to the sparse population.===Admission as a state in 1821===The states and territories of the United States as a result of Missouri's admission as a state on August 10, 1821.The remainder of the former Missouri Territory became unorganized territory.In 1821, the former Missouri Territory was admitted as a slave state, under the Missouri Compromise, and with a temporary state capital in St. Charles.", "In 1826, the capital was shifted to its current, permanent location of Jefferson City, also on the Missouri River.Originally the state's western border was a straight line, defined as the meridian passing through the Kawsmouth, the point where the Kansas River enters the Missouri River.", "The river has moved since this designation.", "This line is known as the Osage Boundary.", "In 1836 the Platte Purchase was added to the northwest corner of the state after purchase of the land from the native tribes, making the Missouri River the border north of the Kansas River.", "This addition increased the land area of what was already the largest state in the Union at the time (about to Virginia's 65,000 square miles, which then included West Virginia).In the early 1830s, Mormon migrants from northern states and Canada began settling near Independence and areas just north of there.", "Conflicts over religion and slavery arose between the 'old settlers' (mainly from the South) and the Mormons (mainly from the North).", "The Mormon War erupted in 1838.By 1839, with the help of an \"Extermination Order\" by Governor Lilburn Boggs, the old settlers forcibly expelled the Mormons from Missouri and confiscated their lands.Conflicts over slavery exacerbated border tensions among the states and territories.", "From 1838 to 1839, a border dispute with Iowa over the so-called Honey Lands resulted in both states' calling-up of militias along the border.With increasing migration, from the 1830s to the 1860s, Missouri's population almost doubled with every decade.", "Most newcomers were American-born, but many Irish and German immigrants arrived in the late 1840s and 1850s.", "As a majority were Catholic, they set up their own religious institutions in the state, which had been mostly Protestant.", "Many settled in cities, creating a regional and then state network of Catholic churches and schools.", "19th-century German immigrants created the wine industry along the Missouri River and the beer industry in St. Louis.While many German immigrants were strongly anti-slavery, many Irish immigrants living in cities were pro-slavery, fearing that liberating African-American slaves would create a glut of unskilled labor, driving wages down.Most Missouri farmers practiced subsistence farming before the American Civil War.", "The majority of those who held slaves had fewer than five each.", "Planters, defined by some historians as those holding 20 slaves or more, were concentrated in the counties known as \"Little Dixie\", in the central part of the state along the Missouri River.", "The tensions over slavery chiefly had to do with the future of the state and nation.", "In 1860, enslaved African Americans made up less than 10% of the state's population of 1,182,012.In order to control the flooding of farmland and low-lying villages along the Mississippi, the state had completed construction of of levees along the river by 1860.===American Civil War===Price's Raid in the Trans-Mississippi Theater, 1864After the secession of Southern states began in 1861, the Missouri legislature called for the election of a special convention on secession.", "This convention voted against secession, but also qualified their support of the Union.", "In the aftermath of Battle of Fort Sumter Pro-Southern Governor Claiborne F. Jackson ordered the mobilization of several hundred members of the state militia who had gathered in a camp in St. Louis for training.", "In secret, he also requested Confederate arms and artillery to help take the St. Louis Arsenal.", "Alarmed at this action, and discovering the Confederate aid, General Nathaniel Lyon struck first, encircling the camp and forcing the state troops to surrender.", "Lyon directed his soldiers, largely non-English-speaking German immigrants, to march the prisoners through the streets, and this led to riot by pro-secession citizens.", "While it is disputed how it started, this riot led to violence and Union soldiers killed by St. Louis civilians.", "The event as a whole, is called the Camp Jackson Affair.These events sharpened the divisions within the state.", "Governor Jackson appointed Sterling Price, president of the convention on secession, as head of the new Missouri State Guard.", "In the face of Union General Lyon's rapid advance through the state, Jackson and Price were forced to flee the capital of Jefferson City on June 14, 1861.In Neosho, Missouri, Jackson called the state legislature into session to call for secession.", "However, the elected legislative body was split between pro-Union and pro-Confederate.", "As such, few of the pro-unionist attended the session called in Neosho, and the ordinance of secession was quickly adopted.", "The Confederacy recognized Missouri secession on October 30, 1861.With the elected governor absent from the capital and the legislators largely dispersed, the state convention was reassembled with most of its members present, save twenty who fled south with Jackson's forces.", "The convention declared all offices vacant and installed Hamilton Gamble as the new governor of Missouri.", "President Lincoln's administration immediately recognized Gamble's government as the legal Missouri government.", "The federal government's decision enabled raising pro-Union militia forces for service within the state and volunteer regiments for the Union Army.Fighting ensued between Union forces and a combined army of General Price's Missouri State Guard and Confederate troops from Arkansas and Texas under General Ben McCulloch.", "After winning victories at the battle of Wilson's Creek and the siege of Lexington, Missouri and suffering losses elsewhere, the Confederate forces retreated to Arkansas and later Marshall, Texas, in the face of a largely reinforced Union Army.Though regular Confederate troops staged some large-scale raids into Missouri, the fighting in the state for the next three years consisted chiefly of guerrilla warfare.", "\"Citizen soldiers\" or insurgents such as Captain William Quantrill, Frank and Jesse James, the Younger brothers, and William T. Anderson made use of quick, small-unit tactics.", "Pioneered by the Missouri Partisan Rangers, such insurgencies also arose in portions of the Confederacy occupied by the Union during the Civil War.", "Historians have portrayed stories of the James brothers' outlaw years as an American \"Robin Hood\" myth.", "The vigilante activities of the Bald Knobbers of the Ozarks in the 1880s were an unofficial continuation of insurgent mentality long after the official end of the war, and they are a favorite theme in Branson's self-image.=== Reconstruction period and later 19th century ======20th century===Union Station in St. Louis was the world's largest and busiest train station when it opened in 1894.Child shoe workers in Kirksville, Missouri, 1910The Progressive Era (1890s to 1920s) saw numerous prominent leaders from Missouri trying to end corruption and modernize politics, government, and society.", "Joseph \"Holy Joe\" Folk was a key leader who made a strong appeal to the middle class and rural evangelical Protestants.", "Folk was elected governor as a progressive reformer and Democrat in the 1904 election.", "He promoted what he called \"the Missouri Idea\", the concept of Missouri as a leader in public morality through popular control of law and strict enforcement.", "He successfully conducted antitrust prosecutions, ended free railroad passes for state officials, extended bribery statutes, improved election laws, required formal registration for lobbyists, made racetrack gambling illegal and enforced the Sunday-closing law.", "He helped enact Progressive legislation, including an initiative and referendum provision, regulation of elections, education, employment and child labor, railroads, food, business, and public utilities.", "Several efficiency-oriented examiner boards and commissions were established during Folk's administration, including many agricultural boards and the Missouri library commission.General John J. Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Forces in World War I, was raised in Laclede, Missouri.Between the Civil War and the end of World War II, Missouri transitioned from a rural economy to a hybrid industrial-service-agricultural economy as the Midwest rapidly industrialized.", "The expansion of railroads to the West transformed Kansas City into a major transportation hub within the nation.", "The growth of the Texas cattle industry along with this increased rail infrastructure and the invention of the refrigerated boxcar also made Kansas City a major meatpacking center, as large cattle drives from Texas brought herds of cattle to Dodge City and other Kansas towns.", "There, the cattle were loaded onto trains destined for Kansas City, where they were butchered and distributed to the eastern markets.", "The first half of the 20th century was the height of Kansas City's prominence, and its downtown became a showcase for stylish Art Deco skyscrapers as construction boomed.sharecropper shack, New Madrid County, 1938.In 1930, there was a diphtheria epidemic in the area around Springfield, which killed approximately 100 people.", "Serum was rushed to the area, and medical personnel stopped the epidemic.During the mid-1950s and 1960s, St. Louis and Kansas City suffered deindustrialization and loss of jobs in railroads and manufacturing, as did other Midwestern industrial cities.", "In 1956 St. Charles claims to be the site of the first interstate highway project.", "Such highway construction made it easy for middle-class residents to leave the city for newer housing developed in the suburbs, often former farmland where land was available at lower prices.", "These major cities have gone through decades of readjustment to develop different economies and adjust to demographic changes.", "Suburban areas have developed separate job markets, both in knowledge industries and services, such as major retail malls.===21st century===In 2014, Missouri received national attention for the protests and riots that followed the shooting of Michael Brown by a police officer of Ferguson, which led Governor Jay Nixon to call out the Missouri National Guard.", "A grand jury declined to indict the officer, and the U.S. Department of Justice concluded, after careful investigation, that the police officer legitimately feared for his safety.", "However, in a separate investigation, the Department of Justice also found that the Ferguson Police Department and the City of Ferguson relied on unconstitutional practices in order to balance the city's budget through racially motivated excessive fines and punishments, that the Ferguson police \"had used excessive and dangerous force and had disproportionately targeted blacks,\" and that the municipal court \"emphasized revenue over public safety, leading to routine breaches of citizens' constitutional guarantees of due process and equal protection under the law.", "\"A series of student protests at the University of Missouri against what the protesters viewed as poor response by the administration to racist incidents on campus began in September 2015.On June 7, 2017, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People issued a warning to prospective African-American travelers to Missouri.", "This is the first NAACP warning ever covering an entire state.", "According to a 2018 report by the Missouri Attorney General's office, for the past 18 years, \"African Americans, Hispanics and other people of color are disproportionately affected by stops, searches and arrests.\"", "The same report found that the biggest discrepancy was in 2017, when \"black motorists were 85% more likely to be pulled over in traffic stops\".In 2018 the USDA announced its plans to relocate Economic Research Service (ERS) and National Institute of Food & Agriculture (NIFA) to Kansas City.", "They have since decided on a specific location in downtown Kansas City, Missouri.", "With the addition of the KC Streetcar project and construction of the Sprint Center Arena, the downtown area in KC has attracted investment in new offices, hotels, and residential complexes.", "Both Kansas City and St. Louis are undergoing a rebirth in their downtown areas with the addition of the new Power & Light (KC) and Ballpark Village (STL) districts and the renovation of existing historical buildings in each downtown area.", "The 2019 announcement of an MLS expansion team in St. Louis is driving even more development in the downtown west area of St. Louis." ], [ "Geography", "upright=1.5Missouri borders eight different states, a figure equaled only by its neighbor, Tennessee.", "Missouri is bounded by Iowa on the north; by Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee across the Mississippi River on the east; on the south by Arkansas; and by Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska (the last across the Missouri River) on the west.", "Whereas the northern and southern boundaries are straight lines, the Missouri Bootheel extends south between the St. Francis and the Mississippi rivers.", "The two largest rivers are the Mississippi (which defines the eastern boundary of the state) and the Missouri River (which flows from west to east through the state), essentially connecting the two largest metros of Kansas City and St. Louis.Although today it is usually considered part of the Midwest, Missouri was historically seen by many as a border state, chiefly because of the settlement of migrants from the South and its status as a slave state before the Civil War, balanced by the influence of St. Louis.", "The counties that made up \"Little Dixie\" were those along the Missouri River in the center of the state, settled by Southern migrants who held the greatest concentration of slaves.In 2005, Missouri received 16,695,000 visitors to its national parks and other recreational areas totaling , giving it $7.41 million in annual revenues, 26.6% of its operating expenditures.===Topography===A physiographic map of MissouriNorth of, and in some cases just south of, the Missouri River lie the Northern Plains that stretch into Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas.", "Here, rolling hills remain from the glaciation that once extended from the Canadian Shield to the Missouri River.", "Missouri has many large river bluffs along the Mississippi, Missouri, and Meramec Rivers.", "Southern Missouri rises to the Ozark Mountains, a dissected plateau surrounding the Precambrian igneous St. Francois Mountains.", "This region also hosts karst topography characterized by high limestone content with the formation of sinkholes and caves.The Bell Mountain Wilderness of southern Missouri's Mark Twain National ForestThe southeastern part of the state is known as the Missouri Bootheel region, which is part of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain or Mississippi embayment.", "This region is the lowest, flattest, warmest, and wettest part of the state.", "It is also among the poorest, as the economy there is mostly agricultural.", "It is also the most fertile, with cotton and rice crops predominant.", "The Bootheel was the epicenter of the four New Madrid Earthquakes of 1811 and 1812.===Climate===Köppen climate types of MissouriMissouri generally has a humid continental climate with cool, sometimes cold, winters and hot, humid, and wet summers.", "In the southern part of the state, particularly in the Bootheel, the climate becomes humid subtropical.", "Located in the interior United States, Missouri often experiences extreme temperatures.", "Without high mountains or oceans nearby to moderate temperature, its climate is alternately influenced by air from the cold Arctic and the hot and humid Gulf of Mexico.", "Missouri's highest recorded temperature is at Warsaw and Union on July 14, 1954, while the lowest recorded temperature is also at Warsaw on February 13, 1905.Located in Tornado Alley, Missouri also receives extreme weather in the form of severe thunderstorms and tornadoes.", "On May 22, 2011, a massive EF-5 tornado killed 158 people and destroyed roughly one-third of the city of Joplin.", "The tornado caused an estimated $1–3 billion in damages, killed 159 people and injured more than a thousand.", "It was the first EF5 to hit the state since 1957 and the deadliest in the U.S. since 1947, making it the seventh deadliest tornado in American history and 27th deadliest in the world.", "St. Louis and its suburbs also have a history of experiencing particularly severe tornadoes, the most recent one of note being an EF4 that damaged Lambert-St. Louis International Airport on April 22, 2011.One of the worst tornadoes in American history struck St. Louis on May 27, 1896, killing at least 255 people and causing $10 million in damage (equivalent to $3.9 billion in 2009 or $ in today's dollars).Monthly normal high and low temperatures for various Missouri cities in °F (°C).", "City Avg.", "Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Source:The Lake of the Ozarks is one of several man-made lakes in Missouri, created by the damming of several rivers and tributaries.", "The lake has a surface area of 54,000 acres and 1,150 miles of shoreline and has become a popular tourist destination.===Wildlife===Missouri River near Rocheport, MissouriMissouri is home to diverse flora and fauna, including several endemic species.", "There is a large amount of fresh water present due to the Mississippi River, Missouri River, Table Rock Lake and Lake of the Ozarks, with numerous smaller tributary rivers, streams, and lakes.", "North of the Missouri River, the state is primarily rolling hills of the Great Plains, whereas south of the Missouri River, the state is dominated by the Oak-Hickory Central U.S. hardwood forest.===Forests===Recreational and commercial uses of public forests, including grazing, logging, and mining, increased after World WarII.", "Fishermen, hikers, campers, and others started lobbying to protect forest areas with a \"wilderness character\".", "During the 1930s and 1940s Aldo Leopold, Arthur Carhart and Bob Marshall developed a \"wilderness\" policy for the Forest Service.", "Their efforts bore fruit with the Wilderness Act of 1964, which designated wilderness areas \"where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by men, where man himself is a visitor and does not remain.\"", "This included second growth public forests like the Mark Twain National Forest." ], [ "Demographics", "Missouri population density mapThe United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Missouri was 6,137,428 on July 1, 2019, a 2.48% increase since the 2010 United States census.Missouri had a population of 5,988,927, according to the 2010 census; an increase of 137,525 (2.3 percent) since the year 2010.From 2010 to 2018, this includes a natural increase of 137,564 people since the last census (480,763 births less 343,199 deaths) and an increase of 88,088 people due to net migration into the state.", "Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 50,450 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 37,638 people.", "More than half of Missourians (3,294,936 people, or 55.0%) live within the state's two largest metropolitan areas—St.", "Louis and Kansas City.", "The state's population density of 86.9 people per square mile in 2009, was also closer to the national average (86.8 in 2009) than any other state.", "The top countries of origin for Missouri's immigrants in 2018 were Mexico, China, India, Vietnam and Bosnia and Herzegovina.According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 5,992 homeless people in Missouri.+ '''Missouri racial breakdown of population''' Racial composition 1990 2000 2010 White 87.7% 84.9% 82.8% Black 10.7% 11.3% 11.6% Asian 0.8% 1.1% 1.6% Native 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% Native Hawaiian andother Pacific Islander – 0.1% 0.1% Other race 0.4% 0.8% 1.3% Two or more races – 1.5% 2.1%The population center for the United States has been in Missouri since 1980.As of 2020, it is near Interstate 44 in Missouri as it approaches Springfield.The U.S. census of 2010 found that the population center of the United States is in Texas County, while the 2000 census found the mean population center to be in Phelps County.", "The center of population of Missouri is in Osage County, in the city of Westphalia.In 2004, the population included 194,000 foreign-born people (3.4 percent of the state population).The five largest ancestry groups in Missouri are: German (27.4 percent), Irish (14.8 percent), English (10.2 percent), American (8.5 percent) and French (3.7 percent).Ethnic origins in MissouriGerman Americans are an ancestry group present throughout Missouri.", "African Americans are a substantial part of the population in St. Louis (56.6% of African Americans in the state lived in St. Louis or St. Louis County as of the 2010 census), Kansas City, Boone County and in the southeastern Bootheel and some parts of the Missouri River Valley, where plantation agriculture was once important.", "Missouri Creoles of French ancestry are concentrated in the Mississippi River Valley south of St. Louis (see Missouri French).", "Kansas City is home to large and growing immigrant communities from Latin America esp.", "Mexico and Colombia, Africa (i.e.", "Sudan, Somalia and Nigeria), and Southeast Asia including China and the Philippines; and Europe like the former Yugoslavia (see Bosnian American).", "A notable Cherokee Indian population exists in Missouri.In 2004, 6.6 percent of the state's population was reported as younger than5, 25.5 percent younger than 18, and 13.5 percent 65 or older.", "Females were approximately 51.4 percent of the population.", "81.3 percent of Missouri residents were high school graduates (more than the national average), and 21.6 percent had a bachelor's degree or higher.", "3.4 percent of Missourians were foreign-born, and 5.1 percent reported speaking a language other than English at home.In 2010, there were 2,349,955 households in Missouri, with 2.45 people per household.", "The homeownership rate was 70.0 percent, and the median value of an owner-occupied housing unit was $137,700.The median household income for 2010 was $46,262, or $24,724 per capita.", "There was 14.0 percent (1,018,118) of Missourians living below the poverty line in 2010.The mean commute time to work was 23.8 minutes.172x172px===Birth data===In 2011, 28.1% of Missouri's population younger than age1 were minorities.", "''Note: Births in table don't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.", "''+ Live Births by Single Race/Ethnicity of Mother Race 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 White: 61,097 (81.1%) 60,968 (80.9%) 60,913 (81.1%) ... ... ... ... ... ... > Non-Hispanic White 57,361 (76.2%) 57,150 (75.8%) 57,092 (76.1%) 55,455 (74.2%) 53,800 (73.7%) 53,697 (73.3%) 52,523 (72.8%) 50,190 (72.4%) 50,705 (73.0%) Black 11,722 (15.6%) 11,783 (15.6%) 11,660 (15.5%) 10,445 (14.0%) 10,495 (14.4%) 10,589 (14.4%) 10,501 (14.6%) 10,156 (14.6%) 9,443 (13.6%) Asian 2,075 (2.8%) 2,186 (2.9%) 2,129 (2.8%) 1,852 (2.5%) 1,773 (2.4%) 1,698 (2.3%) 1,814 (2.5%) 1,610 (2.3%) 1,625 (2.3%) Pacific Islander ... ... ... 199 (0.3%) 183 (0.3%) 199 (0.3%) 228 (0.3%) 249 (0.3%) 246 (0.3%) American Indian 402 (0.5%) 423 (0.6%) 359 (0.5%) 156 (0.2%) 167 (0.2%) 140 (0.2%) 145 (0.2%) 163 (0.2%) 184 (0.2%) ''Hispanic'' (of any race) ''3,931'' (5.2%) ''3,959'' (5.3%) ''4,042'' (5.4%) ''4,136'' (5.5%) ''4,156'' (5.7%) ''4,409'' (6.0%) ''4,386'' (6.1%) ''4,469'' (6.4%) ''4,606'' (6.6%) '''Total Missouri''' '''75,296''' (100%) '''75,360''' (100%) '''75,061''' (100%) '''74,705''' (100%) '''73,034''' (100%) '''73,269''' (100%) '''72,127''' (100%) '''69,285''' (100%) '''69,453''' (100%)* Since 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one ''Hispanic'' group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.===Language===The vast majority of people in Missouri speak English.", "Approximately 5.1% of the population reported speaking a language other than English at home.", "The Spanish language is spoken in small Latino communities in the St. Louis and Kansas City Metro areas.Missouri is home to an endangered dialect of the French language known as Missouri French.", "Speakers of the dialect, who call themselves ''Créoles'', are descendants of the French pioneers who settled the area then known as the Illinois Country beginning in the late 17th century.", "It developed in isolation from French speakers in Canada and Louisiana, becoming quite distinct from the varieties of Canadian French and Louisiana French.", "Once widely spoken throughout the area, Missouri French is now nearly extinct, with only a few elderly speakers able to use it.===Religion===According to a Pew Research study conducted in 2014, 80% of Missourians identify with a religion.", "77% affiliate with Christianity and its various denominations and the other 3% are adherents of non-Christian religions.", "The remaining 20% have no religion, with 2% specifically identifying as atheists and 3% identifying as agnostics (the other 15% do not identify as \"anything in particular\").The religious demographics of Missouri are as follows:* Christian 77%** Protestant 58%*** Evangelical Protestant 36%*** Mainline Protestant 16%*** Historically Black Protestant 6%** Catholic 16%** Mormon 1%** Orthodox Christian <1%** Jehovah's Witness <1%** Other Christian <1%* Non-Christian Religions 3%** Jewish <1%** Muslim <1%** Buddhist 1%** Hindu <1%** Other World Religions <1%* Unaffiliated (No religion) 20%** Atheist 2%** Agnostic 3%** Nothing in particular 15%* Don't know <1%The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Southern Baptist Convention with 749,685; the Roman Catholic Church with 724,315; and the United Methodist Church with 226,409.Among the other denominations there are approximately 93,000 Mormons in 253 congregations, 25,000 Jewish adherents in 21 synagogues, 12,000 Muslims in 39 masjids, 7,000 Buddhists in 34 temples, 20,000 Hindus in 17 temples, 2,500 Unitarians in nine congregations, 2,000 of the Baháʼí Faith in 17 temples, five Sikh temples, a Zoroastrian temple, a Jain temple and an uncounted number of neopagans.Several religious organizations have headquarters in Missouri, including the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, which has its headquarters in Kirkwood, as well as the United Pentecostal Church International in Hazelwood, both outside St. Louis.Independence, near Kansas City, is the headquarters for the Community of Christ (formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), the Church of Christ (Temple Lot) and the group Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.", "This area and other parts of Missouri are also of significant religious and historical importance to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), which maintains several sites and visitor centers.Springfield is the headquarters of the Assemblies of God USA and the Baptist Bible Fellowship International.", "The General Association of General Baptists has its headquarters in Poplar Bluff.", "The Unity Church is headquartered in Unity Village.", "Springfield is particularly known as a Christian center in the state and is considered by some to be a \"buckle\" of the Bible Belt.Hindu Temple of St. Louis is the largest Hindu Temple in Missouri, serving more than 14,000 Hindus." ], [ "Economy", "Missouri State quarter featuring the Lewis and Clark Expedition* Total employment in 2016: 2,494,720* Total Number of employer establishments in 2016: 160,912The U.S. Department of Commerce's Bureau of Economic Analysis estimated Missouri's 2016 gross state product at $299.1 billion, ranking 22nd among U.S. states.", "Per capita personal income in 2006 was $32,705, ranking 26th in the nation.", "Major industries include aerospace, transportation equipment, food processing, chemicals, printing/publishing, electrical equipment, light manufacturing, financial services and beer.The agriculture products of the state are beef, soybeans, pork, dairy products, hay, corn, poultry, sorghum, cotton, rice, and eggs.", "Missouri is ranked 6th in the nation for the production of hogs and 7th for cattle.", "Missouri is ranked in the top five states in the nation for production of soy beans, and it is ranked fourth in the nation for the production of rice.", "In 2001, there were 108,000 farms, the second-largest number in any state after Texas.", "Missouri actively promotes its rapidly growing wine industry.", "According to the Missouri Partnership, Missouri's agriculture industry contributes $33 billion in GDP to Missouri's economy, and generates $88 billion in sales and more than 378,000 jobs.Missouri has vast quantities of limestone.", "Other resources mined are lead, coal, and crushed stone.", "Missouri produces the most lead of all the states.", "Most of the lead mines are in the central eastern portion of the state.", "Missouri also ranks first or near first in the production of lime, a key ingredient in Portland cement.Missouri also has a growing science, agricultural technology, and biotechnology field.", "Monsanto, formerly one of the largest biotech companies in America, was based in St. Louis until it was acquired by Bayer AG in 2018.It is now part of the Crop Science Division of Bayer Corporation, Bayer's U.S. subsidiary.Tourism, services, and wholesale/retail trade follow manufacturing in importance—tourism benefits from the many rivers, lakes, caves, parks, etc., throughout the state.", "In addition to a network of state parks, Missouri is home to Gateway Arch National Park in St. Louis and the Ozark National Scenic Riverways.", "A much-visited show cave is Meramec Caverns in Stanton.Meramec CavernsMissouri is the only state in the Union to have two Federal Reserve Banks: one in Kansas City (serving western Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Colorado, northern New Mexico, and Wyoming) and one in St. Louis (serving eastern Missouri, southern Illinois, southern Indiana, western Kentucky, western Tennessee, northern Mississippi, and all of Arkansas).The Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City services the western portion of Missouri, as well as all of Kansas, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Wyoming, Colorado, and northern New Mexico.The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate in April 2017 was 3.9 percent.", "In 2017, Missouri became a right-to-work state, but in August 2018, Missouri voters rejected a right-to-work law with 67% to 33%.===Taxation===Personal income is taxed in ten different earning brackets, ranging from 1.5% to 6.0%.", "Missouri's sales tax rate for most items is 4.225%, with some additional local levies.", "More than 2,500 Missouri local governments rely on property taxes levied on real property (real estate) and personal property.Most personal property is exempt, except for motorized vehicles.", "Exempt real estate includes property owned by governments and property used as nonprofit cemeteries, exclusively for religious worship, for schools and colleges, and purely charitable purposes.", "There is no inheritance tax and limited Missouri estate tax related to federal estate tax collection.In 2017, the Tax Foundation rated Missouri as having the 5th-best corporate tax index, and the 15th-best overall tax climate.", "Missouri's corporate income tax rate is 6.25%; however, 50% of federal income tax payments may be deducted before computing taxable income, leading to an effective rate of 5.2%.===Energy===In 2012, Missouri had roughly 22,000 MW of installed electricity generation capacity.", "In 2011, 82% of Missouri's electricity was generated by coal.", "Ten percent was generated from the state's only nuclear power plant, the Callaway Plant in Callaway County, northeast of Jefferson City.", "Five percent was generated by natural gas.", "One percent was generated by hydroelectric sources, such as the dams for Truman Lake and Lake of the Ozarks.", "Missouri has a small but growing amount of wind and solar power—wind capacity increased from 309 MW in 2009 to 459 MW in 2011, while photovoltaics have increased from 0.2 MW to 1.3 MW over the same period.", "As of 2016, Missouri's solar installations had reached 141 MW.Oil wells in Missouri produced 120,000 barrels of crude oil in fiscal 2012.There are no oil refineries in Missouri." ], [ "Transportation", "===Airports===Missouri has two major airport hubs: St. Louis Lambert International Airport and Kansas City International Airport.", "Southern Missouri has the Springfield–Branson National Airport (SGF) with multiple non-stop destinations.", "Residents of Mid-Missouri use Columbia Regional Airport (COU) to fly to Chicago (ORD), Dallas (DFW) or Denver (DEN).===Rail===KirkwoodUnion StationMap of Southwest Missouri Railroad Company c 1907Two of the nation's three busiest rail centers are in Missouri.", "Kansas City is a major railroad hub for BNSF Railway, Norfolk Southern Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway, and Union Pacific Railroad, and every class1 railroad serves Missouri.", "Kansas City is the second-largest freight rail center in the US (but is first in the amount of tonnage handled).", "Like Kansas City, St. Louis is a major destination for train freight.", "Springfield remains an operational hub for BNSF Railway.Amtrak passenger trains serve Kansas City, La Plata, Jefferson City, St. Louis, Lee's Summit, Independence, Warrensburg, Hermann, Washington, Kirkwood, Sedalia, and Poplar Bluff.", "A proposed high-speed rail route in Missouri as part of the Chicago Hub Network has received $31 million in funding.The only urban light rail/subway system operating in Missouri is MetroLink, which connects the city of St. Louis with suburbs in Illinois and St. Louis County.", "It is one of the largest systems (by track mileage) in the United States.", "The KC Streetcar in downtown Kansas City opened in May 2016.The Gateway Multimodal Transportation Center in St. Louis is the largest active multi-use transportation center in the state.", "It is in downtown St. Louis, next to the historic Union Station complex.", "It serves as a hub center/station for MetroLink, the MetroBus regional bus system, Greyhound, Amtrak, and taxi services.In 2018, a Missouri Hyperloop was proposed to connect St. Louis, Kansas City, and Columbia, reducing travel time across the entire state to around a half hour.", "The project stalled in December, 2023, with the shutdown of the corporate partner Hyperloop One.===Bus===The Mississippi River at HannibalMany cities have regular fixed-route systems, and many rural counties have rural public transit services.", "Greyhound and Trailways provide inter-city bus service in Missouri.", "Megabus serves St. Louis, but discontinued service to Columbia and Kansas City in 2015.===Rivers===The Mississippi River and Missouri River are commercially navigable over their entire lengths in Missouri.", "The Missouri was channelized through dredging and jetties, and the Mississippi was given a series of locks and dams to avoid rocks and deepen the river.", "St. Louis is a major destination for barge traffic on the Mississippi.===Roads===Following the passage of Amendment 3 in late 2004, the Missouri Department of Transportation (MoDOT) began its Smoother, Safer, Sooner road-building program with a goal of bringing of highways up to good condition by December 2007.From 2006 to 2011 traffic deaths have decreased annually from 1,257 in 2005, to 1,096 in 2006, to 992 in 2007, to 960 in 2008, to 878 in 2009, to 821 in 2010, to 786 in 2011." ], [ "Law and government", "The Missouri State Capitol in Jefferson CityThe Governor's Mansion is on the National Register of Historic Places.The current Constitution of Missouri, the fourth constitution for the state, was adopted in 1945.It provides for three branches of government: the legislative, judicial, and executive branches.", "The legislative branch consists of two bodies: the House of Representatives and the Senate.", "These bodies comprise the Missouri General Assembly.The House of Representatives has 163 members apportioned based on the last decennial census.", "The Senate consists of 34 members from districts of approximately equal populations.", "The judicial department comprises the Supreme Court of Missouri, which has seven judges, the Missouri Court of Appeals (an intermediate appellate court divided into three districts), sitting in Kansas City, St. Louis, and Springfield, and 45 Circuit Courts which function as local trial courts.", "The executive branch is headed by the Governor of Missouri and includes five other statewide elected offices.", "Following the departure from office of State Auditor Nicole Galloway on January 9, 2023, there are no Democrats holding statewide elected positions in Missouri.Harry S Truman (1884–1972), the 33rd President of the United States (Democrat, 1945–1953), was born in Lamar.", "He was a judge in Jackson County and then represented the state in the United States Senate for ten years, before being elected vice-president in 1944.He lived in Independence after retiring as president in 1953.In a 2020 study, Missouri was ranked as 48th on the \"Cost of Voting Index\" with only Texas and Georgia ranking higher.Missouri retains the death penalty.", "Authorized methods of execution include the Gas chamber.===Former status as a political bellwether===Missouri was widely regarded as a bellwether in American politics, often making it a swing state.", "The state had a longer stretch of supporting the winning presidential candidate than any other state, having voted with the nation in every election from 1904 to 2004 with a single exception: 1956 when Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson of neighboring Illinois lost the election despite carrying Missouri.", "However, in recent years, areas of the state outside Kansas City, St. Louis, and Columbia have shifted heavily to the right, making Missouri a safe Republican state on the whole.", "The last Democrat to win the state's electoral votes was Bill Clinton in 1996.It rejected Democrat Barack Obama of neighboring Illinois in both of his successful campaigns in 2008 and 2012.Missouri voted for Mitt Romney by nearly 10% in 2012 and voted for Donald Trump by over 18% in 2016 and 15% in 2020.On October 24, 2012, there were 4,190,936 registered voters.", "At the state level, both Democratic Senator Claire McCaskill and Democratic Governor Jay Nixon were re-elected.On November 3, 2020, there were 4,318,758 registered voters, with 3,026,028 voting (70.1%).", "By this time, the state had favored more Republican candidates for federal offices.", "The offices held by Democratic party officials a decade before were subsequently held by Republican Senator Josh Hawley and Republican Governor Mike Parson.Missouri's accuracy rate for the last 29 presidential elections is now 89.66%.", "This percentage is on par with that of Ohio, which has voted for the winner of every presidential election since 1896, except in 1944, 1960 and 2020, with no Republican ever winning the White House without the state.", "Nevada has been carried by the winner of every presidential election since 1912, with only two exceptions: 1976 and 2016.New Mexico has voted for the winner of every presidential election since its statehood in 1912, except in 1976, 2000 and 2016.===Laissez-faire alcohol and tobacco laws===Missouri has been known for its population's generally \"stalwart, conservative, noncredulous\" attitude toward regulatory regimes, which is one of the origins of the state's unofficial nickname, the \"Show-Me State\".", "As a result, and combined with the fact that Missouri is one of America's leading alcohol states, regulation of alcohol and tobacco in Missouri is among the most laissez-faire in America.", "For 2013, the annual \"Freedom in the 50 States\" study prepared by the Mercatus Center at George Mason University ranked Missouri as #3 in America for alcohol freedom and #1 for tobacco freedom (#7 for freedom overall).", "The study notes that Missouri's \"alcohol regime is one of the least restrictive in the United States, with no blue laws and taxes well below average\", and that \"Missouri ranks best in the nation on tobacco freedom\".Missouri law makes it \"an improper employment practice\" for an employer to refuse to hire, to fire, or otherwise to disadvantage any person because that person lawfully uses alcohol or tobacco products outside of work.With a large German immigrant population and the development of a brewing industry, Missouri always has had among the most permissive alcohol laws in the United States.", "It has never enacted statewide prohibition.", "Missouri voters rejected prohibition in three separate referendums in 1910, 1912, and 1918.Alcohol regulation did not begin in Missouri until 1934.Today, alcohol laws are controlled by the state government, and local jurisdictions are prohibited from going beyond those state laws.", "Missouri has no statewide open container law or prohibition on drinking in public, no alcohol-related blue laws, no local option, no precise locations for selling liquor by the package (allowing even drug stores and filling stations to sell any kind of liquor), and no differentiation of laws based on alcohol percentage.", "State law protects persons from arrest or criminal penalty for public intoxication.Missouri law expressly prohibits any jurisdiction from going dry.", "Missouri law also expressly allows parents and guardians to serve alcohol to their children.", "The Power & Light District in Kansas City is one of the few places in the United States where a state law explicitly allows persons over 21 to possess and consume open containers of alcohol in the street (as long as the beverage is in a plastic cup).As for tobacco (as of July 2016), Missouri has the lowest cigarette excise taxes in the United States, at 17 cents per pack, and the state electorate voted in 2002, 2006, 2012, and twice in 2016 to keep it that way.", "In 2007, ''Forbes'' named Missouri's largest metropolitan area, St. Louis, America's \"best city for smokers\".According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, in 2008 Missouri had the fourth highest percentage of adult smokers among U.S. states, at 24.5%.", "Although federal law prohibits the sale of tobacco to persons under 21, tobacco products can be distributed to persons under 21 by family members on private property.No statewide smoking ban ever has been seriously entertained before the Missouri General Assembly, and in October 2008, a statewide survey by the Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services found that only 27.5% of Missourians support a statewide ban on smoking in all bars and restaurants.", "Missouri state law permits restaurants seating less than 50 people, bars, bowling alleys, and billiard parlors to decide their own smoking policies, without limitation.Treemap of the popular vote by county, 2016 presidential election===Cannabis laws===In 2014, a Republican-led legislature and Democratic governor Jay Nixon enacted a series of laws to partially decriminalize possession of cannabis by making first-time possession of up to 10 grams no longer punishable with jail time and legalizing CBD oil.", "In November 2018, 66% of voters approved a constitutional amendment that established a right to medical marijuana and a system for licensing, regulating, and taxing medical marijuana.===Counties===Missouri has 114 counties and one independent city, St. Louis, which is Missouri's most densely populated—5,140 people per square mile.The largest counties by population are St. Louis (996,726), Jackson (698,895), and St. Charles (395,504).", "Worth County is the smallest (2,057).The largest counties by size are Texas (1,179 square miles) and Shannon (1,004).", "Worth County is the smallest (266)." ], [ "Cities and towns", "Jefferson City is the capital city of Missouri, while the state's five largest cities are Kansas City, St. Louis, Springfield, Columbia, and Independence.St.", "Louis is the principal city of the largest metropolitan area in Missouri, composed of 17 counties and the independent city of St. Louis; eight of its counties are in Illinois.", "As of 2022, St. Louis was the 21st-largest metropolitan area in the nation with 2.80 million people.", "If ranked using Combined Statistical Area, it is also the 21st-largest with 2.91 million people in 2022.Some of the major cities making up the St. Louis metro area in Missouri are O'Fallon, St. Charles, St. Peters, Florissant, Chesterfield, Wentzville, Wildwood, University City, Ballwin, and Kirkwood.Kansas City is Missouri's largest city and the principal city of the fourteen-county Kansas City Metropolitan Statistical Area, including five counties in the state of Kansas.", "As of 2022, it was the 31st-largest metropolitan area in the U.S., with 2.21 million people.", "In the Combined Statistical Area in 2022, it ranked 29th with 2.55 million.", "Some of the other major cities comprising the Kansas City metro area in Missouri include Independence, Lee's Summit, Blue Springs, Liberty, Raytown, Gladstone, Grandview, and Belton.Springfield is Missouri's third-largest city and the principal city of the Springfield-Branson Metropolitan Area, which has a population of 549,423 and includes seven counties in southwestern Missouri.", "Branson is a major tourist attraction in the Ozarks in southwest Missouri.", "Some of the other major cities comprising the Springfield-Branson metro area include Nixa, Ozark, and Republic." ], [ "Education", "===Missouri State Board of Education===The Missouri State Board of Education has general authority over all public education in the state of Missouri.", "It is made up of eight citizens appointed by the governor and confirmed by the Missouri Senate.===Primary and secondary schools===Education is compulsory from ages seven to seventeen.", "It is required that any parent, guardian, or another person with custody of a child between the ages of seven and seventeen, the compulsory attendance age for the district, must ensure the child is enrolled in and regularly attends public, private, parochial school, home school or a combination of schools for the full term of the school year.", "Compulsory attendance also ends when children complete sixteen credits in high school.Children in Missouri between the ages of five and seven are not required to be enrolled in school.", "However, if they are enrolled in a public school, their parent, guardian, or custodian must ensure they regularly attend.Missouri schools are commonly but not exclusively divided into three tiers of primary and secondary education: elementary school, middle school or junior high school and high school.", "The public school system includes kindergarten to 12th grade.", "District territories are often complex in structure.", "In some cases, elementary, middle, and junior high schools of a single district feed into high schools in another district.", "As another example, special education and related services for students in the twenty-two school districts of St. Louis County are provided by staff employed by a special school district, a local education agency that serves students county-wide.", "High school athletics and competitions are governed by the Missouri State High School Activities Association (MSHSAA).Homeschooling is legal in Missouri and is an option to meet the compulsory education requirement.", "It is neither monitored nor regulated by the state's Department of Elementary and Secondary Education.Another gifted school is the Missouri Academy of Science, Mathematics and Computing, which is at the Northwest Missouri State University.===Colleges and universities===Jesse Hall on the University of Missouri campusBrookings Hall at Washington University in St. LouisThe University of Missouri System is Missouri's statewide public university system.", "The flagship institution and largest university in the state is the University of Missouri in Columbia.", "The others in the system are University of Missouri–Kansas City, University of Missouri–St.", "Louis, and Missouri University of Science and Technology in Rolla.During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the state established a series of normal schools in each region of the state, originally named after the geographic districts: Northeast Missouri State University (now Truman State University) (1867), Central Missouri State University (now the University of Central Missouri) (1871), Southeast Missouri State University (1873), Southwest Missouri State University (now Missouri State University) (1905), Northwest Missouri State University (1905), Missouri Western State University (1915), Maryville University (1872) and Missouri Southern State University (1937).", "Lincoln University and Harris–Stowe State University were established in the mid-nineteenth century and are historically black colleges and universities.Among private institutions Washington University in St. Louis and Saint Louis University are two top ranked schools in the US.", "There are numerous junior colleges, trade schools, church universities and other private universities in the state.", "A.T.", "Still University was the first osteopathic medical school in the world.", "Hannibal–LaGrange University in Hannibal, Missouri, was one of the first colleges west of the Mississippi (founded 1858 in LaGrange, Missouri, and moved to Hannibal in 1928).The state funds a $2000, renewable merit-based scholarship, Bright Flight, given to the top three percent of Missouri high school graduates who attend a university in-state.The 19th-century border wars between Missouri and Kansas have continued as a sports rivalry between the University of Missouri and University of Kansas.", "The rivalry was chiefly expressed through football and basketball games between the two universities, but since Missouri left the Big 12 Conference in 2012, the teams no longer regularly play one another.", "It was the oldest college rivalry west of the Mississippi River and the second-oldest in the nation.", "Each year when the universities met to play, the game was coined the \"Border War\".", "Following the game, an exchange occurred where the winner took a historic Indian War Drum, which had been passed back and forth for decades.", "Though Missouri and Kansas no longer have an annual game after the University of Missouri moved to the Southeastern Conference, rivalry still exists between them." ], [ "Culture", "===Music===The historic Gem Theatre, located in Kansas City's renowned 18th and Vine Jazz DistrictMany well-known musicians were born or have lived in Missouri.", "These include guitarist and rock pioneer Chuck Berry, singer and actress Josephine Baker, \"Queen of Rock\" Tina Turner, pop singer-songwriter Sheryl Crow, Michael McDonald of the Doobie Brothers, rap producer Metro Boomin, and rappers Nelly, Chingy, and Akon, all of whom are either current or former residents of St. Louis.Country singers from Missouri include Perryville native Chris Janson, New Franklin native Sara Evans, Cantwell native Ferlin Husky, West Plains native Porter Wagoner, Tyler Farr of Garden City, and Mora native Leroy Van Dyke, along with bluegrass musician Rhonda Vincent, a native of Greentop.", "Rapper Eminem was born in St. Joseph and also lived in Savannah and Kansas City.", "Ragtime composer Scott Joplin lived in St. Louis and Sedalia.", "Jazz saxophonist Charlie Parker lived in Kansas City.", "Rock and Roll singer Steve Walsh of the group Kansas was born in St. Louis and grew up in St. Joseph.The Kansas City Symphony and the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra are the state's major orchestras.", "The latter is the nation's second-oldest symphony orchestra and achieved prominence in recent years under conductor Leonard Slatkin.", "Branson is well known for its music theaters, most of which bear the name of a star performer or musical group.===Literature===Missouri is the native state of Mark Twain.", "His novels ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' and ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' are set in his boyhood hometown of Hannibal.", "Authors Kate Chopin, T. S. Eliot and Tennessee Williams were from St. Louis.", "Kansas City-born writer William Least Heat-Moon resides in Rocheport.", "He is best known for ''Blue Highways'', a chronicle of his travels to small towns across America, which was on The New York Times Bestseller list for 42 weeks in 1982–1983.Novelist Daniel Woodrell, known for depicting life in the Missouri Ozarks, was born in Springfield and lives in West Plains.Hannibal===Film===Filmmaker, animator, and businessman Walt Disney spent part of his childhood in the Linn County town of Marceline before settling in Kansas City.", "Disney began his artistic career in Kansas City, where he founded the Laugh-O-Gram Studio.Several film versions of Mark Twain's novels ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' and ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' have been made.", "''Meet Me in St. Louis'', a musical involving the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair, starred Judy Garland.", "Part of the 1983 road movie ''National Lampoon's Vacation'' was shot on location in Missouri, for the Griswolds' trip from Chicago to Los Angeles.", "The Thanksgiving holiday film ''Planes, Trains, and Automobiles'' was partially shot at Lambert–St.", "Louis International Airport.", "''White Palace'' was filmed in St. Louis.", "The award-winning 2010 film ''Winter's Bone'' was shot in the Ozarks of Missouri.", "''Up in the Air'' starring George Clooney was filmed in St. Louis.", "John Carpenter's ''Escape from New York'' was filmed in St. Louis during the early 1980s due to a large number of abandoned buildings in the city.", "The 1973 movie ''Paper Moon'', which starred Ryan and Tatum O'Neal, was partly filmed in St. Joseph.", "Most of HBO's film ''Truman'' (1995) was filmed in Kansas City, Independence, and the surrounding area; Gary Sinise won an Emmy for his portrayal of Harry Truman in the film.", "''Ride With the Devil'' (1999), starring Jewel and Tobey Maguire, was filmed in the countryside of Jackson County (where the historical events of the film actually took place).", "''Gone Girl'', a 2014 film starring Ben Affleck, Rosamund Pike, Neil Patrick Harris, and Tyler Perry, was filmed in Cape Girardeau.===Sports===Royals and Cardinals of MLB, St. Louis City SC of MLS, the Chiefs of the NFL, and the Blues of the NHL.A mural honoring the Kansas City Chiefs on the wall of the Westport Alehouse in Kansas City, MO.Busch Stadium, where the St. Louis Cardinals play.Missouri hosted the 1904 Summer Olympics at St. Louis, the first time the games were hosted in the United States.Professional major league teams:* MLB: '''St.", "Louis Cardinals''', '''Kansas City Royals'''* NFL: '''Kansas City Chiefs'''* NHL: '''St.", "Louis Blues'''* MLS: '''St.", "Louis City SC'''Former professional major league teams:* '''National Football League''':** St. Louis Cardinals (moved from Chicago in 1960; moved to Tempe, Arizona, in 1988 and are now the Arizona Cardinals)** St. Louis All Stars (active in 1923 only)** Kansas City Blues/Cowboys (active 1924–1926, folded)** St. Louis Gunners (independent team, joined the NFL for the last three weeks of the 1934 season and folded thereafter)** St. Louis Rams 1995–2015 moved from Los Angeles and then back to Los Angeles* '''Major League Baseball (American League)''':** St. Louis Browns (moved from Milwaukee in 1902; moved to Baltimore, Maryland after the 1953 season and are now the Baltimore Orioles)** Kansas City Athletics (moved from Philadelphia in 1955; moved to Oakland, California after the 1967 season and are now the Oakland Athletics)* '''National Basketball Association''':** St. Louis Bombers (charter BAA franchise in 1946, joined the NBA when it formed in 1949; ceased operations in 1950)** St. Louis Hawks (moved from Milwaukee in 1955; moved to Atlanta in 1968 and are now the Atlanta Hawks)** Kansas City Kings (moved from Cincinnati in 1972; moved to Sacramento in 1985 and are now the Sacramento Kings; prior to locating in Kansas City, they were known as the Cincinnati Royals)* '''National Hockey League''':** Kansas City Scouts (1974 expansion team, moved to Denver, Colorado in 1976 and became the Colorado Rockies, and would move again to Newark, New Jersey; now called the New Jersey Devils)** St. Louis Eagles (1934 relocation of the original Ottawa Senators, folded after the 1934–35 season)* '''Major League Soccer''':** Kansas City Wiz/Kansas City Wizards (founded in 1995, but moved from Kansas City, Missouri, to Kansas City, Kansas, in 2010 and became Sporting Kansas City)" ], [ "See also", "* Index of Missouri-related articles* List of people from Missouri* Outline of Missouri" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Missouri State Guide, from the Library of Congress* * * * * * * * *''Scientific American'', \" Ancient Man in Missouri\", September 11, 1880, p. 169" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monitor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Monitor''' or '''monitor''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Monitor, Alberta* Monitor, Indiana, town in the United States* Monitor, Kentucky* Monitor, Oregon, unincorporated community in the United States* Monitor, Washington* Monitor, Logan County, West Virginia* Monitor, Monroe County, West Virginia* Loope, California, formerly Monitor" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Fictional characters===* Monitor (Mar Novu), a DC comics character* Monitors (DC Comics), a group of fictional comic book characters, who appear in books published by DC Comics===Periodicals===* ''Monitor'' (magazine), a weekly newsmagazine published in Podgorica, Montenegro* ''Monitor'' (Polish newspaper), an 18th-century Polish newspaper* ''Concord Monitor'', a daily newspaper in New Hampshire, United States* ''The Monitor'' (Sydney), a biweekly newspaper published between 1826 and 1841* ''Daily Monitor'', a Ugandan newspaper=== Television===* ''Monitor'' (UK TV programme), a BBC arts programme which aired from 1958 to 1965* ''Monitor'' (U.S. TV program), a 1983–1984 American newsmagazine television program that aired on NBC===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===* ''Monitor'' (radio program), an American radio program which aired on NBC radio from 1955 to 1975* Monitor (band), an American punk rock band* ''Monitor'', a 1975 work by English video artist Stephen Partridge* Monitor, a Czech record label sold to EMI Czech Republic in 1994* ''The Christian Science Monitor'', an international news organization founded in 1908, that publishes self-titled periodicals" ], [ "Brands and enterprises", "* Monitor, a trade name for Methamidophos, a phosphorus based pesticide* Monitor Deloitte, a management consulting firm" ], [ "Computing and technology", "* Monitor (synchronization), an approach to synchronize two or more computer tasks that use a shared resource* Computer monitor, an output device that displays information in pictorial form* In-ear monitors, earpieces for performers on stage or in a studio* Machine code monitor, program allowing users to view or change memory locations on a computer* Resident monitor, an early primitive operating system* Stage monitors or foldback (sound engineering), loudspeakers for performers on stage* Studio monitor, professional grade loudspeaker designed specifically for audio production and engineering* System monitor, a hardware or software component used to monitor system resources and performance in a computer system* Virtual machine monitor, or hypervisor, is a software that creates and runs virtual machines, allowing multiple operating system images to run simultaneously on a single piece of hardware* Firefox Monitor, email monitoring application (see Firefox version history)" ], [ "Healthcare", "* Monitor (NHS), a former regulator for health services in England* Monitor, a person who performs self-monitoring* Clinical monitor or clinical research associate, a health-care professional who works in monitoring of clinical trials" ], [ "Ships", "* Monitor (warship), a heavily armed warship design preceding the battleship, named for the USS ''Monitor''* Breastwork monitor, a type of turret ship with a raised superstructure and higher freeboard than the first monitors* List of breastwork monitors of the Royal Navy* List of Russian and Soviet monitors* River monitor, a type of warship designed for fighting on inland waterways* , a shallow-draught turret ship of the United States Navy" ], [ "Water jets", "* Monitor, a pressurised water jet used in hydraulic mining* Fire monitor, a water jet used for firefighting" ], [ "Other meanings", "* Monitor (architecture), a subsidiary roof structure* Hall monitor, a student who supervises the corridors of a school* Monitor lizard, any lizard of the family Varanidae (once believed to warn of crocodile attacks)" ], [ "See also", "* * * Monitoring (disambiguation)* The Monitor (disambiguation)* The Monitors (disambiguation)* Moniteur (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moses" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Moses''' was a Hebrew teacher and leader considered the most important prophet in Judaism and one of the most important prophets in Christianity, Islam, the Druze Faith, the Baháʼí Faith, Samaritanism, and Rastafariansim.", "According to both the Bible and the Quran, Moses was the leader of the Israelites and lawgiver to whom the prophetic authorship of the Torah (the first five books of the Bible) is attributed.According to the Book of Exodus, Moses was born in a time when his people, the Israelites, an enslaved minority, were increasing in population and, as a result, the Egyptian Pharaoh worried that they might ally themselves with Egypt's enemies.", "Moses' Hebrew mother, Jochebed, secretly hid him when Pharaoh ordered all newborn Hebrew boys to be killed in order to reduce the population of the Israelites.", "Through Pharaoh's daughter, the child was adopted as a foundling from the Nile and grew up with the Egyptian royal family.", "After killing an Egyptian slave-master who was beating a Hebrew, Moses fled across the Red Sea to Midian, where he encountered the Angel of the Lord, speaking to him from within a burning bush on Mount Horeb, which he regarded as the Mountain of God.God sent Moses back to Egypt to demand the release of the Israelites from slavery.", "Moses said that he could not speak eloquently, so God allowed Aaron, his elder brother, to become his spokesperson.", "After the Ten Plagues, Moses led the Exodus of the Israelites out of Egypt and across the Red Sea, after which they based themselves at Mount Sinai, where Moses received the Ten Commandments.", "After 40 years of wandering in the desert, Moses died on Mount Nebo at the age of 120, within sight of the Promised Land.Generally, the majority of scholars see the biblical Moses as a legendary figure, while retaining the possibility that Moses or a Moses-like figure existed in the 13th century BC.", "Rabbinical Judaism calculated a lifespan of Moses corresponding to 1391–1271 BC; Jerome suggested 1592 BC, and James Ussher suggested 1571 BC as his birth year.The Egyptian name \"Moses\" is mentioned in ancient Egyptian literature.", "In the writing of Jewish historian Josephus, ancient Egyptian historian Manetho is quoted writing of a treasonous ancient Egyptian priest, Osarseph, who renamed himself Moses and led a successful coup against the presiding pharaoh, subsequently ruling Egypt for years until the pharaoh regained power and expelled Osarseph and his supporters." ], [ "Etymology of name", "''The Finding of Moses'', painting by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, 1904The Egyptian root ('child of') or ''mose'' has been considered as a possible etymology, arguably an abbreviation of a theophoric name with the god’s name omitted.", "The suffix mose appears in Egyptian pharaohs’ names like Thutmose ('born of Thoth') and Ramose ('born of Ra').", "One of the Egyptian names of Ramesses was ''Ra-mesesu mari-Amon'', meaning “born of Ra, beloved of Amon” (he was also called ''Usermaatre Setepenre,'' meaning “Keeper of light and harmony, strong in light, elect of Re”).", "However, the biblical scholar Kenneth Kitchen argued that this – or any Egyptian origin for the name – was unlikely, as the sounds in the Hebrew do not correspond to the pronunciation of Egyptian in the relevant time period.", "Linguist Abraham Yahuda, based on the spelling given in the Tanakh, argues that it combines \"water\" or \"seed\" and \"pond, expanse of water,\" thus yielding the sense of \"child of the Nile\" ().The biblical account of Moses' birth provides him with a folk etymology to explain the ostensible meaning of his name.", "He is said to have received it from the Pharaoh's daughter: \"he became her son.", "She named him Moses , , saying, 'I drew him out , of the water'.\"", "This explanation links it to the Semitic root , , meaning \"to draw out\".", "The eleventh-century Tosafist Isaac b. Asher haLevi noted that the princess names him the active participle 'drawer-out' (, ), not the passive participle 'drawn-out' (, ), in effect prophesying that Moses would draw others out (of Egypt); this has been accepted by some scholars.The Hebrew etymology in the Biblical story may reflect an attempt to cancel out traces of Moses' Egyptian origins.", "The Egyptian character of his name was recognized as such by ancient Jewish writers like Philo and Josephus.", "Philo linked Moses' name () to the Egyptian (Coptic) word for 'water' (, ), in reference to his finding in the Nile and the biblical folk etymology.", "Josephus, in his ''Antiquities of the Jews'', claims that the second element, , meant 'those who are saved'.", "The problem of how an Egyptian princess (who, according to the Biblical account found in the book of Exodus, gave him the name \"Moses\") could have known Hebrew puzzled medieval Jewish commentators like Abraham ibn Ezra and Hezekiah ben Manoah.", "Hezekiah suggested she either converted to the Jewish religion or took a tip from Jochebed (Moses' mother).", "The Egyptian princess who named Moses is not named in the book of Exodus.", "However, she was known to Josephus as Thermutis (identified as Tharmuth), and some within Jewish tradition have tried to identify her with a \"daughter of Pharaoh\" in 1 Chronicles 4:17 named Bithiah, but others note that this is unlikely since there is no textual indication that this daughter of Pharaoh is the same one who named Moses.Ibn Ezra gave two possibilities for the name of Moses: he believed that it was either a translation of the Egyptian name instead of a transliteration or that the Pharaoh's daughter was able to speak Hebrew." ], [ "Biblical narrative", "Pharaoh, a 6th-century miniature from the Syriac Bible of Paris===Prophet and deliverer of Israel===The Israelites had settled in the Land of Goshen in the time of Joseph and Jacob, but a new Pharaoh arose who oppressed the children of Israel.", "At this time Moses was born to his father Amram, son (or descendant) of Kehath the Levite, who entered Egypt with Jacob's household; his mother was Jochebed (also Yocheved), who was kin to Kehath.", "Moses had one older (by seven years) sister, Miriam, and one older (by three years) brother, Aaron.", "Pharaoh had commanded that all male Hebrew children born would be drowned in the river Nile, but Moses' mother placed him in an ark and concealed the ark in the bulrushes by the riverbank, where the baby was discovered and adopted by Pharaoh's daughter, and raised as an Egyptian.", "One day, after Moses had reached adulthood, he killed an Egyptian who was beating a Hebrew.", "Moses, in order to escape Pharaoh's death penalty, fled to Midian (a desert country south of Judah), where he married Zipporah.There, on Mount Horeb, God appeared to Moses as a burning bush, revealed to Moses his name YHWH (probably pronounced Yahweh) and commanded him to return to Egypt and bring his chosen people (Israel) out of bondage and into the Promised Land (Canaan).", "During the journey, God tried to kill Moses for failing to circumcise his son, but Zipporah saved his life.", "Moses returned to carry out God's command, but God caused the Pharaoh to refuse, and only after God had subjected Egypt to ten plagues did Pharaoh relent.", "Moses led the Israelites to the border of Egypt, but their God hardened the Pharaoh's heart once more, so that he could destroy Pharaoh and his army at the Red Sea Crossing as a sign of his power to Israel and the nations.", "''Victory O Lord!", "'', 1871 painting by John Everett Millais, depicts Moses holding his staff, assisted by Aaron and Hur, holding up his arms during the battle against Amalek.After defeating the Amalekites in Rephidim, Moses led the Israelites to Mount Sinai, where he was given the Ten Commandments from God, written on stone tablets.", "However, since Moses remained a long time on the mountain, some of the people feared that he might be dead, so they made a statue of a golden calf and worshipped it, thus disobeying and angering God and Moses.", "Moses, out of anger, broke the tablets, and later ordered the elimination of those who had worshiped the golden statue, which was melted down and fed to the idolaters.", "He also wrote the ten commandments on a new set of tablets.", "Later at Mount Sinai, Moses and the elders entered into a covenant, by which Israel would become the people of YHWH, obeying his laws, and YHWH would be their god.", "Moses delivered the laws of God to Israel, instituted the priesthood under the sons of Moses' brother Aaron, and destroyed those Israelites who fell away from his worship.", "In his final act at Sinai, God gave Moses instructions for the Tabernacle, the mobile shrine by which he would travel with Israel to the Promised Land.From Sinai, Moses led the Israelites to the Desert of Paran on the border of Canaan.", "From there he sent twelve spies into the land.", "The spies returned with samples of the land's fertility but warned that its inhabitants were giants.", "The people were afraid and wanted to return to Egypt, and some rebelled against Moses and against God.", "Moses told the Israelites that they were not worthy to inherit the land, and would wander the wilderness for forty years until the generation who had refused to enter Canaan had died, so that it would be their children who would possess the land.", "Later on, Korah was punished for leading a revolt against Moses.When the forty years had passed, Moses led the Israelites east around the Dead Sea to the territories of Edom and Moab.", "There they escaped the temptation of idolatry, conquered the lands of Og and Sihon in Transjordan, received God's blessing through Balaam the prophet, and massacred the Midianites, who by the end of the Exodus journey had become the enemies of the Israelites due to their notorious role in enticing the Israelites to sin against God.", "Moses was twice given notice that he would die before entry to the Promised Land: in Numbers 27:13, once he had seen the Promised Land from a viewpoint on Mount Abarim, and again in Numbers 31:1 once battle with the Midianites had been won.On the banks of the Jordan River, in sight of the land, Moses assembled the tribes.", "After recalling their wanderings, he delivered God's laws by which they must live in the land, sang a song of praise and pronounced a blessing on the people, and passed his authority to Joshua, under whom they would possess the land.", "Moses then went up Mount Nebo, looked over the Promised Land spread out before him, and died, at the age of one hundred and twenty:===Lawgiver of Israel===''Moses Breaking the Tablets of the Law'' by Rembrandt, 1659Moses is honoured among Jews today as the \"lawgiver of Israel\", and he delivers several sets of laws in the course of the four books.", "The first is the Covenant Code, the terms of the covenant which God offers to the Israelites at Mount Sinai.", "Embedded in the covenant are the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments, Exodus 20:1–17), and the Book of the Covenant (Exodus 20:22–23:19).", "The entire Book of Leviticus constitutes a second body of law, the Book of Numbers begins with yet another set, and the Book of Deuteronomy another.Moses has traditionally been regarded as the author of those four books and the Book of Genesis, which together comprise the Torah, the first section of the Hebrew Bible." ], [ "Historicity", "Moses and the burning bush.", "Painting from Dura-Europos synagogue, third century CEScholars hold different opinions on the historicity of Moses.", "For instance, according to William G. Dever, the modern scholarly consensus is that the biblical person of Moses is largely mythical while also holding that \"a Moses-like figure may have existed somewhere in the southern Transjordan in the mid-late 13th century B.C.\"", "and that \"archeology can do nothing\" to prove or confirm either way.", "Some scholars, such as Konrad Schmid and Jens Schröter consider Moses a historical figure.", "According to Solomon Nigosian, there are actually three prevailing views among biblical scholars: one is that Moses is not a historical figure, another view strives to anchor the decisive role he played in Israelite religion, and a third that argues there are elements of both history and legend from which \"these issues are hotly debated unresolved matters among scholars\".", "According to Brian Britt, there is divide amongst scholars when discussing matters on Moses that threatens gridlock.", "According to the official Torah commentary for Conservative Judaism, it is irrelevant if the historical Moses existed, calling him \"the folkloristic, national hero\".Jan Assmann argues that it cannot be known if Moses ever lived because there are no traces of him outside tradition.", "Though the names of Moses and others in the biblical narratives are Egyptian and contain genuine Egyptian elements, no extrabiblical sources point clearly to Moses.", "No references to Moses appear in any Egyptian sources prior to the fourth century BC, long after he is believed to have lived.", "No contemporary Egyptian sources mention Moses, or the events of Exodus–Deuteronomy, nor has any archaeological evidence been discovered in Egypt or the Sinai wilderness to support the story in which he is the central figure.", "David Adams Leeming states that Moses is a mythic hero and the central figure in Hebrew mythology.The ''Oxford Companion to the Bible'' states that the historicity of Moses is the most reasonable (albeit not unbiased) assumption to be made about him as his absence would leave a vacuum that cannot be explained away.", "''Oxford Biblical Studies'' states that although few modern scholars are willing to support the traditional view that Moses himself wrote the five books of the Torah, there are certainly those who regard the leadership of Moses as too firmly based in Israel's corporate memory to be dismissed as pious fiction.The story of Moses' discovery follows a familiar motif in ancient Near Eastern mythological accounts of the ruler who rises from humble origins.", "For example, in the account of the origin of Sargon of Akkad (23rd century BC):Moses' story, like those of the other patriarchs, most likely had a substantial oral prehistory (he is mentioned in the Book of Jeremiah and the Book of Isaiah).", "The earliest mention of him is vague, in the Book of Hosea and his name is apparently ancient, as the tradition found in Exodus no longer understands its original meaning.", "Nevertheless, the completion of the Torah and its elevation to the centre of post-Exilic Judaism was as much or more about combining older texts as writing new ones – the final Pentateuch was based on existing traditions.", "Isaiah, written during the Exile (i.e., in the first half of the 6th century BC), testifies to tension between the people of Judah and the returning post-Exilic Jews (the \"gôlâ\"), stating that God is the father of Israel and that Israel's history begins with the Exodus and not with Abraham.", "The conclusion to be inferred from this and similar evidence (e.g., the Book of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah) is that the figure of Moses and the story of the Exodus must have been preeminent among the people of Judah at the time of the Exile and after, serving to support their claims to the land in opposition to those of the returning exiles.A theory developed by Cornelis Tiele in 1872, which has proved influential, argued that Yahweh was a Midianite god, introduced to the Israelites by Moses, whose father-in-law Jethro was a Midianite priest.", "It was to such a Moses that Yahweh reveals his real name, hidden from the Patriarchs who knew him only as El Shaddai.", "Against this view is the modern consensus that most of the Israelites were native to Palestine.", "Martin Noth argued that the Pentateuch uses the figure of Moses, originally linked to legends of a Transjordan conquest, as a narrative bracket or late redactional device to weld together four of the five, originally independent, themes of that work.", "and , the latter in a somewhat sensationalist manner, have suggested that the Moses story is a distortion or transmogrification of the historical pharaoh Amenmose (), who was dismissed from office and whose name was later simplified to (Mose).", "Aidan Dodson regards this hypothesis as \"intriguing, but beyond proof\".", "Rudolf Smend argues that the two details about Moses that were most likely to be historical are his name, of Egyptian origin, and his marriage to a Midianite woman, details which seem unlikely to have been invented by the Israelites; in Smend's view, all other details given in the biblical narrative are too mythically charged to be seen as accurate data.The name King Mesha of Moab has been linked to that of Moses.", "Mesha also is associated with narratives of an exodus and a conquest, and several motifs in stories about him are shared with the Exodus tale and that regarding Israel's war with Moab (2 Kings 3).", "Moab rebels against oppression, like Moses, leads his people out of Israel, as Moses does from Egypt, and his first-born son is slaughtered at the wall of Kir-hareseth as the firstborn of Israel are condemned to slaughter in the Exodus story, in what Calvinist theologian Peter Leithart described as \"an infernal Passover that delivers Mesha while wrath burns against his enemies\".An Egyptian version of the tale that crosses over with the Moses story is found in Manetho who, according to the summary in Josephus, wrote that a certain Osarseph, a Heliopolitan priest, became overseer of a band of lepers, when Amenophis, following indications by Amenhotep, son of Hapu, had all the lepers in Egypt quarantined in order to cleanse the land so that he might see the gods.", "The lepers are bundled into Avaris, the former capital of the Hyksos, where Osarseph prescribes for them everything forbidden in Egypt, while proscribing everything permitted in Egypt.", "They invite the Hyksos to reinvade Egypt, rule with them for 13 years – Osarseph then assumes the name Moses – and are then driven out.Other Egyptian figures which have been postulated as candidates for a historical Moses-like figure include the princes Ahmose-ankh and Ramose, who were sons of pharaoh Ahmose I, or a figure associated with the family of pharaoh Thutmose III.", "Israel Knohl has proposed to identify Moses with Irsu, a Shasu who, according to Papyrus Harris I and the Elephantine Stele, took power in Egypt with the support of \"Asiatics\" (people from the Levant) after the death of Queen Twosret; after coming to power, Irsu and his supporters disrupted Egyptian rituals, \"treating the gods like the people\" and halting offerings to the Egyptian deities.", "They were eventually defeated and expelled by the new Pharaoh Setnakhte and, while fleeing, they abandoned large quantities of gold and silver they had stolen from the temples." ], [ "Hellenistic literature", "Memorial of Moses, Mount Nebo, JordanNon-biblical writings about Jews, with references to the role of Moses, first appear at the beginning of the Hellenistic period, from 323 BC to about 146 BC.", "Shmuel notes that \"a characteristic of this literature is the high honour in which it holds the peoples of the East in general and some specific groups among these peoples.", "\"In addition to the Judeo-Roman or Judeo-Hellenic historians Artapanus, Eupolemus, Josephus, and Philo, a few non-Jewish historians including Hecataeus of Abdera (quoted by Diodorus Siculus), Alexander Polyhistor, Manetho, Apion, Chaeremon of Alexandria, Tacitus and Porphyry also make reference to him.", "The extent to which any of these accounts rely on earlier sources is unknown.", "Moses also appears in other religious texts such as the Mishnah (c. 200 AD) and the Midrash (200–1200 AD).The figure of Osarseph in Hellenistic historiography is a renegade Egyptian priest who leads an army of lepers against the pharaoh and is finally expelled from Egypt, changing his name to Moses.===Hecataeus===The earliest existing reference to Moses in Greek literature occurs in the Egyptian history of Hecataeus of Abdera (4th century BC).", "All that remains of his description of Moses are two references made by Diodorus Siculus, wherein, writes historian Arthur Droge, he \"describes Moses as a wise and courageous leader who left Egypt and colonized Judaea\".", "Among the many accomplishments described by Hecataeus, Moses had founded cities, established a temple and religious cult, and issued laws:Droge also points out that this statement by Hecataeus was similar to statements made subsequently by Eupolemus.===Artapanus===Depiction of Moses on the Knesset Menorah raising his arms during the battle against the AmalekitesThe Jewish historian Artapanus of Alexandria (2nd century BC) portrayed Moses as a cultural hero, alien to the Pharaonic court.", "According to theologian John Barclay, the Moses of Artapanus \"clearly bears the destiny of the Jews, and in his personal, cultural and military splendor, brings credit to the whole Jewish people\".Artapanus goes on to relate how Moses returns to Egypt with Aaron, and is imprisoned, but miraculously escapes through the name of YHWH in order to lead the Exodus.", "This account further testifies that all Egyptian temples of Isis thereafter contained a rod, in remembrance of that used for Moses' miracles.", "He describes Moses as 80 years old, \"tall and ruddy, with long white hair, and dignified\".Some historians, however, point out the \"apologetic nature of much of Artapanus' work\", with his addition of extra-biblical details, such as his references to Jethro: the non-Jewish Jethro expresses admiration for Moses' gallantry in helping his daughters, and chooses to adopt Moses as his son.===Strabo===''Moses Defends Jethro's Daughters'' by Rosso Fiorentino, c. 1523-1524Strabo, a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher, in his ''Geographica'' (c. 24 AD), wrote in detail about Moses, whom he considered to be an Egyptian who deplored the situation in his homeland, and thereby attracted many followers who respected the deity.", "He writes, for example, that Moses opposed the picturing of the deity in the form of man or animal, and was convinced that the deity was an entity which encompassed everything – land and sea:In Strabo's writings of the history of Judaism as he understood it, he describes various stages in its development: from the first stage, including Moses and his direct heirs; to the final stage where \"the Temple of Jerusalem continued to be surrounded by an aura of sanctity\".", "Strabo's \"positive and unequivocal appreciation of Moses' personality is among the most sympathetic in all ancient literature.\"", "His portrayal of Moses is said to be similar to the writing of Hecataeus who \"described Moses as a man who excelled in wisdom and courage\".Egyptologist Jan Assmann concludes that Strabo was the historian \"who came closest to a construction of Moses' religion as monotheistic and as a pronounced counter-religion.\"", "It recognized \"only one divine being whom no image can represent ... and the only way to approach this god is to live in virtue and in justice.", "\"===Tacitus===The Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56–120 AD) refers to Moses by noting that the Jewish religion was monotheistic and without a clear image.", "His primary work, wherein he describes Jewish philosophy, is his ''Histories'' (), where, according to 18th-century translator and Irish dramatist Arthur Murphy, as a result of the Jewish worship of one God, \"pagan mythology fell into contempt\".", "Tacitus states that, despite various opinions current in his day regarding the Jews' ethnicity, most of his sources are in agreement that there was an Exodus from Egypt.", "By his account, the Pharaoh Bocchoris, suffering from a plague, banished the Jews in response to an oracle of the god Zeus-Amun.In this version, Moses and the Jews wander through the desert for only six days, capturing the Holy Land on the seventh.===Longinus===brass serpent, curing the Israelites from poisonous snake bites in a painting by Benjamin West.The Septuagint, the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, impressed the pagan author of the famous classical book of literary criticism, ''On the Sublime'', traditionally attributed to Longinus.", "The date of composition is unknown, but it is commonly assigned to the late 1st century C.E.The writer quotes Genesis in a \"style which presents the nature of the deity in a manner suitable to his pure and great being\", but he does not mention Moses by name, calling him 'no chance person' () but \"the Lawgiver\" (, thesmothete) of the Jews, a term that puts him on a par with Lycurgus and Minos.", "Aside from a reference to Cicero, Moses is the only non-Greek writer quoted in the work; contextually he is put on a par with Homer and he is described \"with far more admiration than even Greek writers who treated Moses with respect, such as Hecataeus and Strabo\".===Josephus===In Josephus' (37 – c. 100 CE) ''Antiquities of the Jews'', Moses is mentioned throughout.", "For example, Book VIII Ch.", "IV, describes Solomon's Temple, also known as the First Temple, at the time the Ark of the Covenant was first moved into the newly built temple:According to Feldman, Josephus also attaches particular significance to Moses' possession of the \"cardinal virtues of wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice\".", "He also includes piety as an added fifth virtue.", "In addition, he \"stresses Moses' willingness to undergo toil and his careful avoidance of bribery.", "Like Plato's philosopher-king, Moses excels as an educator.", "\"===Numenius===Numenius, a Greek philosopher who was a native of Apamea, in Syria, wrote during the latter half of the 2nd century AD.", "Historian Kennieth Guthrie writes that \"Numenius is perhaps the only recognized Greek philosopher who explicitly studied Moses, the prophets, and the life of Jesus\".", "He describes his background:===Justin Martyr===The Christian saint and religious philosopher Justin Martyr (103–165 AD) drew the same conclusion as Numenius, according to other experts.", "Theologian Paul Blackham notes that Justin considered Moses to be \"more trustworthy, profound and truthful because he is ''older'' than the Greek philosophers.\"", "He quotes him:" ], [ "Abrahamic religions", "===Judaism===Most of what is known about Moses from the Bible comes from the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.", "The majority of scholars consider the compilation of these books to go back to the Persian period, 538–332 BC, but based on earlier written and oral traditions.", "There is a wealth of stories and additional information about Moses in the Jewish apocrypha and in the genre of rabbinical exegesis known as Midrash, as well as in the primary works of the Jewish oral law, the Mishnah and the Talmud.", "Moses is also given a number of bynames in Jewish tradition.", "The Midrash identifies Moses as one of seven biblical personalities who were called by various names.", "Moses' other names were Jekuthiel (by his mother), Heber (by his father), Jered (by Miriam), Avi Zanoah (by Aaron), Avi Gedor (by Kohath), Avi Soco (by his wet-nurse), Shemaiah ben Nethanel (by people of Israel).", "Moses is also attributed the names Toviah (as a first name), and Levi (as a family name) (Vayikra Rabbah 1:3), Heman, Mechoqeiq (lawgiver), and Ehl Gav Ish (Numbers 12:3).", "In another exegesis, Moses had ascended to the first heaven until the seventh, even visited Paradise and Hell alive, after he saw the divine vision in Mount Horeb.Jewish historians who lived at Alexandria, such as Eupolemus, attributed to Moses the feat of having taught the Phoenicians their alphabet, similar to legends of Thoth.", "Artapanus of Alexandria explicitly identified Moses not only with Thoth/Hermes, but also with the Greek figure Musaeus (whom he called \"the teacher of Orpheus\") and ascribed to him the division of Egypt into 36 districts, each with its own liturgy.", "He named the princess who adopted Moses as Merris, wife of Pharaoh Chenephres.Jewish tradition considers Moses to be the greatest prophet who ever lived.", "Despite his importance, Judaism stresses that Moses was a human being, and is therefore not to be worshipped.", "Only God is worthy of worship in Judaism.To Orthodox Jews, Moses is called ''Moshe Rabbenu, 'Eved HaShem, Avi haNeviim zya\"a'': \"Our Leader Moshe, Servant of God, Father of all the Prophets (may his merit shield us, amen)\".", "In the orthodox view, Moses received not only the Torah, but also the revealed (written and oral) and the hidden (the ''hokhmat nistar'') teachings, which gave Judaism the Zohar of the Rashbi, the Torah of the Ari haQadosh and all that is discussed in the Heavenly Yeshiva between the Ramhal and his masters.Arising in part from his age of death (120 years, according to Deuteronomy 34:7) and that \"his eye had not dimmed, and his vigor had not diminished\", the phrase \"may you live to 120\" has become a common blessing among Jews (120 is stated as the maximum age for all of Noah's descendants in Genesis 6:3).===Christianity===Moses, to the left of Jesus, at the Transfiguration of Jesus, by Giovanni Bellini, Moses is mentioned more often in the New Testament than any other Old Testament figure.", "For Christians, Moses is often a symbol of God's law, as reinforced and expounded on in the teachings of Jesus.", "New Testament writers often compared Jesus' words and deeds with Moses' to explain Jesus' mission.", "In Acts 7:39–43, 51–53, for example, the rejection of Moses by the Jews who worshipped the golden calf is likened to the rejection of Jesus by the Jews that continued in traditional Judaism.Moses also figures in several of Jesus' messages.", "When he met the Pharisee Nicodemus at night in the third chapter of the Gospel of John, he compared Moses' lifting up of the bronze serpent in the wilderness, which any Israelite could look at and be healed, to his own lifting up (by his death and resurrection) for the people to look at and be healed.", "In the sixth chapter, Jesus responded to the people's claim that Moses provided them ''manna'' in the wilderness by saying that it was not Moses, but God, who provided.", "Calling himself the \"bread of life\", Jesus stated that he was provided to feed God's people.Moses, along with Elijah, is presented as meeting with Jesus in all three Synoptic Gospels of the Transfiguration of Jesus in Matthew 17, Mark 9, and Luke 9.In Matthew 23, in what is the first attested use of a phrase referring to this rabbinical usage (the Graeco-Aramaic ), Jesus refers to the scribes and the Pharisees, in a passage critical of them, as having seated themselves \"on the chair of Moses\" (, ''epì tēs Mōüséōs kathédras'')His relevance to modern Christianity has not diminished.", "Moses is considered to be a saint by several churches; and is commemorated as a prophet in the respective Calendars of Saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Lutheran churches on September 4.In Eastern Orthodox liturgics for September 4, Moses is commemorated as the \"Holy Prophet and God-seer Moses, on Mount Nebo\".", "The Orthodox Church also commemorates him on the Sunday of the Forefathers, two Sundays before the Nativity.", "Moses is also commemorated on July 20 with Aaron, Elias (Elijah) and Eliseus (Elisha) and on April 14 with all saint Sinai monks.The Armenian Apostolic Church commemorates him as one of the Holy Forefathers in their Calendar of Saints on July 30.====Catholicism====In Catholicism Moses is seen as a type of Jesus Christ.", "Justus Knecht writes:====Mormonism====Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (colloquially called Mormons) generally view Moses in the same way that other Christians do.", "However, in addition to accepting the biblical account of Moses, Mormons include Selections from the Book of Moses as part of their scriptural canon.", "This book is believed to be the translated writings of Moses and is included in the Pearl of Great Price.Latter-day Saints are also unique in believing that Moses was taken to heaven without having tasted death (translated).", "In addition, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery stated that on April 3, 1836, Moses appeared to them in the Kirtland Temple (located in Kirtland, Ohio) in a glorified, immortal, physical form and bestowed upon them the \"keys of the gathering of Israel from the four parts of the earth, and the leading of the ten tribes from the land of the north\".===Islam===Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual and his life is narrated and recounted more than that of any other Islamic prophet.", "Islamically, Moses is described in ways which parallel the Islamic prophet Muhammad.", "Like Muhammad, Moses is defined in the Quran as both prophet (''nabi'') and messenger (''rasul''), the latter term indicating that he was one of those prophets who brought a book and law to his people.Maqam El-Nabi Musa, JerichoMost of the key events in Moses' life which are narrated in the Bible are to be found dispersed through the different chapters (''suwar'') of the Quran, with a story about meeting the Quranic figure Khidr which is not found in the Bible.In the Moses' story narrated by the Quran, Jochebed is commanded by God to place Moses in a coffin and cast him on the waters of the Nile, thus abandoning him completely to God's protection.", "The Pharaoh's wife Asiya, not his daughter, found Moses floating in the waters of the Nile.", "She convinced the Pharaoh to keep him as their son because they were not blessed with any children.The Quran's account emphasizes Moses' mission to invite the Pharaoh to accept God's divine message as well as give salvation to the Israelites.", "According to the Quran, Moses encourages the Israelites to enter Canaan, but they are unwilling to fight the Canaanites, fearing certain defeat.", "Moses responds by pleading to Allah that he and his brother Aaron be separated from the rebellious Israelites, after which the Israelites are made to wander for 40 years.One of the hadith, or traditional narratives about Muhammad's life, describes a meeting in heaven between Moses and Muhammad, which resulted in Muslims observing 5 daily prayers.", "Huston Smith says this was \"one of the crucial events in Muhammad's life\".According to some Islamic tradition, Moses is buried at Maqam El-Nabi Musa, near Jericho.===Baháʼí Faith===Moses is one of the most important of God's messengers in the Baháʼí Faith, being designated a Manifestation of God.", "An epithet of Moses in Baháʼí scriptures is the \"One Who Conversed with God\".According to the Baháʼí Faith, Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the faith, is the one who spoke to Moses from the burning bush.ʻAbdu'l-Bahá has highlighted the fact that Moses, like Abraham, had none of the makings of a great man of history, but through God's assistance he was able to achieve many great things.", "He is described as having been \"for a long time a shepherd in the wilderness\", of having had a stammer, and of being \"much hated and detested\" by Pharaoh and the ancient Egyptians of his time.", "He is said to have been raised in an oppressive household, and to have been known, in Egypt, as a man who had committed murder – though he had done so in order to prevent an act of cruelty.Nevertheless, like Abraham, through the assistance of God, he achieved great things and gained renown even beyond the Levant.", "Chief among these achievements was the freeing of his people, the Hebrews, from bondage in Egypt and leading \"them to the Holy Land\".", "He is viewed as the one who bestowed on Israel \"the religious and the civil law\" which gave them \"honour among all nations\", and which spread their fame to different parts of the world.Furthermore, through the law, Moses is believed to have led the Hebrews \"to the highest possible degree of civilization at that period\".", "'Abdul'l-Bahá asserts that the ancient Greek philosophers regarded \"the illustrious men of Israel as models of perfection\".", "Chief among these philosophers, he says, was Socrates who \"visited Syria, and took from the children of Israel the teachings of the Unity of God and of the immortality of the soul\".Moses is further seen as paving the way for Bahá'u'lláh and his ultimate revelation, and as a teacher of truth, whose teachings were in line with the customs of his time.=== Druze faith ===Moses is considered an important prophet of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history." ], [ "Legacy in politics and law", "Statue of Moses at the Library of CongressIn a metaphorical sense in the Christian tradition, a \"Moses\" has been referred to as the leader who delivers the people from a terrible situation.", "Among the Presidents of the United States known to have used the symbolism of Moses were Harry S. Truman, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush and Barack Obama, who referred to his supporters as \"the Moses generation\".In subsequent years, theologians linked the Ten Commandments with the formation of early democracy.", "Scottish theologian William Barclay described them as \"the universal foundation of all things ... the law without which nationhood is impossible.", "... Our society is founded upon it.\"", "Pope Francis addressed the United States Congress in 2015 stating that all people need to \"keep alive their sense of unity by means of just legislation ... and the figure of Moses leads us directly to God and thus to the transcendent dignity of the human being\".===In United States history=======Pilgrims====John Carver, William Bradford, and Miles Standish, at prayer during their voyage to North America.", "1844 painting by Robert Walter WeirReferences to Moses were used by the Puritans, who relied on the story of Moses to give meaning and hope to the lives of Pilgrims seeking religious and personal freedom in North America.", "John Carver was the first governor of Plymouth colony and first signer of the Mayflower Compact, which he wrote in 1620 during the ship ''Mayflower'''s three-month voyage.", "He inspired the Pilgrims with a \"sense of earthly grandeur and divine purpose\", notes historian Jon Meacham, and was called the \"Moses of the Pilgrims\".", "Early American writer James Russell Lowell noted the similarity of the founding of America by the Pilgrims to that of ancient Israel by Moses:Following Carver's death the following year, William Bradford was made governor.", "He feared that the remaining Pilgrims would not survive the hardships of the new land, with half their people having already died within months of arriving.", "Bradford evoked the symbol of Moses to the weakened and desperate Pilgrims to help calm them and give them hope: \"Violence will break all.", "Where is the meek and humble spirit of Moses?\"", "William G. Dever explains the attitude of the Pilgrims: \"We considered ourselves the 'New Israel', particularly we in America.", "And for that reason, we knew who we were, what we believed in and valued, and what our 'manifest destiny' was.", "\"====Founding Fathers of the United States====First proposed seal of the United States, 1776On July 4, 1776, immediately after the Declaration of Independence was officially passed, the Continental Congress asked John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin to design a seal that would clearly represent a symbol for the new United States.", "They chose the symbol of Moses leading the Israelites to freedom.After the death of George Washington in 1799, two thirds of his eulogies referred to him as \"America's Moses\", with one orator saying that \"Washington has been the same to us as Moses was to the Children of Israel.", "\"Benjamin Franklin, in 1788, saw the difficulties that some of the newly independent American states were having in forming a government, and proposed that until a new code of laws could be agreed to, they should be governed by \"the laws of Moses\", as contained in the Old Testament.", "He justified his proposal by explaining that the laws had worked in biblical times: \"The Supreme Being ... having rescued them from bondage by many miracles, performed by his servant Moses, he personally delivered to that chosen servant, in the presence of the whole nation, a constitution and code of laws for their observance.", "\"John Adams, 2nd President of the United States, stated why he relied on the laws of Moses over Greek philosophy for establishing the United States Constitution: \"As much as I love, esteem, and admire the Greeks, I believe the Hebrews have done more to enlighten and civilize the world.", "Moses did more than all their legislators and philosophers.\"", "Swedish historian Hugo Valentin credited Moses as the \"first to proclaim the rights of man\".====Slavery and civil rights====Underground Railroad conductor and American Civil War veteran Harriet Tubman was nicknamed \"Moses\" due to her various missions in freeing and ferrying escaped enslaved persons to freedom in the free states of the United States.Historian Gladys L. Knight describes how leaders who emerged during and after the period in which slavery was legal often personified the Moses symbol.", "\"The symbol of Moses was empowering in that it served to amplify a need for freedom.\"", "Therefore, when Abraham Lincoln was assassinated in 1865 after the passage of the amendment to the Constitution outlawing slavery, Black Americans said they had lost \"their Moses\".", "Lincoln biographer Charles Carleton Coffin writes, \"The millions whom Abraham Lincoln delivered from slavery will ever liken him to Moses, the deliverer of Israel.", "\"In the 1960s, a leading figure in the civil rights movement was Martin Luther King Jr., who was called \"a modern Moses\", and often referred to Moses in his speeches: \"The struggle of Moses, the struggle of his devoted followers as they sought to get out of Egypt.", "This is something of the story of every people struggling for freedom.\"" ], [ "Cultural portrayals and references", "===Art===Moses'', with horns, by Michelangelo, 1513–1515, in Basilica San Pietro in Vincoli, RomeMoses often appears in Christian art, and the Pope's private chapel, the Sistine Chapel, has a large sequence of six frescos of the ''life of Moses'' on the southern wall, opposite a set with the ''life of Christ''.", "They were painted in 1481–82 by a group of mostly Florentine artists including Sandro Botticelli and Pietro Perugino.", "Because of an ambiguity in the Hebrew word קֶרֶן (keren) meaning both horn and ray or beam, in Jerome's Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible Moses' face is described as (\"horned\") when descending from Mount Sinai with the tablets, Moses is usually shown in Western art until the Renaissance with small horns, which at least served as a convenient identifying attribute.With the prophet Elijah, he is a necessary figure in the Transfiguration of Jesus in Christian art, a subject with a long history in Eastern Orthodox art, and popular in Western art between about 1475 and 1535.====Michelangelo's statue====Michelangelo's statue of Moses (1513–1515), in the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome, is one of the most familiar statues in the world.", "The horns the sculptor included on Moses' head are the result of a mistranslation of the Hebrew Bible into the Latin Vulgate Bible with which Michelangelo was familiar.", "The Hebrew word taken from ''Exodus'' means either a \"horn\" or an \"irradiation\".", "Experts at the Archaeological Institute of America show that the term was used when Moses \"returned to his people after seeing as much of the Glory of the Lord as human eye could stand\", and his face \"reflected radiance\".", "In early Jewish art, moreover, Moses is often \"shown with rays coming out of his head\".====Depiction on U.S. government buildings====Sculpture in the U.S. House of RepresentativesMoses is depicted in several U.S. government buildings because of his legacy as a lawgiver.", "In the Library of Congress stands a large statue of Moses alongside a statue of Paul the Apostle.", "Moses is one of the twenty-three lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol.", "The plaque's overview states: \"Moses (c. 1350–1250 B.C.)", "Hebrew prophet and lawgiver; transformed a wandering people into a nation; received the Ten Commandments.", "\"The other 22 figures have their profiles turned to Moses, which is the only forward-facing bas-relief.Moses appears eight times in carvings that ring the Supreme Court Great Hall ceiling.", "His face is presented along with other ancient figures such as Solomon, the Greek god Zeus, and the Roman goddess of wisdom, Minerva.", "The Supreme Court Building's east pediment depicts Moses holding two tablets.", "Tablets representing the Ten Commandments can be found carved in the oak courtroom doors, on the support frame of the courtroom's bronze gates, and in the library woodwork.", "A controversial image is one that sits directly above the Chief Justice of the United States' head.", "In the center of the 40-foot-long Spanish marble carving is a tablet displaying Roman numerals I through X, with some numbers partially hidden.===Literature===* Sigmund Freud, in his last book, ''Moses and Monotheism'' in 1939, postulated that Moses was an Egyptian nobleman who adhered to the monotheism of Akhenaten.", "Following a theory proposed by a contemporary biblical critic, Freud believed that Moses was murdered in the wilderness, producing a collective sense of patricidal guilt that has been at the heart of Judaism ever since.", "\"Judaism had been a religion of the father, Christianity became a religion of the son\", he wrote.", "The possible Egyptian origin of Moses and of his message has received significant scholarly attention.", "Opponents of this view observe that the religion of the Torah seems different from Atenism in everything except the central feature of devotion to a single god, although this has been countered by a variety of arguments, e.g.", "pointing out the similarities between the Hymn to Aten and Psalm 104.Freud's interpretation of the historical Moses is not well accepted among historians, and is considered pseudohistory by many.", "* Thomas Mann's novella ''The Tables of the Law'' (1944) is a retelling of the story of the Exodus from Egypt, with Moses as its main character.", "* W. G. Hardy's novel ''All the Trumpets Sounded'' (1942) tells a fictionalized life of Moses.", "*Orson Scott Card's novel ''Stone Tables'' (1997) is a novelization of the life of Moses.===Film and television===Charlton Heston in ''The Ten Commandments'', 1956* Moses was portrayed by Theodore Roberts in Cecil B. DeMille's 1923 silent film ''The Ten Commandments''.", "Moses also appeared as the central character in the 1956 remake, also directed by DeMille and called ''The Ten Commandments'', in which he was portrayed by Charlton Heston, who had a noted resemblance to Michelangelo's statue.", "A television remake was produced in 2006.", "* Burt Lancaster played ''Moses'' in the 1975 television miniseries ''Moses the Lawgiver''.", "* In the 1981 comedy film ''History of the World, Part I'', Moses was portrayed by Mel Brooks.", "*In 1995, Sir Ben Kingsley portrayed Moses in the 1995 TV film ''Moses'', produced by British and Italian production companies.", "* Moses appeared as the central character in the 1998 DreamWorks Pictures animated film ''The Prince of Egypt''.", "His speaking voice was provided by Val Kilmer, with American gospel singer and tenor Amick Byram providing his singing voice.", "* Ben Kingsley was the narrator of the 2007 animated film ''The Ten Commandments''.", "* In the 2009 miniseries ''Battles BC'', Moses was portrayed by Cazzey Louis Cereghino.", "* In the 2013 television miniseries ''The Bible'', Moses was portrayed by William Houston.", "* In Seder-Masochism, the 2018 animated film by Nina Paley, Moses appears as one of the key characters in the reinterpretation the Book of Exodus.", "* Christian Bale portrayed Moses in Ridley Scott's 2014 film ''Exodus: Gods and Kings'' which portrayed Moses and Rameses II as being raised by Seti I as cousins.", "* The 2016 Brazilian Biblical telenovela ''Os Dez Mandamentos'' features Brazilian actor Guilherme Winter portraying Moses." ], [ "Criticism of Moses", "''The Women of Midian Led Captive by the Hebrews,'' James Tissot In the late eighteenth century, the deist Thomas Paine commented at length on Moses' Laws in ''The Age of Reason'' (1794, 1795, and 1807).", "Paine considered Moses to be a \"detestable villain\", and cited Numbers 31 as an example of his \"unexampled atrocities\".", "In the passage, after the Israelite army returned from conquering Midian, Moses orders the killing of the Midianites with the exception of the virgin girls who were to be kept for the Israelites.Rabbi Joel Grossman argued that the story is a \"powerful fable of lust and betrayal\", and that Moses' execution of the women was a symbolic condemnation of those who seek to turn sex and desire to evil purposes.", "He says that the Midianite women \"used their sexual attractiveness to turn the Israelite men away from Yahweh God and toward the worship of Baal Peor another Canaanite god\".", "Rabbi Grossman argues that the genocide of all the Midianite non-virgin women, including those that did not seduce Jewish men, was fair because some of them had sex for \"improper reasons\".", "Alan Levin, an educational specialist with the Reform movement, has similarly suggested that the story should be taken as a cautionary tale, to \"warn successive generations of Jews to watch their own idolatrous behavior\".", "Chasam Sofer emphasizes that this war was not fought at Moses' behest, but was commanded by God as an act of revenge against the Midianite women, who, according to the Biblical account, had seduced the Israelites and led them to sin.", "Linguist Keith Allan remarked: \"God's work or not, this is military behaviour that would be tabooed today and might lead to a war crimes trial.", "\"Moses has also been the subject of much feminist criticism.", "Womanist Biblical scholar Nyasha Junior has argued that Moses can be the object of feminist inquiry." ], [ "See also", "* Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses* Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions* Tharbis, according to Josephus, a wife of Moses* Jewish mythology* Children of Moses* Slavery in ancient Egypt" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===*" ], [ "Further reading", "* .", "* .", "* Peter Barenboim, \"Biblical Roots of Separation of Powers\", Moscow, 2005, ,* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "208 pp.", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* Kirsch, Jonathan.", "''Moses: A Life.''", "New York: Ballantine, 1998..* Kohn, Rebecca.", "''Seven Days to the Sea: An Epic Novel of the Exodus''.", "New York: Rugged Land, 2006..* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* * .", "* * * * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "External links", "* Book XVI, Chapter II in ''Geographica'' by Strabo, 1st century, 1932 translation.", "Moses is mentioned" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mississippi River" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Mississippi River''' is the primary river, and second-longest river, of the largest drainage basin in the United States.", "From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it flows generally south for to the Mississippi River Delta in the Gulf of Mexico.", "With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian mountains.", "The main stem is entirely within the United States; the total drainage basin is , of which only about one percent is in Canada.", "The Mississippi ranks as the thirteenth-largest river by discharge in the world.", "The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana.Native Americans have lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries for thousands of years.", "Most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural and urban civilizations.", "The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers.", "The river served sometimes as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and throughout a vital transportation artery and communications link.", "In the 19th century, during the height of the ideology of manifest destiny, the Mississippi and several western tributaries, most notably the Missouri, formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States.Formed from thick layers of the river's silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile regions of the United States; steamboats were widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries to ship agricultural and industrial goods.", "During the American Civil War, the Mississippi's capture by Union forces marked a turning point towards victory, due to the river's strategic importance to the Confederate war effort.", "Because of the substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and barges that replaced steamboats, the first decades of the 20th century saw the construction of massive engineering works such as levees, locks and dams, often built in combination.", "A major focus of this work has been to prevent the lower Mississippi from shifting into the channel of the Atchafalaya River and bypassing New Orleans.Since the 20th century, the Mississippi River has also experienced major pollution and environmental problems — most notably elevated nutrient and chemical levels from agricultural runoff, the primary contributor to the Gulf of Mexico dead zone." ], [ "Name and significance", "The word Mississippi itself comes from , the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, (Great River).In the 18th century, the river was set by the Treaty of Paris as, for the most part, the western border of the new United States.", "With the Louisiana Purchase and the country's westward expansion, it became a convenient boundary line between the western and eastern halves of the country.", "This is reflected in the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, which was designed to symbolize the opening of the West, and the focus on the \"Trans-Mississippi\" region in the Trans-Mississippi Exposition.Regional landmarks are often classified in relation to the river, such as \"the highest peak east of the Mississippi\" or \"the oldest city west of the Mississippi\".", "The FCC also uses it as the dividing line for broadcast call-signs, which begin with W to the east and K to the west, overlapping in media markets along the river." ], [ "Divisions", "The Mississippi River can be divided into three sections: the Upper Mississippi, the river from its headwaters to the confluence with the Missouri River; the Middle Mississippi, which is downriver from the Missouri to the Ohio River; and the Lower Mississippi, which flows from the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico.===Upper Mississippi===The source of the Mississippi River at Lake ItascaThe first bridge (and only log bridge) over the Mississippi, about 25 feet south of its source at Lake ItascaFormer head of navigation, St. Anthony Falls, Minneapolis, MinnesotaWisconsin and Mississippi rivers, viewed from Wyalusing State Park in WisconsinThe Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri.", "It is divided into two sections:# The headwaters, from the source to Saint Anthony Falls in Minneapolis, Minnesota; and# A navigable channel, formed by a series of man-made lakes between Minneapolis and St. Louis, Missouri, some .Upper Mississippi North of Lock and Dam No.", "8The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca, above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, Minnesota.", "The name ''Itasca'' was chosen to designate the \"true head\" of the Mississippi River as a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth () and the first two letters of the Latin word for head ().", "However, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams.From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, the waterway's flow is moderated by 43 dams.", "Fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation.", "The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all contain locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river.", "Taken as a whole, these 43 dams significantly shape the geography and influence the ecology of the upper river.", "Beginning just below Saint Paul, Minnesota, and continuing throughout the upper and lower river, the Mississippi is further controlled by thousands of wing dikes that moderate the river's flow in order to maintain an open navigation channel and prevent the river from eroding its banks.The head of navigation on the Mississippi is the St. Anthony Falls Lock.", "Before the Coon Rapids Dam in Coon Rapids, Minnesota, was built in 1913, steamboats could occasionally go upstream as far as Saint Cloud, Minnesota, depending on river conditions.The uppermost lock and dam on the Upper Mississippi River is the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in Minneapolis.", "Above the dam, the river's elevation is .", "Below the dam, the river's elevation is .", "This drop is the largest of all the Mississippi River locks and dams.", "The origin of the dramatic drop is a waterfall preserved adjacent to the lock under an apron of concrete.", "Saint Anthony Falls is the only true waterfall on the entire Mississippi River.", "The water elevation continues to drop steeply as it passes through the gorge carved by the waterfall.After the completion of the St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in 1963, the river's head of navigation moved upstream, to the Coon Rapids Dam.", "However, the Locks were closed in 2015 to control the spread of invasive Asian carp, making Minneapolis once again the site of the head of navigation of the river.The Upper Mississippi has a number of natural and artificial lakes, with its widest point being Lake Winnibigoshish, near Grand Rapids, Minnesota, over across.", "Lake Onalaska, created by Lock and Dam No.", "7, near La Crosse, Wisconsin, is more than wide.", "Lake Pepin, a natural lake formed behind the delta of the Chippewa River of Wisconsin as it enters the Upper Mississippi, is more than wide.By the time the Upper Mississippi reaches Saint Paul, Minnesota, below Lock and Dam No.", "1, it has dropped more than half its original elevation and is above sea level.", "From St. Paul to St. Louis, Missouri, the river elevation falls much more slowly and is controlled and managed as a series of pools created by 26 locks and dams.The Upper Mississippi River is joined by the Minnesota River at Fort Snelling in the Twin Cities; the St. Croix River near Prescott, Wisconsin; the Cannon River near Red Wing, Minnesota; the Zumbro River at Wabasha, Minnesota; the Black, La Crosse, and Root rivers in La Crosse, Wisconsin; the Wisconsin River at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin; the Rock River at the Quad Cities; the Iowa River near Wapello, Iowa; the Skunk River south of Burlington, Iowa; and the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa.", "Other major tributaries of the Upper Mississippi include the Crow River in Minnesota, the Chippewa River in Wisconsin, the Maquoketa River and the Wapsipinicon River in Iowa, and the Illinois River in Illinois.The Upper Mississippi River at its confluence with the Missouri River north of St. LouisThe Upper Mississippi is largely a multi-thread stream with many bars and islands.", "From its confluence with the St. Croix River downstream to Dubuque, Iowa, the river is entrenched, with high bedrock bluffs lying on either side.", "The height of these bluffs decreases to the south of Dubuque, though they are still significant through Savanna, Illinois.", "This topography contrasts strongly with the Lower Mississippi, which is a meandering river in a broad, flat area, only rarely flowing alongside a bluff (as at Vicksburg, Mississippi).The confluence of the Mississippi (left) and Ohio (right) rivers at Cairo, Illinois, the demarcation between the Middle and the Lower Mississippi River===Middle Mississippi===The Mississippi River is known as the Middle Mississippi from the Upper Mississippi River's confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri, for to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.The Middle Mississippi is relatively free-flowing.", "From St. Louis to the Ohio River confluence, the Middle Mississippi falls over for an average rate of .", "At its confluence with the Ohio River, the Middle Mississippi is above sea level.", "Apart from the Missouri and Meramec rivers of Missouri and the Kaskaskia River of Illinois, no major tributaries enter the Middle Mississippi River.===Lower Mississippi===Lower Mississippi River at Algiers Point in New OrleansThe Mississippi River is called the Lower Mississippi River from its confluence with the Ohio River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about .", "At the confluence of the Ohio and the Middle Mississippi, the long-term mean discharge of the Ohio at Cairo, Illinois is , while the long-term mean discharge of the Mississippi at Thebes, Illinois (just upriver from Cairo) is .", "Thus, by volume, the main branch of the Mississippi River system at Cairo can be considered to be the Ohio River (and the Allegheny River further upstream), rather than the Middle Mississippi.In addition to the Ohio River, the major tributaries of the Lower Mississippi River are the White River, flowing in at the White River National Wildlife Refuge in east-central Arkansas; the Arkansas River, joining the Mississippi at Arkansas Post; the Big Black River in Mississippi; and the Yazoo River, meeting the Mississippi at Vicksburg, Mississippi.Deliberate water diversion at the Old River Control Structure in Louisiana allows the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana to be a major distributary of the Mississippi River, with 30% of the combined flow of the Mississippi and Red Rivers flowing to the Gulf of Mexico by this route, rather than continuing down the Mississippi's current channel past Baton Rouge and New Orleans on a longer route to the Gulf.", "Although the Red River was once an additional tributary, its water now flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico through the Atchafalaya River." ], [ "Watershed", "Map of the Mississippi River watershedAn animation of the flows along the rivers of the Mississippi watershedThe Mississippi River has the world's fourth-largest drainage basin (\"watershed\" or \"catchment\").", "The basin covers more than , including all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces.", "The drainage basin empties into the Gulf of Mexico, part of the Atlantic Ocean.", "The total catchment of the Mississippi River covers nearly 40% of the landmass of the continental United States.", "The highest point within the watershed is also the highest point of the Rocky Mountains, Mount Elbert at .MODIS images showing the outflow of fresh water from the Mississippi (arrows) into the Gulf of Mexico (2004)In the United States, the Mississippi River drains the majority of the area between the crest of the Rocky Mountains and the crest of the Appalachian Mountains, except for various regions drained to Hudson Bay by the Red River of the North; to the Atlantic Ocean by the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River; and to the Gulf of Mexico by the Rio Grande, the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, the Chattahoochee and Appalachicola rivers, and various smaller coastal waterways along the Gulf.The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf of Mexico about downstream from New Orleans.", "Measurements of the length of the Mississippi from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico vary somewhat, but the United States Geological Survey's number is .", "The retention time from Lake Itasca to the Gulf is typically about 90 days; while speed varies along the course of the river, this gives an overall average of around per day, or per hour.The stream gradient of the entire river is 0.01%, a drop of 450 m over 3,766 km." ], [ "Outflow", "The Mississippi River discharges at an annual average rate of between .", "The Mississippi is the fourteenth largest river in the world by volume.", "On average, the Mississippi has 8% the flow of the Amazon River,which moves nearly during wet seasons.Before 1900, the Mississippi River transported an estimated of sediment per year from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico.", "During the last two decades, this number was only per year.", "The reduction in sediment transported down the Mississippi River is the result of engineering modification of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers and their tributaries by dams, meander cutoffs, river-training structures, and bank revetments and soil erosion control programs in the areas drained by them.===Mixing with salt water===Denser salt water from the Gulf of Mexico forms a salt wedge along the river bottom near the mouth of the river, while fresh water flows near the surface.", "In drought years, with less fresh water to push it out, salt water can travel many miles upstream— in 2022—contaminating drinking water supplies and requiring the use of desalination.", "The United States Army Corps of Engineers constructed \"saltwater sills\" or \"underwater levees\" to contain this in 1988, 1999, 2012, and 2022.This consists of a large mound of sand spanning the width of the river 55 feet below the surface, allowing fresh water and large cargo ships to pass over.Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately.", "The images from NASA's MODIS show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter-blue surrounding waters.", "These images demonstrate that the plume did not mix with the surrounding sea water immediately.", "Instead, it stayed intact as it flowed through the Gulf of Mexico, into the Straits of Florida, and entered the Gulf Stream.", "The Mississippi River water rounded the tip of Florida and traveled up the southeast coast to the latitude of Georgia before finally mixing in so thoroughly with the ocean that it could no longer be detected by MODIS." ], [ "Course changes", "Over geologic time, the Mississippi River has experienced numerous large and small changes to its main course, as well as additions, deletions, and other changes among its numerous tributaries, and the lower Mississippi River has used different pathways as its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico across the delta region.As Pangaea began to break up about 95 million years ago, North America passed over a volcanic \"hotspot\" in the Earth's mantle (specifically, the Bermuda hotspot) that was undergoing a period of intense activity.", "The upwelling of magma from the hotspot forced the further uplift to a height of perhaps 2–3 km of part of the Appalachian-Ouachita range, forming an arch that blocked southbound water flows.", "The uplifted land quickly eroded and, as North America moved away from the hot spot and as the hotspot's activity declined, the crust beneath the embayment region cooled, contracted and subsided to a depth of 2.6 km, and around 80 million years ago the Reelfoot Rift formed a trough that was flooded by the Gulf of Mexico.", "As sea levels dropped, the Mississippi and other rivers extended their courses into the embayment, which gradually became filled with sediment with the Mississippi River at its center.Through a natural process known as avulsion or delta switching, the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so.", "This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico.", "The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as bayous.", "This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from .", "The currently active delta lobe is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the Balize Delta, after La Balize, Louisiana, the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi.===Prehistoric courses===The current form of the Mississippi River basin was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet of the most recent Ice Age.", "The southernmost extent of this enormous glaciation extended well into the present-day United States and Mississippi basin.", "When the ice sheet began to recede, hundreds of feet of rich sediment were deposited, creating the flat and fertile landscape of the Mississippi Valley.", "During the melt, giant glacial rivers found drainage paths into the Mississippi watershed, creating such features as the Minnesota River, James River, and Milk River valleys.", "When the ice sheet completely retreated, many of these \"temporary\" rivers found paths to Hudson Bay or the Arctic Ocean, leaving the Mississippi Basin with many features \"over-sized\" for the existing rivers to have carved in the same time period.Ice sheets during the Illinoian Stage, about 300,000 to 132,000 years before present, blocked the Mississippi near Rock Island, Illinois, diverting it to its present channel farther to the west, the current western border of Illinois.", "The Hennepin Canal roughly follows the ancient channel of the Mississippi downstream from Rock Island to Hennepin, Illinois.", "South of Hennepin, to Alton, Illinois, the current Illinois River follows the ancient channel used by the Mississippi River before the Illinoian Stage.View along the former riverbed at the Tennessee/Arkansas state line near Reverie, Tennessee (2007)Timeline of outflow course changes* c. 5000 BC: The last ice age ended; world sea level became what it is now.", "* c. 2500 BC: Bayou Teche became the main course of the Mississippi.", "* c. 800 BC: The Mississippi diverted further east.", "* c. 200 AD: Bayou Lafourche became the main course of the Mississippi.", "* c. 1000 AD: The Mississippi's present course took over.", "* Before c. 1400 AD: The Red River of the South flowed parallel to the lower Mississippi to the sea* 15th century: Turnbull's Bend in the lower Mississippi extended so far west that it captured the Red River of the South.", "The Red River below the captured section became the Atchafalaya River.", "* 1831: Captain Henry M. Shreve dug a new short course for the Mississippi through the neck of Turnbull's Bend.", "* 1833 to November 1873: The Great Raft (a huge logjam in the Atchafalaya River) was cleared.", "The Atchafalaya started to capture the Mississippi and to become its new main lower course.", "* 1963: The Old River Control Structure was completed, controlling how much Mississippi water entered the Atchafalaya.===Historic course changes===In March 1876, the Mississippi suddenly changed course near the settlement of Reverie, Tennessee, leaving a small part of Tipton County, Tennessee, attached to Arkansas and separated from the rest of Tennessee by the new river channel.", "Since this event was an avulsion, rather than the effect of incremental erosion and deposition, the state line still follows the old channel.The town of Kaskaskia, Illinois once stood on a peninsula at the confluence of the Mississippi and Kaskaskia (Okaw) Rivers.", "Founded as a French colonial community, it later became the capital of the Illinois Territory and was the first state capital of Illinois until 1819.Beginning in 1844, successive flooding caused the Mississippi River to slowly encroach east.", "A major flood in 1881 caused it to overtake the lower of the Kaskaskia River, forming a new Mississippi channel and cutting off the town from the rest of the state.", "Later flooding destroyed most of the remaining town, including the original State House.", "Today, the remaining island and community of 14 residents is known as an enclave of Illinois and is accessible only from the Missouri side.===New Madrid Seismic Zone===The New Madrid Seismic Zone, along the Mississippi River near New Madrid, Missouri, between Memphis and St. Louis, is related to an aulacogen (failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico.", "This area is still quite active seismically.", "Four great earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, had tremendous local effects in the then sparsely settled area, and were felt in many other places in the Midwestern and eastern U.S.", "These earthquakes created Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee from the altered landscape near the river." ], [ "Length", "When measured from its traditional source at Lake Itasca, the Mississippi has a length of .", "When measured from its longest stream source (most distant source from the sea), Brower's Spring in Montana, the source of the Missouri River, it has a length of , making it the fourth longest river in the world after the Nile, Amazon, and Yangtze.", "When measured by the largest stream source (by water volume), the Ohio River, by extension the Allegheny River, would be the source, and the Mississippi would begin in Pennsylvania." ], [ "Depth", "At its source at Lake Itasca, the Mississippi River is about deep.", "The average depth of the Mississippi River between Saint Paul and Saint Louis is between deep, the deepest part being Lake Pepin, which averages deep and has a maximum depth of .", "Between where the Missouri River joins the Mississippi at Saint Louis, Missouri, and Cairo, Illinois, the depth averages .", "Below Cairo, where the Ohio River joins, the depth averages deep.", "The deepest part of the river is in New Orleans, where it reaches deep." ], [ "Cultural geography", "===State boundaries===The Mississippi River runs through or along 10 states, from Minnesota to Louisiana, and is used to define portions of these states borders, with Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi along the east side of the river, and Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas along its west side.", "Substantial parts of both Minnesota and Louisiana are on either side of the river, although the Mississippi defines part of the boundary of each of these states.In all of these cases, the middle of the riverbed at the time the borders were established was used as the line to define the borders between adjacent states.", "In various areas, the river has since shifted, but the state borders have not changed, still following the former bed of the Mississippi River as of their establishment, leaving several small isolated areas of one state across the new river channel, contiguous with the adjacent state.", "Also, due to a meander in the river, a small part of western Kentucky is contiguous with Tennessee but isolated from the rest of its state.===Communities along the river=== Metro Area Population Minneapolis–Saint Paul 3,946,533 St. Louis 2,916,447 Memphis 1,316,100 New Orleans1,214,932 Baton Rouge 802,484 Quad Cities, IA-IL 387,630 St.", "Cloud, MN 189,148 La Crosse, WI 133,365 Cape Girardeau–Jackson MO-IL 96,275 Dubuque, IA 93,653Twin Cities (2007)Winona, MN (2006)The Mississippi River at the Chain of Rocks just north of St. Louis (2005)A low-water dam deepens the pool above the Chain of Rocks Lock near St. Louis (2006)Many of the communities along the Mississippi River are listed below; most have either historic significance or cultural lore connecting them to the river.", "They are sequenced from the source of the river to its end.", "* Bemidji, Minnesota* Grand Rapids, Minnesota* Jacobson, Minnesota* Palisade, Minnesota* Aitkin, Minnesota* Riverton, Minnesota* Brainerd, Minnesota* Fort Ripley, Minnesota* Little Falls, Minnesota* Sartell, Minnesota* St.", "Cloud, Minnesota* Monticello, Minnesota* Anoka, Minnesota* Coon Rapids, Minnesota* Brooklyn Park, Minnesota* Brooklyn Center, Minnesota* Minneapolis, Minnesota* Saint Paul, Minnesota* Nininger, Minnesota* Hastings, Minnesota* Prescott, Wisconsin* Prairie Island, Minnesota* Diamond Bluff, Wisconsin* Red Wing, Minnesota* Hager City, Wisconsin* Maiden Rock, Wisconsin* Stockholm, Wisconsin* Lake City, Minnesota* Maple Springs, Minnesota* Camp Lacupolis, Minnesota* Pepin, Wisconsin* Reads Landing, Minnesota* Wabasha, Minnesota* Nelson, Wisconsin* Alma, Wisconsin* Buffalo City, Wisconsin* Weaver, Minnesota* Minneiska, Minnesota* Fountain City, Wisconsin* Winona, Minnesota* Homer, Minnesota* Trempealeau, Wisconsin* Dakota, Minnesota* Dresbach, Minnesota* La Crescent, Minnesota* La Crosse, Wisconsin* Brownsville, Minnesota* Stoddard, Wisconsin* Genoa, Wisconsin* Victory, Wisconsin* De Soto, Wisconsin* Lansing, Iowa* Ferryville, Wisconsin* Lynxville, Wisconsin* Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin* Marquette, Iowa* McGregor, Iowa* Wyalusing, Wisconsin* Guttenberg, Iowa* Cassville, Wisconsin* Potosi, Wisconsin* Dubuque, Iowa* Galena, Illinois* Bellevue, Iowa* Savanna, Illinois* Sabula, Iowa* Fulton, Illinois* Clinton, Iowa* Cordova, Illinois* Port Byron, Illinois* LeClaire, Iowa* Rapids City, Illinois* Hampton, Illinois* Bettendorf, Iowa* East Moline, Illinois* Moline, Illinois* Davenport, Iowa* Rock Island, Illinois* Buffalo, Iowa* Muscatine, Iowa* New Boston, Illinois* Keithsburg, Illinois* Oquawka, Illinois* Burlington, Iowa* Dallas City, Illinois* Fort Madison, Iowa* Nauvoo, Illinois* Keokuk, Iowa* Warsaw, Illinois* Quincy, Illinois* Hannibal, Missouri* Louisiana, Missouri* Clarksville, Missouri* Grafton, Illinois* Portage Des Sioux, Missouri* Alton, Illinois* St. Louis, Missouri* Ste.", "Genevieve, Missouri* Kaskaskia, Illinois* Chester, Illinois* Grand Tower, Illinois* Cape Girardeau, Missouri* Thebes, Illinois* Commerce, Missouri* Cairo, Illinois* Wickliffe, Kentucky* Columbus, Kentucky* Hickman, Kentucky* New Madrid, Missouri* Tiptonville, Tennessee* Caruthersville, Missouri* Osceola, Arkansas* Reverie, Tennessee* Memphis, Tennessee* West Memphis, Arkansas* Tunica, Mississippi* Helena-West Helena, Arkansas* Napoleon, Arkansas (historical)* Arkansas City, Arkansas* Greenville, Mississippi* Mayersville, Mississippi* Vicksburg, Mississippi* Waterproof, Louisiana* Natchez, Mississippi* Morganza, Louisiana* St. Francisville, Louisiana* New Roads, Louisiana* Baton Rouge, Louisiana* Donaldsonville, Louisiana* Lutcher, Louisiana* Destrehan, Louisiana* New Orleans, Louisiana* Pilottown, Louisiana* La Balize, Louisiana (historical)===Bridge crossings===Stone Arch Bridge, the Third Avenue Bridge and the Hennepin Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis (2004)The road crossing highest on the Upper Mississippi is a simple steel culvert, through which the river (locally named \"Nicolet Creek\") flows north from Lake Nicolet under \"Wilderness Road\" to the West Arm of Lake Itasca, within Itasca State Park.The earliest bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855.It spanned the river in Minneapolis where the current Hennepin Avenue Bridge is located.", "No highway or railroad tunnels cross under the Mississippi River.The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi was built in 1856.It spanned the river between the Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois and Davenport, Iowa.", "Steamboat captains of the day, fearful of competition from the railroads, considered the new bridge a hazard to navigation.", "Two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat ''Effie Afton'' rammed part of the bridge, setting it on fire.", "Legal proceedings ensued, with Abraham Lincoln defending the railroad.", "The lawsuit went to the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled in favor of the railroad.Below is a general overview of selected Mississippi bridges that have notable engineering or landmark significance, with their cities or locations.", "They are sequenced from the Upper Mississippi's source to the Lower Mississippi's mouth.", "* Stone Arch BridgeFormer Great Northern Railway (now pedestrian) bridge at Saint Anthony Falls connecting downtown Minneapolis with the historic Marcy-Holmes neighborhood.", "* I-35W Saint Anthony Falls BridgeIn Minneapolis, opened in September 2008, replacing the I-35W Mississippi River bridge which had collapsed catastrophically on August 1, 2007, killing 13 and injuring over 100.", "* Eisenhower Bridge (Mississippi River)In Red Wing, Minnesota, opened by Dwight D. Eisenhower in November 1960.", "* I-90 Mississippi River BridgeConnects La Crosse, Wisconsin, and Winona County, Minnesota, located just south of Lock and Dam No.", "7.", "* Black Hawk BridgeConnects Lansing in Allamakee County, Iowa and rural Crawford County, Wisconsin; locally referred to as the Lansing Bridge and documented in the Historic American Engineering Record.The Dubuque-Wisconsin Bridge (2004)* Dubuque-Wisconsin BridgeConnects Dubuque, Iowa, and Grant County, Wisconsin.", "* Julien Dubuque BridgeJoins the cities of Dubuque, Iowa, and East Dubuque, Illinois; listed in the National Register of Historic Places.", "* Savanna-Sabula BridgeA truss bridge and causeway connecting the city of Savanna, Illinois, and the island city of Sabula, Iowa.", "The bridge carries U.S. Highway 52 over the river, and is the terminus of both Iowa Highway 64 and Illinois Route 64.Added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.", "* Fred Schwengel Memorial BridgeA 4-lane steel girder bridge that carries Interstate 80 and connects LeClaire, Iowa, and Rapids City, Illinois.", "Completed in 1966.", "* Clinton Railroad BridgeA swing bridge that connects Clinton, Iowa and Fulton (Albany), Illinois.", "Known as the '''Chicago and Northwestern Railroad Bridge'''.", "* I-74 BridgeConnects Bettendorf, Iowa, and Moline, Illinois; originally known as the ''Iowa-Illinois Memorial Bridge''.", "* Government BridgeConnects Rock Island, Illinois and Davenport, Iowa, adjacent to Lock and Dam No.", "15; the fourth crossing in this vicinity, built in 1896.", "* Rock Island Centennial BridgeConnects Rock Island, Illinois, and Davenport, Iowa; opened in 1940.", "* Sergeant John F. Baker, Jr. BridgeConnects Rock Island, Illinois, and Davenport, Iowa; opened in 1973.Muscatine, Iowa, with LED lighting* Norbert F. Beckey BridgeConnects Muscatine, Iowa, and Rock Island County, Illinois; became first U.S. bridge to be illuminated with light-emitting diode (LED) lights decoratively illuminating the facade of the bridge.", "* Great River BridgeA cable-stayed bridge connecting Burlington, Iowa, to Gulf Port, Illinois.", "* Fort Madison Toll BridgeConnects Fort Madison, Iowa, and unincorporated Niota, Illinois; also known as the ''Santa Fe Swing Span Bridge''; at the time of its construction the longest and heaviest electrified swing span on the Mississippi River.", "Listed in the National Register of Historic Places since 1999.", "* Keokuk–Hamilton BridgeConnects Keokuk, Iowa and Hamilton, Illinois; opened in 1985 replacing an older bridge which is still in use as a railroad bridge.", "* Bayview BridgeA cable-stayed bridge bringing westbound U.S. Highway 24 over the river, connecting the cities of West Quincy, Missouri, and Quincy, Illinois.", "* Quincy Memorial BridgeConnects the cities of West Quincy, Missouri, and Quincy, Illinois, carrying eastbound U.S. 24, the older of these two U.S. 24 bridges.", "* Clark BridgeA cable-stayed bridge connecting West Alton, Missouri, and Alton, Illinois, also known as the ''Super Bridge'' as the result of an appearance on the PBS program, ''Nova''; built in 1994, carrying U.S. Route 67 across the river.", "This is the northernmost river crossing in the St. Louis metropolitan area, replacing the ''Old Clark Bridge'', a truss bridge built in 1928, named after explorer William Clark.The Chain of Rocks Bridge at St. Louis, Missouri* Chain of Rocks BridgeLocated on the northern edge of St. Louis, notable for a 22-degree bend occurring at the middle of the crossing, necessary for navigation on the river; formerly used by U.S. Route 66 to cross the Mississippi.", "Replaced for road traffic in 1966 by a nearby pair of new bridges; now a pedestrian bridge.", "* Eads BridgeA combined road and railway bridge, connecting St. Louis and East St. Louis, Illinois.", "When completed in 1874, it was the longest arch bridge in the world, with an overall length of .", "The three ribbed steel arch spans were considered daring, as was the use of steel as a primary structural material; it was the first such use of true steel in a major bridge project.", "* Chester BridgeA truss bridge connecting Route 51 in Missouri with Illinois Route 150, between Perryville, Missouri, and Chester, Illinois.", "The bridge can be seen at the beginning of the 1967 film ''In the Heat of the Night''.", "In the 1940s, the main span was destroyed by a tornado.", "* Bill Emerson Memorial Bridge—Connecting Cape Girardeau, Missouri and East Cape Girardeau, Illinois, completed in 2003 and illuminated by 140 lights.", "* Caruthersville Bridge A single tower cantilever bridge carrying Interstate 155 and U.S. Route 412 across the Mississippi River between Caruthersville, Missouri and Dyersburg, Tennessee.The Hernando de Soto Bridge in Memphis, Tennessee (2009)* Hernando de Soto BridgeA through arch bridge carrying Interstate 40 across the Mississippi between West Memphis, Arkansas, and Memphis, Tennessee.", "* Harahan BridgeA cantilevered through truss bridge, carrying two rail lines of the Union Pacific Railroad across the river between West Memphis, Arkansas, and Memphis, Tennessee.", "* Frisco BridgeA cantilevered through truss bridge, carrying a rail line across the river between West Memphis, Arkansas, and Memphis, Tennessee, previously known as the ''Memphis Bridge''.", "When it opened on May 12, 1892, it was the first crossing of the Lower Mississippi and the longest span in the U.S.", "Listed as a Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.", "* Memphis & Arkansas BridgeA cantilevered through truss bridge, carrying Interstate 55 between Memphis and West Memphis; listed on the National Register of Historic Places.", "* Helena Bridge* Greenville BridgeVicksburg Bridge* Old Vicksburg Bridge* Vicksburg Bridge* Natchez-Vidalia Bridge* John James Audubon BridgeThe second-longest cable-stayed bridge in the Western Hemisphere; connects Pointe Coupee and West Feliciana Parishes in Louisiana.", "It is the only crossing between Baton Rouge and Natchez.", "This bridge was opened a month ahead of schedule in May 2011, due to the 2011 floods.", "* Huey P. Long BridgeA truss cantilever bridge carrying US 190 (Airline Highway) and one rail line between East Baton Rouge and West Baton Rouge Parishes in Louisiana.", "* Horace Wilkinson BridgeA cantilevered through truss bridge, carrying six lanes of Interstate 10 between Baton Rouge and Port Allen in Louisiana.", "It is the highest bridge over the Mississippi River.", "* Sunshine Bridge* Gramercy Bridge* Hale Boggs Memorial Bridge* Huey P. Long BridgeIn Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, the first Mississippi River span built in Louisiana.", "* Crescent City ConnectionConnects the east and west banks of New Orleans, Louisiana; the fifth-longest cantilever bridge in the world." ], [ "Navigation and flood control", "Mississippi River levels at Memphis, TennesseeDownbound barge rates In late 2022 there was low river levels that caused two backups on the Lower Mississippi River that held up over 100 tow boats with 2,000 barge units and caused barge rates to soar Towboat and barges at Memphis, TennesseeShips on the lower part of the MississippiA clear channel is needed for the barges and other vessels that make the main stem Mississippi one of the great commercial waterways of the world.", "The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, which was established in 1802.Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and sandbars.Oil tanker on the Lower Mississippi near the Port of New OrleansBarge on the Lower Mississippi RiverA series of 29 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a channel for commercial barge traffic.", "The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing.", "The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it.", "No flood control is intended.", "During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function.", "Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free-flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous wing dams.", "The scope and scale of the levees, built along either side of the river to keep it on its course, has often been compared to the Great Wall of China.On the lower Mississippi, from Baton Rouge to the mouth of the Mississippi, the navigation depth is , allowing container ships and cruise ships to dock at the Port of New Orleans and bulk cargo ships shorter than air draft that fit under the Huey P. Long Bridge to traverse the Mississippi to Baton Rouge.", "There is a feasibility study to dredge this portion of the river to to allow New Panamax ship depths.===19th century===Lock and Dam No.", "11, north of Dubuque, Iowa (2007)In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the Des Moines Rapids and the Rock Island Rapids, where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock.", "The Des Moines Rapids were about long and just above the mouth of the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa.", "The Rock Island Rapids were between Rock Island and Moline, Illinois.", "Both rapids were considered virtually impassable.In 1848, the Illinois and Michigan Canal was built to connect the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan via the Illinois River near Peru, Illinois.", "The canal allowed shipping between these important waterways.", "In 1900, the canal was replaced by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal.", "The second canal, in addition to shipping, also allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (typhoid fever, cholera and other waterborne diseases) by sending its waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems rather than polluting its water source of Lake Michigan.The Corps of Engineers recommended the excavation of a channel at the Des Moines Rapids, but work did not begin until after Lieutenant Robert E. Lee endorsed the project in 1837.The Corps later also began excavating the Rock Island Rapids.", "By 1866, it had become evident that excavation was impractical, and it was decided to build a canal around the Des Moines Rapids.", "The canal opened in 1877, but the Rock Island Rapids remained an obstacle.", "In 1878, Congress authorized the Corps to establish a channel to be obtained by building wing dams that direct the river to a narrow channel causing it to cut a deeper channel, by closing secondary channels and by dredging.", "The channel project was complete when the Moline Lock, which bypassed the Rock Island Rapids, opened in 1907.To improve navigation between St. Paul, Minnesota, and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, the Corps constructed several dams on lakes in the headwaters area, including Lake Winnibigoshish and Lake Pokegama.", "The dams, which were built beginning in the 1880s, stored spring run-off which was released during low water to help maintain channel depth.Lock and Dam No.", "2, near Hastings, Minnesota (2007)Lock and Dam No.", "15, is the largest roller dam in the world Davenport, Iowa; Rock Island, Illinois.", "(1990)===20th century===In 1907, Congress authorized a channel project on the Mississippi River, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the channel project.In 1913, construction was complete on Lock and Dam No.", "19 at Keokuk, Iowa, the first dam below St. Anthony Falls.", "Built by a private power company (Union Electric Company of St. Louis) to generate electricity (originally for streetcars in St. Louis), the Keokuk dam was one of the largest hydro-electric plants in the world at the time.", "The dam also eliminated the Des Moines Rapids.", "Lock and Dam No.", "1 was completed in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917.Lock and Dam No.", "2, near Hastings, Minnesota, was completed in 1930.Before the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the Corps's primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river.", "It was thought that the river's velocity would scour off bottom sediments, deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding.", "The 1927 flood proved this to be so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to create their own levee breaks to relieve the force of the rising river.The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the channel project, which called for a navigation channel feet deep and wide to accommodate multiple-barge tows.", "This was achieved by a series of locks and dams, and by dredging.", "Twenty-three new locks and dams were built on the upper Mississippi in the 1930s in addition to the three already in existence.Formation of the Atchafalaya River and construction of the Old River Control Structure.Project design flood flow capacity for the Mississippi river in thousands of cubic feet per second.Until the 1950s, there was no dam below Lock and Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois.", "Chain of Rocks Lock (Lock and Dam No.", "27), which consists of a low-water dam and an canal, was added in 1953, just below the confluence with the Missouri River, primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at St. Louis.", "It also serves to protect the St. Louis city water intakes during times of low water.U.S.", "government scientists determined in the 1950s that the Mississippi River was starting to switch to the Atchafalaya River channel because of its much steeper path to the Gulf of Mexico.", "Eventually, the Atchafalaya River would capture the Mississippi River and become its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico, leaving New Orleans on a side channel.", "As a result, the U.S. Congress authorized a project called the Old River Control Structure, which has prevented the Mississippi River from leaving its current channel that drains into the Gulf via New Orleans.Because the large scale of high-energy water flow threatened to damage the structure, an auxiliary flow control station was built adjacent to the standing control station.", "This $300 million project was completed in 1986 by the Corps of Engineers.", "Beginning in the 1970s, the Corps applied hydrological transport models to analyze flood flow and water quality of the Mississippi.", "Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois, which had structural problems, was replaced by the Mel Price Lock and Dam in 1990.The original Lock and Dam 26 was demolished.Soldiers of the Missouri Army National Guard sandbag the River in Clarksville, Missouri, June 2008, following flooding.===21st century===The Corps now actively creates and maintains spillways and floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes, as well as route part of the Mississippi's flow into the Atchafalaya Basin and from there to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans.", "The main structures are the Birds Point-New Madrid Floodway in Missouri; the Old River Control Structure and the Morganza Spillway in Louisiana, which direct excess water down the west and east sides (respectively) of the Atchafalaya River; and the Bonnet Carré Spillway, also in Louisiana, which directs floodwaters to Lake Pontchartrain (see diagram).", "Some experts blame urban sprawl for increases in both the risk and frequency of flooding on the Mississippi River.Some of the pre-1927 strategy remains in use today, with the Corps actively cutting the necks of horseshoe bends, allowing the water to move faster and reducing flood heights." ], [ "History", "Approximately 50,000 years ago, the Central United States was covered by an inland sea, which was drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries into the Gulf of Mexico—creating large floodplains and extending the continent further to the south in the process.", "The soil in areas such as Louisiana was thereafter found to be very rich.===Native Americans===The area of the Mississippi River basin was first settled by hunting and gathering Native American peoples and is considered one of the few independent centers of plant domestication in human history.", "Evidence of early cultivation of sunflower, a goosefoot, a marsh elder and an indigenous squash dates to the 4th millennium BC.", "The lifestyle gradually became more settled after around 1000 BC during what is now called the Woodland period, with increasing evidence of shelter construction, pottery, weaving and other practices.A network of trade routes referred to as the Hopewell interaction sphere was active along the waterways between about 200 and 500 AD, spreading common cultural practices over the entire area between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes.", "A period of more isolated communities followed, and agriculture introduced from Mesoamerica based on the Three Sisters (maize, beans and squash) gradually came to dominate.", "After around 800 AD there arose an advanced agricultural society today referred to as the Mississippian culture, with evidence of highly stratified complex chiefdoms and large population centers.The most prominent of these, now called Cahokia, was occupied between about 600 and 1400 AD and at its peak numbered between 8,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, larger than London, England of that time.", "At the time of first contact with Europeans, Cahokia and many other Mississippian cities had dispersed, and archaeological finds attest to increased social stress.Modern American Indian nations inhabiting the Mississippi basin include Cheyenne, Sioux, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Ho-Chunk, Fox, Kickapoo, Tamaroa, Moingwena, Quapaw and Chickasaw.The word ''Mississippi'' itself comes from ''Messipi'', the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, ''Misi-ziibi'' (Great River).", "The Ojibwe called Lake Itasca ''Omashkoozo-zaaga'igan'' (Elk Lake) and the river flowing out of it ''Omashkoozo-ziibi'' (Elk River).", "After flowing into Lake Bemidji, the Ojibwe called the river ''Bemijigamaag-ziibi'' (River from the Traversing Lake).", "After flowing into Cass Lake, the name of the river changes to ''Gaa-miskwaawaakokaag-ziibi'' (Red Cedar River) and then out of Lake Winnibigoshish as ''Wiinibiigoonzhish-ziibi'' (Miserable Wretched Dirty Water River), ''Gichi-ziibi'' (Big River) after the confluence with the Leech Lake River, then finally as ''Misi-ziibi'' (Great River) after the confluence with the Crow Wing River.", "After the expeditions by Giacomo Beltrami and Henry Schoolcraft, the longest stream above the juncture of the Crow Wing River and ''Gichi-ziibi'' was named \"Mississippi River\".", "The Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians, known as the ''Gichi-ziibiwininiwag'', are named after the stretch of the Mississippi River known as the ''Gichi-ziibi''.", "The Cheyenne, one of the earliest inhabitants of the upper Mississippi River, called it the ''Máʼxe-éʼometaaʼe'' (Big Greasy River) in the Cheyenne language.", "The Arapaho name for the river is ''Beesniicíe''.", "The Pawnee name is ''Kickaátit''.The Mississippi was spelled during French Louisiana and was also known as the Rivière Saint-Louis.===European exploration===''Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto A.D. 1541'' by William Henry Powell depicts Hernando de Soto and Spanish Conquistadores seeing the Mississippi River for the first time.French settlements (blue) in North America in 1750, before the French and Indian War (1754 to 1763).Marquette and Jolliet's 1673 expedition.Route of the Marquette-Jolliete Expedition of 1673In 1519 Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, followed by Hernando de Soto who reached the river on May 8, 1541, and called it ''Río del Espíritu Santo'' (\"River of the Holy Spirit\"), in the area of what is now Mississippi.", "In Spanish, the river is called ''Río Mississippi''.French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century.", "Marquette traveled with a Sioux Indian who named it ''Ne Tongo'' (\"Big river\" in Sioux language) in 1673.Marquette proposed calling it the ''River of the Immaculate Conception''.When Louis Jolliet explored the Mississippi Valley in the 17th century, natives guided him to a quicker way to return to French Canada via the Illinois River.", "When he found the Chicago Portage, he remarked that a canal of \"only half a league\" (less than ) would join the Mississippi and the Great Lakes.", "In 1848, the continental divide separating the waters of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley was breached by the Illinois and Michigan canal via the Chicago River.", "This both accelerated the development, and forever changed the ecology of the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes.In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti claimed the entire Mississippi River valley for France, calling the river ''Colbert River'' after Jean-Baptiste Colbert and the region ''La Louisiane'', for King Louis XIV.", "On March 2, 1699, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi, following the death of La Salle.", "The French built the small fort of La Balise there to control passage.In 1718, about upriver, New Orleans was established along the river crescent by Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, with construction patterned after the 1711 resettlement on Mobile Bay of Mobile, the capital of French Louisiana at the time.In 1727, Étienne Perier begins work, using enslaved African laborers, on the first levees on the Mississippi River.===Colonization===''A Home on the Mississippi'' (1871)Following Britain's victory in the Seven Years War, the Mississippi became the border between the British and Spanish Empires.", "The Treaty of Paris (1763) gave Great Britain rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi.", "Spain also ceded Florida to Britain to regain Cuba, which the British occupied during the war.", "Britain then divided the territory into East and West Florida.Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris (1783) states, \"The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States\".", "With this treaty, which ended the American Revolutionary War, Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain the Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war.", "Initial disputes around the ensuing claims of the U.S. and Spain were resolved when Spain was pressured into signing Pinckney's Treaty in 1795.However, in 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded an undefined portion of West Florida to France in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso.", "The United States then secured effective control of the river when it bought the Louisiana Territory from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803.This triggered a dispute between Spain and the U.S. on which parts of West Florida Spain had ceded to France in the first place, which would decide which parts of West Florida the U.S. had bought from France in the Louisiana Purchase, versus which were unceded Spanish property.", "Due to ongoing U.S. colonization creating facts on the ground, and U.S. military actions, Spain ceded both West and East Florida in their entirety to the United States in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819.The last serious European challenge to U.S. control of the river came at the conclusion of the War of 1812, when British forces mounted an attack on New Orleans just 15 days after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent.", "The attack was repulsed by an American army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.In the Treaty of 1818, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to fix the border running from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains along the 49th parallel north.", "In effect, the U.S. ceded the northwestern extremity of the Mississippi basin to the British in exchange for the southern portion of the Red River basin.So many settlers traveled westward through the Mississippi river basin, as well as settled in it, that Zadok Cramer wrote a guidebook called ''The Navigator'', detailing the features, dangers, and navigable waterways of the area.", "It was so popular that he updated and expanded it through 12 editions over 25 years.sand bars made early navigation difficult.The colonization of the area was barely slowed by the three earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, that were centered near New Madrid, Missouri.===Steamboat era===Mark Twain's book, ''Life on the Mississippi'', covered the steamboat commerce, which took place from 1830 to 1870, before more modern ships replaced the steamer.", "''Harper's Weekly'' first published the book as a seven-part serial in 1875.James R. Osgood & Company published the full version, including a passage from the then unfinished ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' and works from other authors, in 1885.The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Lower Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the ''New Orleans'' in December 1811.Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of New Madrid earthquakes in 1811–12.The Upper Mississippi was treacherous, unpredictable and to make traveling worse, the area was not properly mapped out or surveyed.", "Until the 1840s, only two trips a year to the Twin Cities landings were made by steamboats, which suggests it was not very profitable.Steamboat transport remained a viable industry, both in terms of passengers and freight, until the end of the first decade of the 20th century.", "Among the several Mississippi River system steamboat companies was the noted Anchor Line, which, from 1859 to 1898, operated a luxurious fleet of steamers between St. Louis and New Orleans.Italian explorer Giacomo Beltrami wrote about his journey on the ''Virginia'', which was the first steamboat to make it to Fort St. Anthony in Minnesota.", "He referred to his voyage as a promenade that was once a journey on the Mississippi.", "The steamboat era changed the economic and political life of the Mississippi, as well as of travel itself.", "The Mississippi was completely changed by the steamboat era as it transformed into a flourishing tourist trade.===Civil War===Battle of Vicksburg (ca.", "1888)Mississippi River from Eunice, Arkansas, a settlement destroyed by gunboats during the Civil War.Control of the river was a strategic objective of both sides in the American Civil War, forming a part of the U.S. Anaconda Plan.", "In 1862, Union forces coming down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at Island Number 10 and Memphis, Tennessee, while Naval forces coming upriver from the Gulf of Mexico captured New Orleans, Louisiana.", "One of the last major Confederate strongholds was on the heights overlooking the river at Vicksburg, Mississippi; the Union's Vicksburg Campaign (December 1862–July 1863), and the fall of Port Hudson, completed control of the lower Mississippi River.", "The Union victory ended the Siege of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863, and was pivotal to the Union's final victory of the Civil War.===20th and 21st centuries===The \"Big Freeze\" of 1918–19 blocked river traffic north of Memphis, Tennessee, preventing transportation of coal from southern Illinois.", "This resulted in widespread shortages, high prices, and rationing of coal in January and February.In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places, during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and inundated to a depth of up to .In 1930, Fred Newton was the first person to swim the length of the river, from Minneapolis to New Orleans.", "The journey took 176 days and covered 1,836 miles.In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled of soybean oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers.", "The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution.On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry, ''MV George Prince'', was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from Destrehan, Louisiana, to Luling, Louisiana.", "Seventy-eight passengers and crew died; only eighteen survived the accident.In 1988, the water level of the Mississippi fell to below zero on the Memphis gauge.", "The remains of wooden-hulled water craft were exposed in an area of on the bottom of the Mississippi River at West Memphis, Arkansas.", "They dated to the late 19th to early 20th centuries.", "The State of Arkansas, the Arkansas Archeological Survey, and the Arkansas Archeological Society responded with a two-month data recovery effort.", "The fieldwork received national media attention as good news in the middle of a drought.The Great Flood of 1993 was another significant flood, primarily affecting the Mississippi above its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.Two portions of the Mississippi were designated as American Heritage Rivers in 1997: the lower portion around Louisiana and Tennessee, and the upper portion around Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri and Wisconsin.", "The Nature Conservancy's project called \"America's Rivershed Initiative\" announced a 'report card' assessment of the entire basin in October 2015 and gave the grade of D+.", "The assessment noted the aging navigation and flood control infrastructure along with multiple environmental problems.Campsite at the river in ArkansasIn 2002, Slovenian long-distance swimmer Martin Strel swam the entire length of the river, from Minnesota to Louisiana, over the course of 68 days.", "In 2005, the Source to Sea Expedition paddled the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers to benefit the Audubon Society's Upper Mississippi River Campaign.===Future===Geologists believe that the lower Mississippi could take a new course to the Gulf.", "Either of two new routes—through the Atchafalaya Basin or through Lake Pontchartrain—might become the Mississippi's main channel if flood-control structures are overtopped or heavily damaged during a severe flood.Failure of the Old River Control Structure, the Morganza Spillway, or nearby levees would likely re-route the main channel of the Mississippi through Louisiana's Atchafalaya Basin and down the Atchafalaya River to reach the Gulf of Mexico south of Morgan City in southern Louisiana.", "This route provides a more direct path to the Gulf of Mexico than the present Mississippi River channel through Baton Rouge and New Orleans.", "While the risk of such a diversion is present during any major flood event, such a change has so far been prevented by active human intervention involving the construction, maintenance, and operation of various levees, spillways, and other control structures by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.The Old River Control Structure complex.", "View is to the east-southeast, looking downriver on the Mississippi, with the three dams across channels of the Atchafalaya River to the right of the Mississippi.", "Concordia Parish, Louisiana is in the foreground, on the right, and Wilkinson County, Mississippi, is in the background, across the Mississippi on the left.The Old River Control Structure, between the present Mississippi River channel and the Atchafalaya Basin, sits at the normal water elevation and is ordinarily used to divert 30% of the Mississippi flow to the Atchafalaya River.", "There is a steep drop here away from the Mississippi's main channel into the Atchafalaya Basin.", "If this facility were to fail during a major flood, there is a strong concern the water would scour and erode the river bottom enough to capture the Mississippi's main channel.", "The structure was nearly lost during the 1973 flood, but repairs and improvements were made after engineers studied the forces at play.", "In particular, the Corps of Engineers made many improvements and constructed additional facilities for routing water through the vicinity.", "These additional facilities give the Corps much more flexibility and potential flow capacity than they had in 1973, which further reduces the risk of a catastrophic failure in this area during other major floods, such as that of 2011.Because the Morganza Spillway is slightly higher and well back from the river, it is normally dry on both sides.", "Even if it failed at the crest during a severe flood, the floodwaters would have to erode to normal water levels before the Mississippi could permanently jump channel at this location.", "During the 2011 floods, the Corps of Engineers opened the Morganza Spillway to 1/4 of its capacity to allow of water to flood the Morganza and Atchafalaya floodways and continue directly to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans.", "In addition to reducing the Mississippi River crest downstream, this diversion reduced the chances of a channel change by reducing stress on the other elements of the control system.Some geologists have noted that the possibility for course change into the Atchafalaya also exists in the area immediately north of the Old River Control Structure.", "Army Corps of Engineers geologist Fred Smith once stated, \"The Mississippi wants to go west.", "1973 was a forty-year flood.", "The big one lies out there somewhere—when the structures can't release all the floodwaters and the levee is going to have to give way.", "That is when the river's going to jump its banks and try to break through.", "\"Another possible course change for the Mississippi River is a diversion into Lake Pontchartrain near New Orleans.", "This route is controlled by the Bonnet Carré Spillway, built to reduce flooding in New Orleans.", "This spillway and an imperfect natural levee about high are all that prevents the Mississippi from taking a new, shorter course through Lake Pontchartrain to the Gulf of Mexico.", "Diversion of the Mississippi's main channel through Lake Pontchartrain would have consequences similar to an Atchafalaya diversion, but to a lesser extent, since the present river channel would remain in use past Baton Rouge and into the New Orleans area." ], [ "Recreation", "Great River Road in Wisconsin near Lake Pepin (2005)The sport of water skiing was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as Lake Pepin.", "Ralph Samuelson of Lake City, Minnesota, created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922.He later performed the first water ski jump in 1925 and was pulled along at by a Curtiss flying boat later that year.There are seven National Park Service sites along the Mississippi River.", "The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself.", "The other six National Park Service sites along the river are (listed from north to south):* Effigy Mounds National Monument* Gateway Arch National Park (includes Gateway Arch)* Vicksburg National Military Park* Natchez National Historical Park* New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park* Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve" ], [ "Ecology", "The American paddlefish is an ancient relict from the MississippiThe Mississippi basin is home to a highly diverse aquatic fauna and has been called the \"mother fauna\" of North American freshwater.===Fish===About 375 fish species are known from the Mississippi basin, far exceeding other North Hemisphere river basins exclusively within temperate/subtropical regions, except the Yangtze.", "Within the Mississippi basin, streams that have their source in the Appalachian and Ozark highlands contain especially many species.", "Among the fish species in the basin are numerous endemics, as well as relicts such as paddlefish, sturgeon, gar and bowfin.Because of its size and high species diversity, the Mississippi basin is often divided into subregions.", "The Upper Mississippi River alone is home to about 120 fish species, including walleye, sauger, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, white bass, northern pike, bluegill, crappie, channel catfish, flathead catfish, common shiner, freshwater drum, and shovelnose sturgeon.===Other fauna===A large number of reptiles are native to the river channels and basin, including American alligators, several species of turtle, aquatic amphibians, and cambaridae crayfish, are native to the Mississippi basin.In addition, approximately 40% of the migratory birds in the US use the Mississippi River corridor during Spring and Fall migrations; 60% of all migratory birds in North America (326 species) use the river basin as their flyway.===Introduced species===Numerous introduced species are found in the Mississippi and some of these are invasive.", "Among the introductions are fish such as Asian carp, including the silver carp that have become infamous for out-competing native fish and their potentially dangerous jumping behavior.", "They have spread throughout much of the basin, even approaching (but not yet invading) the Great Lakes.", "The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources has designated much of the Mississippi River in the state as infested waters by the exotic species zebra mussels and Eurasian watermilfoil." ], [ "See also", "* Atchafalaya Basin* Capes on the Mississippi River* Chemetco* Great River Road* List of crossings of the Lower Mississippi River* List of crossings of the Upper Mississippi River* List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River* List of tributaries of the Mississippi River* List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem)* Mississippi embayment* Mississippi River floods* Mississippi River System* ''The Waterways Journal Weekly''* Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Ambrose, Stephen.", "''The Mississippi and the Making of a Nation: From the Louisiana Purchase to Today'' (National Geographical Society, 2002) heavily illustrated* * Anfinson, John Ogden.", "''Commerce and conservation on the Upper Mississippi River'' (US Army Corps of Engineers, St. Paul District, 1994)* * Botkin, Benjamin Albert.", "''A Treasury of Mississippi River folklore: stories, ballads & traditions of the mid-American river country'' (1984).", "* Carlander, Harriet Bell.", "''A history of fish and fishing in the upper Mississippi River'' (PhD Diss.", "Iowa State College, 1954) online (PDF)* Daniel, Pete.", "''Deep'n as it come: The 1927 Mississippi River flood'' (University of Arkansas Press, 1977)* Fremling, Calvin R. ''Immortal river: the Upper Mississippi in ancient and modern times'' (U. of Wisconsin Press, 2005), popular history* Milner, George R. \"The late prehistoric Cahokia cultural system of the Mississippi River valley: Foundations, florescence, and fragmentation.\"", "''Journal of World Prehistory'' (1990) 4#1 pp: 1–43.", "* Morris, Christopher.", "''The Big Muddy: An Environmental History of the Mississippi and Its Peoples From Hernando de Soto to Hurricane Katrina'' (Oxford University Press; 2012) 300 pages; links drought, disease, and flooding to the impact of centuries of increasingly intense human manipulation of the river.", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Mississippi River – project of the American Land Conservancy* Flood management in the Mississippi River (PDF).", ".", "* Friends of the Mississippi River** Mississippi River Challenge – annual canoe & kayak event on the Twin Cities stretch** Mississippi River Field Guide" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Men in black" ], [ "Introduction", "An artistic depiction of a man in black.In popular culture and UFO conspiracy theories, '''men in black''' ('''MIB''') are government agents dressed in black suits, who question, interrogate, harass, threaten, allegedly memory-wipe or sometimes even assassinate unidentified flying object (UFO) witnesses to keep them silent about what they have seen.", "The term is also frequently used to describe mysterious men working for unknown organizations, as well as various branches of government allegedly tasked with protecting secrets or performing other strange activities.", "The term is generic, as it is used for any unusual, threatening or strangely behaved individual whose appearance on the scene can be linked in some fashion with a UFO sighting.", "Several alleged encounters with the men in black have been reported by UFO researchers and enthusiasts.", "The \"MIB\" supposedly appeared throughout different moments in history.Stories about men in black inspired the science fiction comedy franchise ''Men in Black'', and an album by the Stranglers." ], [ "Folklore", "Folklorist James R. Lewis compares accounts of men in black with tales of people encountering Lucifer, and speculates that they can be considered a kind of \"psychological trauma\"." ], [ "Ufologists", "Men in black feature prominently in ufology, UFO folklore, and fan fiction.", "In the 1950s and 1960s, ufologists adopted a conspiratorial mindset and began fearing they would be subject to organized intimidation in retaliation for discovering \"the truth of the UFOs.", "\"In 1947, Harold Dahl claimed a man in a dark suit warned him not to discuss his alleged UFO sighting on Maury Island.", "In the mid-1950s, ufologist Albert K. Bender claimed he was visited by men in dark suits who threatened and warned him not to continue investigating UFOs.", "He maintained that the men were secret government agents tasked with suppressing evidence of UFOs.", "Ufologist John Keel claimed to have had encounters with MIB and referred to them as \"demonic supernaturals\" with \"dark skin and/or 'exotic' facial features.\"", "According to ufologist Jerome Clark, reports of men in black represent \"experiences\" that \"don't seem to have occurred in the world of consensus reality.", "\"Historian Aaron Gulyas wrote, \"During the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, UFO conspiracy theorists would incorporate the MIB into their increasingly complex and paranoid visions.", "\"Keel has argued that some MIB encounters could be explained as entirely mundane events perpetuated through folklore.", "In his 1975 book ''The Mothman Prophecies'', he describes a late-night outing in 1967, where he himself was taken for an MIB while searching for a phone to call a tow truck.In his article \"Gray Barker: My Friend, the Myth-Maker,\" John C. Sherwood claims that, in the late 1960s, at age 18, he cooperated when Gray Barker urged him to develop a hoax—which Barker subsequently published—about what Barker called \"blackmen\", three mysterious UFO inhabitants who silenced Sherwood's pseudonymous identity, \"Dr. Richard H.", "Pratt.\"" ], [ "In popular media", "The 1976 Blue Öyster Cult song \"E.T.I (Extra Terrestrial Intelligence)\" contains the line: \"Three men in black said, 'Don't report this.'\"", "Their 1983 song \"Take Me Away,\" about the singer's desire to leave Earth with \"good guy\" aliens, has the line: \"The men in black, their lips are sealed.", "\"In 1979, British Punk Rock/New Wave rock band the Stranglers recorded a song entitled \"Meninblack\" for their album ''The Raven'', released that year.", "In 1981 their concept album ''The Gospel According to the Meninblack'' featured alien visitations to Earth.James T. Flocker's 1979 film ''The Alien Encounters'' included Men in Black who harass a UFO investigator portrayed by Augie Tribach.The 1984 film ''The Brother from Another Planet'' features two Men in Black who try to capture the alien hero.", "One is played by the film's director, John Sayles.The 1997 science-fiction film ''Men In Black'', starring Will Smith and Tommy Lee Jones, was loosely based on ''The Men in Black'' comic book series created by Lowell Cunningham and Sandy Carruthers.", "Cunningham got the idea for the comic when he and a friend saw a black van on the street and his friend joked about government \"men in black\"." ], [ "See also", "*Black helicopter*The Silence (Doctor Who)*Confidence Men" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *''The Mothman Prophecies'' - 1975 book by John Keel an account of alleged sightings of a large, winged creature called Mothman in the vicinity of Point Pleasant, West Virginia, during 1966 and 1967, it also narrates encounters of the author with \"Men In Black\"*''Los Hombres De Negro y los OVNI'' - 1979 book by Uruguayan ufologist Fabio Zerpa" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 7" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 351 – The Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus breaks out after his arrival at Antioch.", "* 558 – In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses, twenty years after its construction.", "Justinian I immediately orders that the dome be rebuilt.", "*1274 – In France, the Second Council of Lyon opens; it ratified a decree to regulate the election of the Pope.", "*1487 – The Siege of Málaga commences during the Spanish Reconquista.", "*1544 – The Burning of Edinburgh by an English army is the first action of the Rough Wooing.===1601–1900===*1625 – State funeral of James VI and I (1566-1625) is held at Westminster Abbey.", "*1664 – Inaugural celebrations begin at Louis XIV of France's new Palace of Versailles.", "*1685 – Battle of Vrtijeljka between rebels and Ottoman forces.", "*1697 – Stockholm's royal castle (dating back to medieval times) is destroyed by fire.", "It is replaced in the 18th century by the current Royal Palace.", "*1718 – The city of New Orleans is founded by Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville.", "*1763 – Pontiac's War begins with Pontiac's attempt to seize Fort Detroit from the British.", "*1765 – HMS Victory is launched at Chatham Dockyard, Kent.", "She is not commissioned until 1778.", "*1794 – French Revolution: Robespierre introduces the Cult of the Supreme Being in the National Convention as the new state religion of the French First Republic.", "*1798 – French Revolutionary Wars: A French force attempting to dislodge a small British garrison on the Îles Saint-Marcouf is repulsed with heavy losses.", "*1824 – World premiere of Ludwig van Beethoven's Ninth Symphony in Vienna, Austria.", "The performance is conducted by Michael Umlauf under the composer's supervision.", "*1832 – Greece's independence is recognized by the Treaty of London.", "*1840 – The Great Natchez Tornado strikes Natchez, Mississippi killing 317 people.", "It is the second deadliest tornado in United States history.", "*1846 – The ''Cambridge Chronicle'', America's oldest surviving weekly newspaper, is published for the first time in Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "*1864 – American Civil War: The Army of the Potomac, under General Ulysses S. Grant, breaks off from the Battle of the Wilderness and moves southwards.", "* 1864 – The world's oldest surviving clipper ship, the ''City of Adelaide'' is launched by William Pile, Hay and Co. in Sunderland, England, for transporting passengers and goods between Britain and Australia.", "*1895 – In Saint Petersburg, Russian scientist Alexander Stepanovich Popov demonstrates to the Russian Physical and Chemical Society his invention, the Popov lightning detector—a primitive radio receiver.", "In some parts of the former Soviet Union the anniversary of this day is celebrated as Radio Day.===1901–present===*1915 – World War I: German submarine sinks RMS ''Lusitania'', killing 1,199 people, including 128 Americans.", "Public reaction to the sinking turns many former pro-Germans in the United States against the German Empire.", "* 1915 – The Republic of China accedes to 13 of the 21 Demands, extending the Empire of Japan control over Manchuria and the Chinese economy.", "*1920 – Kyiv offensive: Polish troops led by Józef Piłsudski and Edward Rydz-Śmigły and assisted by a symbolic Ukrainian force capture Kyiv only to be driven out by the Red Army counter-offensive a month later.", "* 1920 – Treaty of Moscow: Soviet Russia recognizes the independence of the Democratic Republic of Georgia only to invade the country six months later.", "*1930 – The 7.1 Salmas earthquake shakes northwestern Iran and southeastern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (''Violent'').", "Up to three-thousand people were killed.", "*1931 – The stand-off between criminal Francis Crowley and 300 members of the New York Police Department takes place in his fifth-floor apartment on West 91st Street, New York City.", "*1937 – Spanish Civil War: The German Condor Legion, equipped with Heinkel He 51 biplanes, arrives in Spain to assist Francisco Franco's forces.", "*1940 – World War II: The Norway Debate in the British House of Commons begins, and leads to the replacement of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain with Winston Churchill three days later.", "*1942 – World War II: During the Battle of the Coral Sea, United States Navy aircraft carrier aircraft attack and sink the Imperial Japanese Navy light aircraft carrier Shōhō; the battle marks the first time in naval history that two enemy fleets fight without visual contact between warring ships.", "*1945 – World War II: Last German U-boat attack of the war, two freighters are sunk off the Firth of Forth, Scotland.", "* 1945 – World War II: General Alfred Jodl signs unconditional surrender terms at Reims, France, ending Germany's participation in the war.", "The document takes effect the next day.", "*1946 – Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering (later renamed Sony) is founded.", "*1948 – The Council of Europe is founded during the Hague Congress.", "*1952 – The concept of the integrated circuit, the basis for all modern computers, is first published by Geoffrey Dummer.", "*1954 – Indochina War: The Battle of Dien Bien Phu ends in a French defeat and a Viet Minh victory (the battle began on March 13).", "*1960 – Cold War: U-2 Crisis of 1960: Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev announces that his nation is holding American U-2 pilot Gary Powers.", "*1964 – Pacific Airlines Flight 773 is hijacked by Francisco Gonzales and crashes in Contra Costa County, California, killing 44.", "*1986 – Canadian Patrick Morrow becomes the first person to climb each of the Seven Summits.", "*1991 – A fire and explosion occurs at a fireworks factory at Sungai Buloh, Malaysia, killing 26.", "*1992 – Michigan ratifies a 203-year-old proposed amendment to the United States Constitution making the 27th Amendment law.", "This amendment bars the U.S. Congress from giving itself a mid-term pay raise.", "* 1992 – Space Shuttle program: The Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' is launched on its first mission, STS-49.", "* 1992 – Three employees at a McDonald's Restaurant in Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada, are brutally murdered and a fourth permanently disabled after a botched robbery.", "It is the first \"fast-food murder\" in Canada.", "*1994 – Edvard Munch's painting ''The Scream'' is recovered undamaged after being stolen from the National Gallery of Norway in February.", "*1998 – Mercedes-Benz buys Chrysler for US$40 billion and forms DaimlerChrysler in the largest industrial merger in history.", "*1999 – Pope John Paul II travels to Romania, becoming the first pope to visit a predominantly Eastern Orthodox country since the Great Schism in 1054.", "* 1999 – Kosovo War: Three Chinese citizens are killed and 20 wounded when a NATO aircraft inadvertently bombs the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Serbia.", "* 1999 – In Guinea-Bissau, President João Bernardo Vieira is ousted in a military coup.", "*2000 – Vladimir Putin is inaugurated as president of Russia.", "*2002 – An EgyptAir Boeing 737-500 crashes on approach to Tunis–Carthage International Airport, killing 14 people.", "* 2002 – A China Northern Airlines MD-82 plunges into the Yellow Sea, killing 112 people.", "*2004 – American businessman Nick Berg is beheaded by Islamic militants.", "The act is recorded on videotape and released on the Internet." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*Before 160 – Julia Maesa, Roman noblewoman (d. 224) *1488 – John III of the Palatinate, archbishop of Regensburg (d. 1538)*1530 – Louis, Prince of Condé (d. 1569)*1553 – Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia (d. 1618)===1601–1900===*1605 – Patriarch Nikon of Moscow (d. 1681)*1643 – Stephanus Van Cortlandt, American politician, 10th Mayor of New York City (d. 1700)*1700 – Gerard van Swieten, Dutch-Austrian physician (d. 1772)*1701 – Carl Heinrich Graun, German tenor and composer (d. 1759)*1711 – David Hume, Scottish economist, historian, and philosopher (d. 1776)*1724 – Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, French-Austrian field marshal (d. 1797)*1740 – Nikolai Arkharov, Russian police officer and general (d. 1814)*1748 – Olympe de Gouges, French playwright and philosopher (d. 1793)*1751 – Stephen Badlam, American artisan and military officer (d. 1815)*1763 – Józef Poniatowski, Polish general (d. 1813)*1767 – Princess Frederica Charlotte of Prussia (d. 1820)*1774 – William Bainbridge, American commodore (d. 1833)*1787 – Jacques Viger, Canadian archaeologist and politician, 1st mayor of Montreal (d. 1858)*1812 – Robert Browning, English poet and playwright (d. 1889)*1833 – Johannes Brahms, German pianist and composer (d. 1897)*1836 – Joseph Gurney Cannon, American lawyer and politician, 40th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1926)*1837 – Karl Mauch, German geographer and explorer (d. 1875)*1840 – Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Russian composer and educator (d. 1893)*1845 – Mary Eliza Mahoney, American nurse and activist (d. 1926)*1847 – Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1929)*1857 – William A. MacCorkle, American lawyer and politician, 9th Governor of West Virginia (d. 1930)*1860 – Tom Norman, English businessman (d. 1930)*1861 – Rabindranath Tagore, Indian author and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1941)*1867 – Władysław Reymont, Polish novelist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1925)*1875 – Bill Hoyt, American pole vaulter (d. 1951)*1880 – Pandurang Vaman Kane, Indologist and Sanskrit scholar, Bharat Ratna awardee (d. 1972)*1881 – George E. Wiley, American cyclist (d. 1954)*1882 – Willem Elsschot, Belgian author and poet (d. 1960)*1885 – George \"Gabby\" Hayes, American actor (d. 1969)*1889 – Viktor Puskar, Estonian colonel (d. 1943)*1891 – Harry McShane, Scottish engineer and activist (d. 1988)*1892 – Archibald MacLeish, American poet, playwright, and lawyer (d. 1982)* 1892 – Josip Broz Tito, Yugoslav field marshal and politician, 1st President of Yugoslavia (d. 1980)*1893 – Frank J. Selke, Canadian ice hockey coach and manager (d. 1985)*1896 – Kathleen McKane Godfree, English tennis and badminton player (d. 1992)*1899 – Alfred Gerrard, English sculptor and academic (d. 1998)===1901–present===*1901 – Gary Cooper, American actor (d. 1961)*1903 – Jimmy Ball, Canadian sprinter (d. 1988)* 1903 – Nikolay Zabolotsky, Russian-Soviet poet and translator (d. 1958)*1905 – Philip Baxter, Welsh-Australian chemical engineer (d. 1989)*1906 – Eric Krenz, American discus thrower and shot putter (d. 1931)*1909 – Edwin H. Land, American scientist and inventor, co-founded the Polaroid Corporation (d. 1991)* 1909 – Dorothy Sunrise Lorentino, Native American teacher (d. 2005) *1911 – Ishirō Honda, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1993)* 1911 – Rıfat Ilgaz, Turkish author, poet, and educator (d. 1993)*1912 – Pannalal Patel, Indian author (d. 1989)*1913 – John Spencer Hardy, American general (d. 2012)* 1913 – Simon Ramo, American physicist and engineer (d. 2016)*1914 – Arthur Snelling, English civil servant and diplomat.", "British Ambassador to South Africa (d. 1996)*1916 – Huw Wheldon, Welsh-English broadcaster (d. 1986)* 1916 – W. B.", "Young, Scottish rugby player and physician (d. 2013)*1917 – Domenico Bartolucci, Italian cardinal and composer (d. 2013)* 1917 – Lenox Hewitt, Australian public servant (d. 2020)* 1917 – David Tomlinson, English actor (d. 2000)*1919 – Eva Perón, Argentinian actress, 25th First Lady of Argentina (d. 1952)*1920 – Rendra Karno, Indonesian actor (d. 1985)*1921 – Asa Briggs, Baron Briggs, English historian and academic (d. 2016)* 1921 – Gaston Rébuffat, French mountaineer and author (d. 1985)*1922 – Darren McGavin, American actor and director (d. 2006)* 1922 – Joe O'Donnell, American photographer and journalist (d. 2007)*1923 – Anne Baxter, American actress (d. 1985)* 1923 – Jim Lowe, American singer-songwriter, disc jockey, and radio host (d. 2016)* 1923 – Bülent Ulusu, Turkish admiral and politician, 18th Prime Minister of Turkey (d. 2015)*1924 – Albert Band, French-American director and producer (d. 2002)*1925 – Lauri Vaska, Estonian-American chemist and academic (d. 2015)*1927 – Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, German-American author and screenwriter (d. 2013)*1929 – Dick Williams, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2011)*1930 – Totie Fields, American comedian and author (d. 1978)* 1930 – Babe Parilli, American football player and coach (d. 2017)* 1930 – John Smith, Baron Kirkhill, English politician (d. 2023)*1931 – Teresa Brewer, American singer (d. 2007)* 1931 – Gene Wolfe, American author (d. 2019)*1932 – Jordi Bonet, Spanish-Canadian painter and sculptor (d. 1979)* 1932 – Alan Cuthbert, English pharmacologist and academic (d. 2016)* 1932 – Pete Domenici, American lawyer and politician, 37th Mayor of Albuquerque (d. 2017)* 1932 – Derek Taylor, English journalist and author (d. 1997)*1933 – Johnny Unitas, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2002)*1935 – Avraham Heffner, Israeli actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2014)* 1935 – Michael Hopkins, English architect (d. 2023)*1936 – Robin Hanbury-Tenison, English explorer and author* 1936 – Tony O'Reilly, Irish rugby player and businessman* 1936 – Jimmy Ruffin, American soul singer (d. 2014)*1937 – Eddie Clayton, English footballer* 1937 – Claude Raymond, Canadian baseball player and coach*1939 – Sidney Altman, Canadian-American biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2022)* 1939 – Ruggero Deodato, Italian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2022)* 1939 – Ruud Lubbers, Dutch economist and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2018)* 1939 – Johnny Maestro, American pop/doo-wop singer (d. 2010)* 1939 – Clive Soley, Baron Soley, English politician*1940 – Angela Carter, English novelist and short story writer (d. 1992)* 1940 – Dave Chambers, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1941 – Lawrence Collins, Baron Collins of Mapesbury, English lawyer and judge*1943 – Terry Allen, American singer and painter * 1943 – Harvey Andrews, English singer-songwriter and poet* 1943 – John Bannon, Australian academic and politician, 39th Premier of South Australia (d. 2015)* 1943 – Peter Carey, Australian novelist and short story writer*1945 – Christy Moore, Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1945 – Robin Strasser, American actress*1946 – Thelma Houston, American R&B/disco singer and actress* 1946 – Marv Hubbard, American football player (d. 2015)* 1946 – Bill Kreutzmann, American drummer* 1946 – Michael Rosen, English author and poet* 1946 – Brian Turner, English chef and television host*1949 – Kathy Ahern, American golfer (d. 1996)* 1949 – Deborah Butterfield, American sculptor*1950 – John Dowling Coates, Australian lawyer, sports administrator and businessman* 1950 – Randall \"Tex\" Cobb, American boxer and actor* 1950 – Tim Russert, American television journalist and lawyer (d. 2008)*1953 – Pat McInally, American football player and coach* 1953 – Ian McKay, English sergeant, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1982)*1954 – Philippe Geluck, Belgian cartoonist* 1954 – Joanna Haigh, English meteorologist and physicist* 1954 – Amy Heckerling, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1955 – Clément Gignac, Canadian politician* 1955 – Axel Zwingenberger, German pianist and songwriter*1956 – Jan Peter Balkenende, Dutch jurist and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands* 1956 – Anne Dudley, English pianist and composer * 1956 – Nicholas Hytner, English director and producer* 1956 – Jean Lapierre, Canadian talk show host and politician (d. 2016)* 1956 – Calum MacDonald, Scottish journalist and politician*1957 – Kristina M. Johnson, American business executive, engineer, academic, and government official *1958 – Mikhail Biryukov, Russian footballer and manager* 1958 – Mark G. Kuzyk, American physicist and academic* 1958 – Anne Marie Rafferty, English nurse and academic*1959 – Michael E. Knight, American actor* 1959 – Tony Sealy, English footballer and manager* 1959 – Heiki Valk, Estonian archeologist and academic*1960 – Adam Bernstein, American director and screenwriter* 1960 – Ara Darzi, Baron Darzi of Denham, Iraqi-English surgeon and academic* 1960 – Almudena Grandes, Spanish author*1961 – Hans-Peter Bartels, German politician* 1961 – Sue Black, Scottish anthropologist and academic* 1961 – Ivar Must, Estonian composer and producer*1962 – Tony Campbell, American basketball player and coach* 1962 – Judith Donath, American computer scientist and academic*1964 – Ronnie Harmon, American football player* 1964 – Denis Mandarino, Brazilian guitarist, composer, and painter* 1964 – Leslie O'Neal, American football player*1965 – Reuben Davis, American football player* 1965 – Owen Hart, Canadian wrestler (d. 1999)* 1965 – Norman Whiteside, Northern Irish footballer and manager* 1965 – Huang Zhihong, Chinese shot putter*1967 – Martin Bryant, Australian mass murderer* 1967 – Adam Price, Danish chef and screenwriter* 1967 – Joe Rice, American colonel and politician*1968 – Traci Lords, American actress and singer* 1968 – Lisa Raitt, Canadian lawyer and politician, 30th Canadian Minister of Transport*1969 – Eagle-Eye Cherry, Swedish singer-songwriter* 1969 – Jun Falkenstein, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1969 – Katerina Maleeva, Bulgarian tennis player*1971 – Reidar Horghagen, Norwegian drummer * 1971 – Dave Karpa, Canadian ice hockey player* 1971 – Billy Moore, Australian rugby league player* 1971 – Thomas Piketty, French economist *1972 – Peter Dubovský, Czech-Slovak footballer (d. 2000)* 1972 – Frank Trigg, American mixed martial artist and wrestler*1973 – Kristian Lundin, Swedish songwriter and producer* 1973 – Paolo Savoldelli, Italian cyclist*1974 – Breckin Meyer, American actor, writer, and producer* 1974 – Ian Pearce, English footballer and assistant manager*1975 – Ashley Cowan, English cricketer*1976 – Calvin Booth, American basketball player* 1976 – Berke Hatipoğlu, Turkish guitarist and songwriter * 1976 – Stacey Jones, New Zealand rugby league player* 1976 – Andrea Lo Cicero, Italian rugby player* 1976 – Michael P. Murphy, American lieutenant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2005)* 1976 – Ayelet Shaked, former Israeli Minister of Justice*1977 – Elton Flatley, Australian rugby player*1978 – Stian Arnesen, Norwegian guitarist, drummer, and songwriter * 1978 – James Carter, American hurdler* 1978 – Shawn Marion, American basketball player*1979 – Katie Douglas, American basketball player*1983 – Phionah Atuhebwe, Ugandan vaccinologist and immunization expert*1984 – Kevin Owens, Canadian wrestler* 1984 – Alex Smith, American football player*1985 – J Balvin, Colombian singer-songwriter and producer* 1985 – Jarrad Hickey, Australian rugby league player* 1985 – Drew Neitzel, American basketball player*1986 – Matt Helders, English drummer *1987 – Aidy Bryant, American actress and comedian* 1987 – Asami Konno, Japanese singer * 1987 – Michael Maidens, English footballer (d. 2007)* 1987 – Mark Reynolds, Scottish footballer* 1987 – David Schlemko, Canadian ice hockey player*1988 – Eino Puri, Estonian footballer* 1988 – Sander Puri, Estonian footballer*1989 – Earl Thomas, American football player*1992 – Alexander Ludwig, Canadian actor and musician*1993 – Will Ospreay, English wrestler* 1993 – Ajla Tomljanovic, Australian tennis player*1995 – Seko Fofana, French born Ivorian international footballer*1997 – Daria Kasatkina, Russian tennis player*1998 – Maryna Piddubna, Ukrainian Paralympic swimmer* 1998 – Jesse Puljujärvi, Finnish ice hockey player* 1998 – MrBeast, American YouTuber*1999 – Cody Gakpo, Dutch footballer*2004 – Ashlyn Krueger, American tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 721 – John of Beverley, bishop of York* 833 – Ibn Hisham, Egyptian Muslim historian* 973 – Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "912)*1014 – Bagrat III, 1st King of Georgia (b.", "960)*1092 – Remigius de Fécamp, English monk and bishop *1166 – William I of Sicily*1202 – Hamelin de Warenne, Earl of Surrey*1205 – Ladislaus III of Hungary (b.", "1201)*1234 – Otto I, Duke of Merania (b. c. 1180)*1243 – Hugh d'Aubigny, 5th Earl of Arundel*1427 – Thomas la Warr, 5th Baron De La Warr, English priest (b.", "1352)*1494 – Eskender, Emperor of Ethiopia (b.", "1471)*1523 – Franz von Sickingen, German knight (b.", "1481)*1539 – Ottaviano Petrucci, Italian printer (b.", "1466)===1601–1900===*1617 – David Fabricius, German astronomer and theologian (b.", "1564)*1667 – Johann Jakob Froberger, German organist and composer (b.", "1616)*1682 – Feodor III of Russia (b.", "1661)*1685 – Bajo Pivljanin (b.", "1630)*1718 – Mary of Modena (b.", "1658)*1793 – Pietro Nardini, Italian violinist and composer (b.", "1722)*1800 – Niccolò Piccinni, Italian composer (b.", "1728)*1805 – William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne, Irish-English politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (b.", "1737)*1815 – Jabez Bowen, American colonel and politician, 45th Deputy Governor of Rhode Island (b.", "1739)*1825 – Antonio Salieri, Italian composer and conductor (b.", "1750)*1840 – Caspar David Friedrich, German painter and educator (b.", "1774)*1868 – Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux, Scottish lawyer and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (b.", "1778)*1872 – Alexander Loyd, American carpenter and politician, 4th Mayor of Chicago (b.", "1805)*1876 – William Buell Sprague, American clergyman, historian, and author (b.", "1795)*1887 – C. F. W. Walther, German-American religious leader and theologian (b.", "1811)*1896 – H. H. Holmes, American serial killer (b.", "1861)===1901–present===*1902 – Agostino Roscelli, Italian priest and saint (b.", "1818)*1917 – Albert Ball, English fighter pilot (b.", "1896)*1922 – Max Wagenknecht, German pianist and composer (b.", "1857)*1924 – Alluri Sitarama Raju, Indian activist (b.", "1897/1898) *1925 – William Lever, 1st Viscount Leverhulme, English businessman and politician (b.", "1851)*1937 – Ernst A. Lehmann, German captain and author (b.", "1886) *1938 – Octavian Goga, Romanian politician, former Prime Minister (b.", "1881)*1940 – George Lansbury, English journalist and politician (b.", "1859)*1941 – James George Frazer, Scottish-English anthropologist and academic (b.", "1854)*1942 – Felix Weingartner, Croatian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1863)*1943 – Fethi Okyar, Turkish colonel and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Turkey (b.", "1880)*1946 – Herbert Macaulay, Nigerian journalist and politician (b.", "1864)*1951 – Warner Baxter, American actor (b.", "1889)*1967 – Margaret Larkin, American writer and poet (b.", "1899)*1958 – Mihkel Lüdig, Estonian organist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1880)*1976 – Alison Uttley, English children's book writer (b.", "1884)*1978 – Mort Weisinger, American journalist and author (b.", "1915)*1986 – Haldun Taner, Turkish playwright and author (b.", "1915)*1987 – Colin Blakely, Northern Irish actor (b.", "1930)* 1987 – Paul Popham, American soldier and activist, co-founded Gay Men's Health Crisis (b.", "1941)*1990 – Sam Tambimuttu, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (b.", "1932)*1994 – Clement Greenberg, American art critic (b.", "1909)*1995 – Ray McKinley, American drummer, singer, and bandleader (Glenn Miller Orchestra) (b.", "1910)*1998 – Allan McLeod Cormack, South African-English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1924)* 1998 – Eddie Rabbitt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1941)*2000 – Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., American captain, actor, and producer (b.", "1909)*2001 – Jacques de Bourbon-Busset, French author and politician (b.", "1912)*2004 – Waldemar Milewicz, Polish journalist (b.", "1956)*2005 – Tristan Egolf, American author and activist (b.", "1971)* 2005 – Peter Rodino, American captain and politician (b.", "1909)* 2005 – Otilino Tenorio, Ecuadorian footballer (b.", "1980)*2006 – Richard Carleton, Australian journalist (b.", "1943)* 2006 – Joan C. Edwards, American singer and philanthropist (b.", "1918)*2007 – Isabella Blow, English magazine editor (b.", "1958)* 2007 – Diego Corrales, American boxer (b.", "1977)* 2007 – Octavian Paler, Romanian journalist and politician (b.", "1926)* 2007 – Yahweh ben Yahweh, American cult leader, founded the Nation of Yahweh (b.", "1935)*2009 – David Mellor, English designer (b.", "1930)* 2009 – Danny Ozark, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1923)*2011 – Seve Ballesteros, Spanish golfer (b.", "1957)* 2011 – Willard Boyle, Canadian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1924)* 2011 – Big George, English songwriter, producer, and radio host (b.", "1957)* 2011 – Victor Nosach, Soviet historian (b.", "1929) *2012 – Sammy Barr, Scottish trade union leader (b.", "1931)* 2012 – Ferenc Bartha, Hungarian economist and politician (b.", "1943)* 2012 – Dennis E. Fitch, American captain and pilot (b.", "1942)*2013 – Ferruccio Mazzola, Italian footballer and manager (b.", "1948)* 2013 – George Sauer, Jr., American football player (b.", "1943)*2014 – Neville McNamara, Australian air marshal (b.", "1923)* 2014 – Colin Pillinger, English astronomer, chemist, and academic (b.", "1943)* 2014 – Dick Welteroth, American baseball player (b.", "1927)*2015 – Frank DiPascali, American businessman (b.", "1956)* 2015 – John Dixon, Australian-American author and illustrator (b.", "1929)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Agathius of Byzantium**Agostino Roscelli**Pope Benedict II**Flavia Domitilla**Gisela of Hungary**Harriet Starr Cannon (Episcopal Church (USA))**John of Beverley**Rose Venerini**Stanislaus (Roman Martyrology)**May 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Defender of the Fatherland Day (Kazakhstan)*Dien Bien Phu Victory Day (Vietnam)*Radio Day, commemorating the work of Alexander Popov (Russia, Bulgaria)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 7" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monomer" ], [ "Introduction", "In chemistry, a '''monomer''' ( ; ''mono-'', \"one\" + ''-mer'', \"part\") is a molecule that can react together with other monomer molecules to form a larger polymer chain or three-dimensional network in a process called polymerization." ], [ "Classification", "Monomers can be classified in many ways.", "They can be subdivided into two classes, depending on the kind of the polymer that they form.", "Monomers that participate in condensation polymerization have a different stoichiometry than monomers that participate in addition polymerization: :This nylon is formed by condensation polymerization of two monomers, yielding water.Other classifications include:*natural vs synthetic monomers, e.g.", "glycine vs caprolactam, respectively*polar vs nonpolar monomers, e.g.", "vinyl acetate vs ethylene, respectively*cyclic vs linear, e.g.", "ethylene oxide vs ethylene glycol, respectivelyThe polymerization of one kind of monomer gives a homopolymer.", "Many polymers are copolymers, meaning that they are derived from two different monomers.", "In the case of condensation polymerizations, the ratio of comonomers is usually 1:1.For example, the formation of many nylons requires equal amounts of a dicarboxylic acid and diamine.", "In the case of addition polymerizations, the comonomer content is often only a few percent.", "For example, small amounts of 1-octene monomer are copolymerized with ethylene to give specialized polyethylene." ], [ "Synthetic monomers", "* Ethylene gas (H2C=CH2) is the monomer for polyethylene.", "* Other modified ethylene derivatives include:**tetrafluoroethylene (F2C=CF2) which leads to Teflon**vinyl chloride (H2C=CHCl) which leads to PVC**styrene (C6H5CH=CH2) which leads to polystyrene* Epoxide monomers may be cross linked with themselves, or with the addition of a co-reactant, to form epoxy* BPA is the monomer precursor for polycarbonate* Terephthalic acid is a comonomer that, with ethylene glycol, forms polyethylene terephthalate.", "* Dimethylsilicon dichloride is a monomer that, upon hydrolysis, gives polydimethylsiloxane.", "* Ethyl methacrylate is an acrylic monomer that, when combined with an acrylic polymer, catalyzes and forms an acrylate plastic used to create artificial nail extensions" ], [ "Biopolymers", "The term \"monomeric protein\" may also be used to describe one of the proteins making up a multiprotein complex." ], [ "Natural monomers", "Some of the main biopolymers are listed below:===Amino acids===For ''proteins'', the monomers are amino acids.", "Polymerization occurs at ribosomes.", "Usually about 20 types of amino acid monomers are used to produce proteins.", "Hence proteins are not homopolymers.===Nucleotides ===For polynucleic acids (DNA/RNA), the monomers are nucleotides, each of which is made of a pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.", "Nucleotide monomers are found in the cell nucleus.", "Four types of nucleotide monomers are precursors to DNA and four different nucleotide monomers are precursors to RNA.===Glucose and related sugars===For carbohydrates, the monomers are monosaccharides.", "The most abundant natural monomer is glucose, which is linked by glycosidic bonds into the polymers cellulose, starch, and glycogen.===Isoprene===Isoprene is a natural monomer that polymerizes to form a natural rubber, most often ''cis-''1,4-polyisoprene, but also ''trans-''1,4-polymer.", "Synthetic rubbers are often based on butadiene, which is structurally related to isoprene." ], [ "See also", "* Protein subunit* List of publications in polymer chemistry* Prepolymer" ], [ "Notes" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mitochondrion" ], [ "Introduction", "Two mitochondria from mammalian lung tissue displaying their matrix and membranes as shown by electron microscopyA '''mitochondrion''' (; : '''mitochondria''') is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes, such as animals, plants and fungi.", "Mitochondria have a double membrane structure and use aerobic respiration to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is used throughout the cell as a source of chemical energy.", "They were discovered by Albert von Kölliker in 1857 in the voluntary muscles of insects.", "The term ''mitochondrion'' was coined by Carl Benda in 1898.The mitochondrion is popularly nicknamed the \"powerhouse of the cell\", a phrase coined by Philip Siekevitz in a 1957 article of the same name.Some cells in some multicellular organisms lack mitochondria (for example, mature mammalian red blood cells).", "A large number of unicellular organisms, such as microsporidia, parabasalids and diplomonads, have reduced or transformed their mitochondria into other structures.", "The eukaryote ''Monocercomonoides'' is known to have completely lost its mitochondria, and the multicellular organism ''Henneguya salminicola'' is known to have retained mitochondrion-related organelles in association with a complete loss of their mitochondrial genome.Mitochondria are commonly between 0.75 and 3 μm in cross section, but vary considerably in size and structure.", "Unless specifically stained, they are not visible.", "In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in other tasks, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, and cell death, as well as maintaining control of the cell cycle and cell growth.", "Mitochondrial biogenesis is in turn temporally coordinated with these cellular processes.", "Mitochondria have been implicated in several human disorders and conditions, such as mitochondrial diseases, cardiac dysfunction, heart failure and autism.The number of mitochondria in a cell can vary widely by organism, tissue, and cell type.", "A mature red blood cell has no mitochondria, whereas a liver cell can have more than 2000.The mitochondrion is composed of compartments that carry out specialized functions.", "These compartments or regions include the outer membrane, intermembrane space, inner membrane, cristae, and matrix.Although most of a eukaryotic cell's DNA is contained in the cell nucleus, the mitochondrion has its own genome (\"mitogenome\") that is substantially similar to bacterial genomes.", "This finding has led to general acceptance of the endosymbiotic hypothesis - that free-living prokaryotic ancestors of modern mitochondria permanently fused with eukaryotic cells in the distant past, evolving such that modern animals, plants, fungi, and other eukaryotes are able to respire to generate cellular energy." ], [ "Structure", "Mitochondria may have a number of different shapes.", "A mitochondrion contains outer and inner membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers and proteins.", "The two membranes have different properties.", "Because of this double-membraned organization, there are five distinct parts to a mitochondrion:# The outer mitochondrial membrane,# The intermembrane space (the space between the outer and inner membranes),# The inner mitochondrial membrane,# The cristae space (formed by infoldings of the inner membrane), and# The matrix (space within the inner membrane), which is a fluid.Mitochondria have folding to increase surface area, which in turn increases ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production.Mitochondria stripped of their outer membrane are called mitoplasts.===Outer membrane===The '''outer mitochondrial membrane''', which encloses the entire organelle, is 60 to 75 angstroms (Å) thick.", "It has a protein-to-phospholipid ratio similar to that of the cell membrane (about 1:1 by weight).", "It contains large numbers of integral membrane proteins called porins.", "A major trafficking protein is the pore-forming voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC).", "The VDAC is the primary transporter of nucleotides, ions and metabolites between the cytosol and the intermembrane space.", "It is formed as a beta barrel that spans the outer membrane, similar to that in the gram-negative bacterial membrane.", "Larger proteins can enter the mitochondrion if a signaling sequence at their N-terminus binds to a large multisubunit protein called translocase in the outer membrane, which then actively moves them across the membrane.", "Mitochondrial pro-proteins are imported through specialised translocation complexes.The outer membrane also contains enzymes involved in such diverse activities as the elongation of fatty acids, oxidation of epinephrine, and the degradation of tryptophan.", "These enzymes include monoamine oxidase, rotenone-insensitive NADH-cytochrome c-reductase, kynurenine hydroxylase and fatty acid Co-A ligase.", "Disruption of the outer membrane permits proteins in the intermembrane space to leak into the cytosol, leading to cell death.", "The outer mitochondrial membrane can associate with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane, in a structure called MAM (mitochondria-associated ER-membrane).", "This is important in the ER-mitochondria calcium signaling and is involved in the transfer of lipids between the ER and mitochondria.", "Outside the outer membrane are small (diameter: 60 Å) particles named sub-units of Parson.===Intermembrane space===The '''mitochondrial intermembrane space''' is the space between the outer membrane and the inner membrane.", "It is also known as perimitochondrial space.", "Because the outer membrane is freely permeable to small molecules, the concentrations of small molecules, such as ions and sugars, in the intermembrane space is the same as in the cytosol.", "However, large proteins must have a specific signaling sequence to be transported across the outer membrane, so the protein composition of this space is different from the protein composition of the cytosol.", "One protein that is localized to the intermembrane space in this way is cytochrome c.===Inner membrane===The inner mitochondrial membrane contains proteins with three types of functions:# Those that perform the electron transport chain redox reactions# ATP synthase, which generates ATP in the matrix# Specific transport proteins that regulate metabolite passage into and out of the mitochondrial matrixIt contains more than 151 different polypeptides, and has a very high protein-to-phospholipid ratio (more than 3:1 by weight, which is about 1 protein for 15 phospholipids).", "The inner membrane is home to around 1/5 of the total protein in a mitochondrion.", "Additionally, the inner membrane is rich in an unusual phospholipid, cardiolipin.", "This phospholipid was originally discovered in cow hearts in 1942, and is usually characteristic of mitochondrial and bacterial plasma membranes.", "Cardiolipin contains four fatty acids rather than two, and may help to make the inner membrane impermeable, and its disruption can lead to multiple clinical disorders including neurological disorders and cancer.", "Unlike the outer membrane, the inner membrane does not contain porins, and is highly impermeable to all molecules.", "Almost all ions and molecules require special membrane transporters to enter or exit the matrix.", "Proteins are ferried into the matrix via the translocase of the inner membrane (TIM) complex or via OXA1L.", "In addition, there is a membrane potential across the inner membrane, formed by the action of the enzymes of the electron transport chain.", "Inner membrane fusion is mediated by the inner membrane protein OPA1.====Cristae====Cross-sectional image of cristae in a rat liver mitochondrion to demonstrate the likely 3D structure and relationship to the inner membraneThe inner mitochondrial membrane is compartmentalized into numerous folds called cristae, which expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane, enhancing its ability to produce ATP.", "For typical liver mitochondria, the area of the inner membrane is about five times as large as that of the outer membrane.", "This ratio is variable and mitochondria from cells that have a greater demand for ATP, such as muscle cells, contain even more cristae.", "Mitochondria within the same cell can have substantially different crista-density, with the ones that are required to produce more energy having much more crista-membrane surface.", "These folds are studded with small round bodies known as F particles or oxysomes.===Matrix===The matrix is the space enclosed by the inner membrane.", "It contains about 2/3 of the total proteins in a mitochondrion.", "The matrix is important in the production of ATP with the aid of the ATP synthase contained in the inner membrane.", "The matrix contains a highly concentrated mixture of hundreds of enzymes, special mitochondrial ribosomes, tRNA, and several copies of the mitochondrial DNA genome.", "Of the enzymes, the major functions include oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids, and the citric acid cycle.", "The DNA molecules are packaged into nucleoids by proteins, one of which is TFAM." ], [ "Function", "The most prominent roles of mitochondria are to produce the energy currency of the cell, ATP (i.e., phosphorylation of ADP), through respiration and to regulate cellular metabolism.", "The central set of reactions involved in ATP production are collectively known as the citric acid cycle, or the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.", "However, the mitochondrion has many other functions in addition to the production of ATP.===Energy conversion===A dominant role for the mitochondria is the production of ATP, as reflected by the large number of proteins in the inner membrane for this task.", "This is done by oxidizing the major products of glucose: pyruvate, and NADH, which are produced in the cytosol.", "This type of cellular respiration, known as aerobic respiration, is dependent on the presence of oxygen.", "When oxygen is limited, the glycolytic products will be metabolized by anaerobic fermentation, a process that is independent of the mitochondria.", "The production of ATP from glucose and oxygen has an approximately 13-times higher yield during aerobic respiration compared to fermentation.", "Plant mitochondria can also produce a limited amount of ATP either by breaking the sugar produced during photosynthesis or without oxygen by using the alternate substrate nitrite.", "ATP crosses out through the inner membrane with the help of a specific protein, and across the outer membrane via porins.", "After conversion of ATP to ADP by dephosphorylation that releases energy, ADP returns via the same route.====Pyruvate and the citric acid cycle====Pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the matrix where they can either be oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO, acetyl-CoA, and NADH, or they can be carboxylated (by pyruvate carboxylase) to form oxaloacetate.", "This latter reaction \"fills up\" the amount of oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle and is therefore an anaplerotic reaction, increasing the cycle's capacity to metabolize acetyl-CoA when the tissue's energy needs (e.g., in muscle) are suddenly increased by activity.In the citric acid cycle, all the intermediates (e.g.", "citrate, iso-citrate, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, malate and oxaloacetate) are regenerated during each turn of the cycle.", "Adding more of any of these intermediates to the mitochondrion therefore means that the additional amount is retained within the cycle, increasing all the other intermediates as one is converted into the other.", "Hence, the addition of any one of them to the cycle has an anaplerotic effect, and its removal has a cataplerotic effect.", "These anaplerotic and cataplerotic reactions will, during the course of the cycle, increase or decrease the amount of oxaloacetate available to combine with acetyl-CoA to form citric acid.", "This in turn increases or decreases the rate of ATP production by the mitochondrion, and thus the availability of ATP to the cell.Acetyl-CoA, on the other hand, derived from pyruvate oxidation, or from the beta-oxidation of fatty acids, is the only fuel to enter the citric acid cycle.", "With each turn of the cycle one molecule of acetyl-CoA is consumed for every molecule of oxaloacetate present in the mitochondrial matrix, and is never regenerated.", "It is the oxidation of the acetate portion of acetyl-CoA that produces CO and water, with the energy thus released captured in the form of ATP.In the liver, the carboxylation of cytosolic pyruvate into intra-mitochondrial oxaloacetate is an early step in the gluconeogenic pathway, which converts lactate and de-aminated alanine into glucose, under the influence of high levels of glucagon and/or epinephrine in the blood.", "Here, the addition of oxaloacetate to the mitochondrion does not have a net anaplerotic effect, as another citric acid cycle intermediate (malate) is immediately removed from the mitochondrion to be converted to cytosolic oxaloacetate, and ultimately to glucose, in a process that is almost the reverse of glycolysis.The enzymes of the citric acid cycle are located in the mitochondrial matrix, with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase, which is bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane as part of Complex II.", "The citric acid cycle oxidizes the acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide, and, in the process, produces reduced cofactors (three molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH) that are a source of electrons for the electron transport chain, and a molecule of GTP (which is readily converted to an ATP).==== O and NADH: energy-releasing reactions ====Electron transport chain in the mitochondrial intermembrane spaceThe electrons from NADH and FADH are transferred to oxygen (O) and hydrogen (protons) in several steps via an electron transport chain.", "NADH and FADH molecules are produced within the matrix via the citric acid cycle and in the cytoplasm by glycolysis.", "Reducing equivalents from the cytoplasm can be imported via the malate-aspartate shuttle system of antiporter proteins or fed into the electron transport chain using a glycerol phosphate shuttle.The major energy-releasing reactions that make the mitochondrion the \"powerhouse of the cell\" occur at protein complexes I, III and IV in the inner mitochondrial membrane (NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone), cytochrome c reductase, and cytochrome c oxidase).", "At complex IV, O2 reacts with the reduced form of iron in cytochrome c:O2{} + 4H+(aq){} + 4 Fe^{2+}(cyt\\,c) -> 2H2O{} + 4 Fe^{3+}(cyt\\,c) releasing a lot of free energy from the reactants without breaking bonds of an organic fuel.", "The free energy put in to remove an electron from Fe2+ is released at complex III when Fe3+ of cytochrome c reacts to oxidize ubiquinol (QH2):2 Fe^{3+}(cyt\\,c){} + QH2 -> 2 Fe^{2+}(cyt\\,c){} + Q{} + 2H+(aq) The ubiquinone (Q) generated reacts, in complex I, with NADH:Q + H+(aq){} + NADH -> QH2 + NAD+ { } While the reactions are controlled by an electron transport chain, free electrons are not amongst the reactants or products in the three reactions shown and therefore do not affect the free energy released, which is used to pump protons (H) into the intermembrane space.", "This process is efficient, but a small percentage of electrons may prematurely reduce oxygen, forming reactive oxygen species such as superoxide.", "This can cause oxidative stress in the mitochondria and may contribute to the decline in mitochondrial function associated with aging.As the proton concentration increases in the intermembrane space, a strong electrochemical gradient is established across the inner membrane.", "The protons can return to the matrix through the ATP synthase complex, and their potential energy is used to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (P).", "This process is called chemiosmosis, and was first described by Peter Mitchell, who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work.", "Later, part of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker for their clarification of the working mechanism of ATP synthase.====Heat production====Under certain conditions, protons can re-enter the mitochondrial matrix without contributing to ATP synthesis.", "This process is known as ''proton leak'' or mitochondrial uncoupling and is due to the facilitated diffusion of protons into the matrix.", "The process results in the unharnessed potential energy of the proton electrochemical gradient being released as heat.", "The process is mediated by a proton channel called thermogenin, or UCP1.Thermogenin is primarily found in brown adipose tissue, or brown fat, and is responsible for non-shivering thermogenesis.", "Brown adipose tissue is found in mammals, and is at its highest levels in early life and in hibernating animals.", "In humans, brown adipose tissue is present at birth and decreases with age.=== Mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis ===Mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis (mtFASII) is essential for cellular respiration and mitochondrial biogenesis.", "It is also thought to play a role as a mediator in intracellular signaling due to its influence on the levels of bioactive lipids, such as lysophospholipids and sphingolipids.Octanoyl-ACP (C8) is considered to be the most important end product of mtFASII, which also forms the starting substrate of lipoic acid biosynthesis.", "Since lipoic acid is the cofactor of important mitochondrial enzyme complexes, such as the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC), α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (OGDC), branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex (BCKDC), and in the glycine cleavage system (GCS), mtFASII has an influence on energy metabolism.Other products of mtFASII play a role in the regulation of mitochondrial translation, FeS cluster biogenesis and assembly of oxidative phosphorylation complexes.Furthermore, with the help of mtFASII and acylated ACP, acetyl-CoA regulates its consumption in mitochondria.===Uptake, storage and release of calcium ions===Transmission electron micrograph of a chondrocyte, stained for calcium, showing its nucleus (N) and mitochondria (M)The concentrations of free calcium in the cell can regulate an array of reactions and is important for signal transduction in the cell.", "Mitochondria can transiently store calcium, a contributing process for the cell's homeostasis of calcium.", "Their ability to rapidly take in calcium for later release makes them good \"cytosolic buffers\" for calcium.", "The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the most significant storage site of calcium, and there is a significant interplay between the mitochondrion and ER with regard to calcium.", "The calcium is taken up into the matrix by the mitochondrial calcium uniporter on the inner mitochondrial membrane.", "It is primarily driven by the mitochondrial membrane potential.", "Release of this calcium back into the cell's interior can occur via a sodium-calcium exchange protein or via \"calcium-induced-calcium-release\" pathways.", "This can initiate calcium spikes or calcium waves with large changes in the membrane potential.", "These can activate a series of second messenger system proteins that can coordinate processes such as neurotransmitter release in nerve cells and release of hormones in endocrine cells.Ca influx to the mitochondrial matrix has recently been implicated as a mechanism to regulate respiratory bioenergetics by allowing the electrochemical potential across the membrane to transiently \"pulse\" from ΔΨ-dominated to pH-dominated, facilitating a reduction of oxidative stress.", "In neurons, concomitant increases in cytosolic and mitochondrial calcium act to synchronize neuronal activity with mitochondrial energy metabolism.", "Mitochondrial matrix calcium levels can reach the tens of micromolar levels, which is necessary for the activation of isocitrate dehydrogenase, one of the key regulatory enzymes of the Krebs cycle.===Cellular proliferation regulation===The relationship between cellular proliferation and mitochondria has been investigated.", "Tumor cells require ample ATP to synthesize bioactive compounds such as lipids, proteins, and nucleotides for rapid proliferation.", "The majority of ATP in tumor cells is generated via the oxidative phosphorylation pathway (OxPhos).", "Interference with OxPhos cause cell cycle arrest suggesting that mitochondria play a role in cell proliferation.", "Mitochondrial ATP production is also vital for cell division and differentiation in infection in addition to basic functions in the cell including the regulation of cell volume, solute concentration, and cellular architecture.", "ATP levels differ at various stages of the cell cycle suggesting that there is a relationship between the abundance of ATP and the cell's ability to enter a new cell cycle.", "ATP's role in the basic functions of the cell make the cell cycle sensitive to changes in the availability of mitochondrial derived ATP.", "The variation in ATP levels at different stages of the cell cycle support the hypothesis that mitochondria play an important role in cell cycle regulation.", "Although the specific mechanisms between mitochondria and the cell cycle regulation is not well understood, studies have shown that low energy cell cycle checkpoints monitor the energy capability before committing to another round of cell division.===Additional functions===Mitochondria play a central role in many other metabolic tasks, such as:* Signaling through mitochondrial reactive oxygen species* Regulation of the membrane potential* Apoptosis-programmed cell death* Calcium signaling (including calcium-evoked apoptosis)* Regulation of cellular metabolism* Certain heme synthesis reactions (see also: ''Porphyrin'')* Steroid synthesis* Hormonal signaling – mitochondria are sensitive and responsive to hormones, in part by the action of mitochondrial estrogen receptors (mtERs).", "These receptors have been found in various tissues and cell types, including brain and heart* Immune signaling* Neuronal mitochondria also contribute to cellular quality control by reporting neuronal status towards microglia through specialised somatic-junctions.", "* Mitochondria of developing neurons contribute to intercellular signaling towards microglia, which communication is indispensable for proper regulation of brain development.Some mitochondrial functions are performed only in specific types of cells.", "For example, mitochondria in liver cells contain enzymes that allow them to detoxify ammonia, a waste product of protein metabolism.", "A mutation in the genes regulating any of these functions can result in mitochondrial diseases.Mitochondrial proteins (proteins transcribed from mitochondrial DNA) vary depending on the tissue and the species.", "In humans, 615 distinct types of proteins have been identified from cardiac mitochondria, whereas in rats, 940 proteins have been reported.", "The mitochondrial proteome is thought to be dynamically regulated." ], [ "Organization and distribution", "Typical mitochondrial network (green) in two human cells (HeLa cells)Mitochondria (or related structures) are found in all eukaryotes (except the Oxymonad ''Monocercomonoides'').", "Although commonly depicted as bean-like structures they form a highly dynamic network in the majority of cells where they constantly undergo fission and fusion.", "The population of all the mitochondria of a given cell constitutes the chondriome.", "Mitochondria vary in number and location according to cell type.", "A single mitochondrion is often found in unicellular organisms, while human liver cells have about 1000–2000 mitochondria per cell, making up 1/5 of the cell volume.", "The mitochondrial content of otherwise similar cells can vary substantially in size and membrane potential, with differences arising from sources including uneven partitioning at cell division, leading to extrinsic differences in ATP levels and downstream cellular processes.", "The mitochondria can be found nestled between myofibrils of muscle or wrapped around the sperm flagellum.", "Often, they form a complex 3D branching network inside the cell with the cytoskeleton.", "The association with the cytoskeleton determines mitochondrial shape, which can affect the function as well: different structures of the mitochondrial network may afford the population a variety of physical, chemical, and signalling advantages or disadvantages.", "Mitochondria in cells are always distributed along microtubules and the distribution of these organelles is also correlated with the endoplasmic reticulum.", "Recent evidence suggests that vimentin, one of the components of the cytoskeleton, is also critical to the association with the cytoskeleton.===Mitochondria-associated ER membrane (MAM)===The mitochondria-associated ER membrane (MAM) is another structural element that is increasingly recognized for its critical role in cellular physiology and homeostasis.", "Once considered a technical snag in cell fractionation techniques, the alleged ER vesicle contaminants that invariably appeared in the mitochondrial fraction have been re-identified as membranous structures derived from the MAM—the interface between mitochondria and the ER.", "Physical coupling between these two organelles had previously been observed in electron micrographs and has more recently been probed with fluorescence microscopy.", "Such studies estimate that at the MAM, which may comprise up to 20% of the mitochondrial outer membrane, the ER and mitochondria are separated by a mere 10–25 nm and held together by protein tethering complexes.Purified MAM from subcellular fractionation is enriched in enzymes involved in phospholipid exchange, in addition to channels associated with Ca signaling.", "These hints of a prominent role for the MAM in the regulation of cellular lipid stores and signal transduction have been borne out, with significant implications for mitochondrial-associated cellular phenomena, as discussed below.", "Not only has the MAM provided insight into the mechanistic basis underlying such physiological processes as intrinsic apoptosis and the propagation of calcium signaling, but it also favors a more refined view of the mitochondria.", "Though often seen as static, isolated 'powerhouses' hijacked for cellular metabolism through an ancient endosymbiotic event, the evolution of the MAM underscores the extent to which mitochondria have been integrated into overall cellular physiology, with intimate physical and functional coupling to the endomembrane system.====Phospholipid transfer====The MAM is enriched in enzymes involved in lipid biosynthesis, such as phosphatidylserine synthase on the ER face and phosphatidylserine decarboxylase on the mitochondrial face.", "Because mitochondria are dynamic organelles constantly undergoing fission and fusion events, they require a constant and well-regulated supply of phospholipids for membrane integrity.", "But mitochondria are not only a destination for the phospholipids they finish synthesis of; rather, this organelle also plays a role in inter-organelle trafficking of the intermediates and products of phospholipid biosynthetic pathways, ceramide and cholesterol metabolism, and glycosphingolipid anabolism.Such trafficking capacity depends on the MAM, which has been shown to facilitate transfer of lipid intermediates between organelles.", "In contrast to the standard vesicular mechanism of lipid transfer, evidence indicates that the physical proximity of the ER and mitochondrial membranes at the MAM allows for lipid flipping between opposed bilayers.", "Despite this unusual and seemingly energetically unfavorable mechanism, such transport does not require ATP.", "Instead, in yeast, it has been shown to be dependent on a multiprotein tethering structure termed the ER-mitochondria encounter structure, or ERMES, although it remains unclear whether this structure directly mediates lipid transfer or is required to keep the membranes in sufficiently close proximity to lower the energy barrier for lipid flipping.The MAM may also be part of the secretory pathway, in addition to its role in intracellular lipid trafficking.", "In particular, the MAM appears to be an intermediate destination between the rough ER and the Golgi in the pathway that leads to very-low-density lipoprotein, or VLDL, assembly and secretion.", "The MAM thus serves as a critical metabolic and trafficking hub in lipid metabolism.====Calcium signaling====A critical role for the ER in calcium signaling was acknowledged before such a role for the mitochondria was widely accepted, in part because the low affinity of Ca channels localized to the outer mitochondrial membrane seemed to contradict this organelle's purported responsiveness to changes in intracellular Ca flux.", "But the presence of the MAM resolves this apparent contradiction: the close physical association between the two organelles results in Ca microdomains at contact points that facilitate efficient Ca transmission from the ER to the mitochondria.", "Transmission occurs in response to so-called \"Ca puffs\" generated by spontaneous clustering and activation of IP3R, a canonical ER membrane Ca channel.The fate of these puffs—in particular, whether they remain restricted to isolated locales or integrated into Ca waves for propagation throughout the cell—is determined in large part by MAM dynamics.", "Although reuptake of Ca by the ER (concomitant with its release) modulates the intensity of the puffs, thus insulating mitochondria to a certain degree from high Ca exposure, the MAM often serves as a firewall that essentially buffers Ca puffs by acting as a sink into which free ions released into the cytosol can be funneled.", "This Ca tunneling occurs through the low-affinity Ca receptor VDAC1, which recently has been shown to be physically tethered to the IP3R clusters on the ER membrane and enriched at the MAM.", "The ability of mitochondria to serve as a Ca sink is a result of the electrochemical gradient generated during oxidative phosphorylation, which makes tunneling of the cation an exergonic process.", "Normal, mild calcium influx from cytosol into the mitochondrial matrix causes transient depolarization that is corrected by pumping out protons.But transmission of Ca is not unidirectional; rather, it is a two-way street.", "The properties of the Ca pump SERCA and the channel IP3R present on the ER membrane facilitate feedback regulation coordinated by MAM function.", "In particular, the clearance of Ca by the MAM allows for spatio-temporal patterning of Ca signaling because Ca alters IP3R activity in a biphasic manner.", "SERCA is likewise affected by mitochondrial feedback: uptake of Ca by the MAM stimulates ATP production, thus providing energy that enables SERCA to reload the ER with Ca for continued Ca efflux at the MAM.", "Thus, the MAM is not a passive buffer for Ca puffs; rather it helps modulate further Ca signaling through feedback loops that affect ER dynamics.Regulating ER release of Ca at the MAM is especially critical because only a certain window of Ca uptake sustains the mitochondria, and consequently the cell, at homeostasis.", "Sufficient intraorganelle Ca signaling is required to stimulate metabolism by activating dehydrogenase enzymes critical to flux through the citric acid cycle.", "However, once Ca signaling in the mitochondria passes a certain threshold, it stimulates the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis in part by collapsing the mitochondrial membrane potential required for metabolism.", "Studies examining the role of pro- and anti-apoptotic factors support this model; for example, the anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-2 has been shown to interact with IP3Rs to reduce Ca filling of the ER, leading to reduced efflux at the MAM and preventing collapse of the mitochondrial membrane potential post-apoptotic stimuli.", "Given the need for such fine regulation of Ca signaling, it is perhaps unsurprising that dysregulated mitochondrial Ca has been implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases, while the catalogue of tumor suppressors includes a few that are enriched at the MAM.====Molecular basis for tethering====Recent advances in the identification of the tethers between the mitochondrial and ER membranes suggest that the scaffolding function of the molecular elements involved is secondary to other, non-structural functions.", "In yeast, ERMES, a multiprotein complex of interacting ER- and mitochondrial-resident membrane proteins, is required for lipid transfer at the MAM and exemplifies this principle.", "One of its components, for example, is also a constituent of the protein complex required for insertion of transmembrane beta-barrel proteins into the lipid bilayer.", "However, a homologue of the ERMES complex has not yet been identified in mammalian cells.", "Other proteins implicated in scaffolding likewise have functions independent of structural tethering at the MAM; for example, ER-resident and mitochondrial-resident mitofusins form heterocomplexes that regulate the number of inter-organelle contact sites, although mitofusins were first identified for their role in fission and fusion events between individual mitochondria.", "Glucose-related protein 75 (grp75) is another dual-function protein.", "In addition to the matrix pool of grp75, a portion serves as a chaperone that physically links the mitochondrial and ER Ca channels VDAC and IP3R for efficient Ca transmission at the MAM.", "Another potential tether is Sigma-1R, a non-opioid receptor whose stabilization of ER-resident IP3R may preserve communication at the MAM during the metabolic stress response.Model of the yeast multimeric tethering complex, ERMES====Perspective====The MAM is a critical signaling, metabolic, and trafficking hub in the cell that allows for the integration of ER and mitochondrial physiology.", "Coupling between these organelles is not simply structural but functional as well and critical for overall cellular physiology and homeostasis.", "The MAM thus offers a perspective on mitochondria that diverges from the traditional view of this organelle as a static, isolated unit appropriated for its metabolic capacity by the cell.", "Instead, this mitochondrial-ER interface emphasizes the integration of the mitochondria, the product of an endosymbiotic event, into diverse cellular processes.", "Recently it has also been shown, that mitochondria and MAM-s in neurons are anchored to specialised intercellular communication sites (so called somatic-junctions).", "Microglial processes monitor and protect neuronal functions at these sites, and MAM-s are supposed to have an important role in this type of cellular quality-control." ], [ "Origin and evolution <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"origin_and_evolution_anchor\"></span>", "There are two hypotheses about the origin of mitochondria: endosymbiotic and autogenous.", "The endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests that mitochondria were originally prokaryotic cells, capable of implementing oxidative mechanisms that were not possible for eukaryotic cells; they became endosymbionts living inside the eukaryote.", "In the autogenous hypothesis, mitochondria were born by splitting off a portion of DNA from the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell at the time of divergence with the prokaryotes; this DNA portion would have been enclosed by membranes, which could not be crossed by proteins.", "Since mitochondria have many features in common with bacteria, the endosymbiotic hypothesis is the more widely accepted of the two accounts.A mitochondrion contains DNA, which is organized as several copies of a single, usually circular chromosome.", "This mitochondrial chromosome contains genes for redox proteins, such as those of the respiratory chain.", "The CoRR hypothesis proposes that this co-location is required for redox regulation.", "The mitochondrial genome codes for some RNAs of ribosomes, and the 22 tRNAs necessary for the translation of mRNAs into protein.", "The circular structure is also found in prokaryotes.", "The proto-mitochondrion was probably closely related to ''Rickettsia''.", "However, the exact relationship of the ancestor of mitochondria to the alphaproteobacteria and whether the mitochondrion was formed at the same time or after the nucleus, remains controversial.", "For example, it has been suggested that the SAR11 clade of bacteria shares a relatively recent common ancestor with the mitochondria, while phylogenomic analyses indicate that mitochondria evolved from a Pseudomonadota lineage that is closely related to or a member of alphaproteobacteria.", "Some papers describe mitochondria as sister to the alphaproteobactera, together forming the sister the marineproteo1 group, together forming the sister to Magnetococcidae.The ribosomes coded for by the mitochondrial DNA are similar to those from bacteria in size and structure.", "They closely resemble the bacterial 70S ribosome and not the 80S cytoplasmic ribosomes, which are coded for by nuclear DNA.The endosymbiotic relationship of mitochondria with their host cells was popularized by Lynn Margulis.", "The endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests that mitochondria descended from aerobic bacteria that somehow survived endocytosis by another cell, and became incorporated into the cytoplasm.", "The ability of these bacteria to conduct respiration in host cells that had relied on glycolysis and fermentation would have provided a considerable evolutionary advantage.", "This symbiotic relationship probably developed 1.7 to 2 billion years ago.Evolution of MROsA few groups of unicellular eukaryotes have only vestigial mitochondria or derived structures: The microsporidians, metamonads, and archamoebae.", "These groups appear as the most primitive eukaryotes on phylogenetic trees constructed using rRNA information, which once suggested that they appeared before the origin of mitochondria.", "However, this is now known to be an artifact of ''long-branch attraction'': They are derived groups and retain genes or organelles derived from mitochondria (e. g., mitosomes and hydrogenosomes).", "Hydrogenosomes, mitosomes, and related organelles as found in some loricifera (e. g. ''Spinoloricus'') and myxozoa (e. g. ''Henneguya zschokkei'') are together classified as MROs, mitochondrion-related organelles.Monocercomonoides appear to have lost their mitochondria completely and at least some of the mitochondrial functions seem to be carried out by cytoplasmic proteins now." ], [ "Mitochondrial genetics", "circular 16,569 bp human mitochondrial genome encoding 37 genes, ''i.e.", "'', 28 on the H-strand and 9 on the L-strandMitochondria contain their own genome.", "The human mitochondrial genome is a circular double-stranded DNA molecule of about 16 kilobases.", "It encodes 37 genes: 13 for subunits of respiratory complexes I, III, IV and V, 22 for mitochondrial tRNA (for the 20 standard amino acids, plus an extra gene for leucine and serine), and 2 for rRNA (12S and 16S rRNA).", "One mitochondrion can contain two to ten copies of its DNA.", "One of the two mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) strands has a disproportionately higher ratio of the heavier nucleotides adenine and guanine, and this is termed the heavy strand (or H strand), whereas the other strand is termed the light strand (or L strand).", "The weight difference allows the two strands to be separated by centrifugation.", "mtDNA has one long non-coding stretch known as the non-coding region (NCR), which contains the heavy strand promoter (HSP) and light strand promoter (LSP) for RNA transcription, the origin of replication for the H strand (OriH) localized on the L strand, three conserved sequence boxes (CSBs 1–3), and a termination-associated sequence (TAS).", "The origin of replication for the L strand (OriL) is localized on the H strand 11,000 bp downstream of OriH, located within a cluster of genes coding for tRNA.As in prokaryotes, there is a very high proportion of coding DNA and an absence of repeats.", "Mitochondrial genes are transcribed as multigenic transcripts, which are cleaved and polyadenylated to yield mature mRNAs.", "Most proteins necessary for mitochondrial function are encoded by genes in the cell nucleus and the corresponding proteins are imported into the mitochondrion.", "The exact number of genes encoded by the nucleus and the mitochondrial genome differs between species.", "Most mitochondrial genomes are circular.", "In general, mitochondrial DNA lacks introns, as is the case in the human mitochondrial genome; however, introns have been observed in some eukaryotic mitochondrial DNA, such as that of yeast and protists, including ''Dictyostelium discoideum''.", "Between protein-coding regions, tRNAs are present.", "Mitochondrial tRNA genes have different sequences from the nuclear tRNAs, but lookalikes of mitochondrial tRNAs have been found in the nuclear chromosomes with high sequence similarity.In animals, the mitochondrial genome is typically a single circular chromosome that is approximately 16 kb long and has 37 genes.", "The genes, while highly conserved, may vary in location.", "Curiously, this pattern is not found in the human body louse (''Pediculus humanus'').", "Instead, this mitochondrial genome is arranged in 18 minicircular chromosomes, each of which is 3–4 kb long and has one to three genes.", "This pattern is also found in other sucking lice, but not in chewing lice.", "Recombination has been shown to occur between the minichromosomes.===Human population genetic studies===The near-absence of genetic recombination in mitochondrial DNA makes it a useful source of information for studying population genetics and evolutionary biology.", "Because all the mitochondrial DNA is inherited as a single unit, or haplotype, the relationships between mitochondrial DNA from different individuals can be represented as a gene tree.", "Patterns in these gene trees can be used to infer the evolutionary history of populations.", "The classic example of this is in human evolutionary genetics, where the molecular clock can be used to provide a recent date for mitochondrial Eve.", "This is often interpreted as strong support for a recent modern human expansion out of Africa.", "Another human example is the sequencing of mitochondrial DNA from Neanderthal bones.", "The relatively large evolutionary distance between the mitochondrial DNA sequences of Neanderthals and living humans has been interpreted as evidence for the lack of interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans.However, mitochondrial DNA reflects only the history of the females in a population.", "This can be partially overcome by the use of paternal genetic sequences, such as the non-recombining region of the Y-chromosome.Recent measurements of the molecular clock for mitochondrial DNA reported a value of 1 mutation every 7884 years dating back to the most recent common ancestor of humans and apes, which is consistent with estimates of mutation rates of autosomal DNA (10 per base per generation).=== Alternative genetic code ===+Exceptions to the standard genetic code in mitochondriaOrganismCodonStandardMitochondriaMammalsAGA, AGGArginineStop codonInvertebratesAGA, AGGArginineSerineFungiCUALeucineThreonineAll of the aboveAUAIsoleucineMethionineUGAStop codonTryptophanWhile slight variations on the standard genetic code had been predicted earlier, none was discovered until 1979, when researchers studying human mitochondrial genes determined that they used an alternative code.", "Nonetheless, the mitochondria of many other eukaryotes, including most plants, use the standard code.", "Many slight variants have been discovered since, including various alternative mitochondrial codes.", "Further, the AUA, AUC, and AUU codons are all allowable start codons.Some of these differences should be regarded as pseudo-changes in the genetic code due to the phenomenon of RNA editing, which is common in mitochondria.", "In higher plants, it was thought that CGG encoded for tryptophan and not arginine; however, the codon in the processed RNA was discovered to be the UGG codon, consistent with the standard genetic code for tryptophan.", "Of note, the arthropod mitochondrial genetic code has undergone parallel evolution within a phylum, with some organisms uniquely translating AGG to lysine.===Replication and inheritance===Mitochondria divide by mitochondrial fission, a form of binary fission that is also done by bacteria although the process is tightly regulated by the host eukaryotic cell and involves communication between and contact with several other organelles.", "The regulation of this division differs between eukaryotes.", "In many single-celled eukaryotes, their growth and division are linked to the cell cycle.", "For example, a single mitochondrion may divide synchronously with the nucleus.", "This division and segregation process must be tightly controlled so that each daughter cell receives at least one mitochondrion.", "In other eukaryotes (in mammals for example), mitochondria may replicate their DNA and divide mainly in response to the energy needs of the cell, rather than in phase with the cell cycle.", "When the energy needs of a cell are high, mitochondria grow and divide.", "When energy use is low, mitochondria are destroyed or become inactive.", "In such examples mitochondria are apparently randomly distributed to the daughter cells during the division of the cytoplasm.", "Mitochondrial dynamics, the balance between mitochondrial fusion and fission, is an important factor in pathologies associated with several disease conditions.The hypothesis of mitochondrial binary fission has relied on the visualization by fluorescence microscopy and conventional transmission electron microscopy (TEM).", "The resolution of fluorescence microscopy (~200 nm) is insufficient to distinguish structural details, such as double mitochondrial membrane in mitochondrial division or even to distinguish individual mitochondria when several are close together.", "Conventional TEM has also some technical limitations in verifying mitochondrial division.", "Cryo-electron tomography was recently used to visualize mitochondrial division in frozen hydrated intact cells.", "It revealed that mitochondria divide by budding.An individual's mitochondrial genes are inherited only from the mother, with rare exceptions.", "In humans, when an egg cell is fertilized by a sperm, the mitochondria, and therefore the mitochondrial DNA, usually come from the egg only.", "The sperm's mitochondria enter the egg, but do not contribute genetic information to the embryo.", "Instead, paternal mitochondria are marked with ubiquitin to select them for later destruction inside the embryo.", "The egg cell contains relatively few mitochondria, but these mitochondria divide to populate the cells of the adult organism.", "This mode is seen in most organisms, including the majority of animals.", "However, mitochondria in some species can sometimes be inherited paternally.", "This is the norm among certain coniferous plants, although not in pine trees and yews.", "For Mytilids, paternal inheritance only occurs within males of the species.", "It has been suggested that it occurs at a very low level in humans.Uniparental inheritance leads to little opportunity for genetic recombination between different lineages of mitochondria, although a single mitochondrion can contain 2–10 copies of its DNA.", "What recombination does take place maintains genetic integrity rather than maintaining diversity.", "However, there are studies showing evidence of recombination in mitochondrial DNA.", "It is clear that the enzymes necessary for recombination are present in mammalian cells.", "Further, evidence suggests that animal mitochondria can undergo recombination.", "The data are more controversial in humans, although indirect evidence of recombination exists.Entities undergoing uniparental inheritance and with little to no recombination may be expected to be subject to Muller's ratchet, the accumulation of deleterious mutations until functionality is lost.", "Animal populations of mitochondria avoid this buildup through a developmental process known as the mtDNA bottleneck.", "The bottleneck exploits stochastic processes in the cell to increase the cell-to-cell variability in mutant load as an organism develops: a single egg cell with some proportion of mutant mtDNA thus produces an embryo where different cells have different mutant loads.", "Cell-level selection may then act to remove those cells with more mutant mtDNA, leading to a stabilization or reduction in mutant load between generations.", "The mechanism underlying the bottleneck is debated, with a recent mathematical and experimental metastudy providing evidence for a combination of random partitioning of mtDNAs at cell divisions and random turnover of mtDNA molecules within the cell.===DNA repair===Mitochondria can repair oxidative DNA damage by mechanisms analogous to those occurring in the cell nucleus.", "The proteins employed in mtDNA repair are encoded by nuclear genes, and are translocated to the mitochondria.", "The DNA repair pathways in mammalian mitochondria include base excision repair, double-strand break repair, direct reversal and mismatch repair.", "Alternatively, DNA damage may be bypassed, rather than repaired, by translesion synthesis.Of the several DNA repair process in mitochondria, the base excision repair pathway has been most comprehensively studied.", "Base excision repair is carried out by a sequence of enzyme-catalyzed steps that include recognition and excision of a damaged DNA base, removal of the resulting abasic site, end processing, gap filling and ligation.", "A common damage in mtDNA that is repaired by base excision repair is 8-oxoguanine produced by oxidation of guanine.Double-strand breaks can be repaired by homologous recombinational repair in both mammalian mtDNA and plant mtDNA.", "Double-strand breaks in mtDNA can also be repaired by microhomology-mediated end joining.", "Although there is evidence for the repair processes of direct reversal and mismatch repair in mtDNA, these processes are not well characterized.===Lack of mitochondrial DNA===Some organisms have lost mitochondrial DNA altogether.", "In these cases, genes encoded by the mitochondrial DNA have been lost or transferred to the nucleus.", "''Cryptosporidium'' have mitochondria that lack any DNA, presumably because all their genes have been lost or transferred.", "In ''Cryptosporidium'', the mitochondria have an altered ATP generation system that renders the parasite resistant to many classical mitochondrial inhibitors such as cyanide, azide, and atovaquone.", "Mitochondria that lack their own DNA have been found in a marine parasitic dinoflagellate from the genus ''Amoebophyra''.", "This microorganism, ''A.", "cerati'', has functional mitochondria that lack a genome.", "In related species, the mitochondrial genome still has three genes, but in ''A.", "cerati'' only a single mitochondrial gene — the cytochrome c oxidase I gene (''cox1'') — is found, and it has migrated to the genome of the nucleus." ], [ "Dysfunction and disease", "===Mitochondrial diseases===Damage and subsequent dysfunction in mitochondria is an important factor in a range of human diseases due to their influence in cell metabolism.", "Mitochondrial disorders often present as neurological disorders, including autism.", "They can also manifest as myopathy, diabetes, multiple endocrinopathy, and a variety of other systemic disorders.", "Diseases caused by mutation in the mtDNA include Kearns–Sayre syndrome, MELAS syndrome and Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy.", "In the vast majority of cases, these diseases are transmitted by a female to her children, as the zygote derives its mitochondria and hence its mtDNA from the ovum.", "Diseases such as Kearns-Sayre syndrome, Pearson syndrome, and progressive external ophthalmoplegia are thought to be due to large-scale mtDNA rearrangements, whereas other diseases such as MELAS syndrome, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, MERRF syndrome, and others are due to point mutations in mtDNA.It has also been reported that drug tolerant cancer cells have an increased number and size of mitochondria which suggested an increase in mitochondrial biogenesis.", "A 2022 study in ''Nature Nanotechnology'' has reported that cancer cells can hijack the mitochondria from immune cells via physical tunneling nanotubes.In other diseases, defects in nuclear genes lead to dysfunction of mitochondrial proteins.", "This is the case in Friedreich's ataxia, hereditary spastic paraplegia, and Wilson's disease.", "These diseases are inherited in a dominance relationship, as applies to most other genetic diseases.", "A variety of disorders can be caused by nuclear mutations of oxidative phosphorylation enzymes, such as coenzyme Q10 deficiency and Barth syndrome.", "Environmental influences may interact with hereditary predispositions and cause mitochondrial disease.", "For example, there may be a link between pesticide exposure and the later onset of Parkinson's disease.", "Other pathologies with etiology involving mitochondrial dysfunction include schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, dementia, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, stroke, cardiovascular disease, chronic fatigue syndrome, retinitis pigmentosa, and diabetes mellitus.Mitochondria-mediated oxidative stress plays a role in cardiomyopathy in type 2 diabetics.", "Increased fatty acid delivery to the heart increases fatty acid uptake by cardiomyocytes, resulting in increased fatty acid oxidation in these cells.", "This process increases the reducing equivalents available to the electron transport chain of the mitochondria, ultimately increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production.", "ROS increases uncoupling proteins (UCPs) and potentiate proton leakage through the adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT), the combination of which uncouples the mitochondria.", "Uncoupling then increases oxygen consumption by the mitochondria, compounding the increase in fatty acid oxidation.", "This creates a vicious cycle of uncoupling; furthermore, even though oxygen consumption increases, ATP synthesis does not increase proportionally because the mitochondria are uncoupled.", "Less ATP availability ultimately results in an energy deficit presenting as reduced cardiac efficiency and contractile dysfunction.", "To compound the problem, impaired sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium release and reduced mitochondrial reuptake limits peak cytosolic levels of the important signaling ion during muscle contraction.", "Decreased intra-mitochondrial calcium concentration increases dehydrogenase activation and ATP synthesis.", "So in addition to lower ATP synthesis due to fatty acid oxidation, ATP synthesis is impaired by poor calcium signaling as well, causing cardiac problems for diabetics.Mitochondria also modulate processes such as testicular somatic cell development, spermatogonial stem cell differentiation, luminal acidification, testosterone production in testes, and more.", "Thus, dysfunction of mitochondria in spermatozoa can be a cause for infertility.In efforts to combat mitochondrial disease, mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) has been developed.", "This form of in vitro fertilization uses donor mitochondria, which avoids the transmission of diseases caused by mutations of mitochondrial DNA.", "However, this therapy is still being researched and can introduce genetic modification, as well as safety concerns.", "These diseases are rare but can be extremely debilitating and progressive diseases, thus posing complex ethical questions for public policy.===Relationships to aging===There may be some leakage of the electrons transferred in the respiratory chain to form reactive oxygen species.", "This was thought to result in significant oxidative stress in the mitochondria with high mutation rates of mitochondrial DNA.", "Hypothesized links between aging and oxidative stress are not new and were proposed in 1956, which was later refined into the mitochondrial free radical theory of aging.", "A vicious cycle was thought to occur, as oxidative stress leads to mitochondrial DNA mutations, which can lead to enzymatic abnormalities and further oxidative stress.A number of changes can occur to mitochondria during the aging process.", "Tissues from elderly humans show a decrease in enzymatic activity of the proteins of the respiratory chain.", "However, mutated mtDNA can only be found in about 0.2% of very old cells.", "Large deletions in the mitochondrial genome have been hypothesized to lead to high levels of oxidative stress and neuronal death in Parkinson's disease.", "Mitochondrial dysfunction has also been shown to occur in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.Since mitochondria cover a pivotal role in the ovarian function, by providing ATP necessary for the development from germinal vesicle to mature oocyte, a decreased mitochondria function can lead to inflammation, resulting in premature ovarian failure and accelerated ovarian aging.", "The resulting dysfunction is then reflected in quantitative (such as mtDNA copy number and mtDNA deletions), qualitative (such as mutations and strand breaks) and oxidative damage (such as dysfunctional mitochondria due to ROS), which are not only relevant in ovarian aging, but perturb oocyte-cumulus crosstalk in the ovary, are linked to genetic disorders (such as Fragile X) and can interfere with embryo selection." ], [ "History", "The first observations of intracellular structures that probably represented mitochondria were published in 1857, by the physiologist Albert von Kolliker.", "Richard Altmann, in 1890, established them as cell organelles and called them \"bioblasts.\"", "In 1898, Carl Benda coined the term \"mitochondria\" from the Greek , , \"thread\", and , , \"granule.\"", "Leonor Michaelis discovered that Janus green can be used as a supravital stain for mitochondria in 1900.In 1904, Friedrich Meves made the first recorded observation of mitochondria in plants in cells of the white waterlily, ''Nymphaea alba,'' and in 1908, along with Claudius Regaud, suggested that they contain proteins and lipids.", "Benjamin F. Kingsbury, in 1912, first related them with cell respiration, but almost exclusively based on morphological observations.", "In 1913, Otto Heinrich Warburg linked respiration to particles which he had obtained from extracts of guinea-pig liver and which he called \"grana\".", "Warburg and Heinrich Otto Wieland, who had also postulated a similar particle mechanism, disagreed on the chemical nature of the respiration.", "It was not until 1925, when David Keilin discovered cytochromes, that the respiratory chain was described.In 1939, experiments using minced muscle cells demonstrated that cellular respiration using one oxygen molecule can form four adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules, and in 1941, the concept of the phosphate bonds of ATP being a form of energy in cellular metabolism was developed by Fritz Albert Lipmann.", "In the following years, the mechanism behind cellular respiration was further elaborated, although its link to the mitochondria was not known.", "The introduction of tissue fractionation by Albert Claude allowed mitochondria to be isolated from other cell fractions and biochemical analysis to be conducted on them alone.", "In 1946, he concluded that cytochrome oxidase and other enzymes responsible for the respiratory chain were isolated to the mitochondria.", "Eugene Kennedy and Albert Lehninger discovered in 1948 that mitochondria are the site of oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes.", "Over time, the fractionation method was further developed, improving the quality of the mitochondria isolated, and other elements of cell respiration were determined to occur in the mitochondria.The first high-resolution electron micrographs appeared in 1952, replacing the Janus Green stains as the preferred way to visualize mitochondria.", "This led to a more detailed analysis of the structure of the mitochondria, including confirmation that they were surrounded by a membrane.", "It also showed a second membrane inside the mitochondria that folded up in ridges dividing up the inner chamber and that the size and shape of the mitochondria varied from cell to cell.The popular term \"powerhouse of the cell\" was coined by Philip Siekevitz in 1957.In 1967, it was discovered that mitochondria contained ribosomes.", "In 1968, methods were developed for mapping the mitochondrial genes, with the genetic and physical map of yeast mitochondrial DNA completed in 1976." ], [ "See also", "* Anti-mitochondrial antibodies* Mitochondrial metabolic rates* Mitochondrial permeability transition pore* Mitophagy* Nebenkern* Oncocyte* Oncocytoma* Paternal mtDNA transmission* Plastid* Submitochondrial particle" ], [ "References", "'''General'''*" ], [ "External links", "* * Powering the Cell Mitochondria – XVIVO Scientific Animation* Mitodb.com – The mitochondrial disease database.", "* Mitochondria Atlas at University of Mainz* Mitochondria Research Portal at mitochondrial.net* Mitochondria: Architecture dictates function at cytochemistry.net* Mitochondria links at University of Alabama* MIP Mitochondrial Physiology Society* 3D structures of proteins from inner mitochondrial membrane at University of Michigan* 3D structures of proteins associated with outer mitochondrial membrane at University of Michigan* Mitochondrial Protein Partnership at University of Wisconsin* MitoMiner – A mitochondrial proteomics database at MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit* Mitochondrion – Cell Centered Database* Mitochondrion Reconstructed by Electron Tomography at San Diego State University* Video Clip of Rat-liver Mitochondrion from Cryo-electron Tomography" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Minimax" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Minmax''' (sometimes '''Minimax''', '''MM''' or '''saddle point''') is a decision rule used in artificial intelligence, decision theory, game theory, statistics, and philosophy for ''minimizing'' the possible loss for a worst case (''max''imum loss) scenario.", "When dealing with gains, it is referred to as \"maximin\" – to maximize the minimum gain.", "Originally formulated for several-player zero-sum game theory, covering both the cases where players take alternate moves and those where they make simultaneous moves, it has also been extended to more complex games and to general decision-making in the presence of uncertainty." ], [ "Game theory", "=== In general games ===The '''maximin value''' is the highest value that the player can be sure to get without knowing the actions of the other players; equivalently, it is the lowest value the other players can force the player to receive when they know the player's action.", "Its formal definition is::Where:* is the index of the player of interest.", "* denotes all other players except player .", "* is the action taken by player .", "* denotes the actions taken by all other players.", "* is the value function of player .Calculating the maximin value of a player is done in a worst-case approach: for each possible action of the player, we check all possible actions of the other players and determine the worst possible combination of actions – the one that gives player the smallest value.", "Then, we determine which action player can take in order to make sure that this smallest value is the highest possible.For example, consider the following game for two players, where the first player (\"row player\") may choose any of three moves, labelled , , or , and the second player (\"column player\") may choose either of two moves, or .", "The result of the combination of both moves is expressed in a payoff table::(where the first number in each of the cell is the pay-out of the row player and the second number is the pay-out of the column player).For the sake of example, we consider only pure strategies.", "Check each player in turn:* The row player can play , which guarantees them a payoff of at least (playing is risky since it can lead to payoff , and playing can result in a payoff of ).", "Hence: .", "* The column player can play and secure a payoff of at least (playing puts them in the risk of getting ).", "Hence: .If both players play their respective maximin strategies , the payoff vector is .The '''minimax value''' of a player is the smallest value that the other players can force the player to receive, without knowing the player's actions; equivalently, it is the largest value the player can be sure to get when they ''know'' the actions of the other players.", "Its formal definition is::The definition is very similar to that of the maximin value – only the order of the maximum and minimum operators is inverse.", "In the above example:* The row player can get a maximum value of (if the other player plays ) or (if the other player plays ), so: * The column player can get a maximum value of (if the other player plays ), (if ) or (if ).", "Hence: For every player , the maximin is at most the minimax::Intuitively, in maximin the maximization comes after the minimization, so player tries to maximize their value before knowing what the others will do; in minimax the maximization comes before the minimization, so player is in a much better position – they maximize their value knowing what the others did.Another way to understand the ''notation'' is by reading from right to left: When we write:the initial set of outcomes depends on both and We first ''marginalize away'' from , by maximizing over (for every possible value of ) to yield a set of marginal outcomes which depends only on We then minimize over over these outcomes.", "(Conversely for maximin.", ")Although it is always the case that and the payoff vector resulting from both players playing their minimax strategies, in the case of or in the case of cannot similarly be ranked against the payoff vector resulting from both players playing their maximin strategy.=== In zero-sum games ===In two-player zero-sum games, the minimax solution is the same as the Nash equilibrium.In the context of zero-sum games, the minimax theorem is equivalent to:For every two-person, zero-sum game with finitely many strategies, there exists a value and a mixed strategy for each player, such that:(a) Given Player 2's strategy, the best payoff possible for Player 1 is , and:(b) Given Player 1's strategy, the best payoff possible for Player 2 is −.Equivalently, Player 1's strategy guarantees them a payoff of regardless of Player 2's strategy, and similarly Player 2 can guarantee themselves a payoff of −.", "The name ''minimax'' arises because each player minimizes the maximum payoff possible for the other – since the game is zero-sum, they also minimize their own maximum loss (i.e.", "maximize their minimum payoff).See also example of a game without a value.=== Example === Payoff matrix for player A B chooses B1 B chooses B2 B chooses B3 A chooses A1 +3 −2 +2 A chooses A2 −1 0 +4 A chooses A3 −4 −3 +1The following example of a zero-sum game, where '''A''' and '''B''' make simultaneous moves, illustrates ''maximin'' solutions.", "Suppose each player has three choices and consider the payoff matrix for '''A''' displayed on the table (\"Payoff matrix for player A\").", "Assume the payoff matrix for '''B''' is the same matrix with the signs reversed (i.e.", "if the choices are A1 and B1 then '''B''' pays 3 to '''A''').", "Then, the maximin choice for '''A''' is A2 since the worst possible result is then having to pay 1, while the simple maximin choice for '''B''' is B2 since the worst possible result is then no payment.", "However, this solution is not stable, since if '''B''' believes '''A''' will choose A2 then '''B''' will choose B1 to gain 1; then if '''A''' believes '''B''' will choose B1 then '''A''' will choose A1 to gain 3; and then '''B''' will choose B2; and eventually both players will realize the difficulty of making a choice.", "So a more stable strategy is needed.Some choices are ''dominated'' by others and can be eliminated: '''A''' will not choose A3 since either A1 or A2 will produce a better result, no matter what '''B''' chooses; '''B''' will not choose B3 since some mixtures of B1 and B2 will produce a better result, no matter what '''A''' chooses.Player '''A''' can avoid having to make an expected payment of more than by choosing A1 with probability and A2 with probability The expected payoff for '''A''' would be in case '''B''' chose B1 and in case '''B''' chose B2.Similarly, '''B''' can ensure an expected gain of at least , no matter what '''A''' chooses, by using a randomized strategy of choosing B1 with probability and B2 with probability .", "These mixed minimax strategies cannot be improved and are now stable.=== Maximin ===Frequently, in game theory, '''maximin''' is distinct from minimax.", "Minimax is used in zero-sum games to denote minimizing the opponent's maximum payoff.", "In a zero-sum game, this is identical to minimizing one's own maximum loss, and to maximizing one's own minimum gain.", "\"Maximin\" is a term commonly used for non-zero-sum games to describe the strategy which maximizes one's own minimum payoff.", "In non-zero-sum games, this is not generally the same as minimizing the opponent's maximum gain, nor the same as the Nash equilibrium strategy.=== In repeated games ===The minimax values are very important in the theory of repeated games.", "One of the central theorems in this theory, the folk theorem, relies on the minimax values." ], [ "Combinatorial game theory", "In combinatorial game theory, there is a minimax algorithm for game solutions.A '''simple''' version of the minimax ''algorithm'', stated below, deals with games such as tic-tac-toe, where each player can win, lose, or draw.", "If player A ''can'' win in one move, their best move is that winning move.", "If player B knows that one move will lead to the situation where player A ''can'' win in one move, while another move will lead to the situation where player A can, at best, draw, then player B's best move is the one leading to a draw.", "Late in the game, it's easy to see what the \"best\" move is.", "The minimax algorithm helps find the best move, by working backwards from the end of the game.", "At each step it assumes that player A is trying to '''maximize''' the chances of A winning, while on the next turn player B is trying to '''minimize''' the chances of A winning (i.e., to maximize B's own chances of winning).=== Minimax algorithm with alternate moves ===A '''minimax algorithm''' is a recursive algorithm for choosing the next move in an n-player game, usually a two-player game.", "A value is associated with each position or state of the game.", "This value is computed by means of a position evaluation function and it indicates how good it would be for a player to reach that position.", "The player then makes the move that maximizes the minimum value of the position resulting from the opponent's possible following moves.", "If it is '''A''''s turn to move, '''A''' gives a value to each of their legal moves.A possible allocation method consists in assigning a certain win for '''A''' as +1 and for '''B''' as −1.This leads to combinatorial game theory as developed by John H. Conway.", "An alternative is using a rule that if the result of a move is an immediate win for '''A''', it is assigned positive infinity and if it is an immediate win for '''B''', negative infinity.", "The value to '''A''' of any other move is the maximum of the values resulting from each of '''B''''s possible replies.", "For this reason, '''A''' is called the ''maximizing player'' and '''B''' is called the ''minimizing player'', hence the name ''minimax algorithm''.", "The above algorithm will assign a value of positive or negative infinity to any position since the value of every position will be the value of some final winning or losing position.", "Often this is generally only possible at the very end of complicated games such as chess or go, since it is not computationally feasible to look ahead as far as the completion of the game, except towards the end, and instead, positions are given finite values as estimates of the degree of belief that they will lead to a win for one player or another.This can be extended if we can supply a heuristic evaluation function which gives values to non-final game states without considering all possible following complete sequences.", "We can then limit the minimax algorithm to look only at a certain number of moves ahead.", "This number is called the \"look-ahead\", measured in \"plies\".", "For example, the chess computer Deep Blue (the first one to beat a reigning world champion, Garry Kasparov at that time) looked ahead at least 12 plies, then applied a heuristic evaluation function.The algorithm can be thought of as exploring the nodes of a ''game tree''.", "The ''effective branching factor'' of the tree is the average number of children of each node (i.e., the average number of legal moves in a position).", "The number of nodes to be explored usually increases exponentially with the number of plies (it is less than exponential if evaluating forced moves or repeated positions).", "The number of nodes to be explored for the analysis of a game is therefore approximately the branching factor raised to the power of the number of plies.", "It is therefore impractical to completely analyze games such as chess using the minimax algorithm.The performance of the naïve minimax algorithm may be improved dramatically, without affecting the result, by the use of alpha–beta pruning.", "Other heuristic pruning methods can also be used, but not all of them are guaranteed to give the same result as the unpruned search.A naïve minimax algorithm may be trivially modified to additionally return an entire Principal Variation along with a minimax score.=== Pseudocode ===The pseudocode for the depth-limited minimax algorithm is given below.", "'''function''' minimax(node, depth, maximizingPlayer) '''is''' '''if''' depth = 0 '''or''' node is a terminal node '''then''' '''return''' the heuristic value of node '''if''' maximizingPlayer '''then''' value := −∞ '''for each''' child of node '''do''' value := max(value, minimax(child, depth − 1, FALSE)) '''return''' value '''else''' ''(* minimizing player *)'' value := +∞ '''for each''' child of node '''do''' value := min(value, minimax(child, depth − 1, TRUE)) '''return''' value ''(* Initial call *)'' minimax(origin, depth, TRUE)The minimax function returns a heuristic value for leaf nodes (terminal nodes and nodes at the maximum search depth).", "Non-leaf nodes inherit their value from a descendant leaf node.", "The heuristic value is a score measuring the favorability of the node for the maximizing player.", "Hence nodes resulting in a favorable outcome, such as a win, for the maximizing player have higher scores than nodes more favorable for the minimizing player.", "The heuristic value for terminal (game ending) leaf nodes are scores corresponding to win, loss, or draw, for the maximizing player.", "For non terminal leaf nodes at the maximum search depth, an evaluation function estimates a heuristic value for the node.", "The quality of this estimate and the search depth determine the quality and accuracy of the final minimax result.Minimax treats the two players (the maximizing player and the minimizing player) separately in its code.", "Based on the observation that minimax may often be simplified into the negamax algorithm.=== Example ===A minimax tree exampleAn animated pedagogical example that attempts to be human-friendly by substituting initial infinite (or arbitrarily large) values for emptiness and by avoiding using the negamax coding simplifications.Suppose the game being played only has a maximum of two possible moves per player each turn.", "The algorithm generates the tree on the right, where the circles represent the moves of the player running the algorithm (''maximizing player''), and squares represent the moves of the opponent (''minimizing player'').", "Because of the limitation of computation resources, as explained above, the tree is limited to a ''look-ahead'' of 4 moves.The algorithm evaluates each ''leaf node'' using a heuristic evaluation function, obtaining the values shown.", "The moves where the ''maximizing player'' wins are assigned with positive infinity, while the moves that lead to a win of the ''minimizing player'' are assigned with negative infinity.", "At level 3, the algorithm will choose, for each node, the '''smallest''' of the ''child node'' values, and assign it to that same node (e.g.", "the node on the left will choose the minimum between \"10\" and \"+∞\", therefore assigning the value \"10\" to itself).", "The next step, in level 2, consists of choosing for each node the '''largest''' of the ''child node'' values.", "Once again, the values are assigned to each ''parent node''.", "The algorithm continues evaluating the maximum and minimum values of the child nodes alternately until it reaches the ''root node'', where it chooses the move with the largest value (represented in the figure with a blue arrow).", "This is the move that the player should make in order to ''minimize'' the ''maximum'' possible loss." ], [ "Minimax for individual decisions", "=== Minimax in the face of uncertainty ===Minimax theory has been extended to decisions where there is no other player, but where the consequences of decisions depend on unknown facts.", "For example, deciding to prospect for minerals entails a cost, which will be wasted if the minerals are not present, but will bring major rewards if they are.", "One approach is to treat this as a game against ''nature'' (see move by nature), and using a similar mindset as Murphy's law or resistentialism, take an approach which minimizes the maximum expected loss, using the same techniques as in the two-person zero-sum games.In addition, expectiminimax trees have been developed, for two-player games in which chance (for example, dice) is a factor.=== Minimax criterion in statistical decision theory ===In classical statistical decision theory, we have an estimator that is used to estimate a parameter We also assume a risk function usually specified as the integral of a loss function.", "In this framework, is called '''minimax''' if it satisfies: \\sup_\\theta R(\\theta,\\tilde{\\delta}) = \\inf_\\delta\\ \\sup_\\theta\\ R(\\theta,\\delta)\\ .An alternative criterion in the decision theoretic framework is the Bayes estimator in the presence of a prior distribution An estimator is Bayes if it minimizes the ''average'' risk: \\int_\\Theta R(\\theta,\\delta) \\ \\operatorname{d} \\Pi(\\theta)\\ .=== Non-probabilistic decision theory ===A key feature of minimax decision making is being non-probabilistic: in contrast to decisions using expected value or expected utility, it makes no assumptions about the probabilities of various outcomes, just scenario analysis of what the possible outcomes are.", "It is thus robust to changes in the assumptions, in contrast to these other decision techniques.", "Various extensions of this non-probabilistic approach exist, notably minimax regret and Info-gap decision theory.Further, minimax only requires ordinal measurement (that outcomes be compared and ranked), not ''interval'' measurements (that outcomes include \"how much better or worse\"), and returns ordinal data, using only the modeled outcomes: the conclusion of a minimax analysis is: \"this strategy is minimax, as the worst case is (outcome), which is less bad than any other strategy\".", "Compare to expected value analysis, whose conclusion is of the form: \"This strategy yields Minimax thus can be used on ordinal data, and can be more transparent." ], [ "Minimax in politics", "The concept of \"lesser evil\" voting (LEV) can be seen as a form of the minimax strategy where voters, when faced with two or more candidates, choose the one they perceive as the least harmful or the \"lesser evil.\"", "To do so, \"voting should not be viewed as a form of personal self-expression or moral judgement directed in retaliation towards major party candidates who fail to reflect our values, or of a corrupt system designed to limit choices to those acceptable to corporate elites,\" but rather as an opportunity to reduce harm or loss." ], [ "Maximin in philosophy", "In philosophy, the term \"maximin\" is often used in the context of John Rawls's ''A Theory of Justice,'' where he refers to it in the context of The Difference Principle.", "Rawls defined this principle as the rule which states that social and economic inequalities should be arranged so that \"they are to be of the greatest benefit to the least-advantaged members of society\"." ], [ "See also", " * Alpha–beta pruning* Expectiminimax* Computer chess* Horizon effect* Lesser of two evils principle* Minimax Condorcet* Minimax regret* Monte Carlo tree search* Negamax* Negascout* Sion's minimax theorem* Tit for Tat* Transposition table* Wald's maximin model" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * — A visualization applet* * — Play a betting-and-bluffing game against a mixed minimax strategy* * — game tree solving (Java Applet), for balance or off-balance trees, with or without alpha-beta pruning) algorithm visualization* — Tutorial with a numerical solution platform* — Java implementation used in a Checkers game* — Strategy Game Programming for board games such as Checkers and Chess" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Minnesota" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Minnesota''' ( ) is a state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States.", "It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents.", "Minnesota is known as the \"Land of 10,000 Lakes\" for having more than 14,000 bodies of fresh water covering at least ten acres each; roughly a third of the state is forested; much of the remainder is prairie and farmland.", "More than 60% of Minnesotans (about 3.7 million) live in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan area, known as the \"Twin Cities\", the state's main political, economic, and cultural hub and the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the U.S. Other minor metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas include Duluth, Mankato, Moorhead, Rochester, and St. Cloud.Minnesota, which gets its name from the Dakota language, has been inhabited by various Indigenous peoples since the Woodland period of the 11th century BCE.", "Between roughly 200 and 500 CE, two areas of the indigenous Hopewell tradition emerged: the Laurel complex in the north, and Trempealeau Hopewell in the Mississippi River Valley in the south.", "The Upper Mississippian culture, consisting of the Oneota people and other Siouan speakers, emerged around 1000 CE and lasted through the arrival of Europeans in the 17th century.", "French explorers and missionaries were the earliest Europeans to enter the region, encountering the Dakota, Ojibwe, and various Anishinaabe tribes.", "Much of what is now Minnesota formed part of the vast French holding of Louisiana, which the United States purchased in 1803.After several territorial reorganizations, the Minnesota Territory was admitted to the Union as the 32nd state in 1858.Minnesota's official motto, (\"The Star of the North\") is the only state motto in French; this phrase was adopted shortly after statehood and reflects both the state's early French explorers and its position as the northernmost state in the contiguous U.S.As part of the American frontier, Minnesota attracted settlers and homesteaders from across the country.", "Its growth was initially based on timber, agriculture, and railroad construction.", "Into the early 20th century, European immigrants arrived in significant numbers, particularly from Scandinavia, Germany, and Central Europe; many were linked to the failed revolutions of 1848, which partly influenced the state's development as a center of labor and social activism.", "Minnesota's rapid industrialization and urbanization precipitated major social, economic, and political changes in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; the state was at the forefront of labor rights, women's suffrage, and political reform.", "Consequently, Minnesota is unique among Midwestern states in being a relative stronghold of the Democratic Party, having voted for every Democratic presidential nominee since 1976, longer than any other U.S. state.Since the late 20th century, Minnesota's economy has diversified away from traditional industries such as agriculture and resource extraction to services, finance, and health care; it is consequently one of the richest states in terms of GDP and per capita income.", "Minnesota is home to 11 federally recognized Native American reservations (seven Ojibwe, four Dakota), and its culture, demographics, and religious landscape reflect Scandinavian and German influence.", "In more recent decades, the state has become more multicultural, driven by both larger domestic migration and immigration from Latin America, Asia, the Horn of Africa, and the Middle East; the state has the nation's largest population of Somali Americans and second-largest Hmong community.", "Minnesota's standard of living and level of education are among the highest in the U.S., and it is ranked among the best states in metrics such as employment, median income, safety, and governance." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''Minnesota'' comes from the Dakota name for the Minnesota River, which got its name from one of two words in Dakota: \"\", which means \"clear blue water\", or \"\", which means \"cloudy water\".", "Early explorers interpreted the Dakota name for the Minnesota River in different ways, and four spellings of the state's name were considered before settling on \"Minnesota\" in 1849, when the Territory of Minnesota was formed.", "Dakota people demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it ''''.", "Many places in the state have similar Dakota names, such as Minnehaha Falls (\"curling water\" or waterfall), Minneiska (\"white water\"), Minneota (\"much water\"), Minnetonka (\"big water\"), Minnetrista (\"crooked water\"), and Minneapolis, a hybrid word combining Dakota '''' (\"water\") and ''-'' (Greek for \"city\")." ], [ "History", "Map of Minnesota Territory 1849–1858When Europeans arrived in North America, the Dakota people lived in what is now Minnesota.", "The first Europeans to enter the region were French voyageurs, fur traders who arrived in the 17th century.", "They used the Grand Portage to access trapping and trading areas further into Minnesota.", "The Anishinaabe (also known as Ojibwe or Chippewa) were migrating into Minnesota, causing tensions with the Dakota people, and dislocated the Mdewakanton from their homelands along Mille Lacs Lake.", "Explorers such as Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, Father Louis Hennepin, Jonathan Carver, Henry Schoolcraft, and Joseph Nicollet mapped the state.The region was part of Spanish Louisiana from 1762 to 1802.The portion of the state east of the Mississippi River became part of the United States at the end of the American Revolutionary War, when the Second Treaty of Paris was signed.", "Land west of the Mississippi was acquired with the Louisiana Purchase, though the Hudson's Bay Company disputed the Red River Valley until the Treaty of 1818, when the border on the 49th parallel was agreed upon.", "In 1805 Zebulon Pike bargained with Native Americans to acquire land at the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers to create a military reservation.", "The construction of Fort Snelling followed between 1819 and 1825.Its soldiers built a grist mill and a sawmill at Saint Anthony Falls, which were harbingers of the water-powered industries around which Minneapolis later grew.", "Meanwhile, squatters, government officials, and others had settled near the fort; in 1839 the army forced them off military lands, and most moved downriver, just outside the military reservation, to the area that became St. Paul.Minnesota was part of several territorial organizations between acquisition and statehood.", "From 1812 to 1821 it was part of the Territory of Missouri that corresponded with much of the Louisiana Purchase.", "It was briefly an unorganized territory (1821–1834) and was later consolidated with Wisconsin, Iowa and half the Dakotas to form the short-lived Territory of Michigan (1834–1836).", "From 1836 to 1848, Minnesota and Iowa were part of the Territory of Wisconsin.", "From 1838 to 1846, Minnesota west of the Mississippi River was part of the Territory of Iowa.", "Minnesota east of the Mississippi was part of Wisconsin until 1848.When Iowa gained statehood western Minnesota was in an Unorganized Territory again.", "Minnesota Territory was formed on March 3, 1849.The first territorial legislature, held on September 2, 1849, was dominated by men of New England ancestry.", "Thousands of pioneers had come to create farms and cut timber.", "Minnesota became the 32nd U.S. state on May 11, 1858.The founding population was so overwhelmingly of New England origins that the state was dubbed \"the New England of the West\".Mixed Dakota-Europeans who were rescued by \"non-hostile\" Dakota.", "The girl in the foreground wrapped in the striped blanket is Elise Robertson, the sister of Thomas Robertson, a mixed blood who acted as an intermediary between the Dakota and the European-Americans during the leftTreaties between the U.S. government and the eastern Dakota and Ojibwe gradually forced the natives off their lands and onto reservations.", "As conditions deteriorated for the eastern Dakota, tensions rose, leading to the Dakota War of 1862.The conflict was ignited when four young Dakota men, searching for food, killed a family of white settlers on August 17.That night, a faction of Little Crow's eastern Dakota decided to try and drive all settlers out of the Minnesota River valley.", "In the weeks that followed, Dakota warriors killed hundreds of settlers, causing thousands to flee the area.", "The six-week war ended with the defeat of the eastern Dakota and 2,000 in custody, who were eventually exiled to the Crow Creek Reservation by the Great Sioux Reservation in Dakota Territory.", "The remaining 4,500 to 5,000 Dakota mostly fled the state into Rupert's Land.", "As many as 800 settlers were killed during the war.Minnesota Governor Alexander Ramsey subsequently declared that \"the Sioux Indians of Minnesota must be exterminated or driven forever beyond the borders of the state\" and placed a bounty of $25/scalp on the heads of the eastern Dakota men.", "Over 1,600 eastern Dakota women, children, and elderly walked from the Lower Sioux Agency to Fort Snelling to be held until the spring thaw allowed riverboats to take them out of Minnesota to Crow Creek Indian Reservation.", "William Crooks, commander of 6th Minnesota, had a palisade erected around the encampment on Pike Island, just below the fort, to protect native people from the soldiers and settlers.", "Conditions there were poor and between 125 and 300 died of disease.", "Around 400 Dakota men were tried after the war.", "303 were sentenced to death, but Abraham Lincoln reviewed the convictions and approved 39 of the death sentences.", "In December 1862, 38 of them were hanged.In early 1863, Ramsey resigned as governor to become the Federal Indian Commissioner.", "His successor, Governor Henry Swift, raised the bounty to $200/scalp.", "A total of $325 was paid out to four people collecting bounties, including for Little Crow who was killed in July 1863.Upon becoming Indian Commissioner, Ramsey set out to get Ojibwe lands too.", "In 1863 he negotiated the Treaty of Old Crossing, whereby the Ojibwe ceded all their land in northern Minnesota and moved to reservations.Logging, farming, and railroads were mainstays of Minnesota's early economy.", "The sawmills at Saint Anthony Falls and logging centers of Pine City, Marine on St. Croix, Stillwater, and Winona processed vast quantities of timber.", "These cities were on rivers that were ideal for transportation.", "St. Anthony Falls was later tapped to provide power for flour mills.", "Innovations by Minneapolis millers led to the production of Minnesota \"patent\" flour, which commanded almost double the price of \"bakers'\" or \"clear\" flour which it replaced.", "By 1900 Minnesota mills, led by Pillsbury, Northwestern, and the Washburn-Crosby Company (an ancestor of General Mills), were grinding 14.1% of the nation's grain.Phelps Mill in Otter Tail CountyThe state's iron-mining industry was established with the discovery of iron in the Vermilion and Mesabi ranges in the 1880s, followed by the Cuyuna Range in the early 1900s.", "The ore went by rail to Duluth and Two Harbors for ship transport east via the Great Lakes.Industrial development and the rise of manufacturing caused the population to shift gradually from rural areas to cities during the early 20th century.", "Nevertheless, farming remained prevalent.", "Minnesota's economy was hit hard by the Great Depression, resulting in lower prices for farmers, layoffs among iron miners, and labor unrest.", "Compounding the adversity, western Minnesota and the Dakotas were hit by drought from 1931 to 1935.New Deal programs provided some economic turnaround.", "The Civilian Conservation Corps and other programs around the state established some jobs for Indians on their reservations, and the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 provided the tribes with a mechanism of self-government.", "This gave Natives a greater voice within the state and promoted more respect for tribal customs because religious ceremonies and native languages were no longer suppressed.After World War II, industrial development quickened.", "New technology increased farm productivity through automation of feedlots for hogs and cattle, machine milking at dairy farms, and raising chickens in large buildings.", "Planting became more specialized, with hybridization of corn and wheat, and farm machinery such as tractors and combines became the norm.", "University of Minnesota professor Norman Borlaug contributed to these developments as part of the Green Revolution.", "Increased mobility in turn enabled more specialized jobs.", "Minnesota became a center of technology after World War II.", "Engineering Research Associates was formed in 1946 to develop computers for the United States Navy.", "It later merged with Remington Rand, and then became Sperry Rand.", "William Norris left Sperry in 1957 to form Control Data Corporation (CDC).", "Cray Research was formed when Seymour Cray left CDC to form his own company.", "Medical device maker Medtronic also started business in the Twin Cities in 1949.The nonprofit Mayo Clinic, which was founded in 1864 in Rochester, grew to become one of the country's leading medical systems, and, by the 21st century, Minnesota's largest private employer.In 1957, the legislature created a planning commission for the Twin Cities metropolitan area, which became the Metropolitan Council in 1967.In 1971, under Governor Wendell Anderson, a series of legislation called the \"Minnesota Miracle\" led to a broad reform in financing of Minnesota public schools and local governments that created a fairer distribution in taxation and education.", "Two postwar Minnesota governors, former dentist Rudy Perpich and former professional wrestler Jesse Ventura, attracted national attention for their unconventional manner, but both enjoyed some popularity within the state.", "After a period of mostly divided government during the 21st century, the DFL (Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party) gained control of all three branches of Minnesota's government and passed significant reforms in the 2023 legislative session, moving the state in a progressive direction." ], [ "Geography", "Scalable map of Minnesota, showing roads and major bodies of waterMinnesota is the second northernmost U.S. state (after Alaska) and northernmost contiguous state, as the isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods County is the only part of the 48 contiguous states north of the 49th parallel.", "The state is part of the U.S. region known as the Upper Midwest and part of North America's Great Lakes region.", "It shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east.", "Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, and the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba are to the north.", "With , or approximately 2.25% of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state.=== Geology ===Tilted beds of the Middle Precambrian Thomson Formation in Jay Cooke State ParkMinnesota has some of the earth's oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6billion years old (80% as old as the planet).", "About 2.7billion years ago basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean; the remains of this volcanic rock formed the Canadian Shield in northeast Minnesota.", "The roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota.", "Since a period of volcanism 1.1billion years ago, Minnesota's geological activity has been more subdued, with no volcanism or mountain formation, but with repeated incursions of the sea, which left behind multiple strata of sedimentary rock.In more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the state's landscape and sculpted its terrain.", "The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago.", "These glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock.", "This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift.", "Much of the remainder of the state has 50 feet (15m) or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated.", "Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago.", "Its flatbed now is the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling.", "Minnesota is geologically quiet today; it experiences earthquakes infrequently, most of them minor.Palisade Head on Lake Superior was formed from a Precambrian rhyolitic lava flow.The state's high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet (701m), which is only away from the low point of 601 feet (183m) at the shore of Lake Superior.", "Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a gently rolling peneplain.Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesota's northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed.", "Precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean.The state's nickname \"Land of 10,000 Lakes\" is apt, as there are 11,842 Minnesota lakes over in size.", "Minnesota has the most named lakes of any U.S. states, but not the most lakes overall.", "Minnesota's portion of Lake Superior is the largest at and deepest (at ) body of water in the state.", "Minnesota has 6,564 natural rivers and streams that cumulatively flow for .", "The Mississippi River begins its journey from its headwaters at Lake Itasca and crosses the Iowa border downstream.", "It is joined by the Minnesota River at Fort Snelling, by the St. Croix River near Hastings, by the Chippewa River at Wabasha, and by many smaller streams.", "The Red River drains the northwest part of the state northward toward Canada's Hudson Bay.", "Approximately of wetlands are within Minnesota's borders, the most of any state outside Alaska.=== Flora and fauna ===Minnesota has four ecological provinces: prairie parkland, in the southwestern and western parts of the state; the eastern broadleaf forest (Big Woods) in the southeast, extending in a narrowing strip to the state's northwestern part, where it transitions into tallgrass aspen parkland; and the northern Laurentian mixed forest, a transitional forest between the northern boreal forest and the broadleaf forests to the south.", "These northern forests are a vast wilderness of pine and spruce trees mixed with patchy stands of birch and poplar.Much of Minnesota's northern forest has undergone logging, leaving only a few patches of old growth forest today in areas such as the Chippewa National Forest and the Superior National Forest, where the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness has some of unlogged land.", "Although logging continues, regrowth and replanting keep about a third of the state forested.", "Nearly all Minnesota's prairies and oak savannas have been fragmented by farming, grazing, logging, and suburban development.While loss of habitat has affected native animals such as the pine marten, elk, woodland caribou, and bison, others like whitetail deer and bobcat thrive.", "Minnesota has the nation's largest population of timber wolves outside Alaska, and supports healthy populations of black bears, moose, and gophers.", "Located on the Mississippi Flyway, Minnesota hosts migratory waterfowl such as geese and ducks, and game birds such as grouse, pheasants, and turkeys.", "It is home to birds of prey, including the largest number of breeding pairs of bald eagles in the lower 48 states as of 2007, red-tailed hawks, and snowy owls.", "Hawk Ridge is one of the premier birdwatching sites in North America.", "The lakes teem with sport fish such as walleye, bass, muskellunge, and northern pike, while brook, brown, and rainbow trout populate streams in the southeast and northeast.=== Climate ===Köppen climate types of MinnesotaMinnesota experiences temperature extremes characteristic of its continental climate, with cold winters and hot summers.", "The lowest temperature recorded was at Tower on February 2, 1996, and the highest was at Moorhead on July 6, 1936.Meteorological events include rain, snow, blizzards, thunderstorms, hail, derechos, tornadoes, and high-velocity straight-line winds.", "The growing season varies from 90 days in the far northeast to 160 days in southeast Minnesota near the Mississippi River, and average temperatures range from .", "Average summer dewpoints range from about in the south to about in the north.", "Average annual precipitation ranges from , and droughts occur every 10 to 50 years.+Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected cities in MinnesotaLocationJuly (°F)July (°C)January (°F)January (°C)Minneapolis 83/64 28/18 23/7 −4/−13Saint Paul 83/63 28/17 23/6 −5/−14Rochester 82/63 28/17 23/3 −5/−16Duluth 76/55 24/13 19/1 −7/−17St.", "Cloud 81/58 27/14 18/−1 −7/−18Mankato 86/62 30/16 23/3 −5/−16International Falls 77/52 25/11 15/−6 −9/−21=== Protected lands ===Pose Lake in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area WildernessMinnesota's first state park, Itasca State Park, was established in 1891, and is the source of the Mississippi River.", "Today Minnesota has 72 state parks and recreation areas, 58 state forests covering about four million acres (16,000km2), and numerous state wildlife preserves, all managed by the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources.", "The Chippewa and Superior national forests comprise .", "The Superior National Forest in the northeast contains the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness, which encompasses over a million acres (4,000km2) and a thousand lakes.", "To its west is Voyageurs National Park.", "The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area (MNRRA) is a corridor along the Mississippi River through the Minneapolis–St.", "Paul Metropolitan Area connecting a variety of sites of historic, cultural, and geologic interest." ], [ "Cities and towns", "National Farmers Bank in Owatonna by Louis SullivanSaint Paul, in east-central Minnesota along the banks of the Mississippi River, has been Minnesota's capital city since 1849, first as capital of the Territory of Minnesota, and then as the state capital since 1858.Saint Paul is adjacent to Minnesota's most populous city, Minneapolis; they and their suburbs are collectively known as the Twin Cities metropolitan area, the country's 16th-largest metropolitan area and home to about 55% of the state's population.", "The remainder of the state is known as \"Greater Minnesota\" or \"Outstate Minnesota\".The state has 17 cities with populations above 50,000 as of the 2010 census.", "In descending order of population, they are Minneapolis, Saint Paul, Rochester, Duluth, Bloomington, Brooklyn Park, Plymouth, Saint Cloud, Woodbury, Eagan, Maple Grove, Coon Rapids, Eden Prairie, Minnetonka, Burnsville, Apple Valley, Blaine, and Lakeville.", "Of these, only Rochester, Duluth, and Saint Cloud are outside the Twin Cities metropolitan area.Minnesota's population continues to grow, primarily in the urban centers.", "The populations of metropolitan Sherburne and Scott counties doubled between 1980 and 2000, while 40 of the state's 87 counties lost residents over the same period.The United States Navy has recognizedmultiple Minnesota communities." ], [ "Demographics", "=== Overview ===Minnesota 2020 Population Density MapAccording to the United States Census Bureau and the Minnesota State Demographic Center, Minnesota had a population of about 5.7 million in 2020, making it the 22nd-most populous U.S. state.", "Its fertility rate in 2021 was slightly below the replacement rate at 1.75, but the state has seen growth over the past century through more births than deaths, and significant immigration.", "A destination for European immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, primarily from Scandinavia, Germany, and Ireland, it now attracts people from Latin America, primarily Mexico; East Africa, particularly Somalis; and South and Southeast Asia, especially Hmong, Vietnamese, and Indians.", "The state has a diverse population in terms of age, birthplace, ancestry, and socioeconomic status, with a well-educated populace and a median household income around $77,000.=== Race and ethnicity ===Minnesota's racial demographics have significantly diversified since its early settlement period.", "As of 2020, according to U.S. census data, the white population had fallen to 77.5% from over 98% in the early to mid-20th century.", "Concurrently, other racial populations have markedly increased.", "The Black population has risen to 7%, the Asian population to 5.3%, and those identifying as two or more races to 6.1%.+ Racial composition in 2020 Race Percentage White 77.5% Black or African American 7.0% American Indian 1.2% Asian 5.3% Pacific Islander 0.1% Other race 3.2% Two or more races 6.1%According to the 2017 American Community Survey, 5.1% of Minnesota's population were of Hispanic or Latino origin (of any race): Mexican (3.5%), Puerto Rican (0.2%), Cuban (0.1%), and other Hispanic or Latino origin (1.2%).", "The ancestry groups claimed by more than 5% of the population were German (33.8%), Norwegian (15.3%), Irish (10.5%), Swedish (8.1%), and English (5.4%).", "Minnesota has the country's largest Somali population, and the largest Hmong population per capita.=== Immigration ===Since the 1960s, Minnesota's immigrant population has been shaped by its status as a major area for refugee resettlement.", "As of 2018, Minnesota had the largest refugee population per capita of any state, with 2% of the country's population but 13% of its refugees.", "Other refugee groups that have recently been settling in Minnesota include Burmese, Congolese, Russians, and Ukrainians.+'''Country of origin of first and second-generation immigrants (2023)'''CountryPopulation95,22776,658''Hmong people''55,00539,55936,98224,90124,35322,28320,16820,12619,23518,80416,82315,67913,54412,78712,137=== Religion ===French Renaissance style Cathedral of St. Paul in the city of St. PaulMinnesota's religious landscape is also diverse, having evolved significantly over its history.", "The area's first Christian influence came from Catholic missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries.", "19th-century European settlers, especially Scandinavians, established Protestant denominations, particularly Lutheranism.", "Catholicism also continued to be significant due to Irish immigrants, and the Archdiocese of Saint Paul and Minneapolis serves a substantial Catholic community.", "The 20th and 21st centuries witnessed growth in other Christian denominations and non-Christian religions due to further immigration, leading to the establishment of Buddhist, Hmong, and Muslim communities, as well as a sizable Jewish community.", "A growing number of people identify as non-religious, in line with national trends.", "As of 2014, 74% of Minnesotans identified as Christian, 5% belonged to non-Christian faiths, and 20% identified as religiously unaffiliated, according to the Pew Research Center." ], [ "Economy", "Once primarily a producer of raw materials, Minnesota's economy has transformed to emphasize finished products and services.", "Perhaps the most significant characteristic of the economy is its diversity; the relative outputs of its business sectors closely match the United States as a whole.", "Minnesota's economy had a gross domestic product of $383billion in 2019, with 33 of the United States' top 1,000 publicly traded companies by revenue headquartered in Minnesota, including Target, UnitedHealth Group, 3M, General Mills, U.S. Bancorp, Ameriprise, Hormel, Land O' Lakes, SuperValu, Best Buy, and Valspar.", "Private companies based in Minnesota include Cargill, the largest privately owned company in the United States, and Carlson Companies, the parent company of Radisson Hotels.Minnesota's per capita personal income in 2019 was $58,834, the thirteenth-highest in the nation.", "Its 2019 median household income was $74,593, ranking thirteenth in the U.S. and fifth among the 36 states not on the Atlantic coast.=== Industry and commerce ===The IDS Tower, designed by Philip Johnson, is the state's tallest building, reflecting César Pelli's Art Deco-style Wells Fargo Center.Minnesota's earliest industries were fur trading and agriculture.", "Minneapolis grew around the flour mills powered by St. Anthony Falls.", "Although less than 1% of the population is now employed in the agricultural sector, it remains a major part of the state's economy, ranking sixth in the nation in the value of products sold.", "The state is the nation's largest producer of sugar beets, sweet corn, and peas for processing, and farm-raised turkeys.", "Minnesota is also a large producer of corn and soybeans, and has the most food cooperatives per capita in the United States.", "Forestry remains strong, including logging, pulpwood processing and paper production, and forest products manufacturing.", "Minnesota was famous for its soft-ore mines, which produced a significant portion of the world's iron ore for more than a century.", "Although the high-grade ore is now depleted, taconite mining continues, using processes developed locally to save the industry.", "In 2016 the state produced 60% of the country's usable iron ore.", "The mining boom created the port of Duluth, which continues to be important for shipping ore, coal, and agricultural products.", "The manufacturing sector now includes technology and biomedical firms, in addition to the older food processors and heavy industry.", "The nation's first indoor shopping mall was Edina's Southdale Center, and its largest is Bloomington's Mall of America.Minnesota is one of 45 U.S. states with its own lottery; its games include multi-jurisdiction draws, in-house draws, and other games.=== Energy use and production ===Minnesota produces ethanol fuel and is the first to mandate its use, a 10% mix (E10).", "In 2019 there were more than 411 service stations supplying E85 fuel, comprising 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline.", "A 2% biodiesel blend has been required in diesel fuel since 2005.Minnesota is ranked in the top ten for wind energy production.", "The state gets nearly one-fifth of all its electrical energy from wind.Xcel Energy is the state's largest utility and is headquartered in the state; it is one of five investor-owned utilities.", "There are also a number of municipal utilities.=== State taxes ===Minnesota has a progressive income tax structure; the four brackets of state income tax rates are 5.35%, 7.05%, 7.85%, and 9.85%.", "As of 2008 Minnesota was ranked 12th in the nation in per capita total state and local taxes.", "In 2008 Minnesotans paid 10.2% of their income in state and local taxes; the U.S. average was 9.7%.", "The state sales tax in Minnesota is 6.875%, but clothing, prescription drug medications and food items for home consumption are exempt.", "The state legislature may allow municipalities to institute local sales taxes and special local taxes, such as the 0.5% supplemental sales tax in Minneapolis.", "Excise taxes are levied on alcohol, tobacco, and motor fuel.", "The state imposes a use tax on items purchased elsewhere but used within Minnesota.", "Owners of real property in Minnesota pay property tax to their county, municipality, school district, and special taxing districts." ], [ "Culture", "=== Fine and performing arts ===The Minneapolis Institute of Art's Neoclassical north facade, designed by McKim, Mead, and WhiteSculpture of St. Urho in Menahga, Minnesota, in 2020Minnesota's leading fine art museums include the Minneapolis Institute of Art, the Walker Art Center, the Frederick R. Weisman Art Museum, and The Museum of Russian Art (TMORA).", "All are in Minneapolis.", "The Minnesota Orchestra and the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra are prominent full-time professional musical ensembles who perform concerts and offer educational programs to the Twin Cities' community.", "The world-renowned Guthrie Theater moved into a new Minneapolis facility in 2006, boasting three stages and overlooking the Mississippi River.", "Attendance at theatrical, musical, and comedy events in the area is strong.", "In the United States, Minneapolis's number of theater companies ranks behind only New York City's, and about 2.3million theater tickets were sold in the Twin Cities annually as of 2006.The Minnesota Fringe Festival in Minneapolis is an annual celebration of theatre, dance, improvisation, puppetry, kids' shows, visual art, and musicals with more than 800 performances over 11 days.", "It is the country's largest non-juried performing arts festival.=== Literature ===The rigors and rewards of pioneer life on the prairie are the subject of ''Giants in the Earth'' by Ole Rolvaag and the ''Little House'' series of children's books by Laura Ingalls Wilder.", "Small-town life is portrayed grimly by Sinclair Lewis in the novel ''Main Street'', and more gently and affectionately by Garrison Keillor in his tales of Lake Wobegon.", "St. Paul native F. Scott Fitzgerald writes of the social insecurities and aspirations of the young city in stories such as ''Winter Dreams'' and ''The Ice Palace'' (published in ''Flappers and Philosophers'').", "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's epic poem ''The Song of Hiawatha'' was inspired by Minnesota and names of many of the state's places and bodies of water.", "Minnesota native Robert Zimmerman (Bob Dylan) won the 2016 Nobel Prize in Literature.", "Science fiction writer Marissa Lingen lives here.=== Entertainment ===First Avenue nightclub, the heart of Minnesota's music communityMinnesota musicians include Prince, Bob Dylan, Eddie Cochran, The Andrews Sisters, The Castaways, The Trashmen, Soul Asylum, David Ellefson, Chad Smith, John Wozniak, Hüsker Dü, Semisonic, The Replacements, Owl City, Holly Henry, Motion City Soundtrack, Atmosphere, and Dessa.", "Minnesotans helped shape the history of music through popular American culture: the Andrews Sisters' \"Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy\" was an iconic tune of World War II, while the Trashmen's \"Surfin' Bird\" and Bob Dylan epitomize two sides of the 1960s.", "In the 1980s, influential hit radio groups and musicians included Prince, The Original 7ven, Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis, The Jets, Lipps Inc., and Information Society.Minnesotans have also made significant contributions to comedy, theater, media, and film.", "The comic strip ''Peanuts'' was created by St. Paul native Charles M. Schulz.", "A Prairie Home Companion which first aired in 1974, became a long-running comedy radio show on National Public Radio.", "A cult sci-fi cable TV show, ''Mystery Science Theater 3000'', was created by Joel Hodgson in Hopkins, and Minneapolis, MN.", "Another popular comedy staple developed in the 1990s, ''The Daily Show'', was originated through Lizz Winstead and Madeleine Smithberg.Joel and Ethan Coen, Terry Gilliam, Bill Pohlad, and Mike Todd contributed to the art of filmmaking as writers, directors, and producers.", "Notable actors from Minnesota include Loni Anderson, Richard Dean Anderson, James Arness, Jessica Biel, Rachael Leigh Cook, Julia Duffy, Mike Farrell, Judy Garland, Peter Graves, Josh Hartnett, Garrett Hedlund, Tippi Hedren, Jessica Lange, Kelly Lynch, E.G.", "Marshall, Laura Osnes, Melissa Peterman, Chris Pratt, Marion Ross, Jane Russell, Winona Ryder, Seann William Scott, Kevin Sorbo, Lea Thompson, Vince Vaughn, Jesse Ventura, James Hong, and Steve Zahn.=== Popular culture ===A youth fiddle performance at the Minnesota State FairStereotypical traits of Minnesotans include \"Minnesota nice\", Lutheranism, a strong sense of community and shared culture, and a distinctive brand of North Central American English sprinkled with Scandinavian expressions.", "Potlucks, usually with a variety of hotdishes, are popular small-town church activities.", "A small segment of the Scandinavian population attend a traditional lutefisk dinner to celebrate Christmas.", "Life in Minnesota has also been depicted or used as a backdrop, in movies such as ''Fargo'', ''Grumpy Old Men'', ''Grumpier Old Men'', ''Juno'', ''Drop Dead Gorgeous'', ''Young Adult'', ''A Serious Man'', ''New in Town'', ''Rio'', ''The Mighty Ducks films,'' and in famous television series like ''Little House on the Prairie'', ''The Mary Tyler Moore Show'', ''The Golden Girls'', ''Coach'', ''The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show'', ''How I Met Your Mother'' and ''Fargo''.", "Major movies shot on location in Minnesota include ''That Was Then...", "This Is Now'', ''Purple Rain'', ''Airport'', ''Beautiful Girls'', ''North Country'', ''Untamed Heart'', ''Feeling Minnesota'', ''Jingle All The Way'', ''A Simple Plan'', and ''The Mighty Ducks films''.The Minnesota State Fair, advertised as ''The Great Minnesota Get-Together'', is an icon of state culture.", "In a state of 5.5million people, there were more than 1.8million visitors to the fair in 2014, setting a new attendance record.", "The fair covers the variety of Minnesota life, including fine art, science, agriculture, food preparation, 4-H displays, music, the midway, and corporate merchandising.", "It is known for its displays of seed art, butter sculptures of dairy princesses, the birthing barn, and the \"fattest pig\" competition.", "In September 1927, John Philip Sousa and his band gave the premiere performance of \"The Minnesota March\" at the fair before a grandstand crowd of 12,000.One can also find dozens of varieties of food on a stick, such as Pronto Pups, cheese curds, and deep-fried candy bars.", "On a smaller scale, many of these attractions are offered at numerous county fairs.Other large annual festivals include the Saint Paul Winter Carnival, the Minnesota Renaissance Festival, Minneapolis' Aquatennial and Mill City Music Festival, Moondance Jam in Walker, the Judy Garland Festival in Grand Rapids, the Eelpout Festival on Leech Lake, and the WE Fest in Detroit Lakes." ], [ "Health", "The Mayo Clinic in RochesterMinnesotans have low rates of premature death, infant mortality, cardiovascular disease, and occupational fatalities.", "They have long life expectancies, and high rates of health insurance and regular exercise.", "These and other measures have led two groups to rank Minnesota as the healthiest state in the nation; however, in one of these rankings, Minnesota descended from first to sixth in the nation between 2005 and 2009 because of low levels of public health funding and the prevalence of binge drinking.", "While overall health indicators are strong, Minnesota does have significant health disparities in minority populations.On October 1, 2007, the Freedom to Breathe Act took effect, outlawing smoking in restaurants and bars in Minnesota.The Minnesota Department of Health is the primary state health agency responsible for public policy and regulation.", "Medical care in the state is provided by a comprehensive network of hospitals and clinics operated by a number of large providers including Allina Hospitals & Clinics, CentraCare Health System, Essentia Health, HealthPartners, M Health Fairview and the Mayo Clinic Health System.", "There are two teaching hospitals and medical schools in Minnesota.", "The University of Minnesota Medical School is a high-rated teaching institution that has made a number of breakthroughs in treatment, and its research activities contribute significantly to the state's growing biotechnology industry.", "The Mayo Clinic, a world-renowned hospital based in Rochester, was founded by William Worrall Mayo, an immigrant from England.''U.S.", "News & World Report'' 2020–21 survey ranked 4,554 hospitals in the country in 12 specialized fields of care, and placed the Mayo Clinic in the top four in most fields.", "The hospital ranked first on the best hospitals honor roll.", "The only specialty where it fell outside the top ten was ophthalmology.", "The Mayo Clinic and the University of Minnesota are partners in the Minnesota Partnership for Biotechnology and Medical Genomics, a state-funded program that conducts research into cancer, Alzheimer's disease, heart health, obesity, and other areas." ], [ "Education", "The Richardsonian Romanesque Pillsbury Hall (1889) is one of the oldest buildings on the University of Minnesota Minneapolis campus.One of the first acts of the Minnesota Legislature when it opened in 1858 was the creation of a normal school in Winona.", "Minnesota's commitment to education has contributed to a literate and well-educated populace.", "In 2009, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, Minnesota had the second-highest proportion of high school graduates, with 91.5% of people 25 and older holding a high school diploma, and the tenth-highest proportion of people with bachelor's degrees.", "In 2015, Minneapolis was named the nation's \"Most Literate City\", while St. Paul placed fourth, according to a major annual survey.", "In a 2013 study conducted by the National Center for Educational Statistics comparing the performance of eighth-grade students internationally in math and science, Minnesota ranked eighth in the world and third in the United States, behind Massachusetts and Vermont.", "In 2014, Minnesota students earned the tenth-highest average composite score in the nation on the ACT exam.", "In 2013, nationwide in per-student public education spending, Minnesota ranked 21st.", "While Minnesota has chosen not to implement school vouchers, it is home to the first charter school.The state supports a network of public universities and colleges, including 37 institutions in the Minnesota State Colleges and Universities System, and five major campuses of the University of Minnesota system.", "It is also home to more than 20 private colleges and universities, six of which rank among the nation's top 100 liberal arts colleges, according to ''U.S.", "News & World Report''." ], [ "Transportation", "The Aerial Lift Bridge at DuluthTransportation in Minnesota is overseen by the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT) at the state level and by regional and local governments at the local level.", "Principal transportation corridors radiate from the Twin Cities metropolitan area and along interstate corridors in Greater Minnesota.", "The major Interstate highways are Interstate35 (I-35), I-90, and I-94, with I-35 and I-94 connecting the Minneapolis–St.", "Paul area, and I-90 traveling east–west along the southern edge of the state.", "In 2006, a constitutional amendment was passed that required sales and use taxes on motor vehicles to fund transportation, with at least 40% dedicated to public transit.", "There are nearly two dozen rail corridors in Minnesota, most of which go through Minneapolis–St.", "Paul or Duluth.", "There is water transportation along the Mississippi River system and from the ports of Lake Superior.Metro Green Line trains on the University of Minnesota–Twin Cities campusMinnesota's principal airport is Minneapolis–St.", "Paul International Airport (MSP), a major passenger and freight hub for Delta Air Lines and Sun Country Airlines.", "Most other domestic carriers serve the airport.", "Large commercial jet service is provided at Duluth and Rochester, with scheduled commuter service to four smaller cities via Delta Connection carriers SkyWest Airlines, Compass Airlines, and Endeavor Air.Public transit services are available in the regional urban centers in Minnesota including Metro Transit in the Twin Cities, opt-out suburban operators Minnesota Valley Transit Authority, SouthWest Transit, Plymouth Metrolink, Maple Grove Transit and others.", "In Greater Minnesota transit services are provided by city systems such as Duluth Transit Authority, Mankato Transit System, MATBUS (Fargo-Moorhead), Rochester Public Transit, Saint Cloud Metro Bus, Winona Public Transit and others.", "Dial-a-Ride service is available for persons with disabilities in a majority of Minnesota counties.In addition to bus services, Amtrak's daily ''Empire Builder'' (Chicago–Seattle/Portland) train runs through Minnesota, calling at the Saint Paul Union Depot and five other stations.", "Intercity bus providers include Jefferson Lines, Greyhound, and Megabus.", "Local public transit is provided by bus networks in the larger cities and by two rail services.", "The Northstar Line commuter rail service runs from Big Lake to the Target Field station in downtown Minneapolis.", "From there, light rail runs to Saint Paul Union Depot on the Green Line, and to the MSP airport and the Mall of America via the Blue Line." ], [ "Law and government", "historical coat of arms of Minnesota in 1876Minnesota is governed pursuant to the Minnesota Constitution, which was adopted on October 13, 1857, roughly one year before statehood.", "Like all U.S. states and the federal government, Minnesota has a republican system of political representation with power divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.", "The state constitution includes a bill of rights that reaffirms many of the same rights and freedoms as its federal counterpart, with some protected more strongly and explicitly.=== Executive ===Governor Tim WalzThe executive branch is led by Minnesota's governor, currently Tim Walz, a DFLer who took office on January 7, 2019.As chief executive, the governor appoints the heads of state agencies and is responsible for faithful execution of the law.", "As commander-in-chief of the state's armed forces, the governor also has command and control over the Minnesota National Guard.", "A cabinet consisting of the lieutenant governor and the heads of Minnesota's 22 state agencies consults and assists the governor in the business of state government.Aside from the governor and lieutenant governor, who are elected on a joint ticket, Minnesotans separately elect three other constitutional officers: a secretary of state, an attorney general, and a state auditor.", "These five \"executive officers\" together constitute the Executive Council, which has certain statutory responsibilities in matters of state finance, emergency management, and public lands administration.Constitutional officeholders:* Governor Tim Walz (DFL)* Lt.", "Governor Peggy Flanagan (DFL)* Secretary of State Steve Simon (DFL)* Attorney General Keith Ellison (DFL)* State Auditor Julie Blaha (DFL)=== Legislature ===The Minnesota State Capitol in Saint Paul, designed by Cass GilbertThe Minnesota Legislature is a bicameral body consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives.", "The state has 67 districts, each with about 60,000 people.", "Each district has one senator and two representatives, each senatorial district being divided into ''A'' and ''B'' sections for members of the House.", "Senators serve for four years and representatives for two years.Since 2023, both the House and Senate have had a slim DFL majority.=== Judiciary ===Minnesota's court system has three levels.", "Most cases start in the district courts, which are courts of general jurisdiction.", "There are 279 district court judgeships in ten judicial districts.", "Appeals from the trial courts and challenges to certain governmental decisions are heard by the Minnesota Court of Appeals, consisting of 19 judges who typically sit in three-judge panels.", "The seven-justice Minnesota Supreme Court hears all appeals from the tax court, the workers' compensation court of appeals, first-degree murder convictions, and discretionary appeals from the court of appeals; it also has original jurisdiction over election disputes.Two specialized courts within administrative agencies have been established: the workers' compensation court of appeals, and the tax court, which deals with non-criminal tax cases.Supreme Court Justices* Chief Justice Natalie HudsonAssociate Justices* Barry Anderson* David Lillehaug* Natalie Hudson* Margaret Chutich* Anne McKeig* Paul Thissen=== Regional ===In addition to the city and county levels of government found in the United States, Minnesota has other entities that provide governmental oversight and planning.", "Regional development commissions (RDCs) provide technical assistance to local governments in the broad multi-county areas of the state.", "Along with this Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs), such as the Metropolitan Council, provide planning and oversight of land use actions in metropolitan areas.", "Many lakes and rivers are overseen by watershed districts and soil and water conservation districts.=== Federal ===Minnesota's United States senators are Democrats Amy Klobuchar and Tina Smith.", "The state has eight congressional districts; they are represented by Brad Finstad (1st district; R), Angie Craig (2nd; DFL), Dean Phillips (3rd; DFL), Betty McCollum (4th; DFL), Ilhan Omar (5th; DFL), Tom Emmer (6th; R), Michelle Fischbach (7th; R), and Pete Stauber (8th; R).Federal court cases are heard in the United States District Court for the District of Minnesota, in Minneapolis, St. Paul, Duluth, and Fergus Falls.", "Appeals are heard by the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals in St. Louis, Missouri and St. Paul.=== Tribal ===The State of Minnesota was created by the United States federal government in the traditional and cultural range of lands occupied by the Dakota and Anishinaabe peoples as well as other Native American groups.", "After many years of unequal treaties and forced resettlement by the state and federal government, the tribes re-organized into sovereign tribal governments.", "Today, the tribal governments are divided into 11 semi-autonomous reservations that negotiate with the U.S. and the state on a bilateral basis:Four Dakota Mdewakanton communities:* Prairie Island Indian Community* Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community* Lower Sioux Indian Reservation* Upper Sioux CommunityPejuhutazizi OyateSeven Anishinaabe reservations:* Bois Forte Band of Chippewa* Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa* Grand Portage Band of Chippewa* Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe* Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe* White Earth Band of Ojibwe* Red Lake Band of ChippewaThe first six of the Anishinaabe bands compose the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, the collective federally recognized tribal government of the Bois Forte, Fond du Lac, Grand Portage, Leech Lake, Mille Lacs, and White Earth reservations." ], [ "Politics", "Minnesota is known for a politically active citizenry, and populism has been a long-standing force among the state's political parties.", "Minnesota has a consistently high voter turnout.", "In the 2008 U.S. presidential election, 78.2% of eligible Minnesotans votedthe highest percentage of any U.S. stateversus the national average of 61.2%.", "That figure was surpassed in 2020, when 79.96% of registered voters participated in the general election.", "Voters can register on election day at their polling places with evidence of residency.Hubert Humphrey brought national attention to the state with his address at the 1948 Democratic National Convention.", "Minnesotans have consistently cast their Electoral College votes for Democratic presidential candidates since 1976, longer than any other state.", "Minnesota is the only state in the nation that did not vote for Ronald Reagan in either of his presidential campaigns.", "Minnesota has voted for the Democratic nominee in every presidential election since 1960, with the exception of 1972, when the state was won by Republican Richard Nixon.Both the Democratic and Republican parties have major-party status in Minnesota, but its state-level Democratic party has a different name, officially known as the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party (DFL).", "It was formed out of a 1944 alliance of the Minnesota Democratic and Farmer-Labor parties.The state has had active third-party movements.", "The Reform Party, now the Independence Party, was able to elect former mayor of Brooklyn Park and professional wrestler Jesse Ventura to the governorship in 1998.The Independence Party has received enough support to keep major-party status.", "The Green Party, while no longer having major-party status, has a large presence in municipal government, notably in Minneapolis and Duluth, where it competes directly with the DFL party for local offices.", "Major-party status in Minnesota (which grants state funding for elections) is reserved for parties whose candidates receive five percent or more of the vote in any statewide election (e.g., governor, secretary of state, U.S. president).The state's U.S. Senate seats have generally been split since the early 1990s and in the 108th and 109th Congresses, Minnesota's congressional delegation was split, with four representatives and one senator from each party.", "In the 2006 mid-term election, Democrats were elected to all state offices, except governor and lieutenant governor, where Republicans Tim Pawlenty and Carol Molnau narrowly won reelection.", "The DFL posted double-digit gains in both houses of the legislature, elected Amy Klobuchar to the U.S. Senate, and increased the party's U.S. House caucus by one.", "Keith Ellison (DFL) was elected as the first African American U.S. Representative from Minnesota, as well as the first Muslim elected to Congress nationwide.", "In 2008, DFLer and former comedian and radio talk show host Al Franken defeated incumbent Republican Norm Coleman in the U.S. Senate race by 312 votes out of three million cast.In the 2010 election, Republicans took control of both chambers of the Minnesota legislature for the first time in 38 years and, with Mark Dayton's election, the DFL party took the governor's office for the first time in 20 years.", "Two years later, the DFL regained control of both houses, and with Dayton in office, the party had same-party control of both the legislative and executive branches for the first time since 1990.Two years later, the Republicans regained control of the Minnesota House, and in 2016, the GOP also regained control of the State Senate.In 2018, the DFL retook control of the Minnesota House, while electing DFLer Tim Walz as Governor.In a 2020 study, Minnesota was ranked as the 15th easiest state for citizens to vote in." ], [ "Media", "KSTP studiosThe Twin Cities area is the fifteenth largest media market in the United States, as ranked by Nielsen Media Research.", "The state's other top markets are Fargo–Moorhead (118th nationally), Duluth–Superior (137th), Rochester–Mason City–Austin (152nd), and Mankato (200th).Broadcast television in Minnesota and the Upper Midwest started on April 27, 1948, when KSTP-TV began broadcasting.", "Hubbard Broadcasting, which owns KSTP, is now the only locally owned television company in Minnesota.", "Twin Cities CBS station WCCO-TV and FOX station KMSP-TV are owned-and-operated by their respective networks.", "There are 39 analog broadcast stations and 23 digital channels broadcast over Minnesota.The four largest daily newspapers are the ''Star Tribune'' in Minneapolis, the ''Pioneer Press'' in Saint Paul, the ''Duluth News Tribune'' in Duluth, and the ''Post-Bulletin'' in Rochester.", "''The Minnesota Daily'' is the largest student-run newspaper in the U.S. Sites offering daily news on the Web include ''The UpTake'', ''MinnPost'', the Twin Cities ''Daily Planet'', business news site ''Finance and Commerce'' and Washington D.C.-based ''Minnesota Independent''.", "Weeklies including ''City Pages'' and monthly publications such as ''Minnesota Monthly'' are available.Two of the largest public radio networks, Minnesota Public Radio (MPR) and Public Radio International (PRI), are based in the state.", "MPR has the largest audience of any regional public radio network in the nation, broadcasting on 46 radio stations as of 2019.PRI weekly provides more than 400 hours of programming to almost 800 affiliates.", "The state's oldest radio station, KUOM-AM, was launched in 1922 and is among the 10-oldest radio stations in the United States.", "The University of Minnesota-owned station is still on the air, and since 1993 broadcasts a college rock format." ], [ "Sports, recreation and tourism", "Minnesota has an active program of organized amateur and professional sports.", "Tourism has become an important industry, especially in the Lake region.", "In the North Country, what had been an industrial area focused on mining and timber has largely been transformed into a vacation destination.", "Popular interest in the environment and environmentalism, added to traditional interests in hunting and fishing, has attracted a large urban audience within driving range.=== Organized sports ===The University of North Dakota and St.", "Cloud State University during the WCHA Final Five at the Xcel Energy CenterMinnesota has professional men's teams in all major sports.The Minnesota Vikings have played in the National Football League since their admission as an expansion franchise in 1961.They played in Metropolitan Stadium from 1961 through 1981 and in the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome from 1982 until its demolition after the 2013 season for the construction of the team's new home, U.S. Bank Stadium.", "The Vikings' current stadium hosted Super Bowl LII in February 2018.Super Bowl XXVI was played in the Metrodome in 1992.The Vikings have advanced to the Super Bowl Super Bowl IV, Super Bowl VIII, Super Bowl IX, and Super Bowl XI, losing all four games to their AFC/AFL opponent.The Minnesota Twins have played in the Major League Baseball in the Twin Cities since 1961.The Twins began play as the original Washington Senators, a founding member of the American League in 1901, relocating to Minnesota in 1961.The Twins won the 1987 and 1991 World Series in seven-game matches where the home team was victorious in all games.", "The Twins also advanced to the 1965 World Series, where they lost to the Los Angeles Dodgers in seven games.", "The team has played at Target Field since 2010.The Minneapolis Lakers of the National Basketball Association played in the Minneapolis Auditorium from 1947 to 1960, after which they relocated to Los Angeles.", "The Minnesota Timberwolves joined the NBA in 1989, and have played in Target Center since 1990.The National Hockey League's Minnesota Wild play in St. Paul's Xcel Energy Center, and reached 300 consecutive sold-out games on January 16, 2008.Previously, the Minnesota North Stars competed in NHL from 1967 to 1993, which played in and lost the 1981 and 1991 Stanley Cup Finals.Minnesota United FC joined Major League Soccer as an expansion team in 2017, having played in the lower-division North American Soccer League from 2010 to 2016.The team plays at Allianz Field in St. Paul.", "Previous professional soccer teams have included the Minnesota Kicks, which played at Metropolitan Stadium from 1976 to 1981, and the Minnesota Strikers from 1984 to 1988.Minnesota also has minor-league professional sports teams.", "The Minnesota Swarm of the National Lacrosse League played at the Xcel Energy Center until the team moved to Georgia in 2015.The St. Paul Saints, who play at CHS Field in St. Paul, are the Triple-A minor league affiliate of the Minnesota Twins.Professional women's sports include the Minnesota Lynx of the Women's National Basketball Association, winners of the 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2017 WNBA Championships, Minnesota Aurora FC of the United Soccer League W-League, the Minnesota Vixen of the Independent Women's Football League, the Minnesota Valkyrie of the Legends Football League, and the Minnesota Whitecaps of the National Women's Hockey League.The Twin Cities campus of the University of Minnesota is a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I school competing in the Big Ten Conference.", "Four additional schools in the state compete in NCAA Division I ice hockey: the University of Minnesota Duluth; Minnesota State University, Mankato; St.", "Cloud State University and Bemidji State University.", "There are nine NCAA Division II colleges in the Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference, and twenty NCAA Division III colleges in the Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference and Upper Midwest Athletic Conference.Minneapolis has hosted the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship in 1951, 1992, 2001, and 2019.The Hazeltine National Golf Club has hosted the U.S. Open, U.S. Women's Open, U.S. Senior Open and PGA Championship.", "The course also hosted the Ryder Cup in the fall of 2016, when it became one of two courses in the U.S. to host all major golf competitions.", "The Ryder Cup is scheduled to return in 2028.Interlachen Country Club has hosted the U.S. Open, U.S. Women's Open, and Solheim Cup.Winter Olympic Games medalists from the state include twelve of the twenty members of the gold medal 1980 ice hockey team (coached by Minnesota native Herb Brooks) and the bronze medalist U.S. men's curling team in the 2006 Winter Olympics.", "Swimmer Tom Malchow won an Olympic gold medal in the 2000 Summer games and a silver medal in 1996.Grandma's Marathon is run every summer along the scenic North Shore of Lake Superior, and the Twin Cities Marathon winds around lakes and the Mississippi River during the peak of the fall color season.", "Farther north, Eveleth is the location of the United States Hockey Hall of Fame.=== Outdoor recreation ===Fishing on Bde Maka Ska in MinneapolisMinnesotans participate in high levels of physical activity, and many of these activities are outdoors.", "The strong interest of Minnesotans in environmentalism has been attributed to the popularity of these pursuits.An old sauna cabin of Listening Point on the shores of Burntside Lake in Morse Township, MinnesotaIn the warmer months, these activities often involve water.", "Weekend and longer trips to family cabins on Minnesota's numerous lakes are a way of life for many residents.", "Activities include water sports such as water skiing, which originated in the state, boating, canoeing, and fishing.", "More than 36% of Minnesotans fish, second only to Alaska.Fishing does not cease when the lakes freeze; ice fishing has been around since the arrival of early Scandinavian immigrants.", "Minnesotans have learned to embrace their long, harsh winters in ice sports such as skating, hockey, curling, and broomball, and snow sports such as cross-country skiing, alpine skiing, luge, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling.", "Minnesota is the only U.S. state where bandy is played.State and national forests and the 72 state parks are used year-round for hunting, camping, and hiking.", "There are almost of snowmobile trails statewide.", "Minnesota has more miles of bike trails than any other state, and a growing network of hiking trails, including the Superior Hiking Trail in the northeast.", "Many hiking and bike trails are used for cross-country skiing during the winter." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Minnesota-related articles* Outline of Minnesota" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "=== Culture and history ===* Minnesota Historical Society* Minnesota Place Names* Minnesota Reflections * Minnesota State Guide from the Library of Congress=== General ===* === Government ===* * Indian Affairs Council, State of Minnesota* Prairie Island Indian Community* Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community* Lower Sioux Indian Community* The Upper Sioux Community Pejuhutazizi Oyate* Minnesota Chippewa Tribe* Bois Forte Band of Chippewa* Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa* Grand Portage Band of Lake Superior Chippewa* Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe* Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe* White Earth Indian Reservation Tribal Council* Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians=== Maps and demographics ===* Minnesota State Demographic Center* State Facts from USDA* Minnesota State Highway Map* Minnesota at OpenStreetMap=== Tourism and recreation ===* Explore Minnesota* Minnesota Department of Natural Resources*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Missouri River" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Missouri River''' is the longest river in the United States.", "Rising in the eastern Centennial Mountains of the Bitterroot Range of the Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana, the Missouri flows east and south for before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis, Missouri.", "The river drains semi-arid watershed of more than 500,000 square miles (1,300,000 km2), which includes parts of ten U.S. states and two Canadian provinces.", "Although a tributary of the Mississippi, the Missouri River is slightly longer and carries a comparable volume of water.", "When combined with the lower Mississippi River, it forms the world's fourth-longest river system.For over 12,000 years, people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation.", "More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed, most leading a nomadic lifestyle and dependent on enormous bison herds that roamed through the Great Plains.", "The first Europeans encountered the river in the late seventeenth century, and the region passed through Spanish and French hands before becoming part of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase.The Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century.", "The growth of the fur trade in the early 19th century laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region and blazed trails.", "Pioneers headed west ''en masse'' beginning in the 1830s, first by covered wagon, then by the growing numbers of steamboats that entered service on the river.", "Conflict between settlers and Native Americans in the watershed led to some of the most longstanding and violent of the American Indian Wars.During the 20th century, the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation, flood control, and the generation of hydroelectric power.", "Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river, with hundreds more on tributaries.", "Meanders have been cut off and the river channelized to improve navigation, reducing its length by almost from pre-development times.", "Although the lower Missouri valley is now a populous and highly productive agricultural and industrial region, heavy development has taken its toll on wildlife and fish populations as well as water quality." ], [ "Course", "From the Rocky Mountains, three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River:*The longest source stream begins near Brower's Spring in southwest Montana, above sea level on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains.", "From there it flows west then north; runs first in Hell Roaring Creek then west into the Red Rock; swings northeast to become the Beaverhead River; and finally joins with the Big Hole to form the Jefferson River.", "*The Firehole River, which originates in northwest Wyoming at Yellowstone National Park's Madison Lake, joins with the Gibbon River to form the Madison River.", "*The Gallatin River flows out of Gallatin Lake which is also in Yellowstone National Park.Holter Lake, a reservoir on the upper Missouri RiverThe Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks, Montana, and is joined by the Gallatin a mile (1.6 km) downstream.", "It then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake, a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains.", "Issuing from the mountains near Cascade, the river flows northeast to the city of Great Falls, where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri, a series of five substantial waterfalls.", "It then winds east through a scenic region of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks, receiving the Marias River from the west then widening into the Fort Peck Lake reservoir a few miles above the confluence with the Musselshell River.", "Farther on, the river passes through the Fort Peck Dam, and immediately downstream, the Milk River joins from the north.Flowing eastward through the plains of eastern Montana, the Missouri receives the Poplar River from the north before crossing into North Dakota where the Yellowstone River, its greatest tributary by volume, joins from the southwest.", "At the confluence, the Yellowstone is actually the larger river.The Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea, the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam.", "Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck, the capital of North Dakota, where the Heart River joins from the west.", "It slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence.", "While it continues south, eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota, the Grand, Moreau and Cheyenne Rivers all join the Missouri from the west.The Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains, receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest.", "It then proceeds to form the boundary of South Dakota and Nebraska and is joined by the James River from the north.", "At Sioux City the Big Sioux River comes in from the north, after which the Missouri forms the Iowa–Nebraska boundary.", "It flows south to the city of Omaha where it receives its longest tributary, the Platte River, from the west.", "Downstream, it begins to define the border between the states of Nebraska and Missouri, then flows between the states of Missouri and Kansas.", "The Missouri swings east at Kansas City, where the Kansas River enters from the west, and so on into north-central Missouri.", "To the east of Kansas City, the Missouri receives, on the left side, the Grand River.", "It passes south of Columbia and receives the Osage and Gasconade Rivers from the south downstream of Jefferson City.", "The river then rounds the northern side of St. Louis to join the Mississippi River on the border between Missouri and Illinois." ], [ "Watershed", "With a drainage basin spanning ,the Missouri River's catchment encompasses nearly one-sixth of the area of the United States or just over five percent of the continent of North America.", "Comparable to the size of the Canadian province of Quebec, the watershed encompasses most of the central Great Plains, stretching from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Mississippi River Valley in the east and from the southern extreme of western Canada to the border of the Arkansas River watershed.", "Compared with the Mississippi River above their confluence, the Missouri is twice as longand drains an area three times as large.The Missouri accounts for 45 percent of the annual flow of the Mississippi past St. Louis, and as much as 70 percent in certain droughts.In 1990, the Missouri River watershed was home to about 12 million people.", "This included the entire population of the U.S. state of Nebraska, parts of the U.S. states of Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming, and small southern portions of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.", "The watershed's largest city is Denver, Colorado, with a population of more than six hundred thousand.", "Denver is the main city of the Front Range Urban Corridor whose cities had a combined population of over four million in 2005, making it the largest metropolitan area in the Missouri River basin.", "Other major population centers – mostly in the watershed's southeastern portion – include Omaha, Nebraska, north of the confluence of the Missouri and Platte Rivers; Kansas City, Missouri – Kansas City, Kansas, at the confluence of the Missouri with the Kansas River; and the St. Louis metropolitan area, south of the Missouri River just below the latter's mouth, on the Mississippi.", "In contrast, the northwestern part of the watershed is sparsely populated.", "However, many northwestern cities, such as Billings, Montana, are among the fastest growing in the Missouri basin.With more than under the plow, the Missouri River watershed includes roughly one-fourth of all the agricultural land in the United States, providing more than a third of the country's wheat, flax, barley, and oats.", "However, only of farmland in the basin is irrigated.", "A further of the basin is devoted to the raising of livestock, mainly cattle.", "Forested areas of the watershed, mostly second-growth, total about .", "Urban areas, on the other hand, comprise less than of land.", "Most built-up areas are along the main stem and a few major tributaries, including the Platte and Yellowstone Rivers.The Missouri in North Dakota, which was the furthest upstream that French explorers traveled on the riverElevations in the watershed vary widely, ranging from just over at the Missouri's mouth to the summit of Mount Lincoln in central Colorado.", "The river drops from Brower's Spring, the farthest source.", "Although the plains of the watershed have extremely little local vertical relief, the land rises about 10 feet per mile (1.9 m/km) from east to west.", "The elevation is less than at the eastern border of the watershed, but is over above sea level in many places at the base of the Rockies.The Missouri's drainage basin has highly variable weather and rainfall patterns, Overall, the watershed is defined by a continental climate with warm, wet summers and harsh, cold winters.", "Most of the watershed receives an average of of precipitation each year.", "However, the westernmost portions of the basin in the Rockies as well as southeastern regions in Missouri may receive as much as .", "The vast majority of precipitation occurs in summer in most of the lower and middle basin, although the upper basin is known for short-lived but intense summer thunderstorms such as the one which produced the 1972 Black Hills flood through Rapid City, South Dakota.", "Winter temperatures in the northern and western portions of the basin typically drop to -20 °F (-29 °C) or lower every winter with extremes as low as , while summer highs occasionally exceed 100 °F (38 °C) in all areas except the higher elevations of Montana, Wyoming and Colorado.", "Extreme maximums have exceeded 115 °F (46 °C) in all the states and provinces in the basin - almost all prior to 1960.As one of the continent's most significant river systems, the Missouri's drainage basin borders on many other major watersheds of the United States and Canada.", "The Continental Divide, running along the spine of the Rocky Mountains, forms most of the western border of the Missouri watershed.", "The Clark Fork and Snake River, both part of the Columbia River basin, drain the area west of the Rockies in Montana, Idaho and western Wyoming.", "The Columbia, Missouri and Colorado River watersheds meet at Three Waters Mountain in Wyoming's Wind River Range.", "South of there, the Missouri basin is bordered on the west by the drainage of the Green River, a tributary of the Colorado, then on the south by the mainstem of the Colorado.", "Both the Colorado and Columbia Rivers flow to the Pacific Ocean.", "However, a large endorheic drainage called the Great Divide Basin exists between the Missouri and Green watersheds in western Wyoming.", "This area is sometimes counted as part of the Missouri River watershed, even though its waters do not flow to either side of the Continental Divide.To the north, the much lower Laurentian Divide separates the Missouri River watershed from those of the Oldman River, a tributary of the South Saskatchewan River, as well as the Souris, Sheyenne, and smaller tributaries of the Red River of the North.", "All of these streams are part of Canada's Nelson River drainage basin, which empties into Hudson Bay.", "There are also several large endorheic basins between the Missouri and Nelson watersheds in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan.", "The Minnesota and Des Moines Rivers, tributaries of the upper Mississippi, drain most of the area bordering the eastern side of the Missouri River basin.", "Finally, on the south, the Ozark Mountains and other low divides through central Missouri, Kansas and Colorado separate the Missouri watershed from those of the White River and Arkansas River, also tributaries of the Mississippi River.===Major tributaries===The Yellowstone River, the fifth longest tributary of the Missouri, which it joins in North DakotaOver 95 significant tributaries and hundreds of smaller ones feed the Missouri River, with most of the larger ones coming in as the river draws close to the mouth.", "Most rivers and streams in the Missouri River basin flow from west to east, following the incline of the Great Plains; however, some eastern tributaries such as the James, Big Sioux and Grand River systems flow from north to south.The Missouri's largest tributaries by runoff are the Yellowstone in Montana and Wyoming, the Platte in Wyoming, Colorado, and Nebraska, and the Kansas–Republican/Smoky Hill and Osage in Kansas and Missouri.", "Each of these tributaries drains an area greater than or has an average discharge greater than .", "The Yellowstone River has the highest discharge, even though the Platte is longer and drains a larger area.", "In fact, the Yellowstone's flow is about – accounting for sixteen percent of total runoff in the Missouri basin and nearly double that of the Platte.", "On the other end of the scale is the tiny Roe River in Montana, which at long is one of the world's shortest rivers.Longest tributaries of the Missouri RiverNameLengthWatershedDischarge'''mi''''''km''''''mi2''''''km2''''''ft3/s''''''m3/s'''Platte River1,708199Kansas River1,205209Milk River1,17017.5James River1,14018.3Yellowstone River1,130391White River93316.1Niobrara River91448.7Little Missouri River90015.1Osage River793339Big Sioux River67437.4The table on the right lists the ten longest tributaries of the Missouri, along with their respective catchment areas and flows.", "Length is measured to the hydrologic source, regardless of naming convention.", "The main stem of the Kansas River, for example, is long.", "However, including the longest headwaters tributaries, the Republican River and the Arikaree River, brings the total length to .", "Similar naming issues are encountered with the Platte River, whose longest tributary, the North Platte River, is more than twice as long as its mainstream.The Missouri's headwaters above Three Forks extend much farther upstream than the main stem.", "Measured to the farthest source at Brower's Spring, the Jefferson River is long.", "Thus measured to its highest headwaters, the Missouri River stretches for .", "When combined with the lower Mississippi, the Missouri and its headwaters form part of the fourth-longest river system in the world, at .===Discharge===Nebraska's Fort Calhoun Nuclear Generating Station was inundated when the Missouri River flooded in 2011|alt=Aerial view of farms and a power station in a rural area partly inundated by a river that has overflowed its banksBy discharge, the Missouri is the ninth largest river of the United States, after the Mississippi, St. Lawrence, Ohio, Columbia, Niagara, Yukon, Detroit, and St. Clair.", "The latter two, however, are sometimes considered part of a strait between Lake Huron and Lake Erie.", "Among rivers of North America as a whole, the Missouri is thirteenth largest, after the Mississippi, Mackenzie, St. Lawrence, Ohio, Columbia, Niagara, Yukon, Detroit, St. Clair, Fraser, Slave, and Koksoak.As the Missouri drains a predominantly semi-arid region, its discharge is much lower and more variable than other North American rivers of comparable length.", "Before the construction of dams, the river flooded twice each year – once in the \"April Rise\" or \"Spring Fresh\", with the melting of snow on the plains of the watershed, and in the \"June Rise\", caused by snowmelt and summer rainstorms in the Rocky Mountains.", "The latter was far more destructive, with the river increasing to over ten times its normal discharge in some years.", "The Missouri's discharge is affected by over 17,000 reservoirs with an aggregate capacity of some .", "By providing flood control, the reservoirs dramatically reduce peak flows and increase low flows.", "Evaporation from reservoirs significantly reduces the river's runoff, causing an annual loss of over from mainstem reservoirs alone.Monthly discharge atHermann, MOMonthcfsm3/sJan.52,4001,490Feb.67,9001,920Mar.96,3002,730Apr.119,0003,370May125,0003,540Jun.124,0003,510Jul.101,0002,860Aug.73,6002,080Sep.75,4002,140Oct.76,5002,170Nov.76,0002,150Dec.61,0001,730Average discharge atselected citiesCitycfsm3/sGreat Falls, MT10,300292Pierre, SD26,500750Sioux City, IA28,670812Omaha, NE32,190912Kansas City, MO55,4001,570Boonville, MO67,1601,902Hermann, MO87,5202,478The United States Geological Survey operates fifty-one stream gauges along the Missouri River.", "The river's average discharge at Bismarck, from the mouth, is .", "This is from a drainage area of , or 35% of the total river basin.", "At Kansas City, from the mouth, the river's average flow is .", "The river here drains about , representing about 91% of the entire basin.The lowermost gage with a period of record greater than fifty years is at Hermann, Missouri – upstream of the mouth of the Missouri – where the average annual flow was from 1897 to 2010.About , or 98.7% of the watershed, lies above Hermann.", "The highest annual mean was in 1993, and the lowest was in 2006.Extremes of the flow vary even further.", "The largest discharge ever recorded was over on July 31, 1993, during a historic flood.", "The lowest, a mere – caused by the formation of an ice dam – was measured on December 23, 1963." ], [ "Geology", "High silt content makes the Missouri River (left) noticeably lighter than the Mississippi River (right) at their confluence north of St. Louis.|alt=Top down view of two rivers merging, one dark and clear and the other light with clouds of sedimentThe Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana at the headwaters of the Missouri River first rose in the Laramide Orogeny, a mountain-building episode that occurred from around 70 to 45 million years ago (the end of the Mesozoic through the early Cenozoic).", "This orogeny uplifted Cretaceous rocks along the western side of the Western Interior Seaway, a vast shallow sea that stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and deposited the sediments that now underlie much of the drainage basin of the Missouri River.This Laramide uplift caused the sea to retreat and laid the framework for a vast drainage system of rivers flowing from the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains, the predecessor of the modern-day Mississippi watershed.", "The Laramide Orogeny is essential to modern Missouri River hydrology, as snow and ice melt from the Rockies provide the majority of the flow in the Missouri and its tributaries.The Missouri and many of its tributaries cross the Great Plains, flowing over or cutting into the Ogallala Group and older mid-Cenozoic sedimentary rocks.", "The lowest major Cenozoic unit, the White River Formation, was deposited between roughly 35 and 29 million years ago and consists of claystone, sandstone, limestone, and conglomerate.", "Channel sandstones and finer-grained overbank deposits of the fluvial Arikaree Group were deposited between 29 and 19 million years ago.", "The Miocene-age Ogallala and the slightly younger Pliocene-age Broadwater Formation deposited atop the Arikaree Group, and are formed from material eroded off of the Rocky Mountains during a time of increased generation of topographic relief; these formations stretch from the Rocky Mountains nearly to the Iowa border and give the Great Plains much of their gentle but persistent eastward tilt, and also constitute a major aquifer.Immediately before the Quaternary Ice Age, the Missouri River was likely split into three segments: an upper portion that drained northwards into Hudson Bay,and middle and lower sections that flowed eastward down the regional slope.As the Earth plunged into the Ice Age, a pre-Illinoian (or possibly the Illinoian) glaciation diverted the Missouri River southeastward toward its present confluence with the Mississippi and caused it to integrate into a single river system that cuts across the regional slope.", "In western Montana, the Missouri River is thought to have once flowed north then east around the Bear Paw Mountains.", "Sapphires are found in some spots along the river in western Montana.", "Advances of the continental ice sheets diverted the river and its tributaries, causing them to pool up into large temporary lakes such as Glacial Lakes Great Falls, Musselshell and others.", "As the lakes rose, the water in them often spilled across adjacent local drainage divides, creating now-abandoned channels and coulees including the Shonkin Sag, long.", "When the glaciers retreated, the Missouri flowed in a new course along the south side of the Bearpaws, and the lower part of the Milk River tributary took over the original main channel.The Missouri's nickname, the \"Big Muddy\", was inspired by its enormous loads of sediment or silt – some of the largest of any North American river.", "In its pre-development state, the river transported some per year.", "The construction of dams and levees has drastically reduced this to in the present day.", "Much of this sediment is derived from the river's floodplain, also called the meander belt; every time the river changed course, it would erode tons of soil and rocks from its banks.", "However, damming and channeling the river has kept it from reaching its natural sediment sources along most of its course.", "Reservoirs along the Missouri trap roughly of sediment each year.", "Despite this, the river still transports more than half the total silt that empties into the Gulf of Mexico; the Mississippi River Delta, formed by sediment deposits at the mouth of the Mississippi, constitutes a majority of sediments carried by the Missouri." ], [ "First people", "Archaeological evidence, especially in Missouri, suggests that human beings first inhabited the watershed of the Missouri River between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene.", "During the end of the last glacial period, large migration of humans were taking place, such as those via the Bering land bridge between the Americas and Eurasia.", "Over centuries, the Missouri River formed one of these main migration paths.", "Most migratory groups that passed through the area eventually settled in the Ohio Valley and the lower Mississippi River Valley, but many, including the Mound builders, stayed along the Missouri, becoming the ancestors of the later Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains.Karl Bodmer, ''A Mandan Village'', c. 1840–1843Indigenous peoples of North America who have lived along the Missouri have historically had access to ample food, water, and shelter.", "Many migratory animals naturally inhabit the plains area.", "Before they were hunted by colonists and Native Americans, these animals, such as the buffalo, provided meat, clothing, and other everyday items; there were also great riparian areas in the river's floodplain that provided habitat for herbs and other staple foods.", "No written records from the tribes and peoples of the pre-European contact period exist because they did not yet use writing.", "According to the writings of early colonists, some of the major tribes along the Missouri River included the Otoe, Missouria, Omaha, Ponca, Brulé, Lakota, Arikara, Hidatsa, Mandan, Assiniboine, Gros Ventres and Blackfeet.In this pre-colonial and early-colonial era, the Missouri river was used as a path of trade and transport, and the river and its tributaries often formed territorial boundaries.", "Most of the Indigenous peoples in the region at that time had semi-nomadic cultures, with many tribes maintaining different summer and winter camps.", "However, the center of Native American wealth and trade lay along the Missouri River in the Dakotas region on its great bend south.", "A large cluster of walled Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara villages situated on bluffs and islands of the river was home to thousands, and later served as a market and trading post used by early French and British explorers and fur traders.", "Following the introduction of horses to Missouri River tribes, possibly from feral European-introduced populations, Natives' way of life changed dramatically.", "The use of the horse allowed them to travel greater distances, and thus facilitated hunting, communications and trade.Once, tens of millions of American bison (commonly called buffalo), one of the keystone species of the Great Plains and the Ohio Valley, roamed the plains of the Missouri River basin.", "Most Native American nations in the basin relied heavily on the bison as a food source, and their hides and bones served to create other household items.", "In time, the species came to benefit from the indigenous peoples' periodic controlled burnings of the grasslands surrounding the Missouri to clear out old and dead growth.", "The large bison population of the region gave rise to the term ''great bison belt'', an area of rich annual grasslands that extended from Alaska to Mexico along the eastern flank of the Continental Divide.", "However, after the arrival of Europeans in North America, both the bison and the Native Americans saw a rapid decline in population.", "Massive over-hunting for sport by colonists eliminated bison populations east of the Mississippi River by 1833 and reduced the numbers in the Missouri basin to a mere few hundred.", "Foreign diseases brought by settlers, such as smallpox, raged across the land, decimating Native American populations.", "Left without their primary source of sustenance, many of the remaining indigenous people were forced onto resettlement areas and reservations, often at gunpoint." ], [ "Early European explorers", "alt=Painting of a group of Native Americans surrounding and fighting with explorersIn May 1673, the French-Canadian explorer Louis Jolliet and the French explorer Jacques Marquette left the settlement of St. Ignace on Lake Huron and traveled down the Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers, aiming to reach the Pacific Ocean.", "In late June, Jolliet and Marquette became the first documented European discoverers of the Missouri River, which according to their journals was in full flood.", "\"I never saw anything more terrific,\" Jolliet wrote, \"a tangle of entire trees from the mouth of the Pekistanoui Missouri with such impetuosity that one could not attempt to cross it without great danger.", "The commotion was such that the water was made muddy by it and could not clear itself.\"", "They recorded ''Pekitanoui'' or ''Pekistanoui'' as the local name for the Missouri.", "However, the party never explored the Missouri beyond its mouth, nor did they linger in the area.", "In addition, they later learned that the Mississippi drained into the Gulf of Mexico and not the Pacific as they had originally presumed; the expedition turned back about short of the Gulf at the confluence of the Arkansas River with the Mississippi.In 1682, France expanded its territorial claims in North America to include land on the western side of the Mississippi River, which included the lower portion of the Missouri.", "However, the Missouri itself remained formally unexplored until Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont commanded an expedition in 1714 that reached at least as far as the mouth of the Platte River.", "It is unclear exactly how far Bourgmont traveled beyond there; he described the blond-haired Mandans in his journals, so it is likely he reached as far as their villages in present-day North Dakota.", "Later that year, Bourgmont published ''The Route To Be Taken To Ascend The Missouri River'', the first known document to use the name \"Missouri River\"; many of the names he gave to tributaries, mostly from the native tribes that lived along them, are still in use today.", "The expedition's discoveries eventually found their way to cartographer Guillaume Delisle, who used the information to create a map of the lower Missouri.", "In 1718, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville requested that the French government bestow upon Bourgmont the Cross of St. Louis because of his \"outstanding service to France\".Bourgmont had in fact been in trouble with the French colonial authorities since 1706, when he deserted his post as commandant of Fort Detroit after poorly handling an attack by the Ottawa that resulted in thirty-one deaths.", "However, his reputation was enhanced in 1720 when the Pawnee – who had earlier been befriended by Bourgmont – massacred the Spanish Villasur expedition near present-day Columbus, Nebraska, on the Missouri River, temporarily ending Spanish encroachment on French Louisiana.Bourgmont established Fort Orleans, the first European settlement of any kind on the Missouri River, near present-day Brunswick, Missouri, in 1723.The following year Bourgmont led an expedition to enlist Comanche support against the Spanish, who continued to show interest in taking over the Missouri.", "In 1725 Bourgmont brought the chiefs of several Missouri River tribes to visit France.", "There he was raised to the rank of nobility and did not accompany the chiefs back to North America.", "Fort Orleans was either abandoned or its small contingent massacred by Native Americans in 1726.The French and Indian War erupted when territorial disputes between France and Great Britain in North America reached a head in 1754.By 1763, France's army in North America had been defeated by a combined British-American force and was forced to sue for peace.", "In the Treaty of Paris, France ceded its Canadian possessions to the British, gaining Louisiana from the Spanish in return.Initially, the Spanish did not extensively explore the Missouri and let French traders continue their activities under license.", "However, this ended after news of incursions by trappers working for the Hudson's Bay Company in the upper Missouri River watershed was brought back following an expedition by Jacques D'Eglise in the early 1790s.", "In 1795 the Spanish chartered the Company of Discoverers and Explorers of the Missouri, popularly referred to as the \"Missouri Company\", and offered a reward for the first person to reach the Pacific Ocean via the Missouri.", "In 1794 and 1795 expeditions led by Jean-Baptiste Truteau and Antoine Simon Lecuyer de la Jonchšre did not even make it as far north as the Mandan villages in central North Dakota.Arguably the most successful of the Missouri Company expeditions was that of James MacKay and John Evans.", "The two set out along the Missouri, and established Fort Charles about south of present-day Sioux City as a winter camp in 1795.At the Mandan villages in North Dakota, they forcefully expelled several British traders, and while talking to the populace they pinpointed the location of the Yellowstone River, which was called ''Roche Jaune'' (\"Yellow Rock\") by the French.", "Although MacKay and Evans failed to accomplish their original goal of reaching the Pacific, they did create the first accurate map of the upper Missouri River.In 1795, the young United States and Spain signed Pinckney's Treaty, which recognized American rights to navigate the Mississippi River and store goods for export in New Orleans.", "Three years later, Spain revoked the treaty and in 1800 secretly returned Louisiana to Napoleonic France in the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso.", "This transfer was so secret that the Spanish continued to administer the territory.", "In 1801, Spain restored rights to use the Mississippi and New Orleans to the United States.Lewis and ClarkFearing that the cutoffs could occur again, President Thomas Jefferson proposed to buy the port of New Orleans from France for $10 million.", "Instead, faced with a debt crisis, Napoleon offered to sell the entirety of Louisiana, including the Missouri River, for $15 million – amounting to less than 3¢ per acre.", "The deal was signed in 1803, doubling the size of the United States with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory.In 1803, Jefferson instructed Meriwether Lewis to explore the Missouri and search for a water route to the Pacific Ocean.", "By then, it had been discovered that the Columbia River system, which drains into the Pacific, had a similar latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River, and it was widely believed that a connection or short portage existed between the two.", "However, Spain balked at the takeover, citing that they had never formally returned Louisiana to the French.", "Spanish authorities warned Lewis not to take the journey and forbade him from seeing the MacKay and Evans map of the Missouri, although Lewis eventually managed to gain access to it.Meriwether Lewis and William Clark began their famed expedition in 1804 with a party of thirty-three people in three boats.", "Although they became the first Europeans to travel the entire length of the Missouri and reach the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia, they found no trace of the Northwest Passage.", "The maps made by Lewis and Clark, especially those of the Pacific Northwest region, provided a foundation for future explorers and emigrants.", "They also negotiated relations with numerous Native American tribes and wrote extensive reports on the climate, ecology and geology of the region.", "Many present-day names of geographic features in the upper Missouri basin originated from their expedition." ], [ "American frontier", "===Fur trade===''Fur Traders on Missouri River'', painted by alt=Painting of two figures and a cat on a boat in a placid body of waterAs early as the 18th century, fur trappers entered the extreme northern basin of the Missouri River in the hopes of finding populations of beaver and river otter, the sale of whose pelts drove the thriving North American fur trade.", "They came from many different places – some from the Canadian fur corporations at Hudson Bay, some from the Pacific Northwest (''see also'': Maritime fur trade), and some from the midwestern United States.", "Most did not stay in the area for long, as they failed to find significant resources.The first glowing reports of country rich with thousands of game animals came in 1806 when Meriwether Lewis and William Clark returned from their two-year expedition.", "Their journals described lands amply stocked with thousands of buffalo, beaver, and river otter; and also an abundant population of sea otters on the Pacific Northwest coast.", "In 1807, explorer Manuel Lisa organized an expedition which would lead to the explosive growth of the fur trade in the upper Missouri River country.", "Lisa and his crew traveled up the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers, trading manufactured items in return for furs from local Native American tribes, and established a fort at the confluence of the Yellowstone and a tributary, the Bighorn, in southern Montana.", "Although the business started small, it quickly grew into a thriving trade.Lisa's men started construction of Fort Raymond, which sat on a bluff overlooking the confluence of the Yellowstone and Bighorn, in the fall of 1807.The fort would serve primarily as a trading post for bartering with the Native Americans for furs.", "This method was unlike that of the Pacific Northwest fur trade, which involved trappers hired by the various fur enterprises, namely Hudson's Bay.", "Fort Raymond was later replaced by Fort Lisa at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone in North Dakota; a second fort also called Fort Lisa was built downstream on the Missouri River in Nebraska.", "In 1809 the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company was founded by Lisa in conjunction with William Clark and Pierre Choteau, among others.", "In 1828, the American Fur Company founded Fort Union at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers.", "Fort Union gradually became the main headquarters for the fur trade in the upper Missouri basin.Fort Clark on the Missouri'' in February 1834, painted by Karl BodmerFur trapping activities in the early 19th century encompassed nearly all of the Rocky Mountains on both the eastern and western slopes.", "Trappers of the Hudson's Bay Company, St. Louis Missouri Fur Company, American Fur Company, Rocky Mountain Fur Company, North West Company and other outfits worked thousands of streams in the Missouri watershed as well as the neighboring Columbia, Colorado, Arkansas, and Saskatchewan river systems.", "During this period, the trappers, also called mountain men, blazed trails through the wilderness that would later form the paths pioneers and settlers would travel by into the West.", "Transport of the thousands of beaver pelts required ships, providing one of the first large motives for river transport on the Missouri to start.As the 1830s drew to a close, the fur industry slowly began to die as silk replaced beaver fur as a desirable clothing item.", "By this time, also, the beaver population of streams in the Rocky Mountains had been decimated by intense hunting.", "Furthermore, frequent Native American attacks on trading posts made it dangerous for employees of the fur companies.", "In some regions, the industry continued well into the 1840s, but in others such as the Platte River valley, declines of the beaver population contributed to an earlier demise.", "The fur trade finally disappeared in the Great Plains around 1850, with the primary center of industry shifting to the Mississippi Valley and central Canada.", "Despite the demise of the once-prosperous trade, however, its legacy led to the opening of the American West and a flood of settlers, farmers, ranchers, adventurers, hopefuls, financially bereft, and entrepreneurs took their place.===Settlers and pioneers===''Boatmen on the Missouri'' c. 1846The river roughly defined the American frontier in the 19th century, particularly downstream from Kansas City, where it takes a sharp eastern turn into the heart of the state of Missouri, an area known as the Boonslick.", "As first area settled by Europeans along the river it was largely populated by slave-owning southerners following the Boone's Lick Road.", "The major trails for the opening of the American West all have their starting points on the river, including the California, Mormon, Oregon, and Santa Fe trails.", "The first westward leg of the Pony Express was a ferry across the Missouri at St. Joseph, Missouri.", "Similarly, most emigrants arrived at the eastern terminus of the First transcontinental railroad via a ferry ride across the Missouri between Council Bluffs, Iowa, and Omaha.", "The Hannibal Bridge became the first bridge to cross the Missouri River in 1869, and its location was a major reason why Kansas City became the largest city on the river upstream from its mouth at St. Louis.True to the then-ideal of Manifest Destiny, over 500,000 people set out from the river town of Independence, Missouri, to their various destinations in the American West from the 1830s to the 1860s.", "These people had many reasons to embark on this strenuous year-long journey – economic crisis, and later gold strikes including the California Gold Rush, for example.", "For most, the route took them up the Missouri to Omaha, Nebraska, where they would set out along the Platte River, which flows from the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming and Colorado eastward through the Great Plains.", "An early expedition led by Robert Stuart from 1812 to 1813 proved the Platte impossible to navigate by the dugout canoes they used, let alone the large sidewheelers and sternwheelers that would later ply the Missouri in increasing numbers.", "One explorer remarked that the Platte was \"too thick to drink, too thin to plow\".", "Nevertheless, the Platte provided an abundant and reliable source of water for the pioneers as they headed west.", "Covered wagons, popularly referred to as ''prairie schooners'', provided the primary means of transport until the beginning of regular boat service on the river in the 1850s.During the 1860s, gold strikes in Montana, Colorado, Wyoming, and northern Utah attracted another wave of hopefuls to the region.", "Although some freight was hauled overland, most transport to and from the gold fields was done through the Missouri and Kansas Rivers, as well as the Snake River in western Wyoming and the Bear River in Utah, Idaho, and Wyoming.", "It is estimated that of the passengers and freight hauled from the Midwest to Montana, over 80 percent were transported by boat, a journey that took 150 days in the upstream direction.", "A route more directly west into Colorado lay along the Kansas River and its tributary the Republican River as well as pair of smaller Colorado streams, Big Sandy Creek and the South Platte River, to near Denver.", "The gold rushes precipitated the decline of the Bozeman Trail as a popular emigration route, as it passed through land held by often-hostile Native Americans.", "Safer paths were blazed to the Great Salt Lake near Corinne, Utah, during the gold rush period, which led to the large-scale settlement of the Rocky Mountains region and eastern Great Basin.Fort Pierre and the Adjacent Prairie'', c. 1833, – the river, river bluffs and floodplain are depicted around the fort settlement|alt=Painting of a fort surrounded by tepees on the bank of a river curving around a series of bluffsAs settlers expanded their holdings into the Great Plains, they ran into land conflicts with Native American tribes.", "This resulted in frequent raids, massacres and armed conflicts, leading to the federal government creating multiple treaties with the Plains tribes, which generally involved establishing borders and reserving lands for the indigenous.", "As with many other treaties between the U.S. and Native Americans, they were soon broken, leading to huge wars.", "Over 1,000 battles, big and small, were fought between the U.S. military and Native Americans before the tribes were forced out of their land onto reservations.Conflicts between natives and settlers over the opening of the Bozeman Trail in the Dakotas, Wyoming and Montana led to Red Cloud's War, in which the Lakota and Cheyenne fought against the U.S. Army.", "The fighting resulted in a complete Native American victory.", "In 1868, the Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed, which \"guaranteed\" the use of the Black Hills, Powder River Country and other regions surrounding the northern Missouri River to Native Americans without white intervention.", "The Missouri River was also a significant landmark as it divides northeastern Kansas from western Missouri; pro-slavery forces from Missouri would cross the river into Kansas and spark mayhem during Bleeding Kansas, leading to continued tension and hostility even today between Kansas and Missouri.", "Another significant military engagement on the Missouri River during this period was the 1861 Battle of Boonville, which did not affect Native Americans but rather was a turning point in the American Civil War that allowed the Union to seize control of transport on the river, discouraging the state of Missouri from joining the Confederacy.However, the peace and freedom of the Native Americans did not last for long.", "The Great Sioux War of 1876–77 was sparked when American miners discovered gold in the Black Hills of western South Dakota and eastern Wyoming.", "These lands were originally set aside for Native American use by the Treaty of Fort Laramie.", "When the settlers intruded onto the lands, they were attacked by Native Americans.", "U.S. troops were sent to the area to protect the miners, and drive out the natives from the new settlements.", "During this bloody period, both the Native Americans and the U.S. military won victories in major battles, resulting in the loss of nearly a thousand lives.", "The war eventually ended in an American victory, and the Black Hills were opened to settlement.", "Native Americans of that region were relocated to reservations in Wyoming and southeastern Montana." ], [ "Dam-building era", "Holter Dam, a run-of-the-river structure on the upper Missouri, shortly after completion in 1918In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a great number of dams were built along the course of the Missouri, transforming 35 percent of the river into a chain of reservoirs.", "River development was stimulated by a variety of factors, first by growing demand for electricity in the rural northwestern parts of the basin, and by floods and droughts that plagued rapidly growing agricultural and urban areas along the lower Missouri River.", "Small, privately owned hydroelectric projects have existed since the 1890s, but the large flood-control and storage dams that characterize the middle reaches of the river today were not constructed until the 1950s.Between 1890 and 1940, five dams were built in the vicinity of Great Falls to generate power from the Great Falls of the Missouri, a chain of giant waterfalls formed by the river in its path through western Montana.", "Black Eagle Dam, built in 1891 on Black Eagle Falls, was the first dam of the Missouri.", "Replaced in 1926 with a more modern structure, the dam was little more than a small weir atop Black Eagle Falls, diverting part of the Missouri's flow into the Black Eagle power plant.", "The largest of the five dams, Ryan Dam, was built in 1913.The dam lies directly above the Big Falls, the largest waterfall of the Missouri.Black Eagle Dam is dynamited in 1908 to save Great Falls from the flood wave caused by the failure of Hauser DamIn the same period, several private establishments – most notably the Montana Power Company – began to develop the Missouri River above Great Falls and below Helena for power generation.", "A small run-of-the river structure completed in 1898 near the present site of Canyon Ferry Dam became the second dam built on the Missouri.", "This rock-filled timber crib dam generated seven and a half megawatts of electricity for Helena and the surrounding countryside.", "The nearby steel Hauser Dam was finished in 1907, but failed in 1908 because of structural deficiencies, causing catastrophic flooding all the way downstream past Craig.", "At Great Falls, a section of the Black Eagle Dam was dynamited to save nearby factories from inundation.", "Hauser was rebuilt in 1910 as a concrete gravity structure, and stands to this day.Holter Dam, about downstream of Helena, was the third hydroelectric dam built on this stretch of the Missouri River.", "When completed in 1918 by the Montana Power Company and the United Missouri River Power Company, its reservoir flooded the Gates of the Mountains, a limestone canyon which Meriwether Lewis described as \"the most remarkable clifts that we have yet seen ... the towering and projecting rocks in many places seem ready to tumble on us.\"", "In 1949, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) began construction on the modern Canyon Ferry Dam to provide flood control to the Great Falls area.", "By 1954, the rising waters of Canyon Ferry Lake submerged the old 1898 dam, whose powerhouse still stands underwater about upstream of the present-day dam.", "\"uncertain as the actions of a jury or the state of a woman's mind\".The Missouri basin suffered a series of catastrophic floods around the turn of the 20th century, most notably in 1844, 1881, and 1926–1927.In 1940, as part of the Great Depression-era New Deal, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) completed Fort Peck Dam in Montana.", "Construction of this massive public works project provided jobs for more than 50,000 laborers during the Depression and was a major step in providing flood control to the lower half of the Missouri River.", "However, Fort Peck only controls runoff from 11 percent of the Missouri River watershed, and had little effect on a severe snowmelt flood that struck the lower basin three years later.", "This event was particularly destructive as it submerged manufacturing plants in Omaha and Kansas City, greatly delaying shipments of military supplies in World War II.Map showing major features of the Pick–Sloan Plan; other dams and their reservoirs are denoted by trianglesFlooding damages on the Mississippi–Missouri river system were one of the primary reasons for which Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1944, opening the way for the USACE to develop the Missouri on a massive scale.", "The 1944 act authorized the Pick–Sloan Missouri Basin Program (Pick–Sloan Plan), which was a composite of two widely varying proposals.", "The Pick plan, with an emphasis on flood control and hydroelectric power, called for the construction of large storage dams along the main stem of the Missouri.", "The Sloan plan, which stressed the development of local irrigation, included provisions for roughly 85 smaller dams on tributaries.In the early stages of Pick–Sloan development, tentative plans were made to build a low dam on the Missouri at Riverdale, North Dakota, and 27 smaller dams on the Yellowstone River and its tributaries.", "This was met with controversy from inhabitants of the Yellowstone basin, and eventually the USBR proposed a solution: to greatly increase the size of the proposed dam at Riverdale – today's Garrison Dam, thus replacing the storage that would have been provided by the Yellowstone dams.", "Because of this decision, the Yellowstone is now the longest free-flowing river in the contiguous United States.", "In the 1950s, construction commenced on the five mainstem dams – Garrison, Oahe, Big Bend, Fort Randall, and Gavins Point – proposed under the Pick-Sloan Plan.", "Along with Fort Peck, which was integrated as a unit of the Pick-Sloan Plan in the 1940s, these dams now form the Missouri River Mainstem System.The flooding of lands along the Missouri River heavily impacted Native American groups whose reservations included fertile bottomlands and floodplains, especially in the arid Dakotas where it was some of the only good farmland they had.", "These consequences were pronounced in North Dakota's Fort Berthold Indian Reservation, where of land was taken by the construction of Garrison Dam.", "The Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara / Sanish tribes sued the federal government on the basis of the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie which provided that reservation land could not be taken without the consent of both the tribes and Congress.", "After a lengthy legal battle the tribes were coerced in 1947 to accept a $5.1 million ($55 million today) settlement for the land, just $33 per acre.", "In 1949 this was increased to $12.6 million.", "The tribes were even denied the right to use the reservoir shore \"for grazing, hunting, fishing, and other purposes\".Fort Peck Dam, the uppermost dam of the Missouri River Mainstem SystemThe six dams of the Mainstem System, chiefly Fort Peck, Garrison, and Oahe, are among the largest dams in the world by volume; their sprawling reservoirs also rank among the biggest of the nation.", "Holding up to in total, the six reservoirs can store more than three years' worth of the river's flow as measured below Gavins Point, the lowermost dam.", "This capacity makes it the largest reservoir system in the United States and one of the largest in North America.", "In addition to storing irrigation water, the system also includes an annual flood-control reservation of .", "Mainstem power plants generate about 9.3 billion KWh annually – equal to a constant output of almost 1,100 megawatts.", "Along with nearly 100 smaller dams on tributaries, namely the Bighorn, Platte, Kansas, and Osage Rivers, the system provides irrigation water to nearly of land.", ":Dams on the Missouri RiverDamState(s)HeightReservoirCapacity(Acre.ft)Capacity(MW)TostonMT ft(17 m)3,00010Canyon FerryMT ft(69 m)Canyon Ferry Lake1,973,00050HauserMT ft(24 m)Hauser Lake98,00019HolterMT ft(38 m)Holter Lake243,00048Black EagleMT ft(4.0 m)Long Pool2,00021RainbowMT ft(8.8 m)1,00036CochraneMT ft(18 m)3,00064RyanMT ft(19 m)5,00060MoronyMT ft(18 m)3,00048Fort PeckMT ft(76 m)Fort Peck Lake18,690,000185GarrisonND ft(64 m)Lake Sakakawea23,800,000515OaheSD ft(75 m)Lake Oahe23,500,000786Big BendSD ft(29 m)Lake Sharpe1,910,000493Fort RandallSD ft(50 m)Lake Francis Case5,700,000320Gavins PointNESD ft(23 m)Lewis and Clark Lake492,000132'''Total'''76,436,0002,787The table at left lists statistics of all fifteen dams on the Missouri River, ordered downstream.", "Many of the run-of-the-river dams on the Missouri (marked in yellow) form very small impoundments which may or may not have been given names; those unnamed are left blank.", "All dams are on the upper half of the river above Sioux City; the lower river is uninterrupted due to its longstanding use as a shipping channel." ], [ "Navigation", " \"never achieved its expectations.", "Even under the very best of circumstances, it was never a huge industry\".— Richard Opper, former executive directorMissouri River Basin AssociationPainting of the steamboat ''Yellowstone'', one of the earliest commercial vessels to run on the river, circa 1833.The dangerous currents in the river caused the ship to run aground on a sandbar in this illustration.Boat travel on the Missouri began with the wood-framed canoes and bull boats that Native Americans used for thousands of years before the colonization of the Great Plains introduced larger craft to the river.", "The first steamboat on the Missouri was the ''Independence'', which started running between St. Louis and Keytesville, Missouri, around 1819.By the 1830s, large mail and freight-carrying vessels were running regularly between Kansas City and St. Louis, and many traveled even farther upstream.", "A handful, such as the ''Western Engineer'' and the ''Yellowstone'', could make it up the river as far as eastern Montana.During the early 19th century, at the height of the fur trade, steamboats and keelboats travelled nearly the whole length of the Missouri from Montana's rugged Missouri Breaks to the mouth, carrying beaver and buffalo furs to and from the areas the trappers frequented.", "This resulted in the development of the Missouri River mackinaw, which specialized in carrying furs.", "Since these boats could only travel downriver, they were dismantled and sold for lumber upon their arrival at St. Louis.Water transport increased through the 1850s with multiple craft ferrying pioneers, emigrants and miners; many of these runs were from St. Louis or Independence to near Omaha.", "There, most of these people would set out overland along the large but shallow and unnavigable Platte River, which pioneers described as \"a mile wide and an inch deep\" and \"the most magnificent and useless of rivers\".", "Steamboat navigation peaked in 1858 with over 130 boats operating full-time on the Missouri, with many more smaller vessels.", "Many of the earlier vessels were built on the Ohio River before being transferred to the Missouri.", "Side-wheeler steamboats were preferred over the larger sternwheelers used on the Mississippi and Ohio because of their greater maneuverability.Far West'' is typical of the shallow-draft steamboats used to navigate the Missouri River.", "Famed captain and pilot Grant Marsh set several speed records, including one taking wounded soldiers from the surviving segments of the Custer expedition to get medical care.A barge travels North on the Missouri River at Highway 364 in Saint Charles, Missouri.The industry's success, however, did not guarantee safety.", "In the early decades before man controlled the river's flow, its sketchy rises and falls and its massive amounts of sediment, which prevented a clear view of the bottom, wrecked some 300 vessels.", "Because of the dangers of navigating the Missouri River, the average ship's lifespan was only about four years.", "The development of the Transcontinental and Northern Pacific Railroads marked the beginning of the end of steamboat commerce on the Missouri.", "Outcompeted by trains, the number of boats slowly dwindled, until there was almost nothing left by the 1890s.", "Transport of agricultural and mining products by barge, however, saw a revival in the early twentieth century.===Passage to Sioux City===Since the beginning of the 20th century, the Missouri River has been extensively engineered for water transport purposes, and about 32 percent of the river now flows through artificially straightened channels.", "In 1912, the USACE was authorized to maintain the Missouri to a depth of from the Port of Kansas City to the mouth, a distance of .", "This was accomplished by constructing levees and wing dams to direct the river's flow into a straight, narrow channel and prevent sedimentation.", "In 1925, the USACE began a project to widen the river's navigation channel to ; two years later, they began dredging a deep-water channel from Kansas City to Sioux City.", "These modifications have reduced the river's length from some in the late 19th century to in the present day.Gavins Point Dam at Yankton, South Dakota, is the uppermost obstacle to navigation from the mouth on the Missouri today.Construction of dams on the Missouri under the Pick-Sloan Plan in the mid-twentieth century was the final step in aiding navigation.", "The large reservoirs of the Mainstem System help provide a dependable flow to maintain the navigation channel year-round, and are capable of halting most of the river's annual freshets.", "However, high and low water cycles of the Missouri – notably the protracted early-21st-century drought in the Missouri River basin and historic floods in 1993 and 2011 – are difficult for even the massive Mainstem System reservoirs to control.In 1945, the USACE began the Missouri River Bank Stabilization and Navigation Project, which would permanently increase the river's navigation channel to a width of and a depth of .", "During work that continues to this day, the navigation channel from Sioux City to St. Louis has been controlled by building rock dikes to direct the river's flow and scour out sediments, sealing and cutting off meanders and side channels, and dredging the riverbed.", "However, the Missouri has often resisted the efforts of the USACE to control its depth.", "In 2006, the U.S. Coast Guard stated that commercial barge tows ran aground in the Missouri River because the navigation channel had been severely silted.", "The USACE was blamed for failing to maintain the channel to the minimum depth.The Missouri River near New Haven, Missouri, looking upstream – note the riprap wing dam protruding into the river from the left to direct its flow into a narrower channelThe Missouri River at the confluence with the Floyd River in Sioux City, IA, near the upper most navigable reach of the river todayIn 1929, the Missouri River Navigation Commission estimated the amount of goods shipped on the river annually at 15 million tons (13.6 million metric tons), providing widespread consensus for the creation of a navigation channel.", "However, shipping traffic has since been far lower than expected – shipments of commodities including produce, manufactured items, lumber, and oil averaged only 683,000 tons (616,000 t) per year from 1994 to 2006.By tonnage of transported material, Missouri is by far the largest user of the river accounting for 83 percent of river traffic, while Kansas has 12 percent, Nebraska three percent and Iowa two percent.", "Almost all of the barge traffic on the Missouri River ships sand and gravel dredged from the lower of the river; the remaining portion of the shipping channel now sees little to no use by commercial vessels.For navigation purposes, the Missouri River is divided into two main sections.", "The Upper Missouri River is north of Gavins Point Dam, the last hydroelectric dam of fifteen on the river, just upstream from Sioux City, Iowa.", "The Lower Missouri River is the of river below Gavins Point until it meets the Mississippi just above St. Louis.", "The Lower Missouri River has no hydroelectric dams or locks but it has a plethora of wing dams that enable barge traffic by directing the flow of the river into a , channel.", "These wing dams have been put in place by and are maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and there are no plans to construct any locks to replace these wing dams on the Missouri River.===Traffic decline===Tonnage of goods shipped by barges on the Missouri River has seen a serious decline from the 1960s to the present.", "In the 1960s, the USACE predicted an increase to per year by 2000, but instead the opposite has happened.", "The amount of goods plunged from in 1977 to just in 2000.One of the largest drops has been in agricultural products, especially wheat.", "Part of the reason is that irrigated land along the Missouri has only been developed to a fraction of its potential.", "In 2006, barges on the Missouri hauled only of products which is equal to the ''daily'' freight traffic on the Mississippi.Drought conditions in the early 21st century and competition from other modes of transport – mainly railroads – are the primary reason for decreasing river traffic on the Missouri.", "The USACE's failure to consistently maintain the navigation channel has also hampered the industry.", "Efforts are being made to revive the shipping industry on the Missouri River, because of the efficiency and cheapness of river transport to haul agricultural products, and the overcrowding of alternative transportation routes.", "Solutions such as expanding the navigation channel and releasing more water from reservoirs during the peak of the navigation season are under consideration.Drought conditions lifted in 2010, in which about were barged on the Missouri, representing the first significant increase in shipments since 2000.However, flooding in 2011 closed record stretches of the river to boat traffic – \"washing away hopes for a bounce-back year\".There are no lock and dams on the lower Missouri River, but there are plenty of wing dams that jettie out into the river and make it harder for barges to navigate.", "In contrast, the upper Mississippi has 29 locks and dams and averaged 61.3 million tons of cargo annually from 2008 to 2011, and its locks are closed in the winter." ], [ "Ecology", "===Natural history===Freshwater ecoregions of the Missouri basinHistorically, the thousands of square miles that comprised the floodplain of the Missouri River supported a wide range of plant and animal species.", "Biodiversity generally increased proceeding downstream from the cold, subalpine headwaters in Montana to the temperate, moist climate of Missouri.", "Today, the river's riparian zone consists primarily of cottonwoods, willows and sycamores, with several other types of trees such as maple and ash.", "Average tree height generally increases farther from the riverbanks for a limited distance, as land next to the river is vulnerable to soil erosion during floods.", "Because of its large sediment concentrations, the Missouri does not support many aquatic invertebrates.", "However, the basin supports about 300 species of birds and 150 species of fish, some of which are endangered such as the pallid sturgeon.", "The Missouri's aquatic and riparian habitats also support several species of mammals, such as minks, river otters, beavers, muskrats, and raccoons.The World Wide Fund For Nature divides the Missouri River watershed into three freshwater ecoregions: the Upper Missouri, Lower Missouri and Central Prairie.", "The Upper Missouri, roughly encompassing the area within Montana, Wyoming, southern Alberta and Saskatchewan, and North Dakota, comprises mainly semiarid shrub-steppe grasslands with sparse biodiversity because of Ice Age glaciations.", "There are no known endemic species within the region.", "Except for the headwaters in the Rockies, there is little precipitation in this part of the watershed.", "The Middle Missouri ecoregion, extending through Colorado, southwestern Minnesota, northern Kansas, Nebraska, and parts of Wyoming and Iowa, has greater rainfall and is characterized by temperate forests and grasslands.", "Plant life is more diverse in the Middle Missouri, which is also home to about twice as many animal species.", "Finally, the Central Prairie ecoregion is situated on the lower part of the Missouri, encompassing all or parts of Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma and Arkansas.", "Despite large seasonal temperature fluctuations, this region has the greatest diversity of plants and animals of the three.", "Thirteen species of crayfish are endemic to the lower Missouri.===Human impacts===Missouri River as it flows through Great Falls, MontanaSince river commerce and industrial development began in the 1800s, human activity has severely polluted the Missouri and degraded its water quality.", "Most of the river's floodplain habitat is long gone, replaced by irrigated agricultural land.", "Development of the floodplain has led to increasing numbers of people and infrastructure within areas at high risk of inundation.", "Levees have been constructed along more than a third of the river to keep floodwater within the channel, but with the consequences of faster stream velocity and a resulting increase of peak flows in downstream areas.", "Fertilizer runoff, which causes elevated levels of nitrogen and other nutrients, is a major problem along the Missouri River, especially in Iowa and Missouri.", "This form of pollution also affects the upper Mississippi, Illinois and Ohio Rivers.", "Low oxygen levels in rivers and the vast Gulf of Mexico dead zone at the end of the Mississippi Delta are both results of high nutrient concentrations in the Missouri and other tributaries of the Mississippi.Agricultural fields dominate most of the former floodplain, including this area around the Missouri's confluence with the Nishnabotna River in western Missouri.Channelization of the lower Missouri waters has made the river narrower, deeper and less accessible to riparian flora and fauna.", "Many dams and bank stabilization projects have been built to help convert of Missouri River floodplain to agricultural land.", "Channel control has reduced the volume of sediment transported downstream by the river and eliminated critical habitat for fish, birds and amphibians.", "By the early 21st century, declines in populations of native species prompted the U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service to issue a biological opinion recommending restoration of river habitats for federally endangered bird and fish species.The USACE began work on ecosystem restoration projects along the lower Missouri River in the early 21st century.", "Because of the low use of the shipping channel in the lower Missouri maintained by the USACE, it is now considered feasible to remove some of the levees, dikes, and wing dams that constrict the river's flow, thus allowing it to naturally restore its banks.", "By 2001, there were of riverside floodplain undergoing active restoration.Restoration projects have re-mobilized some of the sediments that had been trapped behind bank stabilization structures, prompting concerns of exacerbated nutrient and sediment pollution locally and downstream in the northern Gulf of Mexico.", "A 2010 National Research Council report assessed the roles of sediment in the Missouri River, evaluating current habitat restoration strategies and alternative ways to manage sediment.", "The report found that a better understanding of sediment processes in the Missouri River, including the creation of a \"sediment budget\" – an accounting of sediment transport, erosion, and deposition volumes for the length of the Missouri River – would provide a foundation for projects to improve water quality standards and protect endangered species.===National Wild and Scenic River===Several sections of the Missouri River were added to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System from Fort Benton to Robinson Bridge, Gavins Point Dam to Ponca State Park and Fort Randall Dam to Lewis and Clark Lake.", "A total of of the river were designated including of wild river and of scenic river in Montana.", "of the river is listed as recreational under the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System." ], [ "Tourism and recreation", "Part of the Missouri National Recreational River, a preserved stretch of the Missouri on the border of South Dakota and NebraskaWith over of open water, the six reservoirs of the Missouri River Mainstem System provide some of the main recreational areas within the basin.", "Visitation has increased from 10 million visitor-hours in the mid-1960s to over 60 million visitor-hours in 1990.Development of visitor facilities was spurred by the Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1965, which required the USACE to build and maintain boat ramps, campgrounds and other public facilities along major reservoirs.", "Recreational use of Missouri River reservoirs is estimated to contribute $85–100 million to the regional economy each year.The Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail, some long, follows nearly the entire Missouri River from its mouth to its source, retracing the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.", "Extending from Wood River, Illinois, in the east, to Astoria, Oregon, in the west, it also follows portions of the Mississippi and Columbia Rivers.", "The trail, which spans through eleven U.S. states, is maintained by various federal and state government agencies; it passes through some 100 historic sites, notably archaeological locations including the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site.Parts of the river itself are designated for recreational or preservational use.", "The Missouri National Recreational River consists of portions of the Missouri downstream from Fort Randall and Gavins Point Dams that total .", "These reaches exhibit islands, meanders, sandbars, underwater rocks, riffles, snags, and other once-common features of the lower river that have now disappeared under reservoirs or have been destroyed by channeling.", "About forty-five steamboat wrecks are scattered along these reaches of the river.Downstream from Great Falls, Montana, about of the river course through a rugged series of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks.", "This part of the river, designated a U.S. National Wild and Scenic River in 1976, flows within the Upper Missouri Breaks National Monument, a preserve comprising steep cliffs, deep gorges, arid plains, badlands, archaeological sites, and whitewater rapids on the Missouri itself.", "The preserve includes a wide variety of plant and animal life; recreational activities include boating, rafting, hiking and wildlife observation.In north-central Montana, some along over of the Missouri River, centering on Fort Peck Lake, comprise the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge.", "The wildlife refuge consists of a native northern Great Plains ecosystem that has not been heavily affected by human development, except for the construction of Fort Peck Dam.", "Although there are few designated trails, the whole preserve is open to hiking and camping.Many U.S. national parks, such as Glacier National Park, Rocky Mountain National Park, Yellowstone National Park and Badlands National Park are, at least partially, in the watershed.", "Parts of other rivers in the basin are set aside for preservation and recreational use – notably the Niobrara National Scenic River, which is a protected stretch of the Niobrara River, one of the Missouri's longest tributaries.", "The Missouri flows through or past many National Historic Landmarks, which include Three Forks of the Missouri, Fort Benton, Montana, Big Hidatsa Village Site, Fort Atkinson, Nebraska and Arrow Rock Historic District." ], [ "See also", "* ''Across the Wide Missouri (book)''* List of tributaries of the Mississippi River* List of longest main-stem rivers in the United States* List of crossings of the Missouri River* List of populated places along the Missouri River* Missouri National Recreational River* U.S. Army Corps of Engineers* Montana Stream Access Law* Montana Wilderness Association* Sacagawea* Arabia Steamboat Museum* Container on barge" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Missouria" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Missouria''' or '''Missouri''' (in their own language, '''Niúachi''', also spelled '''Niutachi''') are a Native American tribe that originated in the Great Lakes region of what is now the United States before European contact.", "The tribe belongs to the Chiwere division of the Siouan language family, together with the Iowa and Otoe.Historically, the tribe lived in bands near the mouth of the Grand River at its confluence with the Missouri River; the mouth of the Missouri at its confluence with the Mississippi River, and in present-day Saline County, Missouri.", "Since Indian removal, today they live primarily in Oklahoma.", "They are federally recognized as the Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Indians, based in Red Rock, Oklahoma." ], [ "Name", "French colonists adapted a form of the Illinois language-name for the people: ''Wimihsoorita''.", "Their name means \"One who has dugout canoes\".", "In their own Siouan language, the Missouri call themselves ''Niúachi'', also spelled ''Niutachi'', meaning \"People of the River Mouth.\"", "The Osage called them the ''Waçux¢a,'' and the Quapaw called them the ''Wa-ju'-xd¢ǎ.", "''The state of Missouri and the Missouri River are named for the tribe." ], [ "History", "A Missouria warrior on the left, painting by Karl BodmerOld Fort at Van Meter State ParkThe tribe's oral history tells that they once lived north of the Great Lakes.", "They began migrating south in the 16th century.", "By 1600, the Missouria lived near the confluence of the Grand and Missouri rivers, where they settled through the 18th century.", "Their tradition says that they split from the Otoe tribe, which belongs to the same Chiwere branch of the Siouan language, because of a love affair between the children of two tribal chiefs.The 17th century brought hardships to the Missouria.", "The Sauk and Fox frequently attacked them.", "Their society was even more disrupted by the high fatalities from epidemics of smallpox and other Eurasian infectious diseases that accompanied contact with Europeans.", "The French explorer Jacques Marquette contacted the tribe in 1673 and paved the way for trade with the French.The Missouria migrated west of the Missouri River into Osage territory.", "During this time, they acquired horses and hunted bison.", "The French explorer Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont visited the people in the early 1720s.", "He married the daughter of a Missouria chief.", "They settled nearby, and Veniard created alliances with the people.", "He built Fort Orleans in 1723 as a trading post near present-day Brunswick, Missouri.", "It was occupied until 1726.In 1730, an attack by the Sauk/Fox tribe nearly destroyed the Missouria, killing hundreds.", "Most survivors reunited with the Otoe, while some joined the Osage and Kansa.", "After a smallpox outbreak in 1829, fewer than 100 Missouria survived, and they all joined the Otoe.They signed treaties with the US government in 1830 and 1854 to cede their lands in Missouri.", "They relocated to the Otoe-Missouria reservation, created on the Big Blue River at the Kansas-Nebraska border.", "The US pressured the two tribes into ceding more lands in 1876 and 1881.In 1880, the tribes split into two factions, the Coyote, who were traditionalists, and the Quakers, who were assimilationists.", "The Coyote settled on the Iowa Reservation in Indian Territory.", "The Quakers negotiated a small separate reservation in Indian Territory.", "By 1890.most of the Coyote band rejoined the Quakers on their reservation.", "Under the Dawes Act, by 1907 members of the tribes were registered and allotted individual plots of land per household.", "The U.S. declared any excess communal land of the tribe as \"surplus\" and sold it to European-American settlers.", "The tribe merged with the Otoe tribe.The Curtis Act required the disbanding of tribal courts and governments in order to assimilate the people and prepare the territory for statehood, but the tribe created their own court system in 1900.The Missouria were primarily farmers in the early 20th century.", "After oil was discovered on their lands in 1912, the U.S. government forced many of the tribe off their allotments." ], [ "Population", "According to the ethnographer James Mooney, the population of the tribe was about 200 families in 1702; 1000 people in 1780; 300 in 1805; 80 in 1829, when they were living with the Otoe; and 13 in 1910.Since then, their population numbers are combined with those of the Otoe." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Pritzer, Barry M. ''A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* History of Missouri Indian Tribes, Access Genealogy, extracts for Missouria from John R. Swanton, ''The Indian Tribes of North America,'' Bureau of American Ethnology, ''Bulletin 145,'' Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1953.", "* Otoe-Missouria Genealogy******" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Missile" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''missile''' is an airborne ranged weapon capable of self-propelled flight aided usually by a propellant, jet engine or rocket motor.Historically, 'missile' referred to any projectile that is thrown, shot or propelled towards a target; this usage is still recognized today with any unguided jet- or rocket-propelled weapons generally described as rocket artillery.", "Airborne explosive devices without propulsion are referred to as shells if fired by an artillery piece and bombs if dropped by an aircraft.Missiles are also generally guided towards specific targets termed as guided missiles or guided rockets.", "Missile systems usually have five system components: targeting, guidance system, flight system, engine, and warhead.", "Missiles are primarily classified into different types based on firing source and target such as surface-to-surface, air-to-surface, surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles." ], [ "History", "A V-1 flying bomb, amongst the first guided missilesRockets were the precursor to modern missiles and the first rockets were used as propulsion systems for arrows as early as the 10th century in China.", "Usage of rockets as weapons before modern rocketry is attested to in China, Korea, India and Europe.", "In the 18th century, iron-cased rockets were used in India by the Kingdom of Mysore and Marathas against the British which was developed into Congreve rocket and used in the Napoleonic Wars.In the early 20th century, American Robert Goddard and German Hermann Oberth developed early rockets propelled by jet engines.", "In the 1920s, Soviet Union developed solid fuel rockets at the Gas Dynamics Laboratory.", "Later, the first missiles to be used operationally were a series of rocket based missiles developed by Nazi Germany during World War II including the V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rocket which used mechanical autopilot to keep the missile flying along a pre-chosen route.", "Less well known were a series of anti-ship and anti-aircraft missiles, typically based on a simple radio control (command guidance) system directed by the operator.", "However, these early systems in World War II were only built in small numbers.", "After World War II, the advent of the Cold War and development of nuclear weapons necessitated faster, accurate and versatile missiles with longer range and missile development was pursued by multiple countries." ], [ "Components", "===Guidance, targeting and flight systems===homing systemA missile is most often guided by a guidance system though there are missiles that are unguided during some phases of flight.", "The missile guidance system refers to methods of guiding a missile to its intended target as the missile's target accuracy is a critical factor for its effectiveness.", "The missile guidance system accomplishes this by four steps: tracking the target, computing the directions using tracking information, directing the computed inputs to steering control and steering the missile by directing inputs to motors or flight control surfaces.", "The guidance system consists of three sections: launch, mid-course and terminal with same or different systems employed across sections.A simplified diagram of a solid-fuel rocket.", "The guidance and homing systems are generally classified broadly into active, semi-active and passive.", "In active homing systems, the missile carries the equipment needed to transmit the radiation needed to illuminate the target and receive the reflected energy.", "Once the homing is initiated, the missile directs independently towards the target.", "In semi-active systems, the source of the radiation is located outside the missile usually in the launch vehicle which might be an aircraft or a ship and the missile will receive the radiation to direct towards the target.", "As the source is located outside, the launch vehicle needs to continue supporting the missile till it is guided to the intended target.", "In a passive system, the missile relies solely on the information from the target.", "The homing system might use light such as infrared, laser or visible light, radio waves or other electromagnetic radiation to illuminate the target.", "Once the guidance system identifies the target, the target might required to be tracked continuously if it is in motion.", "The guidance systems might use INS which consists of a gyroscope and accelerometer or satellite guidance to track the identified target.", "The missile computers will compute the flight path required to steer the missile towards the target.", "In command guidance, a human operator may operate it manually or a support or launch system will transmit commands by using either optic fiber or radio to guide the missile.", "The flight system uses the data from the targeting or guidance system to maneuver the missile in flight which might be accomplished using vectored thrust of engines or aerodynamic maneuvering using flight control surfaces such as wings, fins and canards.===Engine===Missiles are powered by propellants igniting to produce thrust and might employ types of rocket or jet engines.", "Rockets might be fueled by solid-propellants which are comparatively easier to maintain and enables faster deployment.", "These propellants contain a fuel and oxidizer mixed in select proportions with the grain size and burn chamber determining the rate and time of burn.", "Larger missiles might use liquid-propellant rockets where propulsion is provided by a single or combination of liquid fuels.", "A hybrid system uses solid rocket fuel with a liquid oxidizer.", "Jet engines are generally used in cruise missiles, most commonly of the turbojet type, because of their relative simplicity and low frontal area while turbofans and ramjets can also be theoretically used.", "Long-range missiles have multiple engine stages and might use similar type or a mix of engine types.", "Some missiles may have additional propulsion from another source at launch such as a catapult, cannon or tank gun.===Warhead===Missiles have one or more explosive warheads, although other weapon types may also be used.", "The warheads of a missile provide its primary destructive power which might cause secondary destruction due to the kinetic energy of the weapon and unused fuel.", "Warheads are most commonly of the high explosive type, often employing shaped charges to exploit the accuracy of a guided weapon to destroy hardened targets.", "Warhead might carry conventional, incendiary, nuclear, chemical, biological or radiological weapons." ], [ "Classification", "Missiles can be classified into categories by various parameters such as type, launch platform and target, range, propulsion and guidance system.", "Missiles are generally categorized into strategic or tactical missile systems.", "Tactical missile systems are short-range systems used to carry out a limited strike in a smaller area and might carry conventional or nuclear warheads.", "Strategic missiles are long-range weapons used to target beyond the immediate vicinity and are mostly designed to carry nuclear warheads though other warheads can also be fitted.Typical ballistic missile sequence: ===Strategic===Strategic weapons are often classified into cruise and ballistic missiles.", "Ballistic missiles are powered by rockets during launch and follow a trajectory that arches upwards before descending to reach its intended target while cruise missiles are continuously powered by jet engines and travel at a flatter trajectory.====Ballistic====A ballistic missile is powered by single or multiple rockets in stages initially before following an unpowered trajectory that arches upwards before descending to reach its intended target.", "It can carry both nuclear and conventional warheads.", "A ballistic missile might reach supersonic or hypersonic speed and often travel out of the earth's atmosphere before re-entry.", "It usually has three stages of flight:*Boost phase: First phase at launch when one or more stages of rocket engine(s) fire propelling the missile*Mid-course phase: Second phase when the rocket engines stop firing and the missile continues ascending upwards on the given trajectory*Terminal phase: Final phase when the warhead(s) detach and descend towards the targetA Tomahawk cruise missile in flightBallistic missiles are categorized based on range as:*Short-range : less than *Medium-range : to *Intermediate-range : to *Inter-continental : greater than ====Cruise====A cruise missile is a guided missile that remains in the atmosphere and flies the major portion of its flight at a constant speed.", "It is designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with high precision and are propelled by jet engines.", "A cruise missile can be launched from multiple platforms and is often self-guided.", "It flies at lower speeds often subsonic or supersonic and close to the surface of the earth which expends more fuel but makes it difficult to detect.===Tactical===Missiles might be also be classified basis launch platform and target into surface-to-air, surface-to-surface, air-to-air, air-to-surface, anti-ship and anti-tank.SystemAbbreviationLaunch platformTargetAnti-shipAShMAir/Land/WaterWaterAnti-tankATGMAir/LandLandAir-to-airAAMAirAirAir-to-surfaceASMAirLandSurface-to-airSAMLandAirSurface-to-surfaceSSMLandLandAnti-satelliteASATAir/Land/WaterSpace====Anti-ship====An anti-ship missile (AShM) is designed for use against large boats and ships such as destroyers and aircraft carriers.", "Most anti-ship missiles are of the sea skimming variety, and many use a combination of inertial guidance and active radar homing.", "A large number of other anti-ship missiles use infrared homing to follow the heat that is emitted by a ship; it is also possible for anti-ship missiles to be guided by radio command all the way.", "Many anti-ship missiles can be launched from a variety of weapons systems including surface warships, submarines, fighter aircraft, patrol planes, helicopters, shore batteries, land vehicles and by infantry.Anti-submarine missile is a standoff anti-submarine weapon variant of anti-ship missiles used to deliver an explosive warhead aimed directly at a submarine, a depth charge, or a homing torpedo.====Anti-tank====An anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) is a guided missile primarily designed to hit and destroy heavily armored military vehicles.", "ATGMs range in size from shoulder-launched weapons, which can be transported by a single soldier, to larger tripod-mounted or vehicle and aircraft mounted missile systems.", "Earlier man-portable anti-tank weapons like anti-tank rifles and magnetic anti-tank mines had a short range but sophisticated antitank missiles can be directed to a longer target by several different guidance systems, including laser guiding, television camera, or wire guiding.====Air-to-air====An air-to-air missile (AAM) is a missile fired from a fighter aircraft for the purpose of destroying another aircraft.", "AAMs are typically powered by one or more rocket motors, usually solid fueled but sometimes liquid fueled.", "A radar or heat emission based homing system is generally used and sometimes can use a combination.", "Short range missiles used to engage opposing aircraft at ranges of less than 16 km often use infrared guidance while long range missiles mostly rely upon radar guidance.====Air-to-surface====An air-to-surface missile (ASM) is a missile fired from a fighter aircraft or a attack helicopter for the purpose of destroying land based targets.", "Missiles are typically guided and unguided glide bombs not considered missiles.", "The most common propulsion systems are rocket motor for short range and jet engines for long-range but ramjets are also used.", "Missile guidance is typically via laser, infrared homing, optical or satellite.", "Air-to-surface missiles for ground attack by aircraft provide a higher standoff distance engaging targets from far away and out of range of low range air defenses.====Surface-to-air====A surface-to-air missile (SAM) is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft, other missiles or flying objects.", "It is a type of anti-aircraft system and missiles have replaced most other forms of anti-aircraft weapons due to the increased range and accuracy.", "Anti-aircraft guns are being used only for specialized close-in firing roles.", "Missiles can be mounted in clusters on vehicles or towed on trailers and can be hand operated by infantry.", "SAMs frequently use solid-propellants and may be guided by radar or infrared sensors or by a human operator using optical tracking.====Surface-to-surface====A surface-to-surface missile (SSM) is a missile designed to be launched from the ground or the sea and strike targets on land.", "They may be fired from hand-held or vehicle mounted devices, from fixed installations or from a ship.", "They are often powered by a rocket engine or sometimes fired by an explosive charge, since the launching platform is typically stationary or moving slowly.", "They usually have fins and/or wings for lift and stability, although hyper-velocity or short-ranged missiles may use body lift or fly a ballistic trajectory.", "Most anti-tank and anti-ship missiles are part of surface-to-surface missile systems.====Anti-satellite====An anti-satellite weapon (ASAT) is a space weapon designed to incapacitate or destroy satellites for strategic or tactical purposes.", "Although no ASAT system has been utilized in warfare, a few countries have successfully shot down their own satellites to demonstrate their ASAT capabilities in a show of force.", "ASATs have also been used to remove decommissioned satellites.", "ASAT roles include defensive measures against an adversary's space-based and nuclear weapons, a force multiplier for a nuclear first strike, a countermeasure against an adversary's anti-ballistic missile defense (ABM), an asymmetric counter to a technologically superior adversary, and a counter-value weapon." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mendelian inheritance" ], [ "Introduction", "Gregor Mendel, the Moravian Augustinian friar who founded the modern science of genetics'''Mendelian inheritance''' (also known as '''Mendelism''') is a type of biological inheritance following the principles originally proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865 and 1866, re-discovered in 1900 by Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns, and later popularized by William Bateson.", "These principles were initially controversial.", "When Mendel's theories were integrated with the Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory of inheritance by Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1915, they became the core of classical genetics.", "Ronald Fisher combined these ideas with the theory of natural selection in his 1930 book ''The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection'', putting evolution onto a mathematical footing and forming the basis for population genetics within the modern evolutionary synthesis." ], [ "History", "The principles of Mendelian inheritance were named for and first derived by Gregor Johann Mendel, a nineteenth-century Moravian monk who formulated his ideas after conducting simple hybridisation experiments with pea plants ''(Pisum sativum)'' he had planted in the garden of his monastery.", "Between 1856 and 1863, Mendel cultivated and tested some 5,000 pea plants.", "From these experiments, he induced two generalizations which later became known as ''Mendel's Principles of Heredity'' or ''Mendelian inheritance''.", "He described his experiments in a two-part paper, ''Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden'' (''Experiments on Plant Hybridization''), that he presented to the Natural History Society of Brno on 8 February and 8 March 1865, and which was published in 1866.Mendel's results were at first largely ignored.", "Although they were not completely unknown to biologists of the time, they were not seen as generally applicable, even by Mendel himself, who thought they only applied to certain categories of species or traits.", "A major roadblock to understanding their significance was the importance attached by 19th-century biologists to the apparent blending of many inherited traits in the overall appearance of the progeny, now known to be due to multi-gene interactions, in contrast to the organ-specific binary characters studied by Mendel.", "In 1900, however, his work was \"re-discovered\" by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak.", "The exact nature of the \"re-discovery\" has been debated: De Vries published first on the subject, mentioning Mendel in a footnote, while Correns pointed out Mendel's priority after having read De Vries' paper and realizing that he himself did not have priority.", "De Vries may not have acknowledged truthfully how much of his knowledge of the laws came from his own work and how much came only after reading Mendel's paper.", "Later scholars have accused Von Tschermak of not truly understanding the results at all.Regardless, the \"re-discovery\" made Mendelism an important but controversial theory.", "Its most vigorous promoter in Europe was William Bateson, who coined the terms \"genetics\" and \"allele\" to describe many of its tenets.", "The model of heredity was contested by other biologists because it implied that heredity was discontinuous, in opposition to the apparently continuous variation observable for many traits.", "Many biologists also dismissed the theory because they were not sure it would apply to all species.", "However, later work by biologists and statisticians such as Ronald Fisher showed that if multiple Mendelian factors were involved in the expression of an individual trait, they could produce the diverse results observed, thus demonstrating that Mendelian genetics is compatible with natural selection.", "Thomas Hunt Morgan and his assistants later integrated Mendel's theoretical model with the chromosome theory of inheritance, in which the chromosomes of cells were thought to hold the actual hereditary material, and created what is now known as classical genetics, a highly successful foundation which eventually cemented Mendel's place in history.Mendel's findings allowed scientists such as Fisher and J.B.S.", "Haldane to predict the expression of traits on the basis of mathematical probabilities.", "An important aspect of Mendel's success can be traced to his decision to start his crosses only with plants he demonstrated were true-breeding.", "He only measured discrete (binary) characteristics, such as color, shape, and position of the seeds, rather than quantitatively variable characteristics.", "He expressed his results numerically and subjected them to statistical analysis.", "His method of data analysis and his large sample size gave credibility to his data.", "He had the foresight to follow several successive generations (P, F1, F2, F3) of pea plants and record their variations.", "Finally, he performed \"test crosses\" (backcrossing descendants of the initial hybridization to the initial true-breeding lines) to reveal the presence and proportions of recessive characters." ], [ "Mendel's genetic discoveries", "Five parts of Mendel's discoveries were an important divergence from the common theories at the time and were the prerequisite for the establishment of his rules.# Characters are unitary, that is, they are discrete e.g.", ": purple ''vs''.", "white, tall ''vs''.", "dwarf.", "There is no medium-sized plant or light purple flower.# Genetic characteristics have alternate forms, each inherited from one of two parents.", "Today these are called alleles.# One allele is dominant over the other.", "The phenotype reflects the dominant allele.# Gametes are created by random segregation.", "Heterozygotic individuals produce gametes with an equal frequency of the two alleles.# Different traits have independent assortment.", "In modern terms, genes are unlinked.According to customary terminology, the principles of inheritance discovered by Gregor Mendel are here referred to as Mendelian laws, although today's geneticists also speak of ''Mendelian rules'' or ''Mendelian principles'', as there are many exceptions summarized under the collective term Non-Mendelian inheritance.", "The laws were initially formulated by the geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1916.Characteristics Mendel used in his experimentsP-Generation and F1-Generation: The dominant allele for purple-red flower hides the phenotypic effect of the recessive allele for white flowers.", "F2-Generation: The recessive trait from the P-Generation phenotypically reappears in the individuals that are homozygous with the recessive genetic trait.Myosotis: Colour and distribution of colours are inherited independently.Mendel selected for the experiment the following characters of pea plants:* Form of the ripe seeds (round or roundish, surface shallow or wrinkled)* Colour of the seed–coat (white, gray, or brown, with or without violet spotting)* Colour of the seeds and cotyledons (yellow or green)* Flower colour (white or violet-red)* Form of the ripe pods (simply inflated, not contracted, or constricted between the seeds and wrinkled)* Colour of the unripe pods (yellow or green)* Position of the flowers (axial or terminal)* Length of the stem When he crossed purebred white flower and purple flower pea plants (the parental or P generation) by artificial pollination, the resulting flower colour was not a blend.", "Rather than being a mix of the two, the offspring in the first generation (F1-generation) were all purple-flowered.", "Therefore, he called this biological trait dominant.", "When he allowed self-fertilization in the uniform looking F1-generation, he obtained both colours in the F2 generation with a purple flower to white flower ratio of 3 : 1.In some of the other characters also one of the traits was dominant.He then conceived the idea of heredity units, which he called hereditary \"factors\".", "Mendel found that there are alternative forms of factors—now called genes—that account for variations in inherited characteristics.", "For example, the gene for flower color in pea plants exists in two forms, one for purple and the other for white.", "The alternative \"forms\" are now called alleles.", "For each trait, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent.", "These alleles may be the same or different.", "An organism that has two identical alleles for a gene is said to be homozygous for that gene (and is called a homozygote).", "An organism that has two different alleles for a gene is said to be heterozygous for that gene (and is called a heterozygote).Mendel hypothesized that allele pairs separate randomly, or segregate, from each other during the production of the gametes in the seed plant (egg cell) and the pollen plant (sperm).", "Because allele pairs separate during gamete production, a sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited trait.", "When sperm and egg unite at fertilization, each contributes its allele, restoring the paired condition in the offspring.", "Mendel also found that each pair of alleles segregates independently of the other pairs of alleles during gamete formation.The genotype of an individual is made up of the many alleles it possesses.", "The phenotype is the result of the expression of all characteristics that are genetically determined by its alleles as well as by its environment.", "The presence of an allele does not mean that the trait will be expressed in the individual that possesses it.", "If the two alleles of an inherited pair differ (the heterozygous condition), then one determines the organism's appearance and is called the dominant allele; the other has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance and is called the recessive allele.+ Mendel's laws of inheritance Law Definition Law of dominance and uniformity Some alleles are dominant while others are recessive; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the effect of the dominant allele.", "Law of segregation During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.", "Law of independent assortment Genes of different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes.===Law of Dominance and Uniformity===F1 generation: All individuals have the same genotype and same phenotype expressing the dominant trait (red).F2 generation: The phenotypes in the second generation show a 3 : 1 ratio.In the genotype 25 % are homozygous with the dominant trait, 50 % are heterozygous genetic carriers of the recessive trait, 25 % are homozygous with the recessive genetic trait and expressing the recessive character.In Mirabilis jalapa and Antirrhinum majus are examples for intermediate inheritance.", "As seen in the F1-generation, heterozygous plants have \"light pink\" flowers—a mix of \"red\" and \"white\".", "The F2-generation shows a 1:2:1 ratio of red : light pink : whiteIf two parents are mated with each other who differ in one genetic characteristic for which they are both homozygous (each pure-bred), all offspring in the first generation (F1) are equal to the examined characteristic in genotype and phenotype showing the dominant trait.", "This ''uniformity rule'' or ''reciprocity rule'' applies to all individuals of the F1-generation.The principle of dominant inheritance discovered by Mendel states that in a heterozygote the dominant allele will cause the recessive allele to be \"masked\": that is, not expressed in the phenotype.", "Only if an individual is homozygous with respect to the recessive allele will the recessive trait be expressed.", "Therefore, a cross between a homozygous dominant and a homozygous recessive organism yields a heterozygous organism whose phenotype displays only the dominant trait.The F1 offspring of Mendel's pea crosses always looked like one of the two parental varieties.", "In this situation of \"complete dominance,\" the dominant allele had the same phenotypic effect whether present in one or two copies.But for some characteristics, the F1 hybrids have an appearance ''in between'' the phenotypes of the two parental varieties.", "A cross between two four o'clock (''Mirabilis jalapa'') plants shows an exception to Mendel's principle, called ''incomplete dominance''.", "Flowers of heterozygous plants have a phenotype somewhere between the two homozygous genotypes.", "In cases of intermediate inheritance (incomplete dominance) in the F1-generation Mendel's principle of uniformity in genotype and phenotype applies as well.", "Research about intermediate inheritance was done by other scientists.", "The first was Carl Correns with his studies about Mirabilis jalapa.===Law of Segregation of genes===A Punnett square for one of Mendel's pea plant experiments – self-fertilization of the F1 generationThe Law of Segregation of genes applies when two individuals, both heterozygous for a certain trait are crossed, for example, hybrids of the F1-generation.", "The offspring in the F2-generation differ in genotype and phenotype so that the characteristics of the grandparents (P-generation) regularly occur again.", "In a dominant-recessive inheritance, an average of 25% are homozygous with the dominant trait, 50% are heterozygous showing the dominant trait in the phenotype (genetic carriers), 25% are homozygous with the recessive trait and therefore express the recessive trait in the phenotype.", "The genotypic ratio is 1: 2 : 1, and the phenotypic ratio is 3: 1.In the pea plant example, the capital \"B\" represents the dominant allele for purple blossom and lowercase \"b\" represents the recessive allele for white blossom.", "The pistil plant and the pollen plant are both F1-hybrids with genotype \"B b\".", "Each has one allele for purple and one allele for white.", "In the offspring, in the F2-plants in the Punnett-square, three combinations are possible.", "The genotypic ratio is 1 ''BB'' : 2 ''Bb'' : 1 ''bb''.", "But the phenotypic ratio of plants with purple blossoms to those with white blossoms is 3 : 1 due to the dominance of the allele for purple.", "Plants with homozygous \"b b\" are white flowered like one of the grandparents in the P-generation.In cases of incomplete dominance the same segregation of alleles takes place in the F2-generation, but here also the phenotypes show a ratio of 1 : 2 : 1, as the heterozygous are different in phenotype from the homozygous because the genetic expression of one allele compensates the missing expression of the other allele only partially.", "This results in an intermediate inheritance which was later described by other scientists.In some literature sources, the principle of segregation is cited as the \"first law\".", "Nevertheless, Mendel did his crossing experiments with heterozygous plants after obtaining these hybrids by crossing two purebred plants, discovering the principle of dominance and uniformity first.Molecular proof of segregation of genes was subsequently found through observation of meiosis by two scientists independently, the German botanist Oscar Hertwig in 1876, and the Belgian zoologist Edouard Van Beneden in 1883.Most alleles are located in chromosomes in the cell nucleus.", "Paternal and maternal chromosomes get separated in meiosis because during spermatogenesis the chromosomes are segregated on the four sperm cells that arise from one mother sperm cell, and during oogenesis the chromosomes are distributed between the polar bodies and the egg cell.", "Every individual organism contains two alleles for each trait.", "They segregate (separate) during meiosis such that each gamete contains only one of the alleles.", "When the gametes unite in the zygote the alleles—one from the mother one from the father—get passed on to the offspring.", "An offspring thus receives a pair of alleles for a trait by inheriting homologous chromosomes from the parent organisms: one allele for each trait from each parent.", "Heterozygous individuals with the dominant trait in the phenotype are genetic carriers of the recessive trait.===Law of Independent Assortment===chromosome theory of inheritance.", "When the parents are homozygous for two different genetic traits ('''llSS''' and '''LL sP sP'''), their children in the F1 generation are heterozygous at both loci and only show the dominant phenotypes ('''Ll S sP''').", "P-Generation: Each parent possesses one dominant and one recessive trait purebred (homozygous).", "In this example, solid coat color is indicated by '''S''' (dominant), Piebald spotting by '''sP''' (recessive), while fur length is indicated by '''L''' (short, dominant) or '''l''' (long, recessive).", "All individuals are equal in genotype and phenotype.", "In the F2 generation all combinations of coat color and fur length occur: 9 are short haired with solid colour, 3 are short haired with spotting, 3 are long haired with solid colour and 1 is long haired with spotting.", "The traits are inherited independently, so that new combinations can occur.", "Average number ratio of phenotypes 9:3:3:1For example 3 pairs of homologous chromosomes allow 8 possible combinations, all equally likely to move into the gamete during meiosis.", "This is the main reason for independent assortment.", "The equation to determine the number of possible combinations given the number of homologous pairs = 2x (x = number of homologous pairs)The Law of Independent Assortment proposes alleles for separate traits are passed independently of one another.", "That is, the biological selection of an allele for one trait has nothing to do with the selection of an allele for any other trait.", "Mendel found support for this law in his dihybrid cross experiments.", "In his monohybrid crosses, an idealized 3:1 ratio between dominant and recessive phenotypes resulted.", "In dihybrid crosses, however, he found a 9:3:3:1 ratios.", "This shows that each of the two alleles is inherited independently from the other, with a 3:1 phenotypic ratio for each.Independent assortment occurs in eukaryotic organisms during meiotic metaphase I, and produces a gamete with a mixture of the organism's chromosomes.", "The physical basis of the independent assortment of chromosomes is the random orientation of each bivalent chromosome along the metaphase plate with respect to the other bivalent chromosomes.", "Along with crossing over, independent assortment increases genetic diversity by producing novel genetic combinations.There are many deviations from the principle of independent assortment due to genetic linkage.Of the 46 chromosomes in a normal diploid human cell, half are maternally derived (from the mother's egg) and half are paternally derived (from the father's sperm).", "This occurs as sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid gametes (the egg and sperm) to produce a zygote and a new organism, in which every cell has two sets of chromosomes (diploid).", "During gametogenesis the normal complement of 46 chromosomes needs to be halved to 23 to ensure that the resulting haploid gamete can join with another haploid gamete to produce a diploid organism.In independent assortment, the chromosomes that result are randomly sorted from all possible maternal and paternal chromosomes.", "Because zygotes end up with a mix instead of a pre-defined \"set\" from either parent, chromosomes are therefore considered assorted independently.", "As such, the zygote can end up with any combination of paternal or maternal chromosomes.", "For human gametes, with 23 chromosomes, the number of possibilities is 223 or 8,388,608 possible combinations.", "This contributes to the genetic variability of progeny.", "Generally, the recombination of genes has important implications for many evolutionary processes." ], [ "Mendelian trait", "A Mendelian trait is one whose inheritance follows Mendel’s principles—namely, the trait depends only on a single locus, whose alleles are either dominant or recessive.", "Many traits are inherited in a non-Mendelian fashion." ], [ "Non-Mendelian inheritance", "Mendel himself warned that care was needed in extrapolating his patterns to other organisms or traits.", "Indeed, many organisms have traits whose inheritance works differently from the principles he described; these traits are called non-Mendelian.For example, Mendel focused on traits whose genes have only two alleles, such as \"A\" and \"a\".", "However, many genes have more than two alleles.", "He also focused on traits determined by a single gene.", "But some traits, such as height, depend on many genes rather than just one.", "Traits dependent on multiple genes are called polygenic traits." ], [ "See also", "* List of Mendelian traits in humans* Simple Mendelian genetics in humans* Mendelian diseases (monogenic disease)* Mendelian error* Particulate inheritance* Punnett square" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Khan Academy, video lecture* Probability of Inheritance* Mendel's principles of Inheritance* Mendelian genetics" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Machinima" ], [ "Introduction", "Machinima filmed in ''Second Life'''''Machinima''', originally '''machinema''' (), is the use of real-time computer graphics engines to create a cinematic production.", "The word \"machinima\" is a portmanteau of the words ''machine'' and ''cinema''.", "According to Guinness World Records, machinima is the art of making animated narrative films from computer graphics, most commonly using the engines found in video games.Machinima-based artists, sometimes called '''machinimists''' or '''machinimators''', are often fan laborers, by virtue of their re-use of copyrighted materials (see below).", "Machinima offers to provide an archive of gaming performance and access to the look and feel of software and hardware that may already have become obsolete or even unavailable.", "For game studies, \"Machinima's gestures grant access to gaming's historical conditions of possibility and how machinima offers links to a comparative horizon that informs, changes, and fully participates in videogame culture.", "\"The practice of using graphics engines from video games arose from the animated software introductions of the 1980s demoscene, Disney Interactive Studios' 1992 video game ''Stunt Island'', and 1990s recordings of gameplay in first-person shooter (FPS) video games, such as id Software's ''Doom'' and ''Quake''.", "Originally, these recordings documented speed runs—attempts to complete a level as quickly as possible—and multiplayer matches.", "The addition of storylines to these films created \"''Quake'' movies\".", "The more general term ''machinima'', a blend of ''machine'' and ''cinema'', arose when the concept spread beyond the ''Quake'' series to other games and software.", "After this generalization, machinima appeared in mainstream media, including television series and advertisements.Machinima has advantages and disadvantages when compared to other styles of filmmaking.", "Its relative simplicity over traditional frame-based animation limits control and range of expression.", "Its real-time nature favors speed, cost saving, and flexibility over the higher quality of pre-rendered computer animation.", "Virtual acting is less expensive, dangerous, and physically restricted than live action.", "Machinima can be filmed by relying on in-game artificial intelligence (AI) or by controlling characters and cameras through digital puppetry.", "Scenes can be precisely scripted, and can be manipulated during post-production using video editing techniques.", "Editing, custom software, and creative cinematography may address technical limitations.", "Game companies have provided software for and have encouraged machinima, but the widespread use of digital assets from copyrighted games has resulted in complex, unresolved legal issues.Machinima productions can remain close to their gaming roots and feature stunts or other portrayals of gameplay.", "Popular genres include dance videos, comedy, and drama.", "Alternatively, some filmmakers attempt to stretch the boundaries of the rendering engines or to mask the original 3-D context.", "The Academy of Machinima Arts & Sciences (AMAS), a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting machinima, recognizes exemplary productions through Mackie awards given at its annual Machinima Film Festival.", "Some general film festivals accept machinima, and game companies, such as Epic Games, Valve, Blizzard Entertainment and Jagex, have sponsored contests involving it." ], [ "History", "===Precedent===1980s software crackers added custom introductory credits sequences (intros) to programs whose copy protection they had removed.", "Increasing computing power allowed for more complex intros, and the demoscene formed when focus shifted to the intros instead of the cracks.", "The goal became to create the best 3-D demos in real-time with the least amount of software code.", "Disk storage was too slow for this, so graphics had to be calculated on the fly and without a pre-existing game engine.In Disney Interactive Studios' 1992 computer game ''Stunt Island'', users could stage, record, and play back stunts.", "As Nitsche stated, the game's goal was \"not ... a high score but a spectacle.\"", "Released the following year, id Software's ''Doom'' included the ability to record gameplay as sequences of events that the game engine could later replay in real-time.", "Because events and not video frames were saved, the resulting game demo files were small and easily shared among players.", "A culture of recording gameplay developed, as Henry Lowood of Stanford University called it, \"a context for spectatorship....", "The result was nothing less than a metamorphosis of the player into a performer.\"", "Another important feature of ''Doom'' was that it allowed players to create their own modifications, maps, and software for the game, thus expanding the concept of game authorship.", "In machinima, there is a dual register of gestures: the trained motions of the player determine the in-game images of expressive motion.In parallel of the video game approach, in the media art field, Maurice Benayoun's Virtual Reality artwork ''The Tunnel under the Atlantic'' (1995), often compared to video games, introduced a virtual film director, fully autonomous intelligent agent, to shoot and edit in real time a full video from the digging performance in the Pompidou Center in Paris and the Museum of Contemporary art in Montreal.", "The full movie, ''Inside the Tunnel under the Atlantic'', 21h long, was followed in 1997 by ''Inside the Paris New-Delhi Tunnel'' (13h long).", "Only short excerpts were presented to the public.", "The complex behavior of the Tunnel's virtual director makes it a significant precursor of later application to video games based machinimas.", "''Doom''s 1996 successor, ''Quake'', offered new opportunities for both gameplay and customization, while retaining the ability to record demos.", "Multiplayer video games became popular, and demos of matches between teams of players (clans) were recorded and studied.", "Paul Marino, executive director of the AMAS, stated that deathmatches, a type of multiplayer game, became more \"cinematic\".", "At this point, however, they still documented gameplay without a narrative.===''Quake'' movies===A scene from ''Diary of a Camper'', an early machinima productionOn October 26, 1996, a well-known gaming clan, the Rangers, surprised the ''Quake'' community with ''Diary of a Camper'', the first widely known machinima film.", "This short, 100-second demo file contained the action and gore of many others, but in the context of a brief story, rather than the usual deathmatch.", "An example of transformative or emergent gameplay, this shift from competition to theater required both expertise in and subversion of the game's mechanics.", "The Ranger demo emphasized this transformation by retaining specific gameplay references in its story.", "''Diary of a Camper'' inspired many other \"''Quake'' movies,\" as these films were then called.", "A community of game modifiers (modders), artists, expert players, and film fans began to form around them.", "The works were distributed and reviewed on websites such as The Cineplex, Psyk's Popcorn Jungle, and the Quake Movie Library (QML).", "Production was supported by dedicated demo-processing software, such as Uwe Girlich's Little Movie Processing Center (LMPC) and David \"crt\" Wright's non-linear editor Keygrip, which later became known as \"Adobe Premiere for Quake demo files\".", "Among the notable films were Clan Phantasm's ''Devil's Covenant'', the first feature-length ''Quake'' movie; Avatar and Wendigo's ''Blahbalicious'', which the QML awarded seven Quake Movie Oscars; and Clan Undead's ''Operation Bayshield'', which introduced simulated lip synchronization and featured customized digital assets.Released in December 1997, id Software's ''Quake II'' improved support for user-created 3-D models.", "However, without compatible editing software, filmmakers continued to create works based on the original ''Quake''.", "These included the ILL Clan's ''Apartment Huntin''' and the Quake done Quick group's ''Scourge Done Slick''.", "''Quake II'' demo editors became available in 1998.In particular, Keygrip 2.0 introduced \"recamming\", the ability to adjust camera locations after recording.", "Paul Marino called the addition of this feature \"a defining moment for machinima\".", "With ''Quake II'' filming now feasible, Strange Company's 1999 production ''Eschaton: Nightfall'' was the first work to feature entirely custom-made character models.The December 1999 release of id's ''Quake III Arena'' posed a problem to the ''Quake'' movie community.", "The game's demo file included information needed for computer networking; however, to prevent cheating, id warned of legal action for dissemination of the file format.", "Thus, it was impractical to enhance software to work with ''Quake III''.", "Concurrently, the novelty of ''Quake'' movies was waning.", "New productions appeared less frequently, and, according to Marino, the community needed to \"reinvent itself\" to offset this development.", "''Borg War'', a 90-minute animated Star Trek fan film, was produced using Elite Force 2 (a ''Quake III'' variant) and Starfleet Command 3, repurposing the games' voiceover clips to create a new plot.", "''Borg War'' was nominated for two \"Mackie\" awards by the Academy of Machinima Arts & Sciences.", "An August 2007 screening at a ''Star Trek'' convention in Las Vegas was the first time that CBS/Paramount had approved the screening of a non-parody fan film at a licensed convention.===Generalization===In January 2000, Hugh Hancock, the founder of Strange Company, launched a new website, machinima.com.", "A misspelled contraction of ''machine cinema'' (''machinema''), the term ''machinima'' was intended to dissociate in-game filming from a specific engine.", "The new site featured tutorials, interviews, articles, and the exclusive release of Tritin Films' ''Quad God''.", "The first film made with ''Quake III Arena'', ''Quad God'' was also the first to be distributed as recorded video frames, not game-specific instructions.", "This change was initially controversial among machinima producers who preferred the smaller size of demo files.", "However, demo files required a copy of the game to view.", "The more accessible traditional video format broadened ''Quad God''s viewership, and the work was distributed on CDs bundled with magazines.", "Thus, id's decision to protect ''Quake III''s code inadvertently caused machinima creators to use more general solutions and thus widen their audience.", "Within a few years, machinima films were almost exclusively distributed in common video file formats.Hugh Hancock founded Strange Company and coined the term ''machinima''.Machinima began to receive mainstream notice.", "Roger Ebert discussed it in a June 2000 article and praised Strange Company's machinima setting of Percy Bysshe Shelley's sonnet \"Ozymandias\".", "At Showtime Network's 2001 Alternative Media Festival, the ILL Clan's 2000 machinima film ''Hardly Workin''' won the Best Experimental and Best in SHO awards.", "Steven Spielberg used ''Unreal Tournament'' to test special effects while working on his 2001 film ''Artificial Intelligence: A.I.''", "Eventually, interest spread to game developers.", "In July 2001, Epic Games announced that its upcoming game ''Unreal Tournament 2003'' would include Matinee, a machinima production software utility.", "As involvement increased, filmmakers released fewer new productions to focus on quality.At the March 2002 Game Developers Conference, five machinima makers—Anthony Bailey, Hugh Hancock, Katherine Anna Kang, Paul Marino, and Matthew Ross—founded the AMAS, a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting machinima.", "At QuakeCon in August, the new organization held the first Machinima Film Festival, which received mainstream media coverage.", "''Anachronox: The Movie'', by Jake Hughes and Tom Hall, won three awards, including Best Picture.", "The next year, \"In the Waiting Line\", produced by Ghost Robot, directed by Tommy Pallotta and animated by Randy Cole, utilizing Fountainhead Entertainment's Machinimation tools, it became the first machinima music video to air on MTV.", "As graphics technology improved, machinima filmmakers used other video games and consumer-grade video editing software.", "Using Bungie's 2001 game ''Halo: Combat Evolved'', Rooster Teeth Productions created a popular comedy series ''Red vs. Blue: The Blood Gulch Chronicles''.", "The series' second season premiered at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in 2004.=== Collapse of Machinima, Inc. ===By 2013, Machinima was the most viewed YouTube channel worldwide, but it went through various changes in ownership before suddenly collapsing on January 18, 2019, causing the loss of thousands of gaming-related videos and cutting off money from creators who had contracts with the company.", "The closure resulted in 81 layoffs from the company.", "This was blamed on an \"obvious misunderstanding of what Machinima actually was, or what traditional media companies were even buying when they purchased a content network\", with the possibility of future machinima distribution networks of that size emerging being slim.", "The reaction of fans at the collapse showed that machinima was still extremely popular." ], [ "Production", "===Comparison to film techniques===The AMAS defines machinima as \"animated filmmaking within a real-time virtual 3-D environment\".", "In other 3-D animation methods, creators can control every frame and nuance of their characters but, in turn, must consider issues such as key frames and inbetweening.", "Machinima creators leave many rendering details to their host environments, but may thus inherit those environments' limitations.", "Second Life Machinima film maker Ozymandius King provided a detailed account of the process by which the artists at MAGE Magazine produce their videos.", "\"Organizing for a photo shoot is similar to organizing for a film production.", "Once you find the actors / models, you have to scout locations, find clothes and props for the models and type up a shooting script.", "The more organized you are the less time it takes to shoot the scene.\"", "Because game animations focus on dramatic rather than casual actions, the range of character emotions is often limited.", "However, Kelland, Morris, and Lloyd state that a small range of emotions is often sufficient, as in successful Japanese anime television series.Another difference is that machinima is created in real time, but other animation is pre-rendered.", "Real-time engines need to trade quality for speed and use simpler algorithms and models.", "In the 2001 animated film ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'', every strand of hair on a character's head was independent; real-time needs would likely force them to be treated as a single unit.", "Kelland, Morris, and Lloyd argue that improvement in consumer-grade graphics technology will allow more realism.", "Similarly, Paul Marino connects machinima to the increasing computing power predicted by Moore's law.", "For cut scenes in video games, issues other than visual fidelity arise.", "Pre-rendered scenes can require more digital storage space, weaken suspension of disbelief through contrast with real-time animation of normal gameplay, and limit interaction.Like live action, machinima is recorded in real-time, and real people can act and control the camera.", "Filmmakers are often encouraged to follow traditional cinematic conventions, such as avoiding wide fields of view, the overuse of slow motion, and errors in visual continuity.", "Unlike live action, machinima involves less expensive, digital special effects and sets, possibly with a science-fiction or historical theme.", "Explosions and stunts can be tried and repeated without monetary cost and risk of injury, and the host environment may allow unrealistic physical constraints.", "University of Cambridge experiments in 2002 and 2003 attempted to use machinima to re-create a scene from the 1942 live-action film ''Casablanca''.", "Machinima filming differed from traditional cinematography in that character expression was limited, but camera movements were more flexible and improvised.", "Nitsche compared this experiment to an unpredictable Dogme 95 production.The ILL Clan performs its machinima comedy talk show ''Tra5hTa1k with ILL Will'' in front of a live audience at Stanford University in 2005.Berkeley sees machinima as \"a strangely hybrid form, looking forwards and backwards, cutting edge and conservative at the same time\".", "Machinima is a digital medium based on 3-D computer games, but most works have a linear narrative structure.", "Some, such as ''Red vs. Blue'' and ''The Strangerhood'', follow narrative conventions of television situational comedy.", "Nitsche agrees that pre-recorded (\"reel\") machinima tends to be linear and offers limited interactive storytelling while machinima has more opportunities performed live and with audience interaction.", "In creating their improvisational comedy series ''On the Campaign Trail with Larry & Lenny Lumberjack'' and talk show ''Tra5hTa1k with ILL Will'', the ILL Clan blended real and virtual performance by creating the works on-stage and interacting with a live audience.", "In another combination of real and virtual worlds, Chris Burke's talk show ''This Spartan Life'' takes place in ''Halo 2''s open multiplayer environment.", "There, others playing in earnest may attack the host or his interviewee.", "Although other virtual theatrical performances have taken place in chat rooms and multi-user dungeons, machinima adds \"cinematic camera work\".", "Previously, such virtual cinematic performances with live audience interaction were confined to research labs equipped with powerful computers.Machinima can be less expensive than other forms of filmmaking.", "Strange Company produced its feature-length machinima film ''BloodSpell'' for less than £10,000.Before using machinima, Burnie Burns and Matt Hullum of Rooster Teeth Productions spent US$9,000 to produce a live-action independent film.", "In contrast, the four Xbox game consoles used to make ''Red vs. Blue'' in 2005 cost $600.The low cost caused a product manager for Electronic Arts to compare machinima to the low-budget independent film ''The Blair Witch Project'', without the need for cameras and actors.", "Because these are seen as low barriers to entry, machinima has been called a \"democratization of filmmaking\".", "Berkeley weighs increased participation and a blurred line between producer and consumer against concerns that game copyrights limit commercialization and growth of machinima.Comparatively, machinimists using pre-made virtual platforms like ''Second Life'' have indicated that their productions can be made quite successfully with no cost at all.", "Creators like Dutch director Chantal Harvey, producer of the 48 Hour Film Project Machinima sector, have created upwards of 200 films using the platform.", "Harvey's advocacy of the genre has resulted in the involvement of film director Peter Greenaway who served as a juror for the Machinima category and gave a keynote speech during the event.===Character and camera control===Kelland, Morris, and Lloyd list four main methods of creating machinima.", "From simple to advanced, these are: relying on the game's AI to control most actions, digital puppetry, recamming, and precise scripting of actions.", "Although simple to produce, AI-dependent results are unpredictable, thus complicating the realization of a preconceived film script.", "For example, when Rooster Teeth produced ''The Strangerhood'' using ''The Sims 2'', a game that encourages the use of its AI, the group had to create multiple instances of each character to accommodate different moods.", "Individual instances were selected at different times to produce appropriate actions.In digital puppetry, machinima creators become virtual actors.", "Each crew member controls a character in real-time, as in a multiplayer game.", "The director can use built-in camera controls, if available.", "Otherwise, video is captured from the perspectives of one or more puppeteers who serve as camera operators.", "Puppetry allows for improvisation and offers controls familiar to gamers, but requires more personnel than the other methods and is less precise than scripted recordings.", "However, some games, such as the ''Halo'' series, (except for Halo PC and Custom Edition, which allow AI and custom objects and characters), allow filming only through puppetry.", "According to Marino, other disadvantages are the possibility of disruption when filming in an open multi-user environment and the temptation for puppeteers to play the game in earnest, littering the set with blood and dead bodies.", "However, Chris Burke intentionally hosts ''This Spartan Life'' in these unpredictable conditions, which are fundamental to the show.", "Other works filmed using puppetry are the ILL Clan's improvisational comedy series ''On the Campaign Trail with Larry & Lenny Lumberjack'' and Rooster Teeth Productions' ''Red vs. Blue''.", "In recamming, which builds on puppetry, actions are first recorded to a game engine's demo file format, not directly as video frames.", "Without re-enacting scenes, artists can then manipulate the demo files to add cameras, tweak timing and lighting, and change the surroundings.", "This technique is limited to the few engines and software tools that support it.A technique common in cutscenes of video games, scripting consists of giving precise directions to the game engine.", "A filmmaker can work alone this way, as J. Thaddeus \"Mindcrime\" Skubis did in creating the nearly four-hour ''The Seal of Nehahra'' (2000), the longest work of machinima at the time.", "However, perfecting scripts can be time-consuming.", "Unless what-you-see-is-what-you-get (WYSIWYG) editing is available, as in ''Vampire: The Masquerade – Redemption'', changes may need to be verified in additional runs, and non-linear editing may be difficult.", "In this respect, Kelland, Morris, and Lloyd compare scripting to stop-motion animation.", "Another disadvantage is that, depending on the game, scripting capabilities may be limited or unavailable.", "Matinee, a machinima software tool included with ''Unreal Tournament 2004'', popularized scripting in machinima.===Limitations and solutions===When ''Diary of a Camper'' was created, no software tools existed to edit demo files into films.", "Rangers clan member Eric \"ArchV\" Fowler wrote his own programs to reposition the camera and to splice footage from the ''Quake'' demo file.", "''Quake'' movie editing software later appeared, but the use of conventional non-linear video editing software is now common.", "For example, Phil South inserted single, completely white frames into his work ''No Licence'' to enhance the visual impact of explosions.", "In the post-production of ''Red vs. Blue: The Blood Gulch Chronicles'', Rooster Teeth Productions added letterboxing with Adobe Premiere Pro to hide the camera player's heads-up display.Machinima creators have used different methods to handle limited character expression.", "The most typical ways that amateur-style machinima gets around limitations of expression include taking advantage of speech bubbles seen above players' heads when speaking, relying on the visual matching between a character's voice and appearance, and finding methods available within the game itself.", "''Garry's Mod'' and Source Filmmaker include the ability to manipulate characters and objects in real-time, though the former relies on community addons to take advantage of certain engine features, and the latter renders scenes using non-real-time effects.", "In the ''Halo'' video game series, helmets completely cover the characters' faces.", "To prevent confusion, Rooster Teeth's characters move slightly when speaking, a convention shared with anime.", "Some machinima creators use custom software.", "For example, Strange Company uses Take Over GL Face Skins to add more facial expressions to their characters filmed in BioWare's 2002 role-playing video game ''Neverwinter Nights''.", "Similarly, Atussa Simon used a \"library of faces\" for characters in ''The Battle of Xerxes''.", "Some software, such as Epic Games' Impersonator for ''Unreal Tournament 2004'' and Valve's Faceposer for Source games, have been provided by the developer.", "Another solution is to blend in non-machinima elements, as nGame did by inserting painted characters with more expressive faces into its 1999 film ''Berlin Assassins''.", "It may be possible to point the camera elsewhere or employ other creative cinematography or acting.", "For example, Tristan Pope combined creative character and camera positioning with video editing to suggest sexual actions in his controversial film ''Not Just Another Love Story''." ], [ "Legal issues", "New machinima filmmakers often want to use game-provided digital assets, but doing so raises legal issues.", "As derivative works, their films could violate copyright or be controlled by the assets' copyright holder, an arrangement that can be complicated by separate publishing and licensing rights.", "The software license agreement for ''The Movies'' stipulates that Activision, the game's publisher, owns \"any and all content within... Game Movies that was either supplied with the Program or otherwise made available... by Activision or its licensors...\" Some game companies provide software to modify their own games, and machinima makers often cite fair use as a defense, but the issue has never been tested in court.", "A potential problem with this defense is that many works, such as ''Red vs. Blue'', focus more on satire, which is not as explicitly protected by fair use as parody.", "Berkeley adds that, even if machinima artists use their own assets, their works could be ruled derivative if filmed in a proprietary engine.", "The risk inherent in a fair-use defense would cause most machinima artists simply to yield to a cease-and-desist order.", "The AMAS has attempted to negotiate solutions with video game companies, arguing that an open-source or reasonably priced alternative would emerge from an unfavorable situation.", "Unlike ''The Movies'', some dedicated machinima software programs, such as Reallusion's iClone, have licenses that avoid claiming ownership of users' films featuring bundled assets.Generally, companies want to retain creative control over their intellectual properties and are wary of fan-created works, like fan fiction.", "However, because machinima provides free marketing, they have avoided a response demanding strict copyright enforcement.", "In 2003, Linden Lab was praised for changing license terms to allow users to retain ownership of works created in its virtual world ''Second Life''.", "Rooster Teeth initially tried to release ''Red vs. Blue'' unnoticed by ''Halo''s owners because they feared that any communication would force them to end the project.", "However, Microsoft, Bungie's parent company at the time, contacted the group shortly after episode 2, and allowed them to continue without paying licensing fees.A case in which developer control was asserted involved Blizzard Entertainment's action against Tristan Pope's ''Not Just Another Love Story''.", "Blizzard's community managers encouraged users to post game movies and screenshots, but viewers complained that Pope's suggestion of sexual actions through creative camera and character positioning was pornographic.", "Citing the user license agreement, Blizzard closed discussion threads about the film and prohibited links to it.", "Although Pope accepted Blizzard's right to some control, he remained concerned about censorship of material that already existed in-game in some form.", "Discussion ensued about boundaries between MMORPG player and developer control.", "Lowood asserted that this controversy demonstrated that machinima could be a medium of negotiation for players.===Microsoft and Blizzard===In August 2007, Microsoft issued its Game Content Usage Rules, a license intended to address the legal status of machinima based on its games, including the ''Halo'' series.", "Microsoft intended the rules to be \"flexible\", and, because it was unilateral, the license was legally unable to reduce rights.", "However, machinima artists, such as Edgeworks Entertainment, protested the prohibitions on extending Microsoft's fictional universes (a common component of fan fiction) and on selling anything from sites hosting derivative works.", "Compounding the reaction was the license's statement, \"If you do any of these things, you can expect to hear from Microsoft's lawyers who will tell you that you have to stop distributing your items right away.", "\"Surprised by the negative feedback, Microsoft revised and reissued the license after discussion with Hugh Hancock and an attorney for the Electronic Frontier Foundation.", "The rules allow noncommercial use and distribution of works derived from Microsoft-owned game content, except audio effects and soundtracks.", "The license prohibits reverse engineering and material that is pornographic or otherwise \"objectionable\".", "On distribution, derivative works that elaborate on a game's fictional universe or story are automatically licensed to Microsoft and its business partners.", "This prevents legal problems if a fan and Microsoft independently conceive similar plots.A few weeks later, Blizzard Entertainment posted on WorldofWarcraft.com their \"Letter to the Machinimators of the World\", a license for noncommercial use of game content.", "It differs from Microsoft's declaration in that it addresses machinima specifically instead of general game-derived content, allows use of game audio if Blizzard can legally license it, requires derivative material to meet the Entertainment Software Rating Board's Teen content rating guideline, defines noncommercial use differently, and does not address extensions of fictional universes.Hayes states that, although licensees' benefits are limited, the licenses reduce reliance on fair use regarding machinima.", "In turn, this recognition may reduce film festivals' concerns about copyright clearance.", "In an earlier analogous situation, festivals were concerned about documentary films until best practices for them were developed.", "According to Hayes, Microsoft and Blizzard helped themselves through their licenses because fan creations provide free publicity and are unlikely to harm sales.", "If the companies had instead sued for copyright infringement, defendants could have claimed estoppel or implied license because machinima had been unaddressed for a long time.", "Thus, these licenses secured their issuers' legal rights.", "Even though other companies, such as Electronic Arts, have encouraged machinima, they have avoided licensing it.", "Because of the involved legal complexity, they may prefer to under-enforce copyrights.", "Hayes believes that this legal uncertainty is a suboptimal solution and that, though limited and \"idiosyncratic\", the Microsoft and Blizzard licenses move towards an ideal video gaming industry standard for handling derivative works." ], [ "Semiotic mode", "Just as machinima can be the cause of legal dispute in copyright ownership and illegal use, it makes heavy use of intertextuality and raises the question of authorship.", "Machinima takes copyrighted property (such as characters in a game engine) and repurposes it to tell a story, but another common practice in machinima-making is to retell an existing story from a different medium in that engine.This re-appropriation of established texts, resources, and artistic properties to tell a story or make a statement is an example of a semiotic phenomenon known as intertextuality or resemiosis.", "A more common term for this phenomenon is \"parody\", but not all of these intertextual productions are intended for humor or satire, as demonstrated by the ''Few Good G-Men'' video.", "Furthermore, the argument of how well-protected machinima is under the guise of parody or satire is still highly debated.", "A piece of machinima may be reliant upon a protected property, but may not necessarily be making a statement about that property.", "Therefore, it is more accurate to refer to it simply as resemiosis, because it takes an artistic work and presents it in a new way, form, or medium.", "This resemiosis can be manifested in a number of ways.", "The machinima-maker can be considered an author who restructures the story and/or the world that the chosen game engine is built around.", "In the popular web series ''Red vs. Blue'', most of the storyline takes place within the game engine of ''Halo: Combat Evolved'' and its subsequent sequels.", "''Halo: Combat Evolved'' has an extensive storyline already, but ''Red vs. Blue'' only ever makes mention of this storyline once in the first episode.", "Even after over 200 episodes of the show being broadcast onto the Internet since 2003, the only real similarities that can be drawn between ''Red vs. Blue'' and the game-world it takes place in are the character models, props, vehicles, and settings.", "Yet Burnie Burns and the machinima team at Rooster Teeth created an extensive storyline of their own using these game resources.The ability to re-appropriate a game engine to film a video demonstrates intertextuality because it is an obvious example of art being a product of creation-through-manipulation rather than creation per se.", "The art historian Ernst Gombrich likened art to the \"manipulation of a vocabulary\" and this can be demonstrated in the creation of machinima.", "When using a game world to create a story, the author is influenced by the engine.", "For example, since so many video games are built around the concept of war, a significant portion of machinima films also take place in war-like environments.Intertextuality is further demonstrated in machinima not only in the re-appropriation of content but in artistic and communicatory techniques.", "Machinima by definition is a form of puppetry, and thus this new form of digital puppetry employs age-old techniques from the traditional artform.", "It is also, however, a form of filmmaking, and must employ filmmaking techniques such as camera angles and proper lighting.", "Some machinima takes place in online environments with participants, actors, and \"puppeteers\" working together from thousands of miles apart.", "This means other techniques born from long-distance communication must also be employed.", "Thus, techniques and practices that would normally never be used in conjunction with one another in the creation of an artistic work end up being used intertextually in the creation of machinima.Another way that machinima demonstrates intertextuality is in its tendency to make frequent references to texts, works, and other media just like TV ads or humorous cartoons such as ''The Simpsons'' might do.", "For example, the machinima series ''Freeman's Mind'', created by Ross Scott, is filmed by taking a recording of Scott playing through the game ''Half Life'' as a player normally would and combining it with a voiceover (also recorded by Scott) to emulate an inner monologue of the normally voiceless protagonist Gordon Freeman.", "Scott portrays Freeman as a snarky, sociopathic character who makes frequent references to works and texts including science fiction, horror films, action movies, American history, and renowned novels such as Moby Dick.", "These references to works outside the game, often triggered by events within the game, are prime examples of the densely intertextual nature of machinima." ], [ "Common genres", "Nitsche and Lowood describe two methods of approaching machinima: starting from a video game and seeking a medium for expression or for documenting gameplay (\"inside-out\"), and starting outside a game and using it merely as animation tool (\"outside-in\").", "Kelland, Morris, and Lloyd similarly distinguish between works that retain noticeable connections to games, and those closer to traditional animation.", "Belonging to the former category, gameplay and stunt machinima began in 1997 with ''Quake done Quick''.", "Although not the first speedrunners, its creators used external software to manipulate camera positions after recording, which, according to Lowood, elevated speedrunning \"from cyberathleticism to making movies\".", "Stunt machinima remains popular.", "Kelland, Morris, and Lloyd state that ''Halo: Combat Evolved'' stunt videos offer a new way to look at the game, and compare ''Battlefield 1942'' machinima creators to the Harlem Globetrotters.", "Built-in features for video editing and post-recording camera positioning in ''Halo 3'' were expected to facilitate gameplay-based machinima.", "MMORPGs and other virtual worlds have been captured in documentary films, such as ''Miss Galaxies 2004'', a beauty pageant that took place in the virtual world of ''Star Wars Galaxies''.", "Footage was distributed in the cover disc of the August 2004 issue of ''PC Gamer''.", "Douglas Gayeton's ''Molotov Alva and His Search for the Creator'' documents the title character's interactions in ''Second Life''.Gaming-related comedy offers another possible entry point for new machinima producers.", "Presented as five-minute sketches, many machinima comedies are analogous to Internet Flash animations.", "After Clan Undead's 1997 work ''Operation Bayshield'' built on the earliest ''Quake'' movies by introducing narrative conventions of linear media and sketch comedy reminiscent of the television show ''Saturday Night Live'', the New-York-based ILL Clan further developed the genre in machinima through works including ''Apartment Huntin''' and ''Hardly Workin'''.", "''Red vs. Blue: The Blood Gulch Chronicles'' chronicles a futile civil war over five seasons and 100 episodes.", "Marino wrote that although the series' humor was rooted in video games, strong writing and characters caused the series to \"transcend the typical gamer\".", "An example of a comedy film that targets a more general audience is Strange Company's ''Tum Raider'', produced for the BBC in 2004.Machinima has been used in music videos, of which the first documented example is Ken Thain's 2002 \"Rebel vs. Thug\", made in collaboration with Chuck D. For this, Thain used Quake2Max, a modification of ''Quake II'' that provided cel-shaded animation.", "The following year, Tommy Pallotta directed \"In the Waiting Line\" for the British group Zero 7.He told ''Computer Graphics World'', \"It probably would have been quicker to do the film in a 3D animated program.", "But now, we can reuse the assets in an improvisational way.\"", "Scenes of the game ''Postal 2'' can be seen in the music video of the Black Eyed Peas single \"Where Is the Love?\".", "In television, MTV features video game characters on its show ''Video Mods''.", "Among ''World of Warcraft'' players, dance and music videos became popular after dancing animations were discovered in the game.Others use machinima in drama.", "These works may or may not retain signs of their video game provenance.", "''Unreal Tournament'' is often used for science fiction and ''Battlefield 1942'' for war, but some artists subvert their chosen game's setting or completely detach their work from it.", "In 1999, Strange Company used ''Quake II'' in ''Eschaton: Nightfall'', a horror film based on the work of H. P. Lovecraft (although Quake I was also based on the Lovecraft lore).", "A later example is Damien Valentine's series ''Consanguinity'', made using BioWare's 2002 computer game ''Neverwinter Nights'' and based on the television series ''Buffy the Vampire Slayer''.", "Another genre consists of experimental works that attempt to push the boundaries of game engines.", "One example, Fountainhead's ''Anna'', is a short film that focuses on the cycle of life and is reminiscent of ''Fantasia''.", "Other productions go farther and completely eschew a 3-D appearance.", "Friedrich Kirschner's ''The Tournament'' and ''The Journey'' deliberately appear hand-drawn, and Dead on Que's ''Fake Science'' resembles two-dimensional Eastern European modernist animation from the 1970s.Another derivative genre termed ''machinima verite'', from cinéma vérité, seeks to add a documentary and additional realism to the machinima piece.", "L.M.", "Sabo's ''CATACLYSM'' achieves a machinima verite style through displaying and recapturing the machinima video with a low resolution black and white hand-held video camera to produce a shaky camera effect.", "Other element of cinéma vérité, such as longer takes, sweeping camera transitions, and jump cuts may be included to complete the effect.Some have used machinima to make political statements, often from left-wing perspectives.", "Alex Chan's take on the 2005 civil unrest in France, ''The French Democracy'', attained mainstream attention and inspired other machinima commentaries on American and British society.", "Horwatt deemed Thuyen Nguyen's 2006 ''An Unfair War'', a criticism of the Iraq War, similar in its attempt \"to speak for those who cannot\".", "Joshua Garrison mimicked Chan's \"political pseudo-documentary style\" in his ''Virginia Tech Massacre'', a controversial ''Halo 3''–based re-enactment and explanation of the eponymous real-life events.", "More recently, ''War of Internet Addiction'' addressed internet censorship in China using ''World of Warcraft''." ], [ "Competitions", "Matt Kelland of Short Fuze (left) and Keith Halper of Kuma Reality Games at the 2008 Machinima Film Festival with the Mackie award for Best Technical AchievementAfter the QML's Quake Movie Oscars, dedicated machinima awards did not reappear until the AMAS created the Mackies for its first Machinima Film Festival in 2002.The annual festival has become an important one for machinima creators.", "Ho Chee Yue, a founder of the marketing company AKQA, helped to organize the first festival for the Asia chapter of the AMAS in 2006.In 2007, the AMAS supported the first machinima festival held in Europe.", "In addition to these smaller ceremonies, Hugh Hancock of Strange Company worked to add an award for machinima to the more general Bitfilm Festival in 2003.Other general festivals that allow machinima include the Sundance Film Festival, the Florida Film Festival, and the New Media Film Festival.", "The Ottawa International Animation Festival opened a machinima category in 2004, but, citing the need for \"a certain level of excellence\", declined to award anything to the category's four entries that year.Machinima has been showcased in contests sponsored by game companies.", "Epic Games' popular Make Something Unreal contest included machinima that impressed event organizer Jeff Morris because of \"the quality of entries that really push the technology, that accomplish things that Epic never envisioned\".", "In December 2005, Blizzard Entertainment and Xfire, a gaming-focused instant messaging service, jointly sponsored a ''World of Warcraft'' machinima contest." ], [ "Mainstream appearances", "A scene from a machinima portion of \"Make Love, Not Warcraft\"Machinima has appeared on television, starting with G4's series ''Portal''.", "MTV2's ''Video Mods'' re-creates music videos using characters from video games such as ''The Sims 2'', ''BloodRayne'', and ''Tribes''.", "Blizzard Entertainment helped to set part of \"Make Love, Not Warcraft\", an Emmy Award–winning 2006 episode of the comedy series ''South Park'', in its massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) ''World of Warcraft''.", "By purchasing broadcast rights to Douglas Gayeton's machinima documentary ''Molotov Alva and His Search for the Creator'' in September 2007, HBO became the first television network to buy a work created completely in a virtual world.", "In December 2008, machinima.com signed fifteen experienced television comedy writers—including Patric Verrone, Bill Oakley, and Mike Rowe—to produce episodes for the site.Commercial use of machinima has increased.", "Rooster Teeth sells DVDs of their Red vs. Blue series and, under sponsorship from Electronic Arts, helped to promote ''The Sims 2'' by using the game to make a machinima series, ''The Strangerhood''.", "Volvo Cars sponsored the creation of a 2004 advertisement, ''Game: On'', the first film to combine machinima and live action.", "Later, Electronic Arts commissioned Rooster Teeth to promote their ''Madden NFL 07'' video game.", "Blockhouse TV uses Moviestorm's machinima software to produce its pre-school educational DVD series ''Jack and Holly''Game developers have continued to increase support for machinima.", "Products such as Lionhead Studios' 2005 business simulation game ''The Movies'', Linden Research's virtual world ''Second Life'', and Bungie's 2007 first-person shooter ''Halo 3'' encourage the creation of user content by including machinima software tools.", "Using ''The Movies'', Alex Chan, a French resident with no previous filmmaking experience, took four days to create ''The French Democracy'', a short political film about the 2005 civil unrest in France.", "Third-party mods like ''Garry's Mod'' usually offer the ability to manipulate characters and take advantage of custom or migrated content, allowing for the creation of works like ''Counter-Strike For Kids'' that can be filmed using assets from multiple games.In a 2010 interview with PC Magazine, Valve CEO and co-founder Gabe Newell said that they wanted to make a ''Half-Life'' feature film themselves, rather than hand it off to a big-name director like Sam Raimi, and that their recent ''Team Fortress 2'' \"Meet The Team\" machinima shorts were experiments in doing just that.", "Two years later, Valve released their proprietary non-linear machinima software, Source Filmmaker.Machinima has also been used for music video clips.", "The first machinima music video to air on MTV is that of Zero 7's \"In the Waiting Line\" in 2003, animated in the id Tech 3 engine by Tommy Pallotta.", "''Second Life'' virtual artist Bryn Oh created a work for Australian performer Megan Bernard's song \"Clean Up Your Life\", released in 2016.The first music video for 2018's \"Old Town Road\", by Lil Nas X, was composed entirely of footage from the 2018 Western action-adventure game ''Red Dead Redemption 2''." ], [ "See also", "* 3DMM* Computer animation* Computer-generated imagery* ''The Flying Luna Clipper''* 1996 in machinima* 2003 in machinima* 2004 in machinima* 2005 in machinima* 2006 in machinima* 2007 in machinima* Overwatch and pornography" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * —Also as:** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mutagenesis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mutagenesis''' () is a process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed by the production of a mutation.", "It may occur spontaneously in nature, or as a result of exposure to mutagens.", "It can also be achieved experimentally using laboratory procedures.", "A mutagen is a mutation-causing agent, be it chemical or physical, which results in an increased rate of mutations in an organism's genetic code.", "In nature mutagenesis can lead to cancer and various heritable diseases, and it is also a driving force of evolution.", "Mutagenesis as a science was developed based on work done by Hermann Muller, Charlotte Auerbach and J. M. Robson in the first half of the 20th century." ], [ "History", "DNA may be modified, either naturally or artificially, by a number of physical, chemical and biological agents, resulting in mutations.", "Hermann Muller found that \"high temperatures\" have the ability to mutate genes in the early 1920s, and in 1927, demonstrated a causal link to mutation upon experimenting with an x-ray machine, noting phylogenetic changes when irradiating fruit flies with relatively high dose of X-rays.", "Muller observed a number of chromosome rearrangements in his experiments, and suggested mutation as a cause of cancer.", "The association of exposure to radiation and cancer had been observed as early as 1902, six years after the discovery of X-ray by Wilhelm Röntgen, and the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel.", "Lewis Stadler, Muller's contemporary, also showed the effect of X-rays on mutations in barley in 1928, and of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on maize in 1936.In 1940s, Charlotte Auerbach and J. M. Robson found that mustard gas can also cause mutations in fruit flies.While changes to the chromosome caused by X-ray and mustard gas were readily observable to early researchers, other changes to the DNA induced by other mutagens were not so easily observable; the mechanism by which they occur may be complex, and take longer to unravel.", "For example, soot was suggested to be a cause of cancer as early as 1775, and coal tar was demonstrated to cause cancer in 1915.The chemicals involved in both were later shown to be polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).", "PAHs by themselves are not carcinogenic, and it was proposed in 1950 that the carcinogenic forms of PAHs are the oxides produced as metabolites from cellular processes.", "The metabolic process was identified in 1960s as catalysis by cytochrome P450, which produces reactive species that can interact with the DNA to form adducts, or product molecules resulting from the reaction of DNA and, in this case, cytochrome P450; the mechanism by which the PAH adducts give rise to mutation, however, is still under investigation." ], [ "Distinction between a mutation and DNA damage", "DNA damage is an abnormal alteration in the structure of DNA that cannot, itself, be replicated when DNA replicates.", "In contrast, a mutation is a change in the nucleic acid sequence that can be replicated; hence, a mutation can be inherited from one generation to the next.", "Damage can occur from chemical addition (adduct), or structural disruption to a base of DNA (creating an abnormal nucleotide or nucleotide fragment), or a break in one or both DNA strands.", "Such DNA damage may result in mutation.", "When DNA containing damage is replicated, an incorrect base may be inserted in the new complementary strand as it is being synthesized (see DNA repair § Translesion synthesis).", "The incorrect insertion in the new strand will occur opposite the damaged site in the template strand, and this incorrect insertion can become a mutation (i.e.", "a changed base pair) in the next round of replication.", "Furthermore, double-strand breaks in DNA may be repaired by an inaccurate repair process, non-homologous end joining, which produces mutations.", "Mutations can ordinarily be avoided if accurate DNA repair systems recognize DNA damage and repair it prior to completion of the next round of replication.", "At least 169 enzymes are either directly employed in DNA repair or influence DNA repair processes.", "Of these, 83 are directly employed in the 5 types of DNA repair processes indicated in the chart shown in the article DNA repair.Mammalian nuclear DNA may sustain more than 60,000 damage episodes per cell per day, as listed with references in DNA damage (naturally occurring).", "If left uncorrected, these adducts, after misreplication past the damaged sites, can give rise to mutations.", "In nature, the mutations that arise may be beneficial or deleterious—this is the driving force of evolution.", "An organism may acquire new traits through genetic mutation, but mutation may also result in impaired function of the genes and, in severe cases, causes the death of the organism.", "Mutation is also a major source for acquisition of resistance to antibiotics in bacteria, and to antifungal agents in yeasts and molds.", "In a laboratory setting, mutagenesis is a useful technique for generating mutations that allows the functions of genes and gene products to be examined in detail, producing proteins with improved characteristics or novel functions, as well as mutant strains with useful properties.", "Initially, the ability of radiation and chemical mutagens to cause mutation was exploited to generate random mutations, but later techniques were developed to introduce specific mutations.In humans, an average of 60 new mutations are transmitted from parent to offspring.", "Human males, however, tend to pass on more mutations depending on their age, transmitting an average of two new mutations to their progeny with every additional year of their age." ], [ "Mechanisms", "Mutagenesis may occur endogenously (e.g.", "spontaneous hydrolysis), through normal cellular processes that can generate reactive oxygen species and DNA adducts, or through error in DNA replication and repair.", "Mutagenesis may also occur as a result of the presence of environmental mutagens that induce changes to an organism's DNA.", "The mechanism by which mutation occurs varies according to the mutagen, or the causative agent, involved.", "Most mutagens act either directly, or indirectly via mutagenic metabolites, on an organism's DNA, producing lesions.", "Some mutagens, however, may affect the replication or chromosomal partition mechanism, and other cellular processes.Mutagenesis may also be self-induced by unicellular organisms when environmental conditions are restrictive to the organism's growth, such as bacteria growing in the presence of antibiotics, yeast growing in the presence of an antifungal agent, or other unicellular organisms growing in an environment lacking in an essential nutrient Many chemical mutagens require biological activation to become mutagenic.", "An important group of enzymes involved in the generation of mutagenic metabolites is cytochrome P450.Other enzymes that may also produce mutagenic metabolites include glutathione S-transferase and microsomal epoxide hydrolase.", "Mutagens that are not mutagenic by themselves but require biological activation are called promutagens.While most mutagens produce effects that ultimately result in errors in replication, for example creating adducts that interfere with replication, some mutagens may directly affect the replication process or reduce its fidelity.", "Base analog such as 5-bromouracil may substitute for thymine in replication.", "Metals such as cadmium, chromium, and nickel can increase mutagenesis in a number of ways in addition to direct DNA damage, for example reducing the ability to repair errors, as well as producing epigenetic changes.Mutations often arise as a result of problems caused by DNA lesions during replication, resulting in errors in replication.", "In bacteria, extensive damage to DNA due to mutagens results in single-stranded DNA gaps during replication.", "This induces the SOS response, an emergency repair process that is also error-prone, thereby generating mutations.", "In mammalian cells, stalling of replication at damaged sites induces a number of rescue mechanisms that help bypass DNA lesions, however, this may also result in errors.", "The Y family of DNA polymerases specializes in DNA lesion bypass in a process termed translesion synthesis (TLS) whereby these lesion-bypass polymerases replace the stalled high-fidelity replicative DNA polymerase, transit the lesion and extend the DNA until the lesion has been passed so that normal replication can resume; these processes may be error-prone or error-free.=== DNA damage and spontaneous mutation ===The number of DNA damage episodes occurring in a mammalian cell per day is high (more than 60,000 per day).", "Frequent occurrence of DNA damage is likely a problem for all DNA- containing organisms, and the need to cope with DNA damage and minimize their deleterious effects is likely a fundamental problem for life.Most spontaneous mutations likely arise from error-prone trans-lesion synthesis past a DNA damage site in the template strand during DNA replication.", "This process can overcome potentially lethal blockages, but at the cost of introducing inaccuracies in daughter DNA.", "The causal relationship of DNA damage to spontaneous mutation is illustrated by aerobically growing ''E.", "coli'' bacteria, in which 89% of spontaneously occurring base substitution mutations are caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced DNA damage.", "In yeast, more than 60% of spontaneous single-base pair substitutions and deletions are likely caused by trans-lesion synthesis.An additional significant source of mutations in eukaryotes is the inaccurate DNA repair process non-homologous end joining, that is often employed in repair of double strand breaks.In general, it appears that the main underlying cause of spontaneous mutation is error-prone trans-lesion synthesis during DNA replication and that the error-prone non-homologous end-joining repair pathway may also be an important contributor in eukaryotes.=== Spontaneous hydrolysis ===DNA is not entirely stable in aqueous solution, and depurination of the DNA can occur.", "Under physiological conditions the glycosidic bond may be hydrolyzed spontaneously and 10,000 purine sites in DNA are estimated to be depurinated each day in a cell.", "Numerous DNA repair pathways exist for DNA; however, if the apurinic site is not repaired, misincorporation of nucleotides may occur during replication.", "Adenine is preferentially incorporated by DNA polymerases in an apurinic site.Cytidine may also become deaminated to uridine at one five-hundredth of the rate of depurination and can result in G to A transition.", "Eukaryotic cells also contain 5-methylcytosine, thought to be involved in the control of gene transcription, which can become deaminated into thymine.===Tautomerism===Tautomerization is the process by which compounds spontaneously rearrange themselves to assume their structural isomer forms.", "For example, the keto (C=O) forms of guanine and thymine can rearrange into their rare enol (-OH) forms, while the amino (-NH2 ) forms of adenine and cytosine can result in the rarer imino (=NH) forms.", "In DNA replication, tautomerization alters the base-pairing sites and can cause the improper pairing of nucleic acid bases.===Modification of bases===Bases may be modified endogenously by normal cellular molecules.", "For example, DNA may be methylated by S-adenosylmethionine, thus altering the expression of the marked gene without incurring a mutation to the DNA sequence itself.", "Histone modification is a related process in which the histone proteins around which DNA coils can be similarly modified via methylation, phosphorylation, or acetylation; these modifications may act to alter gene expression of the local DNA, and may also act to denote locations of damaged DNA in need of repair.", "DNA may also be glycosylated by reducing sugars.Many compounds, such as PAHs, aromatic amines, aflatoxin and pyrrolizidine alkaloids, may form reactive oxygen species catalyzed by cytochrome P450.These metabolites form adducts with the DNA, which can cause errors in replication, and the bulky aromatic adducts may form stable intercalation between bases and block replication.", "The adducts may also induce conformational changes in the DNA.", "Some adducts may also result in the depurination of the DNA; it is, however, uncertain how significant such depurination as caused by the adducts is in generating mutation.Alkylation and arylation of bases can cause errors in replication.", "Some alkylating agents such as N-Nitrosamines may require the catalytic reaction of cytochrome-P450 for the formation of a reactive alkyl cation.", "N7 and O6 of guanine and the N3 and N7 of adenine are most susceptible to attack.", "N7-guanine adducts form the bulk of DNA adducts, but they appear to be non-mutagenic.", "Alkylation at O6 of guanine, however, is harmful because excision repair of O6-adduct of guanine may be poor in some tissues such as the brain.", "The O6 methylation of guanine can result in G to A transition, while O4-methylthymine can be mispaired with guanine.", "The type of the mutation generated, however, may be dependent on the size and type of the adduct as well as the DNA sequence.Ionizing radiation and reactive oxygen species often oxidize guanine to produce 8-oxoguanine.Arrows indicates chromosomal breakages due to DNA damage===Backbone damage===Ionizing radiation may produce highly reactive free radicals that can break the bonds in the DNA.", "Double-stranded breakages are especially damaging and hard to repair, producing translocation and deletion of part of a chromosome.", "Alkylating agents like mustard gas may also cause breakages in the DNA backbone.", "Oxidative stress may also generate highly reactive oxygen species that can damage DNA.", "Incorrect repair of other damage induced by the highly reactive species can also lead to mutations.=== Crosslinking ===Covalent bonds between the bases of nucleotides in DNA, be they in the same strand or opposing strands, is referred to as crosslinking of DNA; crosslinking of DNA may affect both the replication and the transcription of DNA, and it may be caused by exposure to a variety of agents.", "Some naturally occurring chemicals may also promote crosslinking, such as psoralens after activation by UV radiation, and nitrous acid.", "Interstrand cross-linking (between two strands) causes more damage, as it blocks replication and transcription and can cause chromosomal breakages and rearrangements.", "Some crosslinkers such as cyclophosphamide, mitomycin C and cisplatin are used as anticancer chemotherapeutic because of their high degree of toxicity to proliferating cells.=== Dimerization ===Dimerization consists of the bonding of two monomers to form an oligomer, such as the formation of pyrimidine dimers as a result of exposure to UV radiation, which promotes the formation of a cyclobutyl ring between adjacent thymines in DNA.", "In human skin cells, thousands of dimers may be formed in a day due to normal exposure to sunlight.", "DNA polymerase η may help bypass these lesions in an error-free manner; however, individuals with defective DNA repair function, such as those with xeroderma pigmentosum, are sensitive to sunlight and may be prone to skin cancer.", "Ethidium intercalated between two adenine-thymine base pairs.", "Clinically, whether a tumor has formed as a direct consequence of UV radiation is discernible via DNA sequencing analysis for the characteristic context-specific dimerization pattern that occurs due to excessive exposure to sunlight.===Intercalation between bases===The planar structure of chemicals such as ethidium bromide and proflavine allows them to insert between bases in DNA.", "This insert causes the DNA's backbone to stretch and makes slippage in DNA during replication more likely to occur since the bonding between the strands is made less stable by the stretching.", "Forward slippage will result in deletion mutation, while reverse slippage will result in an insertion mutation.", "Also, the intercalation into DNA of anthracyclines such as daunorubicin and doxorubicin interferes with the functioning of the enzyme topoisomerase II, blocking replication as well as causing mitotic homologous recombination.=== Insertional mutagenesis ===Transposons and viruses or retrotransposons may insert DNA sequences into coding regions or functional elements of a gene and result in inactivation of the gene.===Adaptive mutagenesis mechanisms===Adaptive mutagenesis has been defined as mutagenesis mechanisms that enable an organism to adapt to an environmental stress.", "Since the variety of environmental stresses is very broad, the mechanisms that enable it are also quite broad, as far as research on the field has shown.", "For instance, in bacteria, while modulation of the SOS response and endogenous prophage DNA synthesis has been shown to increase ''Acinetobacter baumannii'' resistance to ciprofloxacin.", "Resistance mechanisms are presumed to be linked to chromosomal mutation untransferable via horizontal gene transfer in some members of family Enterobacteriaceae, such as ''E.", "coli, Salmonella'' spp., ''Klebsiella'' spp., and ''Enterobacter'' spp.", "Chromosomal events, specially gene amplification, seem also to be relevant to this adaptive mutagenesis in bacteria.Research in eukaryotic cells is much scarcer, but chromosomal events seem also to be rather relevant: while an ectopic intrachromosomal recombination has been reported to be involved in acquisition of resistance to 5-fluorocytosine in ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'', genome duplications have been found to confer resistance in ''S.", "cerevisiae'' to nutrient-poor environments." ], [ "Laboratory applications", "In the laboratory, mutagenesis is a technique by which DNA mutations are deliberately engineered to produce mutant genes, proteins, or strains of organisms.", "Various constituents of a gene, such as its control elements and its gene product, may be mutated so that the function of a gene or protein can be examined in detail.", "The mutation may also produce mutant proteins with altered properties, or enhanced or novel functions that may prove to be of use commercially.", "Mutant strains of organisms that have practical applications, or allow the molecular basis of particular cell function to be investigated, may also be produced.Early methods of mutagenesis produced entirely random mutations; however, modern methods of mutagenesis are capable of producing site-specific mutations.", "Modern laboratory techniques used to generate these mutations include:* Directed mutagenesis* Site-directed mutagenesis/ PCR mutagenesis* Insertional mutagenesis* Signature tagged mutagenesis* Transposon mutagenesis* Sequence saturation mutagenesis" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mackenzie Bowell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Mackenzie Bowell''' (; December 27, 1823 – December 10, 1917) was a Canadian newspaper publisher and politician, who served as the fifth prime minister of Canada, in office from 1894 to 1896.Bowell was born in Rickinghall, Suffolk, England.", "He and his family moved to Belleville, Upper Canada in 1832.When in his early teens, Bowell was apprenticed to the printing shop of the local newspaper, the ''Belleville Intelligencer'', and some 15 years later, became its owner and proprietor.In 1867, following Confederation, he was elected to the House of Commons for the Conservative Party.", "Bowell entered cabinet in 1878, and would serve under three prime ministers: John A. Macdonald, John Abbott, and John Thompson.", "He served variously as Minister of Customs (1878–1892), Minister of Militia and Defence (1892), and Minister of Trade and Commerce (1892–1894).", "Bowell kept his Commons seat continuously for 25 years, through a period of Liberal Party rule in the 1870s.", "In 1892, Bowell was appointed to the Senate.", "He became Leader of the Government in the Senate the following year.In December 1894, Prime Minister Thompson unexpectedly died in office.", "The Earl of Aberdeen, Canada's governor general, appointed Bowell to replace Thompson as prime minister, due to his status as the most senior cabinet member.", "The main problem of Bowell's tenure as prime minister was the Manitoba Schools Question.", "His attempts at compromise alienated members of his own party, and following a Cabinet revolt in early 1896 he was forced to resign in favour of Charles Tupper.", "Bowell stayed on as a senator until his death at the age of 93, but never again held ministerial office; he served continuously as a Canadian parliamentarian for 50 years." ], [ "Early life, career, and family", "Bowell in 1874Bowell was born in Rickinghall, England, to John Bowell and Elizabeth Marshall.", "In 1832 his family emigrated to Belleville, Upper Canada, where he apprenticed with the printer at the town newspaper, ''The Belleville Intelligencer''.", "He became a successful printer and editor with that newspaper, and later its owner.", "He was a Freemason and an Orangeman, serving as grandmaster of the Orange Order of British North America, 1870–1878.In 1847 he married Harriet Moore, with whom he had five sons and four daughters." ], [ "Military service", "Mackenzie Bowell, Ensign in the Belleville RiflesA keen supporter of the militia in Hastings County, he was appointed an Ensign in the 1st Belleville Militia on July 24, 1856.He helped organize the Belleville Volunteer Militia Rifle Company in 1857 with whom he served on active duty at Amherstburg, Upper Canada, during the Trent Affair.", "He joined the 15th Belleville Battalion (The Argyll Light Infantry) in 1863, and served on active duty as an Ensign in No.", "6 Company, 1st (Western) Administrative Battalion, on the Niagara Frontier from December 1864 to July 1865.On March 23, 1866, he was promoted to Captain in command of No.", "1 Company, 15th Battalion and fought in the Fenian Raids of 1866, serving at Prescott and being awarded the Canada General Service Medal.", "He was promoted to Major in the 49th (Hastings) Battalion of Rifles on February 22, 1867, and qualified for the First Class Certificate at the Military School of Instruction on March 1.He was promoted to Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel on February 22, 1872, and retired from the militia on March 24, 1874, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel in that regiment." ], [ "Elected to Parliament", "Bowell was first elected to the House of Commons in 1867 as a Conservative for the riding of Hastings North, Ontario.", "He held his seat for the Conservatives when they lost the election of January 1874, in the wake of the Pacific Scandal.", "Later that year he was instrumental in having Louis Riel expelled from the House." ], [ "Appointed to Cabinet, Senator", "In 1878, with the Conservatives again governing, he joined the Cabinet as minister of customs.", "In 1892 he became minister of militia and defence, having held his Commons seat continuously for 25 years.", "A competent, hardworking administrator, Bowell remained in Cabinet as minister of trade and commerce, a newly created portfolio, after he became a senator that same year.", "His visit to Australia in 1893 led to the first leaders' conference of British colonies and territories, held in Ottawa in 1894.He became leader of the government in the Senate on October 31, 1893." ], [ "Prime minister (1894–1896)", "In December 1894, Prime Minister John Sparrow David Thompson died suddenly, and Bowell, as the most senior Cabinet minister, was appointed in Thompson's stead by the Governor General.", "Bowell thus became the second of just two Canadian prime ministers (after John Abbott) to hold that office while serving in the Senate rather than the House of Commons.===Manitoba Schools Question===As Prime Minister, Bowell faced the Manitoba Schools Question.", "In 1890, Manitoba had abolished public funding for denominational schools, both Catholic and Protestant, which many thought was contrary to the provisions made for denominational schools in the ''Manitoba Act'' of 1870.However, in a court challenge, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council held that Manitoba's abolition of public funding for denominational schools was consistent with the ''Manitoba Act'' provision.", "In a second court case, the Judicial Committee held that the federal Parliament had the authority to enact remedial legislation to force Manitoba to re-establish the funding.===Leadership crisis===Bowell and his predecessors struggled to solve this problem, which divided the country and even Bowell's own Cabinet.", "He was further hampered in his handling of the issue by his own indecisiveness on it and by his inability, as a senator, to take part in debates in the House of Commons.", "Bowell backed legislation, already drafted, that would have forced Manitoba to restore its Catholic schools, but then postponed it due to opposition within his Cabinet.", "With the ordinary business of government at a standstill, several members of Cabinet decided that Bowell was incompetent to lead.", "To force him to step down, seven ministers resigned and then foiled the appointment of successors.", "Bowell denounced them as \"a nest of traitors\".===Resignation===Bowell was forced to resign as prime minister.", "After ten days, following an intervention on Bowell's behalf by the Governor General, the government crisis was resolved and matters seemingly returned to normal when six of the ministers were reinstated, but leadership was then effectively held by Charles Tupper, who had joined Cabinet at the same time, filling the seventh place.", "Tupper, who had been Canadian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom, had been recalled by the plotters to replace Bowell.", "Bowell formally resigned in favour of Tupper at the end of the parliamentary session." ], [ "Later life, and death", "alt=Red granite pillar inscribed with namesBowell stayed in the Senate, serving as his party's leader there until 1906, and afterward as a regular Senator until his death in 1917, having served continuously for more than 50 years as a federal parliamentarian.He died of pneumonia in Belleville, seventeen days short of his 94th birthday.", "He was buried in the Belleville cemetery.", "His funeral was attended by a full complement of the Orange Order, but not by any currently or formerly elected member of the government." ], [ "Legacy", "Bowell was designated a National Historic Person in 1945, on the advice of the national Historic Sites and Monuments Board.The Post Office Department honored Bowell with a commemorative stamp in 1954, part of a series on prime ministers.In their 1998 study of the Canadian prime ministers up through Jean Chrétien, J. L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer found that a survey of Canadian historians ranked Bowell #19 out of the 20 Prime Ministers up until then.Until 2017, Bowell remained the only Canadian prime minister without a full-length biography of his life and career.", "This shortfall was solved when the Belleville historian Betsy Dewar Boyce's book ''The Accidental Prime Minister'' was published by Bancroft, Ontario publisher Kirby Books.", "The book was published on the centennial of Bowell's death.", "Boyce had died in 2007, having unsuccessfully sought a publisher for her work for a decade." ], [ "Supreme Court appointments", "The following jurist was appointed to the Supreme Court of Canada by the Governor General during Bowell's tenure:* Désiré Girouard (September 28, 1895 – March 22, 1911)" ], [ "See also", "* List of prime ministers of Canada" ], [ "Archives", "There is a Sir Mackenzie Bowell fonds at Library and Archives Canada.", "It includes 6.1 m of textual records." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "''The Accidental Prime Minister'', by Betsy Dewar Boyce, 2017, Kirby Publishing, Bancroft, Ontario, ." ], [ "External links", "* * * J. L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer, ''Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders'', Toronto: HarperCollins Publishers Ltd., a Phyllis Bruce Book, 1999.pp. 42–44..", "* * Photograph:Hon.", "Mackenzie Bowell, 1881 - McCord Museum" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Manhattan Project" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Manhattan Project''' was a program of research and development undertaken during World War II to produce the first nuclear weapons.", "It was led by the United States in collaboration with the United Kingdom and with support from Canada.", "From 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.", "Nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the bombs.", "The Army component was designated the '''Manhattan District''', as its first headquarters were in Manhattan; the name gradually superseded the official codename, '''Development of Substitute Materials''', for the entire project.", "The project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, Tube Alloys.", "The Manhattan Project grew rapidly and employed nearly 130,000 people at its peak and cost nearly US$2 billion (equivalent to about $ billion in ).", "Over 80 percent of the cost was for building and operating the plants that produced the fissile material for the weapons.", "Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada.The project led to the development of two types of atomic bombs, both developed concurrently, during the war: a relatively simple gun-type fission weapon and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon.", "The Thin Man gun-type design proved impractical to use with plutonium, so a simpler gun-type design called Little Boy was developed that used uranium-235.Three methods were employed for uranium enrichment: electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal.", "In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium.", "After the feasibility of the world's first artificial nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1, was demonstrated in 1942 at the Metallurgical Laboratory in the University of Chicago, the project designed the X-10 Graphite Reactor and the production reactors at the Hanford Site, in which uranium was irradiated and transmuted into plutonium.", "The Fat Man plutonium implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design and development effort by the Los Alamos Laboratory.The project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project.", "Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, and rounded up German scientists.", "Despite the Manhattan Project's emphasis on security, Soviet atomic spies penetrated the program.The first nuclear device ever detonated was an implosion-type bomb during the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexico's Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range on 16 July 1945.Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a month later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectively, with Manhattan Project personnel serving as bomb assembly technicians and weaponeers on the attack aircraft.", "In the immediate postwar years, the Manhattan Project conducted weapons testing at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads, developed new weapons, promoted the development of the network of national laboratories, supported medical research into radiology and laid the foundations for the nuclear navy.", "It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC) in January 1947." ], [ "Origins", "The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility.", "There were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries.", "In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists Leo Szilard and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilard letter, which warned of the potential development of \"extremely powerful bombs of a new type\".", "It urged the United States to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions.They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt.", "Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues; Briggs met with Szilárd, Wigner and Edward Teller in October 1939.The committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium \"would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known.", "\"Enrico Fermi, John R. Dunning, and Dana P. Mitchell in front of the cyclotron in the basement of Pupin Hall at Columbia University, 1940In February 1940, the U.S. Navy awarded Columbia University $6,000 in funding, most of which Fermi and Szilard spent on graphite.", "A team of Columbia professors including Fermi, Szilard, Eugene T. Booth and John Dunning created the first nuclear fission reaction in the Americas, verifying the work of Hahn and Strassmann.", "The same team subsequently built a series of prototype nuclear reactors (or \"piles\" as Fermi called them) in Pupin Hall at Columbia but were not yet able to achieve a chain reaction.", "The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940.Briggs proposed spending $167,000 on research into uranium, particularly the uranium-235 isotope, and plutonium, which was discovered in 1940 at the University of California.", "On 28 June 1941, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8807, which created the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), with Vannevar Bush as its director.", "The office was empowered to engage in large engineering projects in addition to research.", "The NDRC Committee on Uranium became the S-1 Section of the OSRD; the word \"uranium\" was dropped for security reasons.In Britain, Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham had made a breakthrough investigating the critical mass of uranium-235 in June 1939.Their calculations indicated that it was within an order of magnitude of , which was small enough to be carried by a bomber of the day.", "Their March 1940 Frisch–Peierls memorandum initiated the British atomic bomb project and its MAUD Committee, which unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb.", "In July 1940, Britain had offered to give the United States access to its research, and the Tizard Mission's John Cockcroft briefed American scientists on British developments.", "He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British, and not as advanced.As part of the scientific exchange, the MAUD Committee's findings were conveyed to the United States.", "One of its members, the Australian physicist Mark Oliphant, flew to the US in late August 1941 and discovered that data provided by the MAUD Committee had not reached key American physicists.", "Oliphant set out to find out why the committee's findings were apparently being ignored.", "He met with the Uranium Committee and visited Berkeley, California, where he spoke persuasively to Ernest O. Lawrence.", "Lawrence was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium.", "He in turn spoke to James B. Conant, Arthur H. Compton and George B. Pegram.", "Oliphant's mission was therefore a success; key American physicists were now aware of the potential power of an atomic bomb.On 9 October 1941, President Roosevelt approved the atomic program after he convened a meeting with Vannevar Bush and Vice President Henry A. Wallace.", "He created a Top Policy Group consisting of himself—although he never attended a meeting—Wallace, Bush, Conant, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, and the Chief of Staff of the Army, General George C. Marshall.", "Roosevelt chose the Army to run the project rather than the Navy, because the Army had more experience with management of large-scale construction.", "He agreed to coordinate the effort with that of the British and on 11 October sent a message to Prime Minister Winston Churchill, suggesting that they correspond on atomic matters." ], [ "Feasibility", "=== Proposals ===March 1940 meeting at Berkeley, California: Ernest O. Lawrence, Arthur H. Compton, Vannevar Bush, James B. Conant, Karl T. Compton, and Alfred L. Loomis|alt=Six men in suits sitting on chairs, smiling and laughingThe S-1 Committee meeting on 18 December 1941 was \"pervaded by an atmosphere of enthusiasm and urgency\" in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States declaration of war on Japan and on Germany.", "Work was proceeding on three techniques for isotope separation: Lawrence and his team at the University of California investigated electromagnetic separation, Eger Murphree and Jesse Wakefield Beams's team looked into gaseous diffusion at Columbia University, and Philip Abelson directed research into thermal diffusion at the Carnegie Institution of Washington and later the Naval Research Laboratory.", "Murphree also headed an unsuccessful separation project using gas centrifuges.Meanwhile, there were two lines of investigation into nuclear reactor technology: Harold Urey researched heavy water at Columbia, while Arthur Compton organized the Metallurgical Laboratory in early 1942 to study plutonium and reactors using graphite as a neutron moderator.", "The S-1 Committee recommended pursuing all five technologies.", "This was approved by Bush, Conant, and Brigadier General Wilhelm D. Styer, who had been designated the Army's representative on nuclear matters.Bush and Conant then took the recommendation to the Top Policy Group with a budget proposal for $54 million for construction by the United States Army Corps of Engineers, $31 million for research and development by OSRD and $5 million for contingencies in fiscal year 1943.They sent it on 17 June 1942, to the President, who approved it by writing \"OK FDR\" on the document.=== Bomb design concepts ===alt=A series of doodlesCompton asked theoretical physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer of the University of California to take over research into fast neutron calculations—key to calculations of critical mass and weapon detonation—from Gregory Breit, who had quit on 18 May 1942 because of concerns over lax operational security.", "John H. Manley, a physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory, was assigned to assist Oppenheimer by coordinating experimental physics groups scattered across the country.", "Oppenheimer and Robert Serber of the University of Illinois examined the problems of neutron diffusion—how neutrons moved in a nuclear chain reaction—and hydrodynamics—how the explosion produced by a chain reaction might behave.To review this work and the general theory of fission reactions, Oppenheimer and Fermi convened meetings at the University of Chicago in June and at the University of California in July 1942 with theoretical physicists Hans Bethe, John Van Vleck, Edward Teller, Emil Konopinski, Robert Serber, Stan Frankel, and Eldred C. (Carlyle) Nelson, and experimental physicists Emilio Segrè, Felix Bloch, Franco Rasetti, Manley, and Edwin McMillan.", "They tentatively confirmed that a fission bomb was theoretically possible.The properties of pure uranium-235 were relatively unknown, as were those of plutonium, which had only been discovered in February 1941 by Glenn Seaborg and his team.", "The scientists at the July 1942 conference envisioned creating plutonium in nuclear reactors where uranium-238 atoms absorbed neutrons that had been emitted from fissioning uranium-235.At this point no reactor had been built, and only tiny quantities of plutonium were available from cyclotrons.", "Even by December 1943, only two milligrams had been produced.", "There were many ways of arranging the fissile material into a critical mass.", "The simplest was shooting a \"cylindrical plug\" into a sphere of \"active material\" with a \"tamper\"—dense material to focus neutrons inward and keep the reacting mass together to increase its efficiency.", "They also explored designs involving spheroids, a primitive form of \"implosion\" suggested by Richard C. Tolman, and the possibility of autocatalytic methods to increase the efficiency of the bomb as it exploded.As the idea of the fission bomb was theoretically settled—at least until more experimental data was available—Edward Teller pushed for discussion of a more powerful bomb: the \"super\", now usually referred to as a \"hydrogen bomb\", which would use the force of a detonating fission bomb to ignite a nuclear fusion reaction in deuterium and tritium.", "Teller proposed scheme after scheme, but Bethe refused each one.", "The fusion idea was put aside to concentrate on producing fission bombs.", "Teller raised the speculative possibility that an atomic bomb might \"ignite\" the atmosphere because of a hypothetical fusion reaction of nitrogen nuclei.", "Bethe calculated that it was \"extremely unlikely\".", "A postwar report co-authored by Teller concluded that \"whatever the temperature to which a section of the atmosphere may be heated, no self-propagating chain of nuclear reactions is likely to be started.\"", "In Serber's account, Oppenheimer mentioned the possibility of this scenario to Arthur Compton, who \"didn't have enough sense to shut up about it.", "It somehow got into a document that went to Washington\" and was \"never laid to rest\"." ], [ "Organization", "=== Manhattan District ===The Chief of Engineers, Major General Eugene Reybold, selected Colonel James C. Marshall to head the Army's part of the project in June 1942.Marshall created a liaison office in Washington, D.C., but established his temporary headquarters at 270 Broadway in New York, where he could draw on administrative support from the Corps of Engineers' North Atlantic Division.", "It was close to the Manhattan office of Stone & Webster, the principal project contractor, and to Columbia University.", "He had permission to draw on his former command, the Syracuse District, for staff, and he started with Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth Nichols, who became his deputy.alt=Organization chart of the project, showing project headquarters divisions at the top, Manhattan District in the middle, and field offices at the bottomBecause most of his task involved construction, Marshall worked in cooperation with the head of the Corps of Engineers Construction Division, Major General Thomas M. Robbins, and his deputy, Colonel Leslie Groves.", "Reybold, Somervell, and Styer decided to call the project \"Development of Substitute Materials\", but Groves felt that this would draw attention.", "Since engineer districts normally carried the name of the city where they were located, Marshall and Groves agreed to name the Army's component the Manhattan District; Reybold officially created this district on 13 August.", "Informally, it was known as the Manhattan Engineer District, or MED.", "Unlike other districts, it had no geographic boundaries, and Marshall had the authority of a division engineer.", "Development of Substitute Materials remained as the official codename of the project as a whole but was supplanted over time by \"Manhattan\".Marshall later conceded that, \"I had never heard of atomic fission but I did know that you could not build much of a plant, much less four of them for $90 million.\"", "A single TNT plant that Nichols had recently built in Pennsylvania had cost $128 million.", "Nor were they impressed with estimates to the nearest order of magnitude, which Groves compared with telling a caterer to prepare for between ten and a thousand guests.", "A survey team from Stone & Webster had already scouted a site for the production plants.", "The War Production Board recommended sites around Knoxville, Tennessee, an isolated area where the Tennessee Valley Authority could supply ample electric power and the rivers could provide cooling water for the reactors.", "After examining several sites, the survey team selected one near Elza, Tennessee.", "Conant advised that it be acquired at once and Styer agreed but Marshall temporized, awaiting the results of Conant's reactor experiments.", "Of the prospective processes, only Lawrence's electromagnetic separation appeared sufficiently advanced for construction to commence.Marshall and Nichols began assembling the necessary resources.", "The first step was to obtain a high priority rating for the project.", "The top ratings were AA-1 through AA-4 in descending order, although there was a special AAA rating reserved for emergencies.", "Ratings AA-1 and AA-2 were for essential weapons and equipment, so Colonel Lucius D. Clay, the deputy chief of staff at Services and Supply for requirements and resources, felt that the highest rating he could assign was AA-3, although he was willing to provide a AAA rating on request for critical materials if the need arose.", "Nichols and Marshall were disappointed; AA-3 was the same priority as Nichols' TNT plant in Pennsylvania.=== Military Policy Committee ===Oppenheimer and Groves at the remains of the Trinity test in September 1945, two months after the test blast and just after the end of World War II.", "The white overshoes prevented fallout from sticking to the soles of their shoes.|alt=A man smiling in a suit in suit and one in a uniform chat around a pile of twisted metal.Vannevar Bush became dissatisfied with Colonel Marshall's failure to get the project moving forward expeditiously and felt that more aggressive leadership was required.", "He spoke to Harvey Bundy and Generals Marshall, Somervell, and Styer about his concerns, advocating that the project be placed under a senior policy committee, with a prestigious officer, preferably Styer, as director.Somervell and Styer selected Groves for the post; General Marshall ordered that he be promoted to brigadier general, as it was felt that the title \"general\" would hold more sway with the academic scientists working on the project.", "Groves' orders placed him directly under Somervell rather than Reybold, with Colonel Marshall now answerable to Groves.", "Groves established his headquarters in Washington, D.C., in the New War Department Building, where Colonel Marshall had his liaison office.", "He assumed command of the Manhattan Project on 23 September 1942.Later that day, he attended a meeting called by Stimson, which established a Military Policy Committee, responsible to the Top Policy Group, consisting of Bush (with Conant as an alternate), Styer and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell.", "Tolman and Conant were later appointed as Groves' scientific advisers.On 19 September, Groves went to Donald Nelson, the chairman of the War Production Board, and asked for broad authority to issue a AAA rating whenever it was required.", "Nelson initially balked but quickly caved in when Groves threatened to go to the President.", "Groves promised not to use the AAA rating unless it was necessary.", "It soon transpired that for the routine requirements of the project the AAA rating was too high but the AA-3 rating was too low.", "After a long campaign, Groves finally received AA-1 authority on 1 July 1944.According to Groves, \"In Washington you became aware of the importance of top priority.", "Most everything proposed in the Roosevelt administration would have top priority.", "That would last for about a week or two and then something else would get top priority\".One of Groves' early problems was to find a director for Project Y, the group that would design and build the bomb.", "The obvious choice was one of the three laboratory heads, Urey, Lawrence, or Compton, but they could not be spared.", "Compton recommended Oppenheimer, who was already intimately familiar with the bomb design concepts.", "However, Oppenheimer had little administrative experience, and, unlike Urey, Lawrence, and Compton, had not won a Nobel Prize, which many scientists felt that the head of such an important laboratory should have.", "There were also concerns about Oppenheimer's security status, as many of his associates were communists, including his wife, Kitty; his girlfriend, Jean Tatlock; and his brother, Frank.", "A long conversation in October 1942 convinced Groves and Nichols that Oppenheimer thoroughly understood the issues involved in setting up a laboratory in a remote area and should be appointed as its director.", "Groves personally waived the security requirements and issued Oppenheimer's clearance on 20 July 1943.=== Collaboration with the United Kingdom ===The British and Americans exchanged nuclear information but did not initially combine their efforts; during 1940-41 the British project (Tube Alloys) was larger and more advanced.", "Britain rebuffed attempts by Bush and Conant in August 1941 to strengthen cooperation because it was reluctant to share its technological lead and help the United States develop its own atomic bomb.", "But the British, who had made significant advances in research early in the war, did not have the resources to carry through such a research program into development while a large portion of their economy was engaged in fighting the war; Tube Alloys soon fell behind its American counterpart.", "The roles of the two countries were reversed, and in January 1943 Conant notified the British that they would no longer receive atomic information except in certain areas.", "The British investigated the possibility of an independent nuclear program but determined that it could not be ready in time to impact the war in Europe.Groves confers with alt=A large man in uniform and a bespectacled thin man in a suit and tie sit at a desk.By March 1943 Conant decided that James Chadwick and one or two other British scientists were important enough that the bomb design team at Los Alamos needed them, despite the risk of revealing weapon design secrets.", "In August 1943 Churchill and Roosevelt negotiated the Quebec Agreement, which established the Combined Policy Committee to coordinate the efforts of the US, UK and Canada.", "An agreement between Roosevelt and Churchill known as the Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire, signed in late September 1944, extended the Quebec Agreement to the postwar period and suggested that \"when a 'bomb' is finally available, it might perhaps, after mature consideration, be used against the Japanese, who should be warned that this bombardment will be repeated until they surrender\".When cooperation resumed after the Quebec Agreement, the Americans' progress and expenditures amazed the British.", "Chadwick pressed for British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent and abandoned hopes of an independent British project during the war.", "With Churchill's backing, he attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honored.", "The British Mission that arrived in the United States in December 1943 included Niels Bohr, Otto Frisch, Klaus Fuchs, Rudolf Peierls, and Ernest Titterton.", "More scientists arrived in early 1944.While those assigned to gaseous diffusion left by the fall of 1944, the thirty-five working under Oliphant with Lawrence at Berkeley were assigned to existing laboratory groups and most stayed until the end of the war.", "The nineteen sent to Los Alamos also joined existing groups, primarily related to implosion and bomb assembly, but not the plutonium-related ones.", "The Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without the mutual consent of the US and UK.", "In June 1945, Wilson agreed that the nuclear bombing of Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee.The Combined Policy Committee created the Combined Development Trust in June 1944, with Groves as its chairman, to procure uranium and thorium ores on international markets.", "The Belgian Congo and Canada held much of the world's uranium outside Eastern Europe, and the Belgian Government in Exile was in London.", "Britain agreed to give the United States most of the Belgian ore, as it could not use most of the supply without restricted American research.", "In 1944, the Trust purchased of uranium oxide ore from companies operating mines in the Belgian Congo.", "To avoid briefing US Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr., a special account not subject to the usual auditing and controls was used to hold Trust monies.", "Between 1944 and his resignation from the Trust in 1947, Groves deposited a total of $37.5 million.Groves appreciated the early British atomic research and the British scientists' contributions to the Manhattan Project but stated that the United States would have succeeded without them, although not in time for the August 1945 bombing of Hiroshima.", "The British wartime participation was crucial to the success of the United Kingdom's independent nuclear weapons program after the war when the McMahon Act of 1946 temporarily ended American nuclear cooperation." ], [ "Project sites", "Image:Manhattan Project US Canada Map 2.svg|thumb|upright=3.2|center|A selection of US and Canadian sites important to the Manhattan Project.", "Click on the location for more information.|alt=Map of the United States and southern Canada with major project sites markedcircle 50 280 20 Berkeley, Californiacircle 140 400 20 Inyokern, Californiacircle 170 100 20 Richland, Washingtoncircle 220 20 20 Trail, British Columbiacircle 230 270 20 Wendover, Utahcircle 290 360 20 Monticello, Utahcircle 320 360 20 Uravan, Coloradocircle 340 440 20 Los Alamos, New Mexicocircle 340 500 20 Alamogordo, New Mexicocircle 610 290 20 Ames, Iowacircle 660 400 20 St Louis, Missouricircle 710 310 20 Chicago, Illinoiscircle 730 370 20 Dana, Indianacircle 800 350 20 Dayton, Ohiocircle 760 540 20 Sylacauga, Alabamacircle 890 390 20 Morgantown, West Virginiacircle 800 460 20 Oak Ridge, Tennesseecircle 910 160 20 Chalk River Laboratoriescircle 920 260 20 Rochester, New Yorkcircle 950 360 20 Washington, D.C.desc none=== Oak Ridge ===Shift change at the Y-12 uranium enrichment facility at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, on 11 August 1945.By May 1945, 82,000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works.", "Photograph by the Manhattan District photographer Ed Westcott.|alt=Workers, mostly women, pour out of a cluster of buildings.", "A billboard exhorts them to \"Make C.E.W.", "COUNT continue to protect project information!", "\"The day after he took over the project, Groves went to Tennessee with Colonel Marshall to inspect the proposed site there, and Groves was impressed.", "On 29 September 1942, United States Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson authorized the Corps of Engineers to acquire of land by eminent domain at a cost of $3.5 million.", "An additional was subsequently acquired.", "About 1,000 families were affected by the order, which came into effect on 7 October.", "Protests, legal appeals, and a 1943 Congressional inquiry were to no avail.", "By mid-November U.S.", "Marshals were posting notices to vacate on farmhouse doors, and construction contractors were moving in.", "Some families were given two weeks' notice to vacate farms that had been their homes for generations.", "The ultimate cost of the land acquisition, which was not completed until March 1945, was only about $2.6 million—around $47 an acre.", "When presented with a proclamation declaring Oak Ridge a total exclusion area that no one could enter without military permission, the Governor of Tennessee, Prentice Cooper, angrily tore it up.Initially known as the Kingston Demolition Range, the site was officially renamed the Clinton Engineer Works (CEW) in early 1943.While Stone & Webster concentrated on the production facilities, the architectural and engineering firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill developed a residential community for 13,000.The community was located on the slopes of Black Oak Ridge, from which the new town of Oak Ridge got its name.", "The Army presence at Oak Ridge increased in August 1943 when Nichols replaced Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District.", "One of his first tasks was to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge, although the name of the district did not change.", "In September 1943 the administration of community facilities was outsourced to Turner Construction Company through a subsidiary, the Roane-Anderson Company.", "Chemical engineers were part of \"frantic efforts\" to make 10% to 12% enriched uranium 235, with tight security and fast approvals for supplies and materials.", "The population of Oak Ridge soon expanded well beyond the initial plans, and peaked at 75,000 in May 1945, by which time 82,000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works, and 10,000 by Roane-Anderson.=== Los Alamos ===Map of Los Alamos site, New Mexico, 1943–1945The idea of locating Project Y at Oak Ridge was considered, but it was decided that it should be in a remote location.", "On Oppenheimer's recommendation, the search for a suitable site was narrowed to the vicinity of Albuquerque, New Mexico, where Oppenheimer owned a ranch.", "On 16 November 1942, Oppenheimer, Groves, Dudley and others toured the vicinity of the Los Alamos Ranch School.", "Oppenheimer expressed a strong preference for the site, citing its natural beauty, which, it was hoped, would inspire those working on the project.", "The engineers were concerned about the poor access road, and whether the water supply would be adequate, but otherwise felt that it was ideal.Patterson approved the acquisition of the site on 25 November 1942, authorizing $440,000 for the purchase of , all but of which were already owned by the Federal Government.", "Secretary of Agriculture Claude R. Wickard granted of United States Forest Service land to the War Department \"for so long as the military necessity continues\".", "Wartime land purchases eventually came to , but only $414,971 was spent.", "Work commenced in December 1942.Groves initially allocated $300,000 for construction, three times Oppenheimer's estimate, but by the time Sundt finished on 30 November 1943, over $7 million had been spent.During the war, Los Alamos was referred to as \"Site Y\" or \"the Hill\".", "Initially it was to have been a military laboratory with Oppenheimer and other researchers commissioned into the Army, but Robert Bacher and Isidor Rabi balked at the idea and convinced Oppenheimer that other scientists would object.", "Conant, Groves, and Oppenheimer then devised a compromise whereby the laboratory was operated by the University of California under contract to the War Department.", "Dorothy McKibbin ran the branch office in Santa Fe, where she met new arrivals and issue them with passes.=== Chicago ===Some of the University of Chicago team that worked on the Chicago Pile-1, the first nuclear reactor, including Enrico Fermi and Walter Zinn in the front row and Harold Agnew, Leona Woods and Leó Szilárd in the second.An Army-OSRD council on 25 June 1942 decided to build a pilot plant for plutonium production in the Argonne Forest preserve, southwest of Chicago.", "In July, Nichols arranged for a lease of from the Cook County Forest Preserve District, and Captain James F. Grafton was appointed Chicago area engineer.", "It soon became apparent that the scale of operations was too great for the area, and it was decided to build the pilot plant at Oak Ridge and keep a research and testing facility in Chicago.Delays in establishing the plant at Argonne led Compton to authorize the Metallurgical Laboratory to construct the first nuclear reactor beneath the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago.", "The reactor required an enormous amount of highly purified graphite blocks and uranium in both metallic and powdered oxide forms.", "At the time, there was a limited source of pure uranium metal; Frank Spedding of Iowa State University was able to produce only two short tons.", "Three short tons was supplied by Westinghouse Lamp Plant, produced in a rush with makeshift process.", "A large square balloon was constructed by Goodyear Tire to encase the reactor.On 2 December 1942, a team led by Enrico Fermi initiated the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental reactor known as Chicago Pile-1.The point at which a reaction becomes self-sustaining became known as \"going critical\".", "Compton reported the success to Conant in Washington, D.C., by a coded phone call, saying, \"The Italian navigator Fermi has just landed in the new world.", "\"In January 1943, Grafton's successor, Major Arthur V. Peterson, ordered Chicago Pile-1 dismantled and reassembled at the Argonne Forest site, as he regarded the operation of a reactor as too hazardous for a densely populated area.", "The new site, still operated by the Metallurgical Laboratory, became known as 'Site A'.", "Chicago Pile-3, the first heavy water reactor, also went critical at this site, on 15 May 1944.After the war, operations at Site A were moved about to DuPage County, the current location of the Argonne National Laboratory.=== Hanford ===By December 1942 there were concerns that even Oak Ridge was too close to a major population center (Knoxville) in the unlikely event of a major nuclear accident.", "Groves recruited DuPont in November 1942 to be the prime contractor for the construction of the plutonium production complex.", "The President of the company, Walter S. Carpenter, Jr., wanted no profit of any kind; for legal reasons a nominal fee of one dollar was agreed upon.alt=A large crowd of sullen looking workmen at a counter where two women are writing.", "Some of the workmen are wearing identify photographs of themselves on their hats.DuPont recommended that the site be located far from the existing uranium production facility at Oak Ridge.", "In December 1942, Groves dispatched Colonel Franklin Matthias and DuPont engineers to scout potential sites.", "Matthias reported that Hanford Site near Richland, Washington, was \"ideal in virtually all respects\".", "It was isolated and near the Columbia River, which could supply sufficient water to cool the reactors.", "Groves visited the site in January and established the Hanford Engineer Works (HEW), codenamed \"Site W\".Under Secretary Patterson gave his approval on 9 February, allocating $5 million for the acquisition of .", "The federal government relocated some 1,500 residents of nearby settlements, as well as the Wanapum and other tribes using the area.", "A dispute arose with farmers over compensation for crops, which had already been planted.", "Where schedules allowed, the Army allowed the crops to be harvested, but this was not always possible.", "The land acquisition process dragged on and was not completed before the end of the Manhattan Project in December 1946.The dispute did not delay work.", "Although progress on the reactor design at Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont was not sufficiently advanced to accurately predict the scope of the project, a start was made in April 1943 on facilities for an estimated 25,000 workers, half of whom were expected to live on-site.", "By July 1944, some 1,200 buildings had been erected and nearly 51,000 people were living in the construction camp.", "As area engineer, Matthias exercised overall control of the site.", "At its peak, the construction camp was the third most populous town in Washington state.", "Hanford operated a fleet of over 900 buses, more than the city of Chicago.", "Like Los Alamos and Oak Ridge, Richland was a gated community with restricted access, but it looked more like a typical wartime American boomtown: the military profile was lower, and physical security elements like high fences and guard dogs were less evident.=== Canadian sites ======= British Columbia ====Cominco had produced electrolytic hydrogen at Trail, British Columbia, since 1930.Urey suggested in 1941 that it could produce heavy water.", "To the existing $10 million plant consisting of 3,215 cells consuming 75 MW of hydroelectric power, secondary electrolysis cells were added to increase the deuterium concentration in the water from 2.3% to 99.8%.", "For this process, Hugh Taylor of Princeton developed a platinum-on-carbon catalyst for the first three stages while Urey developed a nickel-chromia one for the fourth stage tower.", "The final cost was $2.8 million.", "The Canadian Government did not officially learn of the project until August 1942.Trail's heavy water production started in January 1944 and continued until 1956.Heavy water from Trail was used for Chicago Pile 3, the first reactor using heavy water and natural uranium, which went critical on 15 May 1944.==== Ontario ====The Chalk River, Ontario, site was established to rehouse the Allied effort at the Montreal Laboratory away from an urban area.", "A new community was built at Deep River, Ontario, to provide residences and facilities for the team members.", "The site was chosen for its proximity to the industrial manufacturing area of Ontario and Quebec, and proximity to a rail head adjacent to a large military base, Camp Petawawa.", "Located on the Ottawa River, it had access to abundant water.", "The first director of the new laboratory was Hans von Halban.", "He was replaced by John Cockcroft in May 1944, who was succeeded by Bennett Lewis in September 1946.A pilot reactor known as ZEEP (zero-energy experimental pile) became the first Canadian reactor, and the first to be completed outside the United States, when it went critical in September 1945; ZEEP remained in use by researchers until 1970.A larger 10 MW NRX reactor, which was designed during the war, was completed and went critical in July 1947.==== Northwest Territories ====The Eldorado Mine at Port Radium was a source of uranium ore.=== Heavy water sites ===Although DuPont's preferred designs for the nuclear reactors were helium cooled and used graphite as a moderator, DuPont still expressed an interest in using heavy water as a backup.", "The ''P-9 Project'' was the government's codename for the heavy water production program.", "It was estimated that of heavy water would be required per month.", "The plant at Trail, then under construction, could produce per month.", "Groves therefore authorized DuPont to establish heavy water facilities at the Morgantown Ordnance Works, near Morgantown, West Virginia; at the Wabash River Ordnance Works, near Dana and Newport, Indiana; and at the Alabama Ordnance Works, near Childersburg and Sylacauga, Alabama.", "Although known as Ordnance Works and paid for under Ordnance Department contracts, they were built and operated by the Army Corps of Engineers.", "The American plants used a process different from Trail's; heavy water was extracted by distillation, taking advantage of the slightly higher boiling point of heavy water." ], [ "Uranium", "=== Ore ===The majority of the uranium used in the Manhattan Project came from the Shinkolobwe mine in Belgian Congo.The key raw material for the project was uranium, which was used as fuel for the reactors, as feed that was transformed into plutonium, and, in its enriched form, in the atomic bomb itself.", "There were four known major deposits of uranium in 1940: in Colorado, in northern Canada, in Joachimsthal in Czechoslovakia, and in the Belgian Congo.", "All but Joachimstal were in Allied hands.", "A 1942 survey determined that sufficient quantities of uranium were available to satisfy the project's requirements.", "Nichols arranged with the State Department for export controls to be placed on uranium oxide and negotiated for the purchase of of uranium ore from the Belgian Congo that was being stored in a warehouse on Staten Island and the remaining stocks of mined ore stored in the Congo.", "He negotiated with Eldorado Gold Mines for the purchase of ore from its refinery in Port Hope, Ontario.", "The Canadian government subsequently bought up the company's stock until it acquired a controlling interest.While these purchases assured a sufficient supply to meet wartime needs, the American and British leaders concluded that it was in their countries' interest to control as much of the world's uranium deposits as possible.", "The richest source of ore was the Shinkolobwe mine in the Belgian Congo, but it was flooded and closed.", "Nichols unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate its reopening and the sale of the entire future output to the United States with Edgar Sengier, the director of the company that owned the mine, the Union Minière du Haut-Katanga.", "The matter was then taken up by the Combined Policy Committee.", "As 30 percent of Union Minière's stock was controlled by British interests, the British took the lead in negotiations.", "Sir John Anderson and Ambassador John Winant hammered out a deal with Sengier and the Belgian government in May 1944 for the mine to be reopened and of ore to be purchased at $1.45 a pound.", "To avoid dependence on the British and Canadians for ore, Groves also arranged for the purchase of US Vanadium Corporation's stockpile in Uravan, Colorado.", "Uranium mining in Colorado yielded about of ore.The raw ore was dissolved in nitric acid to produce uranyl nitrate, which was processed into uranium trioxide, which was reduced to highly pure uranium dioxide.", "By July 1942, Mallinckrodt was producing a ton of highly pure oxide a day, but turning this into uranium metal initially proved more difficult.", "Production was too slow and quality was unacceptably low.", "A branch of the Metallurgical Laboratory was established at Iowa State College in Ames, Iowa, under Frank Spedding to investigate alternatives.", "This became known as the Ames Project, and its Ames process became available in 1943.File:Ames Process pressure vessel lower.jpg|A \"bomb\" (pressure vessel) containing uranium halide and sacrificial metal, probably magnesium, being lowered into a furnaceFile:Ames Process pressure vessel remnant slag after reaction.jpg|After the reaction, the interior of a bomb coated with remnant slagFile:Ames Process uranium biscuit.jpg|A uranium metal \"biscuit\" from the reduction reaction=== Isotope separation ===Natural uranium consists of 99.3% uranium-238 and 0.7% uranium-235, but as only the latter is fissile it must be physically separated from the more plentiful isotope.", "Various methods were considered for uranium enrichment, most of which was carried out at Oak Ridge.", "The most obvious technology, the centrifuge, failed, but electromagnetic separation, gaseous diffusion, and thermal diffusion technologies were all successful and contributed to the project.", "In February 1943, Groves came up with the idea of using the output of some plants as the input for others.alt=Contour map of the Oak Ridge area.", "There is a river to the south, while the township is in the north.==== Centrifuges ====The centrifuge process was regarded as the only promising separation method in April 1942.Jesse Beams had developed such a process in the 1930s, but had encountered technical difficulties.", "In 1941 he began working with uranium hexafluoride, the only known gaseous compound of uranium, and was able to separate uranium-235.At Columbia, Karl P. Cohen produced a body of mathematical theory making it possible to design a centrifugal separation unit, which Westinghouse undertook to construct.Scaling this up to a production plant presented a formidable technical challenge.", "Urey and Cohen estimated that producing a kilogram (2.2 lb) of uranium-235 per day would require up to 50,000 centrifuges with rotors, or 10,000 centrifuges with rotors, assuming that 4-meter rotors could be built.", "The prospect of keeping so many rotors operating continuously at high speed appeared daunting, and when Beams ran his experimental apparatus, he obtained only 60% of the predicted yield, indicating that more centrifuges were required.", "Beams, Urey and Cohen then began work on a series of improvements which promised to increase efficiency.", "However, frequent failures of motors, shafts and bearings at high speeds delayed work on the pilot plant.In November 1942 the centrifuge process was abandoned by the Military Policy Committee.", "Successful gas centrifuges of the Zippe-type design were instead developed in the Soviet Union after the war.", "It eventually became the preferred method of uranium isotope separation, being far more economical.==== Electromagnetic separation ====Electromagnetic isotope separation was developed at the University of California Radiation Laboratory.", "This method employed devices known as calutrons.", "The name was derived from the words ''California'', ''university'' and ''cyclotron''.", "In the electromagnetic process, a magnetic field deflected charged particles according to mass.", "The process was neither scientifically elegant nor industrially efficient.", "Compared with a gaseous diffusion plant or a nuclear reactor, an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials, require more manpower to operate, and cost more to build.", "Nonetheless, the process was approved because it was based on proven technology and therefore represented less risk.", "Moreover, it could be built in stages, and rapidly reach industrial capacity.alt=A large oval-shaped structureMarshall and Nichols discovered that the electromagnetic isotope separation process would require of copper, which was in desperately short supply.", "However, silver could be substituted, in an 11:10 copper to silver ratio.", "On 3 August 1942, Nichols met with Under Secretary of the Treasury Daniel W. Bell and asked for the transfer of 6,000 tons of silver bullion from the West Point Bullion Depository.", "Ultimately were used.", "The silver bars were cast into cylindrical billets, extruded into strips, and wound onto magnetic coils.The alt=A long corridor with many consoles with dials and switches, attended by women seated on high stoolsResponsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant, which came to be called Y-12, was assigned to Stone & Webster in June 1942.The design called for five first-stage processing units, known as Alpha racetracks, and two units for final processing, known as Beta racetracks.", "In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks, known as Alpha II.", "Construction began in February 1943.The second Alpha I was operational at the end of January 1944, the first Beta and first and third Alpha I's came online in March, and the fourth Alpha I was operational in April.", "The four Alpha II racetracks were completed between July and October 1944.Tennessee Eastman was contracted to manage Y-12.The calutrons were turned over to trained Tennessee Eastman operators known as the Calutron Girls.The calutrons initially enriched the uranium-235 content to between 13% and 15%, and shipped the first few hundred grams of this to Los Alamos in March 1944.Only 1 part in 5,825 of the uranium feed emerged as product.", "Much of the rest was splattered over equipment in the process.", "Strenuous recovery efforts helped raise production to 10% of the uranium-235 feed by January 1945.In February the Alpha racetracks began receiving slightly enriched (1.4%) feed from the new S-50 thermal diffusion plant, and the next month they received enhanced (5%) feed from the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant.", "By August, K-25 was producing uranium sufficiently enriched to feed directly into the Beta tracks.==== Gaseous diffusion ====The most promising but also the most challenging method of isotope separation was gaseous diffusion.", "Graham's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular mass, so in a box containing a semi-permeable membrane and a mixture of two gases, the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules.", "The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes, with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture.", "Research into the process was carried out at Columbia University by a group that included Harold Urey, Karl P. Cohen, and John R. Dunning.alt=Oblique aerial view of an enormous U-shaped buildingIn November 1942 the Military Policy Committee approved the construction of a 600-stage gaseous diffusion plant.", "On 14 December, M. W. Kellogg accepted an offer to construct the plant, which was codenamed K-25.A separate corporate entity called Kellex was created for the project.", "The process faced formidable technical difficulties.", "The highly corrosive gas uranium hexafluoride had used, as no substitute could be found, and the motors and pumps had to be vacuum tight and enclosed in inert gas.", "The biggest problem was the design of the barrier, which had to be strong, porous and resistant to corrosion.", "Edward Adler and Edward Norris created a mesh barrier from electroplated nickel.", "A six-stage pilot plant was built at Columbia to test the process, but the prototype proved to be too brittle.", "A rival barrier was developed from powdered nickel by Kellex, the Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Bakelite Corporation.", "In January 1944, Groves ordered the Kellex barrier into production.Kellex's design for K-25 called for a four-story long U-shaped structure containing 54 contiguous buildings.", "These were divided into nine sections containing cells of six stages.", "A survey party began construction by marking out the site in May 1943.Work on the main building began in October 1943, and the six-stage pilot plant was ready for operation on 17 April 1944.In 1945 Groves canceled the upper stages, directing Kellex to instead design and build a 540-stage side feed unit, which became known as K-27.Kellex transferred the last unit to the operating contractor, Union Carbide and Carbon, on 11 September 1945.The total cost, including the K-27 plant completed after the war, came to $480 million.The production plant commenced operation in February 1945, and as cascade after cascade came online, the quality of the product increased.", "By April 1945, K-25 had attained a 1.1% enrichment, and the output of the S-50 thermal diffusion plant began being used as feed.", "Some product produced the next month reached nearly 7% enrichment.", "In August, the last of the 2,892 stages commenced operation.", "K-25 and K-27 achieved their full potential in the early postwar period, when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants.==== Thermal diffusion ====The thermal diffusion process was based on Sydney Chapman and David Enskog's theory, which explained that when a mixed gas passes through a temperature gradient, the heavier one tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter one at the warm end.", "It was developed by US Navy scientists, but was not one of the enrichment technologies initially selected for use in the Manhattan Project.", "This was primarily due to doubts about its technical feasibility, but the inter-service rivalry between the Army and Navy also played a part.", "The Naval Research Laboratory continued the research under Philip Abelson's direction, but there was little contact with the Manhattan Project until April 1944, when Captain William S. Parsons, the naval officer in charge of ordnance development at Los Alamos, brought Oppenheimer news of encouraging progress on thermal diffusion.", "Oppenheimer informed Groves, who approved construction of a thermal plant on 24 June 1944.alt=A factory with three smoking chimneys on a river bend, viewed from aboveGroves contracted with the H. K. Ferguson Company of Cleveland, Ohio, to build the thermal diffusion plant, which was designated S-50.Plans called for the installation of 2,142 diffusion columns arranged in 21 racks.", "Inside each column were three concentric tubes.", "Steam, obtained from the nearby K-25 powerhouse at a pressure of and temperature of , flowed downward through the innermost nickel pipe, while water at flowed upward through the outermost iron pipe.", "The uranium hexafluoride flowed in the middle copper pipe, and isotope separation of the uranium occurred between the nickel and copper pipes.", "Work commenced on 9 July 1944, and S-50 began partial operation in September.", "Leaks limited production and forced shutdowns over the next few months, but in June 1945 the S-50 plant produced of slightly enriched product.By March 1945, all 21 production racks were operating.", "Initially the output of S-50 was fed into Y-12, but starting in March 1945 all three enrichment processes were run in series.", "S-50 became the first stage, enriching the uranium from 0.71% to 0.89% uranium-235.This was then fed into the gaseous diffusion process in the K-25 plant, which produced a product enriched to about 23%.", "In turn, this was fed into Y-12, which boosted it to about 89%, sufficient for use in nuclear weapons.", "About of uranium enriched to 89% was delivered to Los Alamos by July 1945.The entire 50 kg, along with some 50%-enriched, averaging out to about 85% enriched, were used in the first Little Boy bomb." ], [ "Plutonium", "The second line of development pursued by the Manhattan Project used plutonium.", "Although small amounts of plutonium exist in nature, the best way to obtain large quantities is via a reactor.", "Natural uranium is bombarded by neutrons and transmuted into uranium-239, which rapidly decays, first into neptunium-239 and then into plutonium-239.As only a small amount will be transformed, the plutonium must be chemically separated from the remaining uranium, from any initial impurities, and from fission products.=== X-10 Graphite Reactor ===alt=Two workmen on a movable platform similar to that used by window washers, stick a rod into one of many small holes in the wall in front of them.In March 1943, DuPont began construction of a plutonium plant on a site at Oak Ridge.", "Intended as a pilot plant for the larger production facilities at Hanford, it included the air-cooled X-10 Graphite Reactor, a chemical separation plant, and support facilities.", "Because of the subsequent decision to construct water-cooled reactors at Hanford, only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot.", "The X-10 Graphite Reactor consisted of a huge block of graphite, per side, weighing around , surrounded by of high-density concrete as a radiation shield.The greatest difficulty was encountered with the uranium slugs produced by Mallinckrodt and Metal Hydrides.", "These had to be coated in aluminum to avoid corrosion and the escape of fission products into the cooling system.", "The Grasselli Chemical Company attempted to develop a hot dipping process without success.", "Alcoa tried canning, developing a new process for flux-less welding; 97% of the cans passed a standard vacuum test, but high temperature tests indicated a failure rate of more than 50%.", "Nonetheless, production began in June 1943.The Metallurgical Laboratory eventually developed an improved welding technique with the help of General Electric, which was incorporated into the production process in October 1943.The X-10 Graphite Reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about of uranium.", "A week later the load was increased to , raising its power generation to 500 kW, and by the end of the month the first 500 mg of plutonium was created.", "Gradual modifications raised the power to 4,000 kW in July 1944.X-10 operated as a production plant until January 1945, when it was turned over to research.=== Hanford reactors ===Although an air-cooled design was chosen for the reactor at Oak Ridge to facilitate rapid construction, this was impractical for the much larger production reactors.", "Initial designs by the Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont used helium for cooling, before they determined that a water-cooled reactor was simpler, cheaper and quicker to build.", "The design did not become available until 4 October 1943; in the meantime, Matthias concentrated on improving the Hanford Site by erecting accommodations, improving the roads, building a railway switch line, and upgrading the electricity, water and telephone lines.Aerial view of Hanford alt=An aerial view of the Hanford B-Reactor site from June 1944.At center is the reactor building.", "Small trucks dot the landscape and give a sense of scale.", "Two large water towers loom above the plant.As at Oak Ridge, the most difficulty was encountered while canning the uranium slugs, which commenced at Hanford in March 1944.They were pickled to remove dirt and impurities, dipped in molten bronze, tin, and aluminum-silicon alloy, canned using hydraulic presses, and then capped using arc welding under an argon atmosphere.", "Finally, they were tested to detect holes or faulty welds.", "Disappointingly, most canned slugs initially failed the tests, resulting in an output of only a handful per day.", "But steady progress was made and by June 1944 production increased to the point where it appeared that enough canned slugs was available to start Reactor B on schedule in August 1944.Work began on Reactor B, the first of six planned 250 MW reactors, on 10 October 1943.The reactor complexes were given letter designations A through F, with B, D and F sites developed first, as this maximized the distance between the reactors.", "They were the only ones constructed during the Manhattan Project.", "Some of steel, of concrete, 50,000 concrete blocks and 71,000 concrete bricks were used to construct the high building.Construction of the reactor itself commenced in February 1944.Watched by Compton, Matthias, DuPont's Crawford Greenewalt, Leona Woods and Fermi, who inserted the first slug, the reactor was powered up beginning on 13 September 1944.Over the next few days, 838 tubes were loaded and the reactor went critical.", "Shortly after midnight on 27 September, the operators began to withdraw the control rods to initiate production.", "At first all appeared well but around 03:00 the power level started to drop and by 06:30 the reactor had shut down completely.", "The cooling water was investigated to see if there was a leak or contamination.", "The next day the reactor started up again, only to shut down once more.Fermi contacted Chien-Shiung Wu, who identified the cause of the problem as neutron poisoning from xenon-135, which has a half-life of 9.2 hours.", "Fermi, Woods, Donald J. Hughes and John Archibald Wheeler then calculated the nuclear cross section of xenon-135, which turned out to be 30,000 times that of uranium.", "DuPont engineer George Graves had deviated from the Metallurgical Laboratory's original design in which the reactor had 1,500 tubes arranged in a circle, and had added an additional 504 tubes to fill in the corners.", "The scientists had originally considered this overengineering a waste of time and money, but Fermi realized that by loading all 2,004 tubes, the reactor could reach the required power level and efficiently produce plutonium.", "Reactor D was started on 17 December 1944 and Reactor F on 25 February 1945.=== Separation process ===alt=A contour map showing the fork of the Columbia and Yakima rivers and the boundary of the land, with seven small red squares marked on itMeanwhile, the chemists considered the problem of how plutonium could be separated from uranium when its chemical properties were not known.", "Working with the minute quantities of plutonium available at the Metallurgical Laboratory in 1942, a team under Charles M. Cooper developed a lanthanum fluoride process which was chosen for the pilot separation plant.", "A second separation process, the bismuth phosphate process, was subsequently developed by Seaborg and Stanly G. Thomson.", "Greenewalt favored the bismuth phosphate process due to the corrosive nature of lanthanum fluoride, and it was selected for the Hanford separation plants.", "Once X-10 began producing plutonium, the pilot separation plant was put to the test.", "The first batch was processed at 40% efficiency but over the next few months this was raised to 90%.At Hanford, top priority was initially given to the installations in the 300 area.", "This contained buildings for testing materials, preparing uranium, and assembling and calibrating instrumentation.", "One of the buildings housed the canning equipment for the uranium slugs, while another contained a small test reactor.", "Notwithstanding the high priority allocated to it, work on the 300 area fell behind schedule due to the unique and complex nature of the 300 area facilities, and wartime shortages of labor and materials.Early plans called for the construction of two separation plants in each of the areas known as 200-West and 200-East.", "This was subsequently reduced to two, the T and U plants, in 200-West and one, the B plant, at 200-East.", "Each separation plant consisted of four buildings: a process cell building or \"canyon\" (known as 221), a concentration building (224), a purification building (231) and a magazine store (213).", "The canyons were each long and wide.", "Each consisted of forty cells.Work began on 221-T and 221-U in January 1944, with the former completed in September and the latter in December.", "The 221-B building followed in March 1945.Because of the high levels of radioactivity involved, work in the separation plants had to be conducted by remote control using closed-circuit television, something unheard of in 1943.Maintenance was carried out with the aid of an overhead crane and specially designed tools.", "The 224 buildings were smaller because they had less material to process, and it was less radioactive.", "The 224-T and 224-U buildings were completed on 8 October 1944, and 224-B followed on 10 February 1945.The purification methods that were eventually used in 231-W were still unknown when construction commenced on 8 April 1944, but the plant was complete and the methods were selected by the end of the year.", "On 5 February 1945, Matthias hand-delivered the first shipment of 80 g of 95%-pure plutonium nitrate to a Los Alamos courier in Los Angeles.=== Weapon design ===alt=Long, tube-like casings.", "In the background are several ovoid casings and a tow truck.In 1943, development efforts were directed to a gun-type fission weapon with plutonium called Thin Man.", "Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron-generated plutonium-239, which was extremely pure but could only be created in very small amounts.", "Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the Clinton X-10 reactor in April 1944 and within days Emilio Segrè discovered a problem: the reactor-bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium-240, resulting in up to five times the spontaneous fission rate of cyclotron plutonium.", "This rendered it unsuitable for use in a gun-type weapon, for the plutonium-240 would start the chain reaction too soon, causing a predetonation that would disperse the critical mass after a minimal amount of plutonium had fissioned (a fizzle).", "A higher-velocity gun was suggested but found to be impractical.", "The possibility of separating the isotopes was also considered and rejected, as plutonium-240 is even harder to separate from plutonium-239 than uranium-235 from uranium-238, and attempting it \"would postpone the weapon indefinitely\".Work on an alternative method of bomb design, known as implosion, had begun earlier under the direction of the physicist Seth Neddermeyer.", "Implosion used explosives to crush a subcritical sphere of fissile material into a smaller and denser form.", "The critical mass is assembled in much less time than with the gun method.", "When the fissile atoms are packed closer together, the rate of neutron capture increases, so it also makes more efficient use of the fissionable material.", "Neddermeyer's 1943 and early 1944 investigations showed promise, but also made it clear that an implosion weapon was more complex than the gun-type design from both a theoretical and an engineering perspective.", "In September 1943, John von Neumann, who had experience with shaped charges, proposed using a spherical configuration instead of the cylindrical one that Neddermeyer was working on.alt=Diagram showing fast explosive, slow explosive, uranium tamper, plutonium core and neutron initiatorAn accelerated effort on the implosion design, codenamed Fat Man, began in August 1944 when Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion.", "Two new groups were created at Los Alamos to develop the implosion weapon, X (for explosives) Division headed by explosives expert George Kistiakowsky and G (for gadget) Division under Robert Bacher.", "The new design featured explosive lenses that focused the implosion into a spherical shape.", "The design of lenses turned out to be slow, difficult and frustrating.", "Various explosives were tested before settling on composition B and baratol.", "The final design resembled a soccer ball, with 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal lenses, each weighing about .", "Getting the detonation just right required fast, reliable and safe electrical detonators, of which there were two for each lens for reliability.", "They used exploding-bridgewire detonators, a new invention developed at Los Alamos by a group led by Luis Alvarez.To study the behavior of converging shock waves, Robert Serber devised the RaLa Experiment, which used the short-lived radioisotope lanthanum-140, a potent source of gamma radiation.", "The gamma ray source was placed in the center of a metal sphere surrounded by the explosive lenses, which in turn were inside in an ionization chamber.", "This allowed the taking of an X-ray movie of the implosion.", "The lenses were designed primarily using this series of tests.", "In his history of the Los Alamos project, David Hawkins wrote: \"RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design\".Within the explosives was an aluminum pusher, which provided a smooth transition from the relatively low-density explosive to the next layer, the tamper of natural uranium.", "Its main job was to hold the critical mass together as long as possible, but it would also reflect neutrons into the core and some of its uranium would fission.", "To prevent predetonation by an external neutron, the tamper was coated in a thin layer of neutron-absorbing boron.", "A polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator, known as an \"urchin\", was developed to start the chain reaction at precisely the right moment.", "This work on the chemistry and metallurgy of radioactive polonium was directed by Charles Allen Thomas of the Monsanto Company and became known as the Dayton Project.", "Testing required up to 500 curies per month of polonium, which Monsanto was able to deliver.", "The whole assembly was encased in a duralumin bomb casing to protect it from bullets and flak.Remote handling of a kilocurie source of radiolanthanum for a alt=A shack surrounded by pine trees.", "There is snow on the ground.", "A man and a woman in white lab coats are pulling on a rope, which is attached to a small trolley on a wooden platform.", "On top of the trolley is a large cylindrical object.The ultimate task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere.", "The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results.", "At first contamination was suspected, but it was soon determined that there were multiple allotropes of plutonium.", "The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures.", "Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300 °C to 450 °C range.", "It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with alpha particles, which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem.", "The metallurgists then hit upon using a plutonium-gallium alloy, which stabilized the δ phase and could be hot pressed into the desired spherical shape.", "As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel.The work proved dangerous.", "By the end of the war, half the chemists and metallurgists had to be removed from work with plutonium when unacceptably high levels of the element was detected in their urine.", "A minor fire at Los Alamos in January 1945 led to a fear that a fire in the plutonium laboratory might contaminate the whole town, and Groves authorized the construction of a new facility for plutonium chemistry and metallurgy, which became known as the DP-site.", "The hemispheres for the first plutonium pit (or core) were produced and delivered on 2 July 1945.Three more hemispheres followed on 23 July and were delivered three days later.In contrast to the plutonium Fat Man, the uranium gun-type Little Boy weapon was straightforward if not trivial to design.", "Overall responsibility for it was assigned to Parsons's Ordnance (O) Division, with the design, development, and technical work at Los Alamos consolidated under Lieutenant Commander Francis Birch's group.", "The gun-type design now had to work with enriched uranium only, and this allowed the design to be greatly simplified.", "A high-velocity gun was no longer required, and a simpler weapon was substituted.=== Trinity ===Because of the complexity of an implosion-style weapon, it was decided that, despite the waste of fissile material, a full-scale nuclear test was required.", "Oppenheimer codenamed in \"Trinity\".", "In March 1944, planning for the test was assigned to Kenneth Bainbridge, who selected the Alamogordo Bombing Range for the test site.", "A base camp was constructed with barracks, warehouses, workshops, an explosive magazine and a commissary.", "A pre-test explosion was conducted on 7 May 1945 to calibrate the instruments.", "A wooden test platform was erected from Ground Zero and piled with of TNT spiked with nuclear fission products.alt=Men stand around a large oil-rig type structure.", "A large round object is being hoisted up.Groves did not relish the prospect of explaining to a Senate committee the loss of a billion dollars worth of plutonium, so a cylindrical containment vessel codenamed \"Jumbo\" was constructed to recover the active material in the event of a failure.", "It was fabricated at great expense from of iron and steel.", "By the time it arrived, however, confidence in the implosion method was high enough, and the availability of plutonium was sufficient, that Oppenheimer decided not to use it.", "Instead, it was placed atop a steel tower from the weapon as a rough measure of the explosion's power.", "Jumbo survived, although its tower did not, adding credence to the belief that Jumbo would have successfully contained a fizzled explosion.Trinity test of the Manhattan Project was the first detonation of a nuclear weapon.For the actual test, the weapon, nicknamed \"the gadget\", was hoisted to the top of a steel tower, as detonation at that height would give a better indication of how the weapon would behave when dropped from a bomber.", "Detonation in the air maximized the energy applied directly to the target and generated less nuclear fallout.", "The gadget was assembled under the supervision of Norris Bradbury at the nearby McDonald Ranch House on 13 July, and precariously winched up the tower the following day.At 05:30 on 16 July 1945 the gadget exploded with an energy equivalent of around 20 kilotons of TNT, leaving a crater of Trinitite (radioactive glass) in the desert wide.", "The shock wave was felt over away, and the mushroom cloud reached in height.", "It was heard as far away as El Paso, Texas, so Groves issued a cover story about an ammunition magazine explosion at Alamogordo Field involving gas shells.Oppenheimer later claimed that, while witnessing the explosion, he thought of a verse from the Hindu holy book, the ''Bhagavad Gita'' (XI,12):together with verse (XI,32), which he translated as \"Now I am become Death, destroyer of worlds\".The test was significantly more successful than had been anticipated; this was immediately cabled to Stimson, who was then at the Potsdam Conference, and Groves hastily prepared a lengthier report sent via courier.", "Truman was powerfully and positively affected by the news.", "Stimson noted in his diary that when he shared it with Churchill, Churchill remarked: \"Now I know what happened to Truman yesterday.", "I couldn't understand it.", "When he got to the meeting after having read this report, he was a changed man.", "He told the Russians just where they got on and off and generally bossed the whole meeting.\"" ], [ "Personnel", "At its peak in June 1944, the Manhattan Project employed about 129,000 workers, of whom 84,500 were construction workers, 40,500 were plant operators and 1,800 were military personnel.", "As construction activity declined, the workforce fell to 100,000 a year later, but the number of military personnel increased to 5,600.Procuring the required numbers of workers, especially highly skilled workers, in competition with other vital wartime programs proved very difficult.", "Due to high turnover, over 500,000 people worked on the project.", "In 1943, Groves obtained a special temporary priority for labor from the War Manpower Commission.", "In March 1944, both the War Production Board and the War Manpower Commission gave the project their highest priority.", "The Kansas commission director stated that from April to July 1944 every qualified applicant in the state who visited a United States Employment Service office was urged to work at the Hanford Site.", "No other job was offered until the applicant definitively rejected the offer.alt=A large crowd of men and women in uniform listens to a fat man in uniform speaking at a microphone.", "They are wearing the Army Service Forces sleeve patch.", "The women are at the front and the men at the back.", "Beside him is the flag of the Army Corps of Engineers.", "Behind them are wooden two-storey buildings.Tolman and Conant, in their role as the project's scientific advisers, drew up a list of candidate scientists and had them rated by scientists already working on the project.", "Groves then sent a personal letter to the head of their university or company asking for them to be released for essential war work.One source of skilled personnel was the Army itself, particularly the Army Specialized Training Program.", "In 1943, the MED created the Special Engineer Detachment (SED), with an authorized strength of 675.Technicians and skilled workers drafted into the Army were assigned to the SED.", "Another source was the Women's Army Corps (WAC).", "Initially intended for clerical tasks handling classified material, the WACs were soon tapped for technical and scientific tasks as well.", "On 1 February 1945, all military personnel assigned to the MED, including all SED detachments, were assigned to the 9812th Technical Service Unit, except at Los Alamos, where military personnel other than SED, including the WACs and Military Police, were assigned to the 4817th Service Command Unit.An associate professor of Radiology at the University of Rochester School of Medicine, Stafford L. Warren, was commissioned as a colonel in the United States Army Medical Corps, and appointed as chief of the MED's Medical Section and Groves' medical advisor.", "Warren's initial task was to staff hospitals at Oak Ridge, Richland and Los Alamos.", "The Medical Section was responsible for medical research, but also for the MED's health and safety programs.", "This presented an enormous challenge, because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals, using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures, working with high voltages, and performing experiments involving explosives, not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials.", "Yet in December 1945, the National Safety Council presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record.", "Between January 1943 and June 1945, there were 62 fatalities and 3,879 disabling injuries—about 62 percent below the rate of private industry." ], [ "Secrecy", "alt=Uncle Sam has removed his hat and is rolling up his sleeves.", "On the wall in front of him are three monkeys and the slogan: What you see here/ What you do here/ What you hear here/ When you leave here/ Let it stay here.The Manhattan Project operated under a mandate of \"absolute secrecy\" from Roosevelt, meaning that the very existence of the project itself was to be kept secret.", "This proved a daunting task given the amount of knowledge and speculation about nuclear fission that existed prior to the Manhattan Project, the huge numbers of people involved, and the scale of the facilities.", "Groves adopted an extreme version of compartmentalization (the need-to-know policy):This clashed with the norms of many of the scientists involved, who claimed that science could not operate successfully under such requirements.", "The Manhattan Project officials also had difficulty with journalists, Congressmen, federal officials who were not \"in the know\", residents near local sites, judges adjudicating land claims, and other sources of speculation, prying, and leaks, along with concerns about espionage and sabotage.", "Groves relied on the FBI and his own autonomous G-2 intelligence unit to investigate potential security violations.", "Ultimately over 1,500 \"loose talk\" cases were investigated during the war.", "Even Harry Truman was not informed about the project while he was vice president, and only learned about it after Roosevelt's death.Because of its relative success at keeping the story out of newspapers, Byron Price, head of the Office of Censorship, ultimately designated the Manhattan Project \"the best-kept secret of the war\".", "In 1945 ''Life'' estimated that before the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings \"probably no more than a few dozen men in the entire country knew the full meaning of the Manhattan Project, and perhaps only a thousand others even were aware that work on atoms was involved.\"", "The magazine wrote that the more than 100,000 others employed with the project \"worked like moles in the dark\".", "Warned that disclosing the project's secrets was punishable by 10 years in prison or a fine of , they monitored \"dials and switches while behind thick concrete walls mysterious reactions took place\" without knowing the purpose of their jobs.In December 1945 the US Army published a secret report assessing the security apparatus surrounding the Manhattan Project.", "The report states that the project was \"more drastically guarded than any other highly secret war development.\"", "The surrounding security infrastructure was so vast and thorough that in the early days of the project in 1943, investigators vetted 400,000 potential employees and 600 companies for potential security risks.=== Censorship ===Security poster, warning office workers to close drawers and put documents in safes when not being usedVoluntary censorship of atomic information began before the Manhattan Project.", "After the start of the European war in 1939 American scientists began avoiding publishing military-related research, and in 1940 scientific journals began asking the National Academy of Sciences to clear articles.", "William L. Laurence of ''The New York Times'', who wrote an article on atomic fission in ''The Saturday Evening Post'' of 7 September 1940, later learned that government officials asked librarians nationwide in 1943 to withdraw the issue.", "The Soviets noticed the silence, however.", "In April 1942 nuclear physicist Georgy Flyorov wrote to Josef Stalin on the absence of articles on nuclear fission in American journals; this resulted in the Soviet Union establishing its own atomic bomb project.The Manhattan Project operated under tight security lest its discovery induce Axis powers, especially Germany, to accelerate their own nuclear projects or undertake covert operations against the project.", "The Office of Censorship relied on the press to comply with a voluntary code of conduct it published, and the project at first avoided notifying the office.", "By early 1943 newspapers began publishing reports of large construction in Tennessee and Washington, and the office began discussing with the project how to maintain secrecy.", "In June it asked newspapers and broadcasters to avoid discussing \"atom smashing, atomic energy, atomic fission, atomic splitting, or any of their equivalents.", "The use for military purposes of radium or radioactive materials, heavy water, high voltage discharge equipment, cyclotrons.", "\"=== Soviet spies ===Klaus Fuchs, a member of the British Mission to Los Alamos, was one of several scientists working on the Manhattan Project who was passing on secret information to the Soviet Union.The prospect of sabotage was always present, and sometimes suspected when there were equipment failures.", "While there were some problems believed to be the result of careless or disgruntled employees, there were no confirmed instances of Axis-instigated sabotage.", "However, on 10 March 1945, a Japanese fire balloon struck a power line, and the resulting power surge caused the three reactors at Hanford to be temporarily shut down.", "With so many people involved, security was difficult.", "A special Counter Intelligence Corps detachment was formed to handle the project's security issues.", "By 1943, it was clear that the Soviet Union was attempting to penetrate the project.", "Lieutenant Colonel Boris T. Pash, the head of the Counter Intelligence Branch of the Western Defense Command, investigated suspected Soviet espionage at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley.", "Oppenheimer informed Pash that he had been approached by a fellow professor at Berkeley, Haakon Chevalier, about passing information to the Soviet Union.The most successful Soviet spy was Klaus Fuchs, a physicist and member of the British Mission who was intimately involved in work at Los Alamos on the design of the implosion bomb.", "His espionage activities were not identified until 1950, as a result of Venona project.", "The revelation of his espionage activities damaged the United States' nuclear cooperation with Britain and Canada, and other instances of espionage were subsequently uncovered, leading to the arrest of Harry Gold, David Greenglass, and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg.", "Other spies like George Koval and Theodore Hall remained unknown for decades.", "The value of the espionage is difficult to quantify, as the principal constraint on the Soviet atomic bomb project was their short supply of uranium ore.", "It may have saved the Soviets at least one or two years in the development of their own bomb, although some historians have argued the Soviets spent as much time vetting and reduplicating the information as they would have saved had they trusted it." ], [ "Foreign intelligence", "In addition to developing the atomic bomb, the Manhattan Project was charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear energy project.", "It was believed that the Japanese nuclear weapons program was not far advanced because Japan had little access to uranium ore, but it was initially feared that Germany was very close to developing its own weapons.", "At the instigation of the Manhattan Project, a bombing and sabotage campaign was carried out against heavy water plants in German-occupied Norway.", "A small mission was created, jointly staffed by the Office of Naval Intelligence, OSRD, the Manhattan Project, and Army Intelligence (G-2), to investigate enemy scientific developments.", "It was not restricted to those involving nuclear weapons.", "The Chief of Army Intelligence, Major General George V. Strong, appointed Boris Pash to command the unit, which was codenamed \"Alsos\" (Greek for \"grove\").Allied soldiers dismantle the German experimental nuclear reactor at alt=Soldiers and workmen, some wearing steel helmet, clamber over what looks like a giant manhole.The Alsos Mission to Italy questioned physics laboratory staff at the University of Rome following the capture of the city in June 1944.Meanwhile, Pash formed a combined British and American Alsos mission in London under the command of Captain Horace K. Calvert to participate in Operation Overlord.", "Groves considered the risk that the Germans might attempt to disrupt the Normandy landings with radioactive poisons was sufficient to warn General Dwight D. Eisenhower and send an officer to brief his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Walter Bedell Smith.", "Under the codename Operation Peppermint, special equipment was prepared and Chemical Warfare Service teams were trained in its use.Following in the wake of the advancing Allied armies, Pash and Calvert interviewed Frédéric Joliot-Curie about the activities of German scientists.", "They spoke to officials at Union Minière du Haut Katanga about uranium shipments to Germany.", "They tracked down 68 tons of ore in Belgium and 30 tons in France.", "The interrogation of German prisoners indicated that uranium and thorium were being processed in Oranienburg, so Groves arranged for it to be bombed on 15 March 1945.An Alsos team went to Stassfurt in the Soviet Occupation Zone and retrieved 11 tons of ore from WIFO.", "In April 1945, Pash, in command of a composite force known as T-Force, conducted Operation Harborage, a sweep behind enemy lines of Hechingen, Bisingen, and Haigerloch—the heart of the German nuclear effort.", "T-Force captured nuclear laboratories, documents, equipment and supplies, including heavy water and 1.5 tons of metallic uranium.Alsos teams rounded up German scientists including Kurt Diebner, Otto Hahn, Walther Gerlach, Werner Heisenberg, and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker.", "They were taken to England and interned at Farm Hall, a bugged house in Godmanchester.", "After the bombs were detonated in Japan, the Germans were forced to confront the fact that the Allies had done what they could not." ], [ "Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki", "=== Preparations ===Silverplate B-29 ''Straight Flush''.", "The tail code of the 444th Bombardment Group is painted on for security reasons.|alt=A shiny metal four-engined aircraft stands on a runway.", "The crew pose in front of it.The only Allied aircraft capable of carrying the long Thin Man or the wide Fat Man was the British Avro Lancaster, but using a British aircraft would have caused difficulties with maintenance.", "Groves hoped that the American Boeing B-29 Superfortress could be modified to carry a Thin Man by joining its two bomb bays together.", "This became unnecessary after Thin Man was abandoned, as a Little Boy was short enough to fit into a B-29 bomb bay, but modifications were still required.", "The Army Air Forces Materiel Command at Wright Field, Ohio, began Silverplate, the codename for the modification of the B-29, in November 1943.Test drops were carried out at Muroc Army Air Field and the Naval Ordnance Test Station in California with Thin Man and Fat Man pumpkin bombs to test their ballistic, fuzing and stability characteristics.The 509th Composite Group was activated on 17 December 1944 at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, under the command of Colonel Paul W. Tibbets.", "Its 393rd Bombardment Squadron, equipped with Silverplate B-29s, practiced long-distance flights over water and dropped pumpkin bombs.", "A special unit known as Project Alberta was formed at Los Alamos under Parsons's command to assist in preparing and delivering the bombs.", "The 509th Composite Group deployed to North Field on Tinian in July 1945.Most of the components for the Little Boy left San Francisco on the cruiser on 16 July and arrived on Tinian on 26 July.", "The remaining components, which included six highly enriched uranium rings, were delivered by three Douglas C-54 Skymasters of the 509th Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron.", "Two Fat Man assemblies traveled to Tinian in specially modified 509th Composite Group B-29s, and the first plutonium core went in a special C-54.At the end of December 1944, worried by the heavy losses occurring in the Battle of the Bulge, Roosevelt instructed Groves and Stimson that if the atomic bombs were ready before the war with Germany ended, they should be ready to drop them on Germany, but Japan was regarded as more likely.", "In late April 1945, a targeting committee was established to determine which cities should be targets, and it recommended Kokura, Hiroshima, Niigata, and Kyoto.", "Stimson intervened, announcing that he would be making the targeting decision, and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto on the grounds of its historical and religious significance.", "Nagasaki was ultimately substituted.", "In May 1945, the Interim Committee was created to advise on wartime and postwar use of nuclear energy.", "The Interim Committee in turn established a scientific panel consisting of Arthur Compton, Fermi, Lawrence, and Oppenheimer; the scientific panel offered its opinion not just on the likely physical effects of an atomic bomb, but on its probable military and political impact.", "In a meeting on 1 June, the Interim Committee resolved that \"the bomb should be used against Japan as soon as possible; that it be used on a war plant surrounded by workers’ homes; and that it be used without prior warning\".At the Potsdam Conference in Germany, President Harry S. Truman told Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, that the US had \"a new weapon of unusual destructive force\", without giving any details.", "As he showed \"no special interest,\" Truman erroneously assumed that Stalin did not understand.", "In reality, Soviet spies had kept Stalin informed of the work and the planned test.A strike order from General Thomas T. Handy to General Carl Spaatz was approved by Marshall and Stimson on 25 July.", "It ordered that the \"first special bomb\" be used \"after about 3 August 1945.\"", "It indicated that \"additional bombs will be delivered on the above targets as soon as made ready by the project staff\".=== Bombings ===On 6 August 1945, the ''Enola Gay'', a Boeing B-29 Superfortress of the 393d Bombardment Squadron, piloted by Tibbets, lifted off from North Field with a Little Boy in its bomb bay.", "Hiroshima, the headquarters of the 2nd General Army and Fifth Division and a port of embarkation, was the primary target, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternatives.", "Parsons, the weaponeer in charge of the mission, completed the bomb assembly in the air to minimize the risks of a nuclear explosion in the event of a crash during takeoff.", "The bomb detonated at an altitude of with a blast that was later estimated to be the equivalent of 13 kilotons of TNT.", "An area of approximately was destroyed.", "Japanese officials determined that 69% of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed and another 6–7% damaged.", "Early estimates were that 66,000 people were killed and 69,000 injured; later re-estimations that included people ignored by previous methods, like Korean slave laborers and additional soldiers, concluded there might have been 140,000 dead from the attack by December 1945.Little Boy explodes over Hiroshima, Japan, 6 August 1945 (left);Fat Man explodes over Nagasaki, Japan, 9 August 1945 (right).|alt=Two mushroom clouds rise vertically.On the morning of 9 August 1945, the ''Bockscar'', a second B-29 piloted by the 393d Bombardment Squadron's commander, Major Charles W. Sweeney, lifted off with a Fat Man on board.", "This time, Ashworth served as weaponeer and Kokura was the primary target.", "When they reached Kokura, they found cloud cover had obscured the city, prohibiting the visual attack required by orders.", "After three runs and with fuel running low, they headed for the secondary target, Nagasaki.", "Ashworth decided that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured, but a last-minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed a visual approach as ordered.", "The Fat Man was dropped over the city's industrial valley midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works in the north.", "The resulting explosion had a blast yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT, roughly the same as the Trinity blast, but was confined to the Urakami Valley, and a major portion of the city, including the city center, was protected by the intervening hills.", "About 44% of the city was destroyed, and estimates of casualties range from 40,000 to 80,000 people killed and at least 60,000 injured.", "Overall, an estimated 35,000–40,000 people were killed and 60,000 injured.Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on 19 August, with three more in September and a further three in October.", "Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on 11 and 14 August.", "At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core.", "Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until 16 August.", "It could therefore have been ready for use on 19 August.On 10 August, Truman was informed that another bomb was being prepared.", "He ordered that no additional atomic bombs could be used without his express authority.", "Henry A. Wallace, the Secretary of Commerce, wrote in his diary that Truman announced at a cabinet meeting that he had given the order to stop atomic bombing: \"He said the thought of wiping out another 100,000 people was too horrible.", "He didn't like the idea of killing, as he said, 'all those kids.'\"", "Groves suspended the third core's shipment on 13 August.On 11 August, Groves phoned Warren with orders to organize a survey team to report on the damage and radioactivity at Hiroshima and Nagasaki as soon as the war ended.", "A party equipped with portable Geiger counters arrived in Hiroshima on 8 September headed by Farrell and Warren, with Japanese Rear Admiral Masao Tsuzuki, who acted as a translator.", "They remained in Hiroshima until 14 September and then surveyed Nagasaki from 19 September to 8 October.", "This and other scientific missions to Japan provided valuable data on the effects of the atomic bomb, and led to the creation of the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission.In anticipation of the bombings, Groves had commissioned physicist Henry DeWolf Smyth to prepare a sanitized technical history of the project for public consumption.", "The idea of releasing such information freely was controversial, and the ultimate decision to do so was made by Truman personally.", "The \"Smyth Report\" was released to the public on 12 August 1945.Japan announced its surrender on 15 August.", "The necessity of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki became a subject of controversy among historians.", "Some questioned whether \"atomic diplomacy\" would have attained the same goals, and the relative weight that the bombs and the Soviet declaration of war had on the Japanese willingness to surrender.", "The Franck Report was the most notable effort pushing for a demonstration but was turned down by the Interim Committee's scientific panel.", "The Szilárd petition, drafted in July 1945 and signed by dozens of scientists working on the Manhattan Project, was a late attempt at warning Truman about his responsibility in using such weapons." ], [ "After the war", "Presentation of the Army–Navy \"E\" Award at Los Alamos on 16 October 1945.Standing, left to right: J. Robert Oppenheimer, unidentified, unidentified, Kenneth Nichols, Leslie Groves, Robert Gordon Sproul, William Sterling Parsons.|alt=Men in suits and uniforms stand on a dais decorated with bunting and salute.The Manhattan Project became instantly famous after the bombing of Hiroshima and the partial lifting of its secrecy.", "It was widely credited with ending the war, and Groves worked to credit its contractors, whose work had hitherto been secret.", "Groves and Nichols presented them with Army–Navy \"E\" Awards, and over 20 Presidential Medals for Merit were awarded to key contractors and scientists, including Bush and Oppenheimer.", "Military personnel received the Legion of Merit.The Manhattan Project persisted until 31 December 1946, and the Manhattan District to 15 August 1947.During this time, it suffered from numerous difficulties caused by technical problems, the effects of rapid demobilization, and a lack of clarity on its long-term mission.At Hanford, plutonium production declined as Reactors B, D and F wore out, poisoned by fission products and swelling of the graphite moderator known as the Wigner effect.", "The swelling damaged the charging tubes where the uranium was irradiated to produce plutonium, rendering them unusable.", "Production was curtailed and the oldest unit, B pile, was closed down so at least one reactor would remain available.", "Research continued, with DuPont and the Metallurgical Laboratory developing a redox solvent extraction process as an alternative plutonium extraction technique to the bismuth phosphate process, which left unspent uranium in a state from which it could not easily be recovered.Bomb engineering was carried out by the Z Division, initially located at Wendover Field but moved to Oxnard Field, New Mexico, in September 1945 to be closer to Los Alamos.", "This marked the beginning of the Sandia Base.", "Nearby Kirtland Field was used as a B-29 base for aircraft compatibility and drop tests.", "As reservist officers were demobilized, they were replaced by about fifty hand-picked regular officers.Nichols recommended that S-50 and the Alpha tracks at Y-12 be closed down.", "This was done in September.", "Although performing better than ever, the Alpha tracks could not compete with K-25 and the new K-27, which had commenced operation in January 1946.In December, the Y-12 plant was closed, cutting the Tennessee Eastman payroll from 8,600 to 1,500 and saving $2 million a month.President Harry S. Truman signs the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, establishing the United States Atomic Energy Commission.|alt=A man in a suit is seated at a desk, signing a document.", "Seven men in suits gather around him.Nowhere was demobilization more of a problem than at Los Alamos, where there was an exodus of talent.", "Much remained to be done.", "The bombs used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki needed work to make them simpler, safer and more reliable.", "Implosion methods needed to be developed for uranium in place of the wasteful gun method, and composite uranium-plutonium cores were needed now that plutonium was in short supply.", "However, uncertainty about the future of the laboratory made it hard to induce people to stay.", "Oppenheimer returned to his job at the University of California and Groves appointed Norris Bradbury as an interim replacement; Bradbury remained in the post for the next 25 years.", "Groves attempted to combat the dissatisfaction caused by the lack of amenities with a construction program that included an improved water supply, three hundred houses, and recreation facilities.Two Fat Man-type detonations were conducted at Bikini Atoll in July 1946 as part of Operation Crossroads to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on warships.", "Able was detonated on 1 July 1946.The more spectacular Baker was detonated underwater on 25 July 1946.Following a domestic debate over the permanent management of the nuclear program, the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 created the United States Atomic Energy Commission to take over the functions and assets of the project.", "It established civilian control over atomic development, and separated the development, production and control of atomic weapons from the military.", "Military aspects were taken over by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP).After the bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, a number of Manhattan Project physicists founded the ''Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists'' (1945) and Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists (1946), which began as an emergency action undertaken by scientists who saw urgent need for an educational program about atomic weapons.", "In the face of the destructiveness of the bombs and in anticipation of the nuclear arms race several project members including Bohr, Bush and Conant expressed the view that it was necessary to reach agreement on international control of nuclear research and atomic weapons.", "The Baruch Plan, unveiled in a speech to the newly formed United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC) in June 1946, proposed the establishment of an international atomic development authority, but was not adopted." ], [ "Cost", " Manhattan Project costs through 31 December 1945 Site Cost (1945 USD) Cost ( USD) % of total Oak Ridge $ $ Hanford $ $ Special operating materials $ $ Los Alamos $ $ Research and development $ $ Government overhead $ $ Heavy water plants $ $ '''Total''' '''$''' '''$'''The project expenditure through 1 October 1945 was $1.845 billion, equivalent to less than nine days of wartime spending, and was $2.191 billion when the AEC assumed control on 1 January 1947.The total allocation was $2.4 billion.", "84% of the costs through the end of 1945 were spent on the plants at Oak Ridge and Hanford, producing the enriched uranium and plutonium needed to fuel the bombs.", "At both sites, the majority of the costs were for construction (74% at Oak Ridge, 87% at Hanford), with the rest being for operations.Manhattan Project monthly expenditures from January 1943 through the end of December 1946.In its peak month, August 1944, US$111.4 million was spent on the project.Initial funding for the project was through the general budget of the Office of Scientific Research and Development.", "As plans were made to turn the work over to the Army Corps of Engineers, Bush wrote to Roosevelt in late 1942 that \"it would be ruinous to the essential secrecy to have to defend before an appropriations committee any request for funds for this project.\"", "Instead, initial funding was done through discretionary funds to which Roosevelt had access.As it grew in size and cost, Congress was deliberately kept ignorant of the project, because of concerns that Congressmen were prone to leaking information, and because it was feared that the project would appear to be a boondoggle.", "Appropriations requests were quietly slipped into other bills, but the project's mounting costs and large facilities (which appeared to many to produce nothing) attracted scrutiny from several Congressional auditors.", "The Truman Committee that investigated wartime waste and fraud attempted to audit the project several times, but each time their inquiries were rejected.These Congressional inquiries, along with the need for smooth budgetary approval, led to Bush, Groves, and Stimson agreeing in the spring of 1944 that a few high-ranking Congressmen should be told of the project's purpose.", "By March 1945, exactly seven Congressmen were officially informed.", "The funds were hidden into appropriation requests with the inconspicuous headings, frequently \"Engineer Service Army\" and \"Expediting Production.\"", "In late May 1945, to further expedite budget issues and assure the cooperation of Albert J. Engel, who had threatened to reveal the existence of the project if he was not told more about it, five additional Congressmen were permitted to visit the Oak Ridge site to assure themselves of \"the reasonableness of the various living accommodations which had been provided, and that they actually observe the size and scope of the installations and that some of the complexities of the project be demonstrated to them.", "\"During the war, the Manhattan Project ultimately produced the three bombs used (the Trinity gadget, Little Boy, and Fat Man), as well as an additional unused Fat Man bomb, making the average wartime cost per bomb around $500 million in 1945 dollars.", "By comparison, the project's total cost by the end of 1945 was about 90% of the total spent on the production of US small arms (not including ammunition) and 34% of the total spent on US tanks during the same period.", "It was the second most expensive weapons project undertaken by the United States during the war, behind only the Boeing B-29 Superfortress." ], [ "Legacy", "The Lake Ontario Ordnance Works (LOOW) near Niagara Falls became a principal repository for Manhattan Project waste for the Eastern United States.", "All of the radioactive materials stored at the LOOW site—including thorium, uranium, and the world's largest concentration of radium-226—were buried in an \"Interim Waste Containment Structure\" (in the foreground) in 1991.The political and cultural impacts of the development of nuclear weapons were profound and far-reaching.", "William Laurence of ''The New York Times'', the first to use the phrase \"Atomic Age\", became the official correspondent for the Manhattan Project in spring 1945.In 1943 and 1944 he unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Office of Censorship to permit writing about the explosive potential of uranium, and government officials felt that he had earned the right to report on the biggest secret of the war.", "Laurence witnessed both the Trinity test and the bombing of Nagasaki and wrote the official press releases on them.", "He went on to write a series of articles extolling the virtues of the new weapon.", "His reporting before and after the bombings helped to spur public awareness of the potential of nuclear technology and motivated its development in the United States and the Soviet Union.The Manhattan Project left a legacy of a network of national laboratories: the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, and Ames Laboratory.", "Two more were established by Groves soon after the war, the Brookhaven National Laboratory at Upton, New York, and the Sandia National Laboratories at Albuquerque, New Mexico.", "Groves allocated $72 million to them for research activities in fiscal year 1946–1947.They would be in the vanguard of the kind of large-scale research that Alvin Weinberg, the director of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, would call Big Science.The Naval Research Laboratory had long been interested in the prospect of using nuclear power for warship propulsion, and sought to create its own nuclear project.", "In May 1946, Nimitz, now Chief of Naval Operations, decided that the Navy should instead work with the Manhattan Project.", "A group of naval officers were assigned to Oak Ridge, the most senior of whom was Captain Hyman G. Rickover, who became assistant director there.", "They immersed themselves in the study of nuclear energy, laying the foundations for a nuclear-powered navy.", "A similar group of Air Force personnel arrived at Oak Ridge in September 1946 with the aim of developing nuclear aircraft.", "Their Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft project ran into formidable technical difficulties and was ultimately canceled.The ability of the new reactors to create radioactive isotopes in previously unheard-of quantities sparked a revolution in nuclear medicine.", "Starting in mid-1946, Oak Ridge began distributing radioisotopes to hospitals and universities, primarily iodine-131 and phosphorus-32 for cancer diagnosis and treatment.", "Isotopes were also used in biological, industrial and agricultural research.Its production sites, operating with new technologies, exotic substances, and under conditions of secrecy and haste, also left a vast legacy of waste and environmental damage.", "At Hanford, for example, corrosive and radioactive wastes were stored in \"hastily fabricated, single-shell, steel-lined, underground storage tanks\" that were intended to be temporary, awaiting a more permanent solution.", "Instead, they were neglected and eventually leaked.", "Issues of this kind resulted in Hanford becoming \"one of the most contaminated nuclear waste sites in North America\", and the subject of significant cleanup efforts after it was deactivated in the late Cold War.On handing over control to the Atomic Energy Commission, Groves bid farewell to the people who had worked on the Manhattan Project:The Manhattan Project National Historical Park was established on 10 November 2015." ], [ "See also", "* * Oppenheimer (film)* Timeline of nuclear weapons development" ], [ "Notes", "=== Explanatory footnotes ====== Citations ===" ], [ "General and cited references", "=== General, administrative, and diplomatic histories ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Technical histories ===* * * (1967 interview with Groves)* * * * * * * * * * (Available on Wikimedia Commons)* * * * === Participant accounts ===* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Features hundreds of audio/visual interviews with Manhattan Project veterans.", "* * * Manhattan Project and Allied Scientists Collections at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Main sequence" ], [ "Introduction", "A Hertzsprung–Russell diagram plots the luminosity (or absolute magnitude) of a star against its color index (represented as B−V).", "The main sequence is visible as a prominent diagonal band from upper left to lower right.", "This plot shows 22,000 stars from the Hipparcos Catalog together with 1,000 low-luminosity stars (red and white dwarfs) from the Gliese Catalogue of Nearby Stars.In astronomy, the '''main sequence''' is a classification of stars which appear on plots of stellar color versus brightness as a continuous and distinctive band.", "Stars on this band are known as '''main-sequence stars''' or dwarf stars, and positions of stars on and off the band are believed to indicate their physical properties, as well as their progress through several types of star life-cycles.", "These are the most numerous true stars in the universe and include the Sun.", "Color-magnitude plots are known as Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams after Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell.", "After condensation and ignition of a star, it generates thermal energy in its dense core region through nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.", "During this stage of the star's lifetime, it is located on the main sequence at a position determined primarily by its mass but also based on its chemical composition and age.", "The cores of main-sequence stars are in hydrostatic equilibrium, where outward thermal pressure from the hot core is balanced by the inward pressure of gravitational collapse from the overlying layers.", "The strong dependence of the rate of energy generation on temperature and pressure helps to sustain this balance.", "Energy generated at the core makes its way to the surface and is radiated away at the photosphere.", "The energy is carried by either radiation or convection, with the latter occurring in regions with steeper temperature gradients, higher opacity, or both.The main sequence is sometimes divided into upper and lower parts, based on the dominant process that a star uses to generate energy.", "The Sun, along with main sequence stars below about 1.5 times the mass of the Sun (), primarily fuse hydrogen atoms together in a series of stages to form helium, a sequence called the proton–proton chain.", "Above this mass, in the upper main sequence, the nuclear fusion process mainly uses atoms of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen as intermediaries in the CNO cycle that produces helium from hydrogen atoms.", "Main-sequence stars with more than two solar masses undergo convection in their core regions, which acts to stir up the newly created helium and maintain the proportion of fuel needed for fusion to occur.", "Below this mass, stars have cores that are entirely radiative with convective zones near the surface.", "With decreasing stellar mass, the proportion of the star forming a convective envelope steadily increases.", "The Main-sequence stars below undergo convection throughout their mass.", "When core convection does not occur, a helium-rich core develops surrounded by an outer layer of hydrogen.The more massive a star is, the shorter its lifespan on the main sequence.", "After the hydrogen fuel at the core has been consumed, the star evolves away from the main sequence on the HR diagram, into a supergiant, red giant, or directly to a white dwarf." ], [ "History", "In the early part of the 20th century, information about the types and distances of stars became more readily available.", "The spectra of stars were shown to have distinctive features, which allowed them to be categorized.", "Annie Jump Cannon and Edward C. Pickering at Harvard College Observatory developed a method of categorization that became known as the Harvard Classification Scheme, published in the ''Harvard Annals'' in 1901.In Potsdam in 1906, the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung noticed that the reddest stars—classified as K and M in the Harvard scheme—could be divided into two distinct groups.", "These stars are either much brighter than the Sun or much fainter.", "To distinguish these groups, he called them \"giant\" and \"dwarf\" stars.", "The following year he began studying star clusters; large groupings of stars that are co-located at approximately the same distance.", "For these stars, he published the first plots of color versus luminosity.", "These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars, which he named the Main Sequence.At Princeton University, Henry Norris Russell was following a similar course of research.", "He was studying the relationship between the spectral classification of stars and their actual brightness as corrected for distance—their absolute magnitude.", "For this purpose, he used a set of stars that had reliable parallaxes and many of which had been categorized at Harvard.", "When he plotted the spectral types of these stars against their absolute magnitude, he found that dwarf stars followed a distinct relationship.", "This allowed the real brightness of a dwarf star to be predicted with reasonable accuracy.Of the red stars observed by Hertzsprung, the dwarf stars also followed the spectra-luminosity relationship discovered by Russell.", "However, giant stars are much brighter than dwarfs and so do not follow the same relationship.", "Russell proposed that \"giant stars must have low density or great surface brightness, and the reverse is true of dwarf stars\".", "The same curve also showed that there were very few faint white stars.In 1933, Bengt Strömgren introduced the term Hertzsprung–Russell diagram to denote a luminosity-spectral class diagram.", "This name reflected the parallel development of this technique by both Hertzsprung and Russell earlier in the century.As evolutionary models of stars were developed during the 1930s, it was shown that, for stars of uniform chemical composition, a relationship exists between a star's mass and its luminosity and radius.", "That is, for a given mass and composition, there is a unique solution for determining the star's radius and luminosity.", "This became known as the Vogt–Russell theorem; named after Heinrich Vogt and Henry Norris Russell.", "By this theorem, when a star's chemical composition and its position on the main sequence are known, so too are the star's mass and radius.", "(However, it was subsequently discovered that the theorem breaks down somewhat for stars of the non-uniform composition.", ")A refined scheme for stellar classification was published in 1943 by William Wilson Morgan and Philip Childs Keenan.", "The MK classification assigned each star a spectral type—based on the Harvard classification—and a luminosity class.", "The Harvard classification had been developed by assigning a different letter to each star based on the strength of the hydrogen spectral line before the relationship between spectra and temperature was known.", "When ordered by temperature and when duplicate classes were removed, the spectral types of stars followed, in order of decreasing temperature with colors ranging from blue to red, the sequence O, B, A, F, G, K, and M. (A popular mnemonic for memorizing this sequence of stellar classes is \"Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy, Kiss Me\".)", "The luminosity class ranged from I to V, in order of decreasing luminosity.", "Stars of luminosity class V belonged to the main sequence.In April 2018, astronomers reported the detection of the most distant \"ordinary\" (i.e., main sequence) star, named Icarus (formally, MACS J1149 Lensed Star 1), at 9 billion light-years away from Earth." ], [ "Formation and evolution", "Hot and brilliant O-type main-sequence stars in star-forming regions.", "These are all regions of star formation that contain many hot young stars including several bright stars of spectral type O.When a protostar is formed from the collapse of a giant molecular cloud of gas and dust in the local interstellar medium, the initial composition is homogeneous throughout, consisting of about 70% hydrogen, 28% helium, and trace amounts of other elements, by mass.", "The initial mass of the star depends on the local conditions within the cloud.", "(The mass distribution of newly formed stars is described empirically by the initial mass function.)", "During the initial collapse, this pre-main-sequence star generates energy through gravitational contraction.", "Once sufficiently dense, stars begin converting hydrogen into helium and giving off energy through an exothermic nuclear fusion process.When nuclear fusion of hydrogen becomes the dominant energy production process and the excess energy gained from gravitational contraction has been lost, the star lies along a curve on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (or HR diagram) called the standard main sequence.", "Astronomers will sometimes refer to this stage as \"zero-age main sequence\", or ZAMS.", "The ZAMS curve can be calculated using computer models of stellar properties at the point when stars begin hydrogen fusion.", "From this point, the brightness and surface temperature of stars typically increase with age.A star remains near its initial position on the main sequence until a significant amount of hydrogen in the core has been consumed, then begins to evolve into a more luminous star.", "(On the HR diagram, the evolving star moves up and to the right of the main sequence.)", "Thus the main sequence represents the primary hydrogen-burning stage of a star's lifetime." ], [ "Classification", "Main sequence stars are divided into the following types:* O-type main-sequence star * B-type main-sequence star* A-type main-sequence star* F-type main-sequence star* G-type main-sequence star* K-type main-sequence star* M-type star" ], [ "Properties", "The majority of stars on a typical HR diagram lie along the main-sequence curve.", "This line is pronounced because both the spectral type and the luminosity depends only on a star's mass, at least to zeroth-order approximation, as long as it is fusing hydrogen at its core—and that is what almost all stars spend most of their \"active\" lives doing.The temperature of a star determines its spectral type via its effect on the physical properties of plasma in its photosphere.", "A star's energy emission as a function of wavelength is influenced by both its temperature and composition.", "A key indicator of this energy distribution is given by the color index, ''B'' − ''V'', which measures the star's magnitude in blue (''B'') and green-yellow (''V'') light by means of filters.", "This difference in magnitude provides a measure of a star's temperature." ], [ "Dwarf terminology", "Main-sequence stars are called dwarf stars, but this terminology is partly historical and can be somewhat confusing.", "For the cooler stars, dwarfs such as red dwarfs, orange dwarfs, and yellow dwarfs are indeed much smaller and dimmer than other stars of those colors.", "However, for hotter blue and white stars, the difference in size and brightness between so-called \"dwarf\" stars that are on the main sequence and so-called \"giant\" stars that are not, becomes smaller.", "For the hottest stars the difference is not directly observable and for these stars, the terms \"dwarf\" and \"giant\" refer to differences in spectral lines which indicate whether a star is on or off the main sequence.", "Nevertheless, very hot main-sequence stars are still sometimes called dwarfs, even though they have roughly the same size and brightness as the \"giant\" stars of that temperature.The common use of \"dwarf\" to mean the main sequence is confusing in another way because there are dwarf stars that are not main-sequence stars.", "For example, a white dwarf is the dead core left over after a star has shed its outer layers, and is much smaller than a main-sequence star, roughly the size of Earth.", "These represent the final evolutionary stage of many main-sequence stars." ], [ "Parameters", "Comparison of main sequence stars of each spectral classBy treating the star as an idealized energy radiator known as a black body, the luminosity ''L'' and radius ''R'' can be related to the effective temperature ''T''eff by the Stefan–Boltzmann law::where ''σ'' is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.", "As the position of a star on the HR diagram shows its approximate luminosity, this relation can be used to estimate its radius.The mass, radius, and luminosity of a star are closely interlinked, and their respective values can be approximated by three relations.", "First is the Stefan–Boltzmann law, which relates the luminosity ''L'', the radius ''R'' and the surface temperature ''T''eff.", "Second is the mass–luminosity relation, which relates the luminosity ''L'' and the mass ''M''.", "Finally, the relationship between ''M'' and ''R'' is close to linear.", "The ratio of ''M'' to ''R'' increases by a factor of only three over 2.5 orders of magnitude of ''M''.", "This relation is roughly proportional to the star's inner temperature ''TI'', and its extremely slow increase reflects the fact that the rate of energy generation in the core strongly depends on this temperature, whereas it has to fit the mass-luminosity relation.", "Thus, a too-high or too-low temperature will result in stellar instability.A better approximation is to take ''ε'' = ''L''/''M'', the energy generation rate per unit mass, as ''ε'' is proportional to ''TI''15, where ''TI'' is the core temperature.", "This is suitable for stars at least as massive as the Sun, exhibiting the CNO cycle, and gives the better fit ''R'' ∝ ''M''0.78.===Sample parameters===The table below shows typical values for stars along the main sequence.", "The values of luminosity (''L''), radius (''R''), and mass (''M'') are relative to the Sun—a dwarf star with a spectral classification of G2 V. The actual values for a star may vary by as much as 20–30% from the values listed below.+ Table of main-sequence stellar parameters Stellar class Radius, ''R''/ Mass, ''M''/ Luminosity, ''L''/ (K) Examples O2 12 100 800,000 50,000 BI 253 O6 9.8 35 180,000 38,000 Theta1 Orionis C B0 7.4 18 20,000 30,000Phi1 Orionis B5 3.8 6.5 800 16,400Pi Andromedae A A0 2.5 3.2 80 10,800Alpha Coronae Borealis A A5 1.7 2.1 20 8,620Beta Pictoris F0 1.3 1.7 6 7,240Gamma Virginis F5 1.2 1.3 2.5 6,540Eta Arietis G0 1.05 1.10 1.26 5,920Beta Comae Berenices G2 5,780 '''Sun''' G5 0.93 0.93 0.79 5,610Alpha Mensae K0 0.85 0.78 0.40 5,24070 Ophiuchi A K5 0.74 0.69 0.16 4,41061 Cygni A M0 0.51 0.60 0.072 3,800Lacaille 8760 M5 0.18 0.15 0.0027 3,120EZ Aquarii A M8 0.11 0.08 0.0004 2,650Van Biesbroeck's star L1 0.09 0.07 0.00017 2,200 2MASS J0523−1403Representative lifetimes of stars as a function of their masses" ], [ "Energy generation", "Logarithm of the relative energy output (ε) of proton–proton (PP), CNO and triple-α fusion processes at different temperatures (T).", "The dashed line shows the combined energy generation of the PP and CNO processes within a star.", "At the Sun's core temperature, the PP process is more efficient.All main-sequence stars have a core region where energy is generated by nuclear fusion.", "The temperature and density of this core are at the levels necessary to sustain the energy production that will support the remainder of the star.", "A reduction of energy production would cause the overlaying mass to compress the core, resulting in an increase in the fusion rate because of higher temperature and pressure.", "Likewise, an increase in energy production would cause the star to expand, lowering the pressure at the core.", "Thus the star forms a self-regulating system in hydrostatic equilibrium that is stable over the course of its main-sequence lifetime.Main-sequence stars employ two types of hydrogen fusion processes, and the rate of energy generation from each type depends on the temperature in the core region.", "Astronomers divide the main sequence into upper and lower parts, based on which of the two is the dominant fusion process.", "In the lower main sequence, energy is primarily generated as the result of the proton–proton chain, which directly fuses hydrogen together in a series of stages to produce helium.", "Stars in the upper main sequence have sufficiently high core temperatures to efficiently use the CNO cycle (see chart).", "This process uses atoms of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen as intermediaries in the process of fusing hydrogen into helium.At a stellar core temperature of 18 million Kelvin, the PP process and CNO cycle are equally efficient, and each type generates half of the star's net luminosity.", "As this is the core temperature of a star with about 1.5 , the upper main sequence consists of stars above this mass.", "Thus, roughly speaking, stars of spectral class F or cooler belong to the lower main sequence, while A-type stars or hotter are upper main-sequence stars.", "The transition in primary energy production from one form to the other spans a range difference of less than a single solar mass.", "In the Sun, a one solar-mass star, only 1.5% of the energy is generated by the CNO cycle.", "By contrast, stars with 1.8 or above generate almost their entire energy output through the CNO cycle.The observed upper limit for a main-sequence star is 120–200 .", "The theoretical explanation for this limit is that stars above this mass can not radiate energy fast enough to remain stable, so any additional mass will be ejected in a series of pulsations until the star reaches a stable limit.", "The lower limit for sustained proton-proton nuclear fusion is about 0.08 or 80 times the mass of Jupiter.", "Below this threshold are sub-stellar objects that can not sustain hydrogen fusion, known as brown dwarfs." ], [ "Structure", "This diagram shows a cross-section of a Sun-like star, showing the internal structure.Because there is a temperature difference between the core and the surface, or photosphere, energy is transported outward.", "The two modes for transporting this energy are radiation and convection.", "A radiation zone, where energy is transported by radiation, is stable against convection and there is very little mixing of the plasma.", "By contrast, in a convection zone the energy is transported by bulk movement of plasma, with hotter material rising and cooler material descending.", "Convection is a more efficient mode for carrying energy than radiation, but it will only occur under conditions that create a steep temperature gradient.In massive stars (above 10 ) the rate of energy generation by the CNO cycle is very sensitive to temperature, so the fusion is highly concentrated at the core.", "Consequently, there is a high temperature gradient in the core region, which results in a convection zone for more efficient energy transport.", "This mixing of material around the core removes the helium ash from the hydrogen-burning region, allowing more of the hydrogen in the star to be consumed during the main-sequence lifetime.", "The outer regions of a massive star transport energy by radiation, with little or no convection.Intermediate-mass stars such as Sirius may transport energy primarily by radiation, with a small core convection region.", "Medium-sized, low-mass stars like the Sun have a core region that is stable against convection, with a convection zone near the surface that mixes the outer layers.", "This results in a steady buildup of a helium-rich core, surrounded by a hydrogen-rich outer region.", "By contrast, cool, very low-mass stars (below 0.4 ) are convective throughout.", "Thus the helium produced at the core is distributed across the star, producing a relatively uniform atmosphere and a proportionately longer main-sequence lifespan." ], [ "Luminosity-color variation", "The Sun is the most familiar example of a main-sequence starAs non-fusing helium ash accumulates in the core of a main-sequence star, the reduction in the abundance of hydrogen per unit mass results in a gradual lowering of the fusion rate within that mass.", "Since it is the outflow of fusion-supplied energy that supports the higher layers of the star, the core is compressed, producing higher temperatures and pressures.", "Both factors increase the rate of fusion thus moving the equilibrium towards a smaller, denser, hotter core producing more energy whose increased outflow pushes the higher layers further out.", "Thus there is a steady increase in the luminosity and radius of the star over time.", "For example, the luminosity of the early Sun was only about 70% of its current value.", "As a star ages this luminosity increase changes its position on the HR diagram.", "This effect results in a broadening of the main sequence band because stars are observed at random stages in their lifetime.", "That is, the main sequence band develops a thickness on the HR diagram; it is not simply a narrow line.Other factors that broaden the main sequence band on the HR diagram include uncertainty in the distance to stars and the presence of unresolved binary stars that can alter the observed stellar parameters.", "However, even perfect observation would show a fuzzy main sequence because mass is not the only parameter that affects a star's color and luminosity.", "Variations in chemical composition caused by the initial abundances, the star's evolutionary status, interaction with a close companion, rapid rotation, or a magnetic field can all slightly change a main-sequence star's HR diagram position, to name just a few factors.", "As an example, there are metal-poor stars (with a very low abundance of elements with higher atomic numbers than helium) that lie just below the main sequence and are known as subdwarfs.", "These stars are fusing hydrogen in their cores and so they mark the lower edge of the main sequence fuzziness caused by variance in chemical composition.A nearly vertical region of the HR diagram, known as the instability strip, is occupied by pulsating variable stars known as Cepheid variables.", "These stars vary in magnitude at regular intervals, giving them a pulsating appearance.", "The strip intersects the upper part of the main sequence in the region of class ''A'' and ''F'' stars, which are between one and two solar masses.", "Pulsating stars in this part of the instability strip intersecting the upper part of the main sequence are called Delta Scuti variables.", "Main-sequence stars in this region experience only small changes in magnitude, so this variation is difficult to detect.", "Other classes of unstable main-sequence stars, like Beta Cephei variables, are unrelated to this instability strip." ], [ "Lifetime", "This plot gives an example of the mass-luminosity relationship for zero-age main-sequence stars.", "The mass and luminosity are relative to the present-day Sun.The total amount of energy that a star can generate through nuclear fusion of hydrogen is limited by the amount of hydrogen fuel that can be consumed at the core.", "For a star in equilibrium, the thermal energy generated at the core must be at least equal to the energy radiated at the surface.", "Since the luminosity gives the amount of energy radiated per unit time, the total life span can be estimated, to first approximation, as the total energy produced divided by the star's luminosity.For a star with at least 0.5 , when the hydrogen supply in its core is exhausted and it expands to become a red giant, it can start to fuse helium atoms to form carbon.", "The energy output of the helium fusion process per unit mass is only about a tenth the energy output of the hydrogen process, and the luminosity of the star increases.", "This results in a much shorter length of time in this stage compared to the main-sequence lifetime.", "(For example, the Sun is predicted to spend burning helium, compared to about 12 billion years burning hydrogen.)", "Thus, about 90% of the observed stars above 0.5 will be on the main sequence.", "On average, main-sequence stars are known to follow an empirical mass–luminosity relationship.", "The luminosity (''L'') of the star is roughly proportional to the total mass (''M'') as the following power law::This relationship applies to main-sequence stars in the range 0.1–50 .The amount of fuel available for nuclear fusion is proportional to the mass of the star.", "Thus, the lifetime of a star on the main sequence can be estimated by comparing it to solar evolutionary models.", "The Sun has been a main-sequence star for about 4.5 billion years and it will become a red giant in 6.5 billion years, for a total main-sequence lifetime of roughly 1010 years.", "Hence::where ''M'' and ''L'' are the mass and luminosity of the star, respectively, is a solar mass, is the solar luminosity and is the star's estimated main-sequence lifetime.Although more massive stars have more fuel to burn and might intuitively be expected to last longer, they also radiate a proportionately greater amount with increased mass.", "This is required by the stellar equation of state; for a massive star to maintain equilibrium, the outward pressure of radiated energy generated in the core not only must but ''will'' rise to match the titanic inward gravitational pressure of its envelope.", "Thus, the most massive stars may remain on the main sequence for only a few million years, while stars with less than a tenth of a solar mass may last for over a trillion years.The exact mass-luminosity relationship depends on how efficiently energy can be transported from the core to the surface.", "A higher opacity has an insulating effect that retains more energy at the core, so the star does not need to produce as much energy to remain in hydrostatic equilibrium.", "By contrast, a lower opacity means energy escapes more rapidly and the star must burn more fuel to remain in equilibrium.", "A sufficiently high opacity can result in energy transport via convection, which changes the conditions needed to remain in equilibrium.In high-mass main-sequence stars, the opacity is dominated by electron scattering, which is nearly constant with increasing temperature.", "Thus the luminosity only increases as the cube of the star's mass.", "For stars below 10 , the opacity becomes dependent on temperature, resulting in the luminosity varying approximately as the fourth power of the star's mass.", "For very low-mass stars, molecules in the atmosphere also contribute to the opacity.", "Below about 0.5 , the luminosity of the star varies as the mass to the power of 2.3, producing a flattening of the slope on a graph of mass versus luminosity.", "Even these refinements are only an approximation, however, and the mass-luminosity relation can vary depending on a star's composition." ], [ "Evolutionary tracks", "Evolutionary track of a star like the sunWhen a main-sequence star has consumed the hydrogen at its core, the loss of energy generation causes its gravitational collapse to resume and the star evolves off the main sequence.", "The path which the star follows across the HR diagram is called an evolutionary track.H–R diagram for two open clusters: NGC 188 (blue) is older and shows a lower turn off from the main sequence than M67 (yellow).", "The dots outside the two sequences are mostly foreground and background stars with no relation to the clusters.Stars with less than are predicted to directly become white dwarfs when energy generation by nuclear fusion of hydrogen at their core comes to a halt, but stars in this mass range have main-sequence lifetimes longer than the current age of the universe, so no stars are old enough for this to have occurred.In stars more massive than , the hydrogen surrounding the helium core reaches sufficient temperature and pressure to undergo fusion, forming a hydrogen-burning shell and causing the outer layers of the star to expand and cool.", "The stage as these stars move away from the main sequence is known as the subgiant branch; it is relatively brief and appears as a gap in the evolutionary track since few stars are observed at that point.When the helium core of low-mass stars becomes degenerate, or the outer layers of intermediate-mass stars cool sufficiently to become opaque, their hydrogen shells increase in temperature and the stars start to become more luminous.", "This is known as the red-giant branch; it is a relatively long-lived stage and it appears prominently in H–R diagrams.", "These stars will eventually end their lives as white dwarfs.The most massive stars do not become red giants; instead, their cores quickly become hot enough to fuse helium and eventually heavier elements and they are known as supergiants.", "They follow approximately horizontal evolutionary tracks from the main sequence across the top of the H–R diagram.", "Supergiants are relatively rare and do not show prominently on most H–R diagrams.", "Their cores will eventually collapse, usually leading to a supernova and leaving behind either a neutron star or black hole.When a cluster of stars is formed at about the same time, the main-sequence lifespan of these stars will depend on their individual masses.", "The most massive stars will leave the main sequence first, followed in sequence by stars of ever lower masses.", "The position where stars in the cluster are leaving the main sequence is known as the turnoff point.", "By knowing the main-sequence lifespan of stars at this point, it becomes possible to estimate the age of the cluster." ], [ "See also", "* Lists of astronomical objects" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===General===* Kippenhahn, Rudolf, ''100 Billion Suns'', Basic Books, New York, 1983.===Technical===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Memory leak" ], [ "Introduction", "In computer science, a '''memory leak''' is a type of resource leak that occurs when a computer program incorrectly manages memory allocations in a way that memory which is no longer needed is not released.", "A memory leak may also happen when an object is stored in memory but cannot be accessed by the running code (i.e.", "unreachable memory).", "A memory leak has symptoms similar to a number of other problems and generally can only be diagnosed by a programmer with access to the program's source code.A related concept is the \"space leak\", which is when a program consumes excessive memory but does eventually release it.Because they can exhaust available system memory as an application runs, memory leaks are often the cause of or a contributing factor to software aging." ], [ "Consequences", "A memory leak reduces the performance of the computer by reducing the amount of available memory.", "A memory leak can cause an increase in memory usage, performance run-time and can negatively impact the user experience.", "Eventually, in the worst case, too much of the available memory may become allocated and all or part of the system or device stops working correctly, the application fails, or the system slows down vastly due to thrashing.Memory leaks may not be serious or even detectable by normal means.", "In modern operating systems, normal memory used by an application is released when the application terminates.", "This means that a memory leak in a program that only runs for a short time may not be noticed and is rarely serious.Much more serious leaks include those:* where a program runs for a long time and consumes added memory over time, such as background tasks on servers, and especially in embedded systems which may be left running for many years* where new memory is allocated frequently for one-time tasks, such as when rendering the frames of a computer game or animated video* where a program can request memory, such as shared memory, that is not released, even when the program terminates* where memory is very limited, such as in an embedded system or portable device, or where the program requires a very large amount of memory to begin with, leaving little margin for leaks* where a leak occurs within the operating system or memory manager* when a system device driver causes a leak* running on an operating system that does not automatically release memory on program termination.===An example of memory leak===The following example, written in pseudocode, is intended to show how a memory leak can come about, and its effects, without needing any programming knowledge.", "The program in this case is part of some very simple software designed to control an elevator.", "This part of the program is run whenever anyone inside the elevator presses the button for a floor.", "When a button is pressed: Get some memory, which will be used to remember the floor number Put the floor number into the memory Are we already on the target floor?", "If so, we have nothing to do: finished Otherwise: Wait until the lift is idle Go to the required floor Release the memory we used to remember the floor numberThe memory leak would occur if the floor number requested is the same floor that the elevator is on; the condition for releasing the memory would be skipped.", "Each time this case occurs, more memory is leaked.Cases like this would not usually have any immediate effects.", "People do not often press the button for the floor they are already on, and in any case, the elevator might have enough spare memory that this could happen hundreds or thousands of times.", "However, the elevator will eventually run out of memory.", "This could take months or years, so it might not be discovered despite thorough testing.The consequences would be unpleasant; at the very least, the elevator would stop responding to requests to move to another floor (such as when an attempt is made to call the elevator or when someone is inside and presses the floor buttons).", "If other parts of the program need memory (a part assigned to open and close the door, for example), then no one would be able to enter, and if someone happens to be inside, they will become trapped (assuming the doors cannot be opened manually).The memory leak lasts until the system is reset.", "For example: if the elevator's power were turned off or in a power outage, the program would stop running.", "When power was turned on again, the program would restart and all the memory would be available again, but the slow process of memory leak would restart together with the program, eventually prejudicing the correct running of the system.The leak in the above example can be corrected by bringing the \"release\" operation outside of the conditional: When a button is pressed: Get some memory, which will be used to remember the floor number Put the floor number into the memory Are we already on the target floor?", "If not: Wait until the lift is idle Go to the required floor Release the memory we used to remember the floor number" ], [ "Programming issues", "Memory leaks are a common error in programming, especially when using languages that have no built in automatic garbage collection, such as C and C++.", "Typically, a memory leak occurs because dynamically allocated memory has become unreachable.", "The prevalence of memory leak bugs has led to the development of a number of debugging tools to detect unreachable memory.", "''BoundsChecker'', ''Deleaker'', Memory Validator, ''IBM Rational Purify'', ''Valgrind'', ''Parasoft Insure++'', ''Dr.", "Memory'' and ''memwatch'' are some of the more popular memory debuggers for C and C++ programs.", "\"Conservative\" garbage collection capabilities can be added to any programming language that lacks it as a built-in feature, and libraries for doing this are available for C and C++ programs.", "A conservative collector finds and reclaims most, but not all, unreachable memory.Although the memory manager can recover unreachable memory, it cannot free memory that is still reachable and therefore potentially still useful.", "Modern memory managers therefore provide techniques for programmers to semantically mark memory with varying levels of usefulness, which correspond to varying levels of ''reachability''.", "The memory manager does not free an object that is strongly reachable.", "An object is strongly reachable if it is reachable either directly by a strong reference or indirectly by a chain of strong references.", "(A ''strong reference'' is a reference that, unlike a weak reference, prevents an object from being garbage collected.)", "To prevent this, the developer is responsible for cleaning up references after use, typically by setting the reference to null once it is no longer needed and, if necessary, by deregistering any event listeners that maintain strong references to the object.In general, automatic memory management is more robust and convenient for developers, as they do not need to implement freeing routines or worry about the sequence in which cleanup is performed or be concerned about whether or not an object is still referenced.", "It is easier for a programmer to know when a reference is no longer needed than to know when an object is no longer referenced.", "However, automatic memory management can impose a performance overhead, and it does not eliminate all of the programming errors that cause memory leaks." ], [ "RAII", "Resource acquisition is initialization (RAII) is an approach to the problem commonly taken in C++, D, and Ada.", "It involves associating scoped objects with the acquired resources, and automatically releasing the resources once the objects are out of scope.", "Unlike garbage collection, RAII has the advantage of knowing when objects exist and when they do not.", "Compare the following C and C++ examples:/* C version */#include void f(int n){ int* array = calloc(n, sizeof(int)); do_some_work(array); free(array);}// C++ version#include void f(int n){ std::vector array (n); do_some_work(array);}The C version, as implemented in the example, requires explicit deallocation; the array is dynamically allocated (from the heap in most C implementations), and continues to exist until explicitly freed.The C++ version requires no explicit deallocation; it will always occur automatically as soon as the object array goes out of scope, including if an exception is thrown.", "This avoids some of the overhead of garbage collection schemes.", "And because object destructors can free resources other than memory, RAII helps to prevent the leaking of input and output resources accessed through a handle, which mark-and-sweep garbage collection does not handle gracefully.", "These include open files, open windows, user notifications, objects in a graphics drawing library, thread synchronisation primitives such as critical sections, network connections, and connections to the Windows Registry or another database.However, using RAII correctly is not always easy and has its own pitfalls.", "For instance, if one is not careful, it is possible to create dangling pointers (or references) by returning data by reference, only to have that data be deleted when its containing object goes out of scope.D uses a combination of RAII and garbage collection, employing automatic destruction when it is clear that an object cannot be accessed outside its original scope, and garbage collection otherwise." ], [ "Reference counting and cyclic references", "More modern garbage collection schemes are often based on a notion of reachability – if you do not have a usable reference to the memory in question, it can be collected.", "Other garbage collection schemes can be based on reference counting, where an object is responsible for keeping track of how many references are pointing to it.", "If the number goes down to zero, the object is expected to release itself and allow its memory to be reclaimed.", "The flaw with this model is that it does not cope with cyclic references, and this is why nowadays most programmers are prepared to accept the burden of the more costly mark and sweep type of systems.The following Visual Basic code illustrates the canonical reference-counting memory leak:Dim A, BSet A = CreateObject(\"Some.Thing\")Set B = CreateObject(\"Some.Thing\")' At this point, the two objects each have one reference,Set A.member = BSet B.member = A' Now they each have two references.Set A = Nothing ' You could still get out of it...Set B = Nothing ' And now you've got a memory leak!EndIn practice, this trivial example would be spotted straight away and fixed.", "In most real examples, the cycle of references spans more than two objects, and is more difficult to detect.A well-known example of this kind of leak came to prominence with the rise of AJAX programming techniques in web browsers in the lapsed listener problem.", "JavaScript code which associated a DOM element with an event handler, and failed to remove the reference before exiting, would leak memory (AJAX web pages keep a given DOM alive for a lot longer than traditional web pages, so this leak was much more apparent)." ], [ "Effects", "If a program has a memory leak and its memory usage is steadily increasing, there will not usually be an immediate symptom.", "Every physical system has a finite amount of memory, and if the memory leak is not contained (for example, by restarting the leaking program) it will eventually cause problems.Most modern consumer desktop operating systems have both main memory which is physically housed in RAM microchips, and secondary storage such as a hard drive.", "Memory allocation is dynamic – each process gets as much memory as it requests.", "Active pages are transferred into main memory for fast access; inactive pages are pushed out to secondary storage to make room, as needed.", "When a single process starts consuming a large amount of memory, it usually occupies more and more of main memory, pushing other programs out to secondary storage – usually significantly slowing performance of the system.", "Even if the leaking program is terminated, it may take some time for other programs to swap back into main memory, and for performance to return to normal.When all the memory on a system is exhausted (whether there is virtual memory or only main memory, such as on an embedded system) any attempt to allocate more memory will fail.", "This usually causes the program attempting to allocate the memory to terminate itself, or to generate a segmentation fault.", "Some programs are designed to recover from this situation (possibly by falling back on pre-reserved memory).", "The first program to experience the out-of-memory may or may not be the program that has the memory leak.Some multi-tasking operating systems have special mechanisms to deal with an out-of-memory condition, such as killing processes at random (which may affect \"innocent\" processes), or killing the largest process in memory (which presumably is the one causing the problem).", "Some operating systems have a per-process memory limit, to prevent any one program from hogging all of the memory on the system.", "The disadvantage to this arrangement is that the operating system sometimes must be re-configured to allow proper operation of programs that legitimately require large amounts of memory, such as those dealing with graphics, video, or scientific calculations.The \"sawtooth\" pattern of memory utilization: the sudden drop in used memory is a candidate symptom for a memory leak.If the memory leak is in the kernel, the operating system itself will likely fail.", "Computers without sophisticated memory management, such as embedded systems, may also completely fail from a persistent memory leak.Publicly accessible systems such as web servers or routers are prone to denial-of-service attacks if an attacker discovers a sequence of operations which can trigger a leak.", "Such a sequence is known as an exploit.A \"sawtooth\" pattern of memory utilization may be an indicator of a memory leak within an application, particularly if the vertical drops coincide with reboots or restarts of that application.", "Care should be taken though because garbage collection points could also cause such a pattern and would show a healthy usage of the heap." ], [ "Other memory consumers", "Note that constantly increasing memory usage is not necessarily evidence of a memory leak.", "Some applications will store ever increasing amounts of information in memory (e.g.", "as a cache).", "If the cache can grow so large as to cause problems, this may be a programming or design error, but is not a memory leak as the information remains nominally in use.", "In other cases, programs may require an unreasonably large amount of memory because the programmer has assumed memory is always sufficient for a particular task; for example, a graphics file processor might start by reading the entire contents of an image file and storing it all into memory, something that is not viable where a very large image exceeds available memory.To put it another way, a memory leak arises from a particular kind of programming error, and without access to the program code, someone seeing symptoms can only guess that there ''might'' be a memory leak.", "It would be better to use terms such as \"constantly increasing memory use\" where no such inside knowledge exists." ], [ "A simple example in C++", "The following C++ program deliberately leaks memory by losing the pointer to the allocated memory.int main() { int* a = new int(5); a = nullptr; /* The pointer in the 'a' no longer exists, and therefore cannot be freed, but the memory is still allocated by the system.", "If the program continues to create such pointers without freeing them, it will consume memory continuously.", "Therefore, a leak would occur.", "*/}" ], [ "See also", "* Buffer overflow* Memory management* Memory debugger* Plumbr is a popular memory leak detection tool for applications running on Java Virtual Machine.", "* nmon (short for Nigel's Monitor) is a popular system monitor tool for the AIX and Linux operating systems." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Visual Leak Detector for Visual Studio, open source* Valgrind, open source* Deleaker for Visual Studio, proprietary* Memory Validator for Visual Studio, Delphi, Fortran, Visual Basic.", "Proprietary.", "* Detecting a Memory Leak (Using MFC Debugging Support)* Article \" Memory Leak Detection in Embedded Systems\" by Cal Erickson* WonderLeak, a high performance Windows heap and handle allocation profiler, proprietary" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Molecular orbital" ], [ "Introduction", "Complete acetylene (H–C≡C–H) molecular orbital set.", "The left column shows MO's which are occupied in the ground state, with the lowest-energy orbital at the top.", "The white and grey line visible in some MO's is the molecular axis passing through the nuclei.", "The orbital wave functions are positive in the red regions and negative in the blue.", "The right column shows virtual MO's which are empty in the ground state, but may be occupied in excited states.In chemistry, a '''molecular orbital''' () is a mathematical function describing the location and wave-like behavior of an electron in a molecule.", "This function can be used to calculate chemical and physical properties such as the probability of finding an electron in any specific region.", "The terms ''atomic orbital'' and ''molecular orbital'' were introduced by Robert S. Mulliken in 1932 to mean ''one-electron orbital wave functions''.", "At an elementary level, they are used to describe the ''region'' of space in which a function has a significant amplitude.", "In an isolated atom, the orbital electrons' location is determined by functions called atomic orbitals.", "When multiple atoms combine chemically into a molecule by forming a valence chemical bond, the electrons' locations are determined by the molecule as a whole, so the atomic orbitals combine to form molecular orbitals.", "The electrons from the constituent atoms occupy the molecular orbitals.", "Mathematically, molecular orbitals are an approximate solution to the Schrödinger equation for the electrons in the field of the molecule's atomic nuclei.", "They are usually constructed by combining atomic orbitals or hybrid orbitals from each atom of the molecule, or other molecular orbitals from groups of atoms.", "They can be quantitatively calculated using the Hartree–Fock or self-consistent field (SCF) methods.Molecular orbitals are of three types: ''bonding orbitals'' which have an energy lower than the energy of the atomic orbitals which formed them, and thus promote the chemical bonds which hold the molecule together; ''antibonding orbitals'' which have an energy higher than the energy of their constituent atomic orbitals, and so oppose the bonding of the molecule, and ''non-bonding orbitals'' which have the same energy as their constituent atomic orbitals and thus have no effect on the bonding of the molecule." ], [ "Overview", "A molecular orbital (MO) can be used to represent the regions in a molecule where an electron occupying that orbital is likely to be found.", "Molecular orbitals are approximate solutions to the Schrödinger equation for the electrons in the electric field of the molecule's atomic nuclei.", "However calculating the orbitals directly from this equation is far too intractable a problem.", "Instead they are obtained from the combination of atomic orbitals, which predict the location of an electron in an atom.", "A molecular orbital can specify the electron configuration of a molecule: the spatial distribution and energy of one (or one pair of) electron(s).", "Most commonly a MO is represented as a linear combination of atomic orbitals (the LCAO-MO method), especially in qualitative or very approximate usage.", "They are invaluable in providing a simple model of bonding in molecules, understood through molecular orbital theory.Most present-day methods in computational chemistry begin by calculating the MOs of the system.", "A molecular orbital describes the behavior of one electron in the electric field generated by the nuclei and some average distribution of the other electrons.", "In the case of two electrons occupying the same orbital, the Pauli principle demands that they have opposite spin.", "Necessarily this is an approximation, and highly accurate descriptions of the molecular electronic wave function do not have orbitals (see configuration interaction).Molecular orbitals are, in general, delocalized throughout the entire molecule.", "Moreover, if the molecule has symmetry elements, its nondegenerate molecular orbitals are either symmetric or antisymmetric with respect to any of these symmetries.", "In other words, the application of a symmetry operation '''S''' (e.g., a reflection, rotation, or inversion) to molecular orbital ψ results in the molecular orbital being unchanged or reversing its mathematical sign: '''S'''ψ = ±ψ.", "In planar molecules, for example, molecular orbitals are either symmetric (sigma) or antisymmetric (pi) with respect to reflection in the molecular plane.", "If molecules with degenerate orbital energies are also considered, a more general statement that molecular orbitals form bases for the irreducible representations of the molecule's symmetry group holds.", "The symmetry properties of molecular orbitals means that delocalization is an inherent feature of molecular orbital theory and makes it fundamentally different from (and complementary to) valence bond theory, in which bonds are viewed as localized electron pairs, with allowance for resonance to account for delocalization.In contrast to these symmetry-adapted ''canonical'' molecular orbitals, localized molecular orbitals can be formed by applying certain mathematical transformations to the canonical orbitals.", "The advantage of this approach is that the orbitals will correspond more closely to the \"bonds\" of a molecule as depicted by a Lewis structure.", "As a disadvantage, the energy levels of these localized orbitals no longer have physical meaning.", "(The discussion in the rest of this article will focus on canonical molecular orbitals.", "For further discussions on localized molecular orbitals, see: natural bond orbital and sigma-pi and equivalent-orbital models.)" ], [ "Formation of molecular orbitals", "Molecular orbitals arise from allowed interactions between atomic orbitals, which are allowed if the symmetries (determined from group theory) of the atomic orbitals are compatible with each other.", "Efficiency of atomic orbital interactions is determined from the overlap (a measure of how well two orbitals constructively interact with one another) between two atomic orbitals, which is significant if the atomic orbitals are close in energy.", "Finally, the number of molecular orbitals formed must be equal to the number of atomic orbitals in the atoms being combined to form the molecule." ], [ "Qualitative discussion", "For an imprecise, but qualitatively useful, discussion of the molecular structure, the molecular orbitals can be obtained from the \"Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method\" ansatz.", "Here, the molecular orbitals are expressed as linear combinations of atomic orbitals.===Linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO)===Molecular orbitals were first introduced by Friedrich Hund and Robert S. Mulliken in 1927 and 1928.The linear combination of atomic orbitals or \"LCAO\" approximation for molecular orbitals was introduced in 1929 by Sir John Lennard-Jones.", "His ground-breaking paper showed how to derive the electronic structure of the fluorine and oxygen molecules from quantum principles.", "This qualitative approach to molecular orbital theory is part of the start of modern quantum chemistry.Linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO) can be used to estimate the molecular orbitals that are formed upon bonding between the molecule's constituent atoms.", "Similar to an atomic orbital, a Schrödinger equation, which describes the behavior of an electron, can be constructed for a molecular orbital as well.", "Linear combinations of atomic orbitals, or the sums and differences of the atomic wavefunctions, provide approximate solutions to the Hartree–Fock equations which correspond to the independent-particle approximation of the molecular Schrödinger equation.", "For simple diatomic molecules, the wavefunctions obtained are represented mathematically by the equations::where and are the molecular wavefunctions for the bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals, respectively, and are the atomic wavefunctions from atoms a and b, respectively, and and are adjustable coefficients.", "These coefficients can be positive or negative, depending on the energies and symmetries of the individual atomic orbitals.", "As the two atoms become closer together, their atomic orbitals overlap to produce areas of high electron density, and, as a consequence, molecular orbitals are formed between the two atoms.", "The atoms are held together by the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged nuclei and the negatively charged electrons occupying bonding molecular orbitals.===Bonding, antibonding, and nonbonding MOs===When atomic orbitals interact, the resulting molecular orbital can be of three types: bonding, antibonding, or nonbonding.Bonding MOs:* Bonding interactions between atomic orbitals are constructive (in-phase) interactions.", "* Bonding MOs are lower in energy than the atomic orbitals that combine to produce them.Antibonding MOs:* Antibonding interactions between atomic orbitals are destructive (out-of-phase) interactions, with a nodal plane where the wavefunction of the antibonding orbital is zero between the two interacting atoms* Antibonding MOs are higher in energy than the atomic orbitals that combine to produce them.Nonbonding MOs:* Nonbonding MOs are the result of no interaction between atomic orbitals because of lack of compatible symmetries.", "* Nonbonding MOs will have the same energy as the atomic orbitals of one of the atoms in the molecule.===Sigma and pi labels for MOs===The type of interaction between atomic orbitals can be further categorized by the molecular-orbital symmetry labels σ (sigma), π (pi), δ (delta), φ (phi), γ (gamma) etc.", "These are the Greek letters corresponding to the atomic orbitals s, p, d, f and g respectively.", "The number of nodal planes containing the internuclear axis between the atoms concerned is zero for σ MOs, one for π, two for δ, three for φ and four for γ.====σ symmetry====A MO with σ symmetry results from the interaction of either two atomic s-orbitals or two atomic pz-orbitals.", "An MO will have σ-symmetry if the orbital is symmetric with respect to the axis joining the two nuclear centers, the internuclear axis.", "This means that rotation of the MO about the internuclear axis does not result in a phase change.", "A σ* orbital, sigma antibonding orbital, also maintains the same phase when rotated about the internuclear axis.", "The σ* orbital has a nodal plane that is between the nuclei and perpendicular to the internuclear axis.====π symmetry====A MO with π symmetry results from the interaction of either two atomic px orbitals or py orbitals.", "An MO will have π symmetry if the orbital is asymmetric with respect to rotation about the internuclear axis.", "This means that rotation of the MO about the internuclear axis will result in a phase change.", "There is one nodal plane containing the internuclear axis, if real orbitals are considered.A π* orbital, pi antibonding orbital, will also produce a phase change when rotated about the internuclear axis.", "The π* orbital also has a second nodal plane between the nuclei.====δ symmetry====A MO with δ symmetry results from the interaction of two atomic dxy or dx2-y2 orbitals.", "Because these molecular orbitals involve low-energy d atomic orbitals, they are seen in transition-metal complexes.", "A δ bonding orbital has two nodal planes containing the internuclear axis, and a δ* antibonding orbital also has a third nodal plane between the nuclei.====φ symmetry====Theoretical chemists have conjectured that higher-order bonds, such as phi bonds corresponding to overlap of f atomic orbitals, are possible.", "There is no known example of a molecule purported to contain a phi bond.===Gerade and ungerade symmetry===For molecules that possess a center of inversion (centrosymmetric molecules) there are additional labels of symmetry that can be applied to molecular orbitals.Centrosymmetric molecules include:* Homonuclear diatomics, X2* Octahedral, EX6* Square planar, EX4.Non-centrosymmetric molecules include:* Heteronuclear diatomics, XY* Tetrahedral, EX4.If inversion through the center of symmetry in a molecule results in the same phases for the molecular orbital, then the MO is said to have gerade (g) symmetry, from the German word for even.If inversion through the center of symmetry in a molecule results in a phase change for the molecular orbital, then the MO is said to have ungerade (u) symmetry, from the German word for odd.For a bonding MO with σ-symmetry, the orbital is σg (s' + s is symmetric), while an antibonding MO with σ-symmetry the orbital is σu, because inversion of s' – s is antisymmetric.For a bonding MO with π-symmetry the orbital is πu because inversion through the center of symmetry for would produce a sign change (the two p atomic orbitals are in phase with each other but the two lobes have opposite signs), while an antibonding MO with π-symmetry is πg because inversion through the center of symmetry for would not produce a sign change (the two p orbitals are antisymmetric by phase).===MO diagrams===The qualitative approach of MO analysis uses a molecular orbital diagram to visualize bonding interactions in a molecule.", "In this type of diagram, the molecular orbitals are represented by horizontal lines; the higher a line the higher the energy of the orbital, and degenerate orbitals are placed on the same level with a space between them.", "Then, the electrons to be placed in the molecular orbitals are slotted in one by one, keeping in mind the Pauli exclusion principle and Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity (only 2 electrons, having opposite spins, per orbital; place as many unpaired electrons on one energy level as possible before starting to pair them).", "For more complicated molecules, the wave mechanics approach loses utility in a qualitative understanding of bonding (although is still necessary for a quantitative approach).Some properties:* A basis set of orbitals includes those atomic orbitals that are available for molecular orbital interactions, which may be bonding or antibonding* The number of molecular orbitals is equal to the number of atomic orbitals included in the linear expansion or the basis set* If the molecule has some symmetry, the degenerate atomic orbitals (with the same atomic energy) are grouped in linear combinations (called '''symmetry-adapted atomic orbitals (SO)'''), which belong to the representation of the symmetry group, so the wave functions that describe the group are known as '''symmetry-adapted linear combinations''' ('''SALC''').", "* The number of molecular orbitals belonging to one group representation is equal to the number of symmetry-adapted atomic orbitals belonging to this representation* Within a particular representation, the symmetry-adapted atomic orbitals mix more if their atomic energy levels are closer.The general procedure for constructing a molecular orbital diagram for a reasonably simple molecule can be summarized as follows:1.Assign a point group to the molecule.2.Look up the shapes of the SALCs.3.Arrange the SALCs of each molecular fragment in order of energy, noting first whether they stem from ''s'', ''p'', or ''d'' orbitals(and put them in the order ''s'' x and the py atomic orbitals result in two degenerate bonding orbitals (of low energy) and two degenerate antibonding orbitals (of high energy).====Ionic bonds====When the energy difference between the atomic orbitals of two atoms is quite large, one atom's orbitals contribute almost entirely to the bonding orbitals, and the other atom's orbitals contribute almost entirely to the antibonding orbitals.", "Thus, the situation is effectively that one or more electrons have been transferred from one atom to the other.", "This is called an (mostly) ionic bond.====Bond order====The bond order, or number of bonds, of a molecule can be determined by combining the number of electrons in bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals.", "A pair of electrons in a bonding orbital creates a bond, whereas a pair of electrons in an antibonding orbital negates a bond.", "For example, N2, with eight electrons in bonding orbitals and two electrons in antibonding orbitals, has a bond order of three, which constitutes a triple bond.Bond strength is proportional to bond order—a greater amount of bonding produces a more stable bond—and bond length is inversely proportional to it—a stronger bond is shorter.There are rare exceptions to the requirement of molecule having a positive bond order.", "Although Be2 has a bond order of 0 according to MO analysis, there is experimental evidence of a highly unstable Be2 molecule having a bond length of 245 pm and bond energy of 10 kJ/mol.====HOMO and LUMO====The highest occupied molecular orbital and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital are often referred to as the HOMO and LUMO, respectively.", "The difference of the energies of the HOMO and LUMO is called the HOMO-LUMO gap.", "This notion is often the matter of confusion in literature and should be considered with caution.", "Its value is usually located between the fundamental gap (difference between ionization potential and electron affinity) and the optical gap.", "In addition, HOMO-LUMO gap can be related to a bulk material band gap or transport gap, which is usually much smaller than fundamental gap." ], [ "Examples", "===Homonuclear diatomics===Homonuclear diatomic MOs contain equal contributions from each atomic orbital in the basis set.", "This is shown in the homonuclear diatomic MO diagrams for H2, He2, and Li2, all of which containing symmetric orbitals.====H2====Electron wavefunctions for the 1s orbital of a lone hydrogen atom (left and right) and the corresponding bonding (bottom) and antibonding (top) molecular orbitals of the H2 molecule.", "The real part of the wavefunction is the blue curve, and the imaginary part is the red curve.", "The red dots mark the locations of the nuclei.", "The electron wavefunction oscillates according to the Schrödinger wave equation, and orbitals are its standing waves.", "The standing wave frequency is proportional to the orbital's kinetic energy.", "(This plot is a one-dimensional slice through the three-dimensional system.", ")As a simple MO example, consider the electrons in a hydrogen molecule, H2 (see molecular orbital diagram), with the two atoms labelled H' and H\".", "The lowest-energy atomic orbitals, 1s' and 1s\", do not transform according to the symmetries of the molecule.", "However, the following symmetry adapted atomic orbitals do:1s' – 1s\"Antisymmetric combination: negated by reflection, unchanged by other operations1s' + 1s\"Symmetric combination: unchanged by all symmetry operationsThe symmetric combination (called a bonding orbital) is lower in energy than the basis orbitals, and the antisymmetric combination (called an antibonding orbital) is higher.", "Because the H2 molecule has two electrons, they can both go in the bonding orbital, making the system lower in energy (hence more stable) than two free hydrogen atoms.", "This is called a covalent bond.", "The bond order is equal to the number of bonding electrons minus the number of antibonding electrons, divided by 2.In this example, there are 2 electrons in the bonding orbital and none in the antibonding orbital; the bond order is 1, and there is a single bond between the two hydrogen atoms.====He2====On the other hand, consider the hypothetical molecule of He2 with the atoms labeled He' and He\".", "As with H2, the lowest energy atomic orbitals are the 1s' and 1s\", and do not transform according to the symmetries of the molecule, while the symmetry adapted atomic orbitals do.", "The symmetric combination—the bonding orbital—is lower in energy than the basis orbitals, and the antisymmetric combination—the antibonding orbital—is higher.", "Unlike H2, with two valence electrons, He2 has four in its neutral ground state.", "Two electrons fill the lower-energy bonding orbital, σg(1s), while the remaining two fill the higher-energy antibonding orbital, σu*(1s).", "Thus, the resulting electron density around the molecule does not support the formation of a bond between the two atoms; without a stable bond holding the atoms together, the molecule would not be expected to exist.", "Another way of looking at it is that there are two bonding electrons and two antibonding electrons; therefore, the bond order is 0 and no bond exists (the molecule has one bound state supported by the Van der Waals potential).====Li2====Dilithium Li2 is formed from the overlap of the 1s and 2s atomic orbitals (the basis set) of two Li atoms.", "Each Li atom contributes three electrons for bonding interactions, and the six electrons fill the three MOs of lowest energy, σg(1s), σu*(1s), and σg(2s).", "Using the equation for bond order, it is found that dilithium has a bond order of one, a single bond.====Noble gases====Considering a hypothetical molecule of He2, since the basis set of atomic orbitals is the same as in the case of H2, we find that both the bonding and antibonding orbitals are filled, so there is no energy advantage to the pair.", "HeH would have a slight energy advantage, but not as much as H2 + 2 He, so the molecule is very unstable and exists only briefly before decomposing into hydrogen and helium.", "In general, we find that atoms such as He that have full energy shells rarely bond with other atoms.", "Except for short-lived Van der Waals complexes, there are very few noble gas compounds known.===Heteronuclear diatomics===While MOs for homonuclear diatomic molecules contain equal contributions from each interacting atomic orbital, MOs for heteronuclear diatomics contain different atomic orbital contributions.", "Orbital interactions to produce bonding or antibonding orbitals in heteronuclear diatomics occur if there is sufficient overlap between atomic orbitals as determined by their symmetries and similarity in orbital energies.====HF====In hydrogen fluoride HF overlap between the H 1s and F 2s orbitals is allowed by symmetry but the difference in energy between the two atomic orbitals prevents them from interacting to create a molecular orbital.", "Overlap between the H 1s and F 2pz orbitals is also symmetry allowed, and these two atomic orbitals have a small energy separation.", "Thus, they interact, leading to creation of σ and σ* MOs and a molecule with a bond order of 1.Since HF is a non-centrosymmetric molecule, the symmetry labels g and u do not apply to its molecular orbitals." ], [ "Quantitative approach", "To obtain quantitative values for the molecular energy levels, one needs to have molecular orbitals that are such that the configuration interaction (CI) expansion converges fast towards the full CI limit.", "The most common method to obtain such functions is the Hartree–Fock method, which expresses the molecular orbitals as eigenfunctions of the Fock operator.", "One usually solves this problem by expanding the molecular orbitals as linear combinations of Gaussian functions centered on the atomic nuclei (see linear combination of atomic orbitals and basis set (chemistry)).", "The equation for the coefficients of these linear combinations is a generalized eigenvalue equation known as the Roothaan equations, which are in fact a particular representation of the Hartree–Fock equation.", "There are a number of programs in which quantum chemical calculations of MOs can be performed, including Spartan.Simple accounts often suggest that experimental molecular orbital energies can be obtained by the methods of ultra-violet photoelectron spectroscopy for valence orbitals and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy for core orbitals.", "This, however, is incorrect as these experiments measure the ionization energy, the difference in energy between the molecule and one of the ions resulting from the removal of one electron.", "Ionization energies are linked approximately to orbital energies by Koopmans' theorem.", "While the agreement between these two values can be close for some molecules, it can be very poor in other cases." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Systems Concepts" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Systems Concepts, Inc.''' (now the '''SC Group'''), was a company co-founded by Stewart Nelson and Mike Levitt focused on making hardware products related to the DEC PDP-10 series of computers.", "One of its major products was the SA-10, an interface which allowed PDP-10s to be connected to disk and tape drives designed for use with the channel interfaces of IBM mainframes.Later, Systems Concepts attempted to produce a compatible replacement for the DEC PDP-10 computers.", "\"Mars\" was the code name for a family of PDP-10-compatible computers built by Systems Concepts, including the initial SC-30M, the smaller SC-25, and the slower SC-20.These machines were marvels of engineering design; although not much slower than the unique Foonly F-1, they were physically smaller and consumed less power than the much slower DEC KS10 or Foonly F-2, F-3, or F-4 machines.", "They were also completely compatible with the DEC KL10, and ran all KL10 binaries (including the operating system) with no modifications at about 2-3 times faster than a KL10.When DEC cancelled the Jupiter project in 1983, Systems Concepts hoped to sell their machine to customers with a software investment in PDP-10s.", "Their spring 1984 announcement generated excitement in the PDP-10 world.", "TOPS-10 was running on the Mars by the summer of 1984, and TOPS-20 by early fall.", "However, people at Systems Concepts were better at designing machines than at mass-producing or selling them; the company continually improved the design, but lost credibility as delivery dates continued to slip.", "They also overpriced; believing they were competing with the KL10 and VAX 8600 and not startups such as Sun Microsystems building workstations with comparable power at a fraction of the price.", "By the time SC shipped the first SC-30M to Stanford University in late 1985, most customers had already abandoned the PDP-10, usually for VMS or Unix systems.", "Nevertheless, a number were purchased by CompuServe, which depended on PDP-10s to run its online service and was eager to move to newer but fully compatible systems.", "CompuServe's demand for the computers outpaced Systems Concepts' ability to produce them, so CompuServe licensed the design and built SC-designed computers itself.Other companies that purchased the SC-30 machines included Telmar, Reynolds and Reynolds, The Danish National Railway.Peter Samson was director of marketing and program development.SC later designed the SC-40, released in 1993, a faster follow-on to the SC-30M and SC-25.It can perform up to 8 times as fast as a DEC KL-10, and it also supports more physical memory, a larger virtual address space, and more modern input/output devices.", "These systems were also used at CompuServe.In 1985, the company contracted to engineer and produce a PC-based cellular automata system for Tommaso Toffoli of MIT, called the CAM-6.The CAM-6 was a 2-card \"sandwich\" that plugged into an IBM PC slot and ran cellular automata rules at a 60 Hz update rate.", "Toffoli provided Forth-based software to operate the card.", "The production problems that plagued the company's computer products were demonstrated here as well, and only a few boards were produced.Systems Concepts remained in business, having changed its name to the SC Group when it moved from California to Nevada." ], [ "See also", "Other companies that produced PDP-10 compatible computers:* Foonly* XKL" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Messiah" ], [ "Introduction", "Samuel anoints David, Dura Europos, Syria.", "Date: 3rd century CE.In Abrahamic religions, a '''messiah''' or '''messias''' (; ,; ,; ) is a saviour or liberator of a group of people.", "The concepts of ''mashiach'', messianism, and of a Messianic Age originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible, in which a ''mashiach'' is a king or High Priest traditionally anointed with holy anointing oil.", "''Ha-mashiach'' (), often referred to as '''' (), is to be a Jewish leader, physically descended from the paternal Davidic line through King David and King Solomon.", "He is thought to accomplish predetermined things in a future arrival, including the unification of the tribes of Israel, the gathering of all Jews to ''Eretz Israel'', the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem, the ushering in of a Messianic Age of global universal peace, and the annunciation of the world to come.The Greek translation of Messiah is ''Khristós'' (), anglicized as ''Christ''.", "It occurs 41 times in the Septuagint and 529 times in the New Testament.", "Christians commonly refer to Jesus of Nazareth as either the \"Christ\" or the \"Messiah\", believing that the messianic prophecies were fulfilled in the mission, death, and resurrection of Jesus and that he will return to fulfill the rest of messianic prophecies.", "Moreover, unlike the Judaic concept of the Messiah, Jesus Christ is additionally considered by Christians to be the Son of God.In Islam, Jesus () is held to have been a prophet and the Messiah sent to the Israelites, who will return to Earth at the end of times along with the ''Mahdi'', and defeat ''al-Masih ad-Dajjal'', the false Messiah.", "In Ahmadiyya theology, these prophecies concerning the Mahdi and the second coming of Jesus are believed to have been fulfilled in Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908), the founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement, wherein the terms ''Messiah'' and ''Mahdi'' are synonyms for one and the same person.In controversial Chabad messianism, Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn (r. 1920–1950), sixth ''Rebbe'' (spiritual leader) of Chabad Lubavitch, and Menachem Mendel Schneerson (1902–1994), seventh ''Rebbe'' of Chabad, are Messiah claimants." ], [ "Etymology", "Messiah (Hebrew: , or , ''mashiach''; ; , ; ) literally means 'anointed one'.In Hebrew, the Messiah is often referred to as '''' (; Tiberian: '''', ), literally meaning 'the Anointed King'.", "The Greek Septuagint version of the Old Testament renders all 39 instances of the Hebrew ''mašíaḥ'' as ''Khristós'' ().", "The New Testament records the Greek transliteration ''Messias'' () twice in John.", "(, , lit.", "'the anointed', 'the traveller', or 'one who cures by caressing') is the Arabic word for messiah used by both Arab Christians and Muslims.", "In modern Arabic, it is used as one of the many titles of Jesus, referred to as () by Arab Christians and () by Muslims." ], [ "Judaism", "The literal translation of the Hebrew word ''mashiach'' (, messiah), is 'anointed', which refers to a ritual of consecrating someone or something by putting holy oil upon it.", "It is used throughout the Hebrew Bible in reference to a wide variety of individuals and objects; for example, kings, priests and prophets, the altar in the Temple, vessels, unleavened bread, and even a non-Jewish king (Cyrus the Great).In Jewish eschatology, the term came to refer to a future Jewish king from the Davidic line, who will be \"anointed\" with holy anointing oil, to be king of God's kingdom, and rule the Jewish people during the Messianic Age.", "In Judaism, the Messiah is not considered to be God or a pre-existent divine Son of God.", "He is considered to be a great political leader that has descended from King David, hence why he is referred to as ''Messiah ben David'', 'Messiah, son of David'.", "In Judaism, the messiah is considered to be a great, charismatic leader that is well oriented with the laws that are followed in Judaism.Though originally a fringe idea, somewhat controversially, belief in the eventual coming of a future messiah is a fundamental part of Judaism, and is one of Maimonides' 13 Principles of Faith.", "Maimonides describes the identity of the Messiah in the following terms:Even though the eventual coming of the messiah is a strongly upheld belief in Judaism, trying to predict the actual time when the messiah will come is an act that is frowned upon.", "These kinds of actions are thought to weaken the faith the people have in the religion.", "So in Judaism, there is no specific time when the messiah comes.", "Rather, it is the acts of the people that determines when the messiah comes.", "It is said that the messiah would come either when the world needs his coming the most (when the world is so sinful and in desperate need of saving by the messiah) or deserves it the most (when genuine goodness prevails in the world).A common modern rabbinic interpretation is that there is a ''potential'' messiah in every generation.", "The Talmud, which often uses stories to make a moral point (''aggadah''), tells of a highly respected rabbi who found the Messiah at the gates of Rome and asked him, \"When will you finally come?\"", "He was quite surprised when he was told, \"Today.\"", "Overjoyed and full of anticipation, the man waited all day.", "The next day he returned, disappointed and puzzled, and asked, \"You said messiah would come 'today' but he didn't come!", "What happened?\"", "The Messiah replied, \"Scripture says, 'Today, if you will but hearken to his voice.", "'\"A Kabbalistic tradition within Judaism is that the commonly discussed messiah who will usher in a period of freedom and peace, Messiah ben David, will be preceded by Messiah ben Joseph, who will gather the children of Israel around him, leading them to Jerusalem.", "After overcoming the hostile powers in Jerusalem, Messiah ben Joseph, will reestablish the Temple-worship and set up his own dominion.", "Then Armilus, according to one group of sources, or Gog and Magog, according to the other, will appear with their hosts before Jerusalem, wage war against Messiah ben Joseph, and slay him.", "His corpse, according to one group, will lie unburied in the streets of Jerusalem; according to the other, it will be hidden by the angels with the bodies of the Patriarchs, until Messiah ben David comes and brings him back to life.=== Chabad ===Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn (r. 1920–1950), sixth ''Rebbe'' (hereditary chassidic leader) of Chabad Lubavitch, and Menachem Mendel Schneerson (1902–1994), seventh ''Rebbe'' of Chabad, are messiah claimants.As per Chabad-Lubavitch messianism, Menachem Mendel Schneerson openly declared his deceased father-in-law, the former 6th ''Rebbe'' of Chabad Lubavitch, to be the Messiah.", "He published about Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn to be ''\"Atzmus u'mehus alein vi er hat zich areingeshtalt in a guf\"'' (Yiddish and English for: \"Essence and Existence of God which has placed itself in a body\").", "The gravesite of his deceased father-in-law Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn, known as \"the ''Ohel''\", became a central point of focus for Menachem Mendel Schneerson's prayers and supplications.Regarding the deceased Menachem Mendel Schneerson, a later Chabad Halachic ruling claims that it was \"incumbent on every single Jew to heed the Rebbe's words and believe that he is indeed King Moshiach, who will be revealed imminently\".", "Outside of Chabad messianism, in Judaism, there is no basis to these claims.", "If anything, this resembles the faith in the resurrection of Jesus and his second coming in early Christianity, and therefore, heretical in Judaism.Still today, the deceased rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson is believed to be the Messiah among adherents of the Chabad movement, and his second coming is believed to be imminent.", "He is venerated and invocated to by thousands of visitors and letters each year at the (''Ohel''), especially in a pilgrimage each year on the anniversary of his death." ], [ "Christianity", "''The Last Judgment'', by Jean Cousin the Younger ()Originating from the concept in Judaism, the messiah in Christianity is called the Christ—from Greek ''khristós'' (), translating the Hebrew word of the same meaning.", "'Christ' became the accepted Christian designation and title of Jesus of Nazareth, as Christians believe that the messianic prophecies in the Old Testament—that he is descended from the Davidic line, and was declared King of the Jews—were fulfilled in his mission, death, and resurrection, while the rest of the prophecies—that he will usher in a Messianic Age and the world to come—will be fulfilled at his Second Coming.", "Some Christian denominations, such as Catholicism, instead believe in amillenialist theology, but the Catholic Church has not adopted this term.The majority of historical and mainline Christian theologies consider Jesus to be the Son of God and God the Son, a concept of the messiah fundamentally different from the Jewish and Islamic concepts.", "In each of the four New Testament Gospels, the only literal anointing of Jesus is conducted by a woman.", "In the Gospels of Mark, Matthew, and John, this anointing occurs in Bethany, outside Jerusalem.", "In the Gospel of Luke, the anointing scene takes place at an indeterminate location, but the context suggests it to be in Galilee, or even a separate anointing altogether.Aside from Jesus, the Book of Isaiah refers to Cyrus the Great, king of the Achaemenid Empire, as a messiah for his decree to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple." ], [ "Islam", "Timeline of Jesus in Islamic EschatologyThe Islamic faith uses the Arabic term (, ) to refer to Jesus.", "However the meaning is different from that found in Christianity and Judaism:Though Islam shares many of the beliefs and characteristics of the two Semitic/Abrahamic/monotheistic religions which preceded it, the idea of messianism, which is of central importance in Judaism and Christianity, is alien to Islam as represented by the Qur'an.Unlike the Christian view of the Death of Jesus, most Muslims believe Jesus was raised to Heaven without being put on the cross and God created a resemblance to appear exactly like Jesus who was crucified instead of Jesus, and he ascended bodily to Heaven, there to remain until his Second Coming in the End days.The Quran states that Jesus (''Isa''), the son of Maryam (''Isa ibn Maryam''), is the messiah (''al-masih'') and prophet sent to the Children of Israel.", "According to Qadi al-Nu'man, a famous Muslim jurist of the Fatimid period, the Quran identifies Jesus as the messiah because he was sent to the people who responded to him in order to remove (''masaha'') their impurities, the ailments of their faith, whether apparent () or hidden ().Jesus is one of the most important prophets in the Islamic tradition, along with Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Muhammad.", "Unlike Christians, Muslims see Jesus as a prophet, but not as God himself or the son of God.", "This is because prophecy in human form does not represent the true powers of God, contrary to the popular depiction of Jesus in Christianity.", "Thus, like all other Islamic prophets, Jesus is one of the grand prophets who receives revelations from God.", "According to religious scholar Mona Siddiqui, in Islam, \"prophecy allows God to remain veiled and there is no suggestion in the Qur'an that God wishes to reveal of himself just yet.", "Prophets guarantee interpretation of revelation and that God's message will be understood.\"", "In Sura 19, the Quran describes the birth of Isa, and sura 4 explicitly states Isa as the Son of Maryam.", "Sunni Muslims believe Isa is alive in Heaven and did not die in the crucifixion.", "Sura 4, verses 157–158, also states that:According to religious scholar Mahmoud Ayoub, \"Jesus' close proximity or nearness (qurb) to God is affirmed in the Qur'anic insistence that Jesus did not die, but was taken up to God and remains with God.", "\"While the Quran does not state that he will come back, Islamic tradition nevertheless believes that Jesus will return at the end of times, shortly preceding ''Mahdi'', and exercise his power of healing.", "He will forever destroy the falsehood embodied in ''al-Masih ad-Dajjal'' (the false Messiah), the great falsifier, a figure similar to the Antichrist in Christianity, who will emerge shortly before ''Yawm al-Qiyāmah'' ('the Day of Resurrection').", "After he has destroyed ad-Dajjal, his final task will be to become leader of the Muslims.", "Isa will unify the Muslim ''Ummah'' (the followers of Islam) under the common purpose of worshipping God alone in pure Islam, thereby ending divisions and deviations by adherents.", "Mainstream Muslims believe that at that time, Isa will dispel Christian and Jewish claims about him.A ''hadith'' in Abu Dawud says:Both Sunni and Shia Muslims agree that al-Mahdi will arrive first, and after him, Isa.", "Isa will proclaim al-Mahdi as the Islamic community leader.", "A war will be fought—the Dajjal against al-Mahdi and Isa.", "This war will mark the approach of the coming of the Last Day.", "After Isa slays al-Dajjāl at the Gate of Lud, he will bear witness and reveal that Islam is indeed the true and last word from God to humanity as Yusuf Ali's translation reads: A ''hadith'' in Sahih Bukhari says:The Quran denies the crucifixion of Jesus, claiming that he was neither killed nor crucified.", "The Quran also emphasizes the difference between God and the Messiah:Those who say that Allah is the Messiah, son of Mary, are unbelievers.", "The Messiah said: \"O Children of Israel, worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord... unbelievers too are those who have said that Allah is the third of three... the Messiah, son of Mary, was only a Messenger before whom other Messengers had gone.===Shia Islam===The Twelver branch of Shia (or Shi'i) Islam, which significantly values and revolves around the Twelve Imams (spiritual leaders), differs significantly from the beliefs of Sunni Islam.", "Unlike Sunni Islam, \"Messianism is an essential part of religious belief and practice for almost all Shi'a Muslims.\"", "Shi'i Islam believes that the last Imam will return again, with the return of Jesus.", "According to religious scholar Mona Siddiqui, \"Shi'is are acutely aware of the existence everywhere of the twelfth Imam, who disappeared in 874.\"", "Shi'i piety teaches that the hidden Imam will return with Jesus Christ to set up the messianic kingdom before the final Judgement Day, when all humanity will stand before God.", "There is some controversy as to the identity of this imam.", "There are sources that underscore how the Shia sect agrees with the Jews and Christians that Imam Mehdi (''al-Mahdi'') is another name for Elijah, whose return prior to the arrival of the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament.The Imams and Fatima will have a direct impact on the judgements rendered that day, representing the ultimate intercession.", "There is debate on whether Shi'i Muslims should accept the death of Jesus.", "Religious scholar Mahmoud Ayoub argues \"Modern Shi'i thinkers have allowed the possibility that Jesus died and only his spirit was taken up to heaven.\"", "Conversely, Siddiqui argues that Shi'i thinkers believe Jesus was \"neither crucified nor slain.\"", "She also argues that Shi'i Muslims believe that the twelfth imam did not die, but \"was taken to God to return in God's time,\" and \"will return at the end of history to establish the kingdom of God on earth as the expected Mahdi.", "\"===Ahmadiyya===Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam, considered by Ahmadis to be the Promised Messiah of the latter days.In the theology of Ahmadiyya, the terms ''Messiah'' and ''Mahdi'' are synonymous terms for one and the same person.", "The term ''Mahdi'' means 'guided by God', thus implying a direct ordainment by God of a divinely chosen individual.", "According to Ahmadi thought, Messiahship is a phenomenon through which a special emphasis is given on the transformation of a people by way of offering to suffer for the sake of God instead of giving suffering (i.e.", "refraining from revenge).", "Ahmadis believe that this special emphasis was given through the person of Jesus and Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908) among others.Ahmadis hold that the prophesied eschatological figures of Christianity and Islam, the Messiah and Mahdi, were, in fact, to be fulfilled in one person who was to represent all previous prophets.Numerous hadith are presented by the Ahmadis in support of their view, such as one from Sunan Ibn Majah, which says, \"There is No Mahdi other than Jesus son of Mary.", "\"Ahmadis believe that the prophecies concerning the Mahdi and the second coming of Jesus have been fulfilled in Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908), the founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement.", "Unlike mainstream Muslims, the Ahmadis do not believe that Jesus is alive in heaven, but that he survived the crucifixion and migrated towards the east where he died a natural death and that Ghulam Ahmad was only the promised spiritual second coming and likeness of Jesus, the promised Messiah and Mahdi.", "He also claimed to have appeared in the likeness of Krishna and that his advent fulfilled certain prophecies found in Hindu scriptures.", "He stated that the founder of Sikhism was a Muslim saint, who was a reflection of the religious challenges he perceived to be occurring.", "Ghulam Ahmad wrote ''Barahin-e-Ahmadiyya'', in 1880, which incorporated Indian, Sufi, Islamic and Western aspects in order to give life to Islam in the face of the British Raj, Protestant Christianity, and rising Hinduism.", "He later declared himself the Promised Messiah and the Mahdi following Divine revelations in 1891.Ghulam Ahmad argued that Jesus had appeared 1300 years after the formation of the Muslim community and stressed the need for a current Messiah, in turn claiming that he himself embodied both the Mahdi and the Messiah.", "Ghulam Ahmad was supported by Muslims who especially felt oppressed by Christian and Hindu missionaries." ], [ "Druze faith", "The Druze maqam of Al-masih (Jesus) in As-Suwayda GovernorateIn the Druze faith, Jesus is considered the Messiah and one of God's important prophets, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.", "According to the Druze manuscripts Jesus is the Greatest Imam and the incarnation of Ultimate Reason (Akl) on earth and the first cosmic principle (Hadd), and regards Jesus and Hamza ibn Ali as the incarnations of one of the five great celestial powers, who form part of their system.", "Druze doctrines include the beliefs that Jesus was born of a virgin named Mary, performed miracles, and died by crucifixion.", "In the Druze tradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (''al-Masih al-Haq''), the Messiah of all Nations (''Masih al-Umam''), and the Messiah of Sinners.", "This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness.Druze believe that Hamza ibn Ali was a reincarnation of Jesus, and that Hamza ibn Ali is the true Messiah, who directed the deeds of the messiah Jesus \"the son of Joseph and Mary\", but when messiah Jesus \"the son of Joseph and Mary\" strayed from the path of the true Messiah, Hamza filled the hearts of the Jews with hatred for him - and for that reason, they crucified him, according to the Druze manuscripts.", "Despite this, Hamza ibn Ali took him down from the cross and allowed him to return to his family, in order to prepare men for the preaching of his religion." ], [ "Other religions", "* In Buddhism, Maitreya is considered to the next Buddha (awakened one) that is promised to come.", "He is expected to come to renew the laws of Buddhism once the teaching of Gautama Buddha has completely decayed.", "* In the Bahá’í Faith, Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, is believed to be “He whom God will make manifest\" prophesied of in Bábism.", "He claimed to be the Messiah figure of previous religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and Hinduism).", "He also taught that additional Messiahs, or “Manifestations of God”, will appear in the distant future, but the next one would not appear until after the lapse of “a full thousand years”.", "* Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia is believed to be the Messiah by followers of the Rastafari movement.", "This idea further supports the belief that God himself is black, which they (followers of the Rastafarian movement) try to further strengthen by a verse from the Bible.", "Even if the Emperor denied being the messiah, the followers of the Rastafari movement believe that he is a messenger from God.", "To justify this, Rastafarians used reasons such as Emperor Haile Selassie's bloodline, which is assumed to come from King Solomon of Israel, and the various titles given to him, which include Lord of Lords, King of Kings and Conquering Lion of the tribe of Judah.", "*In Kebatinan (Javanese religious tradition), Satrio Piningit is a character in Jayabaya's prophecies who is destined to become a great leader of Nusantara and to rule the world from Java.", "In ''Serat Pararaton'', King Jayabaya of Kediri foretold that before the coming of Satrio Piningit, there would be flash floods and that volcanoes would erupt without warning.", "Satrio Piningit is a Krishna-like figure known as ''Ratu Adil'' (Indonesian: 'Just King, King of Justice') and his weapon is a trishula.", "*In Zoroastrianism there are three messiah figures who each progressively bring about the final renovation of the world, the Frashokereti and all of these three figures are called Saoshyant.", "*In Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches, the messiah is Aradia, daughter of the goddess Diana, who comes to Earth in order to establish the practice of witchcraft before returning to Heaven." ], [ "Popular culture", "===In films===* ''Dune Messiah'', a 1969 novel by Frank Herbert, second in his ''Dune'' trilogy, also part of a miniseries, one of the widest-selling works of fiction in the 1960s.", "* ''The Messiah'', a 2007 Persian film depicting the life of Jesus from an Islamic perspective* ''The Young Messiah'', a 2016 American film depicting the childhood life of Jesus from a Christian perspective* ''Messiah'', a 2020 American TV series.===In sports===* Argentine football player Lionel Messi is often being compared as a \"''Messiah''\", a word play from his name, which is used to describe the moments Messi become a saviour for his teams.", "Messi is considered the \"son\" (successor) of Diego Maradona, who was given the nickname \"''Dios''\" (\"God\", sometimes stylized as \"''D10S''\" in reference to Maradona's iconic shirt number) after the 1986 \"hand of God\" incident." ], [ "See also", "* Kalki, a figure in Hindu eschatology* Li Hong, a figure in Taoist eschatology* List of messiah claimants** Jewish Messiah claimants** List of people claimed to be Jesus** List of Mahdi claimants* Messiah complex* Prophets in Judaism * Saoshyant, a figure in Zoroastrianism who brings about the final renovation of the world* Soter* Year 6000* Mab Darogan, a messianic figure of Welsh legend, destined to force the Germanic Anglo-Saxons and Vikings out of Britain and reclaim it for its Celtic Briton inhabitants." ], [ "References", "=== Footnotes ====== Citations ===" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aryeh Kaplan, ''From Messiah to Christ'', New York: Orthodox Union, 2004.", "* Joseph Klausner, ''The Messianic Idea in Israel from Its Beginning to the Completion of the Mishnah'', London: George Allen & Unwin, 1956.", "* Jacob Neusner, William S. Green, Ernst Frerichs, ''Judaisms and their Messiahs at the Turn of the Christian Era'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987." ], [ "External links", "* Messiah in Jewish Virtual Library* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Margaret Mead" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Margaret Mead''' (December 16, 1901 – November 15, 1978) was an American cultural anthropologist who featured frequently as an author and speaker in the mass media during the 1960s and the 1970s.She earned her bachelor's degree at Barnard College of Columbia University and her M.A.", "and Ph.D. degrees from Columbia.", "Mead served as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1975.Mead was a communicator of anthropology in modern American and Western culture and was often controversial as an academic.", "Her reports detailing the attitudes towards sex in South Pacific and Southeast Asian traditional cultures influenced the 1960s sexual revolution.", "She was a proponent of broadening sexual conventions within the context of Western cultural traditions." ], [ "Early life and education", "Margaret Mead, the first of five children, was born in Philadelphia but raised in nearby Doylestown, Pennsylvania.", "Her father, Edward Sherwood Mead, was a professor of finance at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, and her mother, Emily (née Fogg) Mead, was a sociologist who studied Italian immigrants.", "Her sister Katharine (1906–1907) died at the age of nine months.", "That was a traumatic event for Mead, who had named the girl, and thoughts of her lost sister permeated her daydreams for many years.", "Her family moved frequently and so her early education was directed by her grandmother until, at age 11, she was enrolled by her family at Buckingham Friends School in Lahaska, Pennsylvania.", "Her family owned the Longland farm from 1912 to 1926.Born into a family of various religious outlooks, she searched for a form of religion that gave an expression of the faith with which she had been formally acquainted, Christianity.", "In doing so, she found the rituals of the United States Episcopal Church to fit the expression of religion she was seeking.", "Mead studied one year, 1919, at DePauw University, then transferred to Barnard College.Mead earned her bachelor's degree from Barnard in 1923, began studying with professors Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict at Columbia University, and earned her master's degree in 1924.Mead set out in 1925 to do fieldwork in Samoa.", "In 1926, she joined the American Museum of Natural History, New York City, as assistant curator.", "She received her Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1929." ], [ "Personal life", "Dr Margaret Mead, Australia, September 1951Mead was married three times.", "After a six-year engagement, she married her first husband (1923–1928), Luther Cressman, an American theology student who later became an anthropologist.", "Before departing for Samoa in 1925, Mead had a short affair with the linguist Edward Sapir, a close friend of her instructor Ruth Benedict.", "However, Sapir's conservative stances about marriage and women's roles were unacceptable to Mead, and as Mead left to do field work in Samoa, they separated permanently.", "Mead received news of Sapir's remarriage while she was living in Samoa.", "There, she later burned their correspondence on a beach.", "Between 1925 and 1926, she was in Samoa from where on the return boat she met Reo Fortune, a New Zealander headed to Cambridge, England, to study psychology.", "They were married in 1928, after Mead's divorce from Cressman.", "Mead dismissively characterized her union with her first husband as \"my student marriage\" in her 1972 autobiography ''Blackberry Winter'', a sobriquet with which Cressman took vigorous issue.", "Mead's third and longest-lasting marriage (1936–1950) was to the British anthropologist Gregory Bateson with whom she had a daughter, Mary Catherine Bateson, who would also become an anthropologist.", "She readily acknowledged that Bateson was the husband she loved the most.", "She was devastated when he left her and remained his loving friend ever afterward.", "She kept his photograph by her bedside wherever she traveled, including beside her hospital deathbed.", "Mead's pediatrician was Benjamin Spock, whose subsequent writings on child rearing incorporated some of Mead's own practices and beliefs acquired from her ethnological field observations which she shared with him; in particular, breastfeeding on the baby's demand, rather than by a schedule.", "Margaret Mead (1972)Mead also had an exceptionally close relationship with Ruth Benedict, one of her instructors.", "In her memoir about her parents, ''With a Daughter's Eye'', Mary Catherine Bateson strongly implies that the relationship between Benedict and Mead was partly sexual.", "Mead never openly identified herself as lesbian or bisexual.", "In her writings, she proposed that it is to be expected that an individual's sexual orientation may evolve throughout life.She spent her last years in a close personal and professional collaboration with the anthropologist Rhoda Metraux with whom she lived from 1955 until her death in 1978.Letters between the two published in 2006 with the permission of Mead's daughter clearly express a romantic relationship.Mead had two sisters and a brother, Elizabeth, Priscilla, and Richard.", "Elizabeth Mead (1909–1983), an artist and teacher, married the cartoonist William Steig, and Priscilla Mead (1911–1959) married the author Leo Rosten.", "Mead's brother, Richard, was a professor.", "Mead was also the aunt of Jeremy Steig." ], [ "Career and later life", "Mead at New York Academy of Sciences, 1968During World War II, Mead was executive secretary of the National Research Council's Committee on Food Habits.", "She was curator of ethnology at the American Museum of Natural History from 1946 to 1969.She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1948, the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1975, and the American Philosophical Society in 1977.She taught at The New School and Columbia University, where she was an adjunct professor from 1954 to 1978 and a professor of anthropology and chair of the Division of Social Sciences at Fordham University's Lincoln Center campus from 1968 to 1970, founding their anthropology department.", "In 1970, she joined the faculty of the University of Rhode Island as a Distinguished Professor of Sociology and Anthropology.Following Ruth Benedict's example, Mead focused her research on problems of child rearing, personality, and culture.", "She served as president of the Society for Applied Anthropology in 1950 and of the American Anthropological Association in 1960.In the mid-1960s, Mead joined forces with the communications theorist Rudolf Modley in jointly establishing an organization called Glyphs Inc., whose goal was to create a universal graphic symbol language to be understood by any members of culture, no matter how \"primitive.\"", "In the 1960s, Mead served as the Vice President of the New York Academy of Sciences.", "She held various positions in the American Association for the Advancement of Science, notably president in 1975 and chair of the executive committee of the board of directors in 1976.She was a recognizable figure in academia and usually wore a distinctive cape and carried a walking stick.Mead was a key participant in the Macy conferences on cybernetics and an editor of their proceedings.", "Mead's address to the inaugural conference of the American Society for Cybernetics was instrumental in the development of second-order cybernetics.Mead was featured on two record albums published by Folkways Records.", "The first, released in 1959, ''An Interview With Margaret Mead'', explored the topics of morals and anthropology.", "In 1971, she was included in a compilation of talks by prominent women, ''But the Women Rose, Vol.", "2: Voices of Women in American History''.She is credited with the pluralization of the term \"semiotics\".In later life, Mead was a mentor to many young anthropologists and sociologists, including Jean Houston, author Gail Sheehy, John Langston Gwaltney, Roger Sandall, filmmaker Timothy Asch, and anthropologist Susan C. Scrimshaw, who later received the 1985 Margaret Mead Award for her research on cultural factors affecting public health delivery.In 1976, Mead was a key participant at UN Habitat I, the first UN forum on human settlements.Mead died of pancreatic cancer on November 15, 1978, and is buried at Trinity Episcopal Church Cemetery, Buckingham, Pennsylvania." ], [ "Work", "===''Coming of Age in Samoa'' (1928)===Samoan girl, 1896Mead's first ethnographic work described the life of Samoan girls and women on the island of Tau in the Manu'a Archipelago in 1926.The book includes analyses of how children were raised and educated, sex relations, dance, development of personality, conflict, and how women matured into old age.", "Mead explicitly sought to contrast adolescence in Samoa with that in America, which she characterized as difficult, constrained, and awkward.", "In the foreword to ''Coming of Age in Samoa'', Mead's advisor, Franz Boas, wrote of the book's significance:Courtesy, modesty, good manners, conformity to definite ethical standards are universal, but what constitutes courtesy, modesty, very good manners, and definite ethical standards is not universal.", "It is instructive to know that standards differ in the most unexpected ways.In this way, the book tackled the question of nature versus nurture, whether adolescence and its associated developments were a difficult biological transition for all humans or whether they were cultural processes shaped in particular societies.", "Mead believed childhood, adolescence, gender, and sex relations were largely driven by cultural practices and expressions.Mead's findings suggested that the community ignores both boys and girls until they are about 15 or 16.Before then, children have little social standing within the community.", "Mead also found that marriage is regarded as a social and economic arrangement in which wealth, rank, and job skills of the husband and wife are taken into consideration.", "Aside from marriage, Mead identified two types of sex relations: love affairs and adultery.", "The exceptions to these practices include women married to chiefs and young women who hold the title of taupo, a ceremonial princess, whose virginity was required.", "Mead described Samoan youth as often having free, experimental, and open sexual relationships, including homosexual relationships, which was at odds with mainstream American norms around sexuality.In 1970, National Educational Television produced a documentary in commemoration of the 40th anniversary Mead's first expedition to New Guinea.", "Through the eyes of Mead on her final visit to the village of Peri, the film records how the role of the anthropologist has changed in the forty years since 1928.Mead, 1950====Criticism by Derek Freeman====After her death, Mead's Samoan research was criticized by the anthropologist Derek Freeman, who published a book arguing against many of Mead's conclusions in ''Coming of Age in Samoa''.", "Freeman argued that Mead had misunderstood Samoan culture when she argued that Samoan culture did not place many restrictions on youths' sexual explorations.", "Freeman argued instead that Samoan culture prized female chastity and virginity and that Mead had been misled by her female Samoan informants.", "Freeman found that the Samoan islanders whom Mead had depicted in such utopian terms were intensely competitive and had murder and rape rates higher than those in the United States.", "Furthermore, the men were intensely sexually jealous, which contrasted sharply with Mead's depiction of \"free love\" among the Samoans.Freeman's book was controversial in its turn and was met with considerable backlash and harsh criticism from the anthropology community, but it was received enthusiastically by communities of scientists who believed that sexual mores were more or less universal across cultures.", "Later in 1983, a special session of Mead's supporters in the American Anthropological Association (to which Freeman was not invited) declared it to be \"poorly written, unscientific, irresponsible and misleading.\"", "Some anthropologists who studied Samoan culture argued in favor of Freeman's findings and contradicted those of Mead, but others argued that Freeman's work did not invalidate Mead's work because Samoan culture had been changed by the integration of Christianity in the decades between Mead's and Freeman's fieldwork periods.Eleanor Leacock traveled to Samoa in 1985 and undertook research among the youth living in urban areas.", "The research results indicate that the assertions of Derek Freeman were seriously flawed.", "Leacock pointed out that Mead's famous Samoan fieldwork was undertaken on an outer island that had not been colonialized.", "While Freeman had undertaken fieldwork in an urban slum plagued by drug abuse, structural unemployment, and gang violence.Mead was careful to shield the identity of all her subjects for confidentiality, but Freeman found and interviewed one of her original participants, and Freeman reported that she admitted to having willfully misled Mead.", "She said that she and her friends were having fun with Mead and telling her stories.In 1996, the author Martin Orans examined Mead's notes preserved at the Library of Congress and credits her for leaving all of her recorded data available to the general public.", "Orans points out that Freeman's basic criticisms, that Mead was duped by ceremonial virgin Fa'apua'a Fa'amu, who later swore to Freeman that she had played a joke on Mead, were equivocal for several reasons.", "Mead was well aware of the forms and frequency of Samoan joking, she provided a careful account of the sexual restrictions on ceremonial virgins that corresponds to Fa'apua'a Fa'auma'a's account to Freeman, and Mead's notes make clear that she had reached her conclusions about Samoan sexuality before meeting Fa'apua'a Fa'amu.", "Orans points out that Mead's data support several different conclusions and that Mead's conclusions hinge on an interpretive, rather than positivist, approach to culture.", "Orans went on to point out concerning Mead's work elsewhere that her own notes do not support her published conclusive claims.", "Evaluating Mead's work in Samoa from a positivist stance, Orans's assessment of the controversy was that Mead did not formulate her research agenda in scientific terms and that \"her work may properly be damned with the harshest scientific criticism of all, that it is 'not even wrong'.", "\"On the whole, anthropologists have rejected the notion that Mead's conclusions rested on the validity of a single interview with a single person and find instead that Mead based her conclusions on the sum of her observations and interviews during her time in Samoa and that the status of the single interview did not falsify her work.", "Others such as Orans maintained that even though Freeman's critique was invalid, Mead's study was not sufficiently scientifically rigorous to support the conclusions she drew.In 1999, Freeman published another book, ''The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead: A Historical Analysis of Her Samoan Research'', including previously unavailable material.", "In his obituary in ''The New York Times'', John Shaw stated that Freeman's thesis, though upsetting many, had by the time of his death generally gained widespread acceptance.", "Recent work has nonetheless challenged Freeman's critique.", "A frequent criticism of Freeman is that he regularly misrepresented Mead's research and views.", "In a 2009 evaluation of the debate, anthropologist Paul Shankman concluded:There is now a large body of criticism of Freeman's work from a number of perspectives in which Mead, Samoa, and anthropology appear in a very different light than they do in Freeman's work.", "Indeed, the immense significance that Freeman gave his critique looks like 'much ado about nothing' to many of his critics.While nurture-oriented anthropologists are more inclined to agree with Mead's conclusions, some non-anthropologists who take a nature-oriented approach follow Freeman's lead, such as Harvard psychologist Steven Pinker, biologist Richard Dawkins, evolutionary psychologist David Buss, science writer Matt Ridley, classicist Mary Lefkowitz.In her 2015 book ''Galileo's Middle Finger'', Alice Dreger argues that Freeman's accusations were unfounded and misleading.", "A detailed review of the controversy by Paul Shankman, published by the University of Wisconsin Press in 2009, supports the contention that Mead's research was essentially correct and concludes that Freeman cherry-picked his data and misrepresented both Mead and Samoan culture.A survey of 301 anthropology faculty in the United States in 2016 had two thirds agreeing with a statement that Mead \"romanticizes the sexual freedom of Samoan adolescents\" and half agreeing that it was ideologically motivated.======Mead's ''Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies'' became influential within the feminist movement since it claimed that females are dominant in the Tchambuli (now spelled Chambri) Lake region of the Sepik basin of Papua New Guinea (in the western Pacific) without causing any special problems.", "The lack of male dominance may have been the result of the Australian administration's outlawing of warfare.", "According to contemporary research, males are dominant throughout Melanesia.", "Others have argued that there is still much cultural variation throughout Melanesia, especially in the large island of New Guinea.", "Moreover, anthropologists often overlook the significance of networks of political influence among females.", "The formal male-dominated institutions typical of some areas of high population density were not, for example, present in the same way in Oksapmin, West Sepik Province, a more sparsely-populated area.", "Cultural patterns there were different from, say, Mount Hagen.", "They were closer to those described by Mead.Mead stated that the Arapesh people, also in the Sepik, were pacifists, but she noted that they on occasion engage in warfare.", "Her observations about the sharing of garden plots among the Arapesh, the egalitarian emphasis in child rearing, and her documentation of predominantly peaceful relations among relatives are very different from the \"big man\" displays of dominance that were documented in more stratified New Guinea cultures, such as by Andrew Strathern.", "They are a different cultural pattern.In brief, her comparative study revealed a full range of contrasting gender roles:* \"Among the Arapesh, both men and women were peaceful in temperament and neither men nor women made war.", "* \"Among the Mundugumor, the opposite was true: both men and women were warlike in temperament.", "* \"And the Tchambuli were different from both.", "The men 'primped' and spent their time decorating themselves while the women worked and were the practical ones—the opposite of how it seemed in early 20th century America.", "\"Deborah Gewertz (1981) studied the Chambri (called Tchambuli by Mead) in 1974–1975 and found no evidence of such gender roles.", "Gewertz states that as far back in history as there is evidence (1850s), Chambri men dominated the women, controlled their produce, and made all important political decisions.", "In later years, there has been a diligent search for societies in which women dominate men or for signs of such past societies, but none has been found (Bamberger 1974).", "Jessie Bernard criticised Mead's interpretations of her findings and argued that Mead's descriptions were subjective.", "Bernard argues that Mead claimed the Mundugumor women were temperamentally identical to men, but her reports indicate that there were in fact sex differences; Mundugumor women hazed each other less than men hazed each other and made efforts to make themselves physically desirable to others, married women had fewer affairs than married men, women were not taught to use weapons, women were used less as hostages and Mundugumor men engaged in physical fights more often than women.", "In contrast, the Arapesh were also described as equal in temperament, but Bernard states that Mead's own writings indicate that men physically fought over women, yet women did not fight over men.", "The Arapesh also seemed to have some conception of sex differences in temperament, as they would sometimes describe a woman as acting like a particularly quarrelsome man.", "Bernard also questioned if the behaviour of men and women in those societies differed as much from Western behaviour as Mead claimed.", "Bernard argued that some of her descriptions could be equally descriptive of a Western context.Despite its feminist roots, Mead's work on women and men was also criticized by Betty Friedan on the basis that it contributes to infantilizing women.===Other research areas===In 1926, there was much debate about race and intelligence.", "Mead felt the methodologies involved in the experimental psychology research supporting arguments of racial superiority in intelligence were substantially flawed.", "In \"The Methodology of Racial Testing: Its Significance for Sociology,\" Mead proposes that there are three problems with testing for racial differences in intelligence.", "First, there are concerns with the ability to validly equate one's test score with what Mead refers to as ''racial admixture'' or how much ''Negro or Indian blood'' an individual possesses.", "She also considers whether that information is relevant when interpreting IQ scores.", "Mead remarks that a genealogical method could be considered valid if it could be \"subjected to extensive verification.\"", "In addition, the experiment would need a steady control group to establish whether racial admixture was actually affecting intelligence scores.", "Next, Mead argues that it is difficult to measure the effect that social status has on the results of a person's intelligence test.", "She meant that environment (family structure, socioeconomic status, and exposure to language, etc.)", "has too much influence on an individual to attribute inferior scores solely to a physical characteristic such as race.", "Then, Mead adds that language barriers sometimes create the biggest problem of all.", "Similarly, Stephen J. Gould finds three main problems with intelligence testing in his 1981 book ''The Mismeasure of Man'' that relate to Mead's view of the problem of determining whether there are racial differences in intelligence.In 1929, Mead and Fortune visited Manus, now the northernmost province of Papua New Guinea, and traveled there by boat from Rabaul.", "She amply describes her stay there in her autobiography, and it is mentioned in her 1984 biography by Jane Howard.", "On Manus, she studied the Manus people of the south coast village of Peri.", "\"Over the next five decades Mead would come back oftener to Peri than to any other field site of her career.", "'Mead has been credited with persuading the American Jewish Committee to sponsor a project to study European Jewish villages, ''shtetls'', in which a team of researchers would conduct mass interviews with Jewish immigrants living in New York City.", "The resulting book, widely cited for decades, allegedly created the Jewish mother stereotype, a mother intensely loving but controlling to the point of smothering and engendering guilt in her children through the suffering she professed to undertake for their sakes.Mead worked for the RAND Corporation, a US Air Force military-funded private research organization, from 1948 to 1950 to study Russian culture and attitudes toward authority.", "''Trance and Dance in Bali'', a 1951 documentary by Gregory Bateson and Margaret MeadAs an Anglican Christian, Mead played a considerable part in the drafting of the 1979 American Episcopal Book of Common Prayer." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1976, Mead was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.On January 19, 1979, U.S. President Jimmy Carter announced that he was awarding the Presidential Medal of Freedom posthumously to Mead.", "UN Ambassador Andrew Young presented the award to Mead's daughter at a special program honoring her contributions that was sponsored by the American Museum of Natural History, where she spent many years of her career.", "The citation read:The U.S.", "Postal Service issued a stamp of face value 32¢ on May 28, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series.The Margaret Mead Award is awarded in her honor jointly by the Society for Applied Anthropology and the American Anthropological Association, for significant works in communicating anthropology to the general public.In addition, there are several schools named after Mead in the United States: a junior high school in Elk Grove Village, Illinois, an elementary school in Sammamish, Washington and another in Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, New York.In 1979, the Supersisters trading card set was produced and distributed; one of the cards featured Mead's name and picture.The 2014 novel ''Euphoria'' by Lily King is a fictionalized account of Mead's love/marital relationships with fellow anthropologists Reo Fortune and Gregory Bateson in New Guinea before World War II.In the 1967 musical ''Hair'', her name is given to a tranvestite \"tourist\" disturbing the show with the song \"My Conviction.\"" ], [ "Publications", "Note: See also ''Margaret Mead: The Complete Bibliography 1925–1975'', Joan Gordan, ed., The Hague: Mouton.===As a sole author===*''Coming of Age in Samoa'' (1928)*''Growing Up in New Guinea'' (1930)*''The Changing Culture of an Indian Tribe'' (1932)*''Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies'' (1935)*''And Keep Your Powder Dry: An Anthropologist Looks at America'' (1942)*''Male and Female'' (1949)*''New Lives for Old: Cultural Transformation in Manus, 1928–1953'' (1956)*''People and Places'' (1959; a book for young readers)*''Continuities in Cultural Evolution'' (1964)*''Culture and Commitment'' (1970)*''The Mountain Arapesh: Stream of Events in Alitoa'' (1971)*''Blackberry Winter: My Earlier Years'' (1972; autobiography)===As editor or coauthor===*''Balinese Character: A Photographic Analysis'', with Gregory Bateson, 1942, New York Academy of Sciences.", "* ''Soviet Attitudes Toward Authority'' (1951)*''Cultural Patterns and Technical Change'', editor (1953)*''Primitive Heritage: An Anthropological Anthology'', edited with Nicholas Calas (1953)*''An Anthropologist at Work'', editor (1959, reprinted 1966; a volume of Ruth Benedict's writings)*''The Study of Culture at a Distance'', edited with Rhoda Metraux, 1953*''Themes in French Culture'', with Rhoda Metraux, 1954*''The Wagon and the Star: A Study of American Community Initiative'' co-authored with Muriel Whitbeck Brown, 1966*''A Rap on Race'', with James Baldwin, 1971*''A Way of Seeing'', with Rhoda Metraux, 1975" ], [ "See also", "*Tim Asch*Gregory Bateson*Ray Birdwhistell*Macy Conferences*Elsie Clews Parsons*Visual anthropology*Zora Neale Hurston*75½ Bedford St" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "***Bateson, Mary Catherine.", "(1984) ''With a Daughter's Eye: A Memoir of Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson'', New York: William Morrow.", "**Caffey, Margaret M., and Patricia A. Francis, eds.", "(2006).", "''To Cherish the Life of the World: Selected Letters of Margaret Mead''.", "New York: Basic Books.", "*Caton, Hiram, ed.", "(1990) ''The Samoa Reader: Anthropologists Take Stock'', University Press of America.", "**Foerstel, Leonora, and Angela Gilliam, eds.", "(1992).", "''Confronting the Margaret Mead Legacy: Scholarship, Empire and the South Pacific''.", "Philadelphia: Temple University Press.", "*Freeman, Derek.", "(1983) ''Margaret Mead and Samoa'', Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.", "*Freeman, Derek.", "(1999) ''The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead: A Historical Analysis of Her Samoan Research'', Boulder, CO: Westview Press.", "**Holmes, Lowell D. (1987).", "''Quest for the Real Samoa: the Mead/Freeman Controversy and Beyond''.", "South Hadley, MA: Bergin and Garvey.", "*Howard, Jane.", "(1984).", "''Margaret Mead: A Life'', New York: Simon and Schuster.", "*Keeley, Lawrence (1996).", "''War Before Civilization: the Myth of the Peaceful Savage'' (Oxford University Press).", "*Lapsley, Hilary.", "(1999).", "''Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict: The Kinship of Women''.", "University of Massachusetts Press.", "***Lutkehaus, Nancy C. (2008).", "''Margaret Mead: The Making of an American Icon''.", "Princeton: Princeton University Press.", "** Mandler, Peter (2013).", "''Return from the Natives: How Margaret Mead Won the Second World War and Lost the Cold War.''", "New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.", "***Mead, Margaret.", "1977.The Future as Frame for the Present.", "Audio recording of a lecture delivered July 11, 1977.", "******Pinker, Steven A.", "(1997).", "''How the Mind Works''.", "*Sandall, Roger.", "(2001) ''The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism and Other Essays''.", "****Shore, Brad.", "(1982) ''Sala'ilua: A Samoan Mystery''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", "***Virginia, Mary E. (2003).", "Benedict, Ruth (1887–1948).", "''DISCovering U.S. History'' online edition, Detroit: Gale.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Margaret Mead at Monoskop* Online video: .", "Documentary about the Mead-Freeman controversy, including an interview with one of Mead's original informants.", "* Creative Intelligence: Female – \"The Silent Revolution: Creative Man In Contemporary Society\" Talk at UC Berkeley, 1962 (online audio file)* The Institute for Intercultural Studies– ethnographic institute founded by Mead, with resources relating to Mead's work.", "* Library of Congress, Margaret Mead: Human Nature and the Power of Culture* American Museum of Natural History, Margaret Mead Film & Video Festival* \"Margaret Mead, 1901–1978: A Public Face of Anthropology\": brief biography, Voice of America.", "* Clifford Geertz, \"Margaret Mead\", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (1989)* The Dell Paperback Collection at the Library of Congress has first edition paperbacks of Mead's works." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Michael Palin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Michael Edward Palin''' (; born 5 May 1943) is an English actor, comedian, writer, and television presenter.", "He was a member of the Monty Python comedy group.", "He received the BAFTA Fellowship in 2013 and was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 2019.Palin started in television working on programmes including the ''Ken Dodd Show'', ''The Frost Report'', and ''Do Not Adjust Your Set''.", "Palin joined ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' (1969–1974) alongside John Cleese, Eric Idle, Terry Gilliam, Terry Jones, and Graham Chapman.", "He acted in some of the most famous Python sketches, including \"Argument Clinic\", \"Dead Parrot sketch\", \"The Lumberjack Song\", \"The Spanish Inquisition\", \"Bicycle Repair Man\" and \"The Fish-Slapping Dance\".", "Palin continued to work with Jones away from Python, co-writing ''Ripping Yarns''.Palin co-wrote and starred in ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' (1975), ''Life of Brian'' (1979) and ''The Meaning of Life'' (1983).", "For his performance in ''A Fish Called Wanda'' (1988) he received the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role.", "Other notable films include ''Jabberwocky'' (1977), ''Time Bandits'' (1981), ''The Missionary'' (1982), ''A Private Function'' (1984), ''Brazil'' (1985), ''Fierce Creatures'' (1997), and ''The Death of Stalin'' (2017).Since 1980, Palin has made numerous television travel documentaries and is a widely recognised writer and presenter.", "He has acted as a travel writer and travel documentarian in programmes broadcast on the BBC.", "His journeys have taken him across the world, including the North and South Poles, the Sahara, the Himalayas, Eastern Europe, and Brazil; in 2018, he visited North Korea, documenting his visit to the isolated country in a series broadcast on Channel 5.From 2009 to 2012 he was President of the Royal Geographical Society." ], [ "Early life and education", "Palin was born in Ranmoor, Sheffield, the second child and only son of Edward Moreton Palin (1900–1977) and Mary Rachel Lockhart (née Ovey; 1903–1990).", "His father was a Shrewsbury and Cambridge-educated engineer working for a steel firm.", "His maternal grandfather, Lieutenant-Colonel Richard Lockhart Ovey, DSO, was High Sheriff of Oxfordshire in 1927.Palin was educated at Birkdale and Shrewsbury School.", "His sister Angela was nine years his senior; despite the age gap the two had a close relationship until her suicide in 1987.Palin is of English and Irish Catholic heritage; he has ancestral roots in Letterkenny, County Donegal.", "His great-grandmother fled the Irish Famine and was adopted by a wealthy English family.When he was five years old, Palin had his first acting experience at Birkdale playing Martha Cratchit in a school performance of ''A Christmas Carol''.", "At the age of 10, Palin, still interested in acting, made a comedy monologue and read a Shakespeare play to his mother while playing all the parts.", "After leaving Shrewsbury in 1962, he went on to read modern history at Brasenose College, Oxford.", "With fellow student Robert Hewison he performed and wrote, for the first time, comedy material at a university Christmas party.", "Terry Jones, also a student at Oxford, saw that performance and began writing with Hewison and Palin.", "That year Palin joined the Brightside and Carbrook Co-operative Society Players and first gained fame when he won an acting award at a Co-op drama festival.", "He also performed and wrote in the Oxford Revue (called the Et ceteras) with Jones." ], [ "Career", "=== Early career ===After finishing university in 1965, Palin became a presenter on a comedy pop show called ''Now!''", "for the television contractor Television Wales and the West.", "At the same time, Palin was contacted by Jones, who had left university a year earlier, to help with writing a theatrical documentary about sex through the ages.", "Although this project was eventually abandoned, it brought Palin and Jones together as a writing duo and led them to write comedy for various BBC programmes, such as ''The Ken Dodd Show'', ''The Billy Cotton Bandshow'', and ''The Illustrated Weekly Hudd''.", "They collaborated in writing lyrics for an album by Barry Booth called ''Diversions''.", "They were also in the team of writers working for ''The Frost Report'', whose other members included Frank Muir, Barry Cryer, Marty Feldman, Ronnie Barker, Ronnie Corbett, Dick Vosburgh and future Monty Python members Graham Chapman, John Cleese and Eric Idle.Although the members of Monty Python had already encountered each other over the years, ''The Frost Report'' was the first time all the British members of Monty Python (its sixth member, Terry Gilliam, was at that time an American citizen) worked together.", "During the run of ''The Frost Report'' the Palin/Jones team contributed material to two shows starring John Bird: ''The Late Show'' and ''A Series of Birds''.", "For ''A Series of Birds'' the Palin/Jones team had their first experience of writing narrative instead of the short sketches they were accustomed to conceiving.Following ''The Frost Report'' the Palin/Jones team worked both as actors and writers on the show ''Twice a Fortnight'' with Graeme Garden, Bill Oddie and Jonathan Lynn, and the successful children's comedy show ''Do Not Adjust Your Set'' with Idle and David Jason.", "The show also featured musical numbers by the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band, including future Monty Python musical collaborator Neil Innes.", "The animations for ''Do Not Adjust Your Set'' were made by Terry Gilliam.", "Eager to work with Palin sans Jones, Cleese later asked him to perform in ''How to Irritate People'' together with Chapman and Tim Brooke-Taylor.", "The Palin/Jones team were reunited for ''The Complete and Utter History of Britain''.===''Monty Python''===The Spanish Inquisition\" sketch at the 2014 reunion, ''Monty Python Live (Mostly)''On the strength of their work on ''The Frost Report'' and other programmes, Cleese and Chapman had been offered a show by the BBC, but Cleese was reluctant to do a two-man show for various reasons, among them Chapman's reputedly difficult personality.", "During this period Cleese contacted Palin about doing the show that ultimately became ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''.", "At the same time the success of ''Do Not Adjust Your Set'' had led Palin, Jones, Idle and Gilliam to be offered their own series and, while it was still in production, Palin agreed to Cleese's proposal and brought along Idle, Jones and Gilliam.", "Thus the formation of the Monty Python troupe has been referred to as a result of Cleese's desire to work with Palin and the chance circumstances that brought the other four members into the fold.Palin played various roles in ''Monty Python'', which ranged from manic enthusiasm (such as the lumberjack of \"The Lumberjack Song\", or Herbert Anchovy, host of the game show \"Blackmail\") to unflappable calmness (such as the Dead parrot vendor or Cheese Shop proprietor).", "As a straight man he was often a foil to the rising ire of characters portrayed by Cleese.", "He also played timid, socially inept characters such as Arthur Putey, the man who sits quietly as a marriage counsellor (Eric Idle) makes love to his wife (Carol Cleveland), and Mr Anchovy, a chartered accountant who wants to become a lion tamer.", "He appeared as the \"It's\" man (a Robinson Crusoe-type castaway with torn clothes and a long, unkempt beard) at the beginning of most episodes.", "He also frequently played a Gumby, a character Palin said: \"had these moronic views that were expressed with extraordinary force.", "\"Palin frequently co-wrote sketches with Terry Jones, including the \"Spanish Inquisition sketch\", which featured the catchphrase \"Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!\".", "He also composed songs with Jones including \"The Lumberjack Song\", \"Every Sperm Is Sacred\" and \"Spam\".", "His solo musical compositions included \"Decomposing Composers\" and \"Finland\".===1974–1996: ''Ripping Yarns'' and film roles ===In 1971, he co-wrote, with Hugh Leonard and Terence Feely, the film ''Percy'', which depicts a penis transplant.After the ''Monty Python'' television series ended in 1974, the Palin/Jones team worked on ''Ripping Yarns'', an intermittent television comedy series broadcast over three years from 1976.They had earlier collaborated on the play ''Secrets'' from the BBC series ''Black and Blue'' in 1973.He played the lead role of the peasant Dennis in Terry Gilliam's 1977 film ''Jabberwocky''.", "(He had earlier played the cameo role of \"Dennis the Peasant\" in ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' also directed by Gilliam.)", "Palin also appeared in ''All You Need Is Cash'' (1978) as Eric Manchester (based on Derek Taylor), the press agent for the Rutles.", "In 1980, Palin co-wrote ''Time Bandits'' with Terry Gilliam.", "He also acted in the film.In 1982, Palin wrote and starred in ''The Missionary'', co-starring Maggie Smith.", "In it, he plays the Reverend Charles Fortescue, who is recalled from Africa to aid prostitutes.", "He co-starred with Maggie Smith again in the 1984 comedy film ''A Private Function''.", "In 1984, he reunited with Terry Gilliam to appear in ''Brazil''.", "He appeared in the comedy film ''A Fish Called Wanda'', which co-starred and was co-written by John Cleese, for which he won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role.", "Cleese reunited the main cast almost a decade later to make ''Fierce Creatures''.", "After filming for ''Fierce Creatures'' finished, Palin went on a travel journey for a BBC documentary and, returning a year later, found that the end of ''Fierce Creatures'' had failed at test screenings and had to be reshot.=== 1996–present ===After ''Fierce Creatures'' and a small part in ''The Wind in the Willows'', a film directed by and starring Terry Jones, it was twenty years until Palin's next film role, as Soviet politician Vyacheslav Molotov in the 2017 satirical black comedy ''The Death of Stalin''.", "Palin also appeared with John Cleese in his documentary, ''The Human Face''.", "Palin was cast in a supporting role in the Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan romantic comedy ''You've Got Mail'', but his role was eventually cut entirely.Palin has also appeared in serious drama.", "In 1991 Palin appeared in a film, ''American Friends'', he wrote based upon a real event in the life of his great-grandfather, a fellow at St John's College, Oxford.", "In that same year he also played the part of a headmaster in Alan Bleasdale's Channel 4 drama series ''GBH''.", "In 1994, Palin narrated the English language audiobook version of ''Esio Trot'' by children's author Roald Dahl.In 1997, Palin had a small cameo role in the Australian soap opera ''Home and Away''.", "He played an English surfer with a fear of sharks, who interrupts a conversation between two main characters to ask whether there were any sharks in the sea.", "This was filmed while he was in Australia for the ''Full Circle'' series, with a segment about the filming of the role featuring in the series.", "In November 2005, he appeared in the ''John Peel's Record Box'' documentary.Michael Palin, Nightingale House, in Clapham, November 2010In 2013, Palin appeared in a First World War drama titled ''The Wipers Times'' written by Ian Hislop and Nick Newman.", "At the Cannes Film Festival in 2016, it was announced that Palin was set to star alongside Adam Driver in Terry Gilliam's ''The Man Who Killed Don Quixote''.", "Palin, however, dropped out of the film after it ran into a financial problem.While speaking at the Edinburgh International Film Festival, Palin announced that he was presenting the two-part documentary ''Michael Palin in North Korea'' to be broadcast on the British television network Channel 5.The documentary was broadcast in September 2018, in two one-hour segments on Channel 5 in the UK and in a single two-hour programme on National Geographic in the United States.", "It was broadcast again by Channel 5, in a single two-hour programme in December 2018.In July 2019, Palin performed a one-man stage show at the Torch Theatre, Milford Haven, Wales, about the loss of HMS ''Erebus'' during the third Franklin expedition, which is recounted in his book ''Erebus: The Story of a Ship''." ], [ "Television documentaries", "===Travel===Michael Palin at Cadogan Hall in 2022 Palin's first travel documentary was episode 4 of the 1980 BBC Television series ''Great Railway Journeys of the World'', entitled \"Confessions of a Trainspotter\".", "Throughout the hour-long show, Palin humorously reminisces about his childhood hobby of train spotting while he travels throughout the UK by train from London to the Kyle of Lochalsh, via Manchester, York, Newcastle upon Tyne, Edinburgh and Inverness.", "He rides vintage railway lines and trains including the ''Flying Scotsman''.", "At the Kyle of Lochalsh, Palin bought the station's long metal platform sign and is seen lugging it back to London with him.In 1994, Palin travelled through Ireland for the same series, entitled \"Derry to Kerry\".", "In a quest for family roots, he attempted to trace his great-grandmother – Brita Gallagher – who set sail from Ireland years ago during the Great Famine (1845–1849), bound for a new life in Burlington, New Jersey.", "The series is a trip along the Palin family line.Between 1989 and 2012, Palin appeared as a presenter in a series of travel programmes made for the BBC.", "It was after the veteran TV globetrotter Alan Whicker and journalist Miles Kington turned down presenting the first of these, ''Around the World in 80 Days with Michael Palin'', that gave Palin the opportunity to present his first and subsequent travel shows.", "In 2018, he was hired by ITN Productions to present travel documentaries commissioned by Channel 5, with journeys to North Korea and Iraq completed by 2022.", "* ''Around the World in 80 Days with Michael Palin'' (travel 1988; programme release 1989): travelling as closely as possible the path described in the famous Jules Verne story without using aircraft.", "* ''Pole to Pole with Michael Palin'' (travel 1991; programme release 1992): travelling from the North Pole to the South Pole, following as closely as possible the 30-degree line of longitude, over as much land as possible, i.e., through Europe and Africa.", "* ''Full Circle with Michael Palin'' (travel 1995/96; programme release 1997): in which he circumnavigated the lands around the Pacific Ocean anti-clockwise; a journey of almost starting on Little Diomede Island in the Bering Strait and taking him through Asia, Oceania and the Americas.", "* ''Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure'' (1999): retracing the footsteps of Ernest Hemingway through the United States, Europe, Africa and the Caribbean.", "* ''Sahara with Michael Palin'' (travel 2001/02; programme release 2002): in which he trekked around and through the world's largest desert.", "* ''Himalaya with Michael Palin'' (travel 2003/04; programme release 2004): in which he travels through the Himalaya region.", "* ''Michael Palin's New Europe'' (travel 2006/07; programme release 2007): in which he travels through Central and Eastern Europe.", "* ''Brazil with Michael Palin'' (2012) in which he travels through Brazil.", "* ''Michael Palin in North Korea'' on Channel 5 (2018, this ITN production was released in the US as ''North Korea from the Inside with Michael Palin'') in which he visits North Korea at the time of the April 2018 inter-Korean summit.", "* ''Michael Palin: Into Iraq'' on Channel 5 (2022).Following each trip, Palin wrote a book about his travels, providing information and insights not included in the TV programme.", "Each book is illustrated with photographs by Basil Pao, the stills photographer who was on the team.", "(Exception: the first book, ''Around the World in 80 Days'', contains some pictures by Pao but most are by other photographers.", ")All seven of these books were also made available as audiobooks, and all of them are read by Palin himself.", "''Around the World in 80 Days'' and ''Hemingway Adventure'' are unabridged, while the other four books were made in both abridged and unabridged versions.For four of the trips, a photography book was made by Pao, each with an introduction written by Palin.", "These are large coffee-table-style books with pictures printed on glossy paper.", "The majority of the pictures are of various people encountered on the trip, as informal portraits or showing them engaged in some interesting activity.", "Some of the landscape photos are displayed as two-page spreads.Palin's travel programmes are responsible for a phenomenon called the \"Palin effect\", referring to areas of the world that he has visited suddenly become popular tourist attractions – for example, the significant increase in the number of tourists interested in Peru after Palin visited Machu Picchu.", "In a 2006 survey of \"15 of the world's top travel writers\" by ''The Observer'', Palin named Peru's Pongo de Mainique (canyon below the Machu Picchu) his \"favourite place in the world\".Palin notes in his book of ''Around the World in 80 Days'' that the final leg of his journey could originally have taken him and his crew on one of the trains involved in the Clapham Junction rail crash, but they arrived ahead of schedule and caught an earlier train.===Art and history===In recent years, Palin has written and presented occasional documentary programmes about artists who interest him.", "The first, on Scottish painter Anne Redpath, was ''Palin on Redpath'' in 1997.In ''The Bright Side of Life'' (2000), Palin continued on a Scottish theme, looking at the work of the Scottish Colourists.", "Two further programmes followed on European painters; ''Michael Palin and the Ladies Who Loved Matisse'' (2004) and ''Michael Palin and the Mystery of Hammershøi'' (2005), about the French artist Henri Matisse and Danish artist Vilhelm Hammershøi respectively.", "The DVD ''Michael Palin on Art'' contains all these documentaries except for the Matisse programme.", "In 2013, he travelled to the United States and filmed in both Maine and Pennsylvania, to write and present \"Michael Palin in Wyeth World\", which is about the American painter Andrew Wyeth and the people who inspired his paintings.In November 2008, Palin presented a First World War documentary about Armistice Day, 11 November 1918, when thousands of soldiers lost their lives in battle after the war had officially ended.", "Palin filmed on the battlefields of Northern France and Belgium for the programme, called the ''Last Day of World War One'', produced for the BBC's ''Timewatch'' series." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1966, Palin married Helen Gibbins (born October 1942), whom he first met in 1959 on holiday in Southwold in Suffolk.", "This meeting was later fictionalised in Palin's teleplay for the 1987 BBC television drama ''East of Ipswich''.", "Their marriage lasted for 57 years, until Helen's death from kidney failure on 2 May 2023.The Palins' three children are Thomas (born 1969), William (born 1970), and Rachel (born 1975), and there are four grandchildren.", "Rachel is a BBC TV director, whose work includes ''MasterChef: The Professionals''.", "William is Director of Conservation at the Old Royal Naval College, Greenwich, London, and oversaw the 2018–19 restoration of the Painted Hall.", "A photograph of William as a baby briefly appeared in ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' as \"Sir Not-appearing-in-this-film\".", "The theatre designer Jeremy Herbert is a nephew.", "Palin describes his religious belief as \"agnostic with doubts\".", "He has lived in Gospel Oak, London, since the 1960s.", "Palin has been a supporter of Stenhousemuir F.C." ], [ "Activism and charity", "Palin assisted Campaign for Better Transport and others with campaigns on sustainable transport, particularly those relating to urban areas, and has been president of the campaign since 1986.On 2 January 2011, he became the first person to sign the UK-based Campaign for Better Transport's Fair Fares Now campaign.", "In July 2015, he signed an open letter and gave an interview to support \"a strong BBC at the centre of British life\" at a time when the government was reviewing the corporation's size and activities.In July 2010, Palin sent a message of support for the Dongria Kondh tribe of India, who were resisting mining on their land by the company Vedanta Resources.", "Palin said, \"I've been to the Nyamgiri Hills in Orissa and seen the forces of money and power that Vedanta Resources have arrayed against a people who have occupied their land for thousands of years, who husband the forest sustainably and make no great demands on the state or the government.", "The tribe I visited simply want to carry on living in the villages that they and their ancestors have always lived in.", "\"Palin is a longstanding Vice President of the National Churches Trust.Palin is a co-founder of The Michael Palin Centre for Stammering.", "When it opened in 1993 Palin became Vice President of Action for Stammering Children.", "Palin's awareness and understanding of stammering stemmed from his father’s experience as a person who stammers.", "Over the years Palin has provided support and connection to young people and families of people who stammer." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film === Year Film Role Notes 1971 ''And Now for Something Completely Different'' Various roles Also writer 1975 ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' Sir Galahad the Pure Leader of the Knights Who Say Ni Various roles 1977 ''Jabberwocky'' Dennis Cooper 1978 ''All You Need Is Cash'' Eric Manchester/Lawyer 1979 ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'' Pontius Pilate/Various roles Also writer 1981 ''Time Bandits'' Vincent1982 ''Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl'' Various roles ''The Missionary'' The Reverend Charles Fortescue Also writer and producer1983 ''Monty Python's The Meaning of Life'' Various roles Also writer ''The Crimson Permanent Assurance'' Workman Short film 1984 ''A Private Function'' Gilbert Chilvers 1985 ''Brazil'' Jack Lint 1987 ''The Grand Knockout Tournament'' Himself Television special 1988 ''A Fish Called Wanda'' Ken Pile 1991 ''American Friends'' Reverend Francis Ashby Also writer 1996 ''The Wind in the Willows'' The Sun Voice only 1997 ''Fierce Creatures'' Adrian 'Bugsy' Malone 2010 ''Not the Messiah'' Mrs Betty Palin/Pontius Pilate/Bevis 2011 ''Arthur Christmas'' Ernie Clicker Voice only 2012 ''A Liar's Autobiography: The Untrue Story of Monty Python's Graham Chapman''Various roles 2014 ''Monty Python Live'' Also writer 2015 ''Absolutely Anything'' Kindly Alien Voice only 2017 ''The Death of Stalin'' Vyacheslav Molotov===Television===*''Now!''", "(October 1965 – middle 1966)*''The Ken Dodd Show''*''Billy Cotton Bandshow''*''The Illustrated Weekly Hudd''*''The Frost Report'' (10 March 1966 – 29 June 1967)*''The Late Show'' (15 October 1966 – 1 April 1967)*''A Series of Bird's'' (1967) (3 October 1967 – 21 November 1967 screenwriter (guest stars)*''Twice a Fortnight'' (21 October 1967 – 23 December 1967)*''Do Not Adjust Your Set'' (26 December 1967 – 14 May 1969)*''Broaden Your Mind'' (1968)*''How to Irritate People'' (1968)*''Marty'' (1968)*''The Complete and Utter History of Britain'' (1969)*''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' (5 October 1969 – 5 December 1974)*''Three Men in a Boat'' (1975)*''Saturday Night Live'' (Hosted 8 April 1978 with Musical Guest Eugene Record, 27 January 1979 with The Doobie Brothers, 12 May 1979 with James Taylor and 21 January 1984 with Mary Palin, his mother)*''Ripping Yarns'' (1976–1979)*''Great Railway Journeys of the World'', episode title \"Confessions of a Trainspotter\" (1980)*''East of Ipswich'' (1987) writer*''Around the World in 80 Days with Michael Palin'' (1989)* ''GBH'' (1991)*''Pole to Pole with Michael Palin'' (1992)*''Tracey Ullman: A Class Act'' (1993)*''Great Railway Journeys'', episode title \"Derry to Kerry\" (1994)*''The Wind in the Willows'' (1995)*''The Willows in Winter'' (1996)*''Full Circle with Michael Palin'' (1997)*''Palin on Redpath'' (1997)*''Monty Python Live at Aspen'' (1998)*''Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure'' (1999)*''Michael Palin On...", "The Colourists'' (2000)*''Sahara with Michael Palin'' (2002)*''Life on Air'' (2002)*''Himalaya with Michael Palin'' (2004)*''Michael Palin and the Ladies Who Loved Matisse'' (2004)* ''Michael Palin and the Mystery of Hammershøi'' (2005)*''Michael Palin's New Europe'' (2007)*''Robbie the Reindeer – Close Encounters of the Herd Kind'' (2007 – Gariiiiiii/Gary)*''Around the World in 20 Years'' (30 December 2008)*''Brazil with Michael Palin'' (2012)*''The Wipers Times'' (2013)*''Michael Palin in Wyeth's World'' (2013)*''Remember Me'' (2014)*''Clangers'' (2015 – narrator)*''Michael Palin's Quest for Artemisia'' (2015)*''Vanity Fair'' William Makepeace Thakery (2018)*''Michael Palin in North Korea'' (2018)*''Worzel Gummidge'': the Green Man (2019)*''The Simpsons'': Museum Curator (2020)*''Michael Palin: Travels of a Lifetime'' (2020)*''Michael Palin’s Himalaya: Journey of a Lifetime'' (2020)*''Michael Palin: Into Iraq'' (2022)===Radio===*''The Weekend'' (2017, adapted from his 1994 stage play)*''John Finnemore's Double Acts'' – \"The Wroxton Box\" (Series 2, Episode 6; 2017)*Torchwood: Tropical Beach Sounds and Other Relaxing Seascapes #4 (April 2020)" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Travel books===* ''Around the World in 80 Days'' (1989) * ''Pole to Pole'' (1992) * ''Full Circle'' (1997) * ''Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure'' (1999) * ''Sahara'' (2002) * ''Himalaya'' (2004) * ''New Europe'' (2007) * ''Brazil'' (2012) * ''North Korea Journal'' (2019) * ''Into Iraq'' (2022) All but the latest two of his travel books can be read with no charge, complete and unabridged, on Palin's Travels website.===Autobiography (contributor)===* ''The Pythons'' Autobiography by The Pythons (2003) ===Diaries===* ''Diaries 1969–1979: The Python Years''.", "2006.", "* ''Diaries 1980–1988: Halfway to Hollywood – The Film Years''.", "London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson.", "2009.", "* ''Diaries 1988–1998: Travelling to Work''.", "London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson.", "2014.", "* ''Diaries 1999–2015: TBC''.", "London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson.", "Announced for 2024.===Fiction===*''Bert Fegg's Nasty Book for Boys and Girls'' with Terry Jones, illus Martin Honeysett, Frank Bellamy et al.", "(1974) *''Dr Fegg's Encyclopaedia of All World Knowledge'' (1984) (expanded reprint of the above, with Terry Jones and Martin Honeysett) *''Hemingway's Chair'' (1995) *''The Truth'' (2012) ===Non-fiction===*''Erebus: The Story of a Ship'' (2018, UK) *''Erebus: One Ship, Two Epic Voyages, and the Greatest Naval Mystery of All Time'' (2018, US/Canada) *''Great-Uncle Harry: A Tale of War and Empire'' (2023) ===Children's books===*''Small Harry and the Toothache Pills'' (1982) *''Limerics'' or ''The Limerick Book'' (1985) *''Cyril and the House of Commons'' (1986) *''Cyril and the Dinner Party'' (1986) *''The Mirrorstone'' with Alan Lee and Richard Seymour (1986) ===Plays===*''The Weekend'' (1994)" ], [ "Awards, honours and legacy", "CambridgePalin was instrumental in setting up the Michael Palin Centre for Stammering Children in 1993.Also in 1993, each member of Monty Python had an asteroid named after them.", "Palin's is Asteroid 9621 Michaelpalin.", "In 2003, inside the Globe a commemorative stone was placed – Palin has his own stone, to mark donors to the theatre, but it is misspelt as \"Michael Pallin\".", "The story goes that John Cleese paid for the stone, and mischievously insisted on misspelling his name.In honour of his achievements as a traveller, especially rail travel, Palin has two British trains named after him.", "In 2002, Virgin Trains' new £5 million high-speed Super Voyager train number 221130 was named ''Michael Palin'' it carries his name externally and a plaque is located adjacent to the onboard shop with information on Palin and his many journeys.", "Also, National Express East Anglia named a British Rail Class 153 (unit number 153335) after him.", "(He is a model railway enthusiast.", ")Sheffield Legends plaque in Palin's home city of Sheffield, EnglandIn 2008, he received the James Joyce Award of the Literary and Historical Society in Dublin.", "In recognition of his services to the promotion of geography, Palin was awarded the Livingstone Medal of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society in March 2009, along with a Fellowship of this Society (FRGS).In June 2013, he was similarly honoured in Canada with a gold medal for achievements in geography by the Royal Canadian Geographical Society.", "In June 2009, Palin was elected for a three-year term as President of the Royal Geographical Society.", "Because of his self-described \"amenable, conciliatory character\" Michael Palin has been referred to as unofficially \"Britain's Nicest Man\".", "In a 2018 poll for Yorkshire Day he was named the greatest Yorkshireman ever, ahead of Sean Bean and Patrick Stewart.In September 2013, Moorlands School, Leeds, named one of their school houses \"Palin\" after him.", "The University of St Andrews awarded Palin an honorary Doctor of Science degree during their June 2017 graduation ceremonies, with the degree recognising his contribution to the public's understanding of contemporary geography.", "He joins his fellow Pythons John Cleese and Terry Jones in receiving an honorary degree from the Fife institution.", "In October 2018, the Royal Canadian Geographical Society awarded Palin the first Louie Kamookak Medal for advances in geography, for his book on the history of the polar exploration vessel HMS ''Erebus''.He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2000 New Year Honours.", "Palin was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) in the 2019 New Year Honours for \"services to travel, culture and geography\".", "Palin is the only member of the Monty Python team to receive a knighthood.In 2017, the British Library acquired Palin's archive consisting of project files relating to his work, notebooks, and personal diaries.", "The papers in the archive (Add MS 89284) relate to his work with ''Monty Python'', his later TV work, and his children's and humorous books.", "'''BAFTA Awards'''* 1984 Nominated – BAFTA Award for \"Best Original Song\" (the award was discontinued after the 1985 ceremonies) for Every Sperm is Sacred from ''The Meaning of Life'' (shared with André Jacquemin, Dave Howman and Terry Jones)* 1989 '''Won''' – BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for ''A Fish Called Wanda'' (as ''Ken Pile'')* 1992 Nominated – British Academy Television Award for Best Actor for ''GBH''* 2005 '''Won''' – BAFTA Special Award* 2009 '''Won''' – BAFTA Special Award as part of the Monty Python team for outstanding contribution to film and television* 2013 '''Won''' – BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award'''Other awards'''* 2011 Awarded the Aardman Slapstick Visual Comedy Legend award for \"significant contributions made to the world of comedy\".", "* 2020 National Television Awards Special Recognition Award" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Jones, Mark (2010), ''The Famous Charisma Discography'' The Record Press/Bristol Folk Publications  – discography of Monty Python's record label, includes foreword by Michael Palin* Novick, Jeremy (2001), ''Life of Michael: an Illustrated Biography of Michael Palin'' Headline Publishing (a division of Hodder Headline) * * Wilmut, Roger (1980).", "''From Fringe to Flying Circus: Celebrating a Unique Generation of Comedy 1960–1980'' Eyre Methuen Ltd" ], [ "External links", "* * Michael Palin – BBC Guide to Comedy* Michael Palin – Comedy Zone* * * * Michael Palin Centre for Stammering Children* Michael Palin interview on BBC Radio 4 ''Desert Island Discs'', 23 November 1979* Michael Palin | Culture | The Guardian" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Materials science" ], [ "Introduction", "A diamond cuboctahedron showing seven crystallographic planes, imaged with scanning electron microscopySix classes of conventional engineering materials'''Materials science''' is an interdisciplinary field of researching and discovering materials.", "'''Materials engineering''' is an engineering field of finding uses for materials in other fields and industries.The intellectual origins of materials science stem from the Age of Enlightenment, when researchers began to use analytical thinking from chemistry, physics, and engineering to understand ancient, phenomenological observations in metallurgy and mineralogy.", "Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering.", "As such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields.", "Beginning in the 1940s, materials science began to be more widely recognized as a specific and distinct field of science and engineering, and major technical universities around the world created dedicated schools for its study.Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material (''processing'') influences its structure, and thus the material's properties and performance.", "The understanding of processing-structure-properties relationships is called the materials paradigm.", "This paradigm is used to advance understanding in a variety of research areas, including nanotechnology, biomaterials, and metallurgy.Materials science is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis investigating materials, products, structures or components, which fail or do not function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property.", "Such investigations are key to understanding, for example, the causes of various aviation accidents and incidents." ], [ "History", "A late Bronze Age sword or dagger bladeThe material of choice of a given era is often a defining point.", "Phases such as Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Steel Age are historic, if arbitrary examples.", "Originally deriving from the manufacture of ceramics and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied science.", "Modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from the use of fire.", "A major breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century, when the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs demonstrated that the thermodynamic properties related to atomic structure in various phases are related to the physical properties of a material.", "Important elements of modern materials science were products of the Space Race; the understanding and engineering of the metallic alloys, and silica and carbon materials, used in building space vehicles enabling the exploration of space.", "Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of revolutionary technologies such as rubbers, plastics, semiconductors, and biomaterials.Before the 1960s (and in some cases decades after), many eventual ''materials science'' departments were ''metallurgy'' or ''ceramics engineering'' departments, reflecting the 19th and early 20th-century emphasis on metals and ceramics.", "The growth of materials science in the United States was catalyzed in part by the Advanced Research Projects Agency, which funded a series of university-hosted laboratories in the early 1960s, \"to expand the national program of basic research and training in the materials sciences.\"", "In comparison with mechanical engineering, the nascent material science field focused on addressing materials from the macro-level and on the approach that materials are designed on the basis of knowledge of behavior at the microscopic level.", "Due to the expanded knowledge of the link between atomic and molecular processes as well as the overall properties of materials, the design of materials came to be based on specific desired properties.", "The materials science field has since broadened to include every class of materials, including ceramics, polymers, semiconductors, magnetic materials, biomaterials, and nanomaterials, generally classified into three distinct groups: ceramics, metals, and polymers.", "The prominent change in materials science during the recent decades is active usage of computer simulations to find new materials, predict properties and understand phenomena." ], [ "Fundamentals", "The materials paradigm represented in the form of a tetrahedronA material is defined as a substance (most often a solid, but other condensed phases can be included) that is intended to be used for certain applications.", "There are a myriad of materials around us; they can be found in anything from buildings and cars to spacecraft.", "The main classes of materials are metals, semiconductors, ceramics and polymers.", "New and advanced materials that are being developed include nanomaterials, biomaterials, and energy materials to name a few.The basis of materials science is studying the interplay between the structure of materials, the processing methods to make that material, and the resulting material properties.", "The complex combination of these produce the performance of a material in a specific application.", "Many features across many length scales impact material performance, from the constituent chemical elements, its microstructure, and macroscopic features from processing.", "Together with the laws of thermodynamics and kinetics materials scientists aim to understand and improve materials.===Structure===Structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science.", "The very definition of the field holds that it is concerned with the investigation of \"the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials\".", "Materials science examines the structure of materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale.", "Characterization is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material.", "This involves methods such as diffraction with X-rays, electrons or neutrons, and various forms of spectroscopy and chemical analysis such as Raman spectroscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy, chromatography, thermal analysis, electron microscope analysis, etc.Structure is studied in the following levels.====Atomic structure====Atomic structure deals with the atoms of the materials, and how they are arranged to give rise to molecules, crystals, etc.", "Much of the electrical, magnetic and chemical properties of materials arise from this level of structure.", "The length scales involved are in angstroms (Å).", "The chemical bonding and atomic arrangement (crystallography) are fundamental to studying the properties and behavior of any material.=====Bonding=====To obtain a full understanding of the material structure and how it relates to its properties, the materials scientist must study how the different atoms, ions and molecules are arranged and bonded to each other.", "This involves the study and use of quantum chemistry or quantum physics.", "Solid-state physics, solid-state chemistry and physical chemistry are also involved in the study of bonding and structure.=====Crystallography=====Crystal structure of a perovskite with a chemical formula ABX3Crystallography is the science that examines the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids.", "Crystallography is a useful tool for materials scientists.", "In single crystals, the effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically, because the natural shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure.", "Further, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects.", "The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding crystallographic defects.", "Mostly, materials do not occur as a single crystal, but in polycrystalline form, as an aggregate of small crystals or grains with different orientations.", "Because of this, the powder diffraction method, which uses diffraction patterns of polycrystalline samples with a large number of crystals, plays an important role in structural determination.", "Most materials have a crystalline structure, but some important materials do not exhibit regular crystal structure.", "Polymers display varying degrees of crystallinity, and many are completely non-crystalline.", "Glass, some ceramics, and many natural materials are amorphous, not possessing any long-range order in their atomic arrangements.", "The study of polymers combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to give thermodynamic and mechanical descriptions of physical properties.====Nanostructure====Buckminsterfullerene nanostructureMaterials, which atoms and molecules form constituents in the nanoscale (i.e., they form nanostructure) are called nanomaterials.", "Nanomaterials are subject of intense research in the materials science community due to the unique properties that they exhibit.Nanostructure deals with objects and structures that are in the 1 – 100 nm range.", "In many materials, atoms or molecules agglomerate together to form objects at the nanoscale.", "This causes many interesting electrical, magnetic, optical, and mechanical properties.In describing nanostructures, it is necessary to differentiate between the number of dimensions on the nanoscale.Nanotextured surfaces have ''one dimension'' on the nanoscale, i.e., only the thickness of the surface of an object is between 0.1 and 100 nm.Nanotubes have ''two dimensions'' on the nanoscale, i.e., the diameter of the tube is between 0.1 and 100 nm; its length could be much greater.Finally, spherical nanoparticles have ''three dimensions'' on the nanoscale, i.e., the particle is between 0.1 and 100 nm in each spatial dimension.", "The terms nanoparticles and ultrafine particles (UFP) often are used synonymously although UFP can reach into the micrometre range.", "The term 'nanostructure' is often used, when referring to magnetic technology.", "Nanoscale structure in biology is often called ultrastructure.====Microstructure====Microstructure of pearliteMicrostructure is defined as the structure of a prepared surface or thin foil of material as revealed by a microscope above 25× magnification.", "It deals with objects from 100 nm to a few cm.", "The microstructure of a material (which can be broadly classified into metallic, polymeric, ceramic and composite) can strongly influence physical properties such as strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance, high/low temperature behavior, wear resistance, and so on.", "Most of the traditional materials (such as metals and ceramics) are microstructured.The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is physically impossible.", "For example, any crystalline material will contain defects such as precipitates, grain boundaries (Hall–Petch relationship), vacancies, interstitial atoms or substitutional atoms.", "The microstructure of materials reveals these larger defects and advances in simulation have allowed an increased understanding of how defects can be used to enhance material properties.====Macrostructure====Macrostructure is the appearance of a material in the scale millimeters to meters, it is the structure of the material as seen with the naked eye.===Properties===Materials exhibit myriad properties, including the following.", ":*Mechanical properties, see Strength of materials:*Chemical properties, see Chemistry:*Electrical properties, see Electricity:*Thermal properties, see Thermodynamics:*Optical properties, see Optics and Photonics:*Magnetic properties, see MagnetismThe properties of a material determine its usability and hence its engineering application.===Processing===Synthesis and processing involves the creation of a material with the desired micro-nanostructure.", "A material cannot be used in industry if no economically viable production method for it has been developed.", "Therefore, developing processing methods for materials that are reasonably effective and cost-efficient is vital to the field of materials science.", "Different materials require different processing or synthesis methods.", "For example, the processing of metals has historically defined eras such as the Bronze Age and Iron Age and is studied under the branch of materials science named ''physical metallurgy''.", "Chemical and physical methods are also used to synthesize other materials such as polymers, ceramics, semiconductors, and thin films.", "As of the early 21st century, new methods are being developed to synthesize nanomaterials such as graphene.===Thermodynamics===A phase diagram for a binary system displaying a eutectic pointThermodynamics is concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work.", "It defines macroscopic variables, such as internal energy, entropy, and pressure, that partly describe a body of matter or radiation.", "It states that the behavior of those variables is subject to general constraints common to all materials.", "These general constraints are expressed in the four laws of thermodynamics.", "Thermodynamics describes the bulk behavior of the body, not the microscopic behaviors of the very large numbers of its microscopic constituents, such as molecules.", "The behavior of these microscopic particles is described by, and the laws of thermodynamics are derived from, statistical mechanics.The study of thermodynamics is fundamental to materials science.", "It forms the foundation to treat general phenomena in materials science and engineering, including chemical reactions, magnetism, polarizability, and elasticity.", "It explains fundamental tools such as phase diagrams and concepts such as phase equilibrium.===Kinetics===Chemical kinetics is the study of the rates at which systems that are out of equilibrium change under the influence of various forces.", "When applied to materials science, it deals with how a material changes with time (moves from non-equilibrium to equilibrium state) due to application of a certain field.", "It details the rate of various processes evolving in materials including shape, size, composition and structure.", "Diffusion is important in the study of kinetics as this is the most common mechanism by which materials undergo change.", "Kinetics is essential in processing of materials because, among other things, it details how the microstructure changes with application of heat." ], [ "Research", "Materials science is a highly active area of research.", "Together with materials science departments, physics, chemistry, and many engineering departments are involved in materials research.", "Materials research covers a broad range of topics; the following non-exhaustive list highlights a few important research areas.===Nanomaterials===A scanning electron microscopy image of carbon nanotubes bundlesNanomaterials describe, in principle, materials of which a single unit is sized (in at least one dimension) between 1 and 1000 nanometers (10−9 meter), but is usually 1 nm – 100 nm.", "Nanomaterials research takes a materials science based approach to nanotechnology, using advances in materials metrology and synthesis, which have been developed in support of microfabrication research.", "Materials with structure at the nanoscale often have unique optical, electronic, or mechanical properties.", "The field of nanomaterials is loosely organized, like the traditional field of chemistry, into organic (carbon-based) nanomaterials, such as fullerenes, and inorganic nanomaterials based on other elements, such as silicon.", "Examples of nanomaterials include fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, nanocrystals, etc.===Biomaterials===The iridescent nacre inside a nautilus shellA biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems.", "The study of biomaterials is called ''bio materials science''.", "It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into developing new products.", "Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering, and materials science.Biomaterials can be derived either from nature or synthesized in a laboratory using a variety of chemical approaches using metallic components, polymers, bioceramics, or composite materials.", "They are often intended or adapted for medical applications, such as biomedical devices which perform, augment, or replace a natural function.", "Such functions may be benign, like being used for a heart valve, or may be bioactive with a more interactive functionality such as hydroxylapatite-coated hip implants.", "Biomaterials are also used every day in dental applications, surgery, and drug delivery.", "For example, a construct with impregnated pharmaceutical products can be placed into the body, which permits the prolonged release of a drug over an extended period of time.", "A biomaterial may also be an autograft, allograft or xenograft used as an organ transplant material.===Electronic, optical, and magnetic===Negative index metamaterialSemiconductors, metals, and ceramics are used today to form highly complex systems, such as integrated electronic circuits, optoelectronic devices, and magnetic and optical mass storage media.", "These materials form the basis of our modern computing world, and hence research into these materials is of vital importance.Semiconductors are a traditional example of these types of materials.", "They are materials that have properties that are intermediate between conductors and insulators.", "Their electrical conductivities are very sensitive to the concentration of impurities, which allows the use of doping to achieve desirable electronic properties.", "Hence, semiconductors form the basis of the traditional computer.This field also includes new areas of research such as superconducting materials, spintronics, metamaterials, etc.", "The study of these materials involves knowledge of materials science and solid-state physics or condensed matter physics.===Computational materials science===With continuing increases in computing power, simulating the behavior of materials has become possible.", "This enables materials scientists to understand behavior and mechanisms, design new materials, and explain properties formerly poorly understood.", "Efforts surrounding integrated computational materials engineering are now focusing on combining computational methods with experiments to drastically reduce the time and effort to optimize materials properties for a given application.", "This involves simulating materials at all length scales, using methods such as density functional theory, molecular dynamics, Monte Carlo, dislocation dynamics, phase field, finite element, and many more." ], [ "Industry", "Beverage containers of all three materials types: ceramic (glass), metal (aluminum), and polymer (plastic).Radical materials advances can drive the creation of new products or even new industries, but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used materials.", "Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial production of materials, processing methods (casting, rolling, welding, ion implantation, crystal growth, thin-film deposition, sintering, glassblowing, etc.", "), and analytic methods (characterization methods such as electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, calorimetry, nuclear microscopy (HEFIB), Rutherford backscattering, neutron diffraction, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), etc.", ").Besides material characterization, the material scientist or engineer also deals with extracting materials and converting them into useful forms.", "Thus ingot casting, foundry methods, blast furnace extraction, and electrolytic extraction are all part of the required knowledge of a materials engineer.", "Often the presence, absence, or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will greatly affect the final properties of the materials produced.", "For example, steels are classified based on 1/10 and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying elements they contain.", "Thus, the extracting and purifying methods used to extract iron in a blast furnace can affect the quality of steel that is produced.Solid materials are generally grouped into three basic classifications: ceramics, metals, and polymers.", "This broad classification is based on the empirical makeup and atomic structure of the solid materials, and most solids fall into one of these broad categories.", "An item that is often made from each of these materials types is the beverage container.", "The material types used for beverage containers accordingly provide different advantages and disadvantages, depending on the material used.", "Ceramic (glass) containers are optically transparent, impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide, relatively inexpensive, and are easily recycled, but are also heavy and fracture easily.", "Metal (aluminum alloy) is relatively strong, is a good barrier to the diffusion of carbon dioxide, and is easily recycled.", "However, the cans are opaque, expensive to produce, and are easily dented and punctured.", "Polymers (polyethylene plastic) are relatively strong, can be optically transparent, are inexpensive and lightweight, and can be recyclable, but are not as impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide as aluminum and glass.===Ceramics and glasses===Si3N4 ceramic bearing partsAnother application of materials science is the study of ceramics and glasses, typically the most brittle materials with industrial relevance.", "Many ceramics and glasses exhibit covalent or ionic-covalent bonding with SiO2 (silica) as a fundamental building block.", "Ceramics – not to be confused with raw, unfired clay – are usually seen in crystalline form.", "The vast majority of commercial glasses contain a metal oxide fused with silica.", "At the high temperatures used to prepare glass, the material is a viscous liquid which solidifies into a disordered state upon cooling.", "Windowpanes and eyeglasses are important examples.", "Fibers of glass are also used for long-range telecommunication and optical transmission.", "Scratch resistant Corning Gorilla Glass is a well-known example of the application of materials science to drastically improve the properties of common components.Engineering ceramics are known for their stiffness and stability under high temperatures, compression and electrical stress.", "Alumina, silicon carbide, and tungsten carbide are made from a fine powder of their constituents in a process of sintering with a binder.", "Hot pressing provides higher density material.", "Chemical vapor deposition can place a film of a ceramic on another material.", "Cermets are ceramic particles containing some metals.", "The wear resistance of tools is derived from cemented carbides with the metal phase of cobalt and nickel typically added to modify properties.Ceramics can be significantly strengthened for engineering applications using the principle of crack deflection.", "This process involves the strategic addition of second-phase particles within a ceramic matrix, optimizing their shape, size, and distribution to direct and control crack propagation.", "This approach enhances fracture toughness, paving the way for the creation of advanced, high-performance ceramics in various industries.===Composites===A 6 μm diameter carbon filament (running from bottom left to top right) siting atop the much larger human hairAnother application of materials science in industry is making composite materials.", "These are structured materials composed of two or more macroscopic phases.Applications range from structural elements such as steel-reinforced concrete, to the thermal insulating tiles, which play a key and integral role in NASA's Space Shuttle thermal protection system, which is used to protect the surface of the shuttle from the heat of re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere.", "One example is reinforced Carbon-Carbon (RCC), the light gray material, which withstands re-entry temperatures up to and protects the Space Shuttle's wing leading edges and nose cap.", "RCC is a laminated composite material made from graphite rayon cloth and impregnated with a phenolic resin.", "After curing at high temperature in an autoclave, the laminate is pyrolized to convert the resin to carbon, impregnated with furfuryl alcohol in a vacuum chamber, and cured-pyrolized to convert the furfuryl alcohol to carbon.", "To provide oxidation resistance for reusability, the outer layers of the RCC are converted to silicon carbide.Other examples can be seen in the \"plastic\" casings of television sets, cell-phones and so on.", "These plastic casings are usually a composite material made up of a thermoplastic matrix such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) in which calcium carbonate chalk, talc, glass fibers or carbon fibers have been added for added strength, bulk, or electrostatic dispersion.", "These additions may be termed reinforcing fibers, or dispersants, depending on their purpose.===Polymers===The repeating unit of the polymer polypropyleneExpanded polystyrene polymer packagingPolymers are chemical compounds made up of a large number of identical components linked together like chains.", "Polymers are the raw materials (the resins) used to make what are commonly called plastics and rubber.", "Plastics and rubber are the final product, created after one or more polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing, which is then shaped into a final form.", "Plastics in former and in current widespread use include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene, nylons, polyesters, acrylics, polyurethanes, and polycarbonates.", "Rubbers include natural rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, chloroprene, and butadiene rubber.", "Plastics are generally classified as ''commodity'', ''specialty'' and ''engineering'' plastics.Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is widely used, inexpensive, and annual production quantities are large.", "It lends itself to a vast array of applications, from artificial leather to electrical insulation and cabling, packaging, and containers.", "Its fabrication and processing are simple and well-established.", "The versatility of PVC is due to the wide range of plasticisers and other additives that it accepts.", "The term \"additives\" in polymer science refers to the chemicals and compounds added to the polymer base to modify its material properties.Polycarbonate would be normally considered an engineering plastic (other examples include PEEK, ABS).", "Such plastics are valued for their superior strengths and other special material properties.", "They are usually not used for disposable applications, unlike commodity plastics.Specialty plastics are materials with unique characteristics, such as ultra-high strength, electrical conductivity, electro-fluorescence, high thermal stability, etc.The dividing lines between the various types of plastics is not based on material but rather on their properties and applications.", "For example, polyethylene (PE) is a cheap, low friction polymer commonly used to make disposable bags for shopping and trash, and is considered a commodity plastic, whereas medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) is used for underground gas and water pipes, and another variety called ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is an engineering plastic which is used extensively as the glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted hip joints.===Metal alloys===Wire rope made from steel alloyThe alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steels) make up the largest proportion of metals today both by quantity and commercial value.Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low, mid and high carbon steels.", "An iron-carbon alloy is only considered steel if the carbon level is between 0.01% and 2.00% by weight.", "For steels, the hardness and tensile strength of the steel is related to the amount of carbon present, with increasing carbon levels also leading to lower ductility and toughness.", "Heat treatment processes such as quenching and tempering can significantly change these properties, however.", "In contrast, certain metal alloys exhibit unique properties where their size and density remain unchanged across a range of temperatures.", "Cast iron is defined as an iron–carbon alloy with more than 2.00%, but less than 6.67% carbon.", "Stainless steel is defined as a regular steel alloy with greater than 10% by weight alloying content of chromium.", "Nickel and molybdenum are typically also added in stainless steels.Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminium, titanium, copper and magnesium.", "Copper alloys have been known for a long time (since the Bronze Age), while the alloys of the other three metals have been relatively recently developed.", "Due to the chemical reactivity of these metals, the electrolytic extraction processes required were only developed relatively recently.", "The alloys of aluminium, titanium and magnesium are also known and valued for their high strength to weight ratios and, in the case of magnesium, their ability to provide electromagnetic shielding.", "These materials are ideal for situations where high strength to weight ratios are more important than bulk cost, such as in the aerospace industry and certain automotive engineering applications.===Semiconductors===A semiconductor is a material that has a resistivity between a conductor and insulator.", "Modern day electronics run on semiconductors, and the industry had an estimated US$530 billion market in 2021.Its electronic properties can be greatly altered through intentionally introducing impurities in a process referred to as doping.", "Semiconductor materials are used to build diodes, transistors, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and analog and digital electric circuits, among their many uses.", "Semiconductor devices have replaced thermionic devices like vacuum tubes in most applications.", "Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single discrete devices and as integrated circuits (ICs), which consist of a number—from a few to millions—of devices manufactured and interconnected on a single semiconductor substrate.Of all the semiconductors in use today, silicon makes up the largest portion both by quantity and commercial value.", "Monocrystalline silicon is used to produce wafers used in the semiconductor and electronics industry.", "Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is the second most popular semiconductor used.", "Due to its higher electron mobility and saturation velocity compared to silicon, it is a material of choice for high-speed electronics applications.", "These superior properties are compelling reasons to use GaAs circuitry in mobile phones, satellite communications, microwave point-to-point links and higher frequency radar systems.", "Other semiconductor materials include germanium, silicon carbide, and gallium nitride and have various applications." ], [ "Relation with other fields", "Google Ngram Viewer-diagram visualizing the search terms for complex matter terminology (1940–2018).", "Green: \"materials science\", red: \"condensed matter physics\" and blue: \"solid state physics\".Materials science evolved, starting from the 1950s because it was recognized that to create, discover and design new materials, one had to approach it in a unified manner.", "Thus, materials science and engineering emerged in many ways: renaming and/or combining existing metallurgy and ceramics engineering departments; splitting from existing solid state physics research (itself growing into condensed matter physics); pulling in relatively new polymer engineering and polymer science; recombining from the previous, as well as chemistry, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering; and more.The field of materials science and engineering is important both from a scientific perspective, as well as for applications field.", "Materials are of the utmost importance for engineers (or other applied fields) because usage of the appropriate materials is crucial when designing systems.", "As a result, materials science is an increasingly important part of an engineer's education.Materials physics is the use of physics to describe the physical properties of materials.", "It is a synthesis of physical sciences such as chemistry, solid mechanics, solid state physics, and materials science.", "Materials physics is considered a subset of condensed matter physics and applies fundamental condensed matter concepts to complex multiphase media, including materials of technological interest.", "Current fields that materials physicists work in include electronic, optical, and magnetic materials, novel materials and structures, quantum phenomena in materials, nonequilibrium physics, and soft condensed matter physics.", "New experimental and computational tools are constantly improving how materials systems are modeled and studied and are also fields when materials physicists work in.The field is inherently interdisciplinary, and the materials scientists or engineers must be aware and make use of the methods of the physicist, chemist and engineer.", "Conversely, fields such as life sciences and archaeology can inspire the development of new materials and processes, in bioinspired and paleoinspired approaches.", "Thus, there remain close relationships with these fields.", "Conversely, many physicists, chemists and engineers find themselves working in materials science due to the significant overlaps between the fields." ], [ "Emerging technologies", " Emerging technology Status Potentially marginalized technologies Potential applications Related articles Aerogel Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, early uses Traditional insulation, glass Improved insulation, insulative glass if it can be made clear, sleeves for oil pipelines, aerospace, high-heat & extreme cold applications Amorphous metal Experiments Kevlar Armor Conductive polymers Research, experiments, prototypes Conductors Lighter and cheaper wires, antistatic materials, organic solar cells Femtotechnology, picotechnology Hypothetical Present nuclear New materials; nuclear weapons, power Fullerene Experiments, diffusion Synthetic diamond and carbon nanotubes (Buckypaper) Programmable matter Graphene Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, early uses Silicon-based integrated circuit Components with higher strength to weight ratios, transistors that operate at higher frequency, lower cost of display screens in mobile devices, storing hydrogen for fuel cell powered cars, filtration systems, longer-lasting and faster-charging batteries, sensors to diagnose diseasesPotential applications of graphene High-temperature superconductivity Cryogenic receiver front-end (CRFE) RF and microwave filter systems for mobile phone base stations; prototypes in dry ice; Hypothetical and experiments for higher temperatures Copper wire, semiconductor integral circuits No loss conductors, frictionless bearings, magnetic levitation, lossless high-capacity accumulators, electric cars, heat-free integral circuits and processors LiTraCon Experiments, already used to make Europe Gate Glass Building skyscrapers, towers, and sculptures like Europe Gate Metamaterials Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion Classical optics Microscopes, cameras, metamaterial cloaking, cloaking devices Metal foam Research, commercialization Hulls Space colonies, floating cities Multi function structures Hypothetical, experiments, some prototypes, few commercial Composite materials Wide range, e.g., self-health monitoring, self-healing material, morphing Nanomaterials: carbon nanotubes Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, early uses Structural steel and aluminium Stronger, lighter materials, the space elevator Potential applications of carbon nanotubes, carbon fiber Programmable matter Hypothetical, experiments Coatings, catalysts Wide range, e.g., claytronics, synthetic biology Quantum dots Research, experiments, prototypes LCD, LED Quantum dot laser, future use as programmable matter in display technologies (TV, projection), optical data communications (high-speed data transmission), medicine (laser scalpel) Silicene Hypothetical, research Field-effect transistors" ], [ "Subdisciplines", "The main branches of materials science stem from the four main classes of materials: ceramics, metals, polymers and composites.", "* Ceramic engineering* Metallurgy* Polymer science and engineering* Composite engineeringThere are additionally broadly applicable, materials independent, endeavors.", "* Materials characterization (spectroscopy, microscopy, diffraction)* Computational materials science* Materials informatics and selectionThere are also relatively broad focuses across materials on specific phenomena and techniques.", "* Crystallography* Surface science* Tribology* Microelectronics" ], [ "Related or interdisciplinary fields", "* Condensed matter physics, solid-state physics and solid-state chemistry* Nanotechnology* Mineralogy* Supramolecular chemistry* Biomaterials science" ], [ "Professional societies", "* American Ceramic Society* ASM International* Association for Iron and Steel Technology* Materials Research Society* The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society" ], [ "See also", "* Bio-based material* Bioplastic* Forensic materials engineering* List of emerging materials science technologies* List of materials science journals* List of materials analysis methods* Materials science in science fiction* Timeline of materials technology" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Timeline of Materials Science at The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS) accessed March 2007* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* MS&T conference organized by the main materials societies* MIT OpenCourseWare for MSE*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mitsubishi A6M Zero" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Mitsubishi A6M''' \"'''Zero'''\" is a long-range carrier-based fighter aircraft formerly manufactured by Mitsubishi Aircraft Company, a part of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries.", "It was operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) from 1940 to 1945.The A6M was designated as the , or the Mitsubishi A6M Rei-sen.", "The A6M was usually referred to by its pilots as the ''Reisen'' (, zero fighter), \"0\" being the last digit of the imperial year 2600 (1940) when it entered service with the Imperial Navy.", "The official Allied reporting name was \"'''Zeke'''\", although the name \"Zero\" was used colloquially as well.The Zero is considered to have been the most capable carrier-based fighter in the world when it was introduced early in World War II, combining excellent maneuverability and very long range.", "The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service also frequently used it as a land-based fighter.In early combat operations, the Zero gained a reputation as a dogfighter, achieving an outstanding kill ratio of 12 to 1, but by mid-1942 a combination of new tactics and the introduction of better equipment enabled Allied pilots to engage the Zero on generally equal terms.", "By 1943, the Zero was less effective against newer Allied fighters.", "The Zero lacked hydraulic boosting for its ailerons and rudder, rendering it difficult to maneuver at high speeds.", "By 1944, with Allied fighters approaching the A6M levels of maneuverability and consistently exceeding its firepower, armor, and speed, the A6M had largely become outdated as a fighter aircraft.", "However, as design delays and production difficulties hampered the introduction of newer Japanese aircraft models, the Zero continued to serve in a front-line role until the end of the war in the Pacific.", "During the final phases, it was also adapted for use in ''kamikaze'' operations.", "Japan produced more Zeros than any other model of combat aircraft during the war." ], [ "Design and development", "The Mitsubishi A5M fighter was just entering service in early 1937, when the Imperial Japanese Navy started looking for its eventual replacement.", "On 5 October 1937, it issued \"Planning Requirements for the Prototype 12-shi Carrier-based Fighter\", sending them to Nakajima and Mitsubishi.", "Both firms started preliminary design work while awaiting more definitive requirements a few months later.Based on the experiences of the A5M in China, the IJN sent out updated requirements in October, calling for a speed of at and a climb to in 9.5 minutes.", "With drop tanks, the IJN wanted an endurance of two hours at normal power, or six to eight hours at economical cruising speed.", "Armament was to consist of two 20mm cannons, two 7.7 mm (.303 in) machine guns and two bombs.", "A complete radio set was to be mounted in all aircraft, along with a radio direction finder for long-range navigation.", "The maneuverability was to be at least equal to that of the A5M, while the wingspan had to be less than to allow for use on aircraft carriers.Nakajima's team considered the new requirements unachievable and pulled out of the competition in January.", "Mitsubishi's chief designer, Jiro Horikoshi, thought that the requirements could be met, but only if the aircraft were made as light as possible.", "Every possible weight-saving measure was incorporated into the design.", "Most of the aircraft was built of a new top-secret aluminium alloy developed by Sumitomo Metal Industries in 1936.Called \"extra super duralumin,\" it was lighter, stronger and more ductile than other alloys used at the time but was prone to corrosive attack, which made it brittle.", "This detrimental effect was countered with a zinc chromate anti-corrosion coating applied after fabrication.", "No armour protection was provided for the pilot, engine or other critical points of the aircraft, and self-sealing fuel tanks, which were becoming common among other combatants, were not used.", "This made the Zero lighter, more maneuverable, and one of the longest-ranged single-engine fighters of World War II, which made it capable of searching out an enemy hundreds of kilometres away, bringing it to battle, then returning to its base or aircraft carrier.", "However, that tradeoff in weight and construction also made it prone to catching fire and exploding when struck by enemy fire.With its low-wing cantilever monoplane layout, retractable wide-set conventional landing gear, and enclosed cockpit, the Zero was one of the most modern carrier-based aircraft in the world at the time of its introduction.", "It had a fairly high-lift, low-speed wing with very low wing loading.", "Combined with its light weight, this resulted in a very low stalling speed of well below .", "This was the main reason for its phenomenal maneuverability, allowing it to out-turn any Allied fighter of the time.", "Early models were fitted with servo tabs on the ailerons after pilots complained that control forces became too heavy at speeds above .", "They were discontinued on later models after it was found that the lightened control forces were causing pilots to overstress the wings during vigorous maneuvers.===Name===The A6M is usually known as the \"Zero\" from its Japanese Navy type designation, Type 0 carrier fighter (''Rei shiki Kanjō sentōki'', ), taken from the last digit of the Imperial year 2600 (1940) when it entered service.", "In Japan, it was unofficially referred to as both ''Rei-sen'' and ''Zero-sen''; Japanese pilots most commonly called it ''Zero-sen,'' where ''sen'' is the first syllable of ''sentōki,'' Japanese for \"fighter plane\".", "In the official designation \"A6M\", the \"A\" signified a carrier-based fighter, \"6\" meant that it was the sixth such model built for the Imperial Navy, and \"M\" indicated Mitsubishi as the manufacturer.The official Allied code name was \"Zeke\", in keeping with the practice of giving male names to Japanese fighters, female names to bombers, bird names to gliders, and tree names to trainers.", "\"Zeke\" was part of the first batch of \"hillbilly\" code names assigned by Captain Frank T. McCoy of Nashville, Tennessee (assigned to the Allied Technical Air Intelligence Unit at Eagle Farm Airport in Australia), who wanted quick, distinctive, easy-to-remember names.", "The Allied code for Japanese aircraft was introduced in 1942, and McCoy chose \"Zeke\" for the \"Zero\".", "Later, two variants of the fighter received their own code names.", "The Nakajima A6M2-N floatplane version of the Zero was called \"Rufe\", and the A6M3-32 variant was initially called \"Hap\".", "General \"Hap\" Arnold, commander of the United States Army Air Forces, objected to that name, however, so it was changed to \"Hamp\"." ], [ "Operational history", "attack Pearl HarborThe cockpit (starboard console) of an A6M2 which crashed into Building 52 at Fort Kamehameha during the attack on Pearl Harbor, killing the pilot.Mitsubishi A6M3 Zero wreck abandoned at Munda Airfield, Central Solomons, 1943A6M2 Zero photo c. 2004Carrier A6M2 and A6M3 Zeros from the aircraft carrier ''Zuikaku'' preparing for a mission at RabaulA6M3 Model 22, flown by Japanese ace Hiroyoshi Nishizawa over the Solomon Islands, 1943Wrecked A6M Zero in Peleliu jungleThe first Zeros (pre-series of 15 A6M2) went into operation with the 12th Rengo Kōkūtai in July 1940.On 13 September 1940, the Zeros scored their first air-to-air victories when 13 A6M2s led by Lieutenant Saburo Shindo, escorting 27 G3M \"Nell\" medium-heavy bombers on a raid of Chongqing, attacked 34 Soviet-built Polikarpov I-15s and I-16s of the Chinese Nationalist Air Force, claimed \"all 27\" of the Chinese fighters shot down without loss to themselves.", "However Major Louie Yim-qun had in fact nursed his I-15 riddled with 48 bullet holes back to base, and Lieutenant Gao Youxin claimed to have shot down one Zero, but at most 4 Zeroes sustained some damage in the 1/2 hour-long dogfight over Chongqing.", "By the time they were redeployed a year later, the Zeros had shot down 99 Chinese aircraft (up to 266 according to other sources).At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, 521 Zeros were active in the Pacific, 328 in first-line units.", "The carrier-borne Model 21 was the type encountered by the Americans.", "Its tremendous range of over allowed it to range farther from its carrier than expected, appearing over distant battlefronts and giving Allied commanders the impression that there were several times as many Zeros as actually existed.The Zero quickly gained a fearsome reputation.", "Thanks to a combination of unsurpassed maneuverability—compared to contemporary Axis fighters—and excellent firepower, it easily disposed of Allied aircraft sent against it in the Pacific in 1941.It proved a difficult opponent even for the Supermarine Spitfire.", "\"The RAF pilots were trained in methods that were excellent against German and Italian equipment but suicide against the acrobatic Japs\", as Lieutenant General Claire Lee Chennault noted.", "Although not as fast as the British fighter, the Zero could out-turn the Spitfire with ease, sustain a climb at a very steep angle, and stay in the air for three times as long.Allied pilots soon developed tactics to cope with the Zero.", "Because of its extreme agility, engaging a Zero in a traditional turning dogfight was likely to be fatal.", "It was better to swoop down from above in a high-speed pass, fire a quick burst, then climb quickly back up to altitude.", "A short burst of fire from heavy machine guns or cannon was often enough to bring down the fragile Zero.", "These tactics were regularly employed by Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters during Guadalcanal defense through high-altitude ambush, which was possible with an early warning system consisting of Coastwatchers and radar.", "Such \"boom-and-zoom\" tactics were also successfully used in the China Burma India Theater by the \"Flying Tigers\" of the American Volunteer Group (AVG) against similarly maneuverable Japanese Army aircraft such as the Nakajima Ki-27 \"Nate\" and Nakajima Ki-43 \"Oscar\".", "AVG pilots were trained by their commander Claire Chennault to exploit the advantages of their P-40 Warhawks, which were very sturdy, heavily armed, generally faster in a dive, and level flight at low altitude, with a good rate of roll.Another important maneuver was Lieutenant Commander John S. \"Jimmy\" Thach's \"Thach Weave\", in which two fighters would fly about apart.", "If a Zero latched onto the tail of one of the fighters, the two aircraft would turn toward each other.", "If the Zero followed his original target through the turn, he would come into a position to be fired on by the target's wingman.", "This tactic was first used to good effect during the Battle of Midway and later over the Solomon Islands.Many highly experienced Japanese aviators were lost in combat, resulting in a progressive decline in pilot quality, which became a significant factor in Allied successes.", "Unexpected heavy losses of pilots at the Battles of the Coral Sea and Midway dealt the Japanese carrier air force a blow from which it never fully recovered.Short film ''Recognition of the Japanese Zero Fighter'' (1943), intended to help U.S. airmen quickly distinguish the Zero from friendly aircraft, with Ronald Reagan as pilot Saunders.Throughout the Battle of Midway Allied pilots expressed a high level of dissatisfaction with the F4F Wildcat.", "Captain Elliott Buckmaster, commanding officer of notes: They were astounded by the Zero's superiority:In contrast, Allied fighters were designed with ruggedness and pilot protection in mind.", "The Japanese ace Saburō Sakai described how the toughness of early Grumman aircraft was a factor in preventing the Zero from attaining total domination: When the Lockheed P-38 Lightning, armed with four \"light barrel\" AN/M2 .50 cal.", "Browning machine guns and one 20 mm autocannon, and the Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair, each with six AN/M2 .50 calibre Browning guns, appeared in the Pacific theater, the A6M, with its low-powered engine and lighter armament, was hard-pressed to remain competitive.", "In combat with an F6F or F4U, the only positive thing that could be said of the Zero at this stage of the war was that, in the hands of a skillful pilot, it could maneuver as well as most of its opponents.", "Nonetheless, in competent hands, the Zero could still be deadly.", "Because of shortages of high-powered aviation engines and problems with planned successor models, namely the superior Mitsubishi A7M2 Reppū, the Zero remained in production until 1945, with over 10,000 of all variants produced.===Allied analysis======= Chinese opinions ====The Japanese deployed the A6M during the Second Sino-Japanese War.", "Inevitably some aircraft were lost, with at least two falling more-or-less intact into Chinese hands.", "The first known example, an A6M2 (the 12th of the 15th pre-production aircraft, Serial V-110), fell near Fainan Island.", "On 18 September 1940 a team, including Western volunteers assisting the Chinese, examined the wreck.", "It was largely intact, and a detail report was compiled and sent to the U.S.", "The second, an A6M2-21 (Serial V-173), made a forced landing near Tietsan airfield 17 February 1941.The pilot was shot before he could destroy his plane, the fuel system fixed, and it was taken into Chinese service.", "The plane was extensively flown and studied by a team which included Gerhard Neumann, and a detailed and illustrated report was sent to Washington.", "Overall they were impressed with the quality of the aircraft, less so by the performance—although this was later put down to using 85 octane fuel rather than the 100 octane required by the Sakae engine.====American opinions====The American military discovered many of the A6M's unique attributes when they recovered a largely intact specimen of an A6M2, the Akutan Zero, on Akutan Island in the Aleutians.", "During an air raid over Dutch Harbor on 4 June 1942, one A6M fighter was hit by ground-based anti-aircraft fire.", "Losing oil, Flight Petty Officer Tadayoshi Koga attempted an emergency landing on Akutan Island about northeast of Dutch Harbor, but his Zero flipped over on soft ground in a sudden crash-landing.", "Koga died instantly of head injuries (his neck was broken by the tremendous impact), but his wingmen hoped he had survived and so went against Japanese doctrine to destroy disabled Zeros.", "The relatively undamaged fighter was found over a month later by an American salvage team and was shipped to Naval Air Station North Island, where testing flights of the repaired A6M revealed both strengths and deficiencies in design and performance.The experts who evaluated the captured Zero found that the plane weighed about fully loaded, some lighter than the F4F Wildcat, the standard United States Navy fighter of the time.", "The A6M's airframe was \"built like a fine watch\"; the Zero was constructed with flush rivets, and even the guns were flush with the wings.", "The instrument panel was a \"marvel of simplicity… with no superfluities to distract the pilot\".", "What most impressed the experts was that the Zero's fuselage and wings were constructed in one piece, unlike the American method that built them separately and joined the two parts together.", "The Japanese method was much slower but resulted in a very strong structure and improved close maneuverability.American test pilots found that the Zero's controls were \"very light\" at but stiffened at speeds above to safeguard against wing failure.", "The Zero could not keep up with Allied aircraft in high-speed maneuvers, and its low \"never exceed speed\" (VNE) made it vulnerable in a dive.", "Testing also revealed that the Zero could not roll as quickly to the right as it could to the left, which could be exploited.", "While stable on the ground despite its light weight, the aircraft was designed purely for the attack role, emphasizing long range, maneuverability, and firepower at the expense of protection of its pilot.", "Most lacked self-sealing tanks and armor plating.====British opinions====Captain Eric Brown, the chief naval test pilot of the Royal Navy, recalled being impressed by the Zero during tests of captured aircraft.", "\"I don't think I have ever flown a fighter that could match the rate of turn of the Zero.", "The Zero had ruled the roost totally and was the finest fighter in the world until mid-1943.\"" ], [ "Variants", "center===A6M1, Type 0 Prototypes===The first two A6M1 prototypes were completed in March 1939, powered by the Mitsubishi Zuisei 13 engine with a two-blade propeller.", "It first flew on 1 April, and passed testing within a remarkably short period.", "By September, it had already been accepted for Navy testing as the A6M1 Type 0 Carrier Fighter, with the only notable change being a switch to a three-bladed propeller to cure a vibration problem.===A6M2a Type 0 Model 11===Two Zeros over ChinaWhile the Navy was testing the first two prototypes, they suggested that the third be fitted with the Nakajima Sakae 12 engine instead.", "Mitsubishi had its own engine of this class in the form of the Kinsei, so they were somewhat reluctant to use the Sakae.", "Nevertheless, when the first A6M2 was completed in January 1940, the Sakae's extra power pushed the performance of the Zero well past the original specifications.The new version was so promising that the Navy had 15 built and shipped to China before they had completed testing.", "They arrived in Manchuria in July 1940, and first saw combat over Chongqing in August.", "There they proved to be completely untouchable by the Polikarpov I-16s and I-153s that had been such a problem for the A5Ms when in service.", "In one encounter, 13 Zeros shot down 27 I-15s and I-16s in under three minutes without loss.", "After hearing of these reports, the Navy immediately ordered the A6M2 into production as the Type 0 Carrier Fighter, Model 11.Reports of the Zero's performance slowly filtered back to the US.", "They were met with scepticism by most US military officials, who thought it impossible for the Japanese to build such an aircraft.===A6M2b Type 0 Model 21===A6M2 \"Zero\" Model 21 of ''Shōkaku'' prior to attack on Pearl Harbor, 7 December 1941 After the delivery of the 65th aircraft, a further change was worked into the production lines, which introduced folding wingtips to allow them to fit on aircraft carriers.", "The resulting Model 21 would become one of the most produced versions early in the war.", "A feature was the improved range with wing tank and drop tank.", "When the lines switched to updated models, 740 Model 21s had been completed by Mitsubishi, and another 800 by Nakajima.", "Two other versions of the Model 21 were built in small numbers, the Nakajima-built A6M2-N \"Rufe\" floatplane (based on the Model 11 with a slightly modified tail), and the A6M2-K two-seat trainer of which a total of 508 were built by Hitachi and the Sasebo Naval Air Arsenal.=== A6M3 Type 0 Model 32===A6M3 Model 32In 1941, Nakajima introduced the Sakae 21 engine, which used a two-speed supercharger for better altitude performance, and increased power to .", "A prototype Zero with the new engine was first flown on 15 July 1941.The new Sakae was slightly heavier and somewhat longer due to the larger supercharger, which moved the center of gravity too far forward on the existing airframe.", "To correct for this, the engine mountings were cut back by to move the engine toward the cockpit.", "This had the side effect of reducing the size of the main fuselage fuel tank (located between the engine and the cockpit) from to .", "The cowling was redesigned to enlarge the cowl flaps, revise the oil cooler air intake, and move the carburetor air intake to the upper half of the cowling.The wings were redesigned to reduce span, eliminate the folding tips, and square off the wingtips.", "The inboard edge of the aileron was moved outboard by one rib, and the wing fuel tanks were enlarged accordingly to .", "The two 20 mm wing cannon were upgraded from the Type 99 Mark l to the Mark II, which required a bulge in the sheet metal of the wing below each cannon.", "The wings also included larger ammunition boxes and thus allowing 100 rounds per cannon.The Sakae 21 engine and other changes increased maximum speed by only compared to the Model 21, but sacrificed nearly of range.", "Nevertheless, the Navy accepted the type and it entered production in April 1942.The shorter wingspan led to better roll, and the reduced drag allowed the diving speed to be increased to .", "On the downside, turning and range, which were the strengths of the Model 21, suffered due to smaller ailerons, decreased lift and greater fuel consumption.", "The shorter range proved a significant limitation during the Solomons Campaign, during which Zeros based at Rabaul had to travel nearly to their maximum range to reach Guadalcanal and return.", "Consequently, the Model 32 was unsuited to that campaign and was used mainly for shorter range offensive missions and interception.This variant was flown by only a small number of units, and only 343 were built.", "One example survives today, and is on display at the Tachiarai Peace Memorial Museum in Tachiarai, Fukuoka.===A6M3 Type 0 Model 22===In order to correct the deficiencies of the Model 32, a new version with folding wingtips and redesigned wing was introduced.", "The fuel tanks were moved to the outer wings, fuel lines for a drop tank were installed under each wing and the internal fuel capacity was increased to .", "More importantly, it regained its capabilities for long operating ranges, similar to the previous A6M2 Model 21, which was vastly shortened by the Model 32.However, before the new design type was accepted formally by the Navy, the A6M3 Model 22 already stood ready for service in December 1942.Approximately 560 aircraft of the new type had been produced in the meantime by Mitsubishi Jukogyo K.K.According to a theory, the very late production Model 22 might have had wings similar to the shortened, rounded-tip wing of the Model 52.One plane of such arrangement was photographed at Lakunai Airfield (\"Rabaul East\") in the second half of 1943, and has been published widely in a number of Japanese books.", "While the engine cowling is the same of previous Model 32 and 22, the theory proposes that the plane is an early production Model 52.The Model 32, 22, 22 kou, 52, 52 kou and 52 otsu were all powered by the Nakajima (''Sakae'') engine.", "That engine kept its designation in spite of changes in the exhaust system for the Model 52.===A6M4 Type 0 Model 41/42===Mitsubishi is unable to state with certainty that it ever used the designation \"A6M4\" or model numbers for it.", "However, \"A6M4\" does appear in a translation of a captured Japanese memo from a Naval Air Technical Arsenal, titled Quarterly Report on Research Experiments, dated 1 October 1942.It mentions a \"cross-section of the A6M4 intercooler\" then being designed.", "Some researchers believe \"A6M4\" was applied to one or two prototype planes fitted with an experimental turbo-supercharged Sakae engine designed for high altitude.", "Mitsubishi's involvement in the project was probably quite limited or nil; the unmodified Sakae engine was made by Nakajima.", "The design and testing of the turbo-supercharger was the responsibility of the First Naval Air Technical Arsenal (, '''') at Yokosuka.", "At least one photo of a prototype plane exists.", "It shows a turbo unit mounted in the forward left fuselage.Lack of suitable alloys for use in the manufacture of a turbo-supercharger and its related ducting caused numerous ruptures, resulting in fires and poor performance.", "Consequently, further development of a turbo-supercharged A6M was cancelled.", "The lack of acceptance by the Navy suggests that it did not bestow model number 41 or 42 formally, although it appears that the arsenal did use the designation \"A6M4\".", "The prototype engines nevertheless provided useful experience for future engine designs.===A6M5 Type 0 Model 52===Atsugi Naval Air Base) and captured by US forces.A6M5c Zeros preparing to take part in a kamikaze attack in early 1945Sometimes considered as the most effective variant, the Model 52 was developed to again shorten the wings to increase speed and dispense with the folding wing mechanism.", "In addition, ailerons, aileron trim tab and flaps were revised.", "Produced first by Mitsubishi, most Model 52s were made by Nakajima.", "The prototype was made in June 1943 by modifying an A6M3 and was first flown in August 1943.The first Model 52 is said in the handling manual to have production number 3904, which apparently refers to the prototype.Research by Mr. Bunzo Komine published by Mr. Kenji Miyazaki states that aircraft 3904 through 4103 had the same exhaust system and cowl flaps as on the Model 22.This is partially corroborated by two wrecks researched by Mr. Stan Gajda and Mr. L. G. Halls, production number 4007 and 4043, respectively.", "(The upper cowling was slightly redesigned from that of the Model 22.", ")An early production A6M5 Zero with non-separated exhaust, with an A6M3 Model 22 in the background.A new exhaust system provided an increment of thrust by aiming the stacks aft and distributing them around the forward fuselage.", "The new exhaust system required \"notched\" cowl flaps and heat shields just aft of the stacks.", "(Note, however, that the handling manual translation states that the new style of exhaust commenced with number 3904.Whether this is correct, indicates retrofitting intentions, refers to the prototype but not to all subsequent planes, or is in error, is unclear.)", "From production number 4274, the wing fuel tanks received carbon dioxide fire extinguishers.", "From number 4354, the radio became the Model 3, aerial Mark 1, and at that point it is said the antenna mast was shortened slightly.", "Through production number 4550, the lowest exhaust stacks were approximately the same length as those immediately above them.", "This caused hot exhaust to burn the forward edge of the landing gear doors and heat the tires.", "Therefore, from number 4551 Mitsubishi began to install shorter bottom stacks.", "Nakajima manufactured the Model 52 at its Koizumi plant in Gunma Prefecture.", "The A6M5 had a maximum speed of at , reaching that altitude in 7:01 minutes.Subsequent variants included:* A6M5a, Model (''Kō'', 52a) – Starting at Mitsubishi number 4651, an armament change substituted the belt-fed Type 99-2 Mark 4 cannon, with 125 rounds per gun, in place of the drum-fed Type 99-2 Mark 3 cannon that carried 100 rounds per gun.", "Hence, the bulge in the underside of the wing for each cannon's ammunition drum was deleted and the ejection port for spent cartridge cases was moved.", "Thicker wing skinning was installed to permit higher diving speeds.", "* A6M5b, Model (''Otsu'', 52b) – Armament change: The 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 97 gun ( muzzle velocity and range) in the right forward fuselage was replaced by a 13.2 mm Type 3 Browning-derived gun ( muzzle velocity and range, with a rate of fire of 800 rounds per minute) with 240 rounds.", "The larger weapon required an enlarged opening, creating a distinctive asymmetric appearance to the top of the cowling, and a revised gas outlet near the windscreen.", "In addition, each wing cannon received a fairing at the wing leading edge.", "A plate of armored glass thick was fitted to the windscreen.", "A larger propeller spinner was fitted, suggesting a change to the propeller.", "The type of ventral drop tank was changed, it now had fins and was suspended on a slanted pipe.", "The first of this variant was completed in April 1944 and it was produced until October 1944.", "* A6M5c, Model (''Hei'', 52c) – Armament change: One 13.2 mm (.51 in) Type 3 machine gun was added in each wing outboard of the cannon, and the 7.7 mm gun on the left side of the cowl was deleted.", "Four racks for rockets or small bombs were installed outboard of the 13 mm gun in each wing.", "Engine change: Some sources state that the hei had a Sakae 31 engine In addition, a thick piece of armored glass was installed at the headrest and an thick plate of armor was installed behind the seat.", "The mounting of the central drop tank changed to a four-post design.", "Wing skin was thickened further.", "The first of this variant was completed in September 1944.Because of the gain in weight, this variant was used mainly for intercepting B-29s and special attack.", "* A6M5-S (A6M5 Yakan Sentōki) – Armament change: To intercept B-29s and other night-flying aircraft, an air arsenal converted some Model 52s to night fighters.", "They were armed with one 20 mm Type 99 cannon behind the pilot, aimed upward, similar in intent to the Luftwaffe's Schräge Musik installation.", "However, lack of radar prevented them from being very effective.Some Model 21 and 52 aircraft were converted to \"bakusen\" (fighter-bombers) by mounting a bomb rack and bomb in place of the centerline drop tank.Up to seven Model 52 planes were ostensibly converted into A6M5-K two-seat trainers.", "Mass production was contemplated by Hitachi, but not undertaken.===A6M6 Type 0 Model 53===The A6M6 was developed to use the Sakae 31a engine, featuring water-methanol engine boost and self-sealing wing tanks.", "During preliminary testing, its performance was considered unsatisfactory due to the additional engine power failing to materialize and the unreliability of the fuel injection system.", "Testing continued on the A6M6 but the end of war stopped further development.", "Only one prototype was produced.===A6M7 Type 0 Model 62/63===The A6M7 was the last variant to see service.", "It was designed to meet a requirement by the Navy for a dedicated attack/dive bomber version that could operate from smaller aircraft carriers or according to another source, replace the obsolete Aichi D3A.", "The A6M7 had considerable design changes compared to previous attempts to make the A6M suitable for dive bombing.", "This included a reinforced vertical stabilizer, a special bomb rack, provision of two 350-litre drop tanks and fixed bomb/rocket swing stoppers on the underside of the wings.", "It was also given a new powerplant, the Sakae-31 engine, producing 1,130 hp on take-off.", "The A6M7 had a similar armament layout to the A6M5c with the exception of the bomb centreline bomb rack, capable of carrying 250 kg or 500 kg bombs.", "Entering production in May 1945,the A6M7 was also used for Kamikaze attacks.===A6M8 Type 0 Model 64===A6M8 Type 64: one of two prototypes being tested by US Forces at Misawa Air BaseSimilar to the A6M6 but with the Sakae, now out of production, replaced by the Mitsubishi Kinsei 62 engine with , 60% more powerful than the A6M2's engine.", "This resulted in an extensively modified cowling and nose for the aircraft.", "The carburetor intake was much larger, a long duct like that on the Nakajima B6N Tenzan was added, and a large spinner — like that on the Yokosuka D4Y Suisei with the Kinsei 62 — was mounted.", "The armament consisted of two 13.2 mm (.52 in) Type 3 machine guns and two 20 mm (.80 in) Type 99 cannons in the wings.", "In addition, the Model 64 was modified to carry two drop tanks on either wing in order to permit the mounting of a bomb on the underside of the fuselage.", "Two prototypes were completed in April 1945 but the chaotic situation of Japanese industry and the end of the war obstructed the start of the ambitious program of production for 6,300 A6M8s, only the two prototypes being completed and flown." ], [ "Production", "+ A6M Production: Nagoya, Mitsubishi Jukogyo K.K.", "Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual 1939 1 1 1 3 1940 1 1 1 1 4 3 9 8 9 19 23 19 98 1941 23 23 30 27 30 26 25 30 33 43 52 60 402 1942 60 58 55 54 58 45 46 51 64 65 67 69 692 1943 68 69 73 73 73 73 77 85 93 105 110 130 1,029 1944 125 115 105 109 95 100 115 135 135 145 115 62 1,356 1945 35 59 40 37 38 23 15 52 299 Total 3,879Not included:* A second A6M1 was completed on 17 March 1939, but was written off without explanation after completing the company's flight test program in July 1940.+A6M Production: Ota, Nakajima Hikoki K.K.Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual 1941 1 6 7 1942 19 22 35 31 36 34 52 65 75 88 99 118 674 1943 110 119 133 144 148 152 153 156 243 182 202 225 1,967 1944 238 154 271 230 232 200 163 232 245 194 109 206 2,474 1945 216 108 207 230 247 185 138 85 1,416 Total 6,538===Trainer===+A6M Trainer Production: Chiba, Hitachi Kokuki K.K.", "and Omura, Dai-Nijuichi K.K.", "Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual 1943 4 5 6 8 8 8 10 10 10 12 12 15 110 1944 12 16 17 18 17 23 30 29 15 23 27 25 252 1945 23 8 34 21 31 23 15 155 Total 517===Total production===*According to USSBS Report: 10,934**includes: 10,094 A6M, 323 A6M2-N and 517 A6M-K builds.", "*According to Francillon: 11,291**includes: 10,449 A6M, 327 A6M2-N, 508 A6M2-K and 7 A6M5-K builds." ], [ "Surviving aircraft", "A6M2 Model 21 on display at the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, United States.", "This aircraft was made airworthy in the early 1980s before being grounded in 2002.A6M5 on display at the National Air and Space Museum, United StatesA6M5 on display at Yūshūkan in Tokyo, JapanA6M on display at the National Museum of Nature and Science, JapanNational Museum of the USAF, painted to represent a section leader's aircraft from the Japanese aircraft carrier ''Zuihō'' during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea.|alt=A propeller aircraft on display in a museum.", "The wing tips are folded up.2017 Red Bull Air Race of Chiba (N553TT)Like many surviving World War II Japanese aircraft, most surviving Zeros are made up of parts from multiple airframes.", "As a result, some are referred to by conflicting manufacturer serial numbers.", "Other planes, such as those recovered after decades in a wrecked condition, have been reconstructed to the extent that the majority of their structure is made up of modern parts.", "All of this means the identities of surviving aircraft can be difficult to confirm.", "Most flying Zeros have had their engines replaced with similar American units.", "Only one, the Planes of Fame Air Museum's A6M5, has the original Sakae engine.", "The rarity of flyable Zeros accounts for the use of single-seat North American T-6 Texans, with heavily modified fuselages and painted in Japanese markings, as substitutes for Zeros in the films ''Tora!", "Tora!", "Tora!", "'', ''The Final Countdown'', and many other television and film depictions of the aircraft, such as ''Baa Baa Black Sheep'' (renamed ''Black Sheep Squadron'').", "One Model 52 was used during the production of ''Pearl Harbor''.=== Australia ===* 840 – on display at the Australian Aviation Heritage Centre in Winnellie, Northern Territory.", "Wreckage of the forward fuselage, inboard wings, engine, and propeller.", "* 5784 – on display at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory.", "A restored A6M2-21 \"V-173\" was retrieved as a wreck after the war and later found to have been flown by Saburō Sakai at Lae.=== China ===* Unknown serial number – on display at the Beijing Military Museum=== Germany ===* Replica – on display at the Technik Museum Speyer in Speyer, Rhineland-Palatinate.", "Replica of the fuselage section on display at IWM London.===Indonesia===A6M on display at Dirgantara Mandala Museum, Indonesia* Unknown serial number – on display at the Dirgantara Mandala Museum in Yogyakarta.=== Japan ===* 1493 – on display at the Kawaguchiko Motor Museum in Fujikawaguchiko, Yamanashi.", "* 4168/4240/4241 – on display at the Yūshūkan in Chiyoda, Tokyo.", "* 4685 – on display at Hamamatsu Air Base in Hamamatsu, Shizuoka.", "* 4708 – on display at the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Museum in Komaki, Aichi.", "* 31870 – a two-seater on display at the National Museum of Nature and Science in Taito, Tokyo.", "* 62343 – on display at the Chiran Peace Museum for Kamikaze Pilots in Chiran, Kagoshima.", "* 82729 – on display at the Yamato Museum in Kure, Hiroshima.", "* 91518 – on display at the Kawaguchiko Motor Museum.", "* 92717 – on display at the Kawaguchiko Motor Museum.", "* Replica – on display at MCAS Iwakuni in Iwakuni, Yamaguchi.", "* Replica – used as movie prop for 2013 film ''The Eternal Zero''.", "On display at Usa City Peace Museum, Usa, Ōita Prefecture.=== New Zealand ===* 3835/3844 – on display at the Auckland War Memorial Museum in Auckland.", "It was taken to New Zealand from Bougainville in October 1945 on board the ferry ''Wahine'' which was being used to repatriate troops.", "The Zero had been caught on the ground on Bougainville, damaged in the bombing during the Bougainville campaign in November 1943.The plane had been hidden by the Japanese who had restored it with the goal of flying it off the island.", "The plane was retrieved by RNZAF intelligence officers in September 1945 at the Japanese airfield at Buin in southern Bougainville.=== United Kingdom ===* 196 – on display at the Imperial War Museum London in London, Greater London.", "Forward fuselage displayed.", "* 3685 – on display at the Imperial War Museum Duxford in Duxford, Cambridgeshire.", "3685 was salvaged from Taroa Island in 1991 and acquired by the museum in 2000, before being put on display in 2010.Fuselage displayed in unrestored condition.=== United States ===* 1303 – in storage at the Flying Heritage Collection in Everett, Washington.", "* * 3618 – in storage at Fantasy of Flight in Polk City, Florida.", "* 4043 – in storage at Fantasy of Flight.", "Along with several other Zeros, this aircraft was recovered by the Australian War Memorial Museum in the early 1970s from Rabaul in the South Pacific.", "The markings suggest that it was in service after June 1943 and further investigation suggests that it has cockpit features associated with the Nakajima-built Model 52b.", "If this is correct, it is most likely one of the 123 aircraft lost by the Japanese during the assault of Rabaul.", "The aircraft was shipped in pieces to the attraction and was eventually made up for display as a crashed aircraft.", "Much of the aircraft is usable for patterns, and some of its parts can be restored to one day make this a basis for a flyable aircraft.", "* 4340 – on display at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.* 4400 – in storage at the Flying Heritage Collection in Everett, Washington.", "* 5356/5451 – on display at the Pearl Harbor Aviation Museum in Honolulu, Hawaii.", "This aircraft was formerly flown by the Commemorative Air Force after being restored by Robert Diemert.", "* 5357 – owned by the Planes of Fame Air Museum in Chino, California.", "This aircraft, 61-120, is the only airworthy example powered with an original Sakae radial engine.", "* 5450 – on display at the National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola in Pensacola, Florida.", "* 23186 – on display at the San Diego Air & Space Museum in San Diego, California.", "This aircraft is on loan from the National Air and Space Museum.", "The museum previously had another Zero in its collection, msn 4323, but it was destroyed in a fire on 22 February 1978.", "* 51553 – on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio.", "It was restored by Century Aviation.", "* Replica – owned by Warren Pietsch at the Texas Flying Legends Museum in Houston, Texas.", "This aircraft, known as the \"Blayd\" Zero, is a reconstruction based on templating original Zero components recovered from the South Pacific.", "To be considered a \"restoration\" and not a reproduction, the builders used a small fraction of parts from the original Zero landing gear in the reconstruction.", "It was built as an A6M2 Model 21.This aircraft was damaged in a ground accident on 15 March 2016, when a Goodyear FG-1D Corsair taxiing behind it overran the tail of the Zero, with the Corsair's propeller shredding roughly the last third of the Zero's fuselage and its control surfaces.", "* Replica (3869) – owned by the Southern California Wing of the Commemorative Air Force in Camarillo, California.", "This aircraft is an A6M3 that was recovered from Babo Airfield, Indonesia, in 1991.It was partially restored from several A6M3s in Russia, then brought to the United States for restoration.", "The aircraft was re-registered in 1998 and displayed at the Museum of Flying in Santa Monica, California.", "It uses a Pratt & Whitney R-1830-75 engine.", "* Replica (3852) – owned by the Flying Heritage Collection in Everett, Washington.", "This aircraft was recovered from Babo Airfield and restored – first in Russia, then in California, and finally in Washington state – before being delivered to the Flying Heritage Collection.", "It has a P&W engine installed.", "* Replica (3858) – on display at Fagen Fighters WWII Museum in Granite Falls, Minnesota.", "Formerly owned by Masahide Ishizuka in Kanoya, Kagoshima.", "Pratt & Whitney R-1830 engine.", "*Replica – under airworthy rebuild by Legend Flyers in Everett, Washington for the Military Aviation Museum.", "This aircraft uses a small amount of parts from 3148." ], [ "Specifications (A6M2 (Type 0 Model 21))", "Orthographically projected diagram of the Mitsubishi A6M Zero" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Angelucci, Enzo and Peter M. Bowers.", "''The American Fighter''.", "Sparkford, UK: Haynes Publishing, 1987..* Fernandez, Ronald.", "''Excess Profits: The Rise of United Technologies''.", "Boston: Addison-Wesley, 1983..* Ford, Douglas.", "\"Informing Airmen?", "The U.S. Army Air Forces' Intelligence on Japanese Fighter Tactics in the Pacific Theatre, 1941–5,\" ''International History Review'' 34 (Dec. 2012), 725–52.", "* Francillon, R.J. ''Japanese Aircraft of the Pacific War''.", "London: Putnam, 1970, .", "* Glancey, Jonathan.", "''Spitfire: The Illustrated Biography''.", "London: Atlantic Books, 2006..* Green, William and Gordon Swanborough.", "''The Great Book of Fighters''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 2001..* Gunston, Bill.", "''Aircraft of World War 2''.", "London: Octopus Books Limited, 1980..* Holmes, Tony, ed.", "''Dogfight, The Greatest Air Duels of World War II''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2011..** Jablonski, Edward.", "''Airwar.''", "New York: Doubleday & Co., 1979..* James, Derek N. Gloster Aircraft since 1917.London: Putnam and Company Ltd., 1987..* Lundstrom, John B.", "''The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign''.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1994..* Matricardi, Paolo.", "''Aerei Militari.", "Caccia e Ricognitori'' (in Italian).", "Milan: Mondadori Electa, 2006.", "* Mikesh, Robert C. ''Warbird History: Zero, Combat & Development History of Japan's Legendary Mitsubishi A6M Zero Fighter''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1994..* Mikesh, Robert C. ''Zero Fighter''.", "New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1981; copyright Zokeisha Publications, Tokyo.", ".", "* Okumiya, Masatake and Jiro Horikoshi, with Martin Caidin.", "''Zero!''", "New York: E.P.", "Dutton & Co., 1956.", "* Nijboer, Donald.", "''Seafire Vs A6M Zero: Pacific Theatre''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2009..* Nohara, Shigeru.", "''Aero Detail 7: Mitsubishi A6M Zero Fighter''.", "Tokyo: Dai-Nippon Kaiga Co. Ltd, 1993..* Parshall, Jonathan and Anthony Tully.", "''Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway''.", "Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books Inc., 2007.(paperback).", "* \"Plane Facts: Zero-sen ancestry\".", "''Air International'', October 1973, Vol 3 No 4.pp. 199–200.", "* Smith, Peter C.''Mitsubishi Zero: Japan's Legendary Fighter''.", "Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Pen & Sword Books, 2015..** Spick, Mike.", "''Allied Fighter Aces of World War II''.", "London: Greenhill Books, 1997..* Stille, Mark.", "''Guadalcanal 1942–43: Japan's bid to knock out Henderson Field and the Cactus Air Force (Air Campaign).''", "Osprey Publishing, 2019..* Thompson, J. Steve with Peter C. Smith.", "''Air Combat Manoeuvres: The Technique and History of Air Fighting for Flight Simulation''.", "Hersham, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Publishing, 2008..* Thruelsen, Richard.", "''The Grumman Story''.", "Praeger Press, 1976..* Tillman, Barrett.", "''Hellcat: The F6F in World War II''.", "Naval Institute Press, 1979..* United States Strategic Bombing Survey Aircraft Division.", "''Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd.'' Corporation Report I, Washington, D.C.", "1947.", "* United States Strategic Bombing Survey Aircraft Division.", "''Nakajima Aircraft Company, Ltd.'' Corporation Report II, Washington, D.C.", "1947.", "* United States Strategic Bombing Survey Aircraft Division.", "''Hitachi Aircraft Company, Ltd.'' Corporation Report VII, Washington, D.C.", "1947.", "* United States Strategic Bombing Survey Aircraft Division.", "''Army Air Arsenal and Navy Air Depots'' Corporation Report XIX, Washington, D.C.", "1947.", "* Wilcox, Richard.", "\"The Zero: The first famed Japanese fighter captured intact reveals its secrets to U.S. Navy aerial experts\".", "''Life'', 4 November 1942.", "* Willmott, H.P.", "''Zero A6M''.", "London: Bison Books, 1980..* Yoshimura, Akira, translated by Retsu Kaiho and Michael Gregson.", "''Zero Fighter''.", "Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 1996..* Young, Edward M. ''F4F Wildcat vs A6M Zero-sen''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey, 2013.." ], [ "Further reading", "* Bueschel, Richard M. ''Mitsubishi A6M1/2/-2N Zero-Sen in Imperial Japanese Naval Air Service''.", "Canterbury, Kent, UK: Osprey Publications Ltd., 1970..* Francillon, René J.", "''The Mitsubishi A6M2 Zero-Sen (Aircraft in Profile number 129)''.", "Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1966.", "* Francillon, René J.", "The Mitsubishi A6M3 Zero-Sen (\"Hamp\") (Aircraft in Profile number 190).", "Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1967.", "* Jackson, Robert.", "''Combat Legend: Mitsubishi Zero''.", "Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 2003..* Juszczak, Artur.", "''Mitsubishi A6M Zero''.", "Tarnobrzeg, Poland/Redbourn, UK: Mushroom Model Publications, 2001..* Kinzey, Bert.", "''Attack on Pearl Harbor: Japan awakens a Sleeping Giant''.", "Blacksburg, Virginia, USA: Military Aviation Archives, 2010..* Marchand, Patrick and Junko Takamori.", "(Illustrator).", "''A6M Zero (Les Ailes de Gloire 2)'' (in French).", "Le Muy, France: Editions d’Along, 2000..* Mikesh, Robert C. and Rikyu Watanabe (Illustrator).", "''Zero Fighter''.", "London: Jane's Publishing Company Ltd., 1981..* Nohara, Shigeru.", "''A6M Zero in Action (Aircraft #59)''.", "Carrollton, Texas, USA: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 1983..* Nohara, Shigeru.", "''Mitsubishi A6M Zero Fighter (Aero Detail 7)'' (in Japanese with English captions).", "Tokyo, Japan: Dai Nippon Kaiga Company Ltd., 1993..* Okumiya, Masatake and Jiro Horikoshi (with Martin Caidin, ed.).", "''Zero!", "The Story of Japan's Air War in the Pacific: 1941–45''.", "New York: Ballantine Books, 1956.No ISBN.", "* \"Plane Facts: Zero-sen ancestry\".", "''Air International'', Vol.", "3, No.", "4, October 1973, pp. 199–200.", "* Richards, M.C.", "and Donald S. Smith.", "''Mitsubishi A6M5 to A6M8 'Zero-Sen' ('Zeke 52')(Aircraft in Profile number 236)''.", "Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1972.", "* Sakaida, Henry.", "''Imperial Japanese Navy Aces, 1937–45''.", "Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1998..* Sakaida, Henry.", "''The Siege of Rabaul''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: Phalanx Publishing, 1996..* Sheftall, M.G.", "''Blossoms in the Wind: Human Legacies of the Kamikaze''.", "New York: NAL Caliber, 2005..* Wilson, Stewart.", "''Zero, Hurricane & P-38, The Story of Three Classic Fighters of WW2 (Legends of the Air 4)''.", "Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd., 1996.." ], [ "External links", "** Tour A6M5 Zero cockpit* Mitsubishi A6M Zero Japanese fighter aircraft—design, construction, history* WW2DB: A6M Zero* www.j-aircraft.com: Quotes A6M* Mitsubishi A6M Reisen (Zero Fighter), Joao Paulo Julião Matsuura* Mitsubishi A6M2-K and A6M5-K, Joao Paulo Julião Matsuura* Nakajima A6M2-N, Joao Paulo Julião Matsuura* War Prize: The Capture of the First Japanese Zero Fighter in 1941;Video links***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 27" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1096 – Count Emicho enters Mainz, where his followers massacre Jewish citizens.", "At least 600 Jews are killed.", "*1120 – Richard III of Capua is anointed as Prince two weeks before his untimely death.", "*1153 – Malcolm IV becomes King of Scotland.", "*1199 – John is crowned King of England.", "*1257 – Richard of Cornwall, and his wife, Sanchia of Provence, are crowned King and Queen of the Germans at Aachen Cathedral.===1601–1900===*1644 – Manchu regent Dorgon defeats rebel leader Li Zicheng of the Shun dynasty at the Battle of Shanhai Pass, allowing the Manchus to enter and conquer the capital city of Beijing.", "*1703 – Tsar Peter the Great founds the city of Saint Petersburg.", "*1798 – The Battle of Oulart Hill takes place in Wexford, Ireland; Irish rebel leaders defeat and kill a detachment of militia.", "*1799 – War of the Second Coalition: Austrian forces defeat the French at Winterthur, Switzerland.", "*1813 – War of 1812: In Canada, American forces capture Fort George.", "*1860 – Giuseppe Garibaldi begins the Siege of Palermo, part of the wars of Italian unification.", "*1863 – American Civil War: The first Union infantry assault of the Siege of Port Hudson occurs.", "*1874 – The first group of Dorsland trekkers under the leadership of Gert Alberts leaves Pretoria.", "*1883 – Alexander III is crowned Tsar of Russia.", "*1896 – The F4-strength St. Louis–East St. Louis tornado hits in St. Louis, Missouri, and East St. Louis, Illinois, killing at least 255 people and causing over $10 million in damage.===1901–present===*1905 – Russo-Japanese War: The Battle of Tsushima begins.", "*1915 – HMS ''Princess Irene'' explodes and sinks off Sheerness, Kent, with the loss of 352 lives.", "*1917 – Pope Benedict XV promulgates the 1917 ''Code of Canon Law'', the first comprehensive codification of Catholic canon law in the legal history of the Catholic Church.", "*1919 – The NC-4 aircraft arrives in Lisbon after completing the first transatlantic flight.", "*1927 – The Ford Motor Company ceases manufacture of the Ford Model T and begins to retool plants to make the Ford Model A.", "*1930 – The Chrysler Building in New York City, the tallest man-made structure at the time, opens to the public.", "*1933 – New Deal: The U.S. Federal Securities Act is signed into law requiring the registration of securities with the Federal Trade Commission.", "*1935 – New Deal: The Supreme Court of the United States declares the National Industrial Recovery Act to be unconstitutional in ''A.L.A.", "Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States'', (295 U.S.", "495).", "*1937 – In California, the Golden Gate Bridge opens to pedestrian traffic, creating a vital link between San Francisco and Marin County, California.", "*1940 – World War II: In the Le Paradis massacre, 99 soldiers from a Royal Norfolk Regiment unit are shot after surrendering to German troops; two survive.", "*1941 – World War II: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt proclaims an \"unlimited national emergency\".", "* 1941 – World War II: The is sunk in the North Atlantic, killing almost 2,100 men.", "*1942 – World War II: In Operation Anthropoid, Reinhard Heydrich is fatally wounded in Prague; he dies of his injuries eight days later.", "*1950 – The Linnanmäki amusement park is opened for the first time in Helsinki.", "*1958 – First flight of the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II.", "*1960 – In Turkey, a military coup removes President Celâl Bayar and the rest of the democratic government from office.", "*1962 – The Centralia mine fire is ignited in the town's landfill above a coal mine.", "*1965 – Vietnam War: American warships begin the first bombardment of National Liberation Front targets within South Vietnam.", "*1967 – Australians vote in favor of a constitutional referendum granting the Australian government the power to make laws to benefit Indigenous Australians and to count them in the national census.", "* 1967 – The U.S. Navy aircraft carrier is launched by Jacqueline Kennedy and her daughter Caroline.", "*1971 – The Dahlerau train disaster, the worst railway accident in West Germany, kills 46 people and injures 25 near Wuppertal.", "* 1971 – Pakistani forces massacre over 200 civilians, mostly Bengali Hindus, in the Bagbati massacre.", "*1975 – Dibbles Bridge coach crash near Grassington, in North Yorkshire, England, kills 33 – the highest ever death toll in a road accident in the United Kingdom.", "*1977 – A plane crash at José Martí International Airport in Havana, Cuba, kills 67.", "*1980 – The Gwangju Massacre: Airborne and army troops of South Korea retake the city of Gwangju from civil militias, killing at least 207 and possibly many more.", "*1984 – The Danube–Black Sea Canal is opened, in a ceremony attended by the Ceaușescus.", "It had been under construction since the 1950s.", "*1988 – Somaliland War of Independence: The Somali National Movement launches a major offensive against Somali government forces in Hargeisa and Burao, then the second- and third-largest cities of Somalia.", "*1996 – First Chechen War: Russian President Boris Yeltsin meets with Chechnyan rebels for the first time and negotiates a cease-fire.", "*1997 – The 1997 Central Texas tornado outbreak occurs, spawning multiple tornadoes in Central Texas, including the F5 that killed 27 in Jarrell.", "*1998 – Oklahoma City bombing: Michael Fortier is sentenced to 12 years in prison and fined $200,000 for failing to warn authorities about the terrorist plot.", "*2001 – Members of Abu Sayyaf, an Islamist separatist group, seize twenty hostages from an affluent island resort on Palawan in the Philippines; the hostage crisis would not be resolved until June 2002.", "*2006 – The 6.4 Yogyakarta earthquake shakes central Java with an MSK intensity of VIII (''Damaging''), leaving more than 5,700 dead and 37,000 injured.", "*2016 – Barack Obama is the first president of United States to visit Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park and meet ''Hibakusha''.", "*2017 – Andrew Scheer takes over after Rona Ambrose as the leader of the Conservative Party of Canada.", "*2018 – Maryland Flood Event: A flood occurs throughout the Patapsco Valley, causing one death, destroying the entire first floors of buildings on Main Street in Ellicott City, and causing cars to overturn." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 742 – Emperor Dezong of Tang (d. 805)*1332 – Ibn Khaldun, Tunisian historian and theologian (d. 1406)*1378 – Zhu Quan, Chinese military commander, historian and playwright (d. 1448)*1519 – Girolamo Mei, Italian historian and theorist (d. 1594)*1537 – Louis IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Marburg (d. 1604)*1576 – Caspar Schoppe, German author and scholar (d. 1649)*1584 – Michael Altenburg, German theologian and composer (d. 1640)===1601–1900===*1601 – Antoine Daniel, French-Canadian missionary and saint (d. 1648)*1626 – William II, Prince of Orange (d. 1650)*1651 – Louis Antoine de Noailles, French cardinal (d. 1729)*1652 – Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine of Germany (d. 1722)*1738 – Nathaniel Gorham, American merchant and politician, 14th President of the Continental Congress (d. 1796)*1756 – Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria (d. 1825) *1774 – Francis Beaufort, Irish hydrographer and officer in the Royal Navy (d. 1857)*1794 – Cornelius Vanderbilt, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1877)*1814 – John Rudolph Niernsee, Viennese-born American architect (d.1885)*1815 – Henry Parkes, English-Australian politician, 7th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1896) *1818 – Amelia Bloomer, American journalist and activist (d. 1894)*1819 – Julia Ward Howe, American poet and songwriter (d. 1910)*1827 – Samuel F. Miller, American lawyer and politician (d. 1892)*1832 – Zenas Ferry Moody, American surveyor and politician, 7th Governor of Oregon (d. 1917)*1836 – Jay Gould, American businessman and financier (d. 1892)*1837 – Wild Bill Hickok, American police officer (d. 1876)*1852 – Billy Barnes, English cricketer (d. 1899)*1857 – Theodor Curtius, German chemist (d. 1928)*1860 – Manuel Teixeira Gomes, Portuguese politician, 7th President of Portugal (d. 1941)*1863 – Arthur Mold, English cricketer (d. 1921)*1867 – Arnold Bennett, English author and playwright (d. 1931)*1868 – Aleksa Šantić, Bosnian poet and author (d. 1924)*1871 – Georges Rouault, French painter and illustrator (d. 1958)*1875 – Frederick Cuming, English cricketer (d. 1942)*1876 – Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski, Polish journalist and author (d. 1945)* 1876 – William Stanier, English engineer (d. 1965)*1878 – Anna Cervin, Swedish artist (d. 1972)*1879 – Karl Bühler, German-American linguist and psychologist (d. 1963)* 1879 – Hans Lammers, German judge and politician (d. 1962)*1883 – Jessie Arms Botke, American painter (d. 1971)*1884 – Max Brod, Czech journalist, author, and composer (d. 1968)*1887 – Frank Woolley, English cricketer (d. 1978)*1888 – Louis Durey, French composer (d. 1979)*1891 – Claude Champagne, Canadian violinist, pianist, and composer (d. 1965)* 1891 – Jaan Kärner, Estonian poet and author (d. 1958)*1894 – Louis-Ferdinand Céline, French physician and author (d. 1961)* 1894 – Dashiell Hammett, American detective novelist and screenwriter (d. 1961)*1895 – Douglas Lloyd Campbell, Canadian educator and politician, 13th Premier of Manitoba (d. 1995)*1897 – John Cockcroft, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)* 1897 – Dink Templeton, American rugby player and coach (d. 1962)*1898 – David Crosthwait, American engineer, inventor and writer (d. 1976)*1899 – Johannes Türn, Estonian chess and draughts player (d. 1993)*1900 – Lotte Toberentz, German overseer of the Nazi Uckermark concentration camp (d. 1964)* 1900 – Uładzimir Žyłka, Belarusian poet and translator (d. 1933)===1901–present===*1906 – Buddhadasa, Thai monk and philosopher (d. 1993)* 1906 – Harry Hibbs, English footballer (d. 1984)* 1906 – Antonio Rosario Mennonna, Italian bishop (d. 2009)*1907 – Nicolas Calas, Greek-American poet and critic (d. 1988)* 1907 – Rachel Carson, American biologist, environmentalist, and author (d. 1964)*1909 – Dolores Hope, American singer and philanthropist (d. 2011)*1909 – Juan Vicente Pérez, Venezuelan supercentenarian, oldest living man, last man born in 1900s decade*1911 – Hubert Humphrey, American journalist and politician, 38th Vice President of the United States (d. 1978)* 1911 – Teddy Kollek, Hungarian-Israeli politician, Mayor of Jerusalem (d. 2007)* 1911 – Vincent Price, American actor (d. 1993)*1912 – John Cheever, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1982)* 1912 – Sam Snead, American golfer and sportscaster (d. 2002)* 1912 – Terry Moore, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1995)*1915 – Ester Soré, Chilean singer-songwriter (d. 1996)* 1915 – Herman Wouk, American novelist (d. 2019)*1917 – Harry Webster, English engineer (d. 2007)*1918 – Yasuhiro Nakasone, Japanese commander and politician, 45th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 2019)*1921 – Bob Godfrey, Australian-English animator, director, and voice actor (d. 2013)*1922 – Otto Carius, German lieutenant and pharmacist (d. 2015)* 1922 – Christopher Lee, English actor (d. 2015)* 1922 – John D. Vanderhoof, American banker and politician, 37th Governor of Colorado (d. 2013)*1923 – Henry Kissinger, German-American political scientist and politician, 56th United States Secretary of State, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2023)* 1923 – Sumner Redstone, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2020)*1924 – Jaime Lusinchi, Venezuelan physician and politician, President of Venezuela (d. 2014)* 1924 – John Sumner, English-Australian director, founded the Melbourne Theatre Company (d. 2013)*1925 – Tony Hillerman, American journalist and author (d. 2008)*1927 – Jüri Randviir, Estonian chess player and journalist (d. 1996)*1928 – Thea Musgrave, Scottish-American composer and educator*1930 – John Barth, American novelist and short story writer* 1930 – William S. Sessions, American civil servant and judge, 8th Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (d. 2020)* 1930 – Eino Tamberg, Estonian composer and educator (d. 2010)*1931 – André Barbeau, French-Canadian neurologist (d. 1986)* 1931 – John Chapple, English field marshal and politician, Governor of Gibraltar (d. 2022)* 1931 – Bernard Fresson, French actor (d. 2002)* 1931 – Faten Hamama, Egyptian actress and producer (d. 2015)* 1931 – Philip Kotler, American author and professor*1933 – Edward Samuel Rogers, Canadian businessman (d. 2008)* 1933 – Manfred Sommer, Spanish author and illustrator (d. 2007)*1934 – Ray Daviault, Canadian-American baseball player (d. 2020)* 1934 – Harlan Ellison, American author and screenwriter (d. 2018)*1935 – Daniel Colchico, American football player and coach (d. 2014)* 1935 – Mal Evans, British road manager of The Beatles (d. 1976)* 1935 – Jerry Kindall, American baseball player and coach (d. 2017)* 1935 – Ramsey Lewis, American jazz pianist and composer (d. 2022)* 1935 – Lee Meriwether, American model and actress, Miss America 1955 *1936 – Benjamin Bathurst, English admiral* 1936 – Louis Gossett Jr., American actor and producer* 1936 – Marcel Masse, Canadian educator and politician, 29th Canadian Minister of National Defence (d. 2014)*1937 – Allan Carr, American playwright and producer (d. 1999)*1939 – Simon Cairns, 6th Earl Cairns, English courtier and businessman* 1939 – Yves Duhaime, Canadian captain and politician* 1939 – Sokratis Kokkalis, Greek businessman* 1939 – Gerald Ronson, English businessman and philanthropist* 1939 – Lionel Sosa, Mexican-American advertising and marketing executive * 1939 – Don Williams, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017) *1940 – Mike Gibson, Australian journalist and sportscaster (d. 2015)*1942 – Lee Baca, American police officer* 1942 – Piers Courage, English racing driver (d. 1970)* 1942 – Roger Freeman, Baron Freeman, English accountant and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster* 1942 – Robin Widdows, English racing driver*1943 – Cilla Black, English singer and actress (d. 2015)* 1943 – Bruce Weitz, American actor*1944 – Christopher Dodd, American lawyer and politician* 1944 – Ingrid Roscoe, English historian and politician, Lord Lieutenant of West Yorkshire (d. 2020)* 1944 – Alain Souchon, French singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor*1945 – Bruce Cockburn, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist *1946 – Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, Danish bassist and composer (d. 2005)* 1946 – John Williams, English motorcycle racer (d. 1978)*1947 – Peter DeFazio, American politician* 1947 – Marty Kristian, German-Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor * 1947 – Branko Oblak, Slovenian footballer and coach* 1947 – Riivo Sinijärv, Estonian politician, 19th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs*1948 – Wubbo de Boer, Dutch civil servant (d. 2017)* 1948 – Pete Sears, English bass player * 1948 – Morning Glory Zell-Ravenheart, American occultist and author (d. 2014)*1949 – Hugh Lowther, 8th Earl of Lonsdale, English politician* 1949 – Christa Vahlensieck, German runner*1950 – Dee Dee Bridgewater, American singer-songwriter and actress * 1950 – Makis Dendrinos, Greek basketball player and coach (d. 2015)*1951 – John Conteh, English boxer*1954 – Pauline Hanson, Australian businesswoman, activist, and politician* 1954 – Jackie Slater, American football player and coach*1955 – Eric Bischoff, American wrestler, manager, and producer* 1955 – Richard Schiff, American actor, director, and producer* 1955 – Ian Tracey, English organist and conductor*1956 – Cynthia McFadden, American journalist* 1956 – Rosemary Squire, English producer and manager, co-founded Ambassador Theatre Group* 1956 – Giuseppe Tornatore, Italian director and screenwriter*1957 – Dag Terje Andersen, Norwegian politician, Norwegian Minister of Labour* 1957 – Nitin Gadkari, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Transport* 1957 – Eddie Harsch, Canadian-American keyboard player and bass player (d. 2016)* 1957 – Siouxsie Sioux, English singer-songwriter, musician, and producer*1958 – Nick Anstee, English accountant and politician, 682nd Lord Mayor of London* 1958 – Neil Finn, New Zealand singer-songwriter and musician* 1958 – Jesse Robredo, Filipino politician, 23rd Secretary of the Interior and Local Government (d. 2012)*1960 – Gaston Therrien, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster*1961 – José Luíz Barbosa, Brazilian runner and coach* 1961 – Peri Gilpin, American actress*1962 – Marcelino Bernal, Mexican footballer * 1962 – Ray Borner, Australian basketball player* 1962 – Steven Brill, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter* 1962 – Anthony A. Hyman, Israeli-English biologist and academic* 1962 – David Mundell, Scottish lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland* 1962 – Ravi Shastri, Indian cricketer and sportscaster*1963 – Gonzalo Rubalcaba, Cuban pianist and composer* 1963 – Maria Walliser, Swiss skier*1964 – Adam Carolla, American actor, producer, and screenwriter*1965 – Todd Bridges, American actor* 1965 – Pat Cash, Australian-English tennis player and sportscaster*1966 – Heston Blumenthal, English chef and author*1967 – Paul Gascoigne, English international footballer, coach, and manager* 1967 – Eddie McClintock, American actor*1968 – Jeff Bagwell, American baseball player and coach* 1968 – Rebekah Brooks, English journalist * 1968 – Harun Erdenay, Turkish basketball player and coach* 1968 – Frank Thomas, American baseball player and sportscaster*1969 – Todd Hundley, American baseball player* 1969 – Jeremy Mayfield, American race car driver* 1969 – Craig Federighi, American computer scientist and engineer *1970 – Michele Bartoli, Italian cyclist* 1970 – Tim Farron, English educator and politician* 1970 – Joseph Fiennes, English actor* 1970 – Alex Archer, American-born Australian musician*1971 – Mathew Batsiua, Nauruan politician* 1971 – Paul Bettany, English actor* 1971 – Wayne Carey, Australian footballer and coach* 1971 – Kaur Kender, Estonian author* 1971 – Lisa Lopes, American rapper and dancer (d. 2002)* 1971 – Lee Sharpe, English footballer* 1971 – Grant Stafford, South African tennis player* 1971 – Sophie Walker, British politician, leader of the Women's Equality Party* 1971 – Petroc Trelawny, British radio and television broadcaster*1972 – Todd Demsey, American golfer* 1972 – Antonio Freeman, American football player* 1972 – Maxim Sokolov, Russian ice hockey player*1973 – Jack McBrayer, American actor and comedian* 1973 – Tana Umaga, New Zealand rugby player and coach* 1973 – Yorgos Lanthimos, Greek film video, and theatre director, producer and screenwriter*1974 – Skye Edwards, British singer-songwriter * 1974 – Denise van Outen, English actress, singer, and television host* 1974 – Derek Webb, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1974 – Danny Wuerffel, American football player*1975 – André 3000, American rapper* 1975 – Michael Hussey, Australian cricketer* 1975 – Jadakiss, American rapper* 1975 – Jamie Oliver, English chef and author* 1975 – Feryal Özel, Turkish astrophysicist, astronomer, and academic*1976 – Marcel Fässler, Swiss racing driver*1977 – Abderrahmane Hammad, Algerian high jumper* 1977 – Mahela Jayawardene, Sri Lankan cricketer*1978 – Adin Brown, American soccer player*1979 – Michael Buonauro, American author and illustrator (d. 2004)* 1979 – Mile Sterjovski, Australian footballer*1980 – Craig Buntin, Canadian figure skater*1981 – Alina Cojocaru, Romanian ballerina* 1981 – Johan Elmander, Swedish footballer*1982 – Natalya, Canadian professional wrestler*1984 – Blake Ahearn, American basketball player* 1984 – Miguel González, Mexican baseball pitcher*1985 – Chiang Chien-ming, Taiwanese baseball player* 1985 – Roberto Soldado, Spanish footballer*1986 – Conor Cummins, Manx motorcycle racer* 1986 – Bamba Fall, Senegalese basketball player* 1986 – Lasse Schöne, Danish footballer*1987 – Gervinho, Ivorian footballer* 1987 – Bella Heathcote, Australian actress* 1987 – Bora Paçun, Turkish basketball player* 1987 – Matt Prior, Australian rugby league player* 1987 – Martina Sáblíková, Czech speed skater and cyclist*1988 – Vontae Davis, American football player* 1988 – Irina Davydova, Russian hurdler* 1988 – Garrett Richards, American baseball pitcher* 1988 – Tyler Sash, American football player (d. 2015)*1989 – Igor Morozov, Estonian footballer* 1989 – Peakboy, South Korean rapper, record producer, and singer-songwriter*1990 – Yenew Alamirew, Ethiopian runner* 1990 – Chris Colfer, American actor and singer* 1990 – Marcus Kruger, Swedish ice hockey player*1991 – Sebastien Dewaest, Belgian footballer* 1991 – Tim Lafai, Samoan rugby league player* 1991 – Ksenia Pervak, Russian tennis player* 1991 – Eneli Vals, Estonian footballer*1992 – Aaron Brown, Canadian sprinter* 1992 – Laurence Vincent-Lapointe, Canadian canoer*1995 – Yoán Moncada, Cuban baseball player*1997 – Anna Bondar, Hungarian tennis player* 1997 – Daniel Jones, American football player*1999 – Lily-Rose Depp, French-American actress and model" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 366 – Procopius, Roman usurper (b.", "325)* 398 – Murong Bao, emperor of the Xianbei state Later Yan (b.", "355)* 475 – Eutropius, bishop of Orange * 866 – Ordoño I of Asturias (b.", "831)* 927 – Simeon I of Bulgaria first Bulgarian Emperor (b.", "864)*1039 – Dirk III, Count of Holland (b.", "981)*1045 – Bruno of Würzburg, imperial chancellor of Italy (b. c. 1005)*1178 – Godfrey van Rhenen, bishop of Utrecht*1240 – William de Warenne, 5th Earl of Surrey (b.", "1166)*1444 – John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, English commander (b.", "1404)*1508 – Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan (b.", "1452)*1525 – Thomas Müntzer, German mystic and theologian (b.", "1488)*1541 – Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury (b.", "1473)*1564 – John Calvin, French pastor and theologian (b.", "1509)===1601–1900===*1610 – François Ravaillac, French assassin of Henry IV of France (b.", "1578)*1624 – Diego Ramírez de Arellano, Spanish sailor and cosmographer (b. c. 1580)*1637 – John Boteler, 1st Baron Boteler of Brantfield, English politician (b. c. 1566)*1661 – Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, Scottish general and politician (b.", "1607)*1675 – Gaspard Dughet, Italian-French painter (b.", "1613)*1690 – Giovanni Legrenzi, Italian organist and composer (b.", "1626)*1702 – Dominique Bouhours, French priest and critic (b.", "1628)*1707 – Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan, French mistress of Louis XIV of France (b.", "1640)*1781 – Giovanni Battista Beccaria, Italian physicist and academic (b.", "1716)*1797 – François-Noël Babeuf, French journalist (b.", "1760)*1831 – Jedediah Smith, American hunter, explorer, and author (b.", "1799)*1840 – Niccolò Paganini, Italian violinist and composer (b.", "1782)*1867 – Thomas Bulfinch American mythologist (b.", "1796)*1896 – Aleksandr Stoletov, Russian physicist, engineer, and academic (b.", "1839)===1901–present===*1910 – Robert Koch, German physician and microbiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1843)*1918 – Ōzutsu Man'emon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 18th Yokozuna (b.", "1869)*1919 – Kandukuri Veeresalingam, Indian author and activist (b.", "1848)*1933 – Achille Paroche, French target shooter (b.", "1868)*1939 – Joseph Roth, Austrian-French journalist and author (b.", "1894)*1941 – Ernst Lindemann, German captain (b.", "1894)* 1941 – Günther Lütjens, German admiral (b.", "1889)*1942 – Muhammed Hamdi Yazır, Turkish theologian, logician, and translator (b.", "1878)*1943 – Gordon Coates, New Zealand soldier and politician, 21st Prime Minister of New Zealand (b.", "1878)*1945 – Enno Lolling, German physician (b.", "1888)*1947 – Ed Konetchy, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1885)*1949 – Robert Ripley, American cartoonist, publisher, and businessman, founded ''Ripley's Believe It or Not!''", "(b.", "1890)*1953 – Jesse Burkett, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1868)*1960 – James Montgomery Flagg, American painter and illustrator (b.", "1877)*1963 – Grigoris Lambrakis, Greek physician and politician (b.", "1912)*1964 – Jawaharlal Nehru, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of India (b.", "1889)*1965 – John Rinehart Blue, American military officer, educator, businessperson, and politician (b.", "1905)*1967 – W. Otto Miessner, American composer and educator (b.", "1880)* 1967 – Ernst Niekisch, German academic and politician (b.", "1889)*1969 – Jeffrey Hunter, American actor and producer (b.", "1926)*1971 – Béla Juhos, Hungarian-Austrian philosopher from the Vienna Circle (b.", "1901)* 1971 – Armando Picchi, Italian footballer and coach (b.", "1935)*1980 – Gün Sazak, Turkish agronomist and politician (b.", "1932)*1984 – Vasilije Mokranjac, Serbian composer (b.", "1923)*1986 – Ismail al-Faruqi, Palestinian-American philosopher and academic (b.", "1921)* 1986 – Ajoy Mukherjee, Indian politician, Chief Minister of West Bengal (b.", "1901)* 1986 – Giorgos Tzifos, Greek actor and cinematographer (b.", "1918)*1987 – John Howard Northrop, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1891)*1988 – Hjördis Petterson, Swedish actress (b.", "1908) * 1988 – Ernst Ruska, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1906)*1989 – Arseny Tarkovsky, Russian poet and translator (b.", "1907)*1990 – Robert B. Meyner, American lawyer and politician, 44th Governor of New Jersey (b.", "1908)*1991 – Leopold Nowak, Austrian musicologist and theorist (b.", "1904)*1992 – Uncle Charlie Osborne, American fiddler (b.", "1890)*1998 – Minoo Masani, Indian lawyer and politician (b.", "1905)*2000 – Kazimierz Leski, Polish engineer and pilot (b.", "1912)* 2000 – Murray MacLehose, Baron MacLehose of Beoch, Scottish politician and diplomat, 25th Governor of Hong Kong (b.", "1917)* 2000 – Maurice Richard, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1921)*2002 – Marjorie Ogilvie Anderson, Scottish historian (b.", "1909)*2003 – Luciano Berio, Italian composer and educator (b.", "1925)*2006 – Rob Borsellino, American journalist (b.", "1949)* 2006 – Paul Gleason, American actor (b.", "1939)* 2006 – Craig Heyward, American football player (b.", "1966)*2007 – Izumi Sakai, Japanese singer-songwriter (b.", "1967)* 2007 – Gretchen Wyler, American actress and dancer (b.", "1932)* 2007 – Ed Yost, American inventor, created the hot air balloon (b.", "1919)*2008 – Franz Künstler, Hungarian soldier (b.", "1900)*2009 – Thomas M. Franck, American lawyer and academic (b.", "1931)* 2009 – Clive Granger, Welsh-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1934)* 2009 – Mona Grey, British nursing administrator; Northern Ireland's first Chief Nursing Officer (b.", "1910)* 2009 – Abram Hoffer, Canadian biochemist, physician, and psychiatrist (b.", "1917)* 2009 – Gérard Jean-Juste, Haitian-American priest and theologian (b.", "1946)* 2009 – Carol Anne O'Marie, American nun and author (b.", "1933)* 2009 – William Refshauge, Australian soldier and physician (b.", "1913)* 2009 – Paul Sharratt, English-American television host (b.", "1933)*2010 – Payut Ngaokrachang, Thai animator and director (b.", "1929)*2011 – Jeff Conaway, American actor and singer (b.", "1950)* 2011 – Margo Dydek, Polish-American basketball player (b.", "1974)* 2011 – Gil Scott-Heron, American singer-songwriter and poet (b.", "1949)*2012 – Simeon Daniel, Nevisian educator and politician, 1st Premier of Nevis (b.", "1934)* 2012 – Friedrich Hirzebruch, German mathematician and academic (b.", "1927)* 2012 – Anahit Perikhanian, Russian-born Armenian Iranologist (b.", "1928)* 2012 – David Rimoin, Canadian-American geneticist and academic (b.", "1936)*2013 – Jagjit Singh Lyallpuri, Indian politician (b.", "1917)* 2013 – Bill Pertwee, English actor (b.", "1926)* 2013 – Abdoulaye Sékou Sow, Malian politician, Prime Minister of Mali (b.", "1931)*2014 – Robert Genn, Canadian painter and author (b.", "1936)* 2014 – Helma Sanders-Brahms, German director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1940)* 2014 – Roberto Vargas, Puerto Rican-American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1929)* 2014 – Massimo Vignelli, Italian-American graphic designer (b.", "1931)*2015 – Erik Carlsson, Swedish rally driver (b.", "1929)* 2015 – Nils Christie, Norwegian sociologist, criminologist, and author (b.", "1928)* 2015 – Andy King, English footballer and manager (b.", "1956)* 2015 – Michael Martin, American philosopher and academic (b.", "1932)*2017 – Gregg Allman, American musician, singer and songwriter (b.", "1947)*2018 – Gardner Dozois, American science fiction author and editor (b.", "1947)*2020 – Larry Kramer, American playwright, public health advocate and LGBT rights activist (b.", "1935)*2021 – Poul Schlüter, former Prime Minister of Denmark (b.", "1929)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Armed Forces Day (Nicaragua)* Children's Day (Nigeria)* Christian feast day: ** Augustine of Canterbury** Blessed Lojze Grozde** Bruno of Würzburg** Eutropius of Orange** Hildebert** Julius the Veteran** May 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Mother's Day (Bolivia)* Navy Day (Japan)* Slavery Abolition Day (Guadeloupe, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin)* Start of National Reconciliation Week (Australia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 27" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monasticism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Monasticism''' (; ), also called '''monachism''' or '''monkhood''', is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work.", "Monastic life plays an important role in many Christian churches, especially in the Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican traditions as well as in other faiths such as Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism.", "In other religions, monasticism is criticized and not practiced, as in Islam and Zoroastrianism, or plays a marginal role, as in modern Judaism.Many monastics live in abbeys, convents, monasteries, or priories to separate themselves from the secular world, unless they are in mendicant or missionary orders." ], [ "Buddhism", "Forest dwelling was a common practice in early Buddhism, and it is still followed by some Buddhist sects such as the Thai Forest Tradition.The Sangha or community of ordained Buddhist bhikkhus (Pali ''bhikkhu'', like Sanskrit ''bhikṣu'', means 'beggar; one who lives by alms'), and original bhikkhunīs (nuns) were founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime over 2500 years ago.", "This communal monastic lifestyle grew out of the lifestyle of earlier sects of wandering ascetics, some of whom the Buddha had studied under.", "It was initially fairly eremitic or reclusive in nature.", "Bhikkhus and bhikkunis were expected to live with a minimum of possessions, which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community.", "Lay followers also provided the daily food that bhikkhus required, and provided shelter for bhikkhus when they needed it.Young Buddhist bhikkhus in TibetAfter the ''parinibbāna'' (Final Passing) of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily cenobitic or communal movement.", "The practice of living communally during the rainy vassa season, prescribed by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on life in a community of practitioners.", "Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by bhikkhus and bhikkhunis — as encoded in the Patimokkha — relate to such an existence, prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of bhikkhus or bhikkhunis.", "The number of rules observed varies with the order; Theravada bhikkhus follow around 227 rules, the Vinaya.", "There are a larger number of rules specified for bhikkhunis (nuns).The Buddhist monastic order consists of the male bhikkhu assembly and the female bhikkhunī assembly.", "Initially consisting only of males, it grew to include females after the Buddha's stepmother, Mahaprajapati, asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner.Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community.", "First and foremost, they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism.", "They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity, and to serve as a \"field of merit\" for lay followers—providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the bhikkhus.", "In return for the support of the laity, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character.A bhikkhu first ordains as a ''samanera'' (novice).", "Novices often ordain at a young age, but generally no younger than eight.", "Samaneras live according to the Ten Precepts, but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules.", "Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full bhikkhu, is given only to men who are aged 20 or older.", "Bhikkhunis follow a similar progression, but are required to live as samaneras for longer periods of time, typically five years.The disciplinary regulations for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism.", "However, celibacy is a fundamental part of this form of monastic discipline." ], [ "Christianity", "Trappist monk praying in his cell.The Monastery of Saint Anthony in Egypt, built over the tomb of Saint Anthony, the \"Father of Christian Monasticism\"Monasticism in Christianity, which provides the origins of the words \"monk\" and \"monastery\", comprises several diverse forms of religious living.", "It began to develop early in the history of the Church, but is not mentioned in the scriptures.", "It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e.g.", "the Rule of St Basil, the Rule of St Benedict) and, in modern times, the Church law of the respective apostolic Christian churches that have forms of monastic living.The Christian monk embraces the monastic life as a vocation from God.", "His objective is to imitate the life of Christ as far as possible in preparation for attaining eternal life after death.Coptic monks between 1898 and 1914Titles for monastics differ between the Christian denominations.", "In Roman Catholicism and Anglicanism, monks and nuns are addressed as Brother (or Father, if ordained to the priesthood) or Mother, Sister, while in Eastern Orthodoxy, they are addressed as Father or Mother.", "Women pursuing a monastic life are generally called nuns, religious sisters or, rarely, canonesses, while monastic men are called monks, friars or brothers.Apparently coincidently, the formation of the first Christian monasteries in Egypt fell in the same time epoch of the Buddhist ''Parinirvana'' (the death of Buddha) when subsequently first monasteries in India were formed (2nd–3rd century).During the fourth and fifth century monasticism allowed women to be removed from traditional lifestyles such as marriage and childbearing to live a life devoted to God.", "Guided by daily rules and lifestyle guidelines monasticism afforded women great spiritual autonomy.", "Monasteries served as a space for communal living for monks and nuns many operated under different ranges of severity for rules and punishment of disobedience towards practices that largely originated from the Desert Fathers, these parameters were administer by a superior (Father/Mother).", "While the practices of female monastic communities varied, they were united by a commitment to a life of prayer, contemplation, and service to others.Teachings from Shenoute of Atripe, an influential figure in the development of the monastic tradition in Egypt and for his writings on monastic life were also implemented throughout monasteries.", "Sometimes written in the masculine gender as if exclusively applicable to the male congregations, despite the fact Shenoute commanded a federation that included both male and female congregations.Later, during 379 CE the first monastery for women was founded in Jerusalem by Saint Melania the Elder.", "This was a significant moment in history: before then, female monasteries were solely adjunct to male monasteries, although the history of female ascetics predates even the earliest recognized female ascetic pioneers, such as Saint Mary of Egypt, who lived during the 5th century CE.In fourth century Egypt, Christians felt called to a more reclusive or eremitic form of living (in the spirit of the \"Desert Theology\" for the purpose of spiritual renewal and return to God).", "Saint Anthony the Great is cited by Athanasius as one of the early \"Hermit monks\".", "Especially in the Middle East, eremitic monasticism continued to be common until the decline of Syriac Christianity in the late Middle Ages.Around 318 Saint Pachomius started to organize his many followers in what was to become the first Christian cenobitic or communal monastery.", "Soon, similar institutions were established throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire.", "Notable monasteries in the East include:* Monastery of Saint Anthony, one of the oldest Christian monasteries in the world.", "* Mar Awgin founded a monastery on Mt.", "Izla above Nisibis in Mesopotamia (c. 350), and from this monastery the cenobitic tradition spread in Mesopotamia, Persia, Armenia, Georgia and even India and China.", "* St. Sabbas the Sanctified organized the monks of the Judean Desert in a monastery close to Bethlehem (483), now known as Mar Saba, which is considered the mother of all monasteries of the Eastern Orthodox churches.", "* Saint Catherine's Monastery was founded between 527 and 565 in the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt by order of Emperor Justinian I.In the West, the most significant development occurred when the rules for monastic communities were written down, the Rule of St Basil being credited with having been the first.", "The precise dating of the Rule of the Master is problematic.", "It has been argued that it antedates the Rule of Saint Benedict created by Benedict of Nursia for his monastery in Monte Cassino, Italy (c. 529), and the other Benedictine monasteries he had founded as part of the Order of St Benedict.", "It would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages and is still in use today.", "The Augustinian Rule, due to its brevity, has been adopted by various communities, chiefly the Canons Regular.", "Around the 12th century, the Franciscan, Carmelite, Dominican, Servite Order (see Servants of Mary) and Augustinian mendicant orders chose to live in city convents among the people instead of being secluded in monasteries.", "St. Augustine's Monastery, founded in 1277 in Erfurt, Germany is regarded by many historians and theologians as the \"cradle of the Reformation\", as it is where Martin Luther lived as a monk from 1505 to 1511.Today new expressions of Christian monasticism, many of which are ecumenical, are developing in various places such as the Bose Monastic Community in Italy, the Monastic Fraternities of Jerusalem throughout Europe, the Anglo-Celtic Society of Nativitists, the Taizé Community in France, the Eastern Orthodox monasteries of New Skete, New York, and the mainly Evangelical Protestant New Monasticism." ], [ "Hinduism", "A meeting of various Shankaracharya - heads of monasteries called mathas in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.", "The title derives from Adi Shankara, an eighth-century CE reformer of Hinduism.In their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of monasticism (Sannyasa).", "Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.", "A Hindu monk is called a ''sanyāsī'', ''sādhu'', or ''swāmi''.", "A nun is called a ''sanyāsini'', ''sādhvi'', or ''swāmini''.", "Such renunciates are accorded high respect in Hindu society, because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for ''mental'' renunciation.", "Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their physical needs.", "It is considered a highly meritorious act for a lay devotee to provide sadhus with food or other necessaries.", "Sādhus are expected to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked.", "They are also expected to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.", "A sādhu can typically be recognized by his ochre-colored clothing.", "Generally, Vaisnava monks shave their heads except for a small patch of hair on the back of the head, while Saivite monks let their hair and beard grow uncut.A ''sādhu's'' vow of renunciation typically forbids him from:* owning personal property apart from a bowl, a cup, two sets of clothing and medical aids such as eyeglasses;* having any contact with, looking at, thinking of or even being in the presence of women;* eating for pleasure;* possessing or even touching money or valuables in any way, shape or form;* maintaining personal relationships." ], [ "Islam", "Islam forbids the practice of monasticism.", "In Sunni Islam, one example is Uthman bin Maz'oon; one of the companions of Muhammad.", "He was married to Khawlah bint Hakim, both being two of the earliest converts to Islam.", "There is a Sunni narration that, out of religious devotion, Uthman bin Maz'oon decided to dedicate himself to night prayers and take a vow of chastity from his wife.", "His wife got upset and spoke to Muhammad about this.", "Muhammad reminded Uthman that he himself, as the Prophet, also had a family life, and that Uthman had a responsibility to his family and should not adopt monasticism as a form of religious practice.Muhammad told his companions to ease their burden and avoid excess.", "According to some Sunni hadiths, in a message to some companions who wanted to put an end to their sexual life, pray all night long or fast continuously, Muhammad said: \"Do not do that!", "Fast on some days and eat on others.", "Sleep part of the night, and stand in prayer another part.", "For your body has rights upon you, your eyes have a right upon you, your wife has a right upon you, your guest has a right upon you.\"", "Muhammad once exclaimed, repeating it three times: \"Woe to those who exaggerate who are too strict!\"", "And, on another occasion, Muhammad said: \"Moderation, moderation!", "For only with moderation will you succeed.", "\"Monasticism is also mentioned in the following verse of Qur'an: Then We caused Our messengers to follow in their footsteps; and We caused Jesus, son of Mary, to follow, and gave him the Gospel, and placed compassion and mercy in the hearts of those who followed him.", "But monasticism they invented - We ordained it not for them – only seeking Allah's pleasure, and they observed it not with right observance.", "So We give those of them who believe their reward, but many of them are evil-livers.", ":—Qur'an Verse 27, Surah Al-Hadid (chapter 57)" ], [ "Jainism", "Digambara Jain monks renounce all clothing.In Jainism, monasticism is encouraged and respected.", "Rules for monasticism are rather strict.", "A Jain ascetic has neither a permanent home nor any possessions, wandering barefoot from place to place except during the months of Chaturmas.", "The quality of life they lead is difficult because of the many constraints placed on them.", "They don't use a vehicle for commuting and always commute barefoot from one place to another, irrespective of the distance.", "They don't possess any materialistic things and also don't use the basic services like that of a phone, electricity etc.", "They don't prepare food and live only on what people offer them." ], [ "Judaism", " Judaism does not encourage the monastic ideal of celibacy and poverty.", "To the contrary—all of the Torah's commandments are a means of sanctifying the physical world.", "As further disseminated through the teachings of the Yisrael Ba'al Shem Tov, the pursuit of permitted physical pleasures is encouraged as a means to \"serve God with joy\" (Deut.", "28:47).However, until the Destruction of the Second Temple, about two thousand years ago, taking Nazirite vows was a common feature of the religion.", "Nazirite Jews (in ) abstained from grape products, haircuts, and contact with the dead.", "However, they did not withdraw from general society, and they were permitted to marry and own property; moreover, in most cases a Nazirite vow was for a specified time period and not permanent.", "In Modern Hebrew, the term \"Nazir\" is most often used to refer to non-Jewish monastics.Unique among Jewish communities is the monasticism of the Beta Israel of Ethiopia, a practice believed to date to the 15th century.A form of asceticism was practiced by some individuals in pre–World War II European Ashkenazi Jewish communities.", "Its principal expression was ''prishut'', the practice of a married Talmud student going into self-imposed exile from his home and family to study in the kollel of a different city or town.", "This practice was associated with, but not exclusive to, the Perushim.The Essenes (in Modern but not in Ancient Hebrew: , ''Isiyim''; Greek: Εσσηνοι, Εσσαιοι, or Οσσαιοι; ''Essēnoi'', ''Essaioi'', or ''Ossaioi'') were a Jewish sect that flourished from the second century BC to AD 100 which some scholars claim seceded from the Zadokite priests.", "Being much fewer in number than the Pharisees and the Sadducees (the other two major sects at the time), the Essenes lived in various cities but congregated in communal life dedicated to asceticism, voluntary poverty, daily immersion (in mikvah), and abstinence from worldly pleasures, including (for some groups) marriage.", "Many separate but related religious groups of that era shared similar mystic, eschatological, messianic, and ascetic beliefs.", "These groups are collectively referred to by various scholars as the \"Essenes\".", "Josephus records that Essenes existed in large numbers, and thousands lived throughout Roman Judaea.The Essenes have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the Dead Sea Scrolls, which are commonly believed to be the Essenes' library—although there is no proof that the Essenes wrote them.", "These documents include multiple preserved copies of the Hebrew Bible which were untouched from as early as 300 years before Christ until their discovery in 1946.Some scholars, however, dispute the notion that the Essenes wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls.", "Rachel Elior, a prominent Israeli scholar, even questions the existence of the Essenes." ], [ "Sikhism", "While Sikhism treats lust as a sin, it at the same time points out that man must share the moral responsibility by leading the life of a householder.", "According to Sikhism, being God-centred while being a householder is better than being an ascetic.", "According to Sikhism, ascetics are not on the right path.", "When Guru Nanak visited Gorakhmata, he discussed the true meaning of asceticism with some yogis." ], [ "Taoism", "Throughout the centuries, Taoism especially Quanzhen School, have developed their own extensive monastic traditions and practices.", "Particularly well-known is the White Cloud Monastery of Dragon Gate Taoism in Beijing, which houses a rare complete copy of the ''Daozang'', the major Taoist Canon." ], [ "Other religions or movements", "China's Wudang Mountains is a center of Taoist monasticism and the practice of Tai chi.", "* Ananda Marga has both monks and nuns (i.e.", "celibate male and female acharyas or missionaries) as well as a smaller group of family acharyas.", "The monks and nuns are engaged in all kinds of direct services to society, so they have no scope for permanent retreat.", "They do have to follow strict celibacy, poverty and many other rules of conduct during as well as after they have completed their training.", "* Bön is believed to have a rich monastic history.", "Bön monasteries exist today, and the monks there practice Bön-Buddhism.", "* Manichaeism had two types of followers, the auditors, and the elect.", "The elect lived apart from the auditors to concentrate on reducing the material influences of the world.", "They did this through strict celibacy, poverty, teaching, and preaching.", "Therefore, the elect were probably at least partially monastic.", "* Scientology maintains a \"fraternal order\" called the Sea Organization or just Sea Org.", "They work only for the Church of Scientology and have signed billion year contracts.", "Sea Org members live communally with lodging, food, clothing, and medical care provided by the Church.", "* Sikhism and the Baháʼí Faith both specifically forbid the practice of monasticism.", "Hence there are no Sikh or Baháʼí monk conclaves or brotherhoods.", "* Confucianism and Shinto have no known practices of monasticism.", "* Quanzhen School of Taoism has monks and nuns* Way of Former Heaven sect of Zhaijiao.", "* The Transcendental Meditation movement sponsors two monastic groups: the Thousand-Headed Purusha for men and the Mother Divine for women.", "The US residences for the groups were in Heavenly Mountain, North Carolina.", "There is also a Purusha program at an ashram in Uttarkashi, India.", "The Global Mother Divine Organization describes itself as the women's wing of the Global Country of World Peace." ], [ "See also", "* Asceticism* Double monastery* Guru* Hermit* Mendicant* Religious order* Sādhanā" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Fracchia, Charles.", "''Living Together Alone: The New American Monasticism''.", "Harper & Row, 1979..* Gruber, Mark.", "2003.", "''Sacrifice In the Desert: A Study of an Egyptian Minority Through the Lens of Coptic Monasticism''.", "Lanham: University Press of America.", "* Johnston, William M.", "(ed.).", "2000.", "''Encyclopedia of Monasticism''.", "2 vols., Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.", "* Knowles, David.", "''Christian Monasticism''.", "London: World University Library, 1969* Lawrence, C. H.", "2001.", "''Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages'' (3rd Edition).", "New York: Longmans.", "* Zarnecki, George.", "1985.", "\"The Monastic World: The Contributions of the Orders\".", "pp.", "36–66, in Evans, Joan (ed.).", "1985.", "''The Flowering of the Middle Ages.''", "London: Thames and Hudson Ltd." ], [ "External links", "* The Hermits by Charles Kingsley (Gutenberg)* Links to Coptic Orthodox Monasteries of Egypt and the world* Historyfish.net: texts and articles regarding the Western Christian monastic tradition.", "* Abbot Gasquet's English Monastic Life.", "Full Text + Illustrations.", "* Public Domain Photochrom photographs, Abbeys, Cathedrals, Holy Sites and the Holy Land.", "* History of Monasticism* Monasticism Immaculate Heart of Mary's Hermitage* \"Woman\" – The correct perspective for the monastic – An eastern point of view* American Benedictines" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 10" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*28 BC – A sunspot is observed by Han dynasty astronomers during the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han, one of the earliest dated sunspot observations in China.", "*1291 – Scottish nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England pending the selection of a king.", "*1294 – Temür, Khagan of the Mongols, is enthroned as Emperor of the Yuan dynasty.", "*1497 – Amerigo Vespucci allegedly leaves Cádiz for his first voyage to the New World.", "*1503 – Christopher Columbus visits the Cayman Islands and names them ''Las Tortugas'' after the numerous turtles there.", "*1534 – Jacques Cartier visits Newfoundland.===1601–1900===*1688 – King Narai nominates Phetracha as regent, leading to the revolution of 1688 in which Phetracha becomes king of the Ayutthaya Kingdom.", "*1713 – Great Northern War: The Russian Navy led by Admiral Fyodor Apraksin land both at Katajanokka ja Hietalahti during the Battle of Helsinki.", "*1768 – Rioting occurs in London after John Wilkes is imprisoned for writing an article for ''The North Briton'' severely criticizing King George III.", "*1773 – The Parliament of Great Britain passes the Tea Act, designed to save the British East India Company by reducing taxes on its tea and granting it the right to sell tea directly to North America.", "The legislation leads to the Boston Tea Party.", "*1774 – Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette become King and Queen of France.", "*1775 – American Revolutionary War: A small Colonial militia led by Ethan Allen and Colonel Benedict Arnold captures Fort Ticonderoga.", "* 1775 – American Revolutionary War: The Second Continental Congress takes place in Philadelphia.", "*1796 – War of the First Coalition: Napoleon wins a victory against Austrian forces at Lodi bridge over the Adda River in Italy.", "The Austrians lose some 2,000 men.", "*1801 – First Barbary War: The Barbary pirates of Tripoli declare war on the United States of America.", "*1824 – The National Gallery in London opens to the public.", "*1833 – A revolt broke out in southern Vietnam against Emperor Minh Mang, who had desecrated the deceased mandarin Le Van Duyet.", "*1837 – Panic of 1837: New York City banks suspend the payment of specie, triggering a national banking crisis and an economic depression whose severity was not surpassed until the Great Depression.", "*1849 – Astor Place Riot: A riot breaks out at the Astor Opera House in Manhattan, New York City over a dispute between actors Edwin Forrest and William Charles Macready, killing at least 22 and injuring over 120.", "*1857 – Indian Rebellion of 1857: In India, the first war of Independence begins.", "Sepoys mutiny against their commanding officers at Meerut.", "*1865 – American Civil War: In Kentucky, Union soldiers ambush and mortally wound Confederate raider William Quantrill, who lingers until his death on June 6.", "*1869 – The First transcontinental railroad, linking the eastern and western United States, is completed at Promontory Summit, Utah Territory with the golden spike.", "*1872 – Victoria Woodhull becomes the first woman nominated for President of the United States.", "*1876 – The Centennial Exposition is opened in Philadelphia.", "*1881 – Carol I is crowned the King of the Romanian Kingdom.", "*1899 – Finnish farmworker Karl Emil Malmelin kills seven people with an axe at the Simola croft in the village of Klaukkala.===1901–present===*1904 – The Horch & Cir.", "Motorwagenwerke AG is founded.", "It would eventually become the Audi company.", "*1908 – Mother's Day is observed for the first time in the United States, in Grafton, West Virginia.", "*1916 – Sailing in the lifeboat ''James Caird'', Ernest Shackleton arrives at South Georgia after a journey of 800 nautical miles from Elephant Island.", "*1922 – The United States annexes the Kingman Reef.", "*1924 – J. Edgar Hoover is appointed first Director of the United States' Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and remains so until his death in 1972.", "*1933 – Censorship: In Germany, the Nazis stage massive public book burnings.", "*1940 – World War II: German fighters accidentally bomb the German city of Freiburg.", "* 1940 – World War II: Winston Churchill is appointed Prime Minister of the United Kingdom following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain.", "On the same day, Germany invades France, The Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.", "Meanwhile, the United Kingdom occupies Iceland.", "*1941 – World War II: The House of Commons in London is damaged by the Luftwaffe in an air raid.", "* 1941 – World War II: Rudolf Hess parachutes into Scotland to try to negotiate a peace deal between the United Kingdom and Nazi Germany.", "*1942 – World War II: The Thai Phayap Army invades the Shan States during the Burma Campaign.", "*1946 – First successful launch of an American V-2 rocket at White Sands Proving Ground.", "*1961 – Air France Flight 406 is destroyed by a bomb over the Sahara, killing 78.", "*1962 – Marvel Comics publishes the first issue of ''The Incredible Hulk''.", "*1967 – The Northrop M2-F2 crashes on landing, becoming the inspiration for the novel ''Cyborg'' and TV series ''The Six Million Dollar Man''.", "*1969 – Vietnam War: The Battle of Dong Ap Bia begins with an assault on Hill 937.It will ultimately become known as Hamburger Hill.", "*1975 – Sony introduces the Betamax videocassette recorder.", "*1993 – In Thailand, a fire at the Kader Toy Factory kills over 200 workers.", "*1994 – Nelson Mandela is inaugurated as South Africa's first black president.", "*1996 – A blizzard strikes Mount Everest, killing eight climbers by the next day.", "*1997 – The 7.3 Mw Qayen earthquake strikes Iran's Khorasan Province killing 1,567 people.", "*2002 – FBI agent Robert Hanssen is sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole for selling United States secrets to Russia for $1.4 million in cash and diamonds.", "*2005 – A hand grenade thrown by Vladimir Arutyunian lands about from U.S. President George W. Bush while he is giving a speech to a crowd in Tbilisi, Georgia, but it malfunctions and does not detonate.", "*2012 – The Damascus bombings are carried out using a pair of car bombs detonated by suicide bombers outside a military intelligence complex in Damascus, Syria, killing 55 people.", "*2013 – One World Trade Center becomes the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.", "*2017 – Syrian civil war: The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) capture the last footholds of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in Al-Tabqah, bringing the Battle of Tabqa to an end.", "*2022 – Queen Elizabeth II misses the State Opening of Parliament for the first time in 59 years.", "It was the first time that a new session of Parliament was opened jointly by the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Cambridge acting as Counsellors of State." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 874 – Meng Zhixiang, Chinese general and emperor (d. 934)* 955 – Al-Aziz Billah, Fatimid caliph (d. 996)*1491 – Suzanne, Duchess of Bourbon (d. 1521)===1601–1900===*1604 – Jean Mairet, French author and playwright (d. 1686)*1697 – Jean-Marie Leclair, French violinist and composer (d. 1764)*1727 – Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune, French economist and politician (d. 1781)*1755 – Robert Gray, American captain and explorer (d. 1806)*1760 – Johann Peter Hebel, German author and poet (d. 1826)* 1760 – Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, French captain, engineer, and composer (d. 1836)*1770 – Louis-Nicolas Davout, French general and politician, French Minister of War (d. 1823)*1788 – Augustin-Jean Fresnel, French physicist and engineer (d. 1827)*1812 – William Henry Barlow, English engineer (d. 1902)*1813 – Montgomery Blair, American lieutenant and politician, 20th United States Postmaster General (d. 1883)*1838 – John Wilkes Booth, American actor, assassin of Abraham Lincoln (d. 1865)*1841 – James Gordon Bennett, Jr., American publisher and broadcaster (d. 1918)*1843 – Benito Pérez Galdós, Spanish author and playwright (d. 1920)*1847 – Wilhelm Killing, German mathematician and academic (d. 1923)*1855 – Yukteswar Giri, Indian guru and educator (d. 1936)*1872 – Marcel Mauss, French sociologist and anthropologist (d. 1950)*1876 – Ivan Cankar, Slovenian poet and playwright (d. 1918)*1878 – Konstantinos Parthenis, Greek painter (d. 1967)* 1878 – Gustav Stresemann, German journalist and politician, Chancellor of Germany, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1929)*1879 – Symon Petliura, Ukrainian journalist and politician (d. 1926)*1886 – Karl Barth, Swiss theologian and author (d. 1968)*1888 – Max Steiner, Austrian-American composer and conductor (d. 1971)*1890 – Alfred Jodl, German general (d. 1946)*1891 – Mahmoud Mokhtar, Egyptian sculptor and academic (d. 1934)*1893 – Tonita Peña, San Ildefonso Pueblo (Native American) artist (d. 1949)*1894 – Dimitri Tiomkin, Ukrainian-American composer and conductor (d. 1979)*1895 – Joe Murphy (Irish republican) Irish Hunger Striker (d. 1920)*1897 – Einar Gerhardsen, Norwegian politician, Prime Minister of Norway (d. 1987)*1898 – Ariel Durant, American historian and author (d. 1981)*1899 – Fred Astaire, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1987)*1900 – Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin, English-American astronomer and astrophysicist (d. 1979)===1901–present===*1901 – John Desmond Bernal, Irish-English crystallographer and physicist (d. 1971)* 1901 – Hildrus Poindexter, American bacteriologist (d. 1987)*1902 – David O. Selznick, American director and producer (d. 1965)*1903 – Otto Bradfisch, German economist, jurist, and SS officer (d. 1994)*1905 – Markos Vamvakaris, Greek singer-songwriter and bouzouki player (d. 1972)*1908 – Carl Albert, American lawyer and politician, 54th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 2000)*1909 – Maybelle Carter, American autoharp player (d. 1978)*1911 – Bel Kaufman, American author and educator (d. 2014)*1915 – Denis Thatcher, English soldier and businessman, Spouse of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 2003)*1916 – Milton Babbitt, American composer and educator (d. 2011)*1918 – T. Berry Brazelton, American pediatrician and author (d. 2018)* 1918 – Desmond MacNamara, Irish painter, sculptor, and author (d. 2008)*1919 – Ella T. Grasso, Governor of Connecticut (d. 1981)*1920 – Basil Kelly, Northern Irish barrister, judge and politician (d. 2008)* 1920 – Bert Weedon, English guitarist (d. 2012)*1922 – David Azrieli, Polish-Canadian businessman and philanthropist (d. 2014)* 1922 – Nancy Walker, American actress, singer, and director (d. 1992)*1923 – Heydar Aliyev, Azerbaijan general and politician, President of Azerbaijan (d. 2003)* 1923 – Otar Korkia, Georgian basketball player and coach (d. 2005)*1926 – Hugo Banzer, Bolivian general and politician, President of Bolivia (d. 2002)*1927 – Nayantara Sahgal, Indian author*1928 – Arnold Rüütel, Estonian agronomist and politician, President of Estonia* 1928 – Lothar Schmid, German chess player (d. 2013)*1929 – Audun Boysen, Norwegian runner (d. 2000)* 1929 – George Coe, American actor and producer (d. 2015)* 1929 – Antonine Maillet, Canadian author and playwright*1930 – George E. Smith, American physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate*1931 – Ettore Scola, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 2016)*1933 – Jean Becker, French actor, director, and screenwriter*1935 – Larry Williams, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (d. 1980)*1937 – Tamara Press, Ukrainian shot putter and discus thrower (d. 2021)* 1937 – Emiko Miyamoto,Japanese volleyball player (d. 2023)*1938 – Manuel Santana, Spanish tennis player (d. 2021)*1940 – Arthur Alexander, American country-soul singer-songwriter (d. 1993)* 1940 – Sven-Gunnar Larsson, Swedish retired football player* 1940 – Wayne Dyer, American author and educator (d. 2015)*1942 – Jim Calhoun, American basketball player and coach*1944 – Jim Abrahams, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1944 – Marie-France Pisier, French actress, director, and screenwriter (d. 2011)*1946 – Donovan, Scottish singer-songwriter* 1946 – Graham Gouldman, English guitarist and songwriter* 1946 – Dave Mason, English singer-songwriter and guitarist*1947 – Caroline B. Cooney, American author*1949 – Miuccia Prada, Italian fashion designer*1952 – Sly Dunbar, Jamaican drummer *1954 – Mike Hagerty, American actor (d. 2022)*1955 – Chris Berman, American sportscaster* 1955 – Mark David Chapman, American murderer*1956 – Vladislav Listyev, Russian journalist (d. 1995)*1957 – Sid Vicious, English singer and bass player (d. 1979)*1958 – Gaétan Boucher, Canadian speed skater* 1958 – Rick Santorum, American lawyer and politician, United States Senator from Pennsylvania*1959 – Victoria Rowell, American actress* 1959 – Danny Schayes, American basketball player* 1959 – Cindy Hyde-Smith, American politician, United States Senator from Mississippi, Mississippi Commissioner of Agriculture and Commerce*1960 – Bono, Irish singer-songwriter, musician and activist* 1960 – Dean Heller, American lawyer and politician, United States Senator from Nevada, Secretary of State of Nevada* 1960 – Kerry Hemsley, Australian rugby league player* 1960 – Merlene Ottey, Jamaican-Slovenian runner*1963 – Lisa Nowak, American commander and astronaut* 1963 – Debbie Wiseman, English composer and conductor*1965 – Linda Evangelista, Canadian model* 1965 – Greg Fasala, Australian swimmer* 1965 – Paul Langmack, Australian rugby league player and coach*1966 – Jonathan Edwards, English triple jumper*1967 – Eion Crossan, New Zealand rugby player*1968 – Al Murray, English comedian and television host* 1968 – William Regal, English wrestler* 1968 – Tatyana Shikolenko, Russian javelin thrower*1969 – Dennis Bergkamp, Dutch footballer and manager* 1969 – John Scalzi, American author and blogger*1970 – Gabriela Montero, Venezuelan-American pianist* 1970 – Craig Mack, American rapper (d. 2018)* 1970 – David Weir, Scottish footballer*1971 – Ådne Søndrål, Norwegian speed skater*1972 – Christian Wörns, German footballer*1973 – Joshua Eagle, Australian tennis player* 1973 – Ollie le Roux, South African rugby player*1974 – Sylvain Wiltord, French footballer*1975 – Hazem Emam, Egyptian footballer* 1975 – Hélio Castroneves, Brazilian race car driver* 1975 – Adam Deadmarsh, Canadian-American ice hockey player*1977 – Adrian Morley, English rugby league player*1978 – Bruno Cheyrou, French footballer* 1978 – Kenan Thompson, American actor and comedian*1981 – Samuel Dalembert, Haitian-Canadian basketball player* 1981 – Humberto Suazo, Chilean footballer*1983 – Gustav Fridolin, Swedish journalist and politician, Swedish Minister of Education*1984 – Edward Mujica, Venezuelan baseball player*1985 – Ryan Getzlaf, Canadian ice hockey player* 1985 – Jon Schofield, English canoe racer*1987 – Wilson Chandler, American basketball player*1990 – Salvador Pérez, Venezuelan baseball player* 1990 – Ivana Vuleta, Serbian long jumper*1995 – Missy Franklin, American swimmer* 1995 – Gabriella Papadakis, French ice dancer*1996 – Tyus Jones, American basketball player* 1996 – Kateřina Siniaková, Czech tennis player*1997 – Brittany Broski, American comedian and singer * 1997 – Richarlison, Brazilian footballer *1998 – Priscilla Hon, Australian tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*1299 – Theingapati, heir to the Pagan Kingdom*1403 – Katherine Swynford, widow of John of Gaunt*1482 – Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, Italian mathematician and astronomer (b.", "1397)*1493 – Colin Campbell, 1st Earl of Argyll, Scottish politician, Lord Chancellor of Scotland (b.", "1433)*1521 – Sebastian Brant, German author (b.", "1457)*1566 – Leonhart Fuchs, German physician and botanist (b.", "1501)*1569 – John of Ávila, Spanish mystic and saint (b.", "1500)===1601–1900===*1641 – Johan Banér, Swedish field marshal (b.", "1596)*1717 – John Hathorne, American merchant and politician (b.", "1641)*1726 – Charles Beauclerk, 1st Duke of St Albans, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire (b.", "1670)*1774 – Louis XV of France (b.", "1710)*1787 – William Watson, English physician, physicist, and botanist (b.", "1715)*1794 – Élisabeth of France, French princess and youngest sibling of Louis XVI (b.1764)*1798 – George Vancouver, English navigator and explorer (b.", "1757)*1807 – Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, French general (b.", "1725)*1818 – Paul Revere, American engraver and soldier (b.", "1735)*1829 – Thomas Young, English physician and linguist (b.", "1773)*1849 – Hokusai, Japanese painter and illustrator (b.", "1760)*1863 – Stonewall Jackson, American general (b.", "1824)*1865 – William Armstrong, American lawyer, civil servant, politician, and businessperson (b.", "1782)*1868 – Henry Bennett, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1808)*1889 – Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin, Russian journalist, author, and playwright (b.", "1826)*1891 – Carl Nägeli, Swiss botanist and mycologist (b.", "1817)*1897 – Andrés Bonifacio, Filipino soldier and politician, President of the Philippines (b.", "1863)===1901–present===*1905 – Alex Schomburg, Puerto Rican artist and illustrator (d. 1998)*1910 – Stanislao Cannizzaro, Italian chemist and academic (b.", "1826)*1945 – Richard Glücks, German SS officer (b.", "1889)* 1945 – Konrad Henlein, Czech soldier and politician (b.", "1898)*1950 – Belle da Costa Greene, American librarian and bibliographer (b.", "1883)*1960 – Yury Olesha, Russian author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1899)*1964 – Mikhail Larionov, Russian painter, illustrator, and set designer (b.", "1881)*1965 – Hubertus van Mook, Dutch politician, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (b.", "1894)*1968 – Scotty Beckett, American actor and singer (b.", "1929)*1974 – Hal Mohr, American director and cinematographer (b.", "1894)*1977 – Joan Crawford, American actress (year of birth disputed)*1982 – Peter Weiss, German playwright and painter (b.", "1916)*1988 – Shen Congwen, Chinese author and academic (b.", "1902)*1989 – Dominik Tatarka, Slovak writer (b.1913)*1990 – Walker Percy, American novelist and essayist (b.", "1916)*1994 – John Wayne Gacy, American serial killer (b.", "1942)*1999 – Shel Silverstein, American poet, author, and illustrator (b.1930)*2000 – Jules Deschênes, Canadian lawyer and judge (b.", "1923)* 2000 – Dick Sprang, American illustrator (b.", "1915)*2001 – Sudhakarrao Naik, Indian politician, Governor of Himachal Pradesh (b.", "1934)*2002 – Kaifi Azmi, Indian poet and songwriter (b.", "1919)* 2002 – Yves Robert, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1920)*2003 – Milan Vukcevich, Serbian-American chemist and chess player (b.", "1937)*2006 – Soraya, Colombian-American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1969)*2008 – Leyla Gencer, Turkish soprano (b.", "1928)*2010 – Frank Frazetta, American illustrator and painter (b.", "1928)*2012 – Horst Faas, German photographer and journalist (b.", "1933)* 2012 – Carroll Shelby, American race car driver and designer (b.", "1923)* 2012 – Gunnar Sønsteby, Norwegian captain and author (b.", "1918)*2015 – Chris Burden, American sculptor, illustrator, and academic (b.", "1946)*2018 – David Goodall, Australian botanist and ecologist (b.", "1914)*2019 – Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba, Spanish politician and chemist (b.", "1951)*2020 – Betty Wright, American soul singer (b.", "1953)*2021 – Pauline Tinsley, British soprano (b.", "1928)*2022 – Bob Lanier, American professional basketball player (b.", "1948)* 2022 – Leonid Kravchuk, Ukrainian politician (b.1934)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Children's Day (Maldives)*Christian feast day:**Alphius, Philadelphus and Cyrinus**Calepodius**Catald**Comgall**Damien of Molokai**Gordianus and Epimachus**Job (Roman Catholic Church, pre-1969 calendar)**John of Ávila**May 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Confederate Memorial Day (North Carolina and South Carolina)*Constitution Day (Micronesia)*Earliest possible day on which Pentecost can fall, while June 13 is the latest; celebrated 50 days after Easter Day.", "(Christianity)*Golden Spike Day (Promontory, Utah)*Mother's Day (Guatemala, and Mexico)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 10" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 17" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1395 – Battle of Rovine: The Wallachians defeat an invading Ottoman army.", "*1521 – Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, is executed for treason.", "*1527 – Pánfilo de Narváez departs Spain to explore Florida with 600 men – by 1536 only four survive.", "*1536 – George Boleyn, 2nd Viscount Rochford and four other men are executed for treason.", "* 1536 – Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn's marriage is annulled.", "*1590 – Anne of Denmark is crowned Queen of Scotland.===1601–1900===*1642 – Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve founds the Ville Marie de Montréal.", "*1648 – Emperor Ferdinand III defeats Maximilian I of Bavaria in the Battle of Zusmarshausen.", "*1673 – Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette begin exploring the Mississippi River.", "*1756 – Seven Years' War formally begins when Great Britain declares war on France*1760 – French forces besieging Quebec retreat after the Royal Navy arrives to relieve the British garrison.", "*1792 – The New York Stock Exchange is formed under the Buttonwood Agreement.", "*1805 – Muhammad Ali becomes Wāli of Egypt.", "*1809 – Emperor Napoleon I orders the annexation of the Papal States to the French Empire.", "*1814 – Occupation of Monaco changes from French to Austrian.", "* 1814 – The Constitution of Norway is signed and Crown Prince Christian Frederick of Denmark is elected King of Norway by the Norwegian Constituent Assembly.", "*1859 – Members of the Melbourne Football Club codified the first rules of Australian rules football.", "*1863 – Rosalía de Castro publishes ''Cantares Gallegos'', the first book in the Galician language.", "*1865 – The International Telegraph Union (later the International Telecommunication Union) is established in Paris.", "*1875 – Aristides wins the first Kentucky Derby with the jockey Oliver Lewis (2:37.75).", "* 1900 – The children's novel ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'', by L. Frank Baum, is first published in the United States.", "The first copy is given to the author's sister.===1901–present===*1902 – Greek archaeologist Valerios Stais discovers the Antikythera mechanism, an ancient mechanical analog computer.", "*1914 – The Protocol of Corfu is signed, recognising full autonomy to Northern Epirus under nominal Albanian sovereignty.", "*1915 – The last British Liberal Party government (led by H. H. Asquith) falls.", "*1933 – Vidkun Quisling and Johan Bernhard Hjort form Nasjonal Samling — the national-socialist party of Norway.", "*1937 – Spanish Civil War: The Largo Caballero government resigns in the wake of the Barcelona May Days, leading Juan Negrín to form a government, without the anarcho-syndicalist CNT, in its stead.", "*1939 – The Columbia Lions and the Princeton Tigers play in the United States' first televised sporting event, a collegiate baseball game in New York City.", "*1940 – World War II: Germany occupies Brussels, Belgium.", "*1943 – World War II: Dambuster Raids commence by No.", "617 Squadron RAF.", "*1953 – Delta Air Lines Flight 318 crashes near Marshall, Texas, killing 19.", "*1954 – The United States Supreme Court hands down a unanimous decision in ''Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas'', outlawing racial segregation in public schools.", "*1967 – Six-Day War: President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt demands dismantling of the peace-keeping UN Emergency Force in Egypt.", "*1969 – Venera program: Soviet ''Venera 6'' begins its descent into the atmosphere of Venus, sending back atmospheric data before being crushed by pressure.", "*1973 – Watergate scandal: Televised hearings begin in the United States Senate.", "*1974 – The Troubles: Thirty-three civilians are killed and 300 injured when the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) detonates four car bombs in Dublin and Monaghan, Republic of Ireland.", "* 1974 – Police in Los Angeles raid the Symbionese Liberation Army's headquarters, killing six members, including Camilla Hall.", "*1977 – Nolan Bushnell opened the first Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza Time Theatre (later renamed Chuck E. Cheese) in San Jose, California.", "*1980 – General Chun Doo-hwan of South Korea seizes control of the government and declares martial law in order to suppress student demonstrations.", "* 1980 – On the eve of presidential elections, Maoist guerrilla group Shining Path attacks a polling location in Chuschi (a town in Ayacucho), starting the Internal conflict in Peru.", "*1983 – The U.S. Department of Energy declassifies documents showing world's largest mercury pollution event in Oak Ridge, Tennessee (ultimately found to be ), in response to the ''Appalachian Observer'''s Freedom of Information Act request.", "* 1983 – Lebanon, Israel, and the United States sign an agreement on Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon.", "*1984 – Prince Charles calls a proposed addition to the National Gallery, London, a \"monstrous carbuncle on the face of a much-loved and elegant friend\", sparking controversies on the proper role of the Royal Family and the course of modern architecture.", "*1987 – Iran–Iraq War: An Iraqi Dassault Mirage F1 fighter jet fires two missiles into the U.S. Navy warship , killing 37 and injuring 21 of her crew.", "*1990 – The General Assembly of the World Health Organization (WHO) eliminates homosexuality from the list of psychiatric diseases.", "*1992 – Three days of popular protests against the government of Prime Minister of Thailand Suchinda Kraprayoon begin in Bangkok, leading to a military crackdown that results in 52 officially confirmed deaths, hundreds of injuries, many disappearances, and more than 3,500 arrests.", "*1994 – Malawi holds its first multi-party elections.", "*1995 – Shawn Nelson steals an M60 tank from the California Army National Guard Armory in San Diego and proceeds to go on a rampage.", "*1997 – Troops of Laurent Kabila march into Kinshasa.", "Zaire is officially renamed Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "*2000 – Arsenal and Galatasaray fans clash in the 2000 UEFA Cup Final riots in Copenhagen*2004 – The first legal same-sex marriages in the U.S. are performed in the state of Massachusetts.", "*2006 – The aircraft carrier is sunk in the Gulf of Mexico as an artificial reef.", "*2007 – Trains from North and South Korea cross the 38th Parallel in a test-run agreed by both governments.", "This is the first time that trains have crossed the Demilitarized Zone since 1953.", "*2010 – Pamir Airways Flight 112 crashes in Afghanistan's Shakardara District, killing 44.", "*2014 – A military plane crash in northern Laos kills 17 people." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1155 – Jien, Japanese monk, poet, and historian (d. 1225)*1443 – Edmund, Earl of Rutland (d. 1460)*1451 – Engelbert II of Nassau, Count of Nassau-Vianden and Lord of Breda (1475–1504) (d. 1504)*1490 – Albert, Duke of Prussia, last Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights (d. 1568)*1500 – Federico II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua (d. 1540)*1551 – Martin Delrio, Belgian occultist and theologian (d. 1601)*1568 – Anna Vasa of Sweden, Swedish princess (d. 1625)===1601–1900===*1610 – Stefano della Bella, Italian engraver and etcher (d. 1664)*1628 – Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria (d. 1662)*1636 – Edward Colman, English Catholic courtier under Charles II (d. 1678)*1682 – Bartholomew Roberts, Welsh pirate (d. 1722)*1698 – Gio Nicola Buhagiar, Maltese painter (d. 1752)*1706 – Andreas Felix von Oefele, German historian and librarian (d. 1780)*1718 – Robert Darcy, 4th Earl of Holderness, English politician and diplomat, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (d. 1778)*1732 – Francesco Pasquale Ricci, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1817)*1743 – Seth Warner, American colonel (d. 1784)*1749 – Edward Jenner, English physician and microbiologist (d. 1823)*1758 – Sir John St Aubyn, 5th Baronet, English politician (d. 1839)*1768 – Caroline of Brunswick (d. 1821)* 1768 – Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1854)*1794 – Anna Brownell Jameson, Irish-English author (d. 1860)*1818 – Ezra Otis Kendall, American professor, astronomer and mathematician (d. 1899)*1821 – Sebastian Kneipp, German priest and therapist (d. 1897)*1835 – Thomas McIlwraith, Scottish-Australian politician, 8th Premier of Queensland (d. 1900)*1836 – Virginie Loveling, Belgian author and poet (d. 1923)*1845 – Jacint Verdaguer, Catalan priest and poet (d. 1902)*1860 – Martin Kukučín, Slovak author and playwright (d. 1928)* 1860 – Charlotte Barnum, American mathematician and social activist (d. 1934)*1863 – Léon Gérin, Canadian lawyer, sociologist, and civil servant (d. 1951)*1864 – Louis Richardet, Swiss target shooter (d. 1923)* 1864 – Ante Trumbić, Croatian lawyer and politician, 27th Mayor of Split (d. 1938)*1866 – Erik Satie, French pianist and composer (d. 1925)*1868 – Horace Elgin Dodge, American businessman, co-founded Dodge (d. 1920)* 1868 – Panagis Tsaldaris, Greek politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1936)*1870 – Newton Moore, Australian politician, 8th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1936)*1873 – Henri Barbusse, French author and journalist (d. 1935)* 1873 – Dorothy Richardson, English author and journalist (d. 1957)*1874 – George Sheldon, American diver (d. 1907)*1882 – Karl Burman, Estonian architect and painter (d. 1965)*1886 – Alfonso XIII of Spain, Spanish monarch (d. 1941)*1888 – Tich Freeman, English cricketer (d. 1965)*1889 – Dorothy Gibson, American actress and singer (d. 1946)* 1889 – Alfonso Reyes, Mexican author (d. 1959)*1891 – Napoleon Zervas, Greek general and politician (d. 1957)*1893 – Frederick McKinley Jones, American inventor and entrepreneur (d. 1961)*1895 – Saul Adler, Belarusian-English captain and parasitologist (d. 1966)* 1895 – Reinhold Saulmann, Estonian sprinter and bandy player (d. 1936)*1897 – Odd Hassel, Norwegian chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981)*1898 – A. J. Casson, Canadian painter (d. 1992)*1899 – Carmen de Icaza, Spanish writer (d. 1979)===1901–present===*1901 – Werner Egk, German pianist and composer (d. 1983)*1903 – Cool Papa Bell, American baseball player and manager (d. 1991)*1904 – Marie-Anne Desmarest, French author (d. 1973)*1906 – Zinka Milanov, Croatian-American soprano and educator (d. 1989)*1909 – Julius Sumner Miller, American physicist and academic (d. 1987)*1911 – Lisa Fonssagrives, Swedish-American model (d. 1992)* 1911 – Maureen O'Sullivan, Irish-American actress (d. 1998)*1912 – Archibald Cox, American lawyer and politician, 31st United States Solicitor General (d. 2004)* 1912 – Mary Beatrice Davidson Kenner, American inventor (d. 2006)*1913 – Hans Ruesch, Swiss racing driver and author (d. 2007)*1914 – Robert N. Thompson, American-Canadian chiropractor and politician (d. 1997)*1918 – Joan Benham, English actress (d. 1981)* 1918 – Birgit Nilsson, Swedish operatic soprano (d. 2005)*1919 – Antonio Aguilar, Mexican singer-songwriter, producer, actor, and screenwriter (d. 2007)* 1919 – Gustav Naan, Russian-Estonian physicist and philosopher (d. 1994)*1920 – Harry Männil, Estonian-Venezuelan businessman, co-founded ACO Group (d. 2010)*1921 – Dennis Brain, English horn player (d. 1957)* 1921 – Bob Merrill, American composer and screenwriter (d. 1998)*1922 – Jean Rédélé, French racing driver, founded Alpine (d. 2007)*1923 – Michael Beetham, English commander and pilot (d. 2015)*1924 – Roy Bentley, English footballer (d. 2018)* 1924 – Francis Tombs, Baron Tombs, English engineer and politician (d. 2020)*1926 – David Ogilvy, 13th Earl of Airlie, English-Scottish soldier and politician (d. 2023)* 1926 – Dietmar Schönherr, Austrian-Spanish actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2014)* 1926 – Franz Sondheimer, German-English chemist and academic (d. 1981)*1929 – Branko Zebec, Yugoslav football player and coach (d. 1988)*1931 – Marshall Applewhite, American cult leader, founded Heaven's Gate (d. 1997)* 1931 – Dewey Redman, American saxophonist (d. 2006) *1932 – Rodric Braithwaite, English soldier and diplomat, British Ambassador to Russia* 1932 – Peter Burge, Australian cricketer (d. 2001)*1933 – Yelena Gorchakova, Russian javelin thrower (d. 2002)*1934 – Friedrich-Wilhelm Kiel, German educator and politician (d. 2022)* 1934 – Earl Morrall, American football player and coach (d. 2014)* 1934 – Ronald Wayne, American computer scientist, co-founded Apple Computer*1935 – Dennis Potter, English voice actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1994)*1936 – Dennis Hopper, American actor and director (d. 2010)*1937 – Hazel R. O'Leary, American lawyer and politician, 7th United States Secretary of Energy*1938 – Jason Bernard, American actor (d. 1996)* 1938 – Marcia Freedman, Israeli activist * 1938 – Pervis Jackson, American R&B bass singer (d. 2008)*1939 – Hugh Dykes, Baron Dykes, English politician* 1939 – Gary Paulsen, American author (d. 2021)*1940 – Alan Kay, American computer scientist and academic* 1940 – Reynato Puno, Filipino lawyer and jurist, 22nd Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines*1941 – David Cope, American composer and author* 1941 – Ben Nelson, American lawyer and politician, 37th Governor of Nebraska*1942 – Taj Mahal, American blues singer-songwriter and musician*1943 – Sirajuddin of Perlis, Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia* 1943 – Johnny Warren, Australian footballer, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2004)*1944 – Jesse Winchester, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2014)*1945 – B.S.", "Chandrasekhar, Indian cricketer* 1945 – Tony Roche, Australian tennis player and coach*1946 – Udo Lindenberg, German singer-songwriter and drummer *1947 – Stephen Platten, English bishop*1948 – Dick Gaughan, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist*1949 – Bill Bruford, English drummer, songwriter, and producer * 1949 – Keith, American pop singer*1950 – Howard Ashman, American playwright and composer (d. 1991)* 1950 – Keith Bradley, Baron Bradley, English accountant and politician* 1950 – Janez Drnovšek, Slovenian economist and politician, 2nd President of Slovenia (d. 2008)* 1950 – Alan Johnson, English politician, Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer* 1950 – Valeriya Novodvorskaya, Russian journalist and politician (d. 2014)*1951 – Simon Hughes, English lawyer and politician*1952 – Howard Hampton, Canadian lawyer and politician*1954 – Michael Roberts, South African-English jockey*1955 – Bill Paxton, American actor and director (d. 2017)* 1955 – David Townsend, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2005)*1956 – Sugar Ray Leonard, American boxer* 1956 – Annise Parker, American politician* 1956 – Bob Saget, American comedian, actor, and television host (d. 2022)* 1956 – Dave Sim, Canadian cartoonist and author*1957 – Pascual Pérez, Dominican baseball player (d. 2012)*1958 – Paul Di'Anno, English rock singer-songwriter*1959 – Marcelo Loffreda, Argentine rugby player and coach*1960 – Lou DiBella, American boxing promoter, actor, and producer* 1960 – Simon Fuller, English talent manager and producer, created the ''Idols series''*1961 – Enya, Irish singer-songwriter and producer * 1961 – Jamil Azzaoui, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1961 – Justin King, English businessman*1962 – Lise Lyng Falkenberg, Danish journalist and author* 1962 – Andrew Farrar, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1962 – Craig Ferguson, Scottish-American comedian, actor, and talk show host* 1962 – Jane Moore, English journalist and author* 1962 – Rosalind Picard, American computer scientist and engineer, co-founded Affectiva*1963 – Jon Koncak, American basketball player* 1963 – Page McConnell, American keyboard player and songwriter *1964 – Stratos Apostolakis, Greek footballer and coach* 1964 – Mauro Martini, Italian race car driver* 1964 – Menno Oosting, Dutch tennis player (d. 1999)*1965 – Trent Reznor, American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and producer * 1965 – Jeremy Vine, English journalist and author*1966 – Qusay Hussein, Iraqi soldier and politician (d. 2003)* 1966 – Mark Kratzmann, Australian tennis player and coach* 1966 – Danny Manning, American basketball player and coach* 1966 – Gilles Quénéhervé, French sprinter*1967 – Mohamed Nasheed, Maldivian lawyer and politician 4th President of the Maldives* 1967 – Patrick Ortlieb, Austrian skier*1968 – Dave Abbruzzese, American rock drummer and songwriter*1969 – Keith Hill, English footballer and manager*1970 – Hubert Davis, American basketball player and coach* 1970 – Jordan Knight, American singer-songwriter and actor* 1970 – Matt Lindland, American mixed martial artist, wrestler, and politician* 1970 – Jodie Rogers, Australian diver* 1970 – René Vilbre, Estonian director and screenwriter*1971 – Mark Connors, Australian rugby player* 1971 – Shaun Hart, Australian footballer, coach, and sportscaster* 1971 – Stella Jongmans, Dutch athlete* 1971 – Queen Máxima of the Netherlands, Dutch royal* 1971 – Gina Raimondo, Governor of Rhode Island*1972 – Barry Hayles, English born Jamaican international footballer*1973 – Josh Homme, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer *1974 – Andrea Corr, Irish singer-songwriter, pianist, and actress * 1974 – Wiki González, Venezuelan baseball player* 1974 – Eddie Lewis, American international soccer player*1975 – Marcelinho Paraíba, Brazilian footballer* 1975 – Alex Wright, German wrestler*1976 – Kandi Burruss, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress * 1976 – Shayne Dunley, Australian rugby league player* 1976 – José Guillén, Dominican-American baseball player* 1976 – Daniel Komen, Kenyan runner* 1976 – Wang Leehom, American-Taiwanese singer-songwriter, producer, actor, and director* 1976 – Mayte Martínez, Spanish runner* 1976 – Kirsten Vlieghuis, Dutch freestyle swimmer*1978 – John Foster, American baseball player and coach* 1978 – Paddy Kenny, English footballer* 1978 – Carlos Peña, Dominican-American baseball player* 1978 – Magdalena Zděnovcová, Czech tennis player*1979 – David Jarolím, Czech footballer* 1979 – Wayne Thomas, English footballer*1980 – Davor Džalto, Bosnian historian and philosopher* 1980 – Fredrik Kessiakoff, Swedish cyclist* 1980 – Alistair Overeem, Dutch mixed martial artist and kickboxer* 1980 – Ariën van Weesenbeek, Dutch drummer*1981 – Beñat Albizuri, Spanish cyclist* 1981 – Leon Osman, English footballer* 1981 – Lim Jeong-hee, South Korean singer* 1981 – Chris Skidmore, English historian and politician* 1981 – Giannis Taralidis, Greek footballer*1982 – Matt Cassel, American football player* 1982 – Dan Hardy, English mixed martial artist* 1982 – Reiko Nakamura, Japanese swimmer* 1982 – Tony Parker, French-American basketball player* 1982 – Chloe Smith, English politician*1983 – Channing Frye, American basketball player* 1983 – Chris Henry, American football player (d. 2009)* 1983 – Nicky Hofs, Dutch footballer* 1983 – Kevin Kingston, Australian rugby league player* 1983 – Jeremy Sowers, American baseball player*1984 – Christian Bolaños, Costa Rican footballer* 1984 – Christine Ohuruogu, English runner* 1984 – Christine Robinson, Canadian water polo player * 1984 – Passenger, English singer-songwriter and musician *1985 – Teófilo Gutiérrez, Colombian footballer * 1985 – Derek Hough, American actor, singer, and dancer * 1985 – Christine Nesbitt, Canadian speed skater* 1985 – Todd Redmond, American baseball player* 1985 – Matt Ryan, American football player*1986 – Marius Činikas, Lithuanian footballer* 1986 – Timo Simonlatser, Estonian skier* 1986 – Jodie Taylor, English footballer*1987 – Edvald Boasson Hagen, Norwegian cyclist* 1987 – Aleandro Rosi, Italian footballer*1988 – Nikki Reed, American actress, singer, and screenwriter*1989 – Mose Masoe, New Zealand rugby league player* 1989 – Rain Raadik, Estonian basketball player* 1989 – Tessa Virtue, Canadian ice dancer*1990 – Will Clyburn, American basketball player* 1990 – Fabian Giefer, German footballer* 1990 – Charlie Gubb, New Zealand rugby league player* 1990 – Katrina Hart, English runner* 1990 – Guido Pella, Argentine tennis player *1991 – Johanna Konta, Australian-English tennis player* 1991 – Adil Omar, Pakistani rapper and music producer* 1991 – Abigail Raye, Canadian field hockey player*1994 – Julie Anne San Jose, Filipina singer-songwriter" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 528 – Empress Dowager Hu of Northern Wei* 528 – Yuan Yong, imperial prince of Northern Wei* 528 – Yuan Zhao, emperor of Northern Wei (b.", "526)* 896 – Liu Jianfeng, Chinese warlord* 924 – Li Maozhen, Chinese warlord and king (b.", "856)* 946 – Al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah, Fatimid caliph (b.", "893)*1299 – Daumantas of Pskov, Lithuanian prince (b. c. 1240)*1336 – Go-Fushimi, emperor of Japan (b.", "1288)*1365 – Louis II, Elector of Brandenburg (b.", "1328)*1395 – Konstantin Dejanović/Constantine Dragaš, Serbian ruler (b.", "1355)*1464 – Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros, English politician (b.", "1427)*1510 – Sandro Botticelli, Italian painter (b.", "1445)*1521 – Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, Welsh politician, Lord High Constable of England (b.", "1478)*1536 – George Boleyn, 2nd Viscount Rochford, English courtier and diplomat, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b.", "1504)* 1536 – William Brereton, English courtier (b.", "1487)* 1536 – Henry Norris, English courtier (b.", "1482)*1546 – Philipp von Hutten, German explorer (b.", "1511)*1551 – Shin Saimdang, South Korean poet and calligraphist (b.", "1504)*1558 – Francisco de Sá de Miranda, Portuguese poet (b.", "1485)*1575 – Matthew Parker, English archbishop and academic (b.", "1504)===1601-1900===*1606 – False Dmitriy I, pretender to the Russian throne (b.", "1582)*1607 – Anna d'Este, French princess (b.", "1531)*1626 – Joan Pau Pujol, Catalan organist and composer (b.", "1570)*1643 – Giovanni Picchi, Italian organist and composer (b.", "1571)*1727 – Catherine I of Russia (b.", "1684)*1729 – Samuel Clarke, English clergyman and philosopher (b.", "1675)*1765 – Alexis Clairaut, French mathematician, astronomer, and geophysicist (b.", "1713)*1797 – Michel-Jean Sedaine, French playwright and composer (b.", "1719)*1801 – William Heberden, English physician and scholar (b.", "1710)*1807 – John Gunby, American general (b.", "1745)*1809 – Leopold Auenbrugger, Austrian physician (b.", "1722)*1822 – Armand-Emmanuel de Vignerot du Plessis, Duc de Richelieu, French general and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of France (b.", "1766)*1829 – John Jay, American politician and diplomat, 1st Chief Justice of the United States (b.", "1745)*1838 – René Caillié, French explorer and author (b.", "1799)* 1838 – Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, French politician, Prime Minister of France (b.", "1754)*1839 – Archibald Alison, Scottish priest and author (b.", "1757)*1868 – Kondō Isami, Japanese commander (b.", "1834)*1875 – John C. Breckinridge, American lawyer and politician, 14th Vice President of the United States, Confederate States general (b.", "1821)*1879 – Asa Packer, American businessman, founded Lehigh University (b.", "1805)*1880 – Ziya Pasha, Greek author and translator (b.", "1826)*1886 – John Deere, American blacksmith and businessman, founded the Deere & Company (b.", "1804)*1888 – Giacomo Zanella, Italian priest and poet (b.", "1820)===1900-present===*1911 – Frederick August Otto Schwarz, German-American businessman, founded FAO Schwarz (b.", "1836)*1916 – Boris Borisovich Golitsyn, Russian physicist and seismologist (b.", "1862)*1917 – Clara Ayres, American nurse (b.", "1880)* 1917 – Charles Brooke, Rajah of Sarawak (b.", "1829)*1919 – Guido von List, Austrian-German journalist, author, and poet (b.", "1848)*1921 – Karl Mantzius, Danish actor and director (b.", "1860)*1922 – Dorothy Levitt, English racing driver and journalist (b.", "1882)*1927 – Harold Geiger, American pilot and lieutenant (b.", "1884)*1934 – Cass Gilbert, American architect (b.", "1859)*1935 – Paul Dukas, French composer, critic, and educator (b.", "1865)*1936 – Panagis Tsaldaris, Greek lawyer and politician, 124th Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1868)*1938 – Jakob Ehrlich, Czech-Austrian academic and politician (b.", "1877)*1943 – Johanna Elberskirchen, German author and activist (b.", "1864)*1947 – George Forbes, New Zealand farmer and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (b.", "1869)*1951 – William Birdwood, Anglo-Indian field marshal (b.", "1865)*1960 – Jules Supervielle, Uruguayan-French poet and author (b.", "1884)*1963 – John Wilce, American football player, coach, and physician (b.", "1888)*1964 – Nandor Fodor, Hungarian-American psychologist and parapsychologist (b.", "1895)*1974 – Ernest Nash, German-American photographer and scholar (b.", "1898)*1977 – Charles E. Rosendahl, American admiral and pilot (b.", "1892)*1980 – Gündüz Kılıç, Turkish football player and coach (b.", "1918)*1985 – Abe Burrows, American director, composer, and author (b.", "1910)*1987 – Gunnar Myrdal, Swedish economist, sociologist, and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1898)*1992 – Lawrence Welk, American accordion player and bandleader (b.", "1903)*1995 – Toe Blake, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1912)*1996 – Kevin Gilbert, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1966)*1999 – Bruce Fairbairn, Canadian trumpet player and producer (b.", "1949)* 1999 – Lembit Oll, Estonian chess Grandmaster (b.", "1966)*2000 – Donald Coggan, English archbishop (b.", "1909)*2001 – Jacques-Louis Lions, French mathematician (b.", "1928)* 2001 – Frank G. Slaughter, American physician and author (b.", "1908)*2002 – László Kubala, Hungarian-Spanish footballer, coach, and manager (b.", "1927)* 2002 – Aşık Mahzuni Şerif, Turkish poet and composer (b.", "1940)*2004 – Jørgen Nash, Danish poet and painter (b.", "1920)* 2004 – Tony Randall, American actor (b.", "1920)* 2004 – Ezzedine Salim, Iraqi politician (b.", "1943)*2005 – Frank Gorshin, American actor (b.", "1934)*2006 – Cy Feuer, American director, producer, and composer (b.", "1911)*2007 – Lloyd Alexander, American soldier and author (b.", "1924)* 2007 – T. K. Doraiswamy, Indian poet and author (b.", "1921)*2009 – Mario Benedetti, Uruguayan journalist, author, and poet (b.", "1920)* 2009 – Jung Seung-hye, South Korean journalist and producer (b.", "1965)*2010 – Yvonne Loriod, French pianist, composer, and educator (b.", "1924)* 2010 – Walasse Ting, Chinese-American painter and poet (b.", "1929)*2011 – Harmon Killebrew, American baseball player and sportscaster (b.", "1936)*2012 – Gideon Ezra, Israeli geographer and politician, Israeli Minister in the Prime Minister's Office (b.", "1937)* 2012 – Patrick Mafisango, Congolese-Rwandan footballer (b.", "1980)* 2012 – Donna Summer, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1948)*2013 – Philippe Gaumont, French cyclist (b.", "1973)* 2013 – Peter Schulz, German politician, Mayor of Hamburg (b.", "1930)* 2013 – Ken Venturi, American golfer and sportscaster (b.", "1931)* 2013 – Jorge Rafael Videla, Argentine Commander in Chief and dictator (b.", "1925)*2014 – Gerald Edelman, American biologist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1929)* 2014 – C. P. Krishnan Nair, Indian businessman, founded The Leela Palaces, Hotels and Resorts (b.", "1922)* 2014 – Douangchay Phichit, Laotian politician (b.", "1944)* 2014 – Thongbanh Sengaphone, Laotian politician (b.", "1953)*2015 – Lionel Pickens, American rapper (b.", "1983)*2017 – Todor Veselinović, Serbian football player and manager (b.", "1930)*2019 – Herman Wouk, American author (b.", "1915)*2020 – Lucky Peterson, American blues singer, keyboardist and guitarist (b.", "1964)*2022 – Vangelis, Greek musician, composer (b.", "1943)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Birthday of the Raja (Perlis)*Christian feast day:**Giulia Salzano**Paschal Baylon**William Hobart Hare (Episcopal Church (USA))**Restituta**May 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Children's Day (Norway)*Constitution Day (Nauru)*Constitution Day (Norway)*Feast of ‘Aẓamat (Baháʼí Faith, day shifts with March Equinox, see List of observances set by the Baháʼí calendar)*Galician Literature Day or ''Día das Letras Galegas'' (Galicia)*International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia*Liberation Day (Democratic Republic of the Congo)*National Day Against Homophobia (Canada)*Navy Day (Argentina)*World Hypertension Day*World Information Society Day (International)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 17" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 19" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 639 – Ashina Jiesheshuai and his tribesmen assaulted Emperor Taizong at Jiucheng Palace.", "* 715 – Pope Gregory II is elected.", "*1051 – Henry I of France marries the Rus' princess, Anne of Kiev.", "*1445 – John II of Castile defeats the Infantes of Aragon at the First Battle of Olmedo.", "*1499 – Catherine of Aragon is married by proxy to Arthur, Prince of Wales.", "Catherine is 13 and Arthur is 12.", "*1535 – French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail on his second voyage to North America with three ships, 110 men, and Chief Donnacona's two sons (whom Cartier had kidnapped during his first voyage).", "*1536 – Anne Boleyn, the second wife of Henry VIII of England, is beheaded for adultery, treason, and incest.", "*1542 – The Prome Kingdom falls to the Taungoo Dynasty in present-day Myanmar.===1601–1900===*1643 – Thirty Years' War: French forces under the duc d'Enghien decisively defeat Spanish forces at the Battle of Rocroi, marking the symbolic end of Spain as a dominant land power.", "*1649 – An Act of Parliament declaring England a Commonwealth is passed by the Long Parliament.", "England would be a republic for the next eleven years.", "*1655 – The Invasion of Jamaica begins during the Anglo-Spanish War.", "*1743 – Jean-Pierre Christin developed the centigrade temperature scale.", "*1749 – King George II of Great Britain grants the Ohio Company a charter of land around the forks of the Ohio River.", "*1776 – American Revolutionary War: A Continental Army garrison surrenders in the Battle of The Cedars.", "*1780 – New England's Dark Day, an unusual darkening of the day sky, was observed over the New England states and parts of Canada.", "*1802 – Napoleon Bonaparte founds the Legion of Honour.", "*1828 – U.S. President John Quincy Adams signs the Tariff of 1828 into law, protecting wool manufacturers in the United States.", "*1845 – Captain Sir John Franklin and his ill-fated Arctic expedition depart from Greenhithe, England.", "*1848 – Mexican–American War: Mexico ratifies the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo thus ending the war and ceding California, Nevada, Utah and parts of four other modern-day U.S. states to the United States for US$15 million.", "*1883 – Buffalo Bill's first ''Buffalo Bill's Wild West'' opens in Omaha, Nebraska.", "*1900 – Great Britain annexes Tonga Island.", "*1900 – Second Boer War: British troops relieve Mafeking.===1901–present===*1911 – Parks Canada, the world's first national park service, is established as the Dominion Parks Branch under the Department of the Interior.", "*1917 – The Norwegian football club Rosenborg BK is founded.", "*1919 – Mustafa Kemal Atatürk lands at Samsun on the Anatolian Black Sea coast, initiating what is later termed the Turkish War of Independence.", "*1921 – The United States Congress passes the Emergency Quota Act establishing national quotas on immigration.", "*1922 – The Young Pioneer Organization of the Soviet Union is established.", "*1933 – Finnish cavalry general C. G. E. Mannerheim is appointed the field marshal.", "*1934 – Zveno and the Bulgarian Army engineer a coup d'état and install Kimon Georgiev as the new Prime Minister of Bulgaria.", "*1942 – World War II: In the aftermath of the Battle of the Coral Sea, Task Force 16 heads to Pearl Harbor for repairs.", "*1943 – Winston Churchill's second wartime address to the U.S. Congress*1945 – Syrian demonstrators in Damascus are fired upon by French troops injuring twelve, leading to the Levant Crisis.", "*1950 – A barge containing munitions destined for Pakistan explodes in the harbor at South Amboy, New Jersey, devastating the city.", "* 1950 – Egypt announces that the Suez Canal is closed to Israeli ships and commerce.", "*1959 – The North Vietnamese Army establishes Group 559, whose responsibility is to determine how to maintain supply lines to South Vietnam; the resulting route is the Ho Chi Minh trail.", "*1961 – Venera program: ''Venera 1'' becomes the first man-made object to fly by another planet by passing Venus (the probe had lost contact with Earth a month earlier and did not send back any data).", "* 1961 – At Silchar Railway Station, Assam, 11 Bengalis die when police open fire on protesters demanding state recognition of Bengali language in the Bengali Language Movement.", "*1962 – A birthday salute to U.S. President John F. Kennedy takes place at Madison Square Garden, New York City.", "The highlight is Marilyn Monroe's rendition of \"Happy Birthday\".", "*1963 – The ''New York Post Sunday Magazine'' publishes Martin Luther King Jr.'s Letter from Birmingham Jail.", "*1971 – Mars probe program: ''Mars 2'' is launched by the Soviet Union.", "*1986 – The Firearm Owners Protection Act is signed into law by U.S. President Ronald Reagan.", "*1991 – Croatians vote for independence in a referendum.", "*1993 – SAM Colombia Flight 501 crashes on approach to José María Córdova International Airport in Medellín, Colombia, killing 132.", "*1996 – Space Shuttle program: ''Space Shuttle Endeavour'' is launched on mission STS-77.", "*1997 – The Sierra Gorda biosphere, the most ecologically diverse region in Mexico, is established as a result of grassroots efforts.", "*2000 – Space Shuttle program: Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' is launched on mission STS-101 to resupply the International Space Station.", "*2007 – President of Romania Traian Băsescu survives an impeachment referendum and returns to office from suspension.", "*2010 – The Royal Thai Armed Forces concludes its crackdown on protests by forcing the surrender of United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship leaders.", "*2012 – Three gas cylinder bombs explode in front of a vocational school in the Italian city of Brindisi, killing one person and injuring five others.", "* 2012 – A car bomb explodes near a military complex in the Syrian city of Deir ez-Zor, killing nine people.", "*2015 – The Refugio oil spill deposited 142,800 U.S. gallons (3,400 barrels) of crude oil onto an area in California considered one of the most biologically diverse coastlines of the west coast.", "*2016 – EgyptAir Flight 804 crashes into the Mediterranean Sea while traveling from Paris to Cairo, killing all on board.", "*2018 – The wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle is held at St George's Chapel, Windsor, with an estimated global audience of 1.9 billion." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1400 – John Stourton, 1st Baron Stourton, English soldier and politician (d. 1462)*1462 – Baccio D'Agnolo, Italian woodcarver, sculptor and architect (d. 1543)*1476 (or 1474) – Helena of Moscow, Grand Duchess consort of Lithuania and Queen consort of Poland (d. 1513)*1593 – Claude Vignon, French painter (d. 1670)===1601–1900===*1616 – Johann Jakob Froberger, German organist and composer (d. 1667)*1639 – Charles Weston, 3rd Earl of Portland, English soldier and noble (d. 1665)*1700 – José de Escandón, 1st Count of Sierra Gorda, Spanish sergeant and politician (d. 1770)*1724 – Augustus Hervey, 3rd Earl of Bristol, English admiral and politician, Chief Secretary for Ireland (d. 1779)*1744 – Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, German-born Queen to George III of the United Kingdom (d. 1818)*1762 – Johann Gottlieb Fichte, German philosopher and academic (d. 1814)*1773 – Arthur Aikin, English chemist and mineralogist (d. 1854)*1795 – Johns Hopkins, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1873)*1827 – Paul-Armand Challemel-Lacour, French academic and politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1896)*1832 – James Watney, Jr., English politician, brewer and cricketer (d. 1886)*1857 – John Jacob Abel, American biochemist and pharmacologist (d. 1938)*1861 – Nellie Melba, Australian soprano and actress (d. 1931)*1871 – Walter Russell, American painter, sculptor, and author (d. 1963)*1874 – Gilbert Jessop, English cricketer and soldier (d. 1955)*1878 – Alfred Laliberté, Canadian sculptor and painter (d. 1953)*1879 – Nancy Astor, Viscountess Astor, American-English politician (d. 1964)*1880 – Albert Richardson, English architect and educator, designed the Manchester Opera House (d. 1964)*1881 – Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (official birthday), Turkish field marshal and statesman, 1st President of Turkey (d. 1938)*1884 – David Munson, American runner (d. 1953)*1886 – Francis Biddle, American lawyer and judge, 58th United States Attorney General (d. 1968)*1887 – Ion Jalea, Romanian soldier and sculptor (d. 1983)*1889 – Tản Đà, Vietnamese poet and author (d. 1939)* 1889 – Henry B. Richardson, American archer (d. 1963)*1890 – Eveline Adelheid von Maydell, German-American illustrator (d. 1962)* 1890 – Ho Chi Minh, Vietnamese politician, 1st President of Vietnam (d. 1969)*1891 – Oswald Boelcke, German captain and pilot (d. 1916)*1893 – H. Bonciu, Romanian author, poet, and journalist (d. 1950)*1897 – Frank Luke, American lieutenant and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1918)*1898 – Julius Evola, Italian philosopher and painter (d. 1974)*1899 – Lothar Rădăceanu, Romanian journalist, linguist, and politician (d. 1955)===1901–present===*1902 – Lubka Kolessa, Ukrainian-Canadian pianist and educator (d. 1997)*1903 – Ruth Ella Moore, American scientist (d. 1994)*1906 – Bruce Bennett, American shot putter and actor (d. 2007)*1908 – Manik Bandopadhyay, Indian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1956)* 1908 – Merriam Modell, American author (d. 1994)* 1908 – Percy Williams, Canadian sprinter (d. 1982)*1909 – Nicholas Winton, English banker and humanitarian (d. 2015)*1910 – Alan Melville, South African cricketer (d. 1983)*1913 – Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, Indian lawyer and politician, 6th President of India (d. 1996)*1914 – Max Perutz, Austrian-English biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)* 1914 – Alex Shibicky, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2005)* 1914 – John Vachon, American photographer and journalist (d. 1975)*1915 – Renée Asherson, English actress (d. 2014)*1918 – Abraham Pais, Dutch-American physicist, historian, and academic (d. 2000)*1919 – Georgie Auld, Canadian-American saxophonist, clarinet player, and bandleader (d. 1990)* 1919 – Mitja Ribičič, Italian-Slovenian soldier and politician, 25th Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (d. 2013)*1920 – Tina Strobos, Dutch psychiatrist known for rescuing Jews during World War II (d. 2012)*1921 – Leslie Broderick, English lieutenant and pilot (d. 2013)* 1921 – Harry W. Brown, American colonel and pilot (d. 1991)* 1921 – Daniel Gélin, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2002)* 1921 – Yuri Kochiyama, American activist (d. 2014)* 1921 – Karel van het Reve, Dutch historian and author (d. 1999)*1922 – Arthur Gorrie, Australian hobby shop proprietor (d. 1992)*1924 – Sandy Wilson, English composer and songwriter (d. 2014)*1925 – Pol Pot, Cambodian general and politician, 29th Prime Minister of Cambodia (d. 1998)* 1925 – Malcolm X, American minister and activist (d. 1965)*1926 – Edward Parkes, English engineer and academic (d. 2019)* 1926 – Peter Zadek, German director and screenwriter (d. 2009)*1927 – Serge Lang, French-American mathematician, author and academic (d. 2005)*1928 – Colin Chapman, English engineer and businessman, founded Lotus Cars (d. 1982)* 1928 – Thomas Kennedy, English air marshal (d. 2013)* 1928 – Gil McDougald, American baseball player and coach (d. 2010)* 1928 – Dolph Schayes, American basketball player and coach (d. 2015)*1929 – Helmut Braunlich, German-American violinist and composer (d. 2013)* 1929 – Richard Larter, Australian painter (d. 2014)* 1929 – John Stroger, American politician (d. 2008)*1930 – Eugene Genovese, American historian and author (d. 2012)* 1930 – Lorraine Hansberry, American playwright and director (d. 1965)*1931 – Bob Anderson, English race car driver (d. 1967)* 1931 – Trevor Peacock, English actor, screenwriter and songwriter (d. 2021)*1932 – Alma Cogan, English singer (d. 1966)* 1932 – Paul Erdman, American economist and author (d. 2007)* 1932 – Bill Fitch, American basketball player and coach (d. 2022)* 1932 – Elena Poniatowska, Mexican intellectual and journalist*1933 – Edward de Bono, Maltese physician, author, and academic (d. 2021)*1934 – Ruskin Bond, Indian author and poet* 1934 – Jim Lehrer, American journalist and author (d. 2020)*1935 – David Hartman, American journalist and television personality*1937 – Pat Roach, English wrestler (d. 2004)*1938 – Moisés da Costa Amaral, East Timorese politician (d. 1989)* 1938 – Herbie Flowers, English musician* 1938 – Igor Ter-Ovanesyan, Ukrainian long jumper and coach*1939 – Livio Berruti, Italian sprinter* 1939 – James Fox, English actor * 1939 – Nancy Kwan, Hong Kong-American actress and makeup artist* 1939 – Jānis Lūsis, Latvian javelin thrower and coach (d. 2020)* 1939 – Dick Scobee, American pilot, and astronaut (d. 1986)*1940 – Jan Janssen, Dutch cyclist* 1940 – Mickey Newbury, American country/pop singer-songwriter (d. 2002)*1941 – Nora Ephron, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012)* 1941 – Igor Judge, Baron Judge, Maltese-English lawyer and judge, Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales*1942 – Gary Kildall, American computer scientist, founded Digital Research Inc. (d. 1994)* 1942 – Robert Kilroy-Silk, English television host and politician*1943 – Eddie May, English footballer and manager (d. 2012)* 1943 – Shirrel Rhoades, American author, publisher, and academic*1944 – Peter Mayhew, English-American actor (d. 2019)*1945 – Pete Townshend, English singer-songwriter and guitarist *1946 – Claude Lelièvre, Belgian activist* 1946 – Michele Placido, Italian actor and director* 1946 – André the Giant, French-American wrestler and actor (d. 1993)*1947 – Paul Brady, Irish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1947 – Christopher Chope, English lawyer and politician* 1947 – David Helfgott, Australian pianist*1948 – Grace Jones, Jamaican-American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress*1949 – Dusty Hill, American singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2021) * 1949 – Philip Hunt, Baron Hunt of Kings Heath, English politician* 1949 – Archie Manning, American football player *1950 – Tadeusz Ślusarski, Polish pole vaulter (d. 1998)*1951 – Joey Ramone, American singer-songwriter (d. 2001)* 1951 – Dick Slater, American wrestler (d. 2018)*1952 – Charlie Spedding, English runner* 1952 – Bert van Marwijk, Dutch footballer, coach, and manager*1953 – Patrick Hodge, Lord Hodge, Scottish lawyer and judge* 1953 – Shavarsh Karapetyan, Armenian finswimmer * 1953 – Florin Marin, Romanian footballer and manager* 1953 – Victoria Wood, English actress, singer, director, and screenwriter (d. 2016)*1954 – Rick Cerone, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1954 – Lena Einhorn, Swedish director, writer and physician* 1954 – Hōchū Ōtsuka, Japanese voice actor* 1954 – Phil Rudd, Australian-New Zealand drummer *1955 – James Gosling, Canadian-American computer scientist, created Java*1956 – Oliver Letwin, English philosopher and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster* 1956 – Martyn Ware, English keyboard player, songwriter, and producer *1957 – Bill Laimbeer, American basketball player and coach* 1957 – James Reyne, Nigerian-Australian singer-songwriter *1961 – Vadim Cojocaru, Moldovan politician (d. 2021)* 1961 – Gregory Poirier, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1961 – Wayne Van Dorp, Canadian ice hockey player*1963 – Filippo Galli, Italian footballer and manager*1964 – Peter Jackson, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster (d. 1997)* 1964 – John Lee, South Korean-American football player* 1964 – Miloslav Mečíř, Slovak tennis player*1965 – Maile Flanagan, American actress, producer, and screenwriter*1966 – Marc Bureau, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster* 1966 – Jodi Picoult, American author and educator* 1966 – Polly Walker, English actress*1967 – Alexia, Italian singer* 1967 – Geraldine Somerville, Irish-born English actress*1968 – Kyle Eastwood, American actor and bass player*1970 – Stuart Cable, Welsh drummer (d. 2010)* 1970 – K. J. Choi, South Korean golfer* 1970 – Regina Narva, Estonian chess player* 1970 – Nia Zulkarnaen, Indonesian actress, singer and producer*1971 – Ross Katz, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1971 – Andres Salumets, Estonian biologist, biochemist, and educator*1972 – Jenny Berggren, Swedish singer-songwriter * 1972 – Claudia Karvan, Australian actress, producer, and screenwriter*1973 – Dario Franchitti, Scottish race car driver*1974 – Andrew Johns, Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster* 1974 – Emma Shapplin, French soprano* 1974 – Nawazuddin Siddiqui, Indian actor*1975 – Pretinha, Brazilian footballer* 1975 – London Fletcher, American football player* 1975 – Josh Paul, American baseball player and manager* 1975 – Jonas Renkse, Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer *1976 – Ed Cota, American basketball player* 1976 – Kevin Garnett, American basketball player*1977 – Manuel Almunia, Spanish footballer* 1977 – Wouter Hamel, Dutch singer and guitarist* 1977 – Brandon Inge, American baseball player* 1977 – Natalia Oreiro, Uruguayan singer-songwriter and actress*1978 – Marcus Bent, English footballer* 1978 – Dave Bus, Dutch footballer*1979 – Andrea Pirlo, Italian footballer* 1979 – Diego Forlán, Uruguayan footballer* 1979 – Shooter Jennings, American country singer, songwriter*1980 – Tony Hackworth, English footballer*1981 – Luciano Figueroa, Argentinian footballer* 1981 – Yo Gotti, American rapper* 1981 – Michael Leighton, Canadian ice hockey player* 1981 – Sina Schielke, German sprinter* 1981 – Klaas-Erik Zwering, Dutch swimmer*1982 – Kevin Amankwaah, English footballer* 1982 – Pål Steffen Andresen, Norwegian footballer* 1982 – Klaas Vantornout, Belgian cyclist*1983 – Michael Che, American comedian* 1983 – Jessica Fox, English actress*1984 – Marcedes Lewis, American football player*1985 – Malakai Black, Dutch professional wrestler*1986 – Mario Chalmers, American basketball player*1987 – Michael Angelakos, American singer-songwriter and producer * 1987 – David Edgar, Canadian soccer player* 1987 – Mariano Torres, Argentinian footballer*1991 – Jordan Pruitt, American singer-songwriter*1992 – Michele Camporese, Italian footballer * 1992 – Ola John, Dutch footballer* 1992 – Felise Kaufusi, New Zealand-Tongan rugby league player* 1992 – Evgeny Kuznetsov, Russian ice hockey player* 1992 – Marshmello, American electronic music producer and DJ* 1992 – Sam Smith, English singer-songwriter* 1992 – Heather Watson, British tennis player*1994 – Carlos Guzmán, Mexican footballer*1995 – Taane Milne, New Zealand rugby league player*1996 – Michael Carcone, Canadian ice hockey player*2001 – Elizabeth Mandlik, American tennis player*2003 – Jojo Siwa, American dancer, singer, actress, and YouTube personality" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 804 – Alcuin, English monk and scholar (b.", "735)* 956 – Robert, archbishop of Trier* 988 – Dunstan, English archbishop and saint (b.", "909)*1102 – Stephen, Count of Blois (b.", "1045)*1125 – Vladimir II Monomakh, Grand Duke of Kyiv*1164 – Saint Bashnouna, Egyptian saint and martyr*1218 – Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor*1296 – Pope Celestine V (b.", "1215)*1303 – Saint Ivo of Kermartin, French canon lawyer (b.", "1253)*1319 – Louis, Count of Évreux (b.", "1276)*1389 – Dmitry Donskoy, Grand Prince of Muscovy (b.", "1350)*1396 – John I of Aragon (b.", "1350)*1526 – Emperor Go-Kashiwabara of Japan (b.", "1464)*1531 – Jan Łaski, Polish archbishop and diplomat (b.", "1456)*1536 – Anne Boleyn, Queen of England (1533–1536); second wife of Henry VIII of England===1601–1900===*1601 – Costanzo Porta, Italian composer (b.", "1528)*1609 – García Hurtado de Mendoza, 5th Marquis of Cañete (b.", "1535)*1610 – Thomas Sanchez, Spanish priest and theologian (b.", "1550)*1623 – Mariam-uz-Zamani, Empress of the Mughal Empire (b.", "1542)*1637 – Isaac Beeckman, Dutch scientist and philosopher (b.", "1588)*1715 – Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, English poet and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b.", "1661)*1786 – John Stanley, English organist and composer (b.", "1712)*1795 – Josiah Bartlett, American physician and politician, 4th Governor of New Hampshire (b.", "1729)* 1795 – James Boswell, Scottish biographer (b.", "1740)*1798 – William Byron, 5th Baron Byron, English lieutenant and politician (b.", "1722)*1821 – Camille Jordan, French lawyer and politician (b.", "1771)*1825 – Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon, French philosopher and theorist (b.", "1760)*1831 – Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz, Estonian-German physician, botanist, and entomologist (b.", "1793)*1864 – Nathaniel Hawthorne, American novelist and short story writer (b.", "1804)*1865 – Sengge Rinchen, Mongolian general (b.", "1811)*1872 – John Baker, English-Australian politician, 2nd Premier of South Australia (b.", "1813)*1876 – Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer, Dutch historian and politician (b.", "1801)*1885 – Peter W. Barlow, English engineer (b.", "1809)*1895 – José Martí, Cuban journalist, poet, and philosopher (b.", "1853)*1898 – William Ewart Gladstone, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1809)===1901–present===*1901 – Marthinus Wessel Pretorius, South African general and politician, 1st President of the South African Republic (b.", "1819)*1903 – Arthur Shrewsbury, English cricketer (b.", "1856)*1904 – Auguste Molinier, French librarian and historian (b.", "1851)* 1904 – Jamsetji Tata, Indian businessman, founded Tata Group (b.", "1839)*1906 – Gabriel Dumont, Canadian Métis leader (b.", "1837)*1907 – Benjamin Baker, English engineer, designed the Forth Bridge (b.", "1840)*1912 – Bolesław Prus, Polish journalist and author (b.", "1847)*1915 – John Simpson Kirkpatrick, English-Australian soldier (b.", "1892)*1918 – Gervais Raoul Lufbery, French-American soldier and pilot (b.", "1885)*1935 – T. E. Lawrence, British colonel and archaeologist (b.", "1888)*1936 – Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall, British Islamic scholar (b.", "1875)*1939 – Ahmet Ağaoğlu, Azerbaijani-Turkish journalist and publicist (b.", "1869)*1943 – Kristjan Raud, Estonian painter and illustrator (b.", "1865)*1945 – Philipp Bouhler, German soldier and politician (b.", "1889)*1946 – Booth Tarkington, American novelist and dramatist (b.", "1869)*1950 – Daniel Ciugureanu, Romanian physician and politician, Prime Minister of Moldova (b.", "1884)*1954 – Charles Ives, American composer and educator (b.", "1874)*1958 – Jadunath Sarkar, Indian historian (b.", "1870)*1958 – Archie Scott Brown, Scottish race car driver (b.", "1927)* 1958 – Ronald Colman, English actor (b.", "1891)*1963 – Walter Russell, American painter, sculptor, and author (b.", "1871)*1962 – Gabriele Münter, German painter (d. 1877)*1969 – Coleman Hawkins, American saxophonist and clarinet player (b.", "1901)*1971 – Ogden Nash, American poet (b.", "1902)*1978 – Albert Kivikas, Estonian-Swedish journalist and author (b.", "1898)*1980 – Joseph Schull, Canadian playwright and historian (b.", "1906)*1983 – Jean Rey, Belgian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of the European Commission (b.", "1902)*1984 – John Betjeman, English poet and academic (b.", "1906)*1985 – Maqbular Rahman Sarkar, Bangladeshi academic (b.", "1928)*1986 – Jimmy Lyons, American saxophonist (b.", "1931)*1987 – James Tiptree, Jr., American psychologist and author (b.", "1915)*1989 – Yiannis Papaioannou, Greek composer and educator (b.", "1910)*1994 – Jacques Ellul, French sociologist, philosopher, and academic (b.", "1912)* 1994 – Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, American journalist, 37th First Lady of the United States (b.", "1929)* 1994 – Luis Ocaña, Spanish cyclist (b.", "1945)*1996 – John Beradino, American baseball player and actor (b.", "1917)*1998 – Sōsuke Uno, Japanese soldier and politician, 75th Prime Minister of Japan (b.", "1922)*2001 – Alexey Maresyev, Russian soldier and pilot (b.", "1916)* 2001 – Susannah McCorkle, American singer (b.", "1946)*2002 – John Gorton, Australian lieutenant and politician, 19th Prime Minister of Australia (b.", "1911)* 2002 – Walter Lord, American historian and author (b.", "1917)*2004 – Mary Dresselhuys, Dutch actress and screenwriter (b.", "1907)*2007 – Bernard Blaut, Polish footballer and coach (b.", "1940)* 2007 – Dean Eyre, New Zealand politician (b.", "1914)*2008 – Vijay Tendulkar, Indian playwright and screenwriter (b.", "1928)*2009 – Robert F. Furchgott, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1916)* 2009 – Nicholas Maw, English composer and academic (b.", "1935)*2009 – Clint Smith, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1913)*2011 – Garret FitzGerald, Irish lawyer and politician, 8th Taoiseach of Ireland (b.", "1926)* 2011 – Jeffrey Catherine Jones, American artist (b.", "1944)*2012 – Bob Boozer, American basketball player (b.", "1937)* 2012 – Tamara Brooks, American conductor and educator (b.", "1941)* 2012 – Ian Burgess, English race car driver (b.", "1930)* 2012 – Gerhard Hetz, German-Mexican swimmer (b.", "1942)* 2012 – Phil Lamason, New Zealand soldier and pilot (b.", "1918)*2013 – G. Sarsfield Ford, American lawyer and jurist (b.", "1933)* 2013 – Robin Harrison, English-Canadian pianist and composer (b.", "1932)* 2013 – Neil Reynolds, Canadian journalist and politician (b.", "1940)*2014 – Simon Andrews, English motorcycle racer (b.", "1982)* 2014 – Jack Brabham, Australian race car driver (b.", "1926)* 2014 – Sam Greenlee, American author and poet (b.", "1930)* 2014 – Vincent Harding, American historian and scholar (b.", "1931)* 2014 – Gabriel Kolko, American historian and author (b.", "1932)* 2014 – Zbigniew Pietrzykowski, Polish boxer (b.", "1934)*2015 – Bruce Lundvall, American businessman (b.", "1935)* 2015 – Ted McWhinney, Australian-Canadian lawyer and politician (b.", "1924)* 2015 – Happy Rockefeller, American philanthropist, socialite; 31st Second Lady of the United States (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Robert S. Wistrich, English historian, author, and academic (b.", "1945)*2016 – Alan Young, English-born Canadian-American actor (b.", "1919)* 2016 – Morley Safer, Canadian-born American journalist (b.", "1931)*2017 – Nawshirwan Mustafa, General coordinator of the Movement for Change (Gorran) (b.", "1944)* 2017 – Stanislav Petrov, Lt.", "Colonel in Soviet Air Defence Forces (b.", "1939)*2018 – Zhengzhang Shangfang, Chinese linguist (b.", "1933)*2021 – Paul Mooney, American comedian (b.", "1941)*2023 – Andy Rourke, English bassist (b.", "1964)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Calocerus (Eastern Orthodox Church)** Crispin of Viterbo** Dunstan (Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church; commemoration, Anglicanism)** Ivo of Kermartin** Joaquina Vedruna de Mas** Maria Bernarda Bütler** Peter Celestine** Pudentiana (Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church)** May 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Pontian Greek Genocide Remembrance Day (Greece)* Commemoration of Atatürk, Youth and Sports Day (Turkey, Northern Cyprus)* Hồ Chí Minh's Birthday (Vietnam)* Malcolm X Day (United States of America)* National Asian & Pacific Islander HIV/AIDS Awareness Day (United States)* Hepatitis Testing Day (United States)* Mother's Day (Kyrgyzstan)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 19" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "March 3" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 473 – Gundobad (nephew of Ricimer) nominates Glycerius as emperor of the Western Roman Empire.", "* 724 – Empress Genshō abdicates the throne in favor of her nephew Shōmu who becomes emperor of Japan.", "*1575 – Mughal Emperor Akbar defeats Sultan of Bengal Daud Khan Karrani's army at the Battle of Tukaroi.", "*1585 – The Olympic Theatre, designed by Andrea Palladio, is inaugurated in Vicenza.===1601–1900===*1776 – American Revolutionary War: The first amphibious landing of the United States Marine Corps begins the Battle of Nassau.", "*1779 – American Revolutionary War: The Continental Army is routed at the Battle of Brier Creek near Savannah, Georgia.", "*1799 – The Russo-Ottoman siege of Corfu ends with the surrender of the French garrison.", "*1820 – The U.S. Congress passes the Missouri Compromise.", "*1845 – Florida is admitted as the 27th U.S.", "state.", "*1849 – The Territory of Minnesota is created.", "*1857 – Second Opium War: France and the United Kingdom declare war on China.", "*1859 – The two-day Great Slave Auction, the largest such auction in United States history, concludes.", "*1861 – Alexander II of Russia signs the Emancipation Manifesto, freeing serfs.", "*1873 – Censorship in the United States: The U.S. Congress enacts the Comstock Law, making it illegal to send any \"obscene literature and articles of immoral use\" through the mail.", "* 1875 – The first ever organized indoor game of ice hockey is played in Montreal, Quebec, Canada as recorded in the ''Montreal Gazette''.", "*1878 – The Russo-Turkish War ends with Bulgaria regaining its independence from the Ottoman Empire according to the Treaty of San Stefano.", "*1891 – Shoshone National Forest is established as the first national forest in the US and world.===1901–present===*1910 – Rockefeller Foundation: John D. Rockefeller Jr. announces his retirement from managing his businesses so that he can devote all his time to philanthropy.", "*1913 – Thousands of women march in the Woman Suffrage Procession in Washington, D.C.*1918 – Russia signs the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, agreeing to withdraw from World War I, and conceding German control of the Baltic States, Belarus and Ukraine.", "It also conceded Turkish control of Ardahan, Kars and Batumi.", "*1924 – The 407-year-old Islamic caliphate is abolished, when Caliph Abdülmecid II of the Ottoman Caliphate is deposed.", "The last remnant of the old regime gives way to the reformed Turkey of Kemal Atatürk.", "* 1924 – The Free State of Fiume is annexed by the Kingdom of Italy.", "*1931 – The United States adopts ''The Star-Spangled Banner'' as its national anthem.", "*1938 – Oil is discovered in Saudi Arabia.", "*1939 – In Bombay, Mohandas Gandhi begins a hunger strike in protest at the autocratic rule in British India.", "*1940 – Five people are killed in an arson attack on the offices of the communist newspaper ''Flamman'' in Luleå, Sweden.", "*1942 – World War II: Ten Japanese warplanes raid Broome, Western Australia, killing more than 100 people.", "*1943 – World War II: In London, 173 people are killed in a crush while trying to enter an air-raid shelter at Bethnal Green tube station.", "*1944 – The Order of Nakhimov and Order of Ushakov are instituted in USSR as the highest naval awards.", "* 1944 – A freight train carrying stowaway passengers stalls in a tunnel shortly after departing from Balvano, Basilicata, Italy just after midnight, with 517 dying from carbon monoxide poisoning.", "*1945 – World War II: In poor visibility, the RAF mistakenly bombs the Bezuidenhout area of The Hague, Netherlands, killing 511 people.", "*1953 – A De Havilland Comet (Canadian Pacific Air Lines) crashes in Karachi, Pakistan, killing 11.", "*1958 – Nuri al-Said becomes Prime Minister of Iraq for the eighth time.", "*1969 – Apollo program: NASA launches Apollo 9 to test the lunar module.", "*1972 – Mohawk Airlines Flight 405 crashes as a result of a control malfunction and insufficient training in emergency procedures.", "*1974 – Turkish Airlines Flight 981 crashes at Ermenonville near Paris, France killing all 346 aboard.", "*1980 – The is decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register.", "*1985 – Arthur Scargill declares that the National Union of Mineworkers' national executive voted to end the longest-running industrial dispute in Great Britain without any peace deal over pit closures.", "* 1985 – A magnitude 8.3 earthquake strikes the Valparaíso Region of Chile, killing 177 and leaving nearly a million people homeless.", "*1986 – The Australia Act 1986 commences, causing Australia to become fully independent from the United Kingdom.", "*1991 – An amateur video captures the beating of Rodney King by Los Angeles police officers.", "* 1991 – United Airlines Flight 585 crashes on its final approach to Colorado Springs killing everyone on board.", "*2005 – James Roszko murders four Royal Canadian Mounted Police constables during a drug bust at his property in Rochfort Bridge, Alberta, then commits suicide.", "This is the deadliest peace-time incident for the RCMP since 1885 and the North-West Rebellion.", "* 2005 – Steve Fossett becomes the first person to fly an airplane non-stop around the world solo without refueling.", "* 2005 – Margaret Wilson is elected as Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives, beginning a period lasting until August 23, 2006, where all the highest political offices (including Elizabeth II as Head of State), were occupied by women, making New Zealand the first country for this to occur.", "*2013 – A bomb blast in Karachi, Pakistan, kills at least 45 people and injured 180 others in a predominantly Shia Muslim area.", "*2017 – The Nintendo Switch releases worldwide." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1455 – John II of Portugal (d. 1495)* 1455 – Ascanio Sforza, Catholic cardinal (d. 1505)*1506 – Luís of Portugal, Duke of Beja (d. 1555)*1520 – Matthias Flacius, Croatian theologian and reformer (d. 1575)*1583 – Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury, English-Welsh soldier, historian, and diplomat (d. 1648)*1589 – Gisbertus Voetius, Dutch minister, theologian, and academic (d. 1676)===1601–1900===*1606 – Edmund Waller, English poet and politician (d. 1687)*1652 – Thomas Otway, English playwright and author (d. 1685)*1678 – Madeleine de Verchères, Canadian rebel leader (d. 1747)*1756 – William Godwin, English journalist and author (d. 1836)*1778 – Frederica of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (d. 1841)*1793 – William Macready, English actor and manager (d. 1873)*1800 – Heinrich Georg Bronn, German geologist and paleontologist (d. 1862)*1803 – Thomas Field Gibson, English manufacturer who aided the welfare of the Spitalfields silk weavers (d. 1889)*1805 – Jonas Furrer, Swiss politician (d. 1861)*1816 – William James Blacklock, English-Scottish painter (d. 1858)*1819 – Gustave de Molinari, Dutch-Belgian economist and theorist (d. 1912)*1825 – Shiranui Kōemon, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 1879)*1831 – George Pullman, American engineer and businessman, founded the Pullman Company (d. 1897)*1839 – Jamsetji Tata, Indian businessman, founded Tata Group (d. 1904)*1841 – John Murray, Canadian-Scottish oceanographer and biologist (d. 1914)*1845 – Georg Cantor, Russian-German mathematician and philosopher (d. 1918)*1847 – Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-American engineer and academic, invented the telephone (d. 1922)*1860 – John Montgomery Ward, American baseball player and manager (d. 1925)*1866 – Fred A. Busse, American lawyer and politician, 39th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1914)*1868 – Émile Chartier, French philosopher and journalist (d. 1951)*1869 – Henry Wood, English conductor (d. 1944)*1871 – Maurice Garin, Italian-French cyclist (d. 1957)*1873 – William Green, American union leader and politician (d. 1952)*1880 – Florence Auer, American actress and screenwriter (d. 1962)* 1880 – Yōsuke Matsuoka, Japanese politician, Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1946)*1882 – Elisabeth Abegg, German anti-Nazi resistance fighter (d. 1974)* 1882 – Charles Ponzi, Italian businessman (d. 1949)*1883 – Cyril Burt, English psychologist and geneticist (d. 1971)* 1883 – Paul Marais de Beauchamp, French zoologist (d. 1977)*1887 – Lincoln J. Beachey, American pilot (d. 1915)*1891 – Damaskinos of Athens, Greek archbishop (d. 1949)*1893 – Beatrice Wood, American illustrator and potter (d. 1998)*1895 – Ragnar Frisch, Norwegian economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973)* 1895 – Matthew Ridgway, American general (d. 1993)*1898 – Emil Artin, Austrian-German mathematician and academic (d. 1962)*1900 – Edna Best, British stage and film actress (d. 1974)===1901–present===*1901 – Claude Choules, English-Australian soldier (d. 2011)*1902 – Ruby Dandridge, African-American film and radio actress (d. 1987)*1903 – Vasily Kozlov, Belarusian general and politician (d. 1967)*1906 – Artur Lundkvist, Swedish poet and critic (d. 1991)*1911 – Jean Harlow, American actress (d. 1937)* 1911 – Hugues Lapointe, Canadian lawyer and politician, 22nd Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 1982)*1913 – Margaret Bonds, American pianist and composer (d. 1972)* 1913 – Harold J.", "Stone, American actor (d. 2005)*1914 – Asger Jorn, Danish painter and sculptor (d. 1973)*1916 – Paul Halmos, Hungarian-American mathematician (d. 2006)*1917 – Sameera Moussa, Egyptian physicist and academic (d. 1952)*1918 – Arthur Kornberg, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2007)*1920 – Julius Boros, American golfer and accountant (d. 1994)* 1920 – James Doohan, Canadian-American actor and soldier (d. 2005)* 1920 – Ronald Searle, English-French soldier and illustrator (d. 2011)*1921 – Diana Barrymore, American actress (d. 1960)*1922 – Nándor Hidegkuti, Hungarian footballer and manager (d. 2002)*1923 – Barney Martin, American police officer and actor (d. 2005)* 1923 – Doc Watson, American bluegrass singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2012)*1924 – Tomiichi Murayama, Japanese soldier and politician, 52nd Prime Minister of Japan*1926 – James Merrill, American poet and playwright (d. 1995)*1927 – Pierre Aubert, Swiss lawyer and politician (d. 2016)*1930 – Ion Iliescu, Romanian engineer and politician, 2nd President of Romania*1934 – Peter Brooke, Baron Brooke of Sutton Mandeville, English politician, Secretary of State for Northern Ireland (d. 2023)* 1934 – Jimmy Garrison, American bassist and educator (d. 1976)*1935 – Mal Anderson, Australian tennis player* 1935 – Michael Walzer, American philosopher and academic* 1935 – Zhelyu Zhelev, Bulgarian philosopher and politician, 2nd President of Bulgaria (d. 2015)*1939 – Larry Burkett, American author and radio host (d. 2003)* 1939 – M. L. Jaisimha, Indian cricketer (d. 1999)*1940 – Germán Castro Caycedo, Colombian author and journalist* 1940 – Perry Ellis, American fashion designer, founded Perry Ellis (d. 1986)* 1940 – Jean-Paul Proust, French-Monégasque police officer and politician, 21st Minister of State of Monaco (d. 2010)*1941 – Mike Pender, English singer-songwriter and guitarist *1945 – George Miller, Australian director, producer, and screenwriter* 1945 – Hattie Winston, American actress*1947 – Clifton Snider, American author, poet, and critic* 1947 – Jennifer Warnes, American singer-songwriter and producer*1948 – Snowy White, English guitarist* 1948 – Steve Wilhite, American computer scientist, developer of the GIF image format at CompuServe in 1987 (d. 2022)*1949 – Ron Chernow, American historian, journalist, and author* 1949 – Bonnie J. Dunbar, American engineer, academic, and astronaut* 1949 – Jesse Jefferson, American baseball player (d. 2011)*1950 – Kamal Ahmed Majumder, Bangladeshi politician*1951 – Lindsay Cooper, English composer, bassoon and oboe player (d. 2013)* 1951 – Andy Murray, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1951 – Heizō Takenaka, Japanese economist and politician*1952 – Rudy Fernandez, Filipino actor and producer (d. 2008)*1953 – Robyn Hitchcock, English singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1953 – Zico, Brazilian footballer and coach*1954 – Keith Fergus, American golfer* 1954 – John Lilley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1954 – Édouard Lock, Moroccan-Canadian dancer and choreographer*1955 – Darnell Williams, English-American actor and director*1956 – Zbigniew Boniek, Polish footballer and manager* 1956 – John Fulton Reid, New Zealand cricketer*1957 – Stephen Budiansky, American historian, journalist, and author* 1957 – Thom Hoffman, Dutch actor and photographer*1958 – Miranda Richardson, English actress *1959 – Ira Glass, American radio host and producer* 1959 – Duško Vujošević, Montenegrin basketball player and coach*1960 – Neal Heaton, American baseball player and coach*1961 – Mary Page Keller, American actress and producer* 1961 – John Matteson, American biographer* 1961 – Perry McCarthy, English race car driver* 1961 – Fatima Whitbread, English javelin thrower*1962 – Glen E. Friedman, American photographer* 1962 – Jackie Joyner-Kersee, American heptathlete and long jumper* 1962 – Herschel Walker, American football player, political candidate and mixed martial artist*1963 – Martín Fiz, Spanish runner* 1963 – Khaltmaagiin Battulga, 5th President of Mongolia*1964 – Raúl Alcalá, Mexican cyclist* 1964 – Laura Harring, Mexican-American model and actress, Miss USA 1985* 1964 – Glenn Kulka, Canadian ice hockey player and wrestler*1965 – Dragan Stojković, Serbian footballer and manager*1966 – Tone Lōc, American rapper, producer, and actor* 1966 – Timo Tolkki, Finnish guitarist, songwriter, and producer*1968 – Brian Cox, English keyboard player and physicist * 1968 – Brian Leetch, American ice hockey player*1970 – Julie Bowen, American actress* 1970 – Inzamam-ul-Haq, Pakistani cricketer and coach*1971 – Charlie Brooker, English journalist, producer, and author* 1971 – Tyler Florence, American chef and author*1972 – Darren Anderton, English international footballer and sportscaster*1973 – Xavier Bettel, Luxembourger lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Luxembourg*1975 – Patric Chiha, Austrian film director and screenwriter*1974 – David Faustino, American actor, producer, and screenwriter*1976 – Fraser Gehrig, Australian footballer* 1976 – Isabel Granada, Filipino-Spanish actress (d. 2017)* 1976 – Keit Pentus-Rosimannus, Estonian politician, 28th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs* 1976 – Kampamba Mulenga Chilumba, Zambian politician*1977 – Ronan Keating, Irish singer-songwriter and actor * 1977 – Buddy Valastro, American chef and television host*1979 – Albert Jorquera, Spanish footballer*1981 – Julius Malema, South African politician* 1981 – Emmanuel Pappoe, Ghanaian footballer*1982 – Jessica Biel, American actress, singer, and producer* 1982 – Colton Orr, Canadian ice hockey player* 1982 – Tolu Ogunlesi, Nigerian journalist and writer* 1982 – Brent Tate, Australian rugby league player*1983 – Ashley Hansen, Australian footballer* 1983 – Sarah Poewe, South African swimmer*1984 – Valerio Bernabò, Italian rugby player* 1984 – Santonio Holmes, American football player* 1984 – Alexander Semin, Russian ice hockey player*1986 – Jed Collins, American football player* 1986 – Stacie Orrico, American singer-songwriter* 1986 – Mehmet Topal, Turkish footballer*1987 – Jesús Padilla, Mexican footballer* 1987 – Shraddha Kapoor, Indian actress, singer, and designer *1988 – Teodora Mirčić, Serbian tennis player* 1988 – Michael Morrison, English footballer* 1988 – Jan-Arie van der Heijden, Dutch footballer* 1988 – Max Waller, English cricketer*1989 – Erwin Mulder, Dutch footballer*1990 – Vladimir Janković, Greek-Serbian basketball player*1991 – Anri Sakaguchi, Japanese actress* 1991 – Cho-rong, South Korean singer *1993 – Gabriela Cé, Brazilian tennis player* 1993 – Josef Dostál, Czech kayaker* 1993 – James Roberts, Australian rugby league player*1994 – Umika Kawashima, Japanese singer and actress*1995 – Maine Mendoza, Filipina actress*1996 – Cameron Johnson, American basketball player* 1996 – Andile Phehlukwayo, South African cricketer*1997 – Camila Cabello, Cuban-American singer*1998 – Jayson Tatum, American basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 532 – Winwaloe, founder of Landévennec Abbey (b. c. 460)*1009 – Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo, Umayyad chief minister (b.", "983)*1195 – Hugh de Puiset, bishop of Durham (b. c. 1125)*1239 – Vladimir IV Rurikovich, Grand Prince of Kiev (b.", "1187)*1311 – Antony Bek, bishop of Durham*1323 – Andrew Harclay, 1st Earl of Carlisle, English military leader*1383 – Hugh III, Italian nobleman *1459 – Ausiàs March, Catalan knight and poet (b.", "1397)*1542 – Arthur Plantagenet, 1st Viscount Lisle, illegitimate son of Edward IV*1554 – John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony (b.", "1503)*1578 – Sebastiano Venier, doge of Venice (b.", "1496)* 1578 – Michael Kantakouzenos Şeytanoğlu, Ottoman Greek magnate*1588 – Henry XI, duke of Legnica (b.", "1539)*1592 – Michael Coxcie, Flemish painter (b.", "1499)===1601–1900===*1611 – William Douglas, 10th Earl of Angus, Scottish nobleman (b.", "1552)*1616 – Matthias de l'Obel, Flemish physician and botanist (b.", "1538)*1700 – Chhatrapati Rajaram, 3rd Chhatrapati of Maratha Empire (b.", "1670)*1703 – Robert Hooke, English architect and philosopher (b.", "1635)*1744 – Jean Barbeyrac, French scholar and jurist (b.", "1674)*1765 – William Stukeley, English archaeologist and historian (b.", "1687)*1768 – Nicola Porpora, Italian composer and educator (b.", "1686)*1789 – Ghulam Kadir, leader of the Afghan Rohilla*1792 – Robert Adam, Scottish-English architect and politician, designed the Culzean Castle (b.", "1728)*1850 – Oliver Cowdery, American religious leader (b.", "1806)*1894 – Ned Williamson, American baseball player (b.", "1857)===1901–present===*1901 – George Gilman, American businessman, founded The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company (b.", "1826)*1905 – Antonio Annetto Caruana, Maltese archaeologist and author (b.", "1830)*1927 – Mikhail Artsybashev, Ukrainian author and playwright (b.", "1878)* 1927 – J. G. Parry-Thomas, Welsh race car driver and engineer (b.", "1884)*1929 – Katharine Wright, American educator (b.", "1874)*1932 – Eugen d'Albert, Scottish-German pianist and composer (b.", "1864)*1943 – George Thompson, English cricketer and umpire (b.", "1877)*1959 – Lou Costello, American actor and comedian (b.", "1906)*1961 – Azizul Haq, Bengali Islamic scholar (b.", "1903)* 1961 – Paul Wittgenstein, Austrian-American pianist (b.", "1887)*1966 – Joseph Fields, American playwright, director, and producer (b.", "1895)* 1966 – William Frawley, American actor and vaudevillian (b.", "1887)* 1966 – Alice Pearce, American actress (b.", "1917)*1981 – Rebecca Lancefield, American microbiologist and researcher (b.", "1895)*1982 – Firaq Gorakhpuri, Indian poet and critic (b.", "1896)* 1982 – Georges Perec, French author and screenwriter (b.", "1936)*1983 – Hergé, Belgian author and illustrator (b.", "1907)*1987 – Danny Kaye, American actor, singer, and dancer (b.", "1911)*1988 – Henryk Szeryng, Polish-Mexican violinist and composer (b.", "1918)* 1988 – Sewall Wright, American biologist and geneticist (b.", "1889)*1990 – Charlotte Moore Sitterly, American astronomer (b.", "1898)*1991 – Arthur Murray, American dancer and educator (b.", "1895)* 1991 – William Penney, Baron Penney, Gibraltar-born English mathematician, physicist, and academic (b.", "1909)*1993 – Mel Bradford, American author and critic (b.", "1934)* 1993 – Carlos Marcello, Tunisian-American mob boss (b.", "1910)* 1993 – Carlos Montoya, Spanish guitarist and composer (b.", "1903)* 1993 – Albert Sabin, Polish-American physician and virologist (b.", "1906)*1994 – John Edward Williams, American author and academic (b.", "1922)*1995 – Howard W. Hunter, American religious leader, 14th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b.", "1907)*1996 – Marguerite Duras, French author and director (b.", "1914)* 1996 – John Krol, American cardinal (b.", "1910)*1998 – Fred W. Friendly, American journalist and broadcaster (b.", "1915)*1999 – Gerhard Herzberg, German-Canadian chemist and astronomer, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1904)* 1999 – Lee Philips, American actor and director (b.", "1927)*2000 – Toni Ortelli, Italian composer and conductor (b.", "1904)*2001 – Louis Edmonds, American actor (b.", "1923)* 2001 – Eugene Sledge, American soldier, author, and academic (b.", "1923)*2002 – G. M. C. Balayogi, Indian lawyer and politician, 12th Speaker of the Lok Sabha (b.", "1951)*2003 – Horst Buchholz, German actor (b.", "1933)* 2003 – Luis Marden, American linguist, photographer, and explorer (b.", "1913)* 2003 – Goffredo Petrassi, Italian composer and conductor (b.", "1904)*2005 – Max Fisher, American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1928)*2006 – Ivor Cutler, Scottish poet and songwriter (b.", "1923)* 2006 – Else Fisher, Australian-Swedish dancer, choreographer, and director (b.", "1918)* 2006 – William Herskovic, Hungarian-American humanitarian (b.", "1914)*2007 – Osvaldo Cavandoli, Italian cartoonist (b.", "1920)*2008 – Giuseppe Di Stefano, Italian tenor and actor (b.", "1921)* 2008 – Norman Smith, English drummer and producer (b.", "1923)*2009 – Gilbert Parent, Canadian educator and politician, 33rd Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada (b.", "1935)*2010 – Keith Alexander, English footballer and manager (b.", "1956)* 2010 – Michael Foot, English journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Employment (b.", "1913)*2011 – May Cutler, Canadian journalist, author, and politician (b.", "1923)*2012 – Ralph McQuarrie, American conceptual designer and illustrator (b.", "1929)* 2012 – Ronnie Montrose, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer (b.", "1947)* 2012 – Alex Webster, American football player and coach (b.", "1931)*2013 – Luis Cubilla, Uruguayan footballer and manager (b.", "1940)* 2013 – Bobby Rogers, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1940)* 2013 – James Strong, Qantas CEO from 1993 to 2001 (b.", "1944)*2014 – Robert Ashley, American soldier and composer (b.", "1930)* 2014 – Sherwin B. Nuland, American surgeon, author, and educator (b.", "1930)* 2014 – William R. Pogue, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1930)*2015 – Ernest Braun, Austrian-English physicist and academic (b.", "1925)* 2015 – M. Stanton Evans, American journalist and author (b.", "1934)*2016 – Hayabusa, Japanese wrestler (b.", "1968)* 2016 – Berta Cáceres, Honduran environmentalist (b.", "1973)* 2016 – Martin Crowe, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster (b.", "1962)* 2016 – Thanat Khoman, Thai politician and diplomat, Deputy Prime Minister of Thailand (b.", "1914)* 2016 – Sarah Tait, Australian Olympic rower (b.", "1983)*2017 – René Préval, Haitian politician (b.", "1943)*2018 – Roger Bannister, English middle-distance athlete, first man to run a four-minute mile (b.", "1929)* 2018 – Mal Bryce, Australian politician (b.", "1943)* 2018 – Vanessa Goodwin, Australian politician (b.", "1969)* 2018 – David Ogden Stiers, American actor, voice actor and musician (b.", "1942)*2019 – Peter Hurford OBE, British organist and composer (b.", "1930)*2020 – Charles J. Urstadt, American real estate executive and investor (b.", "1928)*2023 – Kenzaburō Ōe, Japanese novelist, 1994 Nobel Prize laureate in Literature (b.", "1935)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Anselm, Duke of Friuli** Arthelais** Cunigunde of Luxembourg** Katharine Drexel** John and Charles Wesley (Episcopal Church (USA))** Marinus and Asterius of Caesarea** Winwaloe** March 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Hinamatsuri or \"Girl's Day\" (Japan)* Liberation and Freedom Day (Charlottesville, Virginia, USA)* Liberation Day (Bulgaria)* Martyrs' Day (Malawi)* Mother's Day (Georgia)* Sportsmen's Day (Egypt)* World Hearing Day* World Wildlife Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 3" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "March 15" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*474 BC – Roman consul Aulus Manlius Vulso celebrates an ovation for concluding the war against Veii and securing a forty years truce.", "*44 BC – The assassination of Julius Caesar takes place on the Ides of March.", "* 493 – Odoacer, the first barbarian King of Italy after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, is slain by Theoderic the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, while the two kings were feasting together.", "* 856 – Michael III, emperor of the Byzantine Empire, overthrows the regency of his mother, empress Theodora (wife of Theophilos) with support of the Byzantine nobility.", "* 897 – Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya enters Sa'dah and founds the Zaydi Imamate of Yemen.", "* 933 – After a ten-year truce, German King Henry the Fowler defeats a Hungarian army at the Battle of Riade near the Unstrut river.", "*1311 – Battle of Halmyros: The Catalan Company defeats Walter V, Count of Brienne to take control of the Duchy of Athens, a Crusader state in Greece.", "*1564 – Mughal Emperor Akbar abolishes the ''jizya'' tax on non-Muslim subjects.===1601–1900===*1672 – King Charles II of England issues the Royal Declaration of Indulgence, granting limited religious freedom to all Christians.", "*1783 – In an emotional speech in Newburgh, New York, George Washington asks his officers not to support the Newburgh Conspiracy.", "The plea is successful, and the threatened coup d'état never takes place.", "*1820 – Maine is admitted as the twenty-third U.S.", "state.", "*1823 – Sailor Benjamin Morrell erroneously reported the existence of the island of New South Greenland near Antarctica.", "*1848 – A revolution breaks out in Hungary, and the Habsburg rulers are compelled to meet the demands of the reform party.", "*1874 – France and Vietnam sign the Second Treaty of Saigon, further recognizing the full sovereignty of France over Cochinchina.", "*1875 – Archbishop of New York John McCloskey is named the first cardinal in the United States.", "*1877 – First ever official cricket test match is played: Australia vs England at the MCG Stadium, in Melbourne, Australia.", "*1888 – Start of the Anglo-Tibetan War of 1888.===1901–present===*1907 – The first parliamentary elections of Finland (at the time the Grand Duchy of Finland) are held.", "*1917 – Tsar Nicholas II of Russia abdicates the Russian throne, ending the 304-year Romanov dynasty.", "*1918 – Finnish Civil War: The battle of Tampere begins.", "*1919 – Ukrainian War of Independence: The Kontrrazvedka is established as the counterintelligence division of the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine.", "*1919 – The American Legion is founded.", "*1921 – Talaat Pasha, former Grand Vizir of the Ottoman Empire and chief architect of the Armenian genocide is assassinated in Berlin by a 23-year-old Armenian, Soghomon Tehlirian.", "*1922 – After Egypt gains nominal independence from the United Kingdom, Fuad I becomes King of Egypt.", "*1927 – The first Women's Boat Race between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge takes place on The Isis in Oxford.", "*1939 – Germany occupies Czechoslovakia.", "* 1939 – Carpatho-Ukraine declares itself an independent republic, but is annexed by Hungary the next day.", "*1943 – World War II: Third Battle of Kharkiv: The Germans retake the city of Kharkiv from the Soviet armies.", "*1951 – Iranian oil industry is nationalized.", "*1961 – At the 1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference, South Africa announces that it will withdraw from the Commonwealth when the South African Constitution of 1961 comes into effect.", "*1965 – President Lyndon B. Johnson, responding to the Selma crisis, tells U.S. Congress \"We shall overcome\" while advocating the Voting Rights Act.", "*1974 – Fifteen people are killed when Sterling Airways Flight 901, a Sud Aviation Caravelle, catches fire following a landing gear collapse at Mehrabad International Airport in Tehran, Iran.", "*1978 – Somalia and Ethiopia signed a truce to end the Ethio-Somali War.", "*1986 – Collapse of Hotel New World: Thirty-three people die when the Hotel New World in Singapore collapses.", "*1990 – Mikhail Gorbachev is elected as the first President of the Soviet Union.", "*1991 – Cold War: The Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany comes into effect, granting full sovereignty to the Federal Republic of Germany.", "*2008 – Stockpiles of obsolete ammunition explode at an ex-military ammunition depot in the village of Gërdec, Albania, killing 26 people.", "*2011 – Beginning of the Syrian Civil War.", "*2019 – Fifty-one people are killed in the Christchurch mosque shootings.", "* 2019 – Beginning of the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests.", "* 2019 – Approximately 1.4 million young people in 123 countries go on strike to protest climate change.", "*2022 – The 2022 Sri Lankan protests begins amidst Sri Lanka's economic collapse." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1493 – Anne de Montmorency, French captain and diplomat (d. 1567)*1516 – Alqas Mirza, Safavid prince (d. 1550)*1582 – Daniel Featley, English theologian and controversialist (d. 1645)*1591 – Alexandre de Rhodes, French missionary (d. 1660)===1601–1900===*1638 – Shunzhi Emperor of China (d. 1661)*1666 – George Bähr, German architect, designed the Dresden Frauenkirche (d. 1738)*1754 – Archibald Menzies, Scottish surgeon and botanist (d. 1842)*1767 – Andrew Jackson, American general, judge, and politician, 7th President of the United States (d. 1845)*1779 – William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1848)*1790 – Ludwig Immanuel Magnus, German mathematician and academic (d. 1861)*1791 – Charles Knight, English author and publisher (d. 1873)*1809 – Joseph Jenkins Roberts, American-Liberian historian and politician, 1st President of Liberia (d. 1876)*1813 – John Snow, English physician and epidemiologist (d. 1858)*1821 – Johann Josef Loschmidt, Austrian physicist and chemist (d. 1895)* 1821 – William Milligan, Scottish theologian and author (d. 1892)*1824 – Jules Chevalier, French priest, founded the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart (d. 1907)*1830 – Paul Heyse, German author, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1914)* 1830 – Élisée Reclus, French geographer and anarchist (d. 1905)*1831 – Saint Daniele Comboni, Italian missionary and saint (d. 1881)*1835 – Eduard Strauss, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1916)*1838 – Karl Davydov, Russian cellist, composer, and conductor (d. 1889)*1851 – John Sebastian Little, American lawyer and politician, Governor of Arkansas (d. 1916)* 1851 – William Mitchell Ramsay, Scottish archaeologist and scholar (d. 1939)*1852 – Augusta, Lady Gregory, Anglo-Irish landowner, playwright, and translator (d. 1932)*1854 – Emil von Behring, German physiologist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1917)*1857 – Christian Michelsen, Norwegian businessman and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Norway (d. 1925)*1858 – Liberty Hyde Bailey, American botanist and academic, co-founded the American Society for Horticultural Science (d. 1954)*1866 – Matthew Charlton, Australian miner and politician (d. 1948)*1868 – Grace Chisholm Young, English mathematician (d. 1944)*1869 – Stanisław Wojciechowski, Polish scholar and politician, President of the Republic of Poland (d. 1953)*1874 – Harold L. Ickes, American journalist and politician, United States Secretary of the Interior (d. 1952)*1878 – Reza Shah, Iranian Shah (d. 1944)*1879 – Benjamin R. Jacobs, American biochemist (d. 1963)*1886 – Gerda Wegener, Danish artist (d. 1940)*1897 – Jackson Scholz, American runner (d. 1986)*1900 – Gilberto Freyre, Brazilian sociologist, anthropologist, historian and writer (d. 1987)===1901–present===*1904 – George Brent, Irish-American actor (d. 1979)* 1904 – J. Pat O'Malley, English-American actor (d. 1985)*1905 – Berthold Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg, German lawyer and judge (d. 1944)*1907 – Zarah Leander, Swedish actress and singer (d. 1981)*1912 – Lightnin' Hopkins, American blues singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1982)* 1912 – Louis Paul Boon, Flemish journalist and author (d. 1979)*1913 – Macdonald Carey, American actor (d. 1994)* 1913 – Jack Fairman, English race car driver (d. 2002)*1916 – Frank Coghlan, Jr., American actor and pilot (d. 2009)* 1916 – Fadil Hoxha, Kosovar commander and politician, President of Kosovo (d. 2001)* 1916 – Harry James, American trumpet player, bandleader, and actor (d. 1983)*1918 – Richard Ellmann, American author and critic (d. 1987)* 1918 – Punch Imlach, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 1987)*1919 – Lawrence Tierney, American actor (d. 2002)*1920 – E. Donnall Thomas, American physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2012)*1921 – Madelyn Pugh, American television writer and producer (d. 2011)*1926 – Ben Johnston, American composer and academic (d. 2019)* 1926 – Norm Van Brocklin, American football player and coach (d. 1983)*1927 – Christian Marquand, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2000)* 1927 – Carl Smith, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)*1928 – Bob Wilber, American clarinetist and saxophonist (d. 2019)*1930 – Zhores Alferov, Belarusian-Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2019)*1932 – Alan Bean, American astronaut and pilot (d. 2018)* 1932 – Arif Mardin, Turkish-American record producer (d. 2006)*1933 – Ruth Bader Ginsburg, American lawyer and judge (d. 2020)* 1933 – Philippe de Broca, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2004)*1934 – Kanshi Ram, Indian politician (d. 2006)*1935 – Judd Hirsch, American actor* 1935 – Jimmy Swaggart, American pastor and television host*1936 – Howard Greenfield, American songwriter (d. 1986)*1937 – Valentin Rasputin, Russian environmentalist and author (d. 2015)*1939 – Ted Kaufman, American politician* 1939 – Robert Nye, English author, poet, and playwright (d. 2016)* 1939 – Julie Tullis, English mountaineer (d. 1986)*1940 – Frank Dobson, English politician, Secretary of State for Health (d. 2019)* 1940 – Phil Lesh, American bassist*1941 – Mike Love, American singer-songwriter and musician* 1941 – Carolyn Hansson, Canadian materials engineer *1943 – David Cronenberg, Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter* 1943 – Lynda La Plante, English actress, screenwriter, and author* 1943 – Michael Scott-Joynt, English bishop (d. 2014)* 1943 – Sly Stone, American musician and record producer*1944 – Chi Cheng, Taiwanese runner* 1944 – Jacques Doillon, French director and screenwriter* 1944 – Francis Mankiewicz, Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1993)*1946 – Bobby Bonds, American baseball player and coach (d. 2003)* 1946 – John Dempsey, English born Irish international footballer and manager*1947 – Ry Cooder, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1948 – Kate Bornstein, American author and activist* 1948 – Sérgio Vieira de Mello, Brazilian diplomat (d. 2003)*1951 – David Alton, Baron Alton of Liverpool, English politician*1954 – Isobel Buchanan, Scottish soprano and actress* 1954 – Henry Marsh, American runner and businessman* 1954 – Craig Wasson, American actor*1955 – Mohsin Khan, Pakistani cricketer* 1955 – Dee Snider, American singer-songwriter*1959 – Harold Baines, American baseball player* 1959 – Renny Harlin, Finnish director and producer* 1959 – Ben Okri, Nigerian poet and author* 1959 – Eliot Teltscher, American tennis player*1960 – Mike Pagliarulo, American baseball player*1961 – Terry Cummings, American basketball player*1963 – Bret Michaels, American musician*1964 – Rockwell, American singer-songwriter and musician*1965 – Sunetra Gupta, Indian epidemiologist, author, and academic*1967 – Naoko Takeuchi, Japanese manga artist and creator of Sailor Moon*1968 – Kahimi Karie, Japanese singer* 1968 – Mark McGrath, American singer-songwriter* 1968 – Sabrina Salerno, Italian singer-songwriter*1969 – Gianluca Festa, Italian footballer* 1969 – Yutaka Take, Japanese jockey*1970 – Derek Parra, American speed skater*1971 – Joanne Wise, English long jumper*1972 – Mark Hoppus, American musician* 1972 – Holger Stromberg, German chef* 1972 – Mike Tomlin, American football player and coach*1974 – Robert Fick, American baseball player*1975 – Eva Longoria, American actress* 1975 – Darcy Tucker, Canadian ice hockey player* 1975 – will.i.am, American rapper, producer, and actor*1976 – Cara Pifko, Canadian actress*1977 – Major Sandeep Unnikrishnan, AC, Indian military officer*1979 – Kyle Mills, New Zealand cricketer* 1979 – Kevin Youkilis, American baseball player*1980 – Freddie Bynum, American baseball player*1981 – Young Buck, American rapper* 1981 – Mikael Forssell, German-Finnish footballer* 1981 – Jens Salumäe, Estonian skier*1982 – Wilson Kipsang Kiprotich, Kenyan runner*1983 – Umut Bulut, Turkish footballer* 1983 – Ben Hilfenhaus, Australian cricketer* 1983 – Kostas Kaimakoglou, Greek basketball player* 1983 – Golda Marcus, Salvadoran swimmer* 1983 – Daryl Murphy, Irish footballer*1984 – Badradine Belloumou, French-Algerian footballer* 1984 – Olivier Jean, Canadian speed skater* 1984 – Kostas Vasileiadis, Greek basketball player*1986 – Jai Courtney, Australian actor*1988 – Lil Dicky, American rapper, comedian, and actor* 1988 – Éver Guzmán, Mexican footballer* 1988 – James Reimer, Canadian ice hockey player*1989 – Sam Baldock, English footballer* 1989 – Sandro, Brazilian international footballer* 1989 – Gil Roberts, American sprinter* 1989 – Adrien Silva, Portuguese footballer*1991 – Kurt Baptiste, Australian rugby league player* 1991 – Xavier Henry, American basketball player*1993 – Alia Bhatt, British actress* 1993 – Aleksandra Krunić, Serbian tennis player* 1993 – Paul Pogba, French footballer*1996 – Maxwell Jacob Friedman, American professional wrestler* 1996 – Seonaid McIntosh, Scottish sports shooter*2000 – Kristian Kostov, Russian-Bulgarian singer-songwriter" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*44 BC – Julius Caesar, Roman general and statesman (b.", "100 BC)* 220 – Cao Cao, Chinese general, warlord and statesman* 493 – Odoacer, first king of Italy after the fall of the Western Roman Empire (b.", "433)* 963 – Romanos II, Byzantine emperor* 990 – Siegfried I (the Older), German nobleman*1124 – Ernulf, Bishop of Rochester*1190 – Isabella of Hainault, queen of Philip II of France (b.", "1170)*1311 – Walter V, Count of Brienne*1536 – Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha, Ottoman politician, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b.", "1493)*1575 – Annibale Padovano, Italian organist and composer (b.", "1527)===1601–1900===*1673 – Salvator Rosa, Italian painter and poet (b.", "1615)*1711 – Eusebio Kino, Italian priest and missionary (b.", "1645)*1820 – Clement Mary Hofbauer, Austrian priest and saint (b.", "1751)*1842 – Luigi Cherubini, Italian composer and theorist (b.", "1760)*1848 – Johan Jakob Nervander, Finnish poet, physicist and meteorologist (b.", "1805)*1891 – Joseph Bazalgette, English engineer and academic (b.", "1819)*1897 – James Joseph Sylvester, English mathematician and academic (b.", "1814)*1898 – Henry Bessemer, English engineer and businessman (b.", "1813)===1901–present===*1921 – Talaat Pasha, Ottoman politician, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b.", "1874)*1927 – Hector Rason, English-Australian politician, 7th Premier of Western Australia (b.", "1858)*1937 – H. P. Lovecraft, American short story writer, editor, and novelist (b.", "1890)*1941 – Alexej von Jawlensky, Russian-German painter (b.", "1864)*1942 – Rachel Field, American author and poet (b.", "1894)*1948 – Imanuel Lauster, German engineer (b.", "1873)*1959 – Lester Young, American saxophonist and clarinet player (b.", "1909)*1962 – Arthur Compton, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1892)*1966 – Abe Saperstein, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1902)*1969 – Miles Malleson, English actor and screenwriter (b.", "1888)*1970 – Tarjei Vesaas, Norwegian author and poet (b.", "1897)*1975 – Aristotle Onassis, Greek-Argentinian businessman (b.", "1906)*1977 – Hubert Aquin, Canadian author and activist (b.", "1929)* 1977 – Antonino Rocca, Italian-American wrestler and referee (b.", "1921)*1981 – René Clair, French director and screenwriter (b.", "1898)*1983 – Rebecca West, English author and critic (b.", "1892)*1988 – Dmitri Polyakov, Ukrainian general and spy (b.", "1921)*1990 – Farzad Bazoft, Iranian-English journalist (b.", "1958)* 1990 – Tom Harmon, American football player and sportscaster (b.", "1919)*1991 – Bud Freeman, American saxophonist, composer, and bandleader (b.", "1906)*1997 – Gail Davis, American actress (b.", "1925)* 1997 – Victor Vasarely, Hungarian-French painter (b.", "1906)*1998 – Benjamin Spock, American pediatrician and author (b.", "1903)*2001 – Ann Sothern, American actress and singer (b.", "1909)*2003 – Thora Hird, English actress (b.", "1911)* 2003 – Paul Stojanovich, American television producer, created ''World's Wildest Police Videos'' (b.", "1955)*2004 – Philippe Lemaire, French actor (b.", "1927)* 2004 – Bill Pickering, New Zealand-American scientist and engineer (b.", "1910)* 2004 – John Pople, English-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1925)*2005 – Otar Korkia, Georgian basketball player (b.", "1923)*2006 – Georgios Rallis, Greek lieutenant and politician, Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1918)* 2006 – Red Storey, Canadian football player and referee (b.", "1918)*2007 – Charles Harrelson, American murderer (b.", "1938)* 2007 – Stuart Rosenberg, American director and producer (b.", "1927)*2008 – Mikey Dread, Jamaican singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1954)* 2008 – G. David Low, American astronaut and engineer (b.", "1956)* 2008 – Sarla Thakral, First Indian woman to earn a pilot's license.", "(b.", "1914)*2009 – Ron Silver, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1946)*2010 – Kazim al-Samawi, Iraqi poet (b.", "1925)*2011 – Nate Dogg, American rapper (b.", "1969)* 2011 – Smiley Culture, English singer and DJ (b.", "1963)*2012 – Mervyn Davies, Welsh rugby player (b.", "1946)* 2012 – Dave Philley, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1920)*2013 – Booth Gardner, American businessman and politician, Governor of Washington (b.", "1936)* 2013 – Terry Lightfoot, English clarinet player (b.", "1935)* 2013 – Leverne McDonnell, Australian actress (b.", "1963)* 2013 – Peter Worsley, English sociologist (b.", "1924)*2014 – Scott Asheton, American drummer (b.", "1949)* 2014 – David Brenner, American comedian, actor, and author (b.", "1936)* 2014 – Bo Callaway, American soldier and politician, United States Secretary of the Army (b.", "1927)* 2014 – Clarissa Dickson Wright, English chef, author, and television personality (b.", "1947)*2015 – Collins Chabane, South African politician (b.", "1960)* 2015 – Robert Clatworthy, English sculptor and educator (b.", "1928)* 2015 – Sally Forrest, American actress and dancer (b.", "1928)* 2015 – Curtis Gans, American political scientist and author (b.", "1937)* 2015 – Mike Porcaro, American bass player (b.", "1955)*2016 – Sylvia Anderson, English voice actress and television and film producer (b.", "1927)* 2016 – Asa Briggs, English historian and academic (b.", "1921)* 2016 – Seru Rabeni, Fijian rugby player (b.", "1978)*2019 – Larry DiTillio, American film and TV series writer (b.", "1948)*2020 – Vittorio Gregotti, Italian architect (b.", "1927)*2022 – Barbara Maier Gustern, American vocal coach and singer (b.", "1935)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Ancient Roman religious observance:**Ides of March*Christian feast day:**Aristobulus of Britannia (Roman Catholic Church)**Clement Mary Hofbauer**Leocritia**Saint Longinus**Louise de Marillac**March 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Constitution Day (Belarus)*International Day To Combat Islamophobia*Joseph Jenkins Roberts' Birthday (Liberia)*National Day, celebrating the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 (Hungary)*World Consumer Rights Day (International)*Youth Day (Palau)" ], [ "Notes", "*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 15" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mathematical logic" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mathematical logic''' is the study of formal logic within mathematics.", "Major subareas include model theory, proof theory, set theory, and recursion theory (also known as computability theory).", "Research in mathematical logic commonly addresses the mathematical properties of formal systems of logic such as their expressive or deductive power.", "However, it can also include uses of logic to characterize correct mathematical reasoning or to establish foundations of mathematics.Since its inception, mathematical logic has both contributed to and been motivated by the study of foundations of mathematics.", "This study began in the late 19th century with the development of axiomatic frameworks for geometry, arithmetic, and analysis.", "In the early 20th century it was shaped by David Hilbert's program to prove the consistency of foundational theories.", "Results of Kurt Gödel, Gerhard Gentzen, and others provided partial resolution to the program, and clarified the issues involved in proving consistency.", "Work in set theory showed that almost all ordinary mathematics can be formalized in terms of sets, although there are some theorems that cannot be proven in common axiom systems for set theory.", "Contemporary work in the foundations of mathematics often focuses on establishing which parts of mathematics can be formalized in particular formal systems (as in reverse mathematics) rather than trying to find theories in which all of mathematics can be developed." ], [ "Subfields and scope", "The ''Handbook of Mathematical Logic'' in 1977 makes a rough division of contemporary mathematical logic into four areas:#set theory#model theory#recursion theory, and#proof theory and constructive mathematics (considered as parts of a single area).Additionally, sometimes the field of computational complexity theory is also included as part of mathematical logic.", "Each area has a distinct focus, although many techniques and results are shared among multiple areas.", "The borderlines amongst these fields, and the lines separating mathematical logic and other fields of mathematics, are not always sharp.", "Gödel's incompleteness theorem marks not only a milestone in recursion theory and proof theory, but has also led to Löb's theorem in modal logic.", "The method of forcing is employed in set theory, model theory, and recursion theory, as well as in the study of intuitionistic mathematics.The mathematical field of category theory uses many formal axiomatic methods, and includes the study of categorical logic, but category theory is not ordinarily considered a subfield of mathematical logic.", "Because of its applicability in diverse fields of mathematics, mathematicians including Saunders Mac Lane have proposed category theory as a foundational system for mathematics, independent of set theory.", "These foundations use toposes, which resemble generalized models of set theory that may employ classical or nonclassical logic." ], [ "History", "Mathematical logic emerged in the mid-19th century as a subfield of mathematics, reflecting the confluence of two traditions: formal philosophical logic and mathematics.", "\"Mathematical logic, also called 'logistic', 'symbolic logic', the 'algebra of logic', and, more recently, simply 'formal logic', is the set of logical theories elaborated in the course of the last Nineteenth Century with the aid of an artificial notation and a rigorously deductive method.\"", "Before this emergence, logic was studied with rhetoric, with ''calculationes'', through the syllogism, and with philosophy.", "The first half of the 20th century saw an explosion of fundamental results, accompanied by vigorous debate over the foundations of mathematics.=== Early history ===Theories of logic were developed in many cultures in history, including China, India, Greece and the Islamic world.", "Greek methods, particularly Aristotelian logic (or term logic) as found in the ''Organon'', found wide application and acceptance in Western science and mathematics for millennia.", "The Stoics, especially Chrysippus, began the development of predicate logic.", "In 18th-century Europe, attempts to treat the operations of formal logic in a symbolic or algebraic way had been made by philosophical mathematicians including Leibniz and Lambert, but their labors remained isolated and little known.=== 19th century ===In the middle of the nineteenth century, George Boole and then Augustus De Morgan presented systematic mathematical treatments of logic.", "Their work, building on work by algebraists such as George Peacock, extended the traditional Aristotelian doctrine of logic into a sufficient framework for the study of foundations of mathematics.", "In 1847.Vatroslav Bertić made substantial work on algebraization of logic, independently from Boole.", "Charles Sanders Peirce later built upon the work of Boole to develop a logical system for relations and quantifiers, which he published in several papers from 1870 to 1885.Gottlob Frege presented an independent development of logic with quantifiers in his ''Begriffsschrift'', published in 1879, a work generally considered as marking a turning point in the history of logic.", "Frege's work remained obscure, however, until Bertrand Russell began to promote it near the turn of the century.", "The two-dimensional notation Frege developed was never widely adopted and is unused in contemporary texts.From 1890 to 1905, Ernst Schröder published ''Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik'' in three volumes.", "This work summarized and extended the work of Boole, De Morgan, and Peirce, and was a comprehensive reference to symbolic logic as it was understood at the end of the 19th century.==== Foundational theories ====Concerns that mathematics had not been built on a proper foundation led to the development of axiomatic systems for fundamental areas of mathematics such as arithmetic, analysis, and geometry.In logic, the term ''arithmetic'' refers to the theory of the natural numbers.", "Giuseppe Peano published a set of axioms for arithmetic that came to bear his name (Peano axioms), using a variation of the logical system of Boole and Schröder but adding quantifiers.", "Peano was unaware of Frege's work at the time.", "Around the same time Richard Dedekind showed that the natural numbers are uniquely characterized by their induction properties.", "Dedekind proposed a different characterization, which lacked the formal logical character of Peano's axioms.", "Dedekind's work, however, proved theorems inaccessible in Peano's system, including the uniqueness of the set of natural numbers (up to isomorphism) and the recursive definitions of addition and multiplication from the successor function and mathematical induction.In the mid-19th century, flaws in Euclid's axioms for geometry became known.", "In addition to the independence of the parallel postulate, established by Nikolai Lobachevsky in 1826, mathematicians discovered that certain theorems taken for granted by Euclid were not in fact provable from his axioms.", "Among these is the theorem that a line contains at least two points, or that circles of the same radius whose centers are separated by that radius must intersect.", "Hilbert developed a complete set of axioms for geometry, building on previous work by Pasch.", "The success in axiomatizing geometry motivated Hilbert to seek complete axiomatizations of other areas of mathematics, such as the natural numbers and the real line.", "This would prove to be a major area of research in the first half of the 20th century.The 19th century saw great advances in the theory of real analysis, including theories of convergence of functions and Fourier series.", "Mathematicians such as Karl Weierstrass began to construct functions that stretched intuition, such as nowhere-differentiable continuous functions.", "Previous conceptions of a function as a rule for computation, or a smooth graph, were no longer adequate.", "Weierstrass began to advocate the arithmetization of analysis, which sought to axiomatize analysis using properties of the natural numbers.", "The modern (ε, δ)-definition of limit and continuous functions was already developed by Bolzano in 1817, but remained relatively unknown.Cauchy in 1821 defined continuity in terms of infinitesimals (see Cours d'Analyse, page 34).", "In 1858, Dedekind proposed a definition of the real numbers in terms of Dedekind cuts of rational numbers, a definition still employed in contemporary texts.Georg Cantor developed the fundamental concepts of infinite set theory.", "His early results developed the theory of cardinality and proved that the reals and the natural numbers have different cardinalities.", "Over the next twenty years, Cantor developed a theory of transfinite numbers in a series of publications.", "In 1891, he published a new proof of the uncountability of the real numbers that introduced the diagonal argument, and used this method to prove Cantor's theorem that no set can have the same cardinality as its powerset.", "Cantor believed that every set could be well-ordered, but was unable to produce a proof for this result, leaving it as an open problem in 1895.=== 20th century ===In the early decades of the 20th century, the main areas of study were set theory and formal logic.", "The discovery of paradoxes in informal set theory caused some to wonder whether mathematics itself is inconsistent, and to look for proofs of consistency.In 1900, Hilbert posed a famous list of 23 problems for the next century.", "The first two of these were to resolve the continuum hypothesis and prove the consistency of elementary arithmetic, respectively; the tenth was to produce a method that could decide whether a multivariate polynomial equation over the integers has a solution.", "Subsequent work to resolve these problems shaped the direction of mathematical logic, as did the effort to resolve Hilbert's ''Entscheidungsproblem'', posed in 1928.This problem asked for a procedure that would decide, given a formalized mathematical statement, whether the statement is true or false.==== Set theory and paradoxes ====Ernst Zermelo gave a proof that every set could be well-ordered, a result Georg Cantor had been unable to obtain.", "To achieve the proof, Zermelo introduced the axiom of choice, which drew heated debate and research among mathematicians and the pioneers of set theory.", "The immediate criticism of the method led Zermelo to publish a second exposition of his result, directly addressing criticisms of his proof.", "This paper led to the general acceptance of the axiom of choice in the mathematics community.Skepticism about the axiom of choice was reinforced by recently discovered paradoxes in naive set theory.", "Cesare Burali-Forti was the first to state a paradox: the Burali-Forti paradox shows that the collection of all ordinal numbers cannot form a set.", "Very soon thereafter, Bertrand Russell discovered Russell's paradox in 1901, and Jules Richard discovered Richard's paradox.Zermelo provided the first set of axioms for set theory.", "These axioms, together with the additional axiom of replacement proposed by Abraham Fraenkel, are now called Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF).", "Zermelo's axioms incorporated the principle of limitation of size to avoid Russell's paradox.In 1910, the first volume of ''Principia Mathematica'' by Russell and Alfred North Whitehead was published.", "This seminal work developed the theory of functions and cardinality in a completely formal framework of type theory, which Russell and Whitehead developed in an effort to avoid the paradoxes.", "''Principia Mathematica'' is considered one of the most influential works of the 20th century, although the framework of type theory did not prove popular as a foundational theory for mathematics.Fraenkel proved that the axiom of choice cannot be proved from the axioms of Zermelo's set theory with urelements.", "Later work by Paul Cohen showed that the addition of urelements is not needed, and the axiom of choice is unprovable in ZF.", "Cohen's proof developed the method of forcing, which is now an important tool for establishing independence results in set theory.==== Symbolic logic ====Leopold Löwenheim and Thoralf Skolem obtained the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, which says that first-order logic cannot control the cardinalities of infinite structures.", "Skolem realized that this theorem would apply to first-order formalizations of set theory, and that it implies any such formalization has a countable model.", "This counterintuitive fact became known as Skolem's paradox.In his doctoral thesis, Kurt Gödel proved the completeness theorem, which establishes a correspondence between syntax and semantics in first-order logic.", "Gödel used the completeness theorem to prove the compactness theorem, demonstrating the finitary nature of first-order logical consequence.", "These results helped establish first-order logic as the dominant logic used by mathematicians.In 1931, Gödel published ''On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems'', which proved the incompleteness (in a different meaning of the word) of all sufficiently strong, effective first-order theories.", "This result, known as Gödel's incompleteness theorem, establishes severe limitations on axiomatic foundations for mathematics, striking a strong blow to Hilbert's program.", "It showed the impossibility of providing a consistency proof of arithmetic within any formal theory of arithmetic.", "Hilbert, however, did not acknowledge the importance of the incompleteness theorem for some time.Gödel's theorem shows that a consistency proof of any sufficiently strong, effective axiom system cannot be obtained in the system itself, if the system is consistent, nor in any weaker system.", "This leaves open the possibility of consistency proofs that cannot be formalized within the system they consider.", "Gentzen proved the consistency of arithmetic using a finitistic system together with a principle of transfinite induction.", "Gentzen's result introduced the ideas of cut elimination and proof-theoretic ordinals, which became key tools in proof theory.", "Gödel gave a different consistency proof, which reduces the consistency of classical arithmetic to that of intuitionistic arithmetic in higher types.The first textbook on symbolic logic for the layman was written by Lewis Carroll, author of ''Alice in Wonderland'', in 1896.====Beginnings of the other branches====Alfred Tarski developed the basics of model theory.Beginning in 1935, a group of prominent mathematicians collaborated under the pseudonym Nicolas Bourbaki to publish ''Éléments de mathématique'', a series of encyclopedic mathematics texts.", "These texts, written in an austere and axiomatic style, emphasized rigorous presentation and set-theoretic foundations.", "Terminology coined by these texts, such as the words ''bijection'', ''injection'', and ''surjection'', and the set-theoretic foundations the texts employed, were widely adopted throughout mathematics.The study of computability came to be known as recursion theory or computability theory, because early formalizations by Gödel and Kleene relied on recursive definitions of functions.", "When these definitions were shown equivalent to Turing's formalization involving Turing machines, it became clear that a new concept – the computable function – had been discovered, and that this definition was robust enough to admit numerous independent characterizations.", "In his work on the incompleteness theorems in 1931, Gödel lacked a rigorous concept of an effective formal system; he immediately realized that the new definitions of computability could be used for this purpose, allowing him to state the incompleteness theorems in generality that could only be implied in the original paper.Numerous results in recursion theory were obtained in the 1940s by Stephen Cole Kleene and Emil Leon Post.", "Kleene introduced the concepts of relative computability, foreshadowed by Turing, and the arithmetical hierarchy.", "Kleene later generalized recursion theory to higher-order functionals.", "Kleene and Georg Kreisel studied formal versions of intuitionistic mathematics, particularly in the context of proof theory." ], [ "Formal logical systems {{anchor|Formal logic}}", "At its core, mathematical logic deals with mathematical concepts expressed using formal logical systems.", "These systems, though they differ in many details, share the common property of considering only expressions in a fixed formal language.", "The systems of propositional logic and first-order logic are the most widely studied today, because of their applicability to foundations of mathematics and because of their desirable proof-theoretic properties.", "Stronger classical logics such as second-order logic or infinitary logic are also studied, along with Non-classical logics such as intuitionistic logic.=== First-order logic ==='''First-order logic''' is a particular formal system of logic.", "Its syntax involves only finite expressions as well-formed formulas, while its semantics are characterized by the limitation of all quantifiers to a fixed domain of discourse.Early results from formal logic established limitations of first-order logic.", "The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem (1919) showed that if a set of sentences in a countable first-order language has an infinite model then it has at least one model of each infinite cardinality.", "This shows that it is impossible for a set of first-order axioms to characterize the natural numbers, the real numbers, or any other infinite structure up to isomorphism.", "As the goal of early foundational studies was to produce axiomatic theories for all parts of mathematics, this limitation was particularly stark.Gödel's completeness theorem established the equivalence between semantic and syntactic definitions of logical consequence in first-order logic.", "It shows that if a particular sentence is true in every model that satisfies a particular set of axioms, then there must be a finite deduction of the sentence from the axioms.", "The compactness theorem first appeared as a lemma in Gödel's proof of the completeness theorem, and it took many years before logicians grasped its significance and began to apply it routinely.", "It says that a set of sentences has a model if and only if every finite subset has a model, or in other words that an inconsistent set of formulas must have a finite inconsistent subset.", "The completeness and compactness theorems allow for sophisticated analysis of logical consequence in first-order logic and the development of model theory, and they are a key reason for the prominence of first-order logic in mathematics.Gödel's incompleteness theorems establish additional limits on first-order axiomatizations.", "The '''first incompleteness theorem''' states that for any consistent, effectively given (defined below) logical system that is capable of interpreting arithmetic, there exists a statement that is true (in the sense that it holds for the natural numbers) but not provable within that logical system (and which indeed may fail in some non-standard models of arithmetic which may be consistent with the logical system).", "For example, in every logical system capable of expressing the Peano axioms, the Gödel sentence holds for the natural numbers but cannot be proved.Here a logical system is said to be effectively given if it is possible to decide, given any formula in the language of the system, whether the formula is an axiom, and one which can express the Peano axioms is called \"sufficiently strong.\"", "When applied to first-order logic, the first incompleteness theorem implies that any sufficiently strong, consistent, effective first-order theory has models that are not elementarily equivalent, a stronger limitation than the one established by the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem.", "The '''second incompleteness theorem''' states that no sufficiently strong, consistent, effective axiom system for arithmetic can prove its own consistency, which has been interpreted to show that Hilbert's program cannot be reached.=== Other classical logics ===Many logics besides first-order logic are studied.", "These include infinitary logics, which allow for formulas to provide an infinite amount of information, and higher-order logics, which include a portion of set theory directly in their semantics.The most well studied infinitary logic is .", "In this logic, quantifiers may only be nested to finite depths, as in first-order logic, but formulas may have finite or countably infinite conjunctions and disjunctions within them.", "Thus, for example, it is possible to say that an object is a whole number using a formula of such as:Higher-order logics allow for quantification not only of elements of the domain of discourse, but subsets of the domain of discourse, sets of such subsets, and other objects of higher type.", "The semantics are defined so that, rather than having a separate domain for each higher-type quantifier to range over, the quantifiers instead range over all objects of the appropriate type.", "The logics studied before the development of first-order logic, for example Frege's logic, had similar set-theoretic aspects.", "Although higher-order logics are more expressive, allowing complete axiomatizations of structures such as the natural numbers, they do not satisfy analogues of the completeness and compactness theorems from first-order logic, and are thus less amenable to proof-theoretic analysis.Another type of logics are '''s''' that allow inductive definitions, like one writes for primitive recursive functions.One can formally define an extension of first-order logic — a notion which encompasses all logics in this section because they behave like first-order logic in certain fundamental ways, but does not encompass all logics in general, e.g.", "it does not encompass intuitionistic, modal or fuzzy logic.Lindström's theorem implies that the only extension of first-order logic satisfying both the compactness theorem and the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem is first-order logic.=== Nonclassical and modal logic ===Modal logics include additional modal operators, such as an operator which states that a particular formula is not only true, but necessarily true.", "Although modal logic is not often used to axiomatize mathematics, it has been used to study the properties of first-order provability and set-theoretic forcing.Intuitionistic logic was developed by Heyting to study Brouwer's program of intuitionism, in which Brouwer himself avoided formalization.", "Intuitionistic logic specifically does not include the law of the excluded middle, which states that each sentence is either true or its negation is true.", "Kleene's work with the proof theory of intuitionistic logic showed that constructive information can be recovered from intuitionistic proofs.", "For example, any provably total function in intuitionistic arithmetic is computable; this is not true in classical theories of arithmetic such as Peano arithmetic.=== Algebraic logic ===Algebraic logic uses the methods of abstract algebra to study the semantics of formal logics.", "A fundamental example is the use of Boolean algebras to represent truth values in classical propositional logic, and the use of Heyting algebras to represent truth values in intuitionistic propositional logic.", "Stronger logics, such as first-order logic and higher-order logic, are studied using more complicated algebraic structures such as cylindric algebras." ], [ "Set theory", "'''Set theory''' is the study of sets, which are abstract collections of objects.", "Many of the basic notions, such as ordinal and cardinal numbers, were developed informally by Cantor before formal axiomatizations of set theory were developed.", "The first such axiomatization, due to Zermelo, was extended slightly to become Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF), which is now the most widely used foundational theory for mathematics.Other formalizations of set theory have been proposed, including von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory (NBG), Morse–Kelley set theory (MK), and New Foundations (NF).", "Of these, ZF, NBG, and MK are similar in describing a cumulative hierarchy of sets.", "New Foundations takes a different approach; it allows objects such as the set of all sets at the cost of restrictions on its set-existence axioms.", "The system of Kripke–Platek set theory is closely related to generalized recursion theory.Two famous statements in set theory are the axiom of choice and the continuum hypothesis.", "The axiom of choice, first stated by Zermelo, was proved independent of ZF by Fraenkel, but has come to be widely accepted by mathematicians.", "It states that given a collection of nonempty sets there is a single set ''C'' that contains exactly one element from each set in the collection.", "The set ''C'' is said to \"choose\" one element from each set in the collection.", "While the ability to make such a choice is considered obvious by some, since each set in the collection is nonempty, the lack of a general, concrete rule by which the choice can be made renders the axiom nonconstructive.", "Stefan Banach and Alfred Tarski showed that the axiom of choice can be used to decompose a solid ball into a finite number of pieces which can then be rearranged, with no scaling, to make two solid balls of the original size.", "This theorem, known as the Banach–Tarski paradox, is one of many counterintuitive results of the axiom of choice.The continuum hypothesis, first proposed as a conjecture by Cantor, was listed by David Hilbert as one of his 23 problems in 1900.Gödel showed that the continuum hypothesis cannot be disproven from the axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (with or without the axiom of choice), by developing the constructible universe of set theory in which the continuum hypothesis must hold.", "In 1963, Paul Cohen showed that the continuum hypothesis cannot be proven from the axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory.", "This independence result did not completely settle Hilbert's question, however, as it is possible that new axioms for set theory could resolve the hypothesis.", "Recent work along these lines has been conducted by W. Hugh Woodin, although its importance is not yet clear.Contemporary research in set theory includes the study of large cardinals and determinacy.", "Large cardinals are cardinal numbers with particular properties so strong that the existence of such cardinals cannot be proved in ZFC.", "The existence of the smallest large cardinal typically studied, an inaccessible cardinal, already implies the consistency of ZFC.", "Despite the fact that large cardinals have extremely high cardinality, their existence has many ramifications for the structure of the real line.", "''Determinacy'' refers to the possible existence of winning strategies for certain two-player games (the games are said to be ''determined'').", "The existence of these strategies implies structural properties of the real line and other Polish spaces." ], [ "Model theory", "'''Model theory''' studies the models of various formal theories.", "Here a theory is a set of formulas in a particular formal logic and signature, while a model is a structure that gives a concrete interpretation of the theory.", "Model theory is closely related to universal algebra and algebraic geometry, although the methods of model theory focus more on logical considerations than those fields.The set of all models of a particular theory is called an elementary class; classical model theory seeks to determine the properties of models in a particular elementary class, or determine whether certain classes of structures form elementary classes.The method of quantifier elimination can be used to show that definable sets in particular theories cannot be too complicated.", "Tarski established quantifier elimination for real-closed fields, a result which also shows the theory of the field of real numbers is decidable.", "He also noted that his methods were equally applicable to algebraically closed fields of arbitrary characteristic.", "A modern subfield developing from this is concerned with o-minimal structures.Morley's categoricity theorem, proved by Michael D. Morley, states that if a first-order theory in a countable language is categorical in some uncountable cardinality, i.e.", "all models of this cardinality are isomorphic, then it is categorical in all uncountable cardinalities.A trivial consequence of the continuum hypothesis is that a complete theory with less than continuum many nonisomorphic countable models can have only countably many.", "Vaught's conjecture, named after Robert Lawson Vaught, says that this is true even independently of the continuum hypothesis.", "Many special cases of this conjecture have been established." ], [ "Recursion theory", "'''Recursion theory''', also called '''computability theory''', studies the properties of computable functions and the Turing degrees, which divide the uncomputable functions into sets that have the same level of uncomputability.", "Recursion theory also includes the study of generalized computability and definability.", "Recursion theory grew from the work of Rózsa Péter, Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in the 1930s, which was greatly extended by Kleene and Post in the 1940s.Classical recursion theory focuses on the computability of functions from the natural numbers to the natural numbers.", "The fundamental results establish a robust, canonical class of computable functions with numerous independent, equivalent characterizations using Turing machines, λ calculus, and other systems.", "More advanced results concern the structure of the Turing degrees and the lattice of recursively enumerable sets.Generalized recursion theory extends the ideas of recursion theory to computations that are no longer necessarily finite.", "It includes the study of computability in higher types as well as areas such as hyperarithmetical theory and α-recursion theory.Contemporary research in recursion theory includes the study of applications such as algorithmic randomness, computable model theory, and reverse mathematics, as well as new results in pure recursion theory.=== Algorithmically unsolvable problems ===An important subfield of recursion theory studies algorithmic unsolvability; a decision problem or function problem is '''algorithmically unsolvable''' if there is no possible computable algorithm that returns the correct answer for all legal inputs to the problem.", "The first results about unsolvability, obtained independently by Church and Turing in 1936, showed that the Entscheidungsproblem is algorithmically unsolvable.", "Turing proved this by establishing the unsolvability of the halting problem, a result with far-ranging implications in both recursion theory and computer science.There are many known examples of undecidable problems from ordinary mathematics.", "The word problem for groups was proved algorithmically unsolvable by Pyotr Novikov in 1955 and independently by W. Boone in 1959.The busy beaver problem, developed by Tibor Radó in 1962, is another well-known example.Hilbert's tenth problem asked for an algorithm to determine whether a multivariate polynomial equation with integer coefficients has a solution in the integers.", "Partial progress was made by Julia Robinson, Martin Davis and Hilary Putnam.", "The algorithmic unsolvability of the problem was proved by Yuri Matiyasevich in 1970." ], [ "Proof theory and constructive mathematics", "'''Proof theory''' is the study of formal proofs in various logical deduction systems.", "These proofs are represented as formal mathematical objects, facilitating their analysis by mathematical techniques.", "Several deduction systems are commonly considered, including Hilbert-style deduction systems, systems of natural deduction, and the sequent calculus developed by Gentzen.The study of '''constructive mathematics''', in the context of mathematical logic, includes the study of systems in non-classical logic such as intuitionistic logic, as well as the study of predicative systems.", "An early proponent of predicativism was Hermann Weyl, who showed it is possible to develop a large part of real analysis using only predicative methods.Because proofs are entirely finitary, whereas truth in a structure is not, it is common for work in constructive mathematics to emphasize provability.", "The relationship between provability in classical (or nonconstructive) systems and provability in intuitionistic (or constructive, respectively) systems is of particular interest.", "Results such as the Gödel–Gentzen negative translation show that it is possible to embed (or ''translate'') classical logic into intuitionistic logic, allowing some properties about intuitionistic proofs to be transferred back to classical proofs.Recent developments in proof theory include the study of proof mining by Ulrich Kohlenbach and the study of proof-theoretic ordinals by Michael Rathjen." ], [ "Applications", "\"Mathematical logic has been successfully applied not only to mathematics and its foundations (G. Frege, B. Russell, D. Hilbert, P. Bernays, H. Scholz, R. Carnap, S. Lesniewski, T. Skolem), but also to physics (R. Carnap, A. Dittrich, B. Russell, C. E. Shannon, A. N. Whitehead, H. Reichenbach, P. Fevrier), to biology (J. H. Woodger, A. Tarski), to psychology (F. B. Fitch, C. G. Hempel), to law and morals (K. Menger, U. Klug, P. Oppenheim), to economics (J. Neumann, O. Morgenstern), to practical questions (E. C. Berkeley, E. Stamm), and even to metaphysics (J. Jan Salamucha, H. Scholz, J. M. Bochenski).", "Its applications to the history of logic have proven extremely fruitful (J. Lukasiewicz, H. Scholz, B. Mates, A. Becker, E. Moody, J. Salamucha, K. Duerr, Z. Jordan, P. Boehner, J. M. Bochenski, S. Stanislaw T. Schayer, D.", "Ingalls).\"", "\"Applications have also been made to theology (F. Drewnowski, J. Salamucha, I.", "Thomas).\"" ], [ "Connections with computer science", "The study of computability theory in computer science is closely related to the study of computability in mathematical logic.", "There is a difference of emphasis, however.", "Computer scientists often focus on concrete programming languages and feasible computability, while researchers in mathematical logic often focus on computability as a theoretical concept and on noncomputability.The theory of semantics of programming languages is related to model theory, as is program verification (in particular, model checking).", "The Curry–Howard correspondence between proofs and programs relates to proof theory, especially intuitionistic logic.", "Formal calculi such as the lambda calculus and combinatory logic are now studied as idealized programming languages.Computer science also contributes to mathematics by developing techniques for the automatic checking or even finding of proofs, such as automated theorem proving and logic programming.Descriptive complexity theory relates logics to computational complexity.", "The first significant result in this area, Fagin's theorem (1974) established that NP is precisely the set of languages expressible by sentences of existential second-order logic." ], [ "Foundations of mathematics", "In the 19th century, mathematicians became aware of logical gaps and inconsistencies in their field.", "It was shown that Euclid's axioms for geometry, which had been taught for centuries as an example of the axiomatic method, were incomplete.", "The use of infinitesimals, and the very definition of function, came into question in analysis, as pathological examples such as Weierstrass' nowhere-differentiable continuous function were discovered.Cantor's study of arbitrary infinite sets also drew criticism.", "Leopold Kronecker famously stated \"God made the integers; all else is the work of man,\" endorsing a return to the study of finite, concrete objects in mathematics.", "Although Kronecker's argument was carried forward by constructivists in the 20th century, the mathematical community as a whole rejected them.", "David Hilbert argued in favor of the study of the infinite, saying \"No one shall expel us from the Paradise that Cantor has created.", "\"Mathematicians began to search for axiom systems that could be used to formalize large parts of mathematics.", "In addition to removing ambiguity from previously naive terms such as function, it was hoped that this axiomatization would allow for consistency proofs.", "In the 19th century, the main method of proving the consistency of a set of axioms was to provide a model for it.", "Thus, for example, non-Euclidean geometry can be proved consistent by defining ''point'' to mean a point on a fixed sphere and ''line'' to mean a great circle on the sphere.", "The resulting structure, a model of elliptic geometry, satisfies the axioms of plane geometry except the parallel postulate.With the development of formal logic, Hilbert asked whether it would be possible to prove that an axiom system is consistent by analyzing the structure of possible proofs in the system, and showing through this analysis that it is impossible to prove a contradiction.", "This idea led to the study of proof theory.", "Moreover, Hilbert proposed that the analysis should be entirely concrete, using the term ''finitary'' to refer to the methods he would allow but not precisely defining them.", "This project, known as Hilbert's program, was seriously affected by Gödel's incompleteness theorems, which show that the consistency of formal theories of arithmetic cannot be established using methods formalizable in those theories.", "Gentzen showed that it is possible to produce a proof of the consistency of arithmetic in a finitary system augmented with axioms of transfinite induction, and the techniques he developed to do so were seminal in proof theory.A second thread in the history of foundations of mathematics involves nonclassical logics and constructive mathematics.", "The study of constructive mathematics includes many different programs with various definitions of ''constructive''.", "At the most accommodating end, proofs in ZF set theory that do not use the axiom of choice are called constructive by many mathematicians.", "More limited versions of constructivism limit themselves to natural numbers, number-theoretic functions, and sets of natural numbers (which can be used to represent real numbers, facilitating the study of mathematical analysis).", "A common idea is that a concrete means of computing the values of the function must be known before the function itself can be said to exist.", "In the early 20th century, Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer founded intuitionism as a part of philosophy of mathematics .", "This philosophy, poorly understood at first, stated that in order for a mathematical statement to be true to a mathematician, that person must be able to ''intuit'' the statement, to not only believe its truth but understand the reason for its truth.", "A consequence of this definition of truth was the rejection of the law of the excluded middle, for there are statements that, according to Brouwer, could not be claimed to be true while their negations also could not be claimed true.", "Brouwer's philosophy was influential, and the cause of bitter disputes among prominent mathematicians.", "Later, Kleene and Kreisel would study formalized versions of intuitionistic logic (Brouwer rejected formalization, and presented his work in unformalized natural language).", "With the advent of the BHK interpretation and Kripke models, intuitionism became easier to reconcile with classical mathematics." ], [ "See also", "* Argument* Informal logic* Knowledge representation and reasoning* Logic* List of computability and complexity topics* List of first-order theories* List of logic symbols* List of mathematical logic topics* List of set theory topics* Mereology* Propositional calculus* Well-formed formula" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Undergraduate texts ===* * * * * * ** * * * * Shawn Hedman, ''A first course in logic: an introduction to model theory, proof theory, computability, and complexity'', Oxford University Press, 2004, .", "Covers logics in close relation with computability theory and complexity theory* === Graduate texts ===* * * * * *Kleene, Stephen Cole.", "(1952), '' Introduction to Metamathematics.''", "New York: Van Nostrand.", "(Ishi Press: 2009 reprint).", "*Kleene, Stephen Cole.", "(1967), '' Mathematical Logic.''", "John Wiley.", "Dover reprint, 2002..* * === Research papers, monographs, texts, and surveys ===* * * * *J.D.", "Sneed, ''The Logical Structure of Mathematical Physics''.", "Reidel, Dordrecht, 1971 (revised edition 1979).", "* Reprinted as an appendix in *** * * * **=== Classical papers, texts, and collections ===* * Reprinted in * English translation as: \"Consistency and irrational numbers\".", "* Two English translations:**1963 (1901).", "''Essays on the Theory of Numbers''.", "Beman, W. W., ed.", "and trans.", "Dover.", "**1996.In ''From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics'', 2 vols, Ewald, William B., ed., Oxford University Press: 787–832.", "* Reprinted in English translation as \"The notion of 'definite' and the independence of the axiom of choice\" in .", "* Frege, Gottlob (1879), ''Begriffsschrift, eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache des reinen Denkens''.", "Halle a. S.: Louis Nebert.", "Translation: ''Concept Script, a formal language of pure thought modelled upon that of arithmetic'', by S. Bauer-Mengelberg in .", "* Frege, Gottlob (1884), ''Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik: eine logisch-mathematische Untersuchung über den Begriff der Zahl''.", "Breslau: W. Koebner.", "Translation: J. L. Austin, 1974.", "''The Foundations of Arithmetic: A logico-mathematical enquiry into the concept of number'', 2nd ed.", "Blackwell.", "* Reprinted in English translation in Gentzen's ''Collected works'', M. E. Szabo, ed., North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1969.", "** * * Reprinted in English translation in Gödel's ''Collected Works'', vol II, Solomon Feferman et al., eds.", "Oxford University Press, 1993.", "* * English 1902 edition (''The Foundations of Geometry'') republished 1980, Open Court, Chicago.", "* Lecture given at the International Congress of Mathematicians, 3 September 1928.Published in English translation as \"The Grounding of Elementary Number Theory\", in Mancosu 1998, pp. 266–273.", "* * * Reprinted in English translation as * Translated as \"On possibilities in the calculus of relatives\" in *** Excerpt reprinted in English translation as \"The principles of arithmetic, presented by a new method\"in .", "* Reprinted in English translation as \"The principles of mathematics and the problems of sets\" in .", "* * ** * Reprinted in English translation as \"Proof that every set can be well-ordered\" in .", "* Reprinted in English translation as \"A new proof of the possibility of a well-ordering\" in .", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * Polyvalued logic and Quantity Relation Logic* '' forall x: an introduction to formal logic'', a free textbook by .", "* '' A Problem Course in Mathematical Logic'', a free textbook by Stefan Bilaniuk.", "* Detlovs, Vilnis, and Podnieks, Karlis (University of Latvia), '' Introduction to Mathematical Logic.''", "(hyper-textbook).", "* In the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:*: Classical Logic by Stewart Shapiro.", "*: First-order Model Theory by Wilfrid Hodges.", "* In the London Philosophy Study Guide:*: Mathematical Logic*: Set Theory & Further Logic*: Philosophy of Mathematics* School of Mathematics, University of Manchester, Prof. Jeff Paris’s Mathematical Logic (course material and unpublished papers)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Molecular nanotechnology" ], [ "Introduction", " Kinesin is a protein complex functioning as a molecular biological machine.", "It uses protein domain dynamics on nanoscales.", "'''Molecular nanotechnology''' ('''MNT''') is a technology based on the ability to build structures to complex, atomic specifications by means of mechanosynthesis.", "This is distinct from nanoscale materials.", "Based on Richard Feynman's vision of miniature factories using nanomachines to build complex products (including additional nanomachines), this advanced form of nanotechnology (or ''molecular manufacturing'') would make use of positionally-controlled mechanosynthesis guided by molecular machine systems.", "MNT would involve combining physical principles demonstrated by biophysics, chemistry, other nanotechnologies, and the molecular machinery of life with the systems engineering principles found in modern macroscale factories.", "A ribosome is a biological machine." ], [ "Introduction", "While conventional chemistry uses inexact processes obtaining inexact results, and biology exploits inexact processes to obtain definitive results, molecular nanotechnology would employ original definitive processes to obtain definitive results.", "The desire in molecular nanotechnology would be to balance molecular reactions in positionally-controlled locations and orientations to obtain desired chemical reactions and then to build systems by further assembling the products of these reactions.A roadmap for the development of MNT is an objective of a broadly based technology project led by Battelle (the manager of several U.S. National Laboratories) and the Foresight Institute.", "The roadmap was originally scheduled for completion by late 2006 but was released in January 2008.The Nanofactory Collaboration is a more focused ongoing effort involving 23 researchers from 10 organizations and 4 countries that is developing a practical research agenda specifically aimed at positionally-controlled diamond mechanosynthesis and diamondoid nanofactory development.", "In August 2005, a task force consisting of 50+ international experts from various fields was organized by the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology to study the societal implications of molecular nanotechnology." ], [ "Projected applications and capabilities", "===Smart materials and nanosensors===Any sort of material designed and engineered at the nanometer scale for a specific task is a smart material.", "If materials could be designed to respond differently to various molecules, for example, artificial drugs could recognize and render inert specific viruses.", "Self-healing structures would repair small tears in a surface naturally in the same way as human skin.A nanosensor would resemble a smart material, involving a small component within a larger machine that would react to its environment and change in some fundamental, intentional way.", "A very simple example: a photosensor might passively measure the incident light and discharge its absorbed energy as electricity when the light passes above or below a specified threshold, sending a signal to a larger machine.", "Such a sensor would supposedly cost less and use less power than a conventional sensor, and yet function usefully in all the same applications — for example, turning on parking lot lights when it gets dark.While smart materials and nanosensors both exemplify useful applications of MNT, they pale in comparison with the complexity of the technology most popularly associated with the term: the replicating nanorobot.===Replicating nanorobots===MNT nanofacturing is popularly linked with the idea of swarms of coordinated nanoscale robots working together, a popularization of an early proposal by K. Eric Drexler in his 1986 discussions of MNT, but superseded in 1992.In this early proposal, sufficiently capable nanorobots would construct more nanorobots in an artificial environment containing special molecular building blocks.Critics have doubted both the feasibility of self-replicating nanorobots and the feasibility of control if self-replicating nanorobots could be achieved: they cite the possibility of mutations removing any control and favoring reproduction of mutant pathogenic variations.", "Advocates address the first doubt by pointing out that the first macroscale autonomous machine replicator, made of Lego blocks, was built and operated experimentally in 2002.While there are sensory advantages present at the macroscale compared to the limited sensorium available at the nanoscale, proposals for positionally controlled nanoscale mechanosynthetic fabrication systems employ dead reckoning of tooltips combined with reliable reaction sequence design to ensure reliable results, hence a limited sensorium is no handicap; similar considerations apply to the positional assembly of small nanoparts.", "Advocates address the second doubt by arguing that bacteria are (of necessity) evolved to evolve, while nanorobot mutation could be actively prevented by common error-correcting techniques.", "Similar ideas are advocated in the Foresight Guidelines on Molecular Nanotechnology, and a map of the 137-dimensional replicator design space recently published by Freitas and Merkle provides numerous proposed methods by which replicators could, in principle, be safely controlled by good design.However, the concept of suppressing mutation raises the question: How can design evolution occur at the nanoscale without a process of random mutation and deterministic selection?", "Critics argue that MNT advocates have not provided a substitute for such a process of evolution in this nanoscale arena where conventional sensory-based selection processes are lacking.", "The limits of the sensorium available at the nanoscale could make it difficult or impossible to winnow successes from failures.", "Advocates argue that design evolution should occur deterministically and strictly under human control, using the conventional engineering paradigm of modeling, design, prototyping, testing, analysis, and redesign.In any event, since 1992 technical proposals for MNT do not include self-replicating nanorobots, and recent ethical guidelines put forth by MNT advocates prohibit unconstrained self-replication.===Medical nanorobots===One of the most important applications of MNT would be medical nanorobotics or nanomedicine, an area pioneered by Robert Freitas in numerous books and papers.", "The ability to design, build, and deploy large numbers of medical nanorobots would, at a minimum, make possible the rapid elimination of disease and the reliable and relatively painless recovery from physical trauma.", "Medical nanorobots might also make possible the convenient correction of genetic defects, and help to ensure a greatly expanded lifespan.", "More controversially, medical nanorobots might be used to augment natural human capabilities.", "One study has reported on how conditions like tumors, arteriosclerosis, blood clots leading to stroke, accumulation of scar tissue and localized pockets of infection can possibly be addressed by employing medical nanorobots.===Utility fog===Diagram of a 100 micrometer fogletAnother proposed application of molecular nanotechnology is \"utility fog\" — in which a cloud of networked microscopic robots (simpler than assemblers) would change its shape and properties to form macroscopic objects and tools in accordance with software commands.", "Rather than modify the current practices of consuming material goods in different forms, utility fog would simply replace many physical objects.===Phased-array optics===Yet another proposed application of MNT would be phased-array optics (PAO).", "However, this appears to be a problem addressable by ordinary nanoscale technology.", "PAO would use the principle of phased-array millimeter technology but at optical wavelengths.", "This would permit the duplication of any sort of optical effect but virtually.", "Users could request holograms, sunrises and sunsets, or floating lasers as the mood strikes.", "PAO systems were described in BC Crandall's ''Nanotechnology: Molecular Speculations on Global Abundance'' in the Brian Wowk article \"Phased-Array Optics.\"" ], [ "Potential social impacts", "Molecular manufacturing is a potential future subfield of nanotechnology that would make it possible to build complex structures at atomic precision.", "Molecular manufacturing requires significant advances in nanotechnology, but once achieved could produce highly advanced products at low costs and in large quantities in nanofactories weighing a kilogram or more.", "When nanofactories gain the ability to produce other nanofactories production may only be limited by relatively abundant factors such as input materials, energy and software.The products of molecular manufacturing could range from cheaper, mass-produced versions of known high-tech products to novel products with added capabilities in many areas of application.", "Some applications that have been suggested are advanced smart materials, nanosensors, medical nanorobots and space travel.", "Additionally, molecular manufacturing could be used to cheaply produce highly advanced, durable weapons, which is an area of special concern regarding the impact of nanotechnology.", "Being equipped with compact computers and motors these could be increasingly autonomous and have a large range of capabilities.According to Chris Phoenix and Mike Treder from the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology as well as Anders Sandberg from the Future of Humanity Institute molecular manufacturing is the application of nanotechnology that poses the most significant global catastrophic risk.", "Several nanotechnology researchers state that the bulk of risk from nanotechnology comes from the potential to lead to war, arms races and destructive global government.", "Several reasons have been suggested why the availability of nanotech weaponry may with significant likelihood lead to unstable arms races (compared to e.g.", "nuclear arms races): (1) A large number of players may be tempted to enter the race since the threshold for doing so is low; (2) the ability to make weapons with molecular manufacturing will be cheap and easy to hide; (3) therefore lack of insight into the other parties' capabilities can tempt players to arm out of caution or to launch preemptive strikes; (4) molecular manufacturing may reduce dependency on international trade, a potential peace-promoting factor; (5) wars of aggression may pose a smaller economic threat to the aggressor since manufacturing is cheap and humans may not be needed on the battlefield.Since self-regulation by all state and non-state actors seems hard to achieve, measures to mitigate war-related risks have mainly been proposed in the area of international cooperation.", "International infrastructure may be expanded giving more sovereignty to the international level.", "This could help coordinate efforts for arms control.", "International institutions dedicated specifically to nanotechnology (perhaps analogously to the International Atomic Energy Agency IAEA) or general arms control may also be designed.", "One may also jointly make differential technological progress on defensive technologies, a policy that players should usually favour.", "The Center for Responsible Nanotechnology also suggest some technical restrictions.", "Improved transparency regarding technological capabilities may be another important facilitator for arms-control.A grey goo is another catastrophic scenario, which was proposed by Eric Drexler in his 1986 book ''Engines of Creation'', has been analyzed by Freitas in \"Some Limits to Global Ecophagy by Biovorous Nanoreplicators, with Public Policy Recommendations\" and has been a theme in mainstream media and fiction.", "This scenario involves tiny self-replicating robots that consume the entire biosphere using it as a source of energy and building blocks.", "Nanotech experts including Drexler now discredit the scenario.", "According to Chris Phoenix a \"So-called grey goo could only be the product of a deliberate and difficult engineering process, not an accident\".", "With the advent of nano-biotech, a different scenario called green goo has been forwarded.", "Here, the malignant substance is not nanobots but rather self-replicating biological organisms engineered through nanotechnology.===Benefits===Nanotechnology (or molecular nanotechnology to refer more specifically to the goals discussed here) will let us continue the historical trends in manufacturing right up to the fundamental limits imposed by physical law.", "It will let us make remarkably powerful molecular computers.", "It will let us make materials over fifty times lighter than steel or aluminium alloy but with the same strength.", "We'll be able to make jets, rockets, cars or even chairs that, by today's standards, would be remarkably light, strong, and inexpensive.", "Molecular surgical tools, guided by molecular computers and injected into the blood stream could find and destroy cancer cells or invading bacteria, unclog arteries, or provide oxygen when the circulation is impaired.Nanotechnology will replace our entire manufacturing base with a new, radically more precise, radically less expensive, and radically more flexible way of making products.", "The aim is not simply to replace today's computer chip making plants, but also to replace the assembly lines for cars, televisions, telephones, books, surgical tools, missiles, bookcases, airplanes, tractors, and all the rest.", "The objective is a pervasive change in manufacturing, a change that will leave virtually no product untouched.", "Economic progress and military readiness in the 21st Century will depend fundamentally on maintaining a competitive position in nanotechnology.Despite the current early developmental status of nanotechnology and molecular nanotechnology, much concern surrounds MNT's anticipated impact on economics and on law.", "Whatever the exact effects, MNT, if achieved, would tend to reduce the scarcity of manufactured goods and make many more goods (such as food and health aids) manufacturable.MNT should make possible nanomedical capabilities able to cure any medical condition not already cured by advances in other areas.", "Good health would be common, and poor health of any form would be as rare as smallpox and scurvy are today.", "Even cryonics would be feasible, as cryopreserved tissue could be fully repaired.===Risks===Molecular nanotechnology is one of the technologies that some analysts believe could lead to a technological singularity, in which technological growth has accelerated to the point of having unpredictable effects.", "Some effects could be beneficial, while others could be detrimental, such as the utilization of molecular nanotechnology by an unfriendly artificial general intelligence.", "Some feel that molecular nanotechnology would have daunting risks.", "It conceivably could enable cheaper and more destructive conventional weapons.", "Also, molecular nanotechnology might permit weapons of mass destruction that could self-replicate, as viruses and cancer cells do when attacking the human body.", "Commentators generally agree that, in the event molecular nanotechnology were developed, its self-replication should be permitted only under very controlled or \"inherently safe\" conditions.A fear exists that nanomechanical robots, if achieved, and if designed to self-replicate using naturally occurring materials (a difficult task), could consume the entire planet in their hunger for raw materials, or simply crowd out natural life, out-competing it for energy (as happened historically when blue-green algae appeared and outcompeted earlier life forms).", "Some commentators have referred to this situation as the \"grey goo\" or \"ecophagy\" scenario.", "K. Eric Drexler considers an accidental \"grey goo\" scenario extremely unlikely and says so in later editions of ''Engines of Creation''.In light of this perception of potential danger, the Foresight Institute, founded by Drexler, has prepared a set of guidelines for the ethical development of nanotechnology.", "These include the banning of free-foraging self-replicating pseudo-organisms on the Earth's surface, at least, and possibly in other places." ], [ "Technical issues and criticism", "The feasibility of the basic technologies analyzed in ''Nanosystems'' has been the subject of a formal scientific review by U.S. National Academy of Sciences, and has also been the focus of extensive debate on the internet and in the popular press.===Study and recommendations by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences===In 2006, U.S. National Academy of Sciences released the report of a study of molecular manufacturing as part of a longer report, ''A Matter of Size: Triennial Review of the National Nanotechnology Initiative'' The study committee reviewed the technical content of ''Nanosystems'', and in its conclusion states that no current theoretical analysis can be considered definitive regarding several questions of potential system performance, and that optimal paths for implementing high-performance systems cannot be predicted with confidence.", "It recommends experimental research to advance knowledge in this area::\"Although theoretical calculations can be made today, the eventually attainable range of chemical reaction cycles, error rates, speed of operation, and thermodynamic efficiencies of such bottom-up manufacturing systems cannot be reliably predicted at this time.", "Thus, the eventually attainable perfection and complexity of manufactured products, while they can be calculated in theory, cannot be predicted with confidence.", "Finally, the optimum research paths that might lead to systems which greatly exceed the thermodynamic efficiencies and other capabilities of biological systems cannot be reliably predicted at this time.", "Research funding that is based on the ability of investigators to produce experimental demonstrations that link to abstract models and guide long-term vision is most appropriate to achieve this goal.", "\"===Assemblers versus nanofactories===A section heading in Drexler's ''Engines of Creation'' reads \"Universal Assemblers\", and the following text speaks of multiple types of assemblers which, collectively, could hypothetically \"build almost anything that the laws of nature allow to exist.\"", "Drexler's colleague Ralph Merkle has noted that, contrary to widespread legend, Drexler never claimed that assembler systems could build absolutely any molecular structure.", "The endnotes in Drexler's book explain the qualification \"almost\": \"For example, a delicate structure might be designed that, like a stone arch, would self-destruct unless all its pieces were already in place.", "If there were no room in the design for the placement and removal of a scaffolding, then the structure might be impossible to build.", "Few structures of practical interest seem likely to exhibit such a problem, however.", "\"In 1992, Drexler published ''Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation'', a detailed proposal for synthesizing stiff covalent structures using a table-top factory.", "Diamondoid structures and other stiff covalent structures, if achieved, would have a wide range of possible applications, going far beyond current MEMS technology.", "An outline of a path was put forward in 1992 for building a table-top factory in the absence of an assembler.", "Other researchers have begun advancing tentative, alternative proposed paths for this in the years since Nanosystems was published.===Hard versus soft nanotechnology===In 2004 Richard Jones wrote Soft Machines (nanotechnology and life), a book for lay audiences published by Oxford University.", "In this book he describes radical nanotechnology (as advocated by Drexler) as a deterministic/mechanistic idea of nano engineered machines that does not take into account the nanoscale challenges such as wetness, stickiness, Brownian motion, and high viscosity.", "He also explains what is soft nanotechnology or more appropriately biomimetic nanotechnology which is the way forward, if not the best way, to design functional nanodevices that can cope with all the problems at a nanoscale.", "One can think of soft nanotechnology as the development of nanomachines that uses the lessons learned from biology on how things work, chemistry to precisely engineer such devices and stochastic physics to model the system and its natural processes in detail.===The SmalleyDrexler debate===Several researchers, including Nobel Prize winner Dr. Richard Smalley (1943–2005), attacked the notion of universal assemblers, leading to a rebuttal from Drexler and colleagues, and eventually to an exchange of letters.", "Smalley argued that chemistry is extremely complicated, reactions are hard to control, and that a universal assembler is science fiction.", "Drexler and colleagues, however, noted that Drexler never proposed universal assemblers able to make absolutely anything, but instead proposed more limited assemblers able to make a very wide variety of things.", "They challenged the relevance of Smalley's arguments to the more specific proposals advanced in ''Nanosystems''.", "Also, Smalley argued that nearly all of modern chemistry involves reactions that take place in a solvent (usually water), because the small molecules of a solvent contribute many things, such as lowering binding energies for transition states.", "Since nearly all known chemistry requires a solvent, Smalley felt that Drexler's proposal to use a high vacuum environment was not feasible.", "However, Drexler addresses this in Nanosystems by showing mathematically that well designed catalysts can provide the effects of a solvent and can fundamentally be made even more efficient than a solvent/enzyme reaction could ever be.", "It is noteworthy that, contrary to Smalley's opinion that enzymes require water, \"Not only do enzymes work vigorously in anhydrous organic media, but in this unnatural milieu they acquire remarkable properties such as greatly enhanced stability, radically altered substrate and enantiomeric specificities, molecular memory, and the ability to catalyse unusual reactions.", "\"===Redefining of the word \"nanotechnology\"===For the future, some means have to be found for MNT design evolution at the nanoscale which mimics the process of biological evolution at the molecular scale.", "Biological evolution proceeds by random variation in ensemble averages of organisms combined with culling of the less-successful variants and reproduction of the more-successful variants, and macroscale engineering design also proceeds by a process of design evolution from simplicity to complexity as set forth somewhat satirically by John Gall: \"A complex system that works is invariably found to have evolved from a simple system that worked.", ".", ".", ".", "A complex system designed from scratch never works and can not be patched up to make it work.", "You have to start over, beginning with a system that works.\"", "A breakthrough in MNT is needed which proceeds from the simple atomic ensembles which can be built with, e.g., an STM to complex MNT systems via a process of design evolution.", "A handicap in this process is the difficulty of seeing and manipulation at the nanoscale compared to the macroscale which makes deterministic selection of successful trials difficult; in contrast biological evolution proceeds via action of what Richard Dawkins has called the \"blind watchmaker\" comprising random molecular variation and deterministic reproduction/extinction.At present in 2007 the practice of nanotechnology embraces both stochastic approaches (in which, for example, supramolecular chemistry creates waterproof pants) and deterministic approaches wherein single molecules (created by stochastic chemistry) are manipulated on substrate surfaces (created by stochastic deposition methods) by deterministic methods comprising nudging them with STM or AFM probes and causing simple binding or cleavage reactions to occur.", "The dream of a complex, deterministic molecular nanotechnology remains elusive.", "Since the mid-1990s, thousands of surface scientists and thin film technocrats have latched on to the nanotechnology bandwagon and redefined their disciplines as nanotechnology.", "This has caused much confusion in the field and has spawned thousands of \"nano\"-papers on the peer reviewed literature.", "Most of these reports are extensions of the more ordinary research done in the parent fields.===The feasibility of the proposals in ''Nanosystems''===The feasibility of Drexler's proposals largely depends, therefore, on whether designs like those in ''Nanosystems'' could be built in the absence of a universal assembler to build them and would work as described.", "Supporters of molecular nanotechnology frequently claim that no significant errors have been discovered in ''Nanosystems'' since 1992.Even some critics concede that \"Drexler has carefully considered a number of physical principles underlying the 'high level' aspects of the nanosystems he proposes and, indeed, has thought in some detail\" about some issues.Other critics claim, however, that ''Nanosystems'' omits important chemical details about the low-level 'machine language' of molecular nanotechnology.", "They also claim that much of the other low-level chemistry in ''Nanosystems'' requires extensive further work, and that Drexler's higher-level designs therefore rest on speculative foundations.", "Recent such further work by Freitas and Merkle is aimed at strengthening these foundations by filling the existing gaps in the low-level chemistry.Drexler argues that we may need to wait until our conventional nanotechnology improves before solving these issues: \"Molecular manufacturing will result from a series of advances in molecular machine systems, much as the first Moon landing resulted from a series of advances in liquid-fuel rocket systems.", "We are now in a position like that of the British Interplanetary Society of the 1930s which described how multistage liquid-fueled rockets could reach the Moon and pointed to early rockets as illustrations of the basic principle.\"", "However, Freitas and Merkle argue that a focused effort to achieve diamond mechanosynthesis (DMS) can begin now, using existing technology, and might achieve success in less than a decade if their \"direct-to-DMS approach is pursued rather than a more circuitous development approach that seeks to implement less efficacious nondiamondoid molecular manufacturing technologies before progressing to diamondoid\".To summarize the arguments against feasibility: First, critics argue that a primary barrier to achieving molecular nanotechnology is the lack of an efficient way to create machines on a molecular/atomic scale, especially in the absence of a well-defined path toward a self-replicating assembler or diamondoid nanofactory.", "Advocates respond that a preliminary research path leading to a diamondoid nanofactory is being developed.A second difficulty in reaching molecular nanotechnology is design.", "Hand design of a gear or bearing at the level of atoms might take a few to several weeks.", "While Drexler, Merkle and others have created designs of simple parts, no comprehensive design effort for anything approaching the complexity of a Model T Ford has been attempted.", "Advocates respond that it is difficult to undertake a comprehensive design effort in the absence of significant funding for such efforts, and that despite this handicap much useful design-ahead has nevertheless been accomplished with new software tools that have been developed, e.g., at Nanorex.In the latest report ''A Matter of Size: Triennial Review of the National Nanotechnology Initiative'' put out by the National Academies Press in December 2006 (roughly twenty years after Engines of Creation was published), no clear way forward toward molecular nanotechnology could yet be seen, as per the conclusion on page 108 of that report: \"Although theoretical calculations can be made today, the eventually attainablerange of chemical reaction cycles, error rates, speed of operation, and thermodynamicefficiencies of such bottom-up manufacturing systems cannot be reliablypredicted at this time.", "Thus, the eventually attainable perfection and complexity ofmanufactured products, while they can be calculated in theory, cannot be predictedwith confidence.", "Finally, the optimum research paths that might lead to systemswhich greatly exceed the thermodynamic efficiencies and other capabilities ofbiological systems cannot be reliably predicted at this time.", "Research funding thatis based on the ability of investigators to produce experimental demonstrationsthat link to abstract models and guide long-term vision is most appropriate toachieve this goal.\"", "This call for research leading to demonstrations is welcomed by groups such as the Nanofactory Collaboration who are specifically seeking experimental successes in diamond mechanosynthesis.", "The \"Technology Roadmap for Productive Nanosystems\" aims to offer additional constructive insights.It is perhaps interesting to ask whether or not most structures consistent with physical law can in fact be manufactured.", "Advocates assert that to achieve most of the vision of molecular manufacturing it is not necessary to be able to build \"any structure that is compatible with natural law.\"", "Rather, it is necessary to be able to build only a sufficient (possibly modest) subset of such structures—as is true, in fact, of any practical manufacturing process used in the world today, and is true even in biology.", "In any event, as Richard Feynman once said, \"It is scientific only to say what's more likely or less likely, and not to be proving all the time what's possible or impossible.", "\"===Existing work on diamond mechanosynthesis===There is a growing body of peer-reviewed theoretical work on synthesizing diamond by mechanically removing/adding hydrogen atoms and depositing carbon atoms (a process known as mechanosynthesis).", "This work is slowly permeating the broader nanoscience community and is being critiqued.", "For instance, Peng et al.", "(2006) (in the continuing research effort by Freitas, Merkle and their collaborators) reports that the most-studied mechanosynthesis tooltip motif (DCB6Ge) successfully places a C2 carbon dimer on a C(110) diamond surface at both 300 K (room temperature) and 80 K (liquid nitrogen temperature), and that the silicon variant (DCB6Si) also works at 80 K but not at 300 K. Over 100,000 CPU hours were invested in this latest study.", "The DCB6 tooltip motif, initially described by Merkle and Freitas at a Foresight Conference in 2002, was the first complete tooltip ever proposed for diamond mechanosynthesis and remains the only tooltip motif that has been successfully simulated for its intended function on a full 200-atom diamond surface.The tooltips modeled in this work are intended to be used only in carefully controlled environments (e. g., vacuum).", "Maximum acceptable limits for tooltip translational and rotational misplacement errors are reported in Peng et al.", "(2006) -- tooltips must be positioned with great accuracy to avoid bonding the dimer incorrectly.", "Peng et al.", "(2006) reports that increasing the handle thickness from 4 support planes of C atoms above the tooltip to 5 planes decreases the resonance frequency of the entire structure from 2.0 THz to 1.8 THz.", "More importantly, the vibrational footprints of a DCB6Ge tooltip mounted on a 384-atom handle and of the same tooltip mounted on a similarly constrained but much larger 636-atom \"crossbar\" handle are virtually identical in the non-crossbar directions.", "Additional computational studies modeling still bigger handle structures are welcome, but the ability to precisely position SPM tips to the requisite atomic accuracy has been repeatedly demonstrated experimentally at low temperature, or even at room temperature constituting a basic existence proof for this capability.Further research to consider additional tooltips will require time-consuming computational chemistry and difficult laboratory work.A working nanofactory would require a variety of well-designed tips for different reactions, and detailed analyses of placing atoms on more complicated surfaces.", "Although this appears a challenging problem given current resources, many tools will be available to help future researchers: Moore's law predicts further increases in computer power, semiconductor fabrication techniques continue to approach the nanoscale, and researchers grow ever more skilled at using proteins, ribosomes and DNA to perform novel chemistry." ], [ "Works of fiction", "*In ''The Diamond Age'' by Neal Stephenson, diamond can be built directly out of carbon atoms.", "All sorts of devices from dust-size detection devices to giant diamond zeppelins are constructed atom by atom using only carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine atoms.", "*In the novel ''Tomorrow'' by Andrew Saltzman (), a scientist uses nanorobotics to create a liquid that when inserted into the bloodstream, renders one nearly invincible given that the microscopic machines repair tissue almost instantaneously after it is damaged.", "*In the roleplaying game ''Splicers'' by Palladium Books, humanity has succumbed to a \"nanobot plague\" that causes any object made of a non-precious metal to twist and change shape (sometimes into a type of robot) moments after being touched by a human.", "The object will then proceed to attack the human.", "This has forced humanity to develop \"biotechnological\" devices to replace those previously made of metal.", "* On the television show ''Mystery Science Theater 3000'', the Nanites (voiced variously by Kevin Murphy, Paul Chaplin, Mary Jo Pehl, and Bridget Jones) – are self-replicating, bio-engineered organisms that work on the ship, they are microscopic creatures that reside in the Satellite of Love's computer systems.", "(They are similar to the creatures in ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' episode \"Evolution\", which featured \"nanites\" taking over the ''Enterprise''.)", "The Nanites made their first appearance in season 8.Based on the concept of nanotechnology, their comical ''deus ex machina'' activities included such diverse tasks as instant repair and construction, hairstyling, performing a Nanite variation of a flea circus, conducting a microscopic war, and even destroying the Observers' planet after a dangerously vague request from Mike to \"take care of a little problem\".", "They also ran a microbrewery.", "* Stargate Atlantis has an enemy made of self-assembling nanorobots, which also convert a planet into grey goo.", "* In the novel \"Prey\" by Michael Crichton, self replicating nanobots create autonomous nano-swarms with predatory behaviors.", "The protagonist must stop the swarm before it evolves into a grey goo plague.", "* In the films ''Avengers Infinity War'' and ''Avengers Endgame'' Tony Stark's Iron Man suit was constructed using nanotechnology." ], [ "See also", "* Nanochemistry* Green nanotechnology* Technomimetics" ], [ "References" ], [ "Reference works", "*The primary technical reference work on this topic is ''Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation'', an in-depth, physics-based analysis of a particular class of potential nanomachines and molecular manufacturing systems, with extensive analyses of their feasibility and performance.", "''Nanosystems'' is closely based on Drexler's MIT doctoral dissertation, \"Molecular Machinery and Manufacturing with Applications to Computation\".", "Both works also discuss technology development pathways that begin with scanning probe and biomolecular technologies.", "*Drexler and others extended the ideas of molecular nanotechnology with several other books.", "''Unbounding the Future: the Nanotechnology Revolution'' and .", "''Unbounding the Future'' is an easy-to-read book that introduces the ideas of molecular nanotechnology in a not-too-technical way.", "Other notable works in the same vein are Nanomedicine Vol.", "I and Vol.", "IIA by Robert Freitas and ''Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines'' by Robert Freitas and Ralph Merkle.", "*''Nanotechnology: Molecular Speculations on Global Abundance'' Edited by BC Crandall () offers interesting ideas for MNT applications." ], [ "External links", "* Foresight Institute* Main Page - Wise-Nano A wiki for MNT* Dr. Freitas's bibliography on mechanosynthesis updated here (also includes related techniques based on scanning probe microscopy)* The Molecular Assembler website of Robert A. Freitas Jr.* Nanotechnology Now Nanotechnology basics, news, and general information* Eric Drexler's personal website and digital archive* National Nanotechnology Initiative* Institute for Molecular Manufacturing* Accelerating Future's MNT articles" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MEMS" ], [ "Introduction", "Proposal submitted to DARPA in 1986 first introducing the term \"microelectromechanical systems\"MEMS microcantilever resonating inside a scanning electron microscope'''MEMS''' ('''micro-electromechanical systems''') is the technology of microscopic devices incorporating both electronic and moving parts.", "MEMS are made up of components between 1 and 100 micrometres in size (i.e., 0.001 to 0.1 mm), and MEMS devices generally range in size from 20 micrometres to a millimetre (i.e., 0.02 to 1.0 mm), although components arranged in arrays (e.g., digital micromirror devices) can be more than 1000 mm2.They usually consist of a central unit that processes data (an integrated circuit chip such as microprocessor) and several components that interact with the surroundings (such as microsensors).Because of the large surface area to volume ratio of MEMS, forces produced by ambient electromagnetism (e.g., electrostatic charges and magnetic moments), and fluid dynamics (e.g., surface tension and viscosity) are more important design considerations than with larger scale mechanical devices.", "MEMS technology is distinguished from molecular nanotechnology or molecular electronics in that the latter two must also consider surface chemistry.The potential of very small machines was appreciated before the technology existed that could make them (see, for example, Richard Feynman's famous 1959 lecture There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom).", "MEMS became practical once they could be fabricated using modified semiconductor device fabrication technologies, normally used to make electronics.", "These include molding and plating, wet etching (KOH, TMAH) and dry etching (RIE and DRIE), electrical discharge machining (EDM), and other technologies capable of manufacturing small devices.They merge at the nanoscale into nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) and nanotechnology." ], [ "History", "An early example of a MEMS device is the resonant-gate transistor, an adaptation of the MOSFET, developed by Harvey C. Nathanson in 1965.Another early example is the resonistor, an electromechanical monolithic resonator patented by Raymond J. Wilfinger between 1966 and 1971.During the 1970s to early 1980s, a number of MOSFET microsensors were developed for measuring physical, chemical, biological and environmental parameters.The term \"MEMS\" was introduced in 1986.S.C.", "Jacobsen (PI) and J.E.", "Wood (Co-PI) introduced the term \"MEMS\" by way of a proposal to DARPA (15 July 1986), titled \"Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS)\", granted to the University of Utah.", "The term \"MEMS\" was presented by way of an invited talk by S.C. Jacobsen, titled \"Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS)\", at the IEEE Micro Robots and Teleoperators Workshop, Hyannis, MA Nov. 9–11, 1987.The term \"MEMS\" was published by way of a submitted paper by J.E.", "Wood, S.C. Jacobsen, and K.W.", "Grace, titled \"SCOFSS: A Small Cantilevered Optical Fiber Servo System\", in the IEEE Proceedings Micro Robots and Teleoperators Workshop, Hyannis, MA Nov. 9–11, 1987.CMOS transistors have been manufactured on top of MEMS structures." ], [ "Types", "There are two basic types of MEMS switch technology: capacitive and ohmic.", "A capacitive MEMS switch is developed using a moving plate or sensing element, which changes the capacitance.", "Ohmic switches are controlled by electrostatically controlled cantilevers.", "Ohmic MEMS switches can fail from metal fatigue of the MEMS actuator (cantilever) and contact wear, since cantilevers can deform over time." ], [ "Materials", "Electron microscope pictures of X-shaped TiN beam above ground plate (height difference 2.5 µm).", "Due to the clip in the middle, an increasing reset force develops when the beam bends downwards.", "The right figure shows a magnification of the clip.The fabrication of MEMS evolved from the process technology in semiconductor device fabrication, i.e.", "the basic techniques are deposition of material layers, patterning by photolithography and etching to produce the required shapes.", "; Silicon: Silicon is the material used to create most integrated circuits used in consumer electronics in the modern industry.", "The economies of scale, ready availability of inexpensive high-quality materials, and ability to incorporate electronic functionality make silicon attractive for a wide variety of MEMS applications.", "Silicon also has significant advantages engendered through its material properties.", "In single crystal form, silicon is an almost perfect Hookean material, meaning that when it is flexed there is virtually no hysteresis and hence almost no energy dissipation.", "As well as making for highly repeatable motion, this also makes silicon very reliable as it suffers very little fatigue and can have service lifetimes in the range of billions to trillions of cycles without breaking.", "Semiconductor nanostructures based on silicon are gaining increasing importance in the field of microelectronics and MEMS in particular.", "Silicon nanowires, fabricated through the thermal oxidation of silicon, are of further interest in electrochemical conversion and storage, including nanowire batteries and photovoltaic systems.", "; Polymers: Even though the electronics industry provides an economy of scale for the silicon industry, crystalline silicon is still a complex and relatively expensive material to produce.", "Polymers on the other hand can be produced in huge volumes, with a great variety of material characteristics.", "MEMS devices can be made from polymers by processes such as injection molding, embossing or stereolithography and are especially well suited to microfluidic applications such as disposable blood testing cartridges.", "; Metals: Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements.", "While metals do not have some of the advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical properties, when used within their limitations, metals can exhibit very high degrees of reliability.", "Metals can be deposited by electroplating, evaporation, and sputtering processes.", "Commonly used metals include gold, nickel, aluminium, copper, chromium, titanium, tungsten, platinum, and silver.", "; Ceramics: The nitrides of silicon, aluminium and titanium as well as silicon carbide and other ceramics are increasingly applied in MEMS fabrication due to advantageous combinations of material properties.", "AlN crystallizes in the wurtzite structure and thus shows pyroelectric and piezoelectric properties enabling sensors, for instance, with sensitivity to normal and shear forces.", "TiN, on the other hand, exhibits a high electrical conductivity and large elastic modulus, making it possible to implement electrostatic MEMS actuation schemes with ultrathin beams.", "Moreover, the high resistance of TiN against biocorrosion qualifies the material for applications in biogenic environments.", "The figure shows an electron-microscopic picture of a MEMS biosensor with a 50 nm thin bendable TiN beam above a TiN ground plate.", "Both can be driven as opposite electrodes of a capacitor, since the beam is fixed in electrically isolating side walls.", "When a fluid is suspended in the cavity its viscosity may be derived from bending the beam by electrical attraction to the ground plate and measuring the bending velocity." ], [ "Basic processes", "=== Deposition processes ===One of the basic building blocks in MEMS processing is the ability to deposit thin films of material with a thickness anywhere from one micrometre to about 100 micrometres.", "The NEMS process is the same, although the measurement of film deposition ranges from a few nanometres to one micrometre.", "There are two types of deposition processes, as follows.==== Physical deposition ====Physical vapor deposition (\"PVD\") consists of a process in which a material is removed from a target, and deposited on a surface.", "Techniques to do this include the process of sputtering, in which an ion beam liberates atoms from a target, allowing them to move through the intervening space and deposit on the desired substrate, and evaporation, in which a material is evaporated from a target using either heat (thermal evaporation) or an electron beam (e-beam evaporation) in a vacuum system.==== Chemical deposition ====Chemical deposition techniques include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), in which a stream of source gas reacts on the substrate to grow the material desired.", "This can be further divided into categories depending on the details of the technique, for example LPCVD (low-pressure chemical vapor deposition) and PECVD (plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition).", "Oxide films can also be grown by the technique of thermal oxidation, in which the (typically silicon) wafer is exposed to oxygen and/or steam, to grow a thin surface layer of silicon dioxide.=== Patterning ===Patterning in MEMS is the transfer of a pattern into a material.=== Lithography ===Lithography in a MEMS context is typically the transfer of a pattern into a photosensitive material by selective exposure to a radiation source such as light.", "A photosensitive material is a material that experiences a change in its physical properties when exposed to a radiation source.", "If a photosensitive material is selectively exposed to radiation (e.g.", "by masking some of the radiation) the pattern of the radiation on the material is transferred to the material exposed, as the properties of the exposed and unexposed regions differs.This exposed region can then be removed or treated providing a mask for the underlying substrate.", "Photolithography is typically used with metal or other thin film deposition, wet and dry etching.", "Sometimes, photolithography is used to create structure without any kind of post etching.", "One example is SU8 based lens where SU8 based square blocks are generated.", "Then the photoresist is melted to form a semi-sphere which acts as a lens.Electron beam lithography (often abbreviated as e-beam lithography) is the practice of scanning a beam of electrons in a patterned fashion across a surface covered with a film (called the resist), (\"exposing\" the resist) and of selectively removing either exposed or non-exposed regions of the resist (\"developing\").", "The purpose, as with photolithography, is to create very small structures in the resist that can subsequently be transferred to the substrate material, often by etching.", "It was developed for manufacturing integrated circuits, and is also used for creating nanotechnology architectures.", "The primary advantage of electron beam lithography is that it is one of the ways to beat the diffraction limit of light and make features in the nanometer range.", "This form of maskless lithography has found wide usage in photomask-making used in photolithography, low-volume production of semiconductor components, and research & development.", "The key limitation of electron beam lithography is throughput, i.e., the very long time it takes to expose an entire silicon wafer or glass substrate.", "A long exposure time leaves the user vulnerable to beam drift or instability which may occur during the exposure.", "Also, the turn-around time for reworking or re-design is lengthened unnecessarily if the pattern is not being changed the second time.It is known that focused-ion beam lithography has the capability of writing extremely fine lines (less than 50 nm line and space has been achieved) without proximity effect.", "However, because the writing field in ion-beam lithography is quite small, large area patterns must be created by stitching together the small fields.Ion track technology is a deep cutting tool with a resolution limit around 8 nm applicable to radiation resistant minerals, glasses and polymers.", "It is capable of generating holes in thin films without any development process.", "Structural depth can be defined either by ion range or by material thickness.", "Aspect ratios up to several 104 can be reached.", "The technique can shape and texture materials at a defined inclination angle.", "Random pattern, single-ion track structures and an aimed pattern consisting of individual single tracks can be generated.X-ray lithography is a process used in the electronic industry to selectively remove parts of a thin film.", "It uses X-rays to transfer a geometric pattern from a mask to a light-sensitive chemical photoresist, or simply \"resist\", on the substrate.", "A series of chemical treatments then engraves the produced pattern into the material underneath the photoresist.A simple way to carve or create patterns on the surface of nanodiamonds without damaging them could lead to a new generation of photonic devices.", "Diamond patterning is a method of forming diamond MEMS.", "It is achieved by the lithographic application of diamond films to a substrate such as silicon.", "The patterns can be formed by selective deposition through a silicon dioxide mask, or by deposition followed by micromachining or focused ion beam milling.=== Etching processes ===There are two basic categories of etching processes: wet etching and dry etching.", "In the former, the material is dissolved when immersed in a chemical solution.", "In the latter, the material is sputtered or dissolved using reactive ions or a vapor phase etchant.==== Wet etching ====Wet chemical etching consists of the selective removal of material by dipping a substrate into a solution that dissolves it.", "The chemical nature of this etching process provides good selectivity, which means the etching rate of the target material is considerably higher than the mask material if selected carefully.", "Wet etching can be performed using either isotropic wet etchants or anisotropic wet etchants.", "Isotropic wet etchant etch in all directions of the crystalline silicon at approximately equal rates.", "Anisotropic wet etchants preferably etch along certain crystal planes at faster rates than other planes, thereby allowing more complicated 3-D microstructures to be implemented.", "Wet anisotropic etchants are often used in conjunction with boron etch stops wherein the surface of the silicon is heavily doped with boron resulting in a silicon material layer that is resistant to the wet etchants.", "This has been used in MEWS pressure sensor manufacturing for example.Etching progresses at the same speed in all directions.", "Long and narrow holes in a mask will produce v-shaped grooves in the silicon.", "The surface of these grooves can be atomically smooth if the etch is carried out correctly, with dimensions and angles being extremely accurate.Some single crystal materials, such as silicon, will have different etching rates depending on the crystallographic orientation of the substrate.", "This is known as anisotropic etching and one of the most common examples is the etching of silicon in KOH (potassium hydroxide), where Si planes etch approximately 100 times slower than other planes (crystallographic orientations).", "Therefore, etching a rectangular hole in a (100)-Si wafer results in a pyramid shaped etch pit with 54.7° walls, instead of a hole with curved sidewalls as with isotropic etching.Hydrofluoric acid is commonly used as an aqueous etchant for silicon dioxide (, also known as BOX for SOI), usually in 49% concentrated form, 5:1, 10:1 or 20:1 BOE (buffered oxide etchant) or BHF (Buffered HF).", "They were first used in medieval times for glass etching.", "It was used in IC fabrication for patterning the gate oxide until the process step was replaced by RIE.", "Hydrofluoric acid is considered one of the more dangerous acids in the cleanroom.", "It penetrates the skin upon contact and it diffuses straight to the bone.", "Therefore, the damage is not felt until it is too late.Electrochemical etching (ECE) for dopant-selective removal of silicon is a common method to automate and to selectively control etching.", "An active p–n diode junction is required, and either type of dopant can be the etch-resistant (\"etch-stop\") material.", "Boron is the most common etch-stop dopant.", "In combination with wet anisotropic etching as described above, ECE has been used successfully for controlling silicon diaphragm thickness in commercial piezoresistive silicon pressure sensors.", "Selectively doped regions can be created either by implantation, diffusion, or epitaxial deposition of silicon.==== Dry etching ====Xenon difluoride () is a dry vapor phase isotropic etch for silicon originally applied for MEMS in 1995 at University of California, Los Angeles.", "Primarily used for releasing metal and dielectric structures by undercutting silicon, has the advantage of a stiction-free release unlike wet etchants.", "Its etch selectivity to silicon is very high, allowing it to work with photoresist, , silicon nitride, and various metals for masking.", "Its reaction to silicon is \"plasmaless\", is purely chemical and spontaneous and is often operated in pulsed mode.", "Models of the etching action are available, and university laboratories and various commercial tools offer solutions using this approach.Modern VLSI processes avoid wet etching, and use plasma etching instead.", "Plasma etchers can operate in several modes by adjusting the parameters of the plasma.", "Ordinary plasma etching operates between 0.1 and 5 Torr.", "(This unit of pressure, commonly used in vacuum engineering, equals approximately 133.3 pascals.)", "The plasma produces energetic free radicals, neutrally charged, that react at the surface of the wafer.", "Since neutral particles attack the wafer from all angles, this process is isotropic.", "Plasma etching can be isotropic, i.e., exhibiting a lateral undercut rate on a patterned surface approximately the same as its downward etch rate, or can be anisotropic, i.e., exhibiting a smaller lateral undercut rate than its downward etch rate.", "Such anisotropy is maximized in deep reactive ion etching.", "The use of the term anisotropy for plasma etching should not be conflated with the use of the same term when referring to orientation-dependent etching.", "The source gas for the plasma usually contains small molecules rich in chlorine or fluorine.", "For instance, carbon tetrachloride () etches silicon and aluminium, and trifluoromethane etches silicon dioxide and silicon nitride.", "A plasma containing oxygen is used to oxidize (\"ash\") photoresist and facilitate its removal.Ion milling, or sputter etching, uses lower pressures, often as low as 10−4 Torr (10 mPa).", "It bombards the wafer with energetic ions of noble gases, often Ar+, which knock atoms from the substrate by transferring momentum.", "Because the etching is performed by ions, which approach the wafer approximately from one direction, this process is highly anisotropic.", "On the other hand, it tends to display poor selectivity.", "Reactive-ion etching (RIE) operates under conditions intermediate between sputter and plasma etching (between 10–3 and 10−1 Torr).", "Deep reactive-ion etching (DRIE) modifies the RIE technique to produce deep, narrow features.", "In reactive-ion etching (RIE), the substrate is placed inside a reactor, and several gases are introduced.", "A plasma is struck in the gas mixture using an RF power source, which breaks the gas molecules into ions.", "The ions accelerate towards, and react with, the surface of the material being etched, forming another gaseous material.", "This is known as the chemical part of reactive ion etching.", "There is also a physical part, which is similar to the sputtering deposition process.", "If the ions have high enough energy, they can knock atoms out of the material to be etched without a chemical reaction.", "It is a very complex task to develop dry etch processes that balance chemical and physical etching, since there are many parameters to adjust.", "By changing the balance it is possible to influence the anisotropy of the etching, since the chemical part is isotropic and the physical part highly anisotropic the combination can form sidewalls that have shapes from rounded to vertical.Deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) is a special subclass of RIE that is growing in popularity.", "In this process, etch depths of hundreds of micrometers are achieved with almost vertical sidewalls.", "The primary technology is based on the so-called \"Bosch process\", named after the German company Robert Bosch, which filed the original patent, where two different gas compositions alternate in the reactor.", "Currently, there are two variations of the DRIE.", "The first variation consists of three distinct steps (the original Bosch process) while the second variation only consists of two steps.In the first variation, the etch cycle is as follows::(i) isotropic etch;:(ii) passivation;:(iii) anisotropic etch for floor cleaning.In the 2nd variation, steps (i) and (iii) are combined.Both variations operate similarly.", "The creates a polymer on the surface of the substrate, and the second gas composition ( and ) etches the substrate.", "The polymer is immediately sputtered away by the physical part of the etching, but only on the horizontal surfaces and not the sidewalls.", "Since the polymer only dissolves very slowly in the chemical part of the etching, it builds up on the sidewalls and protects them from etching.", "As a result, etching aspect ratios of 50 to 1 can be achieved.", "The process can easily be used to etch completely through a silicon substrate, and etch rates are 3–6 times higher than wet etching.After preparing a large number of MEMS devices on a silicon wafer, individual dies have to be separated, which is called die preparation in semiconductor technology.", "For some applications, the separation is preceded by wafer backgrinding in order to reduce the wafer thickness.", "Wafer dicing may then be performed either by sawing using a cooling liquid or a dry laser process called stealth dicing." ], [ "Manufacturing technologies", "Bulk micromachining is the oldest paradigm of silicon-based MEMS.", "The whole thickness of a silicon wafer is used for building the micro-mechanical structures.", "Silicon is machined using various etching processes.", "Bulk micromachining has been essential in enabling high performance pressure sensors and accelerometers that changed the sensor industry in the 1980s and 1990s.Surface micromachining uses layers deposited on the surface of a substrate as the structural materials, rather than using the substrate itself.", "Surface micromachining was created in the late 1980s to render micromachining of silicon more compatible with planar integrated circuit technology, with the goal of combining MEMS and integrated circuits on the same silicon wafer.", "The original surface micromachining concept was based on thin polycrystalline silicon layers patterned as movable mechanical structures and released by sacrificial etching of the underlying oxide layer.", "Interdigital comb electrodes were used to produce in-plane forces and to detect in-plane movement capacitively.", "This MEMS paradigm has enabled the manufacturing of low cost accelerometers for e.g.", "automotive air-bag systems and other applications where low performance and/or high g-ranges are sufficient.", "Analog Devices has pioneered the industrialization of surface micromachining and has realized the co-integration of MEMS and integrated circuits.Wafer bonding involves joining two or more substrates (usually having the same diameter) to one another to form a composite structure.", "There are several types of wafer bonding processes that are used in microsystems fabrication including: direct or fusion wafer bonding, wherein two or more wafers are bonded together that are usually made of silicon or some other semiconductor material; anodic bonding wherein a boron-doped glass wafer is bonded to a semiconductor wafer, usually silicon; thermocompression bonding, wherein an intermediary thin-film material layer is used to facilitate wafer bonding; and eutectic bonding, wherein a thin-film layer of gold is used to bond two silicon wafers.", "Each of these methods have specific uses depending on the circumstances.", "Most wafer bonding processes rely on three basic criteria for successfully bonding: the wafers to be bonded are sufficiently flat; the wafer surfaces are sufficiently smooth; and the wafer surfaces are sufficiently clean.", "The most stringent criteria for wafer bonding is usually the direct fusion wafer bonding since even one or more small particulates can render the bonding unsuccessful.", "In comparison, wafer bonding methods that use intermediary layers are often far more forgiving.", "Both bulk and surface silicon micromachining are used in the industrial production of sensors, ink-jet nozzles, and other devices.", "But in many cases the distinction between these two has diminished.", "A new etching technology, deep reactive-ion etching, has made it possible to combine good performance typical of bulk micromachining with comb structures and in-plane operation typical of surface micromachining.", "While it is common in surface micromachining to have structural layer thickness in the range of 2 µm, in HAR silicon micromachining the thickness can be from 10 to 100 µm.", "The materials commonly used in HAR silicon micromachining are thick polycrystalline silicon, known as epi-poly, and bonded silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers although processes for bulk silicon wafer also have been created (SCREAM).", "Bonding a second wafer by glass frit bonding, anodic bonding or alloy bonding is used to protect the MEMS structures.", "Integrated circuits are typically not combined with HAR silicon micromachining." ], [ "Applications", "A Texas Instruments DMD chip for cinema projectionMeasuring mechanical properties of a gold stripe (width ~1 µm) using MEMS inside a transmission electron microscope.Some common commercial applications of MEMS include:* Inkjet printers, which use piezoelectrics or thermal bubble ejection to deposit ink on paper.", "* Accelerometers in modern cars for a large number of purposes including airbag deployment and electronic stability control.", "* Inertial measurement units (IMUs): ** MEMS accelerometers** MEMS gyroscopes in remote controlled, or autonomous, helicopters, planes and multirotors (also known as drones), used for automatically sensing and balancing flying characteristics of roll, pitch and yaw.", "** MEMS magnetic field sensor (magnetometer) may also be incorporated in such devices to provide directional heading.", "** MEMS inertial navigation systems (INSs) of modern cars, airplanes, submarines and other vehicles to detect yaw, pitch, and roll; for example, the autopilot of an airplane.", "* Accelerometers in consumer electronics devices such as game controllers (Nintendo Wii), personal media players / cell phones (virtually all smartphones, various HTC PDA models), augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) devices,and a number of digital cameras (various Canon Digital IXUS models).", "Also used in PCs to park the hard disk head when free-fall is detected, to prevent damage and data loss.", "* MEMS barometers* MEMS microphones in portable devices, e.g., mobile phones, head sets and laptops.", "The market for smart microphones includes smartphones, wearable devices, smart home and automotive applications.", "* Precision temperature-compensated resonators in real-time clocks.", "* Silicon pressure sensors e.g., car tire pressure sensors, and disposable blood pressure sensors* Displays e.g., the digital micromirror device (DMD) chip in a projector based on DLP technology, which has a surface with several hundred thousand micromirrors or single micro-scanning-mirrors also called microscanners* Optical switching technology, which is used for switching technology and alignment for data communications* RF switches and relays* Bio-MEMS applications in medical and health related technologies including lab-on-a-chip (taking advantage of microfluidics and micropumps), biosensors, chemosensors as well as embedded components of medical devices e.g.", "stents.", "* Interferometric modulator display (IMOD) applications in consumer electronics (primarily displays for mobile devices), used to create interferometric modulation − reflective display technology as found in mirasol displays* Fluid acceleration, such as for micro-cooling* Micro-scale energy harvesting including piezoelectric, electrostatic and electromagnetic micro harvesters.", "* Micromachined ultrasound transducers.", "* MEMS-based loudspeakers focusing on applications such as in-ear headphones and hearing aids* MEMS oscillators* MEMS-based scanning probe microscopes including atomic force microscopes* LiDAR (light detection and ranging)" ], [ "Industry structure", "The global market for micro-electromechanical systems, which includes products such as automobile airbag systems, display systems and inkjet cartridges totaled $40 billion in 2006 according to Global MEMS/Microsystems Markets and Opportunities, a research report from SEMI and Yole Development and is forecasted to reach $72 billion by 2011.Companies with strong MEMS programs come in many sizes.", "Larger firms specialize in manufacturing high volume inexpensive components or packaged solutions for end markets such as automobiles, biomedical, and electronics.", "Smaller firms provide value in innovative solutions and absorb the expense of custom fabrication with high sales margins.", "Both large and small companies typically invest in R&D to explore new MEMS technology.The market for materials and equipment used to manufacture MEMS devices topped $1 billion worldwide in 2006.Materials demand is driven by substrates, making up over 70 percent of the market, packaging coatings and increasing use of chemical mechanical planarization (CMP).", "While MEMS manufacturing continues to be dominated by used semiconductor equipment, there is a migration to 200 mm lines and select new tools, including etch and bonding for certain MEMS applications." ], [ "See also", "* MEMS sensor generations* Microoptoelectromechanical systems* Microoptomechanical systems* Nanoelectromechanical systems" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Journal of Micro and Nanotechnique* ''Microsystem Technologies'', published by Springer Publishing, Journal homepage*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marvin Minsky" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marvin Lee Minsky''' (August 9, 1927 – January 24, 2016) was an American cognitive and computer scientist concerned largely with research of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's AI laboratory, and author of several texts concerning AI and philosophy.Minsky received many accolades and honors, including the 1969 Turing Award." ], [ "Early life and education", "Marvin Lee Minsky was born in New York City, to an eye surgeon father, Henry, and to a mother, Fannie (Reiser), who was a Zionist activist.", "His family was Jewish.", "He attended the Ethical Culture Fieldston School and the Bronx High School of Science.", "He later attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts.", "He then served in the US Navy from 1944 to 1945.He received a B.A.", "in mathematics from Harvard University in 1950 and a Ph.D. in mathematics from Princeton University in 1954.His doctoral dissertation was titled \"Theory of neural-analog reinforcement systems and its application to the brain-model problem.\"", "He was a Junior Fellow of the Harvard Society of Fellows from 1954 to 1957.He was on the MIT faculty from 1958 to his death.", "He joined the staff at MIT Lincoln Laboratory in 1958, and a year later he and John McCarthy initiated what is, , named the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.", "He was the Toshiba Professor of Media Arts and Sciences, and professor of electrical engineering and computer science." ], [ "Contributions in computer science", "confocal white light microscopeMinsky's inventions include the first head-mounted graphical display (1963) and the confocal microscope (1957, a predecessor to today's widely used confocal laser scanning microscope).", "He developed, with Seymour Papert, the first Logo \"turtle\".", "Minsky also built, in 1951, the first randomly wired neural network learning machine, SNARC.", "In 1962, Minsky worked on small universal Turing machines and published his well-known 7-state, 4-symbol machine.Minsky's book ''Perceptrons'' (written with Seymour Papert) attacked the work of Frank Rosenblatt, and became the foundational work in the analysis of artificial neural networks.", "The book is the center of a controversy in the history of AI, as some claim it to have had great importance in discouraging research of neural networks in the 1970s, and contributing to the so-called \"AI winter\".", "He also founded several other AI models.", "His paper ''A framework for representing knowledge'' created a new paradigm in knowledge representation.", "While his ''Perceptrons'' is now more a historical than practical book, the theory of frames is in wide use.", "Minsky also wrote of the possibility that extraterrestrial life may think like humans, permitting communication.In the early 1970s, at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab, Minsky and Papert started developing what came to be known as the Society of Mind theory.", "The theory attempts to explain how what we call intelligence could be a product of the interaction of non-intelligent parts.", "Minsky says that the biggest source of ideas about the theory came from his work in trying to create a machine that uses a robotic arm, a video camera, and a computer to build with children's blocks.", "In 1986, Minsky published ''The Society of Mind'', a comprehensive book on the theory which, unlike most of his previously published work, was written for the general public.In November 2006, Minsky published ''The Emotion Machine'', a book that critiques many popular theories of how human minds work and suggests alternative theories, often replacing simple ideas with more complex ones.", "Recent drafts of the book are freely available from his webpage.Minsky also invented a \"gravity machine\" that would ring a bell if the gravitational constant were to change, a theoretical possibility that is not expected to occur in the foreseeable future." ], [ "Role in popular culture", "Minsky was an adviser on Stanley Kubrick's movie ''2001: A Space Odyssey''; one of the movie's characters, Victor Kaminski, was named in Minsky's honor.", "Minsky is mentioned explicitly in Arthur C. Clarke's derivative novel of the same name, where he is portrayed as achieving a crucial break-through in artificial intelligence in the then-future 1980s, paving the way for HAL 9000 in the early 21st century:In Fargo Season 3 episode 3 (titled \"The Law of Non-Contradiction\"), at least two allusions are made to Minsky.", "The first, through the depiction of a \"useless machine\": a device that was invented by Minsky as a philosophical joke.", "The second, through the depiction of an animation of a robot called \"minsky\" – a character in a sci-fi novel called \"The Planet Wyh\"." ], [ "Personal life", "The Minskytron or \"Three Position Display\" running on the Computer History Museum's PDP-1, 2007In 1952, Minsky married pediatrician Gloria Rudisch; together they had three children.", "Minsky was a talented improvisational pianist who published musings on the relations between music and psychology.===Opinions===Minsky was an atheist.", "He was a signatory to the Scientists' Open Letter on Cryonics.He was a critic of the Loebner Prize for conversational robots, and argued that a fundamental difference between humans and machines was that while humans are machines, they are machines in which intelligence emerges from the interplay of the many unintelligent but semi-autonomous agents that comprise the brain.", "He argued that \"somewhere down the line, some computers will become more intelligent than most people,\" but that it was very hard to predict how fast progress would be.", "He cautioned that an artificial superintelligence designed to solve an innocuous mathematical problem might decide to assume control of Earth's resources to build supercomputers to help achieve its goal, but believed that such negative scenarios are \"hard to take seriously\" because he felt confident that AI would go through a lot of testing before being deployed.===Association with Jeffrey Epstein===Minsky received a $100,000 research grant from Jeffrey Epstein in 2002, four years before Epstein's first arrest for sex offenses; it was the first from Epstein to MIT.", "Minsky received no further research grants from him.Minsky organized two academic symposia on Epstein's private island Little Saint James, one in 2002 and another in 2011, after Epstein was a registered sex offender.", "Virginia Giuffre testified in a 2015 deposition in her defamation lawsuit against Epstein's associate Ghislaine Maxwell that Maxwell \"directed\" her to have sex with Minsky among others.", "There has been no allegation that sex between them took place nor a lawsuit against Minsky's estate.", "Minsky's widow, Gloria Rudisch, says that he could not have had sex with any of the women at Epstein's residences, as they were always together during all of the visits to Epstein's residences.===Death===In January 2016 Minsky died of a cerebral hemorrhage, at the age of 88.Minsky was a member of Alcor Life Extension Foundation's Scientific Advisory Board.", "Alcor will neither confirm nor deny whether Minsky was cryonically preserved." ], [ "Bibliography (selected)", "* 1967 – ''Computation: Finite and Infinite Machines'', Prentice-Hall* 1986 – ''The Society of Mind''* 2006 – ''The Emotion Machine: Commonsense Thinking, Artificial Intelligence, and the Future of the Human Mind''" ], [ "Awards and affiliations", "Minsky won the Turing Award (the greatest distinction in computer science) in 1969, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1982, the Japan Prize in 1990, the IJCAI Award for Research Excellence for 1991, and the Benjamin Franklin Medal from the Franklin Institute for 2001.In 2006, he was inducted as a Fellow of the Computer History Museum \"for co-founding the field of artificial intelligence, creating early neural networks and robots, and developing theories of human and machine cognition.\"", "In 2011, Minsky was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI Hall of Fame for the \"significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems\".", "In 2014, Minsky won the Dan David Prize for \"Artificial Intelligence, the Digital Mind\".", "He was also awarded with the 2013 BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the Information and Communication Technologies category.Minsky was affiliated with the following organizations:* United States National Academy of Engineering* United States National Academy of Sciences* Extropy Institute's Council of Advisors* Alcor Life Extension Foundation's Scientific Advisory Board* kynamatrix Research Network's Board of Directors" ], [ "Media appearances", "* ''Machine Dreams'' (1988)* ''Future Fantastic'' (1996)" ], [ "See also", "* List of pioneers in computer science" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Oral history interview with Marvin Minsky at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.", "Minsky describes artificial intelligence (AI) research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).", "Topics include: the work of John McCarthy; changes in the MIT research laboratories with the advent of Project MAC; research in the areas of expert systems, graphics, word processing, and time-sharing; variations in the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) attitude toward AI.", "* Oral history interview with Terry Winograd at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.", "Winograd describes his work in computer science, linguistics, and artificial intelligence at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), discussing the work of Marvin Minsky and others.", "* Scientist on the Set: An Interview with Marvin Minsky* Marvin Minsky Playlist Appearance on WMBR's '' Dinnertime Sampler '' radio show November 26, 2003* Consciousness Is A Big Suitcase: A talk with Marvin Minsky* Video of Minsky speaking at the International Conference on Complex Systems, hosted by the New England Complex Systems Institute (NECSI)* \"The Emotion Universe\": Video with Marvin Minsky* Marvin Minsky's thoughts on the Fermi Paradox at the Transvisions 2007 conference* \"Health, population and the human mind\" : Marvin Minsky talk at the TED conference* \"The Society of Mind\" on MIT OpenCourseWare* Marvin Minsky tells his life story at Web of Stories (video)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Milton Friedman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Milton Friedman''' (; July 31, 1912 – November 16, 2006) was an American economist and statistician who received the 1976 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his research on consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and the complexity of stabilization policy.", "With George Stigler, Friedman was among the intellectual leaders of the Chicago school of economics, a neoclassical school of economic thought associated with the work of the faculty at the University of Chicago that rejected Keynesianism in favor of monetarism until the mid-1970s, when it turned to new classical macroeconomics heavily based on the concept of rational expectations.", "Several students, young professors and academics who were recruited or mentored by Friedman at Chicago went on to become leading economists, including Gary Becker, Robert Fogel, and Robert Lucas Jr.Friedman's challenges to what he called \"naive Keynesian theory\" began with his interpretation of consumption, which tracks how consumers spend.", "He introduced a theory which would later become part of mainstream economics and among the first to propagate the theory of consumption smoothing.", "During the 1960s, he became the main advocate opposing Keynesian government policies, and described his approach (along with mainstream economics) as using \"Keynesian language and apparatus\" yet rejecting its initial conclusions.", "He theorized that there existed a natural rate of unemployment and argued that unemployment below this rate would cause inflation to accelerate.", "He argued that the Phillips curve was in the long run vertical at the \"natural rate\" and predicted what would come to be known as stagflation.", "Friedman promoted a macroeconomic viewpoint known as monetarism and argued that a steady, small expansion of the money supply was the preferred policy, as compared to rapid, and unexpected changes.", "His ideas concerning monetary policy, taxation, privatization, and deregulation influenced government policies, especially during the 1980s.", "His monetary theory influenced the Federal Reserve's monetary policy in response to the global financial crisis of 2007–2008.After retiring from the University of Chicago in 1977, and becoming Emeritus professor in economics in 1983, Friedman served as an advisor to Republican U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Conservative British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.", "His political philosophy extolled the virtues of a free market economic system with minimal government intervention in social matters.", "He once stated that his role in eliminating conscription in the United States was his proudest achievement.", "In his 1962 book ''Capitalism and Freedom'', Friedman advocated policies such as a volunteer military, freely floating exchange rates, abolition of medical licenses, a negative income tax, school vouchers and opposition to the war on drugs and support for drug liberalization policies.", "His support for school choice led him to found the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice, later renamed EdChoice.Friedman's works cover a broad range of economic topics and public policy issues.", "His books and essays have had global influence, including in former communist states.", "A 2011 survey of economists commissioned by the EJW ranked Friedman as the second-most popular economist of the 20th century, following only John Maynard Keynes.", "Upon his death, ''The Economist'' described him as \"the most influential economist of the second half of the 20th century ... possibly of all of it\"." ], [ "Early life", "Friedman was born in Brooklyn, New York City on July 31, 1912.His parents, Sára Ethel (née Landau) and Jenő Saul Friedman, were Jewish working-class immigrants from Beregszász in Carpathian Ruthenia, Kingdom of Hungary (now Berehove in Ukraine).", "They emigrated to America in their early teens.", "They both worked as dry goods merchants.", "Friedman was their fourth child and only son, as well as the youngest of the children.", "Shortly after his birth, the family relocated to Rahway, New Jersey.", "Friedman's father, Jenő Saul Friedman, died during Friedman's senior year of high school, leaving Friedman and two older sisters to care for their mother.In his early teens, Friedman was injured in a car accident, which scarred his upper lip.", "A talented student and an avid reader, Friedman graduated from Rahway High School in 1928, just before his 16th birthday.", "He was the first in his family to attend a university.", "Friedman was awarded a competitive scholarship to Rutgers University and graduated in 1932.Friedman initially intended to become an actuary or mathematician, however, the state of the economy, which was at this point in a depression, convinced him to become an economist.", "He was offered two scholarships to do graduate work, one in mathematics at Brown University and the other in economics at the University of Chicago.", "Friedman chose the latter, earning a Master of Arts degree in 1933.He was strongly influenced by Jacob Viner, Frank Knight, and Henry Simons.", "Friedman met his future wife, economist Rose Director, while at the University of Chicago.During the 1933–1934 academic year, he had a fellowship at Columbia University, where he studied statistics with statistician and economist Harold Hotelling.", "He was back in Chicago for the 1934–1935 academic year, working as a research assistant for Henry Schultz, who was then working on ''Theory and Measurement of Demand''.During the 1934–35 academic, year Friedman formed what would later prove to be lifetime friendships with George Stigler and W. Allen Wallis, both of whom later taught with Friedman at the University of Chicago.", "Friedman was also influenced by two lifelong friends, Arthur Burns and Homer Johnson.", "They helped Friedman better understand the depth of economic thinking." ], [ "Public service", "Friedman was unable to find academic employment, so in 1935 he followed his friend W. Allen Wallis to Washington, D.C., where Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal was \"a lifesaver\" for many young economists.", "At this stage, Friedman said he and his wife \"regarded the job-creation programs such as the WPA, CCC, and PWA appropriate responses to the critical situation\", but not \"the price- and wage-fixing measures of the National Recovery Administration and the Agricultural Adjustment Administration\".", "Foreshadowing his later ideas, he believed price controls interfered with an essential signaling mechanism to help resources be used where they were most valued.", "Indeed, Friedman later concluded that all government intervention associated with the New Deal was \"the wrong cure for the wrong disease\", arguing the Federal Reserve was to blame, and that they should have expanded the money supply in reaction to what he later described in ''A Monetary History of the United States'' as \"The Great Contraction\".", "Later, Friedman and his colleague Anna Schwartz wrote ''A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960'', which argued that the Great Depression was caused by a severe monetary contraction due to banking crises and poor policy on the part of the Federal Reserve.", "Robert J. Shiller describes the book as the \"most influential account\" of the Great Depression.During 1935, he began working for the National Resources Planning Board, which was then working on a large consumer budget survey.", "Ideas from this project later became a part of his ''Theory of the Consumption Function,'' a book which first described consumption smoothing and the Permanent income hypothesis.", "Friedman began employment with the National Bureau of Economic Research during the autumn of 1937 to assist Simon Kuznets in his work on professional income.", "This work resulted in their jointly authored publication ''Incomes from Independent Professional Practice'', which introduced the concepts of permanent and transitory income, a major component of the Permanent income hypothesis that Friedman worked out in greater detail in the 1950s.", "The book hypothesizes that professional licensing artificially restricts the supply of services and raises prices.", "''Incomes from Independent Professional Practice'' remained quite controversial within the economics community because of Friedman's hypothesis that barriers to entry, which were exercised and enforced by the American Medical Association, led to higher than average wages for physicians, compared to other professional groups.", "Barriers to entry are a fixed cost which must be incurred regardless of any outside factors such as work experience, or other factors of human capital.During 1940, Friedman was appointed as an assistant professor teaching economics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, but encountered anti semitism in the Economics department and returned to government service.", "From 1941 to 1943 Friedman worked on wartime tax policy for the federal government, as an advisor to senior officials of the United States Department of the Treasury.", "As a Treasury spokesman during 1942, he advocated a Keynesian policy of taxation.", "He helped to invent the payroll withholding tax system, since the federal government needed money to fund the war.", "He later said, \"I have no apologies for it, but I really wish we hadn't found it necessary and I wish there were some way of abolishing withholding now.\"", "In Milton and Rose Friedman's jointly written memoir, he wrote, \"Rose has repeatedly chided me over the years about the role that I played in making possible the current overgrown government we both criticize so strongly.\"" ], [ "Academic career", "=== Early years ===In 1940 Friedman accepted a position at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, but left because of differences with faculty regarding United States involvement in World War II.", "Friedman believed the United States should enter the war.", "In 1943, Friedman joined the Division of War Research at Columbia University (headed by W. Allen Wallis and Harold Hotelling), where he spent the rest of World War II working as a mathematical statistician, focusing on problems of weapons design, military tactics, and metallurgical experiments.In 1945 Friedman submitted ''Incomes from Independent Professional Practice'' (co-authored with Kuznets and completed during 1940) to Columbia as his doctoral dissertation.", "The university awarded him a PhD in 1946.Friedman spent the 1945–1946 academic year teaching at the University of Minnesota (where his friend George Stigler was employed).", "On February 12, 1945, his only son, David D. Friedman, who would later follow in his father's footsteps as an economist, was born.=== University of Chicago ===In 1946 Friedman accepted an offer to teach economic theory at the University of Chicago (a position opened by departure of his former professor Jacob Viner to Princeton University).", "Friedman would work for the University of Chicago for the next 30 years.", "There he contributed to the establishment of an intellectual community that produced a number of Nobel Memorial Prize winners, known collectively as the Chicago school of economics.At the time, Arthur F. Burns, who was then the head of the National Bureau of Economic Research, and later chairman of the Federal Reserve, asked Friedman to rejoin the Bureau's staff.", "He accepted the invitation, and assumed responsibility for the Bureau's inquiry into the role of money in the business cycle.", "As a result, he initiated the \"Workshop in Money and Banking\" (the \"Chicago Workshop\"), which promoted a revival of monetary studies.", "During the latter half of the 1940s, Friedman began a collaboration with Anna Schwartz, an economic historian at the Bureau, that would ultimately result in the 1963 publication of a book co-authored by Friedman and Schwartz, ''A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960''.===University of Cambridge===Friedman spent the 1954–1955 academic year as a Fulbright Visiting Fellow at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.", "At the time, the Cambridge economics faculty was divided into a Keynesian majority (including Joan Robinson and Richard Kahn) and an anti-Keynesian minority (headed by Dennis Robertson).", "Friedman speculated he was invited to the fellowship because his views were unacceptable to both of the Cambridge factions.", "Later his weekly columns for ''Newsweek'' magazine (1966–84) were well read and increasingly influential among political and business people, and helped earn the magazine a Gerald Loeb Special Award in 1968.From 1968 to 1978, he and Paul Samuelson participated in the Economics Cassette Series, a biweekly subscription series where the economist would discuss the days' issues for about a half-hour at a time.==== ''A Theory of the Consumption Function'' ====One of Milton Friedman's most popular works, ''A Theory of the Consumption Function'', challenged traditional Keynesian viewpoints about the household.", "This work was originally published in 1957 by Princeton University Press, and it reanalyzed the relationship displayed \"between aggregate consumption or aggregate savings and aggregate income\".Friedman's counterpart Keynes believed people would modify their household consumption expenditures to relate to their existing income levels.", "Friedman's research introduced the term \"permanent income\" to the world, which was the average of a household's expected income over several years, and he also developed the permanent income hypothesis.", "Friedman thought income consisted of several components, namely transitory and permanent.", "He established the formula to calculate income, with ''p'' representing the permanent component, and ''t'' representing the transitory component.", "Milton Friedman's research changed how economists interpreted the consumption function, and his work pushed the idea that current income was not the only factor affecting people's adjustment household consumption expenditures.", "Instead, expected income levels also affected how households would change their consumption expenditures.", "Friedman's contributions strongly influenced research on consumer behavior, and he further defined how to predict consumption smoothing, which contradicts Keynes' marginal propensity to consume.", "Although this work presented many controversial points of view which differed from existing viewpoints established by Keynes, ''A Theory of the Consumption Function'' helped Friedman gain respect in the field of economics.", "His work on the permanent income hypothesis is among the many contributions which were listed as reasons for his Sveriges-Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences.", "His work was later expanded on by Christopher D. Carroll, especially in regards to the absence of liquidity constraints.The permanent income hypothesis faces some criticism, mainly from Keynesian economists.", "The primary criticism of the hypothesis is based on a lack of liquidity constraints.==== ''Capitalism and Freedom'' ====His book ''Capitalism and Freedom'', inspired by a series of lectures he gave at Wabash College, brought him national and international attention outside academia.", "It was published in 1962 by the University of Chicago Press and consists of essays that used non-mathematical economic models to explore issues of public policy.", "It sold over 400,000 copies in the first eighteen years and more than half a million since 1962.", "''Capitalism and Freedom'' was translated into eighteen languages.", "Friedman talks about the need to move to a classically liberal society, that free markets would help nations and individuals in the long-run and fix the efficiency problems currently faced by the United States and other major countries of the 1950s and 1960s.", "He goes through the chapters specifying an issue in each respective chapter from the role of government and money supply to social welfare programs to a special chapter on occupational licensure.", "Friedman concludes ''Capitalism and Freedom'' with his \"classical liberal\" stance that government should stay out of matters that do not need and should only involve itself when absolutely necessary for the survival of its people and the country.", "He recounts how the best of a country's abilities come from its free markets while its failures come from government intervention." ], [ "Post-retirement", "a lecture about a pencil in ''Free to Choose'' (1980)In 1977, at the age of 65, Friedman retired from the University of Chicago after teaching there for 30 years.", "He and his wife moved to San Francisco, where he became a visiting scholar at the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco.", "From 1977 on, he was affiliated with the Hoover Institution at Stanford University.During 1977, Friedman was approached by Bob Chitester and the Free to Choose Network.", "They asked him to create a television program presenting his economic and social philosophy.Friedman and his wife Rose worked on this project for the next three years, and during 1980, the ten-part series, titled ''Free to Choose'', was broadcast by the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS).", "The companion book to the series (co-authored by Milton and his wife, Rose Friedman), also titled ''Free To Choose'', was the bestselling nonfiction book of 1980.Friedman served as an unofficial adviser to Ronald Reagan during his 1980 presidential campaign, and then served on the President's Economic Policy Advisory Board for the rest of the Reagan Administration.", "Ebenstein says Friedman was \"the 'guru' of the Reagan administration\".", "In 1988 he received the National Medal of Science and Reagan honored him with the Presidential Medal of Freedom.Friedman is known now as one of the most influential economists of the 20th century.", "Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Friedman continued to write editorials and appear on television.", "He made several visits to Eastern Europe and to China, where he also advised governments.", "He was also for many years a Trustee of the Philadelphia Society." ], [ "Personal life", "Friedman had two children, David and Jan.", "He first met his wife, Rose Friedman (née Director), at the University of Chicago in 1932, and wed six years later, in 1938.Friedman was noticeably shorter than some of his colleagues; he measured , and has been described as an \"Elfin Libertarian\" by Binyamin Appelbaum.Rose Friedman, when asked about Friedman's successes, said that \"I have never had the desire to compete with Milton professionally (perhaps because I was smart enough to recognize I couldn't).", "On the other hand, he has always made me feel that his achievement is my achievement.", "\"During the 1960s Friedman built and subsequently maintained a cottage in Fairlee, Vermont.", "Friedman also had an apartment in Russian Hill, San Francisco, where he lived from 1977 until his death.=== Religious views ===According to a 2007 article in ''Commentary'' magazine, his \"parents were moderately observant Jews, but Friedman, after an intense burst of childhood piety, rejected religion altogether\".", "He described himself as an agnostic.", "Friedman wrote extensively of his life and experiences, especially in 1998 in his memoirs with his wife, Rose, titled ''Two Lucky People''.", "In this book, Rose Friedman describes how she and Milton Friedman raised their two children, Janet and David, with a Christmas tree in the home.", "\"Orthodox Jews of course, do not celebrate Christmas.", "However, just as, when I was a child, my mother had permitted me to have a Christmas tree one year when my friend had one, she not only tolerated our having a Christmas tree, she even strung popcorn to hang on it.", "\"=== Death ===Friedman died of heart failure at the age of 94 years in San Francisco on November 16, 2006.He was still a working economist performing original economic research; his last column was published in ''The Wall Street Journal'' the day after his death.", "He was survived by his wife, Rose Friedman (who would die on August 18, 2009) and their two children, David D. Friedman, known for ''The Machinery of Freedom,'' as well as his unique anarcho-capitalism from a Chicago School perspective, and attorney and bridge player Jan Martel." ], [ "Scholarly contributions", "=== Economics ===Friedman was best known for reviving interest in the money supply as a determinant of the nominal value of output, that is, the quantity theory of money.", "Monetarism is the set of views associated with modern quantity theory.", "Its origins can be traced back to the 16th-century School of Salamanca or even further; however, Friedman's contribution is largely responsible for its modern popularization.", "He co-authored, with Anna Schwartz, ''A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960'' (1963), which was an examination of the role of the money supply and economic activity in the U.S. history.Friedman was the main proponent of the monetarist school of economics.", "He maintained that there is a close and stable association between inflation and the money supply, mainly that inflation could be avoided with proper regulation of the monetary base's growth rate.", "He famously used the analogy of \"dropping money out of a helicopter\", to avoid dealing with money injection mechanisms and other factors that would overcomplicate his models.Friedman's arguments were designed to counter the popular concept of cost-push inflation, that the increased general price level at the time was the result of increases in the price of oil, or increases in wages; as he wrote:Friedman rejected the use of fiscal policy as a tool of demand management; and he held that the government's role in the guidance of the economy should be restricted severely.", "Friedman wrote extensively on the Great Depression, and he termed the 1929–1933 period the Great Contraction.", "He argued that the Depression had been caused by an ordinary financial shock the duration and seriousness of which were greatly increased by the subsequent contraction of the money supply caused by the misguided policies of the directors of the Federal Reserve.This theory was put forth in ''A Monetary History of the United States'', and the chapter on the Great Depression was then published as a stand-alone book entitled ''The Great Contraction, 1929–1933''.", "Both books are still in print from the Princeton University Press, and some editions include as an appendix a speech at a University of Chicago event honoring Friedman in which Ben Bernanke made this statement:Let me end my talk by abusing slightly my status as an official representative of the Federal Reserve.", "I would like to say to Milton and Anna: Regarding the Great Depression, you're right.", "We did it.", "We're very sorry.", "But thanks to you, we won't do it again.Friedman also argued for the removal of government intervention in currency markets, thereby spawning an enormous literature on the subject, as well as promoting the practice of freely floating exchange rates.", "His close friend George Stigler explained, \"As is customary in science, he did not win a full victory, in part because research was directed along different lines by the theory of rational expectations, a newer approach developed by Robert Lucas, also at the University of Chicago.\"", "The relationship between Friedman and Lucas, or new classical macroeconomics as a whole, was highly complex.", "The Friedmanian Phillips curve was an interesting starting point for Lucas, but he soon realized that the solution provided by Friedman was not quite satisfactory.", "Lucas elaborated a new approach in which rational expectations were presumed instead of the Friedmanian adaptive expectations.", "Due to this reformulation, the story in which the theory of the new classical Phillips curve was embedded radically changed.", "This modification, however, had a significant effect on Friedman's own approach, so, as a result, the theory of the Friedmanian Phillips curve also changed.", "Moreover, new classical adherent Neil Wallace, who was a graduate student at the University of Chicago between 1960 and 1963, regarded Friedman's theoretical courses as a mess, highlighting the strained relationship between monetarism and new classical schools.Friedman was also known for his work on the consumption function, the permanent income hypothesis (1957), which Friedman himself referred to as his best scientific work.", "This work contended that utility-maximizing consumers would spend a proportional amount of what they perceived to be their permanent income.", "Permanent Income refers to such factors like human capital.", "Windfall gains would mostly be saved because of the law of diminishing marginal utility.Friedman's essay \"The Methodology of Positive Economics\" (1953) provided the epistemological pattern for his own subsequent research and to a degree that of the Chicago School.", "There he argued that economics as ''science'' should be free of value judgments for it to be objective.", "Moreover, a useful economic theory should be judged not by its descriptive realism but by its simplicity and fruitfulness as an engine of prediction.", "That is, students should measure the accuracy of its predictions, rather than the 'soundness of its assumptions'.", "His argument was part of an ongoing debate among such statisticians as Jerzy Neyman, Leonard Savage, and Ronald Fisher.While being an advocate of the free market, Friedman believed that the government had two crucial roles.", "In an interview with Phil Donahue, Friedman argued that \"the two basic functions of a government are to protect the nation against foreign enemy, and to protect citizens against its fellows\".", "He also admitted that although privatization of national defense could reduce the overall cost, he has not yet thought of a way to make this privatization possible.=== Rejection and subsequent evolution of the Philips curve ===Long-run Phillips curve (NAIRU)Other important contributions include his critique of the Phillips curve and the concept of the natural rate of unemployment (1968).", "This critique associated his name, together with that of Edmund Phelps, with the insight that a government that brings about greater inflation cannot permanently reduce unemployment by doing so.", "Unemployment may be temporarily lower, if the inflation is a surprise, but in the long run unemployment will be determined by the frictions and imperfections of the labor market.", "If the conditions are not met and inflation is expected, the \"long run\" effects will replace the \"short term\" effects.Through his critique, the Philips curve evolved from a strict model emphasizing the connection between inflation and unemployment as being absolute, to a model which emphasized short term unemployment reductions and long term employment stagnations.Friedman's revised and updated Phillips Curve also changed as a result of Robert Lucas's idea of Rational expectations, replacing the adaptive expectations Friedman used.=== Statistics ===One of his most famous contributions to statistics is sequential sampling.", "Friedman did statistical work at the Division of War Research at Columbia, where he and his colleagues came up with the technique.", "It became, in the words of ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', \"the standard analysis of quality control inspection\".", "The dictionary adds, \"Like many of Friedman's contributions, in retrospect it seems remarkably simple and obvious to apply basic economic ideas to quality control; that, however, is a measure of his genius.\"" ], [ "Public policy positions", "=== Federal Reserve and monetary policy ===Although Friedman concluded the government does have a role in the monetary system he was critical of the Federal Reserve due to its poor performance and felt it should be abolished.", "He was opposed to Federal Reserve policies, even during the so-called \"Volcker shock\" that was labeled \"monetarist\".", "Friedman believed the Federal Reserve System should ultimately be replaced with a computer program.", "He favored a system that would automatically buy and sell securities in response to changes in the money supply.The proposal to constantly grow the money supply at a certain predetermined amount every year has become known as Friedman's k-percent rule.", "There is debate about the effectiveness of a theoretical money supply targeting regime.", "The Fed's inability to meet its money supply targets from 1978 to 1982 led some to conclude it is not a feasible alternative to more conventional inflation and interest rate targeting.", "Towards the end of his life, Friedman expressed doubt about the validity of targeting the quantity of money.", "To date, most countries have adopted inflation targeting instead of the k-percent rule.Idealistically, Friedman actually favored the principles of the 1930s Chicago plan, which would have ended fractional reserve banking and, thus, private money creation.", "It would force banks to have 100% reserves backing deposits, and instead place money creation powers solely in the hands of the US Government.", "This would make targeting money growth more possible, as endogenous money created by fractional reserve lending would no longer be a major issue.Friedman was a strong advocate for floating exchange rates throughout the entire Bretton-Woods period (1944–1971).", "He argued that a flexible exchange rate would make external adjustment possible and allow countries to avoid balance of payments crises.", "He saw fixed exchange rates as an undesirable form of government intervention.", "The case was articulated in an influential 1953 paper, \"The Case for Flexible Exchange Rates\", at a time when most commentators regarded the possibility of floating exchange rates as an unrealistic policy proposal.=== Foreign policy ===Friedman with Richard Nixon and George Shultz in 1971While Walter Oi is credited with establishing the economic basis for a volunteer military, Friedman was a proponent, and was credited with ending the draft, stating that the draft was \"inconsistent with a free society\".In ''Capitalism and Freedom'' he argued conscription is inequitable and arbitrary, preventing young men from shaping their lives as they see fit.", "During the Nixon administration he headed the committee to research a conversion to paid/volunteer armed force.", "He would later state his role in eliminating the conscription in the United States was his proudest accomplishment.", "Friedman did, however, believe the introduction of a system of universal military training as a reserve in cases of war-time could be justified.", "He still opposed its implementation in the United States, describing it as a \"monstrosity\".Biographer Lanny Ebenstein noted a drift over time in Friedman's views from an interventionist to a more cautious foreign policy.", "He supported US involvement in the Second World War and initially supported a hard-line against Communism, but moderated over time.", "However, Friedman did state in a 1995 interview that he was an anti-interventionist.", "He opposed the Gulf War and the Iraq War.", "In a spring 2006 interview, Friedman said the US's stature in the world had been eroded by the Iraq War, but that it might be improved if Iraq were to become a peaceful and independent country.=== Libertarianism and the Republican Party ===Friedman receiving the Presidential Medal of Freedom from Ronald Reagan in 1988Friedman was an economic advisor and speech writer in Barry Goldwater's failed presidential campaign in 1964.He was an advisor to California governor Ronald Reagan and was active in Reagan's presidential campaigns.", "He served as a member of President Reagan's Economic Policy Advisory Board starting in 1981.In 1988, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the National Medal of Science.In a 1995 interview with ''Reason'' magazine, Friedman criticized Murray Rothbard and Ayn Rand as \"cult builders\" and \"dogmatists\", citing this as justification for not joining the U.S. Libertarian Party.", "Friedman stated that he was a member of the Republican Party, \"not because they have any principles, but because that's the way I am the most useful and have most influence.\"", "He described his philosophy as \"clearly libertarian\", though distanced himself from \"zero-government\" libertarianism, which he called \"infeasible\", citing the lack of historical examples of that philosophy succeeding.", "Friedman attended The Future of Freedom Conference, which was a meeting for libertarians, in 1990.His citation for the Presidential Medal of Freedom reads: \"He has used a brilliant mind to advance a moral vision: the vision of a society where men and women are free, free to choose, but where government is not as free to override their decisions.", "That vision has changed America, and it is changing the world.", "All of us owe a tremendous debt to this man's towering intellect and his devotion to liberty.", "\"=== Governmental involvement in the economy ===In a 1962 essay that builds on arguments made by A. V. Dicey, Friedman argued that a \"free society\" would constitute a desirable but unstable equilibrium, due to an asymmetry between the visible benefits and the hidden harms of government intervention; he uses tariffs as an example of a policy that brings noticeable financial benefits to a visible group, but causes worse harms to a diffuse group of workers and consumers.Friedman was supportive of the state provision of some public goods that private businesses are not considered as being able to provide.", "However, he argued that many of the services performed by government could be performed better by the private sector.", "Above all, if some public goods are provided by the state, he believed that they should not be a legal monopoly where private competition is prohibited; for example, he wrote: In 1962, Friedman criticized Social Security in his book ''Capitalism and Freedom'', arguing that it had created welfare dependency.", "However, in the penultimate chapter of the same book, Friedman argued that while capitalism had greatly reduced the extent of poverty in absolute terms, \"poverty is in part a relative matter, and even in wealthy Western countries, there are clearly many people living under conditions that the rest of us label as poverty.\"", "Friedman also noted that while private charity could be one recourse for alleviating poverty and cited late 19th century Britain and the United States as exemplary periods of extensive private charity and eleemosynary activity, he made the following point:Friedman argued further that other advantages of the negative income tax were that it could fit directly into the tax system, would be less costly, and would reduce the administrative burden of implementing a social safety net.", "Friedman reiterated these arguments 18 years later in ''Free to Choose'', with the additional proviso that such a reform would only be satisfactory if it replaced the current system of welfare programs rather than augment it.", "According to economist Robert H. Frank, writing in ''The New York Times'', Friedman's views in this regard were grounded in a belief that while \"market forces ... accomplish wonderful things\", they \"cannot ensure a distribution of income that enables all citizens to meet basic economic needs\".", "Friedman also criticized urban renewal programs in the United States due to their racially discriminatory and economically regressive effects.In 1979 Friedman expressed support for environmental taxes in general in an interview on ''The Phil Donahue Show'', saying \"the best way to deal with pollution is to impose a tax on the cost of the pollutants emitted by a car and make an incentive for car manufacturers and for consumers to keep down the amount of pollution.\"", "In ''Free to Choose'', Friedman reiterated his support for environmental taxes as compared with increased environmental regulation, stating \"The preservation of the environment and the avoidance of undue pollution are real problems and they are problems concerning which the government has an important role to play.", "… Most economists agree that a far better way to control pollution than the present method of specific regulation and supervision is to introduce market discipline by imposing effluent charges.", "\"In his 1955 article \"The Role of Government in Education\", Friedman proposed supplementing publicly operated schools with privately run but publicly funded schools through a system of school vouchers.", "Reforms similar to those proposed in the article were implemented in, for example, Chile in 1981 and Sweden in 1992.In 1996, Friedman, together with his wife, founded the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice to advocate school choice and vouchers.", "In 2016, the Friedman Foundation changed its name to EdChoice to honor the Friedmans' desire to have the educational choice movement live on without their names attached to it after their deaths.Michael Walker of the Fraser Institute and Friedman hosted a series of conferences from 1986 to 1994.The goal was to create a clear definition of economic freedom and a method for measuring it.", "Eventually this resulted in the first report on worldwide economic freedom, ''Economic Freedom in the World''.", "This annual report has since provided data for numerous peer-reviewed studies and has influenced policy in several nations.With sixteen other distinguished economists he opposed the Copyright Term extension Act, and signed on to an amicus brief filed in ''Eldred v. Ashcroft''.", "Friedman jokingly described it as a \"no-brainer\".Friedman argued for stronger basic legal (constitutional) protection of economic rights and freedoms to further promote industrial-commercial growth and prosperity and buttress democracy and freedom and the rule of law generally in society.=== Social issues ===Friedman also supported libertarian policies such as legalization of drugs and prostitution.", "During 2005, Friedman and more than 500 other economists advocated discussions regarding the economic benefits of the legalization of marijuana.Friedman was also a supporter of gay rights.", "He never specifically supported same-sex marriage, instead saying \"I do not believe there should be any discrimination against gays.", "\"Friedman favored immigration, saying \"legal and illegal immigration has a very positive impact on the U.S. economy\".", "However, he suggested that immigrants ought not to have access to the welfare system.", "Friedman stated that immigration from Mexico had been a \"good thing\", in particular illegal immigration.", "Friedman argued that illegal immigration was a boon because they \"take jobs that most residents of this country are unwilling to take, they provide employers with workers of a kind they cannot get\" and they do not use welfare.", "In ''Free to Choose'', Friedman wrote:No arbitrary obstacles should prevent people from achieving those positions for which their talents fit them and which their values lead them to seek.", "Not birth, nationality, color, religion, sex, nor any other irrelevant characteristic should determine the opportunities that are open to a person – only his abilities.Friedman also famously argued that the welfare state must end before immigration, or more specifically, before open borders, because immigrants might have an incentive to come directly because of welfare payments.", "Economist Bryan Caplan has disputed this assertion, arguing that welfare is generally distributed not among immigrants, but instead retirees, through Social Security.Friedman was against public housing as he believed it was also a form of welfare.", "He believed that one of the main arguments politicians have for public housing is that regular low-income housing was too expensive due to the imposed higher cost of a fire and police department.", "He believed that it would only increase taxes and not benefit low-income people in the long run.", "Friedman was an advocate for direct cash instead of public housing believing that the people would be better off that way.", "He argued that liberals would never agree with this idea due to them not trusting their own citizens.", "He also stated that regression has already happened with more land being left vacant due to slow construction.", "Friedman argued that public housing instead encourages juvenile delinquency.Friedman was also against minimum wage laws; he saw them as a clear case as one can find that the precise opposite is happening when this was attempted.", "Minimum wage laws would increase unemployment in his eyes and that employers would not hire back workers that were already there for less pay.", "In his view, this would leave low-income people worse off because the voters for minimum wage laws would then become the victims of unemployment.", "He believed that these ideas of new minimum wage laws came from Northern factories and Unions, in an attempt to reduce competition from the South." ], [ "Honors, recognition and legacy", "leftGeorge H. Nash, a leading historian of American conservatism, says that by \"the end of the 1960s he was probably the most highly regarded and influential conservative scholar in the country, and one of the few with an international reputation\".", "In 1971, Friedman received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.", "Friedman allowed the libertarian Cato Institute to use his name for its biennial Milton Friedman Prize for Advancing Liberty beginning in 2001.A Friedman Prize was given to the late British economist Peter Bauer in 2002, Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto in 2004, Mart Laar, former Estonian Prime Minister in 2006 and a young Venezuelan student Yon Goicoechea in 2008.His wife Rose, sister of Aaron Director, with whom he initiated the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice, served on the international selection committee.Friedman was a recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics.Upon Friedman's death, Harvard President Lawrence Summers called him \"The Great Liberator\", saying \"any honest Democrat will admit that we are now all Friedmanites.\"", "He said Friedman's great popular contribution was \"in convincing people of the importance of allowing free markets to operate\".Stephen Moore, a member of the editorial forward of ''The Wall Street Journal'', said in 2013: \"Quoting the most-revered champion of free-market economics since Adam Smith has become a little like quoting the Bible.\"", "He adds, \"There are sometimes multiple and conflicting interpretations.", "\"Although post-Keynesian economist J. K. Galbraith was a prominent critic of Friedman and his ideology, he observed that \"The age of John Maynard Keynes gave way to the age of Milton Friedman.", "\"=== 1976 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences ===Friedman won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, the sole recipient for 1976, \"for his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy\".", "His appointment was controversial, mainly for his association with military dictator Augusto Pinochet.", "Some economists, such as Institutional economist and 1974 Nobel Prize winner Gunnar Myrdal, criticized Friedman, and Myrdal's own 1974 Nobel Prize partner Friedrich Hayek, for being reactionaries.", "Myrdal's criticism caused some economists to oppose the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economics Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel itself.=== Hong Kong ===Friedman said, \"If you want to see capitalism in action, go to Hong Kong.\"", "He wrote in 1990 that the Hong Kong economy was perhaps the best example of a free market economy.One month before his death, he wrote \"Hong Kong Wrong – What would Cowperthwaite say?\"", "in ''The Wall Street Journal'', criticizing Donald Tsang, Chief Executive of Hong Kong, for abandoning \"positive non interventionism\".", "Tsang later said he was merely changing the slogan to \"big market, small government\", where small government is defined as less than 20% of GDP.", "In a debate between Tsang and his rival Alan Leong before the 2007 Hong Kong Chief Executive election, Leong introduced the topic and jokingly accused Tsang of angering Friedman to death (Friedman had died only a year prior).=== Chile ===During 1975, two years after the military coup that brought military dictator Augusto Pinochet to power and ended the government of Salvador Allende, the economy of Chile experienced a severe crisis.", "Friedman and Arnold Harberger accepted an invitation of a private Chilean foundation to visit Chile and speak on principles of economic freedom.", "He spent seven days in Chile giving a series of lectures at the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile and the University of Chile.", "One of the lectures was entitled \"The Fragility of Freedom\" and according to Friedman, \"dealt with precisely the threat to freedom from a centralized military government.", "\"In a letter to Pinochet of April 21, 1975, Friedman considered the \"key economic problems of Chile are clearly ... inflation and the promotion of a healthy social market economy\".", "He stated that \"There is only one way to end inflation: by drastically reducing the rate of increase of the quantity of money\" and that \"cutting government spending is by far and away the most desirable way to reduce the fiscal deficit, because it ... strengthens the private sector thereby laying the foundations for ''healthy'' economic growth\".", "As to how rapidly inflation should be ended, Friedman felt that \"for Chile where inflation is raging at 10–20% a month ... gradualism is not feasible.", "It would involve so painful an operation over so long a period that the ''patient'' would not survive.\"", "Choosing \"a brief period of higher unemployment\" was the lesser evil.. and that \"the experience of Germany, ... of Brazil ..., of the post-war adjustment in the U.S. ... all argue for shock treatment\".", "In the letter Friedman recommended to deliver the shock approach with \"a package to eliminate the surprise and to relieve acute distress\" and \"for definiteness let me sketch the contents of a package proposal ... to be taken as illustrative\" although his knowledge of Chile was \"too limited to enable him to be precise or comprehensive\".", "He listed a \"sample proposal\" of 8 monetary and fiscal measures including \"the removal of as many as obstacles as possible that now hinder the private market.", "For example, suspend ... the present law against discharging employees\".", "He closed, stating \"Such a shock program could end inflation in months\".", "His letter suggested that cutting spending to reduce the fiscal deficit would result in less transitional unemployment than raising taxes.Sergio de Castro, a Chilean Chicago School graduate, became the nation's Minister of Finance in 1975.During his six-year tenure, foreign investment increased, restrictions were placed on striking and labor unions, and GDP rose yearly.", "A foreign exchange program was created between the Catholic University of Chile and the University of Chicago.", "Many other Chicago School alumni were appointed government posts during and after Pinochet's dictatorship; others taught its economic doctrine at Chilean universities.", "They became known as the Chicago Boys.Friedman defended his activity in Chile on the grounds that, in his opinion, the adoption of free market policies not only improved the economic situation of Chile but also contributed to the amelioration of Pinochet's rule and to the eventual transition to a democratic government during 1990.That idea is included in ''Capitalism and Freedom'', in which he declared that economic freedom is not only desirable in itself but is also a necessary condition for political freedom.", "In his 1980 documentary ''Free to Choose'', he said the following: \"Chile is not a politically free system, and I do not condone the system.", "But the people there are freer than the people in Communist societies because government plays a smaller role.", "...", "The conditions of the people in the past few years has been getting better and not worse.", "They would be still better to get rid of the junta and to be able to have a free democratic system.\"", "In 1984, Friedman stated that he has \"never refrained from criticizing the political system in Chile\".", "In 1991 he said: \"I have nothing good to say about the political regime that Pinochet imposed.", "It was a terrible political regime.", "The real miracle of Chile is not how well it has done economically; the real miracle of Chile is that a military junta was willing to go against its principles and support a free market regime designed by principled believers in a free market.", "...", "In Chile, the drive for political freedom, that was generated by economic freedom and the resulting economic success, ultimately resulted in a referendum that introduced political democracy.", "Now, at long last, Chile has all three things: political freedom, human freedom and economic freedom.", "Chile will continue to be an interesting experiment to watch to see whether it can keep all three or whether, now that it has political freedom, that political freedom will tend to be used to destroy or reduce economic freedom.\"", "He stressed that the lectures he gave in Chile were the same lectures he later gave in China and other socialist states.", "He further stated \"I do not consider it as evil for an economist to render technical economic advice to the Chilean Government, any more than I would regard it as evil for a physician to give technical medical advice to the Chilean Government to help end a medical plague.", "\"During the 2000 PBS documentary ''The Commanding Heights'' (based on the book), Friedman continued to argue that \"free markets would undermine Pinochet's political centralization and political control\", and that criticism over his role in Chile missed his main contention that freer markets resulted in freer people, and that Chile's unfree economy had caused Pinochet's rise.", "Friedman advocated for free markets which undermined \"political centralization and political control\".Because of his involvement with the government of Chile, which was a dictatorship at the time of his visit, there were international protests, spanning from Sweden to America when Friedman was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in 1976.Friedman was accused of supporting the military dictatorship in Chile because of the relation of economists of the University of Chicago to Pinochet, and a seven-day trip he took to Chile during March 1975 (less than two years after the coup that ended with the death of President Salvador Allende).", "Friedman answered that he was never an advisor to the dictatorship, but only gave some lectures and seminars on inflation, and met with officials, including Augusto Pinochet the head of the military dictatorship, while in Chile.After a 1991 speech on drug legalization, Friedman answered a question on his involvement with the Pinochet regime, saying that he was never an advisor to Pinochet (also mentioned in his 1984 Iceland interview), but that a group University of Chicago students were involved in Chile's economic reforms.", "Friedman credited these reforms with high levels of economic growth and with the establishment of democracy that has subsequently occurred in Chile.", "In October 1988, after returning from a lecture tour of China during which he had met with Zhao Ziyang, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, Friedman wrote to The Stanford Daily asking if he should anticipate a similar \"avalanche of protests for having been willing to give advice to so evil a government?", "And if not, why not?", "\"=== Iceland ===Friedman visited Iceland during the autumn of 1984, met with important Icelanders and gave a lecture at the University of Iceland on the \"tyranny of the ''status quo''\".", "He participated in a lively television debate on August 31, 1984, with socialist intellectuals, including Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson, who later became President of Iceland.", "When they complained that a fee was charged for attending his lecture at the university and that, hitherto, lectures by visiting scholars had been free-of-charge, Friedman replied that previous lectures had not been free-of-charge in a meaningful sense: lectures always have related costs.", "What mattered was whether attendees or non-attendees covered those costs.", "Friedman thought that it was fairer that only those who attended paid.", "In this discussion Friedman also stated that he did not receive any money for delivering that lecture.=== Estonia ===Although Friedman never visited Estonia, his book ''Free to Choose'' influenced Estonia's then 32-year-old prime minister, Mart Laar, who has claimed that it was the only book on economics he had read before taking office.", "Laar's reforms are often credited with responsibility for transforming Estonia from an impoverished Soviet republic to the \"Baltic Tiger\".", "A prime element of Laar's program was introduction of the flat tax.", "Laar won the 2006 Milton Friedman Prize for Advancing Liberty, awarded by the Cato Institute.=== United Kingdom ===After 1950 Friedman was frequently invited to lecture in Britain, and by the 1970s his ideas had gained widespread attention in conservative circles.", "For example, he was a regular speaker at the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA), a libertarian think tank.", "Conservative politician Margaret Thatcher closely followed IEA programs and ideas and met Friedman there in 1978.He also strongly influenced Keith Joseph, who became Thatcher's senior advisor on economic affairs, as well as Alan Walters and Patrick Minford, two other key advisers.", "Major newspapers, including the ''Daily Telegraph,'' ''The Times,'' and ''The Financial Times'' all promulgated Friedman's monetarist ideas to British decision-makers.", "Friedman's ideas strongly influenced Thatcher and her allies when she became Prime Minister in 1979.Galbraith strongly criticised the \"workability of the Friedmanite formula\" for which, he said, \"Britain has volunteered to be the guinea pig\".=== United States ===After his death a number of obituaries and articles were written in Friedman's honor, citing him as one of the most important and influential economists of the post-war era.", "Milton Friedman's somewhat controversial legacy in America remains strong within the conservative movement.", "However, some journalists and economists like Noah Smith and Scott Sumner have argued Friedman's academic legacy has been buried under his political philosophy and misinterpreted by modern conservatives.=== Criticism of published works ===Friedman exogenous money supply theory has been deeply criticized by British Post-Keynesian economist Nicholas Kaldor in the 1970s.", "While Friedman and monetarist economists claimed that the money supply was exogenously created by a powerful central bank, Kaldor claimed that the money was created by second-tier banks through the distribution of credits to households and companies.", "In the Post-Keynesian framework, central banks simply refinance second-tier banks on demand but are not in the core of monetary creation.", "Milton Friedman and Nicholas Kaldor were involved in a fierce debate in 1969–70, in which the monetarist economist had the upper hand.", "In 1982, Kaldor published a book entilted ''The Scourge of Monetarism'', deeply criticizing monetarist-inspired policies.Econometrician David Hendry criticized part of Friedman's and Anna Schwartz's 1982 ''Monetary Trends''.", "When asked about it during an interview with Icelandic TV in 1984, Friedman said that the criticism referred to a different problem from that which he and Schwartz had tackled, and hence was irrelevant, and pointed out the lack of consequential peer review amongst econometricians on Hendry's work.", "In 2006, Hendry said that Friedman was guilty of \"serious errors\" of misunderstanding that meant \"the t-ratios he reported for UK money demand were overstated by nearly 100 per cent\", and said that, in a paper published in 1991 with Neil Ericsson, he had refuted \"almost every empirical claim ... made about UK money demand\" by Friedman and Schwartz.", "A 2004 paper updated and confirmed the validity of the Hendry–Ericsson findings through 2000.Escribano's approach had already been recognized by Friedman, Schwartz, Hendry ''et al''.", "(p. 14 of ''the pdf'') as yielding significant improvements over previous money demand equations.", "Some commentators believe that Friedman was not open enough, in their view, to the possibility of market inefficiencies.", "Economist Noah Smith argues that while Friedman made many important contributions to economic theory not all of his ideas relating to macroeconomics have entirely held up over the years and that too few people are willing to challenge them.Political scientist C. B. Macpherson disagreed with Friedman's historical assessment of economic freedom leading to political freedom, suggesting that political freedom actually gave way to economic freedom for property-owning elites.", "He also challenged the notion that markets efficiently allocated resources and rejected Friedman's definition of liberty.", "Friedman's positivist methodological approach to economics has also been critiqued and debated.", "Finnish economist Uskali Mäki argued some of his assumptions were unrealistic and vague.Friedman has been criticized by some prominent Austrian economists, including Murray Rothbard and Walter Block.", "Block called Friedman a \"socialist\" and was critical of his support for a central banking system, saying \"First and foremost, this economist supported the Federal Reserve System all throughout his professional life.", "That organization of course does not own the money stock, but controls it.", "Friedman was an inveterate hater of the gold standard, denigrating its advocates as 'gold bugs'.\"", "Rothbard criticized Friedman's conclusion that the Great Depression happened as a result of a deflationary spiral, arguing that this is inconsistent with the data, even though during the period described by Friedman as \"The Great Contraction\", the money supply did in fact decrease year-over-year by over 10 percentage points.Although the book was described by the Cato Institute as among the greatest economics books in the 20th century, and ''A Monetary History of the United States'' is widely considered to be among the most influential economics books ever made, it has endured criticisms for its conclusion that the Federal Reserve was to blame for the Great Depression.", "Some economists, including noted Friedman critic Peter Temin, have raised questions about the legitimacy of Friedman's claims about whether or not monetary quantity levels were endogenous rather than exogenously determined, as ''A Monetary History of the United States'' posits.", "Nobel-prize winning economist Paul Krugman argued that the 2008 recession proved that, during a recession, a central bank cannot control broad money (M3 money, as defined by the OECD), and even if it can, the money supply does not bear a direct or proven relationship with GDP.", "According to Krugman, this was true in the 1930s, and the claim that the Federal Reserve could have avoided the Great Depression by reacting to what Friedman called ''The Great Contraction'' is \"highly dubious\".James Tobin questioned the importance of velocity of money, and how informative this measure of the frequency of transactions is to the understanding of the various fluctuations observed in ''A Monetary History of the United States''.Economic historian Barry Eichengreen argued that because of the gold standard, which was at this point in time the chief monetary system of the world, the Federal Reserve's hands were tied.", "This was because, to retain the credibility of the gold standard, the Federal Reserve could not undertake actions like dramatically expanding the money supply as proposed by Friedman and Schwartz.Lawrence Mishel, distinguished fellow of the Economic Policy Institute, argues that wages have been kept low in the United States because of the Friedman doctrine, namely the adoption of corporate practices and economic policies (or the blocking of reforms) at the behest of business and the wealthy elite, which resulted in the systematic disempowerment of workers.", "He argues that the lack of worker power caused wage suppression, increased wage inequality, and exacerbated racial disparities.", "Notably, mechanisms such as excessive unemployment, globalization, eroded labor standards (and their lack of enforcement), weakened collective bargaining, and corporate structure changes that disadvantage workers, all collectively functioned to keep wages low.", "From 1980 to 2020, while economy-wide productivity rose almost 70 percent, hourly compensation for typical workers increased less than 12 percent, while the earnings of the top 1 percent and 0.1 percent increased 158 percent and 341 percent, respectively." ], [ "Selected bibliography", "* ''A Theory of the Consumption Function'' (1957) .", "* ''A Program for Monetary Stability'' (Fordham University Press, 1960) 110 pp.", "online version * ''Capitalism and Freedom'' (1962), highly influential series of essays that established Friedman's position on major issues of public policy (excerpts)* ''A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960'', with Anna J. Schwartz, 1963; part 3 reprinted as ''The Great Contraction''* \"The Role of Monetary Policy\", ''American Economic Review,'' Vol.", "58, No.", "1 (Mar.", "1968), pp.", "1–17 JSTOR presidential address to American Economics Association* \"Inflation and Unemployment: Nobel Lecture\", 1977, ''Journal of Political Economy''.", "Vol.", "85, pp.", "451–472.JSTOR* ''Free to Choose: A Personal Statement'', with Rose Friedman, (1980), highly influential restatement of policy views* ''The Essence of Friedman'', essays edited by Kurt R. Leube, (1987) ()* ''Two Lucky People: Memoirs'' (with Rose Friedman) (1998) excerpt and text search* ''Milton Friedman on Economics: Selected Papers by Milton Friedman'', edited by Gary S. Becker (2008)" ], [ "See also", "* Causes of the Great Depression* History of economic thought* List of economists* List of Jewish Nobel laureates* List of Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients* Ludwig von Mises* Monetary/fiscal debate* \"We are all Keynesians now\"" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Jones, Daniel Stedman.", "''Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the Birth of Neoliberal Politics'' (2nd ed.", "2014)* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Collected Works of Milton Friedman (Multiple Text, audio, video)* The Milton Friedman papers at the Hoover Institution Archives* Selected Bibliography for Milton Friedman at the University of Chicago Library* Profile and Papers at Research Papers in Economics/RePEc* * Becker Friedman Institute at the University of Chicago* The Foundation for Educational Choice* Milton Fridman at Scarlett* Inflation and Unemployment 1976 lecture at NobelPrize.org* Nobel Memorial Prize acceptance speech* * Milton Friedman vs.", "The Fed Bailout by Michael Hirsh, ''Newsweek'', July 17, 2009* Four Deformations of the Apocalypse, David Stockman, ''The New York Times'', July 31, 2010* * * A collection of Milton Friedman's works; Videos* ** ''Booknotes'' interview with Friedman on the 50th Anniversary Edition of F.A.", "Hayek's ''Road to Serfdom'', November 20, 1994.", "** ''In Depth'' interview with Friedman, September 3, 2000* * * * Free to Choose' (1980) a PBS TV series by Milton Friedman\"* * Milton Friedman, ''Commanding Heights'', PBS, October 1, 2000, interview, profile and video* Milton Friedman at the Cato Institute* Free to Choose Network" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mass media" ], [ "Introduction", "Copy of a newspaper (), an example of mass media'''Mass media''' includes the diverse arrays of media that reach a large audience via mass communication.Broadcast media transmits information electronically via media such as films, radio, recorded music, or television.", "Digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication.", "Internet media comprises such services as email, social media sites, websites, and Internet-based radio and television.", "Many other mass media outlets have an additional presence on the web, by such means as linking to or running TV ads online, or distributing QR codes in outdoor or print media to direct mobile users to a website.", "In this way, they can use the easy accessibility and outreach capabilities the Internet affords, as thereby easily broadcast information throughout many different regions of the world simultaneously and cost-efficiently.", "Outdoor media transmits information via such media as augmented reality (AR) advertising; billboards; blimps; flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes); placards or kiosks placed inside and outside buses, commercial buildings, shops, sports stadiums, subway cars, or trains; signs; or skywriting.", "Print media transmits information via physical objects, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, or pamphlets.", "Event organising and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media.Egyptian movie star Salah Zulfikar on the cover of Al-Kawakeb magazine, March 1961, an example of mass mediaThe organisations that control these technologies, such as movie studios, publishing companies, and radio and television stations, are also known as the mass media." ], [ "Issues with definition", "In the late 20th century, mass media could be classified into eight mass media industries: books, the Internet, magazines, movies, newspapers, radio, recordings and television.", "The explosion of digital communication technology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries made prominent the question: what forms of media should be classified as \"mass media\"?", "For example, it is controversial whether to include mobile phones and video games in the definition.", "In the early 2000s, a classification called the \"seven mass media\" came into use.", "In order of introduction, they are:# Print (books, pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, posters, etc.)", "from the late 15th century# Recordings (gramophone records, magnetic tapes, cassettes, cartridges, CDs and DVDs) from the late 19th century# Cinema from about 1900# Radio from about 1910# Television from about 1950# The Internet from about 1990# Mobile phones from about 2000Each mass medium has its own content types, creative artists, technicians and business models.", "For example, the Internet includes blogs, podcasts, web sites and various other technologies built atop the general distribution network.", "The sixth and seventh media, Internet and mobile phones, are often referred to collectively as digital media; and the fourth and fifth, radio and TV, as broadcast media.", "Some argue that video games have developed into a distinct mass form of media.While a telephone is a two-way communication device, mass media communicates to a large group.", "In addition, the telephone has transformed into a cell phone which is equipped with Internet access.", "A question arises whether this makes cell phones a mass medium or simply a device used to access a mass medium (the Internet).", "Video games may also be evolving into a mass medium.", "Video games (for example, massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), such as ''RuneScape'') provide a common gaming experience to millions of users across the globe and convey the same messages and ideologies to all their users.", "Users sometimes share the experience with one another by playing online.", "Excluding the Internet, however, it is questionable whether players of video games are sharing a common experience when they play the game individually.", "It is possible to discuss in great detail the events of a video game with a friend one has never played with, because the experience is identical to each.", "The question, then, is whether this is a form of mass communication.=== Characteristics ===Five characteristics of mass communication have been identified by sociologist John Thompson of Cambridge University:* \"Comprises both technical and institutional methods of production and distribution\" – This is evident throughout the history of mass media, from print to the Internet, each suitable for commercial utility* Involves the \"commodification of symbolic forms\" – as the production of materials relies on its ability to manufacture and sell large quantities of the work; as radio stations rely on their time sold to advertisements, so too newspapers rely on their space for the same reasons* \"Separate contexts between the production and reception of information\"* Its \"reach to those 'far removed' in time and space, in comparison to the producers\"* \"Information distribution\" – a \"one to many\" form of communication, whereby products are mass-produced and disseminated to a great quantity of audiences=== Mass vs. mainstream and alternative ===The term \"mass media\" is sometimes erroneously used as a synonym for \"mainstream media\".", "Mainstream media are distinguished from alternative media by their content and point of view.", "Alternative media are also \"mass media\" outlets in the sense that they use technology capable of reaching many people, even if the audience is often smaller than the mainstream.In common usage, the term \"mass\" denotes not that a given number of individuals receives the products, but rather that the products are available in principle to a plurality of recipients." ], [ "Forms of mass media", "=== Broadcast media ===A family listening to a crystal radio in the 1920sThe sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule.", "With all technological endeavours a number of technical terms and slang have developed.Radio and television programs are distributed over frequency bands which are highly regulated in the United States.", "Such regulation includes determination of the width of the bands, range, licensing, types of receivers and transmitters used, and acceptable content.Cable television programs are often broadcast simultaneously with radio and television programs, but have a more limited audience.", "By coding signals and requiring a cable converter box at individual recipients' locations, cable also enables subscription-based channels and pay-per-view services.A broadcasting organisation may broadcast several programs simultaneously, through several channels (frequencies), for example BBC One and Two.", "On the other hand, two or more organisations may share a channel and each use it during a fixed part of the day, such as the Cartoon Network/Adult Swim.", "Digital radio and digital television may also transmit multiplexed programming, with several channels compressed into one ensemble.When broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used.", "In 2004, a new phenomenon occurred when a number of technologies combined to produce podcasting.", "Podcasting is an asynchronous broadcast/narrowcast medium.", "Adam Curry and his associates, the ''Podshow'', are principal proponents of podcasting.=== Film ===The term ''''film'''' encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general.", "The name comes from the photographic film (also called film stock), historically the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures.", "Many other terms for film exist, such as ''motion pictures'' (or just ''pictures'' and \"picture\"), ''the silver screen'', ''photoplays'', ''the cinema'', ''picture shows'', ''flicks'' and, most commonly, ''movies''.Films are produced by recording people and objects with cameras, or by creating them using animation techniques or special effects.", "Films comprise a series of individual frames, but when these images are shown in rapid succession, an illusion of motion is created.", "Flickering between frames is not seen because of an effect known as persistence of vision, whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed.", "Also of relevance is what causes the perception of motion: a psychological effect identified as beta movement.Film has emerged as an important art form.", "They entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audiences.", "Any film can become a worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of dubbing or subtitles that translate the original language.=== Video games ===Shopping carts for children fitted with gaming computersA video game is a computer-controlled game in which a video display, such as a monitor or television set, is the primary feedback device.", "The term \"computer game\" also includes games which display only text or which use other methods, such as sound or vibration, as their primary feedback device.", "There always must also be some sort of input device, usually in the form of button/joystick combinations (on arcade games), a keyboard and mouse/trackball combination (computer games), a controller (console games), or a combination of any of the above.", "Also, more esoteric devices have been used for input, e.g., the player's motion.", "Usually there are rules and goals, but in more open-ended games the player may be free to do whatever they like within the confines of the virtual universe.In common usage, an \"arcade game\" refers to a game designed to be played in an establishment in which patrons pay to play on a per-use basis.", "A \"computer game\" or \"PC game\" refers to a game that is played on a personal computer.", "A \"Console game\" refers to one that is played on a device specifically designed for the use of such, while interfacing with a standard television set.", "A \"video game\" (or \"videogame\") has evolved into a catchall phrase that encompasses the aforementioned along with any game made for any other device, including, but not limited to, advanced calculators, mobile phones, PDAs, etc.=== Audio recording and reproduction ===Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical or mechanical re-creation or amplification of sound, often as music.", "This involves the use of audio equipment such as microphones, recording devices and loudspeakers.", "From early beginnings with the invention of the phonograph using purely mechanical techniques, the field has advanced with the invention of electrical recording, the mass production of the 78 record, the magnetic wire recorder followed by the tape recorder, the vinyl LP record.", "The invention of the compact cassette in the 1960s, followed by Sony's Walkman, gave a major boost to the mass distribution of music recordings, and the invention of digital recording and the compact disc in 1983 brought massive improvements in ruggedness and quality.", "The most recent developments have been in digital audio players.An album is a collection of related audio recordings, released together to the public, usually commercially.The term record album originated from the fact that 78 RPM phonograph disc records were kept together in a book resembling a photo album.", "The first collection of records to be called an \"album\" was Tchaikovsky's ''Nutcracker Suite'', release in April 1909 as a four-disc set by Odeon Records.", "It retailed for 16 shillings—about £15 in modern currency.A music video (also promo) is a short film or video that accompanies a complete piece of music, most commonly a song.", "Modern music videos were primarily made and used as a marketing device intended to promote the sale of music recordings.", "Although the origins of music videos go back much further, they came into their own in the 1980s, when Music Television's format was based on them.", "In the 1980s, the term \"rock video\" was often used to describe this form of entertainment, although the term has fallen into disuse.Music videos can accommodate all styles of filmmaking, including animation, live-action films, documentaries, and non-narrative, abstract film.=== Internet media ===The Internet (also known simply as \"the Net\" or less precisely as \"the Web\") is a more interactive medium of mass media, and can be briefly described as \"a network of networks\".", "Specifically, it is the worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP).", "It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business and governmental networks, which together carry various information and services, such as email, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.Contrary to some common usage, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not synonymous: the Internet is the system of interconnected ''computer networks'', linked by copper wires, fibre-optic cables, wireless connections etc.", "; the Web is the contents, or the interconnected ''documents'', linked by hyperlinks and URLs.", "The World Wide Web is accessible through the Internet, along with many other services including e-mail, file sharing and others described below.Toward the end of the 20th century, the advent of the World Wide Web marked the first era in which most individuals could have a means of exposure on a scale comparable to that of mass media.", "Anyone with a web site has the potential to address a global audience, although serving to high levels of web traffic is still relatively expensive.", "It is possible that the rise of peer-to-peer technologies may have begun the process of making the cost of bandwidth manageable.", "Although a vast amount of information, imagery, and commentary (i.e.", "\"content\") has been made available, it is often difficult to determine the authenticity and reliability of information contained in web pages (in many cases, self-published).", "The invention of the Internet has also allowed breaking news stories to reach around the globe within minutes.", "This rapid growth of instantaneous, decentralised communication is often deemed likely to change mass media and its relationship to society.", "\"Cross-media\" means the idea of distributing the same message through different media channels.", "A similar idea is expressed in the news industry as \"convergence\".", "Many authors understand cross-media publishing to be the ability to publish in both print and on the web without manual conversion effort.", "An increasing number of wireless devices with mutually incompatible data and screen formats make it even more difficult to achieve the objective \"create once, publish many\".The Internet is quickly becoming the center of mass media.", "Everything is becoming accessible via the internet.", "Rather than picking up a newspaper, or watching the 10 o'clock news, people can log onto the internet to get the news they want, when they want it.", "For example, many workers listen to the radio through the Internet while sitting at their desk.Even the education system relies on the Internet.", "Teachers can contact the entire class by sending one e-mail.", "They may have web pages on which students can get another copy of the class outline or assignments.", "Some classes have class blogs in which students are required to post weekly, with students graded on their contributions.==== Blogs (web logs) ====Blogging, too, has become a pervasive form of media.", "A blog is a website, usually maintained by an individual, with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or interactive media such as images or video.", "Entries are commonly displayed in reverse chronological order, with most recent posts shown on top.", "Many blogs provide commentary or news on a particular subject; others function as more personal online diaries.", "A typical blog combines text, images and other graphics, and links to other blogs, web pages, and related media.", "The ability for readers to leave comments in an interactive format is an important part of many blogs.", "Most blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art (artlog), photographs (photoblog), sketchblog, videos (vlog), music (MP3 blog) and audio (podcasting), are part of a wider network of social media.", "Microblogging is another type of blogging which consists of blogs with very short posts.==== RSS feeds ====RSS is a format for syndicating news and the content of news-like sites, including major news sites like ''Wired'', news-oriented community sites like Slashdot, and personal blogs.", "It is a family of Web feed formats used to publish frequently updated content such as blog entries, news headlines, and podcasts.", "An RSS document (which is called a \"feed\" or \"web feed\" or \"channel\") contains either a summary of content from an associated web site or the full text.", "RSS makes it possible for people to keep up with web sites in an automated manner that can be piped into special programs or filtered displays.==== Podcast ====A podcast is a series of digital-media files which are distributed over the Internet using syndication feeds for playback on portable media players and computers.", "The term podcast, like broadcast, can refer either to the series of content itself or to the method by which it is syndicated; the latter is also called podcasting.", "The host or author of a podcast is often called a podcaster.==== Mobile ====Mobile phones were introduced in Japan in 1979 but became a mass media only in 1998 when the first downloadable ringing tones were introduced in Finland.", "Soon most forms of media content were introduced on mobile phones, tablets and other portable devices, and today the total value of media consumed on mobile vastly exceeds that of internet content, and was worth over $31 billion in 2007 (source Informa).", "The mobile media content includes over $8 billion worth of mobile music (ringing tones, ringback tones, truetones, MP3 files, karaoke, music videos, music streaming services, etc.", "); over $5 billion worth of mobile gaming; and various news, entertainment and advertising services.", "In Japan mobile phone books are so popular that five of the ten best-selling printed books were originally released as mobile phone books.Similar to the internet, mobile is also an interactive media, but has far wider reach, with 3.3 billion mobile phone users at the end of 2007 to 1.3 billion internet users (source ITU).", "Like email on the internet, the top application on mobile is also a personal messaging service, but SMS text messaging is used by over 2.4 billion people.", "Practically all internet services and applications exist or have similar cousins on mobile, from search to multiplayer games to virtual worlds to blogs.", "Mobile has several unique benefits which many mobile media pundits claim make mobile a more powerful media than either TV or the internet, starting with mobile being permanently carried and always connected.", "Mobile has the best audience accuracy and is the only mass media with a built-in payment channel available to every user without any credit cards or PayPal accounts or even an age limit.", "Mobile is often called the 7th Mass Medium and either the fourth screen (if counting cinema, TV and PC screens) or the third screen (counting only TV and PC).=== Print media ======= Magazine ====Actress Mervat Amin on the cover for Al-Mawwid magazine, June 1972A magazine is a periodical publication containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising or purchase by readers.Magazines are typically published weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly or quarterly, with a date on the cover that is in advance of the date it is actually published.", "They are often printed in color on coated paper, and are bound with a soft cover.Magazines fall into two broad categories: consumer magazines and business magazines.", "In practice, magazines are a subset of periodicals, distinct from those periodicals produced by scientific, artistic, academic or special interest publishers which are subscription-only, more expensive, narrowly limited in circulation, and often have little or no advertising.Magazines can be classified as:* General interest magazines (e.g.", "''Frontline'', ''India Today'', ''The Week'', ''The Sunday Times'', etc.", ")* Special interest magazines (women's, sports, business, scuba diving, etc.", ")==== Newspaper ====A panel in the Newseum in Washington, D.C., showing newspaper headlines from the day after 9/11A newspaper is a publication containing news and information and advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called newsprint.", "It may be general or special interest, most often published daily or weekly.", "The most important function of newspapers is to inform the public of significant events.", "Local newspapers inform local communities and include advertisements from local businesses and services, while national newspapers tend to focus on a theme, which can be exampled with ''The Wall Street Journal'' as they offer news on finance and business related-topics.", "The first printed newspaper was published in 1605, and the form has thrived even in the face of competition from technologies such as radio and television.", "Recent developments on the Internet are posing major threats to its business model, however.", "Paid circulation is declining in most countries, and advertising revenue, which makes up the bulk of a newspaper's income, is shifting from print to online; some commentators, nevertheless, point out that historically new media such as radio and television did not entirely supplant existing.The internet has challenged the press as an alternative source of information and opinion but has also provided a new platform for newspaper organisations to reach new audiences.", "According to the World Trends Report, between 2012 and 2016, print newspaper circulation continued to fall in almost all regions, with the exception of Asia and the Pacific, where the dramatic increase in sales in a few select countries has offset falls in historically strong Asian markets such as Japan and the Republic of Korea.", "Most notably, between 2012 and 2016, India's print circulation grew by 89 per cent.=== Outdoor media ===Political advertisements on a billboard in the Netherlands in 2019Outdoor media is a form of mass media which comprises billboards, signs, placards placed inside and outside commercial buildings/objects like shops/buses, flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes), blimps, skywriting, AR advertising.", "Many commercial advertisers use this form of mass media when advertising in sports stadiums.", "Tobacco and alcohol manufacturers used billboards and other outdoor media extensively.", "However, in 1998, the Master Settlement Agreement between the US and the tobacco industries prohibited the billboard advertising of cigarettes.", "In a 1994 Chicago-based study, Diana Hackbarth and her colleagues revealed how tobacco- and alcohol-based billboards were concentrated in poor neighbourhoods.", "In other urban centers, alcohol and tobacco billboards were much more concentrated in African-American neighbourhoods than in white neighbourhoods." ], [ "Purposes", "Mass media encompasses much more than just news, although it is sometimes misunderstood in this way.", "It can be used for various purposes:* Advocacy, both for business and social concerns.", "This can include advertising, marketing, propaganda, public relations and political communication.", "* Entertainment, traditionally through performances of acting, music and TV shows along with light reading; since the late 20th century also through video and computer games.", "* Public service announcements and emergency alerts (that can be used as political device to communicate propaganda to the public)." ], [ "Professions involving mass media", "=== Journalism ===Journalism is the discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying and presenting information regarding current events, trends, issues and people.", "Those who practice journalism are known as journalists.News-oriented journalism is sometimes described as the \"first rough draft of history\" (attributed to Phil Graham), because journalists often record important events, producing news articles on short deadlines.", "While under pressure to be first with their stories, news media organisations usually edit and proofread their reports prior to publication, adhering to each organisation's standards of accuracy, quality and style.", "Many news organisation claim proud traditions of holding government officials and institutions accountable to the public, while media critics have raised questions about holding the press itself accountable to the standards of professional journalism.=== Public relations ===Public relations is the art and science of managing communication between an organisation and its key publics to build, manage and sustain its positive image.", "Examples include:* Corporations use marketing public relations to convey information about the products they manufacture or services they provide to potential customers to support their direct sales efforts.", "Typically, they support sales in the short and long term, establishing and burnishing the corporation's branding for a strong, ongoing market.", "* Corporations also use public relations as a vehicle to reach legislators and other politicians, seeking favorable tax, regulatory, and other treatment, and they may use public relations to portray themselves as enlightened employers, in support of human-resources recruiting programs.", "* Nonprofit organisations, including schools and universities, hospitals, and human and social service agencies, use public relations in support of awareness programs, fund-raising programs, staff recruiting, and to increase patronage of their services.", "* Politicians use public relations to attract votes and raise money, and when successful at the ballot box, to promote and defend their service in office, with an eye to the next election or, at career's end, to their legacy.=== Publishing ===A member of staff at the International Printing Museum demonstrates printing with a 19th-century, hand-operated Columbian press.Publishing is the industry concerned with the production of literature or information – the activity of making information available for public view.", "In some cases, authors may be their own publishers.Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books and newspapers.", "With the advent of digital information systems and the Internet, the scope of publishing has expanded to include websites, blogs and the like.As a business, publishing includes the development, marketing, production, and distribution of newspapers, magazines, books, literary works, musical works, software and other works dealing with information.Publication is also important as a legal concept; (1) as the process of giving formal notice to the world of a significant intention, for example, to marry or enter bankruptcy, and; (2) as the essential precondition of being able to claim defamation; that is, the alleged libel must have been published.==== Software publishing ====A software publisher is a publishing company in the software industry between the developer and the distributor.", "In some companies, two or all three of these roles may be combined (and indeed, may reside in a single person, especially in the case of shareware).Software publishers often license software from developers with specific limitations, such as a time limit or geographical region.", "The terms of licensing vary enormously, and are typically secret.Developers may use publishers to reach larger or foreign markets, or to avoid focussing on marketing.", "Or publishers may use developers to create software to meet a market need that the publisher has identified.=== Internet-based professions ===An internet celebrity is anyone who gained fame on the Internet, whether it be creating contenton social media sites or creating posts on blogging platforms and making a revenue through it through means such as sponsorships and advertisements.", "One such example is a Youtuber, which is an internet celebrity who creates content on the social media platform Youtube." ], [ "History", "Early wooden printing press, depicted in 1520The history of mass media can be traced back to the days when dramas were performed in various ancient cultures.", "This was the first time when a form of media was \"broadcast\" to a wider audience.", "The first dated printed book known is the \"Diamond Sutra\", printed in China in 868 AD, although it is clear that books were printed earlier.", "Movable clay type was invented in 1041 in China.", "However, due to the slow spread of literacy to the masses in China, and the relatively high cost of paper there, the earliest printed mass-medium was probably European popular prints from about 1400.Although these were produced in huge numbers, very few early examples survive, and even most known to be printed before about 1600 have not survived.", "The term \"mass media\" was coined with the creation of print media, which is notable for being the first example of mass media, as we use the term today.", "This form of media started in Europe in the Middle Ages.Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press allowed the mass production of books to sweep the nation.", "He printed the first book, a Latin Bible, on a printing press with movable type in 1453.The invention of the printing press gave rise to some of the first forms of mass communication, by enabling the publication of books and newspapers on a scale much larger than was previously possible.", "The invention also transformed the way the world received printed materials, although books remained too expensive really to be called a mass-medium for at least a century after that.", "Newspapers developed from about 1612, with the first example in English in 1620; but they took until the 19th century to reach a mass-audience directly.", "The first high-circulation newspapers arose in London in the early 1800s, such as ''The Times'', and were made possible by the invention of high-speed rotary steam printing presses, and railroads which allowed large-scale distribution over wide geographical areas.", "The increase in circulation, however, led to a decline in feedback and interactivity from the readership, making newspapers a more one-way medium.The phrase \"the media\" began to be used in the 1920s.", "The notion of \"mass media\" was generally restricted to print media up until the post-Second World War, when radio, television and video were introduced.", "The audio-visual facilities became very popular, because they provided both information and entertainment, because the colour and sound engaged the viewers/listeners and because it was easier for the general public to passively watch TV or listen to the radio than to actively read.", "In recent times, the Internet become the latest and most popular mass medium.", "Information has become readily available through websites, and easily accessible through search engines.", "One can do many activities at the same time, such as playing games, listening to music and social networking, irrespective of location.", "Whilst other forms of mass media are restricted in the type of information they can offer, the internet comprises a large percentage of the sum of human knowledge through such things as Google Books.", "Modern-day mass media includes the internet, mobile phones, blogs, podcasts and RSS feeds.During the 20th century, the growth of mass media was driven by technology, including that which allowed much duplication of material.", "Physical duplication technologies such as printing, record pressing and film duplication allowed the duplication of books, newspapers and movies at low prices to huge audiences.", "Radio and television allowed the electronic duplication of information for the first time.", "Mass media had the economics of linear replication: a single work could make money.", "An example of Riel and Neil's theory.", "proportional to the number of copies sold, and as volumes went up, unit costs went down, increasing profit margins further.", "Vast fortunes were to be made in mass media.", "In a democratic society, the media can serve the electorate about issues regarding government and corporate entities (see Media influence).", "Some consider the concentration of media ownership to be a threat to democracy.=== Mergers and acquisitions ===Between 1985 and 2018, about 76,720 deals have been announced in the media industry.", "This sums up to an overall value of around US$5,634 billion.", "There have been three major waves of M&A in the mass media sector (2000, 2007 and 2015), while the most active year in terms of numbers was 2007 with around 3,808 deals.", "The United States is the most prominent country in media M&A with 41 of the top 50 deals having an acquirer from the United States.The largest deal in history was the acquisition of Time Warner by AOL Inc. for US$164,746.86 million." ], [ "Influence and sociology", "'''Limited-effects theory''' theorizes that because people usually choose what media to interact with based on what they already believe, media exerts a negligible influence.", "'''Class-dominant theory''' argues that the media reflects and projects the view of a minority elite, which controls it.", "'''Culturalist theory''' combines the other two theories and claims that people interact with media to create their own meanings out of the images and messages they receive.", "There is an article that argues 90 percent of all mass media including radio broadcast networks and programing, video news, sports entertainment, and others are owned by 6 major companies (GE, News-Corp, Disney, Viacom, Time Warner and CBS).", "According to Morris Creative Group, these six companies made over $200 billion in revenue in 2010.More diversity is brewing among many companies, but they have recently merged to form an elite which have the power to control the narrative of stories and alter people's beliefs.", "In the new media-driven age we live in, marketing has more value than ever before because of the various ways it can be implemented.", "Advertisements can convince citizens to purchase a specific product or have consumers avoid a particular product.", "The definition of what is acceptable by society can be heavily dictated by the media in regards to the amount of attention it receives.The documentary ''Super Size Me'' describes how companies like McDonald's have been sued in the past, the plaintiffs claiming that it was the fault of their liminal and subliminal advertising that \"forced\" them to purchase the product.", "The Barbie and Ken dolls of the 1950s are sometimes cited as the main cause for the obsession in modern-day society for women to be skinny and men to be buff.", "After the attacks of 9/11, the media gave extensive coverage of the event and exposed Osama Bin Laden's guilt for the attack, information they were told by the authorities.", "This shaped the public opinion to support the war on terrorism, and later, the war on Iraq.", "A main concern is that due to this extreme power of the mass media, portraying inaccurate information could lead to an immense public concern.", "In his book ''The Commercialization of American Culture'', Matthew P. McAllister says that \"a well-developed media system, informing and teaching its citizens, helps democracy move toward its ideal state\".In 1997, J. R. Finnegan Jr. and K. Viswanath identified three main effects or functions of mass media:# '''The Knowledge Gap:''' the mass media influences knowledge gaps due to factors including \"the extent to which the content is appealing, the degree to which information channels are accessible and desirable, and the amount of social conflict and diversity there is in a community\".# '''Agenda Setting:''' people are influenced in how they think about issues due to the selective nature of what media groups choose for public consumption.", "After publicly disclosing that he had prostate cancer prior to the 2000 New York senatorial election, Rudolph Giuliani, the mayor of New York City (aided by the media) sparked a huge priority elevation of the cancer in people's consciousness.", "This was because news media began to report on the risks of prostate cancer, which in turn prompted a greater public awareness about the disease and the need for screening.", "This ability for the media to be able to change how the public thinks and behaves has occurred on other occasions.", "In mid-1970s when Betty Ford and Happy Rockefeller, wives of the then-President and then-Vice President, respectively, were both diagnosed with breast cancer.", "J. J. Davis states that \"when risks are highlighted in the media, particularly in great detail, the extent of agenda setting is likely to be based on the degree to which a public sense of outrage and threat is provoked\".", "When wanting to set an agenda, framing can be invaluably useful to a mass media organisation.", "Framing involves \"taking a leadership role in the organisation of public discourse about an issue\".", "The media is influenced by the desire for balance in coverage, and the resulting pressures can come from groups with particular political action and advocacy positions.", "Finnegan and Viswanath say, \"groups, institutions and advocates compete to identify problems, to move them onto the public agenda, and to define the issues symbolically\" (1997, p. 324).# '''Cultivation of Perceptions:''' the extent to which media exposure shapes audience perceptions over time is known as cultivation.", "Television is a common experience, especially in places like the United States, to the point where it can be described as a \"homogenising agent\" (S. W. Littlejohn).", "However, instead of being merely a result of the TV, the effect is often based on socioeconomic factors.", "Having a prolonged exposure to TV or movie violence might affect a viewer to the extent where they actively think community violence is a problem, or alternatively find it justifiable.", "The resulting belief is likely to be different depending on where people live, however.Since the 1950s, when cinema, radio and TV began to be the primary or the only source of information for a larger and larger percentage of the population, these media began to be considered as central instruments of mass control.", "Up to the point that it emerged the idea that when a country has reached a high level of industrialisation, the country itself \"belongs to the person who controls communications\".Mass media play a significant role in shaping public perceptions on a variety of important issues, both through the information that is dispensed through them, and through the interpretations they place upon this information.", "They also play a large role in shaping modern culture, by selecting and portraying a particular set of beliefs, values and traditions (an entire way of life), as reality.", "That is, by portraying a certain interpretation of reality, they shape reality to be more in line with that interpretation.", "Mass media also play a crucial role in the spread of civil unrest activities such as anti-government demonstrations, riots and general strikes.", "That is, the use of radio and television receivers has made the unrest influence among cities not only by the geographic location of cities, but also by proximity within the mass media distribution networks.Early minstrel shows lampooned the assumed stupidity of black people.", "Detail from cover of ''The Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels'', 1843.A magazine feature from ''Beauty Parade'' from March 1952 stereotyping women drivers.", "It features Bettie Page as the model.American political cartoon titled ''The Usual Irish Way of Doing Things'', depicting a drunken Irishman lighting a powder keg and swinging a bottle.", "Published in ''Harper's Weekly'', 1871.=== Racism and stereotyping ===Mass media sources, through theories like framing and agenda-setting, can affect the scope of a story as particular facts and information are highlighted (media influence).", "This can directly correlate with how individuals may perceive certain groups of people, as the only media coverage a person receives can be very limited and may not reflect the whole story or situation; stories are often covered to reflect a particular perspective to target a specific demographic.According to Stephen Balkaran, an Instructor of Political Science and African American Studies at Central Connecticut State University, mass media has played a large role in the way white Americans perceive African Americans.", "The media focus on African American in the contexts of crime, drug use, gang violence and other forms of anti-social behavior has resulted in a distorted and harmful public perception of African Americans.", "In his 1999 article \"Mass Media and Racism\", Balkaran states: \"The media has played a key role in perpetuating the effects of this historical oppression and in contributing to African Americans' continuing status as second-class citizens.\"", "This has resulted in an uncertainty among white Americans as to what the genuine nature of African Americans really is.", "Despite the resulting racial divide, the fact that these people are undeniably American has \"raised doubts about the white man's value system\".", "This means that there is a somewhat \"troubling suspicion\" among some Americans that their white America is tainted by the black influence.", "Mass media, as well as propaganda, tend to reinforce or introduce stereotypes to the general public." ], [ "Ethical issues and criticism", "Lack of local or specific topic focus is a common criticism of mass media.", "A mass news media outlet is often forced to cover national and international news due to it having to cater for and be relevant for a wide demographic.", "As such, it has to skip over many interesting or important local stories because they simply do not interest the large majority of their viewers.", "An example given by the website WiseGeek is that \"the residents of a community might view their fight against development as critical, but the story would only attract the attention of the mass media if the fight became controversial or if precedents of some form were set\".The term \"mass\" suggests that the recipients of media products constitute a vast sea of passive, undifferentiated individuals.", "This is an image associated with some earlier critiques of \"mass culture\" and mass society which generally assumed that the development of mass communication has had a largely negative impact on modern social life, creating a kind of bland and homogeneous culture which entertains individuals without challenging them.", "However, interactive digital media have also been seen to challenge the read-only paradigm of earlier broadcast media.Whilst some refer to the mass media as \"opiate of the masses\", others argue that is a vital aspect of human societies.", "By understanding mass media, one is then able to analyse and find a deeper understanding of one's population and culture.", "This valuable and powerful ability is one reason why the field of media studies is popular.", "As WiseGeek says, \"watching, reading, and interacting with a nation's mass media can provide clues into how people think, especially if a diverse assortment of mass media sources are perused\".Since the 1950s, in the countries that have reached a high level of industrialisation, the mass media of cinema, radio and TV have a key role in political power.Contemporary research demonstrates an increasing level of concentration of media ownership, with many media industries already highly concentrated and dominated by a small number of firms.===Criticism===When the study of mass media began the media was compiled of only mass media which is a very different media system than the social media empire of the 21st-century experiences.", "With this in mind, there are critiques that mass media no longer exists, or at least that it does not exist in the same form as it once did.", "This original form of mass media put filters on what the general public would be exposed to in regards to \"news\" something that is harder to do in a society of social media.Theorist Lance Bennett explains that excluding a few major events in recent history, it is uncommon for a group big enough to be labeled a mass, to be watching the same news via the same medium of mass production.", "Bennett's critique of 21st-century mass media argues that today it is more common for a group of people to be receiving different news stories, from completely different sources, and thus, mass media has been re-invented.", "As discussed above, filters would have been applied to original mass medias when the journalists decided what would or would not be printed.Social media is a large contributor to the change from mass media to a new paradigm because through social media what is mass communication and what is interpersonal communication is confused.", "Interpersonal/niche communication is an exchange of information and information in a specific genre.", "In this form of communication, smaller groups of people are consuming news/information/opinions.", "In contrast, mass media in its original form is not restricted by genre and it is being consumed by the masses." ], [ "See also", "* Commercial broadcasting* Digital rights management* History of journalism* History of newspaper publishing* Media bias* Media echo chamber* Media regulation* Media-system dependency* Mediatization (media)* State media" ], [ "Sources" ], [ "Notes", "===Works cited===* * * Riesman, David and Gitlin, Todd and Glazer, Nathan (1950) ''The Lonely Crowd'', preview at google books*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Bösch, Frank.", "''Mass Media and Historical Change: Germany in International Perspective, 1400 to the Present'' (Berghahn, 2015).", "212 pp.", "online review* Cull, Nicholas John, David Culbert and David Welch, eds.", "''Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present'' (2003) 479 pp; worldwide coverage* Dauber, Cori Elizabeth. \"", "The shots seen 'round the world: The impact of the images of Mogadishu on American military operations.\"", "''Rhetoric & Public Affairs'' 4.4 (2001): 653–687* Folkerts, Jean and Dwight Teeter, eds.", "''Voices of a Nation: A History of Mass Media in the United States'' (5th Edition, 2008)* Fourie, Pieter J.", "''Media Studies: Media History, Media and Society'' (2008)* Graber, Doris A., and Johanna Dunaway.", "''Mass media and American politics'' (CQ Press, 2017)* * Paneth, Donald, ed.", "''The Encyclopedia of American journalism'' (1983) online* Ross, Corey.", "''Mass Communications, Society, and Politics from the Empire to the Third Reich'' (Oxford University press 2010) 448 pp, on Germany* Vaughn, Stephen L., ed.", "''Encyclopedia of American Journalism'' (2007) online*" ], [ "External links", "* The Media: Carriers of Contagious Information* Peter Medlin, WNIJ, \"Illinois Is the First State to Have High Schools Teach News Literacy\", ''National Public Radio,'' 12 August 2021* The Evolution of Global Mass Media" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mahabharata" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''Mahābhārata''''' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Smriti texts and Sanskrit epics of ancient India revered in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''.", "It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kurukshetra War, a war of succession between two groups of princely cousins, the Kauravas and the Pāṇḍavas.It also contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four \"goals of life\" or ''puruṣārtha'' (12.161).", "Among the principal works and stories in the ''Mahābhārata'' are the ''Bhagavad Gita'', the story of Damayanti, the story of Shakuntala, the story of Pururava and Urvashi, the story of Savitri and Satyavan, the story of Kacha and Devayani, the story of Rishyasringa and an abbreviated version of the ''Rāmāyaṇa'', often considered as works in their own right.Krishna and Arjuna at Kurukshetra, 18th–19th-century paintingTraditionally, the authorship of the ''Mahābhārata'' is attributed to Vyāsa.", "There have been many attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers.", "The bulk of the ''Mahābhārata'' was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.", "The text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period ().The ''Mahābhārata'' is the longest epic poem known and has been described as \"the longest poem ever written\".", "Its longest version consists of over 100,000 ''śloka'' or over 200,000 individual verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages.", "At about 1.8 million words in total, the ''Mahābhārata'' is roughly ten times the length of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' combined, or about four times the length of the ''Rāmāyaṇa''.", "W. J. Johnson has compared the importance of the ''Mahābhārata'' in the context of world civilization to that of the Bible, the Quran, the works of Homer, Greek drama, or the works of William Shakespeare.", "Within the Indian tradition it is sometimes called the fifth Veda.The title is translated as \"Great Bharat (India)\", or \"the story of the great descendents of Bharata\"." ], [ "Textual history and structure", "Modern depiction of Vyasa narrating the ''Mahābhārata'' to Ganesha at the Murudeshwara temple, Karnataka.The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa, who is also a major figure in the epic.", "Vyasa described it as being an ''itihasa'' ().", "He also describes the Guru–shishya tradition, which traces all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times.The first section of the ''Mahābhārata'' states that it was Ganesha who wrote down the text to Vyasa's dictation, but this is regarded by scholars as a later interpolation to the epic and the \"Critical Edition\" does not include Ganesha.The epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in many Indian religious and non-religious works.", "It is first recited at ''Takshashila'' by the sage Vaisampayana, a disciple of Vyasa, to the King Janamejaya who was the great-grandson of the Pandava prince Arjuna.", "The story is then recited again by a professional storyteller named Ugrashrava Sauti, many years later, to an assemblage of sages performing the 12-year sacrifice for the king Saunaka Kulapati in the Naimisha Forest.Sauti recites the slokas of the ''Mahabharata''.The text was described by some early 20th-century Indologists as unstructured and chaotic.", "Hermann Oldenberg supposed that the original poem must once have carried an immense \"tragic force\" but dismissed the full text as a \"horrible chaos.\"", "Moritz Winternitz (''Geschichte der indischen Literatur'' 1909) considered that \"only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes\" could have lumped the parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole.=== Accretion and redaction ===Vyasa Reviewing MahabharataResearch on the ''Mahābhārata'' has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating layers within the text.", "Some elements of the present ''Mahabharata'' can be traced back to Vedic times.", "The background to the ''Mahābhārata'' suggests the origin of the epic occurs \"after the very early Vedic period\" and before \"the first Indian 'empire' was to rise in the third century B.C.\"", "That this is \"a date not too far removed from the 8th or 9th century B.C.\"", "is likely.", "The ''Mahabharata'' started as an orally-transmitted tale of the charioteer bards.", "It is generally agreed that \"Unlike the Vedas, which have to be preserved letter-perfect, the epic was a popular work whose reciters would inevitably conform to changes in language and style,\" so the earliest 'surviving' components of this dynamic text are believed to be no older than the earliest 'external' references we have to the epic, which include an reference in Panini's 4th century BCE grammar ''Ashtadhyayi'' 4:2:56.Vishnu Sukthankar, editor of the first great critical edition of the ''Mahābhārata'', commented: \"It is useless to think of reconstructing a fluid text in an original shape, based on an archetype and a ''stemma codicum''.", "What then is possible?", "Our objective can only be to reconstruct ''the oldest form of the text which it is possible to reach'' based on the manuscript material available.\"", "That manuscript evidence is somewhat late, given its material composition and the climate of India, but it is very extensive.The ''Mahābhārata'' itself (1.1.61) distinguishes a core portion of 24,000 verses: the ''Bhārata'' proper, as opposed to additional secondary material, while the ''Ashvalayana Grihyasutra'' (3.4.4) makes a similar distinction.", "At least three redactions of the text are commonly recognized: ''Jaya'' (Victory) with 8,800 verses attributed to Vyasa, the ''Bharata'' with 24,000 verses as recited by Vaisampayana, and finally the ''Mahābhārata'' as recited by Ugrashrava Sauti with over 100,000 verses.", "However, some scholars, such as John Brockington, argue that ''Jaya'' and ''Bharata'' refer to the same text, and ascribe the theory of ''Jaya'' with 8,800 verses to a misreading of a verse in the ''Adi Parva'' (1.1.81).", "The redaction of this large body of text was carried out after formal principles, emphasizing the numbers 18 and 12.The addition of the latest parts may be dated by the absence of the ''Anushasana Parva'' and the ''Virata Parva'' from the \"Spitzer manuscript\".", "The oldest surviving Sanskrit text dates to the Kushan Period (200 CE).According to what one figure says at Mbh.", "1.1.50, there were three versions of the epic, beginning with ''Manu'' (1.1.27), ''Astika'' (1.3, sub-Parva 5), or ''Vasu'' (1.57), respectively.", "These versions would correspond to the addition of one and then another 'frame' settings of dialogues.", "The ''Vasu'' version would omit the frame settings and begin with the account of the birth of Vyasa.", "The ''astika'' version would add the ''sarpasattra'' and ''ashvamedha'' material from Brahmanical literature, introduce the name ''Mahābhārata'', and identify Vyasa as the work's author.", "The redactors of these additions were probably Pancharatrin scholars who according to Oberlies (1998) likely retained control over the text until its final redaction.", "Mention of the Huna in the ''Bhishma Parva'' however appears to imply that this Parva may have been edited around the 4th century.The snake sacrifice of JanamejayaThe ''Adi Parva'' includes the snake sacrifice (''sarpasattra'') of Janamejaya, explaining its motivation, detailing why all snakes in existence were intended to be destroyed, and why despite this, there are still snakes in existence.", "This ''sarpasattra'' material was often considered an independent tale added to a version of the ''Mahābhārata'' by \"thematic attraction\" (Minkowski 1991), and considered to have a particularly close connection to Vedic (Brahmana) literature.", "The ''Panchavimsha Brahmana'' (at 25.15.3) enumerates the officiant priests of a ''sarpasattra'' among whom the names Dhritarashtra and Janamejaya, two main figures of the ''Mahābhārata'''s ''sarpasattra'', as well as Takshaka, a snake in the ''Mahābhārata'', occur.The ''Suparnakhyana'', a late Vedic period poem considered to be among the \"earliest traces of epic poetry in India,\" is an older, shorter precursor to the expanded legend of Garuda that is included in the ''Astika Parva'', within the ''Adi Parva'' of the ''Mahābhārata''.=== Historical references ===The earliest known references to ''bhārata'' and the compound ''mahābhārata'' date to the ''Ashtadhyayi'' (sutra 6.2.38) of Panini (''fl.''", "4th century BCE) and the ''Ashvalayana Grihyasutra'' (3.4.4).", "This may mean the core 24,000 verses, known as the ''Bhārata'', as well as an early version of the extended ''Mahābhārata'', were composed by the 4th century BCE.", "However, it is not certain whether Panini referred to the epic, as ''bhārata'' was also used to describe other things.", "Albrecht Weber mentions the Rigvedic tribe of the Bharatas, where a great person might have been designated as ''Mahā-Bhārata.''", "However, as Panini also mentions figures that play a role in the ''Mahābhārata'', some parts of the epic may have already been known in his day.", "Another aspect is that Pani determined the accent of ''mahā-bhārata''.", "However, the ''Mahābhārata'' was not recited in Vedic accent.The Greek writer Dio Chrysostom () reported that Homer's poetry was being sung even in India.", "Many scholars have taken this as evidence for the existence of a ''Māhabhārata'' at this date, whose episodes Dio or his sources identify with the story of the ''Iliad''.Several stories within the ''Mahābhārata'' took on separate identities of their own in Classical Sanskrit literature.", "For instance, the ''Abhijnanashkuntala'' by the renowned Sanskrit poet Kalidasa (), believed to have lived in the era of the Gupta dynasty, is based on a story that is the precursor to the ''Mahābhārata''.", "The ''Urubhanga'', a Sanskrit play written by Bhasa who is believed to have lived before Kalidasa, is based on the slaying of Duryodhana by the splitting of his thighs by Bhima.The copper-plate inscription of the Maharaja Sharvanatha (533–534 CE) from Khoh (Satna District, Madhya Pradesh) describes the ''Mahābhārata'' as a \"collection of 100,000 verses\" (''śata-sahasri saṃhitā'').=== The 18 parvas or books ===The division into 18 parvas is as follows:ParvaTitleSub-parvasContents1''Adi Parva'' ''(The Book of the Beginning)''1–19How the ''Mahābhārata'' came to be narrated by Sauti to the assembled rishis at Naimisharanya, after having been recited at the ''sarpasattra'' of Janamejaya by Vaisampayana at Takshashila.", "The history and genealogy of the Bharata and Bhrigu races are recalled, as is the birth and early life of the Kuru princes (''adi'' means first).", "Adi parva describes Pandava's birth, childhood, education, marriage, struggles due to conspiracy as well as glorious achievements.2''Sabha Parva'' (The Book of the Assembly Hall)20–28Maya Danava erects the palace and court (''sabha''), at Indraprastha.", "The Sabha Parva narrates the glorious Yudhisthira's Rajasuya sacrifice performed with the help of his brothers and Yudhisthira's rule in Shakraprastha/Indraprastha as well as the humiliation and deceit caused by conspiracy along with their own action.3''Vana Parva'' ''also'' ''Aranyaka Parva'', ''Aranya Parva'' (The Book of the Forest)29–44The twelve years of exile in the forest (''aranya'').", "The entire Parva describes their struggle and consolidation of strength.4''Virata Parva'' (The Book of Virata)45–48The year spent incognito at the court of Virata.", "A single warrior (Arjuna) defeated the entire Kuru army including Karna, Bhishma, Drona, Ashwatthama, etc.", "and recovered the cattle of the Virata Kingdom.5 ''Udyoga Parva'' (The Book of the Effort)49–59Preparations for war and efforts to bring about peace between the Kaurava and the Pandava sides which eventually fail (''udyoga'' means effort or work).6 ''Bhishma Parva'' (The Book of Bhishma) 60–64The first part of the great battle, with Bhishma as commander for the Kaurava and his fall on the bed of arrows.", "The most important aspect of Bhishma Parva is the ''Bhagavad Gita'' narrated by Krishna to Arjuna.", "(Includes the ''Bhagavad Gita'' in chapters 25–42.", ")7 ''Drona Parva'' (The Book of Drona)65–72The battle continues, with Drona as commander.", "This is the major book of the war.", "Most of the great warriors on both sides are dead by the end of this book.8 ''Karna Parva'' (The Book of Karna)73The continuation of the battle with Karna as commander of the Kaurava forces.9''Shalya Parva'' (The Book of Shalya)74–77The last day of the battle, with Shalya as commander.", "Also told in detail, is the pilgrimage of Balarama to the fords of the river Saraswati and the mace fight between Bhima and Duryodhana which ends the war, since Bhima kills Duryodhana by smashing him on the thighs with a mace.10 ''Sauptika Parva'' (The Book of the Sleeping Warriors)78–80Ashvattama, Kripa and Kritavarma kill the remaining Pandava army in their sleep.", "Only seven warriors remain on the Pandava side and three on the Kaurava side.11 ''Stri Parva'' (The Book of the Women)81–85Gandhari and the women (''stri'') of the Kauravas and Pandavas lament the dead and Gandhari cursing Krishna for the massive destruction and the extermination of the Kaurava.12 ''Shanti Parva'' (The Book of Peace)86–88The crowning of Yudhishthira as king of Hastinapura, and instructions from Bhishma for the newly anointed king on society, economics, and politics.", "This is the longest book of the ''Mahabharata''.", "13 ''Anushasana Parva'' (The Book of the Instructions)89–90The final instructions (''anushasana'') from Bhishma.", "This Parba contains the last day of Bhishma and his advice and wisdom to the upcoming emperor Yudhishthira.14 ''Ashvamedhika Parva'' (The Book of the Horse Sacrifice)91–92The royal ceremony of the Ashvamedha (Horse sacrifice) conducted by Yudhishthira.", "The world conquest by Arjuna.", "Anugita is told by Krishna to Arjuna.15 ''Ashramavasika Parva'' (The Book of the Hermitage)93–95The eventual deaths of Dhritarashtra, Gandhari, and Kunti in a forest fire when they are living in a hermitage in the Himalayas.", "Vidura predeceases them and Sanjaya on Dhritarashtra's bidding goes to live in the higher Himalayas.16 ''Mausala Parva'' (The Book of the Clubs)96The materialization of Gandhari's curse, i.e., the infighting between the Yadavas with maces (''mausala'') and the eventual destruction of the Yadavas.17 ''Mahaprasthanika Parva'' (The Book of the Great Journey)97The great journey of Yudhishthira, his brothers, and his wife Draupadi across the whole country and finally their ascent of the great Himalayas where each Pandava falls except for Yudhishthira.18 ''Svargarohana Parva'' (The Book of the Ascent to Heaven)98 Yudhishthira's final test and the return of the Pandavas to the spiritual world (''svarga'').", "''khila''''Harivamsa Parva'' (The Book of the Genealogy of Hari)99–100This is an addendum to the 18 books, and covers those parts of the life of Krishna which is not covered in the 18 parvas of the ''Mahabharata''." ], [ "Historical context", "The historicity of the Kurukshetra War is unclear.", "Many historians estimate the date of the Kurukshetra war to Iron Age India of the 10th century BCE.", "The setting of the epic has a historical precedent in Iron Age (Vedic) India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political power during roughly 1200 to 800 BCE.", "A dynastic conflict of the period could have been the inspiration for the ''Jaya'', the foundation on which the ''Mahābhārata'' corpus was built, with a climactic battle, eventually coming to be viewed as an epochal event.Puranic literature presents genealogical lists associated with the ''Mahābhārata'' narrative.", "The evidence of the Puranas is of two kinds.", "Of the first kind, there is the direct statement that there were 1,015 (or 1,050) years between the birth of Parikshit (Arjuna's grandson) and the accession of Mahapadma Nanda (400–329 BCE), which would yield an estimate of about 1400 BCE for the Bharata battle.", "However, this would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings listed in the genealogies.", "Of the second kind is analysis of parallel genealogies in the Puranas between the times of Adhisimakrishna (Parikshit's great-grandson) and Mahapadma Nanda.", "Pargiter accordingly estimated 26 generations by averaging 10 different dynastic lists and, assuming 18 years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at an estimate of 850  BCE for Adhisimakrishna, and thus approximately 950  BCE for the Bharata battle.Map of some Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites.B.", "B. Lal used the same approach with a more conservative assumption of the average reign to estimate a date of 836 BCE, and correlated this with archaeological evidence from Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites, the association being strong between PGW artifacts and places mentioned in the epic.", "John Keay confirms this and also gives 950 BCE for the Bharata battle.Attempts to date the events using methods of archaeoastronomy have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimates ranging from the late 4th to the mid-2nd millennium BCE.", "The late 4th-millennium date has a precedent in the calculation of the ''Kali Yuga'' epoch, based on planetary conjunctions, by Aryabhata (6th century).", "Aryabhata's date of 18 February 3102 BCE for ''Mahābhārata'' war has become widespread in Indian tradition.", "Some sources mark this as the disappearance of Krishna from the Earth.", "The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, dated to Saka 556 = 634 CE, claims that 3,735 years have elapsed since the Bhārata battle, putting the date of ''Mahābhārata'' war at 3137BCE.Another traditional school of astronomers and historians, represented by Vrddha Garga, Varāhamihira and Kalhana, place the Bharata war 653 years after the ''Kali Yuga'' epoch, corresponding to 2449 BCE.", "According to Varāhamihira's ''Bṛhat Saṃhitā'' (6th century), Yudhishthara lived 2,526 years before the beginning of the Shaka era, which begins in the 78 CE.", "This places Yudhishthara (and therefore, the Mahabharata war) around 2448–2449 BCE (2526–78).", "Some scholars have attempted to identify the \"Shaka\" calendar era mentioned by Varāhamihira with other eras, but such identifications place Varāhamihira in the first century BCE, which is impossible as he refers to the 5th century astronomer Aryabhata.", "Kalhana's ''Rajatarangini'' (11th century), apparently relying on Varāhamihira, also states that the Pandavas flourished 653 years after the beginning of the Kali Yuga; Kalhana adds that people who believe that the Bharata war was fought at the end of the ''Dvapara Yuga'' are foolish." ], [ "Synopsis", "Ganesha writes the ''Mahabharata'' upon Vyasa's dictation.The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the Kuru clan.", "The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the Kaurava and the Pandava.", "Although the Kaurava is the senior branch of the family, Duryodhana, the eldest Kaurava, is younger than Yudhishthira, the eldest Pandava.", "Both Duryodhana and Yudhishthira claim to be first in line to inherit the throne.The struggle culminates in the Kurukshetra War, in which the Pandavas are ultimately victorious.", "The battle produces complex conflicts of kinship and friendship, instances of family loyalty and duty taking precedence over what is right, as well as the converse.The ''Mahābhārata'' itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of the Pandava brothers to heaven.", "It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of ''Kali Yuga'', the fourth and final age of humankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and people are heading towards the complete dissolution of right action, morality, and virtue.=== The older generations ===Shantanu falls in love with Satyavati, the fisherwoman.", "Painting by Raja Ravi Varma.King Janamejaya's ancestor Shantanu, the king of Hastinapura, has a short-lived marriage with the goddess Ganga and has a son, Devavrata (later to be called Bhishma, a great warrior), who becomes the heir apparent.", "Many years later, when King Shantanu goes hunting, he sees Satyavati, the daughter of the chief of fisherman, and asks her father for her hand.", "Her father refuses to consent to the marriage unless Shantanu promises to make any future son of Satyavati the king upon his death.", "To resolve his father's dilemma, Devavrata agrees to relinquish his right to the throne.", "As the fisherman is not sure about the prince's children honoring the promise, Devavrata also takes a vow of lifelong celibacy to guarantee his father's promise.Shantanu has two sons by Satyavati, Chitrāngada and Vichitravirya.", "Upon Shantanu's death, Chitrangada becomes king.", "He lives a very short uneventful life and dies.", "Vichitravirya, the younger son, rules Hastinapura.", "Meanwhile, the King of Kāśī arranges a swayamvara for his three daughters, neglecting to invite the royal family of Hastinapur.", "To arrange the marriage of young Vichitravirya, Bhishma attends the swayamvara of the three princesses Amba, Ambika, and Ambalika, uninvited, and proceeds to abduct them.", "Ambika and Ambalika consent to be married to Vichitravirya.The oldest princess Amba, however, informs Bhishma that she wishes to marry the king of Shalva whom Bhishma defeated at their swayamvara.", "Bhishma lets her leave to marry the king of Shalva, but Shalva refuses to marry her, still smarting at his humiliation at the hands of Bhishma.", "Amba then returns to marry Bhishma but he refuses due to his vow of celibacy.", "Amba becomes enraged and becomes Bhishma's bitter enemy, holding him responsible for her plight.", "She vows to kill him in her next life.", "Later she is reborn to King Drupada as Shikhandi (or Shikhandini) and causes Bhishma's fall, with the help of Arjuna, in the battle of Kurukshetra.=== The Pandava and Kaurava princes ===Draupadi with her five husbands – the Pandavas.", "The central figure is Yudhishthira; the two on the bottom are Bhima and Arjuna.", "Nakula and Sahadeva, the twins, are standing.", "Painting by Raja Ravi Varma, .When Vichitravirya dies young without any heirs, Satyavati asks her first son Vyasa to father children with the widows.", "The eldest, Ambika, shuts her eyes when she sees him, and so her son Dhritarashtra is born blind.", "Ambalika turns pale and bloodless upon seeing him, and thus her son Pandu is born pale and unhealthy (the term Pandu may also mean 'jaundiced').", "Due to the physical challenges of the first two children, Satyavati asks Vyasa to try once again.", "However, Ambika and Ambalika send their maid instead, to Vyasa's room.", "Vyasa fathers a third son, Vidura, by the maid.", "He is born healthy and grows up to be one of the wisest figures in the ''Mahabharata''.", "He serves as Prime Minister (Mahamantri or Mahatma) to King Pandu and King Dhritarashtra.When the princes grow up, Dhritarashtra is about to be crowned king by Bhishma when Vidura intervenes and uses his knowledge of politics to assert that a blind person cannot be king.", "This is because a blind man cannot control and protect his subjects.", "The throne is then given to Pandu because of Dhritarashtra's blindness.", "Pandu marries twice, to Kunti and Madri.", "Dhritarashtra marries Gandhari, a princess from Gandhara, who blindfolds herself for the rest of her life so that she may feel the pain that her husband feels.", "Her brother Shakuni is enraged by this and vows to take revenge on the Kuru family.", "One day, when Pandu is relaxing in the forest, he hears the sound of a wild animal.", "He shoots an arrow in the direction of the sound.", "However, the arrow hits the sage Kindama, who was engaged in a sexual act in the guise of a deer.", "He curses Pandu that if he engages in a sexual act, he will die.", "Pandu then retires to the forest along with his two wives, and his brother Dhritarashtra rules thereafter, despite his blindness.Pandu's older queen Kunti, however, had been given a boon by Sage Durvasa that she could invoke any god using a special mantra.", "Kunti uses this boon to ask Dharma the god of justice, Vayu the god of the wind, and Indra the lord of the heavens for sons.", "She gives birth to three sons, Yudhishthira, Bhima, and Arjuna, through these gods.", "Kunti shares her mantra with the younger queen Madri, who bears the twins Nakula and Sahadeva through the Ashwini twins.", "However, Pandu and Madri indulge in lovemaking, and Pandu dies.", "Madri commits suicide out of remorse.", "Kunti raises the five brothers, who are from then on usually referred to as the Pandava brothers.Dhritarashtra has a hundred sons, and one daughter—Duhsala—through Gandhari, all born after the birth of Yudhishthira.", "These are the Kaurava brothers, the eldest being Duryodhana, and the second Dushasana.", "Other Kaurava brothers were Vikarna and Sukarna.", "The rivalry and enmity between them and the Pandava brothers, from their youth and into manhood, leads to the Kurukshetra war.=== Lakshagraha (the house of lac) ===After the deaths of their mother (Madri) and father (Pandu), the Pandavas and their mother Kunti return to the palace of Hastinapur.", "Yudhishthira is made Crown Prince by Dhritarashtra, under considerable pressure from his courtiers.", "Dhritarashtra wanted his son Duryodhana to become king and lets his ambition get in the way of preserving justice.Shakuni, Duryodhana, and Dushasana plot to get rid of the Pandavas.", "Shakuni calls the architect Purochana to build a palace out of flammable materials like lac and ghee.", "He then arranges for the Pandavas and the Queen Mother Kunti to stay there, intending to set it alight.", "However, the Pandavas are warned by their wise uncle, Vidura, who sends them a miner to dig a tunnel.", "They can escape to safety and go into hiding.", "During this time Bhima marries a demoness Hidimbi and has a son Ghatotkacha.", "Back in Hastinapur, the Pandavas and Kunti are presumed dead.=== Marriage to Draupadi ===Arjuna piercing the eye of the fish as depicted in Chennakeshava Temple, Belur built by Hoysala EmpireWhilst they were in hiding the Pandavas learn of a swayamvara which is taking place for the hand of the Pāñcāla princess Draupadī.", "The Pandavas disguised as Brahmins come to witness the event.", "Meanwhile, Krishna who has already befriended Draupadi, tells her to look out for Arjuna (though now believed to be dead).", "The task was to string a mighty steel bow and shoot a target on the ceiling, which was the eye of a moving artificial fish while looking at its reflection in oil below.", "In popular versions, after all the princes fail, many being unable to lift the bow, Karna proceeds to the attempt but is interrupted by Draupadi who refuses to marry a suta (this has been excised from the Critical Edition of Mahabharata as later interpolation).", "After this the swayamvara is opened to the Brahmins leading Arjuna to win the contest and marry Draupadi.", "The Pandavas return home and inform their meditating mother that Arjuna has won a competition and to look at what they have brought back.", "Without looking, Kunti asks them to share whatever Arjuna has won amongst themselves, thinking it to be alms.", "Thus, Draupadi ends up being the wife of all five brothers.=== Indraprastha ===After the wedding, the Pandava brothers are invited back to Hastinapura.", "The Kuru family elders and relatives negotiate and broker a split of the kingdom, with the Pandavas obtaining and demanding only a wild forest inhabited by Takshaka, the king of snakes, and his family.", "Through hard work, the Pandavas build a new glorious capital for the territory at Indraprastha.Shortly after this, Arjuna elopes with and then marries Krishna's sister, Subhadra.", "Yudhishthira wishes to establish his position as king; he seeks Krishna's advice.", "Krishna advises him, and after due preparation and the elimination of some opposition, Yudhishthira carries out the ''rājasūya yagna'' ceremony; he is thus recognized as pre-eminent among kings.The Pandavas have a new palace built for them, by Maya the Danava.", "They invite their Kaurava cousins to Indraprastha.", "Duryodhana walks round the palace, and mistakes a glossy floor for water, and will not step in.", "After being told of his error, he then sees a pond and assumes it is not water and falls in.", "Bhima, Arjuna, the twins and the servants laugh at him.", "In popular adaptations, this insult is wrongly attributed to Draupadi, even though in the Sanskrit epic, it was the Pandavas (except Yudhishthira) who had insulted Duryodhana.", "Enraged by the insult, and jealous at seeing the wealth of the Pandavas, Duryodhana decides to host a dice-game on Shakuni's suggestion.", "This suggestion was accepted by Yudhisthira despite the rest of the Pandavas advising him not to play.=== The dice game ===Draupadi humiliatedShakuni, Duryodhana's uncle, now arranges a dice game, playing against Yudhishthira with loaded dice.", "Shakuni's dice had magic as they were made from the bones of his siblings.", "In the dice game, Yudhishthira loses all his wealth, then his kingdom.", "Yudhishthira then gambles his brothers, himself, and finally his wife into servitude.", "The jubilant Kauravas insult the Pandavas in their helpless state and even try to disrobe Draupadi in front of the entire court, but Draupadi's disrobe is prevented by Krishna, who miraculously make her dress endless, therefore it couldn't be removed.Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other elders are aghast at the situation, but Duryodhana is adamant that there is no place for two crown princes in Hastinapura.", "Against his wishes Dhritarashtra orders for another dice game.", "The Pandavas are required to go into exile for 12 years, and in the 13th year, they must remain hidden.", "If they are discovered by the Kauravas in the 13th year of their exile, then they will be forced into exile for another 12 years.=== Exile and return ===The Pandavas spend thirteen years in exile; many adventures occur during this time.", "The Pandavas acquire many divine weapons, given by gods, during this period.", "They also prepare alliances for a possible future conflict.", "They spend their final year in disguise in the court of the king Virata, and they are discovered just after the end of the year.At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha with Krishna as their emissary.", "However, this negotiation fails, because Duryodhana objected that they were discovered in the 13th year of their exile and the return of their kingdom was not agreed upon.", "Then the Pandavas fought the Kauravas, claiming their rights over Indraprastha.A scene from the ''Mahabharata'' war, alt=A black stone relief depicting several men wearing a crown and a dhoti, fighting with spears, swords, and bows.", "A chariot with half the horse out of the frame is seen in the middle.=== The battle at Kurukshetra ===A map of India depicting various regions during the Mahabharata periodThe two sides summon vast armies to their help and line up at Kurukshetra for a war.", "The kingdoms of Panchala, Dwaraka, Kasi, Kekaya, Magadha, Matsya, Chedi, Pandyas, Telinga, and the Yadus of Mathura and some other clans like the Parama Kambojas were allied with the Pandavas.", "The allies of the Kauravas included the kings of Pragjyotisha, Anga, Kekaya, Sindhudesa (including Sindhus, Sauviras and Sivis), Mahishmati, Avanti in Madhyadesa, Madra, Gandhara, Bahlika people, Kambojas and many others.", "Before war was declared, Balarama had expressed his unhappiness at the developing conflict and leaves to go on pilgrimage; thus he does not take part in the battle itself.", "Krishna takes part in a non-combatant role, as charioteer (Sarathy) for Arjuna and offers Narayani Sena consisting of Abhira gopas to the Kauravas to fight on their side.Before the battle, Arjuna, noticing that the opposing army includes his cousins and relatives, including his grandfather Bhishma and his teacher Drona, has grave doubts about the fight.", "He falls into despair and refuses to fight.", "At this time, Krishna reminds him of his duty as a Kshatriya to fight for a righteous cause in the famous Bhagavad Gita section of the epic.Though initially sticking to chivalrous notions of warfare, both sides soon adopt dishonorable tactics.", "At the end of the 18-day battle, only the Pandavas, Satyaki, Kripa, Ashwatthama, Kritavarma, Yuyutsu and Krishna survive.", "Yudhisthira becomes King of Hastinapur and Gandhari curses Krishna that the downfall of his clan is imminent.=== The end of the Pandavas ===Persian translation of the ''Mahabharata''After \"seeing\" the carnage, Gandhari, who had lost all her sons, curses Krishna to be a witness to a similar annihilation of his family, for though divine and capable of stopping the war, he had not done so.", "Krishna accepts the curse, which bears fruit 36 years later.The Pandavas, who had ruled their kingdom meanwhile, decide to renounce everything.", "Clad in skins and rags they retire to the Himalaya and climb towards heaven in their bodily form.", "A stray dog travels with them.", "One by one the brothers and Draupadi fall on their way.", "As each one stumbles, Yudhishthira gives the rest the reason for their fall (Draupadi was partial to Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva were vain and proud of their looks, and Bhima and Arjuna were proud of their strength and archery skills, respectively).", "Only the virtuous Yudhishthira, who had tried everything to prevent the carnage, and the dog remain.", "The dog reveals himself to be the god Yama (also known as Yama Dharmaraja) and then takes him to the underworld where he sees his siblings and wife.", "After explaining the nature of the test, Yama takes Yudhishthira back to heaven and explains that it was necessary to expose him to the underworld because (Rajyante narakam dhruvam) any ruler has to visit the underworld at least once.", "Yama then assures him that his siblings and wife would join him in heaven after they had been exposed to the underworld for measures of time according to their vices.Arjuna's grandson Parikshit rules after them and dies bitten by a snake.", "His furious son, Janamejaya, decides to perform a snake sacrifice (''sarpasattra'') to destroy the snakes.", "It is at this sacrifice that the tale of his ancestors is narrated to him.=== The reunion ===The ''Mahābhārata'' mentions that Karna, the Pandavas, Draupadi and Dhritarashtra's sons eventually ascended to svarga and \"attained the state of the gods\", and banded together – \"serene and free from anger\"." ], [ "Themes", "The god Krishna acts as a charioteer to Arjuna in the battle of the Bhagavad Gita, a section of the Mahabharata.", "Taken from an illustrated manuscript scroll, 1795 C.E.", "held in the archive collection at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland.=== Just war ===The ''Mahābhārata'' offers one of the first instances of theorizing about ''dharmayuddha'', \"just war\", illustrating many of the standards that would be debated later across the world.", "In the story, one of five brothers asks if the suffering caused by war can ever be justified.", "A long discussion ensues between the siblings, establishing criteria like ''proportionality'' (chariots cannot attack cavalry, only other chariots; no attacking people in distress), ''just means'' (no poisoned or barbed arrows), ''just cause'' (no attacking out of rage), and fair treatment of captives and the wounded." ], [ "Translations, versions and derivative works", "=== Translations ===Bhishma on his death-bed of arrows with the Pandavas and Krishna.", "Folio from the ''Razmnama'' (1761–1763), Persian translation of the ''Mahabharata'', commissioned by Mughal emperor Akbar.", "The Pandavas are dressed in Persian armour and robes.The first Bengali translations of the ''Mahabharata'' emerged in the 16th century.", "It is disputed whether Kavindra Parameshwar of Hooghly (based in Chittagong during his writing) or Sri Sanjay of Sylhet was the first to translate it into Bengali.A Persian translation of ''Mahabharata'', titled ''Razmnameh'', was produced at Akbar's orders, by Faizi and ʽAbd al-Qadir Badayuni in the 18th century.The first complete English translation was the Victorian prose version by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, published between 1883 and 1896 (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers) and by M. N. Dutt (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers).", "Most critics consider the translation by Ganguli to be faithful to the original text.", "The complete text of Ganguli's translation is in the public domain and is available online.An early poetry translation by Romesh Chunder Dutt and published in 1898 condenses the main themes of the ''Mahābhārata'' into English verse.", "A later poetic \"transcreation\" (author's description) of the full epic into English, done by the poet P. Lal, is complete, and in 2005 began being published by Writers Workshop, Calcutta.", "The P. Lal translation is a non-rhyming verse-by-verse rendering, and is the only edition in any language to include all slokas in all recensions of the work (not just those in the ''Critical Edition'').", "The completion of the publishing project is scheduled for 2010.Sixteen of the eighteen volumes are now available.", "Dr. Pradip Bhattacharya stated that the P. Lal version is \"known in academia as the ‘vulgate'\".", "However, it has been described as \"not strictly speaking a translation\".A project to translate the full epic into English prose, translated by various hands, began to appear in 2005 from the Clay Sanskrit Library, published by New York University Press.", "The translation is based not on the ''Critical Edition'' but on the version known to the commentator Nīlakaṇṭha.", "Currently available are 15 volumes of the projected 32-volume edition.Indian Vedic Scholar Shripad Damodar Satwalekar translated the Critical Edition of Mahabharata into Hindi which was assigned to him by the Government of India.", "After his death, the task was taken up by Shrutisheel Sharma.Indian economist Bibek Debroy also wrote an unabridged English translation in ten volumes.", "Volume 1: Adi Parva was published in March 2010, and the last two volumes were published in December 2014.Abhinav Agarwal referred to Debroy's translation as \"thoroughly enjoyable and impressively scholarly\".", "In a review of the seventh volume, Bhattacharya stated that the translator bridged gaps in the narrative of the Critical Edition, but also noted translation errors.", "Gautam Chikermane of ''Hindustan Times'' wrote that where \"both Debroy and Ganguli get tiresome is in the use of adjectives while describing protagonists\".Another English prose translation of the full epic, based on the ''Critical Edition'', is in progress, published by University of Chicago Press.", "It was initiated by Indologist J.", "A.", "B. van Buitenen (books 1–5) and, following a 20-year hiatus caused by the death of van Buitenen is being continued by several scholars.", "James L. Fitzgerald translated book 11 and the first half of book 12.David Gitomer is translating book 6, Gary Tubb is translating book 7, Christopher Minkowski is translating book 8, Alf Hiltebeitel is translating books 9 and 10, Fitzgerald is translating the second half of book 12, Patrick Olivelle is translating book 13, and Fred Smith is translating book 14–18.Many condensed versions, abridgments and novelistic prose retellings of the complete epic have been published in English, including works by Ramesh Menon, William Buck, R. K. Narayan, C. Rajagopalachari, Kamala Subramaniam, K. M. Munshi, Krishna Dharma Dasa, Purnaprajna Dasa, Romesh C. Dutt, Bharadvaja Sarma, John D. Smith and Sharon Maas.=== ''Critical Edition'' ===Between 1919 and 1966, scholars at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, compared the various manuscripts of the epic from India and abroad and produced the ''Critical Edition'' of the ''Mahābhārata'', on 13,000 pages in 19 volumes, over the span of 47 years, followed by the ''Harivamsha'' in another two volumes and six index volumes.", "This is the text that is usually used in current ''Mahābhārata'' studies for reference.", "This work is sometimes called the \"Pune\" or \"Poona\" edition of the ''Mahabharata''.=== Regional versions ===Many regional versions of the work developed over time, mostly differing only in minor details, or with verses or subsidiary stories being added.", "These include the Tamil street theatre, terukkuttu and kattaikkuttu, the plays of which use themes from the Tamil language versions of ''Mahābhārata'', focusing on Draupadi.The Pandavas and Krishna in an act of the Javanese ''wayang wong'' performanceOutside the Indian subcontinent, in Indonesia, a version was developed in ancient Java as Kakawin Bhāratayuddha in the 11th century under the patronage of King Dharmawangsa (990–1016) and later it spread to the neighboring island of Bali, which remains a Hindu majority island today.", "It has become the fertile source for Javanese literature, dance drama (wayang wong), and wayang shadow puppet performances.", "This Javanese version of the ''Mahābhārata'' differs slightly from the original Indian version.", "Another notable difference is the inclusion of the Punakawans, the clown servants of the main figures in the storyline.", "These Semar, Petruk, Gareng, and Bagong, who are much-loved by Indonesian audiences.", "There are also some spin-off episodes developed in ancient Java, such as Arjunawiwaha composed in the 11th century.A Kawi version of the ''Mahabharata'', of which eight of the eighteen ''parvas'' survive, is found on the Indonesian island of Bali.", "It has been translated into English by Dr.", "I. Gusti Putu Phalgunadi.=== Derivative literature ===Bhasa, the 2nd- or 3rd-century CE Sanskrit playwright, wrote two plays on episodes in the ''Marabharata'', ''Urubhanga'' (''Broken Thigh''), about the fight between Duryodhana and Bhima, while ''Madhyamavyayoga'' (''The Middle One'') set around Bhima and his son, Ghatotkacha.", "The first important play of 20th century was ''Andha Yug'' (''The Blind Epoch''), by Dharamvir Bharati, which came in 1955, found in ''Mahabharat'', both an ideal source and expression of modern predicaments and discontent.", "Starting with Ebrahim Alkazi, it was staged by numerous directors.", "V. S. Khandekar's Marathi novel, ''Yayati'' (1960), and Girish Karnad's debut play ''Yayati'' (1961) are based on the story of King Yayati found in the ''Mahabharat''.", "Bengali writer and playwright, Buddhadeva Bose wrote three plays set in Mahabharat, ''Anamni Angana'', ''Pratham Partha'' and ''Kalsandhya''.", "Pratibha Ray wrote an award winning novel entitled Yajnaseni from Draupadi's perspective in 1984.Later, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni wrote a similar novel entitled ''The Palace of Illusions: A Novel'' in 2008.Gujarati poet Chinu Modi has written long narrative poetry ''Bahuk'' based on the figure Bahuka.", "Krishna Udayasankar, a Singapore-based Indian author, has written several novels which are modern-day retellings of the epic, most notably the Aryavarta Chronicles Series.", "Suman Pokhrel wrote a solo play based on Ray's novel by personalizing and taking Draupadi alone in the scene.Amar Chitra Katha published a 1,260-page comic book version of the ''Mahabharata''.=== In film and television ===Krishna as portrayed in Yakshagana from Karnataka which is based largely on stories of ''Mahabharata''In Indian cinema, several film versions of the epic have been made, dating back to 1920.The ''Mahābhārata'' was also reinterpreted by Shyam Benegal in ''Kalyug''.", "Prakash Jha directed 2010 film Raajneeti was partially inspired by the ''Mahabharata''.", "A 2013 animated adaptation holds the record for India's most expensive animated film.In 1988, B. R. Chopra created a television series named ''Mahabharat.''", "It was directed by Ravi Chopra, and was televised on India's national television (Doordarshan).", "The same year as ''Mahabharat'' was being shown on Doordarshan, that same company's other television show, ''Bharat Ek Khoj'', also directed by Shyam Benegal, showed a 2-episode abbreviation of the ''Mahabharata'', drawing from various interpretations of the work, be they sung, danced, or staged.", "In the Western world, a well-known presentation of the epic is Peter Brook's nine-hour play, which premiered in Avignon in 1985, and its five-hour movie version ''The Mahābhārata''.", "In the late 2013 ''Mahabharat'' was televised on STAR Plus.", "It was produced by Swastik Productions Pvt.A Zee TV television series aired from 26 October 2001 to 26 July 2002 and starred Siraj Mustafa Khan as Krishna and Suneel Mattoo as Yudhishthira.Uncompleted projects on the ''Mahābhārata'' include one by Rajkumar Santoshi, and a theatrical adaptation planned by Satyajit Ray.===In folk culture===Every year in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, villagers perform the ''Pandav Lila'', a ritual re-enactment of episodes from the ''Mahabharata'' through dancing, singing, and recitation.", "The ''lila'' is a cultural highlight of the year and is usually performed between November and February.", "Folk instruments of the region, dhol, damau and two long trumpets bhankore, accompany the action.", "The amateur actors often break into a spontaneous dance when they are \"possessed\" by the spirits of the figures of the ''Mahabharata''.=== Jain version ===Depiction of wedding procession of Neminatha.", "The enclosure shows the animals that are to be slaughtered for food for weddings.", "Overcome with Compassion for animals, Neminatha refused to marry and renounced his kingdom to become a ShramanaJain versions of ''Mahābhārata'' can be found in the various Jain texts like ''Harivamsapurana'' (the story of Harivamsa) ''Trisastisalakapurusa Caritra'' (Hagiography of 63 Illustrious persons), ''Pandavacharitra'' (lives of Pandavas) and ''Pandavapurana'' (stories of Pandavas).", "From the earlier canonical literature, ''Antakrddaaśāh'' (8th cannon) and ''Vrisnidasa'' (''upangagama'' or secondary canon) contain the stories of Neminatha (22nd Tirthankara), Krishna and Balarama.", "Prof. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain Puranas.", "Instead, they serve as names of two distinct classes of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half of time cycles of the Jain cosmology and rule half the earth as half-chakravartins.", "Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the Jinacharitra by Bhadrabahu swami (4th–3rd century BCE).", "According to Jain cosmology Balarama, Krishna and Jarasandha are the ninth and the last set of Baladeva, Vasudeva, and Prativasudeva.", "The main battle is not the Mahabharata, but the fight between Krishna and Jarasandha (who is killed by Krishna as Prativasudevas are killed by Vasudevas).", "Ultimately, the Pandavas and Balarama take renunciation as Jain monks and are reborn in heavens, while on the other hand Krishna and Jarasandha are reborn in hell.", "In keeping with the law of karma, Krishna is reborn in hell for his exploits (sexual and violent) while Jarasandha for his evil ways.", "Prof. Jaini admits a possibility that perhaps because of his popularity, the Jain authors were keen to rehabilitate Krishna.", "The Jain texts predict that after his karmic term in the hell is over sometime during the next half time-cycle, Krishna will be reborn as a Jain Tirthankara and attain liberation.", "Krishna and Balrama are shown as contemporaries and cousins of 22nd Tirthankara, Neminatha.", "According to this story, Krishna arranged young Neminath's marriage with Rajemati, the daughter of Ugrasena, but Neminatha, empathizing with the animals which were to be slaughtered for the marriage feast, left the procession suddenly and renounced the world." ], [ "Kuru family tree" ], [ "Cultural influence", "In the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies, with examples and analogies.", "This has led to the ''Gita'' often being described as a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a practical, self-contained guide to life.", "In more modern times, Swami Vivekananda, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and many others used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.It has also inspired several works of modern Hindi literature, such as Ramdhari Singh Dinkar's ''Rashmirathi'', which is a rendition of ''Mahabharata'' centered around Karna and his conflicts.", "It was written in 1952, and won the prestigious Jnanpith Award in 1972." ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General sources", "* Badrinath, Chaturvedi.", "''The Mahābhārata: An Inquiry in the Human Condition'', New Delhi, Orient Longman (2006).", "* Bandyopadhyaya, Jayantanuja (2008). ''", "Class and Religion in Ancient India''.", "Anthem Press.", "* * Bhasin, R. V. ''Mahabharata'' published by National Publications, India, 2007.", "* J. Brockington. ''", "The Sanskrit Epics'', Leiden (1998).", "* Buitenen, Johannes Adrianus Bernardus (1978). ''", "The Mahābhārata''.", "3 volumes (translation / publication incomplete due to his death).", "University of Chicago Press.", "* Chaitanya, Krishna (K.K.", "Nair).", "''The Mahabharata, A Literary Study'', Clarion Books, New Delhi 1985.", "* Gupta, S. P. and Ramachandran, K. S.", "(ed.).", "''Mahabharata: myth and reality''.", "Agam Prakashan, New Delhi 1976.", "* Hiltebeitel, Alf.", "''The Ritual of Battle, Krishna in the Mahabharata'', SUNY Press, New York 1990.", "* Hopkins, E. W. '' The Great Epic of India'', New York (1901).", "* Jyotirmayananda, Swami.", "''Mysticism of the Mahabharata'', Yoga Research Foundation, Miami 1993.", "* Katz, Ruth Cecily ''Arjuna in the Mahabharata'', University of South Carolina Press, Columbia 1989.", "* * * Lerner, Paule.", "''Astrological Key in Mahabharata'', David White (trans.)", "Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 1988.", "* Mallory, J. P (2005).", "''In Search of the Indo-Europeans''.", "Thames & Hudson.", "* Mehta, M. ''The problem of the double introduction to the Mahabharata'', JAOS 93 (1973), 547–550.", "* Minkowski, C. Z.", "''Janamehayas ''Sattra'' and Ritual Structure'', JAOS 109 (1989), 410–420.", "* Minkowski, C. Z.", "'Snakes, ''Sattras'' and the Mahabharata', in: ''Essays on the Mahabharata'', ed.", "A. Sharma, Leiden (1991), 384–400.", "* Oldenberg, Hermann.", "''Zur Geschichte der Altindischen Prosa'', Berlin (1917)* Oberlies, Th.", "'The Counsels of the Seer Narada: Ritual on and under the surface of the Mahabharata', in: '' New methods in the research of epic'' (ed.", "H. L. C. Tristram), Freiburg (1998).", "* Oldenberg, H. ''Das Mahabharata'', Göttingen (1922).", "* Pāṇini.", "''Ashtādhyāyī''.", "Book 4.Translated by Chandra Vasu.", "Benares, 1896.", "* Pargiter, F. E. ''Ancient Indian Historical Tradition'', London 1922.Repr.", "Motilal Banarsidass 1997.", "* * Sukthankar, Vishnu S. and Shrimant Balasaheb Pant Pratinidhi (1933).", "''The Mahabharata: for the first time critically edited''.", "Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.", "* Sullivan, Bruce M. ''Seer of the Fifth Veda, Krsna Dvaipayana Vyasa in the Mahabharata'', Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 1999.", "* Sutton, Nicholas. ''", "Religious Doctrines in the Mahabharata'', Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 2000.", "* Utgikar, N. B.", "\"The mention of the Mahābhārata in the Ashvalayana Grhya Sutra\", Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, Poona (1919), vol.", "2, Poona (1922), 46–61.", "* Vaidya, R. V. ''A Study of Mahabharat; A Research'', Poona, A.V.G.", "Prakashan, 1967* Witzel, Michael, ''Epics, Khilas and Puranas: Continuities and Ruptures'', Proceedings of the Third Dubrovnik International Conference on the Sanskrit Epics and Puranas, ed.", "P. Koskiallio, Zagreb (2005), 21–80." ], [ "External links", "* Sacred-Texts: Hinduism – English translation of 18 parvas of ''Mahabharata''* harivamsham – mahaabhaarat khila parva – English translation of harivamsa Parva of ''Mahabharata''* Sanskrit etext of the ''Mahābhārata'' online (licensed and approved by BORI)* All volumes in 12 PDF files (Holybooks.com, 181 MB in total)* Reading Suggestions, J. L. Fitzgerald, Das Professor of Sanskrit, Department of Classics, Brown University* Critical Edition Prepared by Scholars at Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute BORI*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mein Kampf" ], [ "Introduction", " (; ) is a 1925 autobiographical manifesto by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler.", "The work describes the process by which Hitler became antisemitic and outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany.", "Volume 1 of was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926.The book was edited first by Emil Maurice, then by Hitler's deputy Rudolf Hess.Hitler began while imprisoned following his failed coup in Munich in November 1923 and a trial in February 1924 for high treason, in which he received a sentence of five years.", "Although he received many visitors initially, he soon devoted himself entirely to the book.", "As he continued, he realized that it would have to be a two-volume work, with the first volume scheduled for release in early 1925.The governor of Landsberg noted at the time that \"he Hitler hopes the book will run into many editions, thus enabling him to fulfill his financial obligations and to defray the expenses incurred at the time of his trial.\"", "After slow initial sales, the book became a bestseller in Germany following Hitler's rise to power in 1933.After Hitler's death, copyright of passed to the state government of Bavaria, which refused to allow any copying or printing of the book in Germany.", "In 2016, following the expiration of the copyright held by the Bavarian state government, was republished in Germany for the first time since 1945, which prompted public debate and divided reactions from Jewish groups.", "A team of scholars from the Institute of Contemporary History in Munich published a German language two-volume almost 2,000-page edition annotated with about 3,500 notes.", "This was followed in 2021 by a 1,000-page French edition based on the German annotated version, with about twice as much commentary as text." ], [ "Title", "Hitler originally wanted to call his forthcoming book (''Four and a Half Years of Struggle Against Lies, Stupidity and Cowardice'').", "Max Amann, head of the Franz Eher Verlag and Hitler's publisher, is said to have suggested the much shorter (''\"My Struggle\"'')." ], [ "Contents", "The arrangement of chapters is as follows:*Volume One: A Reckoning**Chapter 1: In the House of My Parents**Chapter 2: Years of Study and Suffering in Vienna**Chapter 3: General Political Considerations Based on My Vienna Period**Chapter 4: Munich**Chapter 5: The World War**Chapter 6: War Propaganda**Chapter 7: The Revolution**Chapter 8: The Beginning of My Political Activity**Chapter 9: The \"German Workers' Party\"**Chapter 10: Causes of the Collapse**Chapter 11: Nation and Race**Chapter 12: The First Period of Development of the National Socialist German Workers' Party*Volume Two: The National Socialist Movement**Chapter 1: Philosophy and Party**Chapter 2: The State**Chapter 3: Subjects and Citizens**Chapter 4: Personality and the Conception of the State**Chapter 5: Philosophy and Organization**Chapter 6: The Struggle of the Early Period – the Significance of the Spoken Word**Chapter 7: The Struggle with the Red Front**Chapter 8: The Strong Man Is Mightiest Alone**Chapter 9: Basic Ideas Regarding the Meaning and Organization of the Sturmabteilung**Chapter 10: Federalism as a Mask**Chapter 11: Propaganda and Organization**Chapter 12: The Trade-Union Question**Chapter 13: German Alliance Policy After the War**Chapter 14: Eastern Orientation or Eastern Policy**Chapter 15: The Right of Emergency Defense*Conclusion*Index" ], [ "Analysis", "In , Hitler used the main thesis of \"the Jewish peril\", which posits a Jewish conspiracy to gain world leadership.", "The narrative describes the process by which he became increasingly antisemitic and militaristic, especially during his years in Vienna.", "He speaks of not having met a Jew until he arrived in Vienna, and that at first his attitude was liberal and tolerant.", "When he first encountered the antisemitic press, he says, he dismissed it as unworthy of serious consideration.", "Later he accepted the same antisemitic views, which became crucial to his program of national reconstruction of Germany.", "has also been studied as a work on political theory.", "For example, Hitler announces his hatred of what he believed to be the world's two evils: communism and Judaism.In the book, Hitler blamed Germany's chief woes on the parliament of the Weimar Republic, the Jews, and Social Democrats, as well as Marxists, though he believed that Marxists, Social Democrats, and the parliament were all working for Jewish interests.", "He announced that he wanted to destroy the parliamentary system completely, believing it to be corrupt in principle, as those who reach power are inherent opportunists.===Antisemitism===While historians dispute the exact date Hitler decided to exterminate the Jewish people, few place the decision before the mid-1930s.", "First published in 1925, shows Hitler's personal grievances and his ambitions for creating a New Order.", "Hitler also wrote that ''The Protocols of the Elders of Zion'', a fabricated text that purported to expose a Jewish plot to control the world, was an authentic document.", "This later became a part of the Nazi propaganda effort to justify persecution and annihilation of the Jews.The historian Ian Kershaw observed that several passages in are undeniably of a genocidal nature.", "Hitler wrote \"the nationalization of our masses will succeed only when, aside from all the positive struggle for the soul of our people, their international poisoners are exterminated\", and he suggested that, \"If at the beginning of the war and during the war twelve or fifteen thousand of these Hebrew corrupters of the nation had been subjected to poison gas, such as had to be endured in the field by hundreds of thousands of our very best German workers of all classes and professions, then the sacrifice of millions at the front would not have been in vain.", "\"The racial laws to which Hitler referred resonate directly with his ideas in .", "In the first edition, Hitler stated that the destruction of the weak and sick is far more humane than their protection.", "Apart from this allusion to humane treatment, Hitler saw a purpose in destroying \"the weak\" in order to provide the proper space and purity for the \"strong\".===Anti-Slavism and (''living space'')===Hitler described that, when he was in Vienna, it was repugnant for him to see the mixture of races \"of Czechs, Poles, Hungarians, Ruthenians, Serbs and Croats, and always that infection which dissolves human society, the Jew, were all here and there and everywhere.", "\"He also wrote that he viewed the Japanese victory over the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904 as a \"blow to Austrian Slavism\".In the chapter \"Eastern Orientation or Eastern Policy\", Hitler argued that the Germans needed in the East, a \"historic destiny\" that would properly nurture the German people.", "Hitler believed that \"the organization of a Russian state formation was not the result of the political abilities of the Slavs in Russia, but only a wonderful example of the state-forming efficacy of the German element in an inferior race.", "\"In , Hitler openly described his proposed future German expansion in the East, foreshadowing Generalplan Ost:Hitler wrote that he was against any attempts to Germanise Slavs and criticised the previous attempts at trying to Germanise the Austrian Slavs.", "He also criticised people in pan-German movements in Germany who thought that forcing ethnic Poles living in Germany to speak the German language would turn them into Germans; he believed that would have caused a \"foreign race\" by its own \"inferiority\" to damage the \"dignity\" and \"nobility\" of the German nation." ], [ "Sales", "Arabic edition of Mein KampfAlthough Hitler originally wrote mostly for the followers of National Socialism, interest in the work grew after his rise to power.", "(Two other books written by party members, Gottfried Feder's ''Breaking The Interest Slavery'' and Alfred Rosenberg's ''The Myth of the Twentieth Century'', have since lapsed into comparative literary obscurity.)", "Hitler had made about from the income of the book by 1933 (), when the average annual income of a teacher was about ().", "He accumulated a tax debt of (very roughly, at 2015 values, £1.1million, 1.4million EUR, US$1.5million) from the sale of about 240,000 copies before he became chancellor in 1933 (at which time his debt was waived).Hitler began to distance himself from the book after becoming chancellor of Germany in 1933.He dismissed it as \"fantasies behind bars\" that were little more than a series of articles for the , and later told Hans Frank that \"If I had had any idea in 1924 that I would have become Reich chancellor, I never would have written the book.\"", "Nevertheless, was a bestseller in Germany during the 1930s.", "During Hitler's years in power, the book was in high demand in libraries and often reviewed and quoted in other publications.", "It was given free to every newlywed couple and every soldier fighting at the front.", "By 1939, it had sold 5.2 million copies in eleven languages.", "By the end of the war, about 10 million copies of the book had been sold or distributed in Germany." ], [ "Contemporary observations", ", in essence, lays out the ideological program Hitler established for the Holocaust, by identifying the Jews and \"Bolsheviks\" as racially and ideologically inferior and threatening, and \"Aryans\" and National Socialists as racially superior and politically progressive.", "Hitler's revolutionary goals included expulsion of the Jews from Greater Germany and the unification of German peoples into one Greater Germany.", "Hitler desired to restore German lands to their greatest historical extent, real or imagined.Due to its racist content and the historical effect of Nazism upon Europe during World War II and the Holocaust, it is considered a highly controversial book.", "Criticism has not come solely from opponents of Nazism.", "Italian fascist dictator and Nazi ally Benito Mussolini was also critical of the book, saying that it was \"a boring tome that I have never been able to read\" and remarking that Hitler's beliefs, as expressed in the book, were \"little more than commonplace clichés\".The German journalist Konrad Heiden, an early critic of the Nazi Party, observed that the content of is essentially a political argument with other members of the Nazi Party who had appeared to be Hitler's friends, but whom he was actually denouncing in the book's content — sometimes by not even including references to them.The American literary theorist and philosopher Kenneth Burke wrote a 1939 rhetorical analysis of the work, ''The Rhetoric of Hitler's \"Battle\"'', which revealed an underlying message of aggressive intent.The American journalist John Gunther said in 1940 that compared to autobiographies such as Leon Trotsky's ''My Life'' or Henry Adams's ''The Education of Henry Adams'', was \"vapid, vain, rhetorical, diffuse, prolix.\"", "However, he added that \"it is a powerful and moving book, the product of great passionate feeling\".", "He suggested that the book exhausted curious German readers, but its \"ceaseless repetition of the argument, left impregnably in their minds, fecund and germinating\".In March 1940, British writer George Orwell reviewed a then-recently published uncensored translation of for ''The New English Weekly''.", "Orwell suggested that the force of Hitler's personality shone through the often \"clumsy\" writing, capturing the magnetic allure of Hitler for many Germans.", "In essence, Orwell notes, Hitler offers only visions of endless struggle and conflict in the creation of \"a horrible brainless empire\" that \"stretches to Afghanistan or thereabouts\".", "He wrote, \"Whereas Socialism, and even capitalism in a more grudging way, have said to people 'I offer you a good time,' Hitler has said to them, 'I offer you struggle, danger, and death,' and as a result a whole nation flings itself at his feet.\"", "Orwell's review was written in the aftermath of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, when Hitler made peace with the USSR after more than a decade of vitriolic rhetoric and threats between the two nations; with the pact in place, Orwell believed, England was now facing a risk of Nazi attack and the UK must not underestimate the appeal of Hitler's ideas.In his 1943 book ''The Menace of the Herd'', Austrian scholar Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn described Hitler's ideas in and elsewhere as \"a veritable of 'progressive' thought\" and betraying \"a curious lack of original thought\" that shows Hitler offered no innovative or original ideas but was merely \"a ''virtuoso'' of commonplaces which he may or may not repeat in the guise of a 'new discovery.'\"", "Hitler's stated aim, Kuehnelt-Leddihn writes, is to quash individualism in furtherance of political goals:In his ''The Second World War'', published in several volumes in the late 1940s and early 1950s, Winston Churchill wrote that he felt that after Hitler's ascension to power, no other book than deserved more intensive scrutiny." ], [ "Later analysis", "The critic George Steiner suggested that can be seen as one of several books that resulted from the crisis of German culture following Germany's defeat in World War I, comparable in this respect to the philosopher Ernst Bloch's ''The Spirit of Utopia'' (1918), the historian Oswald Spengler's ''The Decline of the West'' (1918), the theologian Franz Rosenzweig's ''The Star of Redemption'' (1921), the theologian Karl Barth's ''The Epistle to the Romans'' (1922), and the philosopher Martin Heidegger's ''Being and Time'' (1927)." ], [ "Criticism by translators", "A number of translators have commented on the poor quality of Hitler's use of language in writing ''Mein Kampf''.", "Olivier Mannoni, who translated the 2021 French critical edition, said about the original German text that it was \"An incoherent soup, one could become half-mad translating it,\" and said that previous translations had corrected the language, giving the false impression that Hitler was a \"cultured man\" with \"coherent and grammatically correct reasoning\".", "He added \"To me, making this text elegant is a crime.\"", "Mannoni's comments are similar to those made by Ralph Manheim, who did the first English-language translation in 1943.Mannheim wrote in the foreword to the edition \"Where Hitler's formulations challenge the reader's credulity I have quoted the German original in the notes.\"", "This evaluation of the poor quality of Hitler's prose and his inability to express his opinions coherently was shared by William S. Schlamm, who reviewed Manheim's translation in ''The New York Times'', writing that \"there was not the faintest similarity to a thought and barely a trace of language.\"" ], [ "German publication history", "While Hitler was in power (1933–1945), came to be available in three common editions.", "The first, the or People's Edition, featured the original cover on the dust jacket and was navy blue underneath with a gold swastika eagle embossed on the cover.", "The , or Wedding Edition, in a slipcase with the seal of the province embossed in gold onto a parchment-like cover was given free to marrying couples.", "In 1940, the , or Knapsack Edition, was released.", "This edition was a compact, but unabridged, version in a red cover and was released by the post office, available to be sent to loved ones fighting at the front.", "These three editions combined both volumes into the same book.A special edition was published in 1939 in honour of Hitler's 50th birthday.", "This edition was known as the , or Anniversary Issue.", "It came in both dark blue and bright red boards with a gold sword on the cover.", "This work contained both volumes one and two.", "It was considered a deluxe version, relative to the smaller and more common .The book could also be purchased as a two-volume set during Hitler's rule and was available in soft cover and hardcover.", "The soft cover edition contained the original cover (as pictured at the top of this article).", "The hardcover edition had a leather spine with cloth-covered boards.", "The cover and spine contained an image of three brown oak leaves.===2016 critical edition===Along with the rest of his wealth and property, Hitler left the rights to the book to the German state.", "As Hitler's official place of residence was in Munich, the copyright passed to the government of Bavaria, which refused to allow it to be republished.", "The copyright ran out on December 31, 2015.On 3 February 2010, the Institute of Contemporary History (IfZ) in Munich announced plans to republish an annotated version of the text, for educational purposes in schools and universities, in 2015.The book had last been published in Germany in 1945.The IfZ argued that a republication was necessary to get an authoritative annotated edition by the time the copyright ran out, which might open the way for neo-Nazi groups to publish their own versions.", "The Bavarian Finance Ministry opposed the plan, citing respect for victims of the Holocaust.", "It stated that permits for reprints would not be issued, at home or abroad.", "This would also apply to a new annotated edition.There was disagreement about the issue of whether the republished book might be banned as Nazi propaganda.", "The Bavarian government emphasized that even after expiration of the copyright, \"the dissemination of Nazi ideologies will remain prohibited in Germany and is punishable under the penal code\".", "However, the Bavarian Science Minister Wolfgang Heubisch supported a critical edition, stating in 2010: \"Once Bavaria's copyright expires, there is the danger of charlatans and neo-Nazis appropriating this infamous book for themselves.", "\"On 12 December 2013, the Bavarian government cancelled its financial support for an annotated edition.", "IfZ, which was preparing the translation, announced that it intended to proceed with publication after the copyright expired.", "The IfZ scheduled an edition of for release in 2016.Richard Verber, vice-president of the Board of Deputies of British Jews, stated in 2015 that the board trusted the academic and educational value of republishing.", "\"We would, of course, be very wary of any attempt to glorify Hitler or to belittle the Holocaust in any way,\" Verber declared to ''The Observer''.", "\"But this is not that.", "I do understand how some Jewish groups could be upset and nervous, but it seems it is being done from a historical point of view and to put it in context.", "\"The annotated edition of was published in Germany in January 2016 and sold out within hours on Amazon's German site.", "The two-volume edition included about 3,500 notes and was almost 2,000 pages long.", "Usually, according to Gerhard Weinberg, the information in the annotated edition that accompanies a chapter is mostly about when the chapter was written, though \"in some cases\" there is commentary on the nature and argument of the chapter.The book's publication led to public debate in Germany, and divided reactions from Jewish groups, with some supporting, and others opposing, the decision to publish.", "German officials had previously said they would limit public access to the text amid fears that its republication could stir neo-Nazi sentiment.", "Some bookstores stated that they would not stock the book.", "Dussmann, a Berlin bookstore, stated that one copy was available on the shelves in the history section, but that it would not be advertised, and more copies would be available only on order.", "By January 2017, the German annotated edition had sold over 85,000 copies.Gerhard Weinberg wrote a generally positive review of the annotated edition, praising the choice to include not only editors' comments but also changes of the original text.", "He said that notes such as those of chapters eight and nine \"will be extremely helpful\" about the situation in the time of Hitler's entry into politics and lauded the notes to chapter 11 (\"People and Race\") as \"extensive and very helpful\" as well.", "On the negative side, Weinberg observed that the editors make a false correction at one point; that they miss an informative book on German atrocities during World War I; that they include a survey of Nazi membership too late; and that all of his own work on Hitler goes unmentioned in the bibliography." ], [ "English translations", "Ever since the early 1930s, the history of ''Mein Kampf'' in English has been complicated and an occasion for controversy.", "No fewer than four full translations were completed before 1945, as well as a number of extracts in newspapers, pamphlets, government documents and unpublished typescripts.", "Not all of these had official approval from his publishers, Eher Verlag.", "Since the war, the 1943 Ralph Manheim translation has been the most commonly published translation, though other versions have continued to circulate." ], [ "Current availability", "At the time of his suicide, Hitler's official place of residence was in Munich, which led to his entire estate, including all rights to , changing to the ownership of the state of Bavaria.", "The government of Bavaria, in agreement with the federal government of Germany, refused to allow any copying or printing of the book in Germany.", "It also opposed copying and printing in other countries, but with less success.", "Under German copyright law, the entire text entered the public domain on 1 January 2016, upon the expiration of the calendar year 70 years after the author's death.Owning and buying the book in Germany is not an offence.", "Trading in old copies is lawful as well, unless it is done in such a fashion as to \"promote hatred or war.\"", "In particular, the unmodified edition is not covered by §86 StGB that forbids dissemination of means of propaganda of unconstitutional organizations, since it is a \"pre-constitutional work\" and as such cannot be opposed to the free and democratic basic order, according to a 1979 decision of the Federal Court of Justice of Germany.", "Most German libraries carry heavily commented and excerpted versions of .", "In 2008, Stephan Kramer, secretary-general of the Central Council of Jews in Germany, not only recommended lifting the ban, but volunteered the help of his organization in editing and annotating the text, saying that it is time for the book to be made available to all online.A variety of restrictions or special circumstances apply in other countries.=== France ===In 1934, the French government unofficially sponsored the publication of an unauthorized translation.", "It was meant as a warning and included a critical introduction by Marshal Lyautey (\"Every Frenchman must read this book\").", "It was published by far-right publisher Fernand Sorlot in an agreement with the activists of LICRA who bought 5,000 copies to be offered to \"influential people\"; however, most of them treated the book as a casual gift and did not read it.", "The Nazi regime unsuccessfully tried to have it forbidden.", "Hitler, as the author, and Eher-Verlag, his German publisher, had to sue for copyright infringement in the Commercial Court of France.", "Hitler's lawsuit succeeded in having all copies seized, the print broken up, and having an injunction against booksellers offering any copies.", "However, a large quantity of books had already been shipped and stayed available undercover by Sorlot.In 1938, Hitler licensed for France an authorized edition by Fayard, translated by François Dauture and Georges Blond, lacking the threatening tone against France of the original.", "The French edition was 347 pages long, while the original title was 687 pages, and it was titled (\"My doctrine\").After the war, Fernand Sorlot re-edited, re-issued, and continued to sell the work, without permission from the state of Bavaria, to which the author's rights had defaulted.In the 1970s, the rise of the extreme right in France along with the growing of Holocaust denial works, placed the under judicial watch and in 1978, LICRA entered a complaint in the courts against the publisher for inciting antisemitism.", "Sorlot received a \"substantial fine\" but the court also granted him the right to continue publishing the work, provided certain warnings and qualifiers accompany the text.On 1 January 2016, 70 years after Hitler's death, entered the public domain in France.A new edition was published in 2017 by Fayard, now part of the Groupe Hachette, with a critical introduction, just as the edition published in 2018 in Germany by the , the Institute of Contemporary History based in Munich.In 2021, a 1,000-page critical edition, based on the German edition of 2016, was published in France.", "Titled ''Historiciser le mal: Une édition critique de Mein Kampf'' (\"Historicizing Evil: A Critical Edition of Mein Kampf\"), with almost twice as much commentary as text, it was edited by Florent Brayard and Andraes Wirsching, translated by Olivier Mannoni, and published by Fayard.", "The print run was deliberately kept small at 10,000 available only by special order, with copies set aside for public libraries.", "Proceeds from the sale of the edition are earmarked for the Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation.", "Some critics who had objected in advance to the edition's publication had fewer objections upon publication.", "One historian noted that there were so many annotations that Hitler's text had become \"secondary.", "\"===India===Since its first publication in India in 1928, has gone through hundreds of editions and sold over 100,000 copies.", "was translated into various Indian languages such as Hindi, Gujarati, Malayalam, Tamil and Bengali.===Israel===An extract of ''Mein Kampf'' in Hebrew was first published in 1992 by Akadamon in a run of 400 copies.", "The complete translation of the book in Hebrew was published by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1995.The translator was Dan Yaron, a Vienna-born retired teacher and Holocaust survivor.===Latvia===On 5 May 1995, a translation of released by a small Latvian publishing house began appearing in bookstores, provoking a reaction from Latvian authorities, who confiscated the approximately 2,000 copies that had made their way to the bookstores and charged director of the publishing house Pēteris Lauva with offences under anti-racism law.", "Currently the publication of is forbidden in Latvia.In April 2018, multiple Russian-language news sites (Baltnews, Zvezda, Sputnik, Komsomolskaya Pravda and Komprava among others) reported that Adolf Hitler had allegedly become more popular in Latvia than Harry Potter, referring to a Latvian online book trading platform ibook.lv, where had appeared at the No.", "1 position in \"The Most Current Books in 7 Days\" list.In research done by Polygraph.info who called the claim \"false\", ibook.lv was only the 878th most popular website and 149th most popular shopping site in Latvia at the time, according to Alexa Internet.", "In addition to that, the website only had 4 copies on sale by individual users and no users wishing to purchase the book.", "Owner of ibook.lv pointed out that the book list is not based on actual deals, but rather page views, of which 70% in the case of had come from anonymous and unregistered users she believed could be fake users.", "Ambassador of Latvia to the Russian Federation Māris Riekstiņš responded to the story by tweeting \"everyone, who wishes to know what books are actually bought and read in Latvia, are advised to address the largest book stores @JanisRoze; @valtersunrapa; @zvaigzneabc\".", "The BBC also acknowledged the story was fake news, adding that in the last three years had been requested for borrowing for only 139 times across all libraries in Latvia, in comparison with around 25,000 requests for books about Harry Potter.===Netherlands===In the Netherlands, was not available for sale for years following World War II.", "Sale has been prohibited since a court ruling in the 1980s.", "In September 2018, however, Dutch publisher Prometheus officially released an academic edition of the 2016 German translation with comprehensive introductions and annotations by Dutch historians.", "The book is widely available to the general public in the Netherlands for the first time since World War II.===Romania===On 20 April 1993, under the sponsorship of the vice-president of the Democratic Agrarian Party of Romania, Sibiu-based ''Pacific'' publishers began issuing a Romanian edition of ''Mein Kampf''.", "The local authorities promptly banned the sale and confiscated the copies, citing Article 166 of the Penal Code.", "Nevertheless, the ban was overturned on appeal by the Prosecutor General on 27 May 1993.Chief Rabbi Moses Rosen protested, and on 10 July 1993 President Ion Iliescu asked the Prosecutor General in writing to reinstate the ban of further printing and have the book withdrawn from the market.", "On 8 November 1993, the Prosecutor General rebuffed Iliescu, stating that the publication of the book was an act of spreading information, not conducting fascist propaganda.", "Although Iliescu deplored this answer \"in strictly judicial terms\", this was the end of the matter.===Russia===In the Soviet Union, ''Mein Kampf'' was published in 1933 in a translation by Grigory Zinoviev.", "In the Russian Federation, has been published at least three times since 1992; the Russian text is also available on websites.", "In 2006 the Public Chamber of Russia proposed banning the book.", "In 2009, St. Petersburg's branch of the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs requested to remove an annotated and hyper-linked Russian translation of the book from a historiography website.", "On 13 April 2010, it was announced that is outlawed on grounds of extremism promotion.===Sweden=== has been reprinted several times since 1945; in 1970, 1992, 2002 and 2010.In 1992 the Government of Bavaria tried to stop the publication of the book, and the case went to the Supreme Court of Sweden which ruled in favour of the publisher, stating that the book is protected by copyright, but that the copyright holder is unidentified (and not the State of Bavaria) and that the original Swedish publishing firm from 1934 was no longer in existence.", "It therefore refused the Government of Bavaria's claim.", "The only translation changes came in the 1970 edition, but they were only linguistic, based on a new Swedish standard.===Turkey===''Mein Kampf'' (Turkish: ''Kavgam'') was widely available in Turkey selling up to 100,000 copies in just two months in 2005.Analysts and commentators believe the sales of the book to be related to a rise in nationalism and anti-U.S. sentiment.", "of ''Şalom'' stated this was a result of \"what is happening in the Middle East, the Israeli-Palestinian problem and the war in Iraq.\"", "Doğu Ergil, a political scientist at Ankara University, said both far-right ultranationalists and extremist Islamists had found common ground – \"not on a common agenda for the future, but on their anxieties, fears and hate\".===United States===In the United States, can be found at many community libraries and can be bought, sold, and traded: it is protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution as a matter of the freedom of speech and of the freedom of the press.", "The U.S. government seized the copyright in September 1942 during the Second World War under the Trading with the Enemy Act and in 1979, Houghton Mifflin, the U.S. publisher of the book, bought the rights from the government pursuant to 28 CFR 0.47.More than 15,000 copies are sold a year.", "In 2016, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt reported that it was having difficulty finding a charity that would accept profits from the sales of its version of , which it had promised to donate.=== Palestinian territories ===In 1999, ''Mein Kampf'' was rated the sixth bestseller in the Palestinian territories as reported by ''Al-Hayat Al-Jadida.''", "The Arabic translation was distributed by Al-Shurouq, a Ramallah-based book distributor.=== Egypt ===In Egypt, the book was first translated into Arabic in 1937.It had a new translation in 1963 which was reprinted in 1995.The book was also displayed for sale in Cairo's state-run book fairs in 2007, 2021, and 2023.===Online availability===In 1999, the Simon Wiesenthal Center documented that the book was available in Germany via major online booksellers such as Amazon and Barnes & Noble.", "After a public outcry, both companies agreed to end these sales to addresses in Germany.", "In March 2020, Amazon banned sales of new and second-hand copies of , and several other Nazi publications, on its platform.", "The book remains available on Barnes and Noble's website.", "It is also available in multiple languages, including German, at the Internet Archive.", "One of the first complete English translations was published by James Vincent Murphy in 1939.The Murphy translation of the book is freely available on Project Gutenberg Australia." ], [ "Sequel", "After the party's poor showing in the 1928 elections, Hitler believed that the reason for his loss was the public's misunderstanding of his ideas.", "He then retired to Munich to dictate a sequel to to expand on its ideas, with more focus on foreign policy.Only two copies of the 200-page manuscript were originally made, and only one of these was ever made public.", "The document was neither edited nor published during the Nazi era and remains known as , or \"Second Book\".", "To keep the document strictly secret, in 1935 Hitler ordered that it be placed in a safe in an air raid shelter.", "It remained there until being discovered by an American officer in 1945.The authenticity of the document found in 1945 has been verified by Josef Berg, a former employee of the Nazi publishing house Eher Verlag, and Telford Taylor, a former brigadier general of the United States Army Reserve and Chief Counsel at the Nuremberg war-crimes trials.In 1958, the was found in the archives of the United States by American historian Gerhard Weinberg.", "Unable to find an American publisher, Weinberg turned to his mentor – Hans Rothfels at the Institute of Contemporary History in Munich, and his associate Martin Broszat – who published in 1961.A pirated edition was published in English in New York in 1962.The first authoritative English edition was not published until 2003 (''Hitler's Second Book: The Unpublished Sequel to Mein Kampf,'' )." ], [ "See also", "*''Berlin Without Jews'', a dystopian satirical novel about German antisemitism, published in the same year as ''Mein Kampf''*''Generalplan Ost'', Hitler's \"new order of ethnographical relations\"*''Ich Kämpfe''*Gustave Le Bon, a main influence on this book and crowd psychology*List of books banned by governments*''LTI – Lingua Tertii Imperii''*''Mein Kampf'' in Arabic*''The Myth of the Twentieth Century''" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Bibliography'''* *'''Further reading'''::'''Hitler'''*Hitler, A.", "(1925).", "''Mein Kampf'', Band 1, Verlag Franz Eher Nachfahren, München.", "(Volume 1, publishing company Fritz Eher and descendants, Munich).", "*Hitler, A.", "(1927).", "''Mein Kampf'', Band 2, Verlag Franz Eher Nachfahren, München.", "(Volume 2, after 1930 both volumes were only published in one book).", "*Hitler, A.", "(1935).", "''Zweites Buch'' (trans.)", "''Hitler's Second Book: The Unpublished Sequel to Mein Kampf by Adolf Hitler.''", "Enigma Books.", ".", "*Hitler, A.", "(1945).", "''My Political Testament.''", "Wikisource Version.", "*Hitler, A.", "(1945).", "''My Private Will and Testament.''", "Wikisource Version.", "*Hitler, A., et al.", "(1971).", "''Unmasked: two confidential interviews with Hitler in 1931.''", "Chatto & Windus.", ".", "*Hitler, A., et al.", "(1974).", "''Hitler's Letters and Notes.''", "Harper & Row.", ".", "*Hitler, A., et al.", "(2008).", "''Hitler's Table Talk.''", "Enigma Books.", ".", "*A.", "Hitler.", "''Mein Kampf'', Munich: Franz Eher Nachfolger, 1930*A. Hitler, ''Außenpolitische Standortbestimmung nach der Reichtagswahl Juni–Juli 1928'' (1929; first published as Hitlers Zweites Buch, 1961), in Hitler: Reden, Schriften, Anordnungen, Februar 1925 bis Januar 1933, Vol IIA, with an introduction by G. L. Weinberg; G. L. Weinberg, C. Hartmann and K. A. Lankheit, eds (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1995)*Christopher Browning, ''Initiating the Final Solution: The Fateful Months of September–October 1941'', Miles Lerman Center for the Study of Jewish Resistance, U.S.", "Holocaust Memorial Museum (Washington, D.C.: USHMM, 2003).", "*Gunnar Heinsohn, \"What Makes the Holocaust a Uniquely Unique Genocide\", ''Journal of Genocide Research'', vol.", "2, no.", "3 (2000): 411–430.", "* Eberhard Jäckel/Ellen Latzin, Mein Kampf (Adolf Hitler, 1925/26), published 11 May 2006, English version published 3 March 2020; in: Historisches Lexikon Bayerns::'''Others'''***** ****" ], [ "External links", "* A review of ''Mein Kampf'' by George Orwell, first published in March 1940* \"Hitler's ''Mein Kampf'' Seen as Self-Help Guide for India's Business Students\" ''The Huffington Post'', 22 April 2009* Hitler book bestseller in Turkey, BBC News, 18 March 2005* Protest at Czech Mein Kampf, BBC News, 5 June 2000* Mein Kampf a hit on Dhaka streets, BBC News, 27 November 2009* Hitler's book stirs anger in Azerbaijan, BBC News, 10 December 2004* '' \"Mein Kampf:\" – Adolf Hitler's book'' (), a Deutsche Welle television documentary covering the history of the book through contemporary media and interviews with experts and German citizens, narrated in English, 15 August 2019'''Online versions of ''Mein Kampf'''''::'''German'''* Critical edition* 1936 edition (172–173.printing) in German Fraktur script (71.4 Mb)* 1943 edition (3.8 MB)* German version as an audiobook, human-read (27h 17m, 741 Mb)::'''English '''* 1940 Mein Kampf: Operation Sea Lion Edition at archive.org * Murphy translation at Gutenberg* Murphy translation at greatwar.nl (pdf, txt) * Complete Dugdale abridgment at archive.org* 1939 Reynal and Hitchcock translation at archive.org." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Morpheus (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Morpheus''' is a god associated with sleep and dreams.", "'''Morpheus''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Characters", "* Morpheus (DC comics), a moniker for Dream, a fictional personification of dreams in the comic book series ''The Sandman''* Morpheus (Marvel Comics), a Marvel Comics character* Morpheus (''The Matrix''), a character of ''The Matrix'' franchise* King Morpheus, a fictional character in the ''Little Nemo'' comics* Morpheus, a minor artificial intelligence character in the game ''Deus Ex''* Morpheus (''Percy Jackson''), a character who appears in the last book in the ''Percy Jackson & the Olympians'' series* Morpheus D. Duvall, the principal antagonist of ''Resident Evil: Dead Aim''" ], [ "Technology", "*Morpheus (software), file-sharing client/server software operated by the company StreamCast Networks* Morpheus (morphing software), morphing software for Windows and Mac OS X* ''Morpheus'' (1987 video game), a video game developed by Andrew Braybrook in 1987* ''Morpheus'' (1998 video game), a video game released in 1998* Project Morpheus, a NASA project to produce a vertical test bed and pre-prototype lunar lander called Morpheus* Project Morpheus, the codename for PlayStation VR* Morpheus (communications system) an evolution of the British Armed Forces' Bowman communications system" ], [ "Music", "* ''Morpheus'' (Rebecca Clarke), a composition for viola and piano by Rebecca Helferich Clarke* ''Morpheus'' (album), a music album by Canadian group Delerium* Morpheus, a synthesizer produced in the mid-1990s by E-mu Systems" ], [ "Other", "* \"Morpheus\" (''Stargate SG-1''), an episode of the sci-fi TV series ''Stargate SG-1''* ''Morpheus'' (role-playing game), a tabletop role-playing game* Morpheus (hotel), a hotel under construction at City of Dreams, Macau* 4197 Morpheus, an asteroid" ], [ "See also", "* Morfey, a Russian air defense system" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 26" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*17 – Germanicus celebrates a triumph in Rome for his victories over the Cherusci, Chatti, and other German tribes west of the Elbe.", "* 451 – Battle of Avarayr between Armenian rebels and the Sasanian Empire takes place.", "The Sasanids defeat the Armenians militarily but guarantee them freedom to openly practice Christianity.", "* 946 – King Edmund I of England is murdered by a thief whom he personally attacks while celebrating St Augustine's Mass Day.", "* 961 – King Otto I elects his six-year-old son Otto II as heir apparent and co-ruler of the East Frankish Kingdom.", "He is crowned at Aachen, and placed under the tutelage of his grandmother Matilda.", "*1135 – Alfonso VII of León and Castile is crowned in León Cathedral as ''Imperator totius Hispaniae'' (''Emperor of all of Spain'').", "*1293 – An earthquake strikes Kamakura, Kanagawa, Japan, killing about 23,000.", "*1328 – William of Ockham, the Franciscan Minister-General Michael of Cesena, and two other Franciscan leaders secretly leave Avignon, fearing a death sentence from Pope John XXII.", "*1538 – Geneva expels John Calvin and his followers from the city.", "Calvin lives in exile in Strasbourg for the next three years.", "*1573 – The Battle of Haarlemmermeer, a naval engagement in the Eighty Years' War.===1601–1900===*1637 – Pequot War: A combined English and Mohegan force under John Mason attacks a village in Connecticut, massacring approximately 500 Pequots.", "*1644 – Portuguese Restoration War: Portuguese and Spanish forces both claim victory in the Battle of Montijo.", "*1736 – The Battle of Ackia is fought near the present site of Tupelo, Mississippi.", "British and Chickasaw soldiers repel a French and Choctaw attack on the then-Chickasaw village of Ackia.", "*1783 – A Great Jubilee Day held at North Stratford, Connecticut, celebrates the end of fighting in the American Revolution.", "*1805 – Napoléon Bonaparte assumes the title of King of Italy and is crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy in Milan Cathedral, the gothic cathedral in Milan.", "*1821 – Establishment of the Peloponnesian Senate by the Greek rebels.", "*1822 – At least 113 people die in the Grue Church fire, the biggest fire disaster in Norway's history.", "*1864 – Montana is organized as a United States territory.", "*1865 – American Civil War: The Confederate General Edmund Kirby Smith, commander of the Confederate Trans-Mississippi division, is the last full general of the Confederate Army to surrender, at Galveston, Texas.", "*1868 – The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson ends with his acquittal by one vote.", "*1869 – Boston University is chartered by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.", "*1879 – Russia and the United Kingdom sign the Treaty of Gandamak establishing an Afghan state.", "*1896 – Nicholas II is crowned as the last Tsar of Imperial Russia.", "* 1896 – Charles Dow publishes the first edition of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.", "*1900 – Thousand Days' War: The Colombian Conservative Party turns the tide of war in their favor with victory against the Colombian Liberal Party in the Battle of Palonegro.===1901–present===*1903 – ''Românul de la Pind'', the longest-running newspaper by and about Aromanians until World War II, is founded.", "*1908 – The first major commercial oil strike in the Middle East is made at Masjed Soleyman in southwest Persia.", "The rights to the resource were quickly acquired by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company.", "*1917 – Several powerful tornadoes rip through Illinois, including the city of Mattoon.", "*1918 – The Democratic Republic of Georgia is established.", "*1923 – The first 24 Hours of Le Mans is held and has since been run annually in June.", "*1927 – The last Ford Model T rolls off the assembly line after a production run of 15,007,003 vehicles.", "*1936 – In the House of Commons of Northern Ireland, Tommy Henderson begins speaking on the Appropriation bill.", "By the time he sits down in the early hours of the following morning, he had spoken for ten hours.", "*1937 – Walter Reuther and members of the United Auto Workers (UAW) clash with Ford Motor Company security guards at the River Rouge Complex complex in Dearborn, Michigan, during the Battle of the Overpass.", "*1938 – In the United States, the House Un-American Activities Committee begins its first session.", "*1940 – World War II: Operation Dynamo: In northern France, Allied forces begin a massive evacuation from Dunkirk, France.", "* 1940 – World War II: The Siege of Calais ends with the surrender of the British and French garrison.", "*1942 – World War II: The Battle of Gazala takes place.", "*1948 – The U.S. Congress passes Public Law 80-557, which permanently establishes the Civil Air Patrol as an auxiliary of the United States Air Force.", "*1966 – British Guiana gains independence, becoming Guyana.", "*1967 – The Beatles' ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' is released.", "*1968 – H-dagurinn in Iceland: Traffic changes from driving on the left to driving on the right overnight.", "*1969 – Apollo program: Apollo 10 returns to Earth after a successful eight-day test of all the components needed for the forthcoming first crewed Moon landing.", "*1970 – The Soviet Tupolev Tu-144 becomes the first commercial transport to exceed Mach 2.", "*1971 – Bangladesh Liberation War: The Pakistan Army slaughters at least 71 Hindus in Burunga, Sylhet, Bangladesh.", "*1972 – The United States and the Soviet Union sign the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.", "*1981 – Italian Prime Minister Arnaldo Forlani and his coalition cabinet resign following a scandal over membership of the pseudo-masonic lodge P2 ''(Propaganda Due)''.", "* 1981 – An EA-6B Prowler crashes on the flight deck of the aircraft carrier , killing 14 crewmen and injuring 45 others.", "*1983 – The 7.8 Sea of Japan earthquake shakes northern Honshu with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (''Severe'').", "A destructive tsunami is generated that leaves about 100 people dead.", "*1986 – The European Community adopts the European flag.", "*1991 – Zviad Gamsakhurdia becomes the first elected President of the Republic of Georgia in the post-Soviet era.", "* 1991 – Lauda Air Flight 004 breaks apart in mid-air and crashes in the Phu Toei National Park in the Suphan Buri Province of Thailand, killing all 223 people on board.", "*1998 – The Supreme Court of the United States rules in ''New Jersey v. New York'' that Ellis Island, the historic gateway for millions of immigrants, is mainly in the state of New Jersey, not New York.", "* 1998 – The first \"National Sorry Day\" is held in Australia.", "Reconciliation events are held nationally, and attended by over a million people.", "* 1998 – A MIAT Mongolian Airlines Harbin Y-12 crashes near Erdenet, Orkhon Province, Mongolia, resulting in 28 deaths.", "*2002 – The tugboat ''Robert Y.", "Love'' collides with a support pier of Interstate 40 on the Arkansas River near Webbers Falls, Oklahoma, resulting in 14 deaths and 11 others injured.", "*2003 – Ukrainian-Mediterranean Airlines Flight 4230 crashes in the Turkish town of Maçka, killing 75.", "*2004 – United States Army veteran Terry Nichols is found guilty of 161 state murder charges for helping carry out the Oklahoma City bombing.", "*2008 – Severe flooding begins in eastern and southern China that will ultimately cause 148 deaths and force the evacuation of 1.3 million.", "*2020 – Protests triggered by the murder of George Floyd erupt in Minneapolis–Saint Paul, later becoming widespread across the United States and around the world.", "*2021 – Ten people are killed in a shooting at a VTA rail yard in San Jose, California, United States." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1264 – Koreyasu, Japanese prince and shōgun (d. 1326)*1478 – Clement VII, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1534)*1562 – James III, margrave of Baden-Hachberg (d. 1590)*1566 – Mehmed III, Ottoman sultan (d. 1603)===1601–1900===*1602 – Philippe de Champaigne, Dutch-French painter (d. 1674)*1623 – William Petty, English economist and philosopher (d. 1687)*1650 – John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Oxfordshire (d. 1722)*1667 – Abraham de Moivre, French-English mathematician and theorist (d. 1754)*1669 – Sébastien Vaillant, French botanist and mycologist (d. 1722)*1700 – Nicolaus Zinzendorf, German bishop and saint (d. 1760)*1750 – William Morgan, British actuary (d. 1833)*1799 – August Kopisch, German poet and painter (d. 1853)*1822 – Edmond de Goncourt, French author and critic, founded the Académie Goncourt (d. 1896)*1863 – Bob Fitzsimmons, English-New Zealand boxer (d. 1917)*1865 – Robert W. Chambers, American author and illustrator (d. 1933)*1867 – Mary of Teck, English-born queen consort of the United Kingdom (d. 1953)*1873 – Olaf Gulbransson, Norwegian painter and illustrator (d. 1958)*1876 – Percy Perrin, English cricketer (d. 1945)*1880 – W. Otto Miessner, American composer and educator (d. 1967)*1881 – Adolfo de la Huerta, Mexican politician and provisional president, 1920 (d. 1955)*1883 – Mamie Smith, American singer, actress, dancer, and pianist (d. 1946)*1886 – Al Jolson, American singer and actor (d. 1950)*1887 – Ba U, 2nd President of Burma (d. 1963)*1893 – Eugene Aynsley Goossens, English conductor and composer (d. 1962)*1895 – Dorothea Lange, American photographer and journalist (d. 1965)* 1895 – Paul Lukas, Hungarian-American actor and singer (d. 1971)*1898 – Ernst Bacon, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1990)* 1898 – Christfried Burmeister, Estonian speed skater (d. 1965)*1899 – Antonio Barrette, Canadian lawyer and politician, 18th Premier of Quebec (d. 1968)* 1899 – Muriel McQueen Fergusson, Canadian lawyer and politician, Canadian Speaker of the Senate (d. 1997)*1900 – Karin Juel, Swedish singer, actress, and writer (d. 1976)===1901–present===*1904 – George Formby, English singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1961)* 1904 – Necip Fazıl Kısakürek, Turkish author, poet, and playwright (d. 1983)* 1904 – Vlado Perlemuter, Lithuanian-French pianist and educator (d. 2002)*1907 – Jean Bernard, French physician and haematologist (d. 2006)* 1907 – John Wayne, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1979)*1908 – Robert Morley, English actor (d. 1992)* 1908 – Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ, Vietnamese politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Republic of Vietnam (d. 1976)*1909 – Matt Busby, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 1994)* 1909 – Adolfo López Mateos, Mexican politician, 48th President of Mexico (d. 1969)*1910 – Imi Lichtenfeld, Hungarian-Israeli martial artist, boxer, and gymnast (d. 1998)*1911 – Maurice Baquet, French actor and cellist (d. 2005) * 1911 – Henry Ephron, American playwright, screenwriter, and producer (d. 1992)*1912 – János Kádár, Hungarian mechanic and politician, 46th Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1989)* 1912 – Jay Silverheels, Canadian-American actor (d. 1980)*1913 – Peter Cushing, English actor (d. 1994)* 1913 – Pierre Daninos, French author (d. 2005)* 1913 – Karin Ekelund, Swedish actress (d. 1976)* 1913 – Josef Manger, German weightlifter (d. 1991)*1914 – Frankie Manning, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2009)*1915 – Vernon Alley, American bassist (d. 2004)* 1915 – Antonia Forest, English author (d. 2003)*1916 – Henriette Roosenburg, Dutch journalist and author (d. 1972)*1919 – Rubén González, Cuban pianist (d. 2003)*1920 – Jack Cheetham, South African cricketer (d. 1980)* 1920 – Peggy Lee, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2002)*1921 – Inge Borkh, German soprano (d. 2018)*1923 – James Arness, American actor (d. 2011)* 1923 – Roy Dotrice, English actor (d. 2017)*1925 – Carmen Montejo, Cuban-Mexican actress (d. 2013)* 1925 – Alec McCowen, English actor (d. 2017)*1926 – Miles Davis, American trumpet player, composer, and bandleader (d. 1991)*1927 – Jacques Bergerac, French actor and businessman (d. 2014)*1928 – Jack Kevorkian, American pathologist, author, and assisted suicide activist (d. 2011)*1929 – J. F. Ade Ajayi, Nigerian historian and academic (d. 2014)* 1929 – Ernie Carroll, Australian television personality and producer (d. 2022)* 1929 – Hans Freeman, Australian bioinorganic chemist and protein crystallographer (d. 2008)* 1929 – Catherine Sauvage, French singer and actress (d. 1998)*1930 – Karim Emami, Indian-Iranian lexicographer and critic (d. 2005)*1935 – Eero Loone, Estonian philosopher and academic*1936 – Natalya Gorbanevskaya, Russian-Polish poet and activist (d. 2013)*1937 – Manorama, Indian actress and singer (d. 2015)* 1937 – Paul E. Patton, American politician, 59th Governor of Kentucky *1938 – William Bolcom, American pianist and composer* 1938 – Andrew Clennel Palmer, British engineer (d. 2019)* 1938 – Lyudmila Petrushevskaya, Russian author and playwright* 1938 – K. Bikram Singh, Indian director and producer (d. 2013)* 1938 – Teresa Stratas, Canadian soprano and actress*1940 – Monique Gagnon-Tremblay, Canadian academic and politician, Deputy Premier of Quebec* 1940 – Levon Helm, American singer-songwriter, drummer, producer, and actor (d. 2012)*1941 – Aldrich Ames, American CIA officer and criminal* 1941 – Jim Dobbin, Scottish microbiologist and politician (d. 2014)* 1941 – Cliff Drysdale, South African tennis player and sportscaster* 1941 – Imants Kalniņš, Latvian composer *1943 – Erica Terpstra, Dutch swimmer, journalist, and politician*1944 – Phil Edmonston, American-Canadian journalist and politician* 1944 – Jan Kinder, Norwegian ice hockey player (d. 2013)* 1944 – Sam Posey, American race car driver and journalist*1945 – Vilasrao Deshmukh, Indian lawyer and politician, 17th Chief Minister of Maharashtra (d. 2012)* 1945 – Alistair MacDuff, English lawyer and judge* 1945 – Garry Peterson, Canadian-American drummer *1946 – Neshka Robeva, Bulgarian gymnast and coach* 1946 – Mick Ronson, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 1993)*1947 – Carol O'Connell, American author and painter* 1947 – Glenn Turner, New Zealand cricketer*1948 – Stevie Nicks, American singer-songwriter *1949 – Jeremy Corbyn, British journalist and politician* 1949 – Ward Cunningham, American computer programmer, developed the first wiki* 1949 – Pam Grier, American actress * 1949 – Anne McGuire, Scottish educator and politician* 1949 – Philip Michael Thomas, American actor* 1949 – Hank Williams Jr., American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1951 – Ramón Calderón, Spanish lawyer and businessman* 1951 – Lou van den Dries, Dutch mathematician* 1951 – Muhammed Faris, Syrian military aviator and cosmonaut* 1951 – Sally Ride, American physicist and astronaut, founded Sally Ride Science (d. 2012)* 1951 – Madeleine Taylor-Quinn, Irish educator and politician*1953 – Kay Hagan, American lawyer and politician (d. 2019)* 1953 – Don McAllister, English footballer and manager* 1953 – Michael Portillo, English journalist, politician and TV presenter*1954 – Michael Devine, Irish Republican hunger strike participant (d. 1981)*1954 – Alan Hollinghurst, English novelist, poet, short story writer, and translator* 1954 – Denis Lebel, Canadian businessman and politician, 29th Canadian Minister of Transport*1955 – Masaharu Morimoto, Japanese-American chef* 1955 – Paul Stoddart, Australian businessman*1956 – Fiona Shackleton, English lawyer* 1956 – Jyoti Gogte, Indian academician*1957 – Diomedes Díaz, Colombian singer-songwriter (d. 2013)* 1957 – François Legault, Canadian businessman and politician* 1957 – Roberto Ravaglia, Italian racing driver*1958 – Ronnie Black, American golfer* 1958 – Arto Bryggare, Finnish hurdler and politician* 1958 – Margaret Colin, American actress*1959 – Ole Bornedal, Danish actor, director, and producer*1960 – Doug Hutchison, American actor* 1960 – Dean Lukin, Australian weightlifter* 1960 – Masahiro Matsunaga, Japanese racing driver* 1960 – Rob Murphy, American baseball player* 1960 – Romas Ubartas, Lithuanian discus thrower*1961 – Steve Pate, American golfer* 1961 – Tarsem Singh, Indian-American director, producer, and screenwriter*1962 – Black, English singer-songwriter (d. 2016)* 1962 – Genie Francis, Canadian-American actress* 1962 – Bobcat Goldthwait, American actor, director, and screenwriter*1963 – Simon Armitage, English poet, playwright and novelist* 1963 – Claude Legault, Canadian actor and screenwriter* 1963 – Mary Nightingale, English journalist* 1963 – Jamie Spence, English golfer*1964 – Caitlín R. Kiernan, Irish-American paleontologist and author* 1964 – Lenny Kravitz, American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, producer, and actor* 1964 – Argiris Pedoulakis, Greek basketball player and coach*1966 – Helena Bonham Carter, English actress * 1966 – Zola Budd, South African runner*1967 – Philip Treacy, Irish milliner, hat designer* 1967 – Mika Yamamoto, Japanese journalist (d. 2012)*1968 – Fernando León de Aranoa, Spanish director, producer, and screenwriter* 1968 – Frederik X, king of Denmark* 1968 – Steve Sedgley, English footballer and manager*1969 – John Baird, Canadian politician, 10th Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs* 1969 – Siri Lindley, American triathlete and coach*1970 – Nobuhiro Watsuki, Japanese illustrator*1971 – Zaher Andary, Lebanese footballer* 1971 – Matt Stone, American actor, animator, screenwriter, producer, and composer*1973 – Naomi Harris, Canadian-American photographer*1974 – Lars Frölander, Swedish swimmer*1975 – Lauryn Hill, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress *1976 – Paul Collingwood, English cricketer and coach* 1976 – Stephen Curry, Australian comedian and actor* 1976 – Kenny Florian, American mixed martial artist and sportscaster* 1976 – Justin Pierre, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer *1977 – Nikos Chatzivrettas, Greek basketball player* 1977 – Raina Telgemeier, American author and cartoonist* 1977 – Luca Toni, Italian footballer* 1977 – Misaki Ito, Japanese actress and model*1978 – Phil Elvrum, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1978 – Fabio Firmani, Italian footballer* 1978 – Dan Parks, Australian-Scottish rugby player*1979 – Amanda Bauer, American astronomer and academic* 1979 – Ashley Massaro, American wrestler and model (d. 2019)* 1979 – Natalya Nazarova, Russian sprinter* 1979 – Elisabeth Harnois, American actress* 1979 – Mehmet Okur, Turkish basketball player*1980 – Louis-Jean Cormier, Canadian singer and songwriter*1981 – Anthony Ervin, American swimmer* 1981 – Jason Manford, English actor, screenwriter, and television host* 1981 – Ben Zobrist, American baseball player*1982 – Hasan Kabze, Turkish footballer*1983 – Demy de Zeeuw, Dutch footballer* 1983 – Nathan Merritt, Australian rugby league player*1985 – Monika Christodoulou, Greek singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1985 – Ashley Vincent, English footballer*1986 – Michel Tornéus, Swedish long jumper*1987 – Olcay Şahan, Turkish footballer*1988 – Andrea Catellani, Italian footballer* 1988 – Dani Samuels, Australian discus thrower* 1988 – Damian Williams, American football player*1989 – Paula Findlay, Canadian triathlete*1991 – Ah Young, South Korean singer and actress*1993 – Jason Adesanya, Belgian footballer* 1993 – Jimmy Vesey, American ice hockey player*1996 – Lara Goodall, South African cricketer*1997 – Mathew Barzal, Canadian ice hockey player*1999 – Micah Parsons, American football player* 1999 – Georgia Wareham, Australian cricketer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 604 – Augustine of Canterbury, Benedictine monk and archbishop* 735 – Bede, English monk, historian, and theologian* 818 – Ali al-Ridha, 8th of The Twelve Imams* 926 – Yuan Xingqin, Chinese general and governor* 946 – Edmund I, king of England (b.", "921)*1035 – Berenguer Ramon I, Spanish nobleman (b.", "1005)*1055 – Adalbert, margrave of Austria*1250 – Peter I, duke of Brittany*1339 – Aldona Ona, queen of Poland*1362 – Louis I, king of Naples (b.", "1320)*1421 – Mehmed I, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1389)*1512 – Bayezid II, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1447)*1536 – Francesco Berni, Italian poet (b.", "1498)*1552 – Sebastian Münster, German cartographer and cosmographer (b.", "1488)===1601–1900===*1648 – Vincent Voiture, French poet and author (b.", "1597)*1653 – Robert Filmer, English theorist and author (b.", "1588)*1679 – Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria (b.", "1636)*1685 – Charles II, German elector palatine (b.", "1651)*1702 – Zeb-un-Nissa, Mughal princess and poet (d. 1638)*1703 – Samuel Pepys, English politician (b.", "1633)*1742 – Pylyp Orlyk, Ukrainian diplomat (b.", "1672) *1746 – Thomas Southerne, Irish playwright (b.", "1660)*1762 – Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, German philosopher and academic (b.", "1714)*1799 – James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, Scottish linguist, biologist, and judge (b.", "1714)*1818 – Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, Russian field marshal and politician, Governor-General of Finland (b.", "1761)* 1818 – Manuel Rodríguez Erdoíza, Chilean lawyer and guerrilla leader (b.", "1785)*1824 – Capel Lofft, English lawyer (b.", "1751)*1840 – Sidney Smith, English admiral and politician (b.", "1764)*1881 – Jakob Bernays, German philologist and academic (b.", "1824)*1883 – Abdelkader El Djezairi, Algerian ruler (b.", "1808)===1901–present===*1902 – Almon Brown Strowger, American soldier and inventor (b.", "1839)*1908 – Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, Indian religious leader, founded the Ahmadiyya movement (b.", "1835)*1914 – Jacob August Riis, Danish-American journalist, photographer, and reformer (b.", "1849)*1924 – Victor Herbert, Irish-American cellist, composer, and conductor, founded the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (b.", "1859)*1926 – Srečko Kosovel, Slovenian poet (b.", "1904)*1933 – Horatio Bottomley, English financier, journalist, and politician (b.", "1860)* 1933 – Jimmie Rodgers, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1897)*1939 – Charles Horace Mayo, American physician, co-founded Mayo Clinic (b.", "1865)*1943 – Edsel Ford, American businessman (b.", "1893)* 1943 – Alice Tegnér, Swedish organist, composer, and educator (b.", "1864)*1944 – Christian Wirth, German SS officer (b.", "1885)*1948 – Torsten Bergström, Swedish actor and director (b.", "1896)*1951 – Lincoln Ellsworth, American explorer (b.", "1880)*1954 – Lionel Conacher, Canadian football player and politician (b.", "1900)*1955 – Alberto Ascari, Italian racing driver (b.", "1918)*1956 – Al Simmons, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1902)*1959 – Philip Kassel, American gymnast (b.", "1876)*1964 – Ruben Oskar Auervaara, Finnish fraudster (b.", "1906)*1966 – Elizabeth Dilling, American author and activist (b.", "1894)*1969 – Paul Hawkins, Australian racing driver (b.", "1937)* 1969 – Allan Haines Loughead, American engineer, co-founded the Lockheed Corporation (b.", "1889)*1974 – Silvio Moser, Swiss racing driver (b.", "1941)*1976 – Martin Heidegger, German philosopher and academic (b.", "1889)*1978 – Cybele Andrianou, Greek actress (b.", "1887)*1979 – George Brent, Irish-American actor (b.", "1904)*1984 – Elizabeth Peer, American journalist (b.", "1936)*1989 – Don Revie, English footballer and manager (b.", "1927)*1994 – Sonny Sharrock, American guitarist (b.", "1940)*1995 – Friz Freleng, American animator, director, and producer (b.", "1906)*1997 – Ralph Horween, American football player and coach (b.", "1896)*1999 – Paul Sacher, Swiss conductor and philanthropist (b.", "1906)* 1999 – Waldo Semon, American chemist and engineer (b.", "1898)*2001 – Vittorio Brambilla, Italian racing driver (b.", "1937)* 2001 – Anne Haney, American actress (b.", "1934)* 2001 – Moven Mahachi, Zimbabwean soldier and politician, Zimbabwean Minister of Defence (b.", "1952)* 2001 – Dona Massin, Canadian actress and choreographer (b.", "1917)*2002 – Mamo Wolde, Ethiopian runner (b.", "1932)*2003 – Kathleen Winsor, American journalist and author (b.", "1919)*2004 – Nikolai Chernykh, Russian astronomer (b.", "1931)*2005 – Eddie Albert, American actor (b.", "1906)* 2005 – Chico Carrasquel, Venezuelan baseball player and manager (b.", "1928)* 2005 – Ruth Laredo, American pianist and educator (b.", "1937)* 2005 – Leslie Smith, English businessman, co-founded Lesney Products (b.", "1918)*2006 – Édouard Michelin, French businessman (b.", "1963)* 2006 – Kevin O'Flanagan, Irish footballer and physician (b.", "1919)*2007 – Jack Edward Oliver, English illustrator (b.", "1942)* 2007 – Howard Porter, American basketball player (b.", "1948)*2008 – Sydney Pollack, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1934)* 2008 – Zita Urbonaitė, Lithuanian cyclist (b.", "1973)*2009 – Mihalis Papagiannakis, Greek journalist and politician (b.", "1941)* 2009 – Peter Zezel, Canadian ice hockey and soccer player (b.", "1965)*2010 – Art Linkletter, Canadian-American radio and television host (b.", "1912)* 2010 – Chris Moran, English air marshal and pilot (b.", "1956) * 2010 – Kieran Phelan, Irish politician (b.", "1949)*2011 – Arisen Ahubudu, Sri Lankan scholar, author, and playwright (b.", "1920)*2012 – Arthur Decabooter, Belgian cyclist (b.", "1936)* 2012 – Leo Dillon, American illustrator (b.", "1933)* 2012 – Stephen Healey, Welsh captain and footballer (b.", "1982) * 2012 – Hiroshi Miyazawa, Japanese politician (b.", "1921)* 2012 – Hans Schmidt, Canadian wrestler (b.", "1925)* 2012 – Jim Unger, English-Canadian illustrator (b.", "1937)*2013 – Ray Barnhart, American businessman and politician (b.", "1928)* 2013 – John Bierwirth, American lawyer and businessman (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Roberto Civita, Italian-Brazilian businessman (b.", "1936)* 2013 – Tom Lichtenberg, American football player and coach (b.", "1940)* 2013 – Otto Muehl, Austrian painter (b.", "1925)* 2013 – Jack Vance, American author (b.", "1916)*2014 – Baselios Thoma Didymos I, Indian metropolitan (b.", "1921)* 2014 – Miodrag Radulovacki, Serbian-American academic and neuropharmacologist (b.", "1933)* 2014 – William R. Roy, American physician, journalist, and politician (b.", "1926)* 2014 – Hooshang Seyhoun, Iranian-Canadian architect, sculptor, and painter (b.", "1920)*2015 – Vicente Aranda, Spanish director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Les Johnson, Australian politician and diplomat, Australian High Commissioner to New Zealand (b.", "1924)* 2015 – Robert Kraft, American astronomer and academic (b.", "1927)* 2015 – João Lucas, Portuguese footballer (b.", "1979)*2016 – Hedy Epstein, German-born American human rights activist and Holocaust survivor (b.", "1924)*2017 – Zbigniew Brzezinski, Polish-born American politician (b.", "1928)*2019 – Prem Tinsulanonda, Former Prime Minister of Thailand (b.", "1920)*2022 – Andy Fletcher, English musician (b.", "1961)* 2022 – Ray Liotta, American actor (b.", "1954)* 2022 – Alan White, English drummer (b.", "1949)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Augustine of Canterbury (Anglican Communion and Eastern Orthodox)**Lambert of Vence**Peter Sanz (one of Martyr Saints of China)**Philip Neri **Pope Eleutherius**Quadratus of Athens**Zachary, Bishop of Vienne**May 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Independence Day, commemorates the day of the First Republic in 1918 (Georgia)*Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Guyana from the United Kingdom in 1966.", "*Mother's Day (Poland)*National Paper Airplane Day (United States)*National Sorry Day (Australia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 26" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MVS" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Multiple Virtual Storage''', more commonly called '''MVS''', is the most commonly used operating system on the System/370, System/390 and IBM Z IBM mainframe computers.", "IBM developed MVS, along with OS/VS1 and SVS, as a successor to OS/360.It is unrelated to IBM's other mainframe operating system lines, e.g., VSE, VM, TPF." ], [ "Overview", "First released in 1974, MVS was extended by program products with new names multiple times, retaining the term MVS in the nomenclature:* first to MVS/SE (MVS/System Extensions),* next to MVS/SP (MVS/System Product) Version 1, * next to MVS/XA (MVS/eXtended Architecture), * next to MVS/ESA (MVS/Enterprise Systems Architecture),and then extended* to OS/390 for the System/390 systems, and * finally to z/OS (when 64-bit support was added with the zSeries models).", "IBM added UNIX support (originally called OpenEdition MVS) in MVS/SP V4.3 and has obtained POSIX and UNIX™ certifications at several different levels from IEEE, X/Open and The Open Group.", "The MVS core remains fundamentally the same operating system.", "By design, programs written for MVS run on z/OS without modification.At first IBM described MVS as simply a new release of OS/VS2, but it is, in fact a major rewrite.", "OS/VS2 release 1 is an upgrade of OS/360 MVT that retained most of the original code and, like MVT, is mainly written in assembly language.", "The MVS core is almost entirely written in Assembler XF, although a few modules were written in PL/S, but not the performance-sensitive ones, in particular not the Input/Output Supervisor (IOS).", "IBM's use of \"OS/VS2\" emphasized upwards compatibility: application programs that ran under MVT did not even need recompiling to run under MVS.", "The same Job Control Language files could be used unchanged; utilities and other non-core facilities like TSO ran unchanged.", "IBM and users almost unanimously called the new system MVS from the start, and IBM continued to use the term ''MVS'' in the naming of later ''major'' versions such as MVS/XA." ], [ "Evolution of MVS", "OS/360 MFT (Multiprogramming with a Fixed number of Tasks) provides multiprogramming: several memory partitions, each of a fixed size, are set up when the operating system is installed and when the operator redefines them.", "For example, there could be a small partition, two medium partitions, and a large partition.", "If there were two large programs ready to run, one would have to wait until the other finished and vacated the large partition.", "OS/360 R19 added MFT sub-tasking (multitasking), the ability for a job to dynamically create new tasks with the ATTACH macro.OS/360 MVT (Multiprogramming with a Variable number of Tasks) was an enhancement that further refined memory use.", "Instead of using fixed-size memory partitions, MVT allocates memory to '''regions''' for job steps as needed, provided enough ''contiguous'' physical memory is available.", "This is a significant advance over MFT's memory management, but has some weaknesses: if a job allocates memory dynamically (as most sort programs and database management systems do), the programmers has to estimate the job's maximum memory requirement and pre-define it for MVT.", "A job step that contains a mix of small and large programs wastes memory while the small programs run.", "Most seriously, memory can become fragmented, i.e., the memory not used by current jobs could be divided into uselessly small chunks between the areas used by current jobs, and the only remedy was to wait until some current jobs finished before starting any new ones.In the early 1970s IBM sought to mitigate these difficulties by introducing virtual memory (which IBM called \"virtual storage\"), which allowed programs to request address spaces larger than physical memory.", "The original implementations had a single virtual address space, shared by all jobs.", "OS/VS1 is OS/360 MFT within a single virtual address space; OS/VS2 SVS was OS/360 MVT within a single virtual address space.", "So OS/VS1 and SVS in principle had the same disadvantages as MFT and MVT, but the impacts are less severe because jobs and operators could request much larger partitions with a 2 KiB granularity (for OS/VS1) or regions with a 4 KiB granularity (for SVS), and the requests came out of a 16MiB address space even if physical storage was smaller.", "As in OS/360 MVT, TSO users in SVS are assigned to a TSO region during login processing and competed with other users assigned to the same region, with essentially the same swap-in and swap-out logic as TSO in MVT.", "'''MVS address spaces - global view''' MVS (shared part of all address spaces) App 1 App 2 App 3 Shared virtual area (controlled by MVS) '''One application's view''' MVS App 1 Shared virtual area In the mid-1970s IBM introduced MVS, which not only supported virtual storage that was larger than the available real storage, as did SVS, but also allowed an indefinite number of applications to run in different address spaces.", "Two concurrent programs might try to access the same virtual memory address, but the virtual memory system redirected these requests to different areas of physical memory.", "Each of these address spaces consisted of three areas: an operating system (one instance shared by all jobs), an application area unique for each application, and a shared virtual area used for various purposes, including inter-job communication.", "IBM promised that application areas would always be at least 8MB.", "This made MVS the perfect solution for business problems that resulted from the need to run more applications.MVS maximized processing potential by providing multiprogramming and multiprocessing capabilities.", "Like its MVT and OS/VS2 SVS predecessors, MVS supported multiprogramming; program instructions and associated data are scheduled by a control program and given processing cycles.", "Unlike a single-programming operating system, these systems maximize the use of the processing potential by dividing processing cycles among the instructions associated with several different concurrently running programs.", "This way, the control program does not have to wait for the I/O operation to complete before proceeding.", "By executing the instructions for multiple programs, the computer is able to switch back and forth between active and inactive programs.Early editions of MVS (mid-1970s) are among the first of the IBM OS series to support multiprocessor configurations, though the M65MP variant of OS/360 running on 360 Models 65 and 67 had provided limited multiprocessor support.", "The 360 Model 67 had also hosted the multiprocessor capable TSS/360, MTS and CP-67 operating systems.", "Because multiprocessing systems can execute instructions simultaneously, they offer greater processing power than single-processing system.", "As a result, MVS was able to address the business problems brought on by the need to process large amounts of data.Multiprocessing systems are either loosely coupled, which means that each computer has access to a common workload, or tightly coupled, which means that the computers share the same real storage and are controlled by a single copy of the operating system.", "MVS retained both the loosely coupled multiprocessing of Attached Support Processor (ASP) and the tightly coupled multiprocessing of OS/360 Model 65 Multiprocessing.", "In tightly coupled systems, two CPUs shared concurrent access to the same memory (and copy of the operating system) and peripherals, providing greater processing power and a degree of graceful degradation if one CPU failed.", "In loosely coupled configurations each of a group of processors (single and / or tightly coupled) had its own memory and operating system but shared peripherals and the operating system component JES3 allowed managing the whole group from one console.", "This provided greater resilience and let operators decide which processor should run which jobs from a central job queue.", "MVS JES3 gave users the opportunity to network together two or more data processing systems via shared disks and Channel-to-Channel Adapters (CTCA's).", "This capability eventually became available to JES2 users as Multi-Access SPOOL (MAS).MVS originally supported 24-bit addressing (i.e., up to 16MB).", "As the underlying hardware progressed, it supported 31-bit (XA and ESA; up to 2048MB) and now (as z/OS) 64-bit addressing.", "The most significant motives for the rapid upgrade to 31-bit addressing were the growth of large transaction-processing networks, mostly controlled by CICS, which ran in a single address space—and the DB2 relational database management system needed more than 8MB of application address space to run efficiently.", "(Early versions were configured into two address spaces that communicated via the shared virtual area, but this imposed a significant overhead since all such communications had transmit via the operating system.", ")The main user interfaces to MVS are: Job Control Language (JCL), which was originally designed for batch processing but from the 1970s onwards was also used to start and allocate resources to long-running interactive jobs such as CICS; and TSO (Time Sharing Option), the interactive time-sharing interface, which was mainly used to run development tools and a few end-user information systems.", "ISPF is a TSO application for users on 3270-family terminals (and later, on VM as well), which allows the user to accomplish the same tasks as TSO's command line but in a menu and form oriented manner, and with a full screen editor and file browser.", "TSO's basic interface is command line, although facilities, such as ISPF, were added later for form-driven interfaces.MVS took a major step forward in fault-tolerance, built on the earlier STAE facility, that IBM called ''software recovery''.", "IBM decided to do this after years of practical real-world experience with MVT in the business world.", "System failures were now having major impacts on customer businesses, and IBM decided to take a major design jump, to assume that despite the very best software development and testing techniques, that 'problems WILL occur.'", "This profound assumption was pivotal in adding great percentages of fault-tolerance code to the system and likely contributed to the system's success in tolerating software and hardware failures.", "Statistical information is hard to come by to prove the value of these design features (how can you measure 'prevented' or 'recovered' problems?", "), but IBM has, in many dimensions, enhanced these fault-tolerant software recovery and rapid problem resolution features, over time.This design specified a hierarchy of error-handling programs, in system (kernel/'privileged') mode, called Functional Recovery Routines, and in user ('task' or 'problem program') mode, called \"ESTAE\" (Extended Specified Task Abnormal Exit routines) that are invoked in case the system detected an error (hardware processor or storage error, or software error).", "Each recovery routine made the 'mainline' function reinvokable, captured error diagnostic data sufficient to debug the causing problem, and either 'retried' (reinvoke the mainline) or 'percolated' (escalated error processing to the next recovery routine in the hierarchy).Thus, with each error the system captured diagnostic data, and attempted to perform a repair and keep the system up.", "The worst thing possible was to take down a user address space (a 'job') in the case of unrepaired errors.", "Though it was an initial design point, it was not until the most recent MVS version (z/OS), that recovery program was not only guaranteed its own recovery routine, but each recovery routine now has its own recovery routine.", "This recovery structure was embedded in the basic MVS control program, and programming facilities are available and used by application program developers and 3rd party developers.Practically, the MVS software recovery made problem debugging both easier and more difficult.", "Software recovery requires that programs leave 'tracks' of where they are and what they are doing, thus facilitating debugging—but the fact that processing progresses despite an error can overwrite the tracks.", "Early data capture at the time of the error maximizes debugging, and facilities exist for the recovery routines (task and system mode, both) to do this.IBM included additional criteria for a major software problem that required IBM service.", "If a mainline component failed to initiate software recovery, that was considered a valid reportable failure.", "Also, if a recovery routine failed to collect significant diagnostic data such that the original problem was solvable by data collected by that recovery routine, IBM standards dictated that this fault was reportable and required repair.", "Thus, IBM standards, when rigorously applied, encouraged continuous improvement.IBM continued to support the major serviceability tool Dynamic Support System (DSS) that it had introduced in OS/VS1 and OS/VS2 Release 1.This interactive facility could be invoked to initiate a session to create diagnostic procedures, or invoke already-stored procedures.", "The procedures trapped special events, such as the loading of a program, device I/O, system procedure calls, and then triggered the activation of the previously defined procedures.", "These procedures, which could be invoked recursively, allowed for reading and writing of data, and alteration of instruction flow.", "Program Event Recording hardware was used.IBM dropped support for DSS with Selectable Unit 7 (SU7), an update to OS/VS2 Release 3.7 required by the program product OS/VS2 MVS/System Extensions (MVS/SE), Program Number 5740-XEl.", "The User group SHARE passed a requirement that IBM reinstate DSS, and IBM provided a PTF to allow use of DSS after MVS/SE was installed.IBM again dropped support for DSS with SU64, an update to OS/VS2 Release 3.8 required by Release 2 of MVS/SE.Program-Event Recording (PER) exploitation was performed by the enhancement of the diagnostic SLIP command with the introduction of the PER support (SLIP/Per) in SU 64/65 (1978).Multiple copies of MVS (or other IBM operating systems) could share thesame machine if that machine was controlled by VM/370.In this case VM/370 was the real operating system, and regarded the \"guest\" operating systems as applications with unusually high privileges.", "As a result of later hardware enhancements one instance of an operating system (either MVS, or VM with guests, or other) could also occupy a Logical Partition (LPAR) instead of an entire physical system.Multiple MVS instances can be organized and collectively administered in a structure called a ''systems complex'' or ''sysplex'', introduced in September, 1990.Instances interoperate through a software component called a Cross-system Coupling Facility (XCF) and a hardware component called a ''Hardware Coupling Facility'' (CF or Integrated Coupling Facility, ICF, if co-located on the same mainframe hardware).", "Multiple sysplexes can be joined via standard network protocols such as IBM's proprietary Systems Network Architecture (SNA) or, more recently, via TCP/IP.", "The z/OS operating system (MVS' most recent descendant) also has native support to execute POSIX and Single UNIX Specification applications.", "The support began with MVS/SP V4R3, and IBM has obtained UNIX 95 certification for z/OS V1R2 and later.The system is typically used in business and banking, and applications are often written in COBOL.", "COBOL programs were traditionally used with transaction processing systems like IMS and CICS.", "For a program running in CICS, special EXEC CICS statements are inserted in the COBOL source code.", "A preprocessor (translator) replaces those EXEC CICS statements with the appropriate COBOL code to call CICS before the program is compiled — not altogether unlike SQL used to call DB2.Applications can also be written in other languages such as C, C++, Java, assembly language, FORTRAN, BASIC, RPG, and REXX.", "Language support is packaged as a common component called \"Language Environment\" or \"LE\" to allow uniform debugging, tracing, profiling, and other language independent functions.MVS systems are traditionally accessed by 3270 terminals or by PCs running 3270 emulators.", "However, many mainframe applications these days have custom web or GUI interfaces.", "The z/OS operating system has built-in support for TCP/IP.", "System management, done in the past with a 3270 terminal, is now done through the Hardware Management Console (HMC) and, increasingly, Web interfaces.", "Operator consoles are provided through 2074 emulators, so you are unlikely to see any S/390 or zSeries processor with a real 3270 connected to it.The native character encoding scheme of MVS and its peripherals is EBCDIC, but the TR instruction made it easy to translate to other 7- and 8-bit codes.", "Over time IBM added hardware-accelerated services to perform translation to and between larger codes, hardware-specific service for Unicode transforms and software support of, e.g., ASCII, ISO/IEC 8859, UTF-8, UTF-16, and UTF-32.The software translation services take source and destination code pages as inputs." ], [ "MVS filesystem", "Files, other than Unix files, are properly called data sets in MVS.", "Names of those files are organized in ''catalogs'' that are VSAM files themselves.Data set names (DSNs, mainframe term for filenames) are organized in a hierarchy whose levels are separated with dots, e.g.", "\"DEPT01.SYSTEM01.FILE01\".", "Each level in the hierarchy can be up to eight characters long.", "The total filename length is a maximum of 44 characters including dots.", "By convention, the components separated by the dots are used to organize files similarly to directories in other operating systems.", "For example, there are utility programs that performed similar functions to those of Windows Explorer (but without the GUI and usually in batch processing mode) - adding, renaming or deleting new elements and reporting all the contents of a specified element.", "However, unlike in many other systems, these levels are not usually actual directories but just a naming convention (like the original Macintosh File System, where folder hierarchy was an illusion maintained by the Finder).", "TSO supports a default prefix for files (similar to a \"current directory\" concept), and RACF supports setting up access controls based on filename patterns, analogous to access controls on directories on other platforms.As with other members of the OS family, MVS' data sets are record-oriented.", "MVS inherited three main types from its predecessors:* Sequential data sets were normally read one record at a time from beginning to end.", "* In BDAM (direct access) data sets, the application program had to specify the physical location of the data it wanted to access (usually by specifying the offset from the start of the data set).", "* In ISAM data sets a specified section of each record was defined as a key that could be used as a key to look up specific records.", "The key quite often consisted of multiple fields but these had to be contiguous and in the right order; and key values had to be unique.", "Hence an IBM ISAM file could have only one key, equivalent to the primary key of a relational database table; ISAM could not support foreign keys.Sequential and ISAM datasets could store either fixed-length or variable length records, and all types could occupy more than one disk volume.All of these are based on the VTOC disk structure.Early IBM database management systems used various combinations of ISAM and BDAM datasets - usually BDAM for the actual data storage and ISAM for indexes.In the early 1970s IBM's virtual memory operating systems introduced a new file management component, VSAM, which provided similar facilities:* Entry-Sequenced Datasets (ESDS) provided facilities similar to those of both sequential and BDAM datasets, since they could be read either from start to finish or directly by specifying an offset from the start.", "* Key-Sequenced Datasets (KSDS) are a major upgrade from ISAM: they allow secondary keys with non-unique values and keys formed by concatenating non-contiguous fields in any order; they greatly reduced the performance problems caused by overflow records in ISAM; and they greatly reduced the risk that a software or hardware failure in the middle of an index update might corrupt the index.These VSAM formats became the basis of IBM's database management systems, IMS/VS and DB2 - usually ESDS for the actual data storage and KSDS for indexes.VSAM also included a catalog component used for user catalogs and MVS' master catalog.Partitioned data sets (PDS) are sequential data sets subdivided into \"members\" that could each be processed as sequential files in their own right (like a folder in a file system).", "The most important use of PDSes was for program libraries - system administrators used the main PDS as a way to allocate disk space to a project and the project team then created and edited the members.", "Other uses of PDSs are libraries of frequently used job control procedures (PROCs), and \"copy books\" of programming language statements such as record definitions used by several programs.Generation Data Groups (GDGs) are groups of like named data sets, which can be referenced by absolute generation number, or by an offset from the most recent generation.", "They were originally designed to support grandfather-father-son backup procedures - if a file was modified, the changed version became the new \"son\", the previous \"son\" became the \"father\", the previous \"father\" became the \"grandfather\" and the previous \"grandfather\" was deleted.", "But one could set up GDGs with more than 3 generations and some applications used GDGs to collect data from several sources and feed the information to one program - each collecting program created a new generation of the file and the final program read the whole group as a single sequential file (by not specifying a generation in the JCL).Modern versions of MVS (e.g., z/OS) use datasets as containers for Unix filesystems along with facilities for partially integrating them.", "That is, Unix programs using fopen() can access an MVS dataset and a user can allocate a Unix file as though it were a dataset, with some restrictions.", "The Hierarchical File System (HFS) (not to be confused with Apple's Hierarchical File System) uses a unique type of dataset, while the newer z/OS File System (zFS) (not to be confused with Sun's ZFS) uses a VSAM Linear Data Set (LDS).Programs running on network-connected computers (such as the IBM AS/400) can use local data management interfaces to transparently create, manage, and access VSAM record-oriented files by using client-server products implemented according to Distributed Data Management Architecture (DDM).", "DDM is also the base architecture for the MVS DB2 server that implements Distributed Relational Database Architecture (DRDA).=== Virtual I/O (VIO) ===MVS includes a facility called Virtual I/O (VIO), with which temporary datasets can be stored in simulated tracks on the paging datasets, eliminating the overhead of allocation but adding some processing overhead." ], [ "Upgrades to MVS", "In addition to new functionality that IBM added with releases and sub-releases of OS/VS2, IBM provided a number of free Incremental Change Releases (ICRs) and Selectable Units (SUs) and chargeable program products and field developed programs that IBM eventually bundled as part of z/OS.", "These include:+ MVS SU Numbers SU SUID SU name 1 5752-801 VTAM2 2 5752-802 TCAM 10 3 5752-803 JES2 Release 4 4 5752-804 Scheduler Improvements 5 5752-805 Supervisor Performance 1 6 5752-806 168AP 7 5752-807 Supervisor Performance 2 8 5752-808 Data Management Enhancements 9 5752-809 10 5752-810 3800 Support 12 5752-812 JES3 Release 2 13 5752-813 TSO/VTAM 15 5752-815 SMP 16 5752-816 Scheduler/IOS Support 17 5752-817 Service Data Improvements 18 5752-818 JES3 Release 3.1 MSS 21 5752-821 SSS Release 4 24 5752-824 3850 MSS Programming Enhancements 25 5752-825 JES2 Release 4.1 RJE 3790 Support 26 5752-826 JES3 RJP 27 5752-827 EREP Modifications 29 5752-829 3838 VPSS 30 5752-830 3895 Deposit System 32 5752-832 System Security Support 33 5752-833 MVS Dumping Improvements 36 5752-836 TCAM Direct (TCAM 10) 37 5752-837 SSS Release 5 TCAM Direct 47 5752-847 158/168 AP 48 5752-848 3800 12 Lines Per Inch 51 5752-851 Processor Support 55 5752-855 Hardware Recovery Enhancements 57 5752-857 IPCS 58 5752-858 TSO/VTAM Level 2 60 5752-860 Data Management Support 63 5752-863 SMP Release 3 64 5752-864 Processor Support 2 68 5752-868 DEMF (Display Exceprion Monitoring Program)* ACF/TCAM (5735-RCl)* ACF/VTAM (5746-RC3, 5735-RC2)* Data Facility/Device Support (DF/DS), 5740-AM7* Data Facility Extended Function (DF/EF), 5740-XYQ* Data Facility/Data Set Services (DF/DSS), 5740-UT3.", "* Data Facility Sort, 5740-SM1* OS/VS2 MVS Sequential Access Method-Extended (SAM-E), 5740-AM3* MVS/370 Data Facility Product (DFP), 5665-295, replacing** 5740-AM7 Data Facility Device Support (DFDS)** 5740-XYQ Data Facility Extended Function (DFEF)** 5740-AM3 Sequential Access Method Extended (SAM-E)** 5740-AM8 Access Method Services Cryptographic Option** 5748-UT2 Offline 3800 Utility* MVS/XA Data Facility Product Version 1 Release 1, 5665-284* MVS/XA Data Facility Product Version 2 Release 1, 5665-XA2* MVS/ESA Data Facility Product Version 3, 5665-XA3* Data Facility Storage Management Subsystem (DFSMS), 5695-DF1Replaces DFP, DF/DSS and DF/HSM* OS/VS2 MVS TSO Command Package (5740-XT6)* TSO Command Processor - FDP 5798-AYF (PRINT command)* TSO/VS2 Programming Control Facility - FDP 5798-BBJ* TSO Programming Control Facility - II (PCF II), FDP 5798-CLW,* TSO ExtensionsReplaces TSO Command Package, TSO Command Processor and PCF** 5665-285 for MVS/370** 5665-293 for MVS/XA ** 5685-025 for MVS/XAFirst version with REXX * OS/VS2 MVS/System Extensions, 5740-XEl* MVS/System Product** JES3 Version 1 5740-XYN** JES2 Version 1 5740-XYS** MVS/System Product-JES2 Version 2, 5740-XC6** MVS/System Product-JES3 Version 2, 5665-291** MVS/System Product-JES2 Version 3, 5685-001** MVS/System Product-JES3 Version 3, 5685-002** MVS/ESA System Product: JES2 Version 4, 5695-047** MVS/ESA System Product: JES3 Version 4, 5695-048** MVS/ESA System Product: JES2 Version 5, 5655-068** MVS/ESA System Product: JES3 Version 5, 5655-069" ], [ "Data Facility Product (DFP)", "In the late seventies and early eighties IBM announced:* 5740-AM7 Data Facility Device Support (DF/DS)* 5740-XYQ Data Facility Extended Function (DF/EF)* 5740-AM3 Sequential Access Method Extended (SAM-E)* 5740-AM8 Access Method Services Cryptographic Option* 5748-UT2 Offline 3800 UtilityDF/DS added new device support, and IBM announced that it would no longer add device support to the free base.", "DF/EF added the Improved Catalog Structure (ICF) as an alternative to VSAM catalogs and Control Volumes (CVOLs), but it was riddled with reliability problems.When IBM announced MVS/SP Version 2 (MVS/XA), it also announced Data Facility Product™ (DFP™) as a replacement for and upgrade to the other five products above, which it said would be withdrawn from marketing, effective December 1, 1984.DFP/370 Release 1 (program number 5665-295), announced June 7, 1983, was for MVS/SP Version 1, MVS/SE and OS/VS2 R3.8, and was optional, but MVS/Extended Architecture Data Facility Product (5665-284) was a corequisite for MVS/SP Version 2 (MVS/XA).", "In addition to enhancing data management facilities, DFP replaced free versions of the linkage editor and utilities.DFP is no longer available as a separate product, but has become part of Data Facility Storage Management Subsystem, under the name DFSMSdfp." ], [ "Modern MVS", "Hercules emulatorMVS has now evolved into z/OS; older MVS releases are no longer supported by IBM and, since 2007, only 64-bit z/OS releases are supported.", "z/OS supports running older 24-bit and 31-bit MVS applications alongside newer 64-bit applications.MVS releases up to 3.8j (24-bit, released in 1981) were freely available and it is now possible to run the MVS 3.8j release in mainframe emulators for free." ], [ "MVS/370", "'''MVS/370''' is a generic term for all versions of the MVS operating system prior to MVS/XA.", "The System/370 architecture, at the time MVS was released, supported only 24-bit virtual addresses, so the MVS/370 operating system architecture is based on a 24-bit address.", "Because of this 24-bit address length, programs running under MVS/370 are each given 16 MB of contiguous virtual storage." ], [ "MVS/XA", "'''MVS/XA''', or '''Multiple Virtual Storage/Extended Architecture''', was a version of MVS that supported the 370-XA architecture, which had a new I/O architecture and also expanded addresses from 24 bits to 31 bits, providing a 2 gigabyte addressable memory area.", "MVS/XA supported a 24-bit legacy addressing mode for older 24-bit applications (i.e.", "those that stored a 24-bit address in the lower 24 bits of a 32-bit word and utilized the upper 8 bits of that word for other purposes)." ], [ "MVS/ESA", "'''MVS Enterprise System Architecture''' ('''MVS/ESA''') is any version of MVS prior to OS/390 that supports S/370 Enterprise Systems Architecture (S/370-ESA).", "MVS/ESA extends the 24-bit and 31-bit addressing modes of MVS/XA by adding an access register (AR) mode for references between address spaces.IBM introduced MVS/ESA as MVS/SP Version 3 in February 1988, then MVS/ESA SP Version 4 and MVS/ESA SP Version 5.IBM replaced it with OS/390 in late 1995 and subsequently with z/OS.", "'''MVS/ESA OpenEdition:''' upgrade to Version 4 Release 3 of MVS/ESA SP announced February 1993 with support for POSIX and other standards.", "While the initial release only had National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) certification for Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 151 compliance, subsequent releases were certified at higher levels and by other organizations, e.g.", "X/Open and its successor, The Open Group.", "It included about 1 million new lines of code, which provide an API shell, utilities, and an extended user interface.", "Works with a hierarchical file system provided by DFSMS (Data Facility System Managed Storage).", "The shell and utilities are based on Mortice Kerns' InterOpen products.", "Independent specialists estimate that it was over 80% open systems-compliant—more than most Unix systems.", "DCE2 support announced February 1994, and many application development tools in March 1995.From mid 1995, as all of the open features became a standard part of vanilla MVS/ESA SP Version 5 Release 1, IBM stopped distinguishing OpenEdition from the operating system.", "Under OS/390 V2R6 it became UNIX System Services, and has kept that name under z/OS." ], [ "OS/390", "In late 1995 IBM bundled MVS with several program products and changed the name from MVS/ESA to OS/390." ], [ "z/OS", "The current level of MVS is marketed as z/OS." ], [ "Closely related operating systems", "Japanese mainframe manufacturers Fujitsu and Hitachi both repeatedly and illegally obtained IBM's MVS source code and internal documentation in one of the 20th century's most famous cases of industrial espionage.", "Fujitsu relied heavily on IBM's code in its MSP mainframe operating system, and likewise Hitachi did the same for its VOS3 operating system.", "MSP and VOS3 were heavily marketed in Japan, where they still hold a substantial share of the mainframe installed base, but also to some degree in other countries, notably Australia.", "Even IBM's bugs and documentation misspellings were faithfully copied.", "IBM cooperated with the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation in a sting operation, reluctantly supplying Fujitsu and Hitachi with proprietary MVS and mainframe hardware technologies during the course of multi-year investigations culminating in the early 1980s—investigations which implicated senior company managers and even some Japanese government officials.", "Amdahl, however, was not involved in Fujitsu's theft of IBM's intellectual property.", "Any communications from Amdahl to Fujitsu were through \"Amdahl Only Specifications\" which were scrupulously cleansed of any IBM IP or any references to IBM's IP.Subsequent to the investigations, IBM reached multimillion-dollar settlements with both Fujitsu and Hitachi, collecting substantial fractions of both companies' profits for many years.", "Reliable reports indicate that the settlements exceeded US$500,000,000.The three companies have long since amicably agreed to many joint business ventures.", "For example, in 2000 IBM and Hitachi collaborated on developing the IBM z900 mainframe model.Because of this historical copying, MSP and VOS3 are properly classified as \"forks\" of MVS, and many third-party software vendors with MVS-compatible products were able to produce MSP- and VOS3-compatible versions with little or no modification.When IBM introduced its 64-bit z/Architecture mainframes in the year 2000, IBM also introduced the 64-bit z/OS operating system, the direct successor to OS/390 and MVS.", "Fujitsu and Hitachi opted not to license IBM's z/Architecture for their quasi-MVS operating systems and hardware systems, and so MSP and VOS3, while still nominally supported by their vendors, maintain most of MVS's 1980s architectural limitations to the present day.", "Since z/OS still supports MVS-era applications and technologies— z/OS still contains most of MVS's code, albeit greatly enhanced and improved over decades of evolution—applications (and operational procedures) running on MSP and VOS3 can move to z/OS much more easily than to other operating systems." ], [ "See also", "* Hercules a S/370, S/390, and zSeries emulator capable of running MVS* Utility programs supplied with MVS (and successor) operating systems* BatchPipes is a batch job processing utility designed for the MVS/ESA operating system, and all later incarnations—OS/390 and z/OS." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* IBM: z/OS V1R11.0 MVS Manuals* IBM: z/OS V1R8.0 MVS manuals* MVS: the operating system that keeps the world going* MVS... a long history* Functional structure of IBM virtual storage operating systems Part II: OS/VS2-2 concepts and philosophies by A. L. Scherr" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monoid" ], [ "Introduction", "magmas and groups.", "For example, monoids are semigroups with identity.In abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics, a '''monoid''' is a set equipped with an associative binary operation and an identity element.", "For example, the nonnegative integers with addition form a monoid, the identity element being .Monoids are semigroups with identity.", "Such algebraic structures occur in several branches of mathematics.", "The functions from a set into itself form a monoid with respect to function composition.", "More generally, in category theory, the morphisms of an object to itself form a monoid, and, conversely, a monoid may be viewed as a category with a single object.", "In computer science and computer programming, the set of strings built from a given set of characters is a free monoid.", "Transition monoids and syntactic monoids are used in describing finite-state machines.", "Trace monoids and history monoids provide a foundation for process calculi and concurrent computing.In theoretical computer science, the study of monoids is fundamental for automata theory (Krohn–Rhodes theory), and formal language theory (star height problem).See semigroup for the history of the subject, and some other general properties of monoids." ], [ "Definition", "A set equipped with a binary operation , which we will denote , is a '''monoid''' if it satisfies the following two axioms:; Associativity: For all , and in , the equation holds.", "; Identity element: There exists an element in such that for every element in , the equalities and hold.In other words, a monoid is a semigroup with an identity element.", "It can also be thought of as a magma with associativity and identity.", "The identity element of a monoid is unique.", "For this reason the identity is regarded as a constant, i. e. -ary (or nullary) operation.", "The monoid therefore is characterized by specification of the triple .Depending on the context, the symbol for the binary operation may be omitted, so that the operation is denoted by juxtaposition; for example, the monoid axioms may be written and .", "This notation does not imply that it is numbers being multiplied.A monoid in which each element has an inverse is a group." ], [ "Monoid structures", "=== Submonoids ===A '''submonoid''' of a monoid is a subset of that is closed under the monoid operation and contains the identity element of .", "Symbolically, is a submonoid of if , and whenever .", "In this case, is a monoid under the binary operation inherited from .On the other hand, if is subset of a monoid that is closed under the monoid operation, and is a monoid for this inherited operation, then is not always a submonoid, since the identity elements may differ.", "For example, the singleton set is closed under multiplication, and is not a submonoid of the (multiplicative) monoid of the nonnegative integers.=== Generators ===A subset of is said to ''generate'' if the smallest submonoid of containing is .", "If there is a finite set that generates , then is said to be a '''finitely generated monoid'''.=== Commutative monoid ===A monoid whose operation is commutative is called a '''commutative monoid''' (or, less commonly, an '''abelian monoid''').", "Commutative monoids are often written additively.", "Any commutative monoid is endowed with its ''algebraic'' preordering , defined by if there exists such that .", "An ''order-unit'' of a commutative monoid is an element of such that for any element of , there exists in the set generated by such that .", "This is often used in case is the positive cone of a partially ordered abelian group , in which case we say that is an order-unit of .=== Partially commutative monoid ===A monoid for which the operation is commutative for some, but not all elements is a trace monoid; trace monoids commonly occur in the theory of concurrent computation." ], [ "Examples", "* Out of the 16 possible binary Boolean operators, four have a two-sided identity that is also commutative and associative.", "These four each make the set a commutative monoid.", "Under the standard definitions, AND and XNOR have the identity while XOR and OR have the identity .", "The monoids from AND and OR are also idempotent while those from XOR and XNOR are not.", "* The set of natural numbers is a commutative monoid under addition (identity element ) or multiplication (identity element ).", "A submonoid of under addition is called a numerical monoid.", "* The set of positive integers is a commutative monoid under multiplication (identity element ).", "* Given a set , the set of subsets of is a commutative monoid under intersection (identity element is itself).", "* Given a set , the set of subsets of is a commutative monoid under union (identity element is the empty set).", "* Generalizing the previous example, every bounded semilattice is an idempotent commutative monoid.", "** In particular, any bounded lattice can be endowed with both a meet- and a join- monoid structure.", "The identity elements are the lattice's top and its bottom, respectively.", "Being lattices, Heyting algebras and Boolean algebras are endowed with these monoid structures.", "* Every singleton set closed under a binary operation forms the trivial (one-element) monoid, which is also the trivial group.", "* Every group is a monoid and every abelian group a commutative monoid.", "* Any semigroup may be turned into a monoid simply by adjoining an element not in and defining for all .", "This conversion of any semigroup to the monoid is done by the free functor between the category of semigroups and the category of monoids.", "** Thus, an idempotent monoid (sometimes known as ''find-first'') may be formed by adjoining an identity element to the left zero semigroup over a set .", "The opposite monoid (sometimes called ''find-last'') is formed from the right zero semigroup over .", "*** Adjoin an identity to the left-zero semigroup with two elements .", "Then the resulting idempotent monoid models the lexicographical order of a sequence given the orders of its elements, with ''e'' representing equality.", "* The underlying set of any ring, with addition or multiplication as the operation.", "(By definition, a ring has a multiplicative identity .", ")** The integers, rational numbers, real numbers or complex numbers, with addition or multiplication as operation.", "** The set of all by matrices over a given ring, with matrix addition or matrix multiplication as the operation.", "* The set of all finite strings over some fixed alphabet forms a monoid with string concatenation as the operation.", "The empty string serves as the identity element.", "This monoid is denoted and is called the ''free monoid'' over .", "It is not commutative if has at least two elements.", "* Given any monoid , the ''opposite monoid'' has the same carrier set and identity element as , and its operation is defined by .", "Any commutative monoid is the opposite monoid of itself.", "* Given two sets and endowed with monoid structure (or, in general, any finite number of monoids, ), their Cartesian product , with the binary operation and identity element defined on corresponding coordinates, called the direct product, is also a monoid (respectively, ).", "* Fix a monoid .", "The set of all functions from a given set to is also a monoid.", "The identity element is a constant function mapping any value to the identity of ; the associative operation is defined pointwise.", "* Fix a monoid with the operation and identity element , and consider its power set consisting of all subsets of .", "A binary operation for such subsets can be defined by .", "This turns into a monoid with identity element .", "In the same way the power set of a group is a monoid under the product of group subsets.", "* Let be a set.", "The set of all functions forms a monoid under function composition.", "The identity is just the identity function.", "It is also called the ''full transformation monoid'' of .", "If is finite with elements, the monoid of functions on is finite with elements.", "* Generalizing the previous example, let be a category and an object of .", "The set of all endomorphisms of , denoted , forms a monoid under composition of morphisms.", "For more on the relationship between category theory and monoids see below.", "* The set of homeomorphism classes of compact surfaces with the connected sum.", "Its unit element is the class of the ordinary 2-sphere.", "Furthermore, if denotes the class of the torus, and denotes the class of the projective plane, then every element of the monoid has a unique expression the form where is a positive integer and , or .", "We have .", "* Let be a cyclic monoid of order , that is, .", "Then for some .", "In fact, each such gives a distinct monoid of order , and every cyclic monoid is isomorphic to one of these.Moreover, can be considered as a function on the points given by or, equivalently Multiplication of elements in is then given by function composition.", "When then the function is a permutation of , and gives the unique cyclic group of order ." ], [ "Properties", "The monoid axioms imply that the identity element is unique: If and are identity elements of a monoid, then .=== Products and powers ===For each nonnegative integer , one can define the product of any sequence of elements of a monoid recursively: let and let for .As a special case, one can define nonnegative integer powers of an element of a monoid: and for .", "Then for all .=== Invertible elements ===An element is called invertible if there exists an element such that and .", "The element is called the inverse of .", "Inverses, if they exist, are unique: if and are inverses of , then by associativity .If is invertible, say with inverse , then one can define negative powers of by setting for each ; this makes the equation hold for all .The set of all invertible elements in a monoid, together with the operation •, forms a group.=== Grothendieck group ===Not every monoid sits inside a group.", "For instance, it is perfectly possible to have a monoid in which two elements and exist such that holds even though is not the identity element.", "Such a monoid cannot be embedded in a group, because in the group multiplying both sides with the inverse of would get that , which is not true.", "A monoid has the cancellation property (or is cancellative) if for all , and in , the equality implies , and the equality implies .", "A commutative monoid with the cancellation property can always be embedded in a group via the ''Grothendieck group construction''.", "That is how the additive group of the integers (a group with operation ) is constructed from the additive monoid of natural numbers (a commutative monoid with operation and cancellation property).", "However, a non-commutative cancellative monoid need not be embeddable in a group.If a monoid has the cancellation property and is ''finite'', then it is in fact a group.The right- and left-cancellative elements of a monoid each in turn form a submonoid (i.e.", "are closed under the operation and obviously include the identity).", "This means that the cancellative elements of any commutative monoid can be extended to a group.The cancellative property in a monoid is not necessary to perform the Grothendieck construction – commutativity is sufficient.", "However, if a commutative monoid does not have the cancellation property, the homomorphism of the monoid into its Grothendieck group is not injective.", "More precisely, if , then and have the same image in the Grothendieck group, even if .", "In particular, if the monoid has an absorbing element, then its Grothendieck group is the trivial group.=== Types of monoids ===An '''inverse monoid''' is a monoid where for every in , there exists a unique in such that and .", "If an inverse monoid is cancellative, then it is a group.In the opposite direction, a ''zerosumfree monoid'' is an additively written monoid in which implies that and : equivalently, that no element other than zero has an additive inverse." ], [ "Acts and operator monoids", "Let be a monoid, with the binary operation denoted by and the identity element denoted by .", "Then a (left) '''-act''' (or left act over ) is a set together with an operation which is compatible with the monoid structure as follows:* for all in : ;* for all , in and in : .This is the analogue in monoid theory of a (left) group action.", "Right -acts are defined in a similar way.", "A monoid with an act is also known as an ''operator monoid''.", "Important examples include transition systems of semiautomata.", "A transformation semigroup can be made into an operator monoid by adjoining the identity transformation." ], [ "Monoid homomorphisms", "Example monoid homomorphism from to .", "It is injective, but not surjective.A homomorphism between two monoids and is a function such that* for all , in * ,where and are the identities on and respectively.", "Monoid homomorphisms are sometimes simply called '''monoid morphisms'''.Not every semigroup homomorphism between monoids is a monoid homomorphism, since it may not map the identity to the identity of the target monoid, even though the identity is the identity of the image of the homomorphism.", "For example, consider , the set of residue classes modulo equipped with multiplication.", "In particular, is the identity element.", "Function given by is a semigroup homomorphism, since .", "However, , so a monoid homomorphism is a semigroup homomorphism between monoids that maps the identity of the first monoid to the identity of the second monoid and the latter condition cannot be omitted.In contrast, a semigroup homomorphism between groups is always a group homomorphism, as it necessarily preserves the identity (because, in the target group of the homomorphism, the identity element is the only element such that ).A bijective monoid homomorphism is called a monoid isomorphism.", "Two monoids are said to be isomorphic if there is a monoid isomorphism between them." ], [ "Equational presentation", "Monoids may be given a ''presentation'', much in the same way that groups can be specified by means of a group presentation.", "One does this by specifying a set of generators , and a set of relations on the free monoid .", "One does this by extending (finite) binary relations on to monoid congruences, and then constructing the quotient monoid, as above.Given a binary relation , one defines its symmetric closure as .", "This can be extended to a symmetric relation by defining if and only if and for some strings with .", "Finally, one takes the reflexive and transitive closure of , which is then a monoid congruence.In the typical situation, the relation is simply given as a set of equations, so that .", "Thus, for example,: is the equational presentation for the bicyclic monoid, and: is the plactic monoid of degree (it has infinite order).", "Elements of this plactic monoid may be written as for integers , , , as the relations show that commutes with both and ." ], [ "Relation to category theory", "Monoids can be viewed as a special class of categories.", "Indeed, the axioms required of a monoid operation are exactly those required of morphism composition when restricted to the set of all morphisms whose source and target is a given object.", "That is,: ''A monoid is, essentially, the same thing as a category with a single object.", "''More precisely, given a monoid , one can construct a small category with only one object and whose morphisms are the elements of .", "The composition of morphisms is given by the monoid operation .Likewise, monoid homomorphisms are just functors between single object categories.", "So this construction gives an equivalence between the category of (small) monoids '''Mon''' and a full subcategory of the category of (small) categories '''Cat'''.", "Similarly, the category of groups is equivalent to another full subcategory of '''Cat'''.In this sense, category theory can be thought of as an extension of the concept of a monoid.", "Many definitions and theorems about monoids can be generalised to small categories with more than one object.", "For example, a quotient of a category with one object is just a quotient monoid.Monoids, just like other algebraic structures, also form their own category, '''Mon''', whose objects are monoids and whose morphisms are monoid homomorphisms.There is also a notion of monoid object which is an abstract definition of what is a monoid in a category.", "A monoid object in '''Set''' is just a monoid." ], [ "Monoids in computer science", "In computer science, many abstract data types can be endowed with a monoid structure.", "In a common pattern, a sequence of elements of a monoid is \"folded\" or \"accumulated\" to produce a final value.", "For instance, many iterative algorithms need to update some kind of \"running total\" at each iteration; this pattern may be elegantly expressed by a monoid operation.", "Alternatively, the associativity of monoid operations ensures that the operation can be parallelized by employing a prefix sum or similar algorithm, in order to utilize multiple cores or processors efficiently.Given a sequence of values of type with identity element and associative operation , the ''fold'' operation is defined as follows:: In addition, any data structure can be 'folded' in a similar way, given a serialization of its elements.", "For instance, the result of \"folding\" a binary tree might differ depending on pre-order vs. post-order tree traversal." ], [ "MapReduce", "An application of monoids in computer science is the so-called MapReduce programming model (see Encoding Map-Reduce As A Monoid With Left Folding).", "MapReduce, in computing, consists of two or three operations.", "Given a dataset, \"Map\" consists of mapping arbitrary data to elements of a specific monoid.", "\"Reduce\" consists of folding those elements, so that in the end we produce just one element.For example, if we have a multiset, in a program it is represented as a map from elements to their numbers.", "Elements are called keys in this case.", "The number of distinct keys may be too big, and in this case, the multiset is being sharded.", "To finalize reduction properly, the \"Shuffling\" stage regroups the data among the nodes.", "If we do not need this step, the whole Map/Reduce consists of mapping and reducing; both operations are parallelizable, the former due to its element-wise nature, the latter due to associativity of the monoid." ], [ "Complete monoids", "A '''complete monoid''' is a commutative monoid equipped with an infinitary sum operation for any index set such that: and: .An '''ordered commutative monoid''' is a commutative monoid together with a partial ordering such that for every , and implies for all .A '''continuous monoid''' is an ordered commutative monoid in which every directed subset has a least upper bound, and these least upper bounds are compatible with the monoid operation:: for every and directed subset of .If is a continuous monoid, then for any index set and collection of elements , one can define : and together with this infinitary sum operation is a complete monoid." ], [ "See also", "* Cartesian monoid* Green's relations* Monad (functional programming)* Semiring and Kleene algebra* Star height problem* Vedic square* Frobenioid" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 31" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 455 – Emperor Petronius Maximus is stoned to death by an angry mob while fleeing Rome.", "*1223 – Mongol invasion of the Cumans: Battle of the Kalka River: Mongol armies of Genghis Khan led by Subutai defeat Kievan Rus' and Cumans.", "*1293 – Mongol invasion of Java was a punitive expedition against King Kertanegara of Singhasari, who had refused to pay tribute to the Yuan and maimed one of its ministers.", "However, it ended with failure for the Mongols.", "Regarded as establish City of Surabaya*1578 – King Henry III lays the first stone of the Pont Neuf (''New Bridge''), the oldest bridge of Paris, France.===1601–1900===*1610 – The pageant ''London's Love to Prince Henry'' on the River Thames celebrates the creation of Prince Henry as Prince of Wales.", "*1669 – Citing poor eyesight as a reason, Samuel Pepys records the last event in his diary.", "*1775 – American Revolution: The Mecklenburg Resolves are adopted in the Province of North Carolina.", "*1790 – Manuel Quimper explores the Strait of Juan de Fuca.", "* 1790 – The United States enacts its first copyright statute, the Copyright Act of 1790.", "*1795 – French Revolution: The Revolutionary Tribunal is suppressed.", "*1805 – French and Spanish forces begin the assault against British forces occupying Diamond Rock, Martinique.", "*1813 – In Australia, William Lawson, Gregory Blaxland and William Wentworth reach Mount Blaxland, effectively marking the end of a route across the Blue Mountains.", "*1859 – The clock tower at the Houses of Parliament, which houses Big Ben, starts keeping time.", "*1862 – American Civil War: Peninsula Campaign: Confederate forces under Joseph E. Johnston and G.W.", "Smith engage Union forces under George B. McClellan outside the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia.", "*1864 – American Civil War: Overland Campaign: Battle of Cold Harbor: The Army of Northern Virginia engages the Army of the Potomac.", "*1879 – Gilmore's Garden in New York City is renamed Madison Square Garden by William Henry Vanderbilt and is opened to the public at 26th Street and Madison Avenue.", "*1884 – The arrival at Plymouth of Tāwhiao, King of Maoris, to claim the protection of Queen Victoria.", "*1889 – Johnstown Flood: Over 2,200 people die after a dam fails and sends a 60-foot (18-meter) wall of water over the town of Johnstown, Pennsylvania.===1901–present===*1902 – Second Boer War: The Treaty of Vereeniging ends the war and ensures British control of South Africa.", "*1909 – The National Negro Committee, forerunner to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), convenes for the first time.", "*1910 – The South Africa Act comes into force, establishing the Union of South Africa.", "*1911 – The RMS ''Titanic'' is launched in Belfast, Northern Ireland.", "* 1911 – The President of Mexico Porfirio Díaz flees the country during the Mexican Revolution.", "*1916 – World War I: Battle of Jutland: The British Grand Fleet engages the High Seas Fleet in the largest naval battle of the war, which proves indecisive.", "*1921 – The Tulsa race massacre kills at least 39, but other estimates of black fatalities vary from 55 to about 300.", "*1924 – Hope Development School fire kills 24 people, mostly disabled children.", "*1935 – A 7.7 earthquake destroys Quetta in modern-day Pakistan killing 40,000.", "*1941 – Anglo-Iraqi War: The United Kingdom completes the re-occupation of Iraq and returns 'Abd al-Ilah to power as regent for Faisal II.", "*1942 – World War II: Imperial Japanese Navy midget submarines begin a series of attacks on Sydney, Australia.", "*1947 – Ferenc Nagy, the democratically elected Prime Minister of Hungary, resigns from office after blackmail from the Hungarian Communist Party accusing him of being part of a plot against the state.", "This grants the Communists effective control of the Hungarian government.", "*1951 – The Uniform Code of Military Justice takes effect as the legal system of the United States Armed Forces.", "*1955 – The U.S. Supreme Court expands on its ''Brown v. Board of Education'' decision by ordering district courts and school districts to enforce educational desegregation \"at all deliberate speed.\"", "*1961 – The South African Constitution of 1961 becomes effective, thus creating the Republic of South Africa, which remains outside the Commonwealth of Nations until 1 June 1994, when South Africa is returned to Commonwealth membership.", "* 1961 – In Moscow City Court, the Rokotov–Faibishenko show trial begins, despite the Khrushchev Thaw to reverse Stalinist elements in Soviet society.", "*1962 – The West Indies Federation dissolves.", "*1970 – The 7.9 Ancash earthquake shakes Peru with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (''Severe'') and a landslide buries the town of Yungay, Peru.", "Between 66,794 and 70,000 were killed and 50,000 were injured.", "*1971 – In accordance with the Uniform Monday Holiday Act passed by the U.S. Congress in 1968, observation of Memorial Day occurs on the last Monday in May for the first time, rather than on the traditional Memorial Day of May 30.", "*1973 – The United States Senate votes to cut off funding for the bombing of Khmer Rouge targets within Cambodia, hastening the end of the Cambodian Civil War.", "* 1973 – Indian Airlines Flight 440 crashes near Palam Airport in Delhi, killing 48.", "*1977 – The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System is completed.", "*1985 – United States–Canada tornado outbreak: Forty-one tornadoes hit Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Ontario, leaving 76 dead.", "*1991 – Bicesse Accords in Angola lay out a transition to multi-party democracy under the supervision of the United Nations' UNAVEM II peacekeeping mission.", "*2003 – Air France retires its fleet of Concorde aircraft.", "*2005 – ''Vanity Fair'' reveals that Mark Felt was \"Deep Throat\".", "*2008 – Usain Bolt breaks the world record in the 100m sprint, with a wind-legal (+1.7 m/s) 9.72 seconds*2010 – Israeli Shayetet 13 commandos boarded the Gaza Freedom Flotilla while still in international waters trying to break the ongoing blockade of the Gaza Strip; nine Turkish citizens on the flotilla were killed in the ensuing violent affray.", "*2013 – The asteroid 1998 QE2 and its moon make their closest approach to Earth for the next two centuries.", "* 2013 – A record breaking 2.6 mile wide tornado strikes near El Reno, Oklahoma, United States, causing eight fatalities (including three storm chasers) and over 150 injuries.", "*2016 – Syrian civil war: The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) launch the Manbij offensive, in order to capture the city of Manbij from the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).", "*2017 – A car bomb explodes in a crowded intersection in Kabul near the German embassy during rush hour, killing over 90 and injuring 463.", "*2019 – A shooting occurs inside a municipal building at Virginia Beach, Virginia, leaving 13 people dead, including the shooter, and four others injured." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1443 (or 1441) – Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby (d. 1509)*1462 – Philipp II, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (d. 1504)*1469 – Manuel I of Portugal (d. 1521)*1535 – Alessandro Allori, Italian painter (d. 1607)*1556 – Jerzy Radziwiłł, Catholic cardinal (d. 1600)*1577 – Nur Jahan, Empress consort of the Mughal Empire (d. 1645)===1601–1900===*1613 – John George II, Elector of Saxony (d. 1680)*1640 – Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki, King of Poland (d. 1673)*1641 – Patriarch Dositheos II of Jerusalem (d. 1707)*1725 – Ahilyabai Holkar, Queen of the Malwa Kingdom under the Maratha Empire (d. 1795)*1732 – Count Hieronymus von Colloredo, Austrian archbishop (d. 1812)*1753 – Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud, French lawyer and politician (d. 1793)*1754 – Andrea Appiani, Italian painter and educator (d. 1817)*1773 – Ludwig Tieck, German poet, author, and critic (d. 1853)*1801 – Johann Georg Baiter, Swiss philologist and scholar (d. 1887)*1812 – Robert Torrens, Irish-Australian politician, 3rd Premier of South Australia (d. 1884)*1815 – Adye Douglas, English-Australian cricketer and politician, 15th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1906)*1818 – John Albion Andrew, American lawyer and politician, 25th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1867)*1819 – Walt Whitman, American poet, essayist, and journalist (d. 1892)*1827 – Kusumoto Ine, first Japanese female doctor of Western medicine (d. 1903)*1835 – Hijikata Toshizō, Japanese commander (d. 1869)*1838 – Henry Sidgwick, English economist and philosopher (d. 1900)*1842 – John Cox Bray, Australian politician, 15th Premier of South Australia (d. 1894)*1847 – William Pirrie, 1st Viscount Pirrie, Canadian-Irish businessman and politician, Lord Mayor of Belfast (d. 1924) *1852 – Francisco Moreno, Argentinian explorer and academic (d. 1919)* 1852 – Julius Richard Petri, German microbiologist, invented the Petri dish (d. 1921)*1857 – Pope Pius XI (d. 1939)*1858 – Graham Wallas, English socialist, social psychologist, and educationalist (d. 1932)*1860 – Walter Sickert, English painter (d. 1942)*1863 – Francis Younghusband, Indian-English captain and explorer (d. 1942)*1866 – John Ringling, American entrepreneur; one of the founders of the Ringling Brothers Circus (d. 1936)*1875 – Rosa May Billinghurst, British suffragette and women's rights activist (d.1953)*1879 – Frances Alda, New Zealand-Australian soprano (d. 1952)*1882 – Sándor Festetics, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of War (d. 1956)*1883 – Lauri Kristian Relander, Finnish politician, 2nd President of Finland (d. 1942)*1885 – Robert Richards, Australian politician, 32nd Premier of South Australia (d. 1967)*1887 – Saint-John Perse, French poet and diplomat, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975)*1892 – Michel Kikoine, Belarusian-French painter (d. 1968)* 1892 – Erich Neumann, German lieutenant and politician (d. 1951)* 1892 – Konstantin Paustovsky, Russian poet and author (d. 1968)* 1892 – Gregor Strasser, German lieutenant and politician (d. 1934)*1894 – Fred Allen, American comedian, radio host, game show panelist, and author (d. 1956)*1898 – Norman Vincent Peale, American minister and author (d. 1993)*1900 – Lucile Godbold, American athlete (d. 1981)===1901–present===*1901 – Alfredo Antonini, Italian-American conductor and composer (d. 1983)*1908 – Don Ameche, American actor (d. 1993)*1909 – Art Coulter, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2000)*1911 – Maurice Allais, French economist and physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2010)*1912 – Chien-Shiung Wu, Chinese-American experimental physicist (d. 1997)*1914 – Akira Ifukube, Japanese composer and educator (d. 2006)*1916 – Bert Haanstra, Dutch director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1997)*1918 – Robert Osterloh, American actor (d. 2001)* 1918 – Lloyd Quarterman, African American chemist (d. 1982)*1919 – Robie Macauley, American editor, novelist and critic (d. 1995)*1921 – Edna Doré, English actress (d. 2014)* 1921 – Andrew Grima, Anglo-Italian jewellery designer (d. 2007)* 1921 – Howard Reig, American radio and television announcer (d. 2008)* 1921 – Alida Valli, Austrian-Italian actress and singer (d. 2006)*1922 – Denholm Elliott, English-Spanish actor (d. 1992)*1923 – Ellsworth Kelly, American painter and sculptor (d. 2015)* 1923 – Rainier III, Prince of Monaco (d. 2005)* 1923 – Claudio Matteini, Italian football player (d. 2003)*1925 – Julian Beck, American actor and director (d. 1986)*1927 – James Eberle, English admiral (d. 2018)* 1927 – Michael Sandberg, Baron Sandberg, English lieutenant and banker (d. 2017)*1928 – Pankaj Roy, Indian cricketer (d. 2001)*1929 – Menahem Golan, Israeli director and producer (d. 2014)*1930 – Clint Eastwood, American actor, director, musician, and producer*1931 – John Robert Schrieffer, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2019)* 1931 – Shirley Verrett, American soprano and actress (d. 2010)*1932 – Ed Lincoln, Brazilian pianist, bassist, and composer (d. 2012)* 1932 – Jay Miner, American computer scientist and engineer (d. 1994)*1933 – Henry B. Eyring, American religious leader, educator, and author*1934 – Jim Hutton, American actor (d. 1979)*1935 – Jim Bolger, New Zealand businessman and politician, 35th Prime Minister of New Zealand*1938 – Johnny Paycheck, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003)* 1938 – John Prescott, British sailor and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom* 1938 – Peter Yarrow, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer*1939 – Terry Waite, English humanitarian and author*1940 – Anatoliy Bondarchuk, Ukrainian hammer thrower and coach* 1940 – Augie Meyers, American musician and singer-songwriter* 1940 – Gilbert Shelton, American illustrator*1941 – June Clark, Welsh nurse and educator* 1941 – Louis Ignarro, American pharmacologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1941 – William Nordhaus, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate*1943 – Sharon Gless, American actress* 1943 – Joe Namath, American football player, sportscaster, and actor*1945 – Rainer Werner Fassbinder, German actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1982)* 1945 – Laurent Gbagbo, Ivorian academic and politician, 4th President of Côte d'Ivoire* 1945 – Bernard Goldberg, American journalist and author*1946 – Ted Baehr, American publisher and critic* 1946 – Steve Bucknor, Jamaican cricketer and umpire* 1946 – Krista Kilvet, Estonian journalist, politician, and diplomat (d. 2009)* 1946 – Debbie Moore, English model and businesswoman*1947 – Junior Campbell, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1947 – Gabriele Hinzmann, German discus thrower*1948 – Svetlana Alexievich, Belarusian journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate* 1948 – John Bonham, English musician, songwriter and drummer (d. 1980)* 1948 – Martin Hannett, English bass player, guitarist, and record producer (d. 1991)* 1948 – Duncan Hunter, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician*1949 – Tom Berenger, American actor, film producer and television writer*1950 – Jean Chalopin, French director, producer, and screenwriter, founded DIC Entertainment* 1950 – Gregory Harrison, American actor* 1950 – Edgar Savisaar, Estonian politician, Estonian Minister of the Interior (d. 2022)*1951 – Karl-Hans Riehm, German hammer thrower*1952 – Karl Bartos, German singer-songwriter and keyboard player*1952 – Carole Achache, French writer, photographer and actress (d. 2016) *1953 – Pirkka-Pekka Petelius, Finnish actor and screenwriter*1954 – Thomas Mavros, Greek footballer* 1954 – Vicki Sue Robinson, American actress and singer (d. 2000)*1955 – Tommy Emmanuel, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1955 – Susie Essman, American actress, comedian, and screenwriter*1956 – Fritz Hilpert, German drummer and composer * 1956 – John Young, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player*1957 – Jim Craig, American ice hockey player*1959 – Andrea de Cesaris, Italian racing driver (d. 2014)* 1959 – Phil Wilson, English politician*1960 – Greg Adams, Canadian ice hockey player and businessman* 1960 – Chris Elliott, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter* 1960 – Peter Winterbottom, English rugby player*1961 – Ray Cote, Canadian ice hockey player* 1961 – Justin Madden, Australian footballer and politician* 1961 – Lea Thompson, American actress, director, and producer*1962 – Dina Boluarte, Peruvian politician, 64th President of Peru* 1962 – Corey Hart, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer*1963 – David Leigh, holder of the Sir Samuel Hall Chair of Chemistry at the University of Manchester* 1963 – Viktor Orbán, Hungarian politician, 38th Prime Minister of Hungary* 1963 – Wesley Willis, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player (d. 2003)*1964 – Leonard Asper, Canadian lawyer and businessman* 1964 – Stéphane Caristan, French hurdler and coach* 1964 – Yukio Edano, Japanese politician, Japanese Minister for Foreign Affairs* 1964 – Darryl \"D.M.C.\"", "McDaniels, American rapper and producer*1965 – Brooke Shields, American model, actress, and producer*1966 – Diesel, American-Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1966 – Roshan Mahanama, Sri Lankan cricketer and referee*1967 – Phil Keoghan, New Zealand television host and producer* 1967 – Kenny Lofton, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster*1971 – Arun Luthra, Indo-Anglo-American saxophonist, konnakol artist, composer, and arranger*1972 – Christian McBride, American bassist and record producer* 1972 – Archie Panjabi, British actress* 1972 – Frode Estil, Norwegian skier* 1972 – Antti Niemi, Finnish international footballer and coach* 1972 – Dave Roberts, American baseball player and coach*1974 – Hiroiki Ariyoshi, Japanese comedian and singer*1975 – Mac Suzuki, Japanese baseball player*1976 – Colin Farrell, Irish actor * 1976 – Matt Harpring, American basketball player and sportscaster*1977 – Domenico Fioravanti, Italian swimmer* 1977 – Moses Sichone, Zambian footballer*1979 – Jean-François Gillet, Belgian footballer*1980 – Andy Hurley, American musician*1981 – Mikael Antonsson, Swedish footballer* 1981 – Daniele Bonera, Italian footballer* 1981 – Jake Peavy, American baseball player* 1981 – Marlies Schild, Austrian skier*1982 – Brett Firman, Australian rugby league player *1984 – Andrew Bailey, American baseball player* 1984 – Milorad Čavić, Serbian swimmer* 1984 – Nate Robinson, American basketball player*1985 – Jordy Nelson, American football player*1986 – Robert Gesink, Dutch cyclist * 1986 – Waka Flocka Flame, American rapper*1989 – Marco Reus, German footballer*1990 – Erik Karlsson, Swedish ice hockey player*1991 – Azealia Banks, American singer-songwriter and rapper*1992 – Michaël Bournival, Canadian ice hockey player* 1992 – Laura Ikauniece, Latvian heptathlete*1995 – Shane Bieber, American baseball player* 1995 – Matthew Lodge, Australian rugby league player*1996 – Normani Kordei Hamilton, American singer* 1996 – Brandon Smith, New Zealand rugby league player* 1997 – Woo Jin-young, South Korean singer and rapper*1998 – Santino Ferrucci, American race car driver*2000 – Gable Steveson, American wrestler*2001 – Iga Świątek, Polish tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 455 – Petronius Maximus, Roman emperor (b.", "396)* 930 – Liu Hua, princess of Southern Han (b.", "896)* 960 – Fujiwara no Morosuke, Japanese statesman (b.", "909)*1076 – Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria, English politician (b.", "1050)*1089 – Sigwin von Are, archbishop of Cologne*1162 – Géza II, king of Hungary (b.", "1130)*1321 – Birger, king of Sweden (b.", "1280)*1326 – Maurice de Berkeley, 2nd Baron Berkeley (b.", "1271)*1329 – Albertino Mussato, Italian statesman and writer (b.", "1261)*1349 – Thomas Wake, English politician (b.", "1297)*1370 – Vitalis of Assisi, Italian hermit and monk (b.", "1295)*1408 – Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Japanese shōgun (b.", "1358)*1410 – Martin of Aragon, Spanish king (b.", "1356)*1504 – Engelbert II of Nassau (b.", "1451)*1558 – Philip Hoby, English general and diplomat (b.", "1505)*1567 – Guido de Bres, Belgian pastor and theologian (b.", "1522)*1594 – Tintoretto, Italian painter and educator (b.", "1518)===1601–1900===*1601 – Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, Archbishop-Elector of Cologne (b.", "1547)*1640 – Zeynab Begum, Safavid princess (date of birth unknown)*1665 – Pieter Jansz.", "Saenredam, Dutch painter (b.", "1597)*1680 – Joachim Neander, German theologian and educator (b.", "1650)*1740 – Frederick William I of Prussia (b.", "1688)*1747 – Andrey Osterman, German-Russian politician, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1686)*1809 – Joseph Haydn, Austrian pianist and composer (b.", "1732)* 1809 – Jean Lannes, French general (b.", "1769)*1831 – Samuel Bentham, English architect and engineer (b.", "1757)*1832 – Évariste Galois, French mathematician and theorist (b.", "1811)*1837 – Joseph Grimaldi, English actor, comedian and dancer, (b.", "1779)*1846 – Philip Marheineke, German pastor and philosopher (b.", "1780)*1847 – Thomas Chalmers, Scottish minister and economist (b.", "1780)*1848 – Eugénie de Guérin, French author (b.", "1805)*1899 – Stefanos Koumanoudis, Greek archaeologist, teacher and writer (b.", "1818)===1901–present===*1908 – Louis-Honoré Fréchette, Canadian author, poet, and politician (b.", "1839)*1909 – Thomas Price, Welsh-Australian politician, 24th Premier of South Australia (b.", "1852)*1910 – Elizabeth Blackwell, English-American physician and educator (b.", "1821)*1931 – Felix-Raymond-Marie Rouleau, Canadian cardinal (b.", "1866)* 1931 – Willy Stöwer, German author and illustrator (b.", "1864)*1945 – Odilo Globocnik, Italian-Austrian SS officer (b.", "1904)*1954 – Antonis Benakis, Greek art collector and philanthropist, founded the Benaki Museum (b.", "1873)*1957 – Stefanos Sarafis, Greek general and politician (b.", "1890)* 1957 – Leopold Staff, Polish poet and academic (b.", "1878)*1960 – Willem Elsschot, Flemish author and poet (b.", "1882)* 1960 – Walther Funk, German economist, journalist, and politician, German Minister of Economics (b.", "1890)*1962 – Henry F. Ashurst, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1874)*1967 – Billy Strayhorn, American pianist and composer (b.", "1915)*1970 – Terry Sawchuk, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b.", "1929)* 1970 – Clare Sheridan, English sculptor and author (b.", "1885)*1976 – Jacques Monod, French biologist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1910)*1977 – William Castle, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1914)*1978 – József Bozsik, Hungarian footballer and manager (b.", "1925)*1981 – Barbara Ward, Baroness Jackson of Lodsworth, English economist and journalist (b.", "1914)*1982 – Carlo Mauri, Italian mountaineer and explorer (b.", "1930)*1983 – Jack Dempsey, American boxer and lieutenant (b.", "1895)*1985 – Gaston Rébuffat, French mountaineer and author (b.", "1921)*1986 – Jane Frank, American painter and sculptor (b.", "1918)* 1986 – James Rainwater, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1917)*1987 – John Abraham, Indian director and screenwriter (b.", "1937)*1989 – Owen Lattimore, American author and academic (b.", "1900)* 1989 – C. L. R. James, Trinidadian journalist and historian (b.", "1901)*1993 – Honey Tree Evil Eye, or, Spuds MacKenzie, Bud Light Bull Terrier mascot (b.", "1983)*1994 – Uzay Heparı, Turkish actor, producer, and composer (b.", "1969)* 1994 – Herva Nelli, Italian-American soprano (b.", "1909)*1995 – Stanley Elkin, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b.", "1930)*1996 – Timothy Leary, American psychologist and author (b.", "1920)*1998 – Charles Van Acker, Belgian-American race car driver (b.", "1912)*2000 – Petar Mladenov, Bulgarian diplomat, 1st President of Bulgaria (b.", "1936)* 2000 – A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, Sri Lankan historian, author, and academic (b.", "1928)*2001 – Arlene Francis, American actress, talk show host, game show panelist, and television personality (b.", "1907)*2002 – Subhash Gupte, Indian cricketer (b.", "1929)*2004 – Aiyathurai Nadesan, Sri Lankan journalist (b.", "1954)* 2004 – Robert Quine, American guitarist (b.", "1941)* 2004 – Étienne Roda-Gil, French screenwriter and composer (b.", "1941)*2006 – Miguel Ortiz Berrocal, Spanish sculptor (b.", "1933)* 2006 – Raymond Davis, Jr., American physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1914)*2009 – Danny La Rue, Irish-British drag queen performer and singer (b.", "1927)* 2009 – George Tiller, American physician (b.", "1941)*2010 – Louise Bourgeois, French-American sculptor and painter (b.", "1911)* 2010 – Brian Duffy, English photographer and producer (b.", "1933)* 2010 – William A. Fraker, American director, producer, and cinematographer (b.", "1923)* 2010 – Rubén Juárez, Argentinian singer-songwriter and bandoneón player (b.", "1947)* 2010 – Merata Mita, New Zealand director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1942)*2011 – Pauline Betz, American tennis player (b.", "1919)* 2011 – Jonas Bevacqua, American fashion designer, co-founded the Lifted Research Group (b.", "1977)* 2011 – Derek Hodge, Virgin Islander lawyer and politician, Lieutenant Governor of the United States Virgin Islands (b.", "1941)* 2011 – Hans Keilson, German-Dutch psychoanalyst and author (b.", "1909)* 2011 – John Martin, English admiral and politician, Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey (b.", "1918)* 2011 – Andy Robustelli, American football player and manager (b.", "1925)*2012 – Christopher Challis, English cinematographer (b.", "1919)* 2012 – Randall B. Kester, American lawyer and judge (b.", "1916)* 2012 – Paul Pietsch, German racing driver and publisher (b.", "1911)* 2012 – Orlando Woolridge, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1959)*2013 – Gerald E. Brown, American physicist and academic (b.", "1926)* 2013 – Frederic Lindsay, Scottish author and educator (b.", "1933)* 2013 – Miguel Méndez, American author and poet (b.", "1930)* 2013 – Tim Samaras, American engineer and storm chaser (b.", "1957)* 2013 – Jairo Mora Sandoval, Costa Rican environmentalist (b.", "1987)* 2013 – Jean Stapleton, American actress (b.", "1923)*2014 – Marilyn Beck, American journalist (b.", "1928)* 2014 – Marinho Chagas, Brazilian footballer and coach (b.", "1952)* 2014 – Hoss Ellington, American race car driver (b.", "1935)* 2014 – Martha Hyer, American actress (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Lewis Katz, American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1942)* 2014 – Mary Soames, Baroness Soames, English author (b.", "1922)*2015 – Gladys Taylor, Canadian author and publisher (b.", "1917)*2016 – Mohamed Abdelaziz, President of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (1976–2016) (b.", "1947)* 2016 – Jan Crouch, American televangelist, co-founder of the Trinity Broadcasting Network (b.", "1938)* 2016 – Carla Lane, English television writer (b.", "1928)* 2016 – Rupert Neudeck, German journalist and humanitarian (b.", "1939)*2022 – Krishnakumar Kunnath, Indian singer (b.", "1968)* 2022 – Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela, Colombian drug lord (b.1939)* 2022 – Colin Cantwell, American concept artist and director (b.1932)* 2022 – Jim Parks, English cricketer (b.", "1931)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Anniversary of Royal Brunei Malay Regiment (Brunei)*Christian feast day:**Camilla Battista da Varano**Hermias**Petronella**Visitation of Mary (Western Christianity)**May 31 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*The beginning of Gawai Dayak (Dayaks in Sarawak, Malaysia and West Kalimantan, Indonesia)*World No Tobacco Day (International)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 31" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 30" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*70 – Siege of Jerusalem: Titus and his Roman legions breach the Second Wall of Jerusalem.", "Jewish defenders retreat to the First Wall.", "The Romans build a circumvallation, cutting down all trees within .", "*1381 – Beginning of the Peasants' Revolt in England.", "*1416 – The Council of Constance, called by Emperor Sigismund, a supporter of Antipope John XXIII, burns Jerome of Prague following a trial for heresy.", "*1431 – Hundred Years' War: In Rouen, France, the 19-year-old Joan of Arc is burned at the stake by an English-dominated tribunal.", "*1434 – Hussite Wars: Battle of Lipany: Effectively ending the war, Utraquist forces led by Diviš Bořek of Miletínek defeat and almost annihilate Taborite forces led by Prokop the Great.", "*1510 – During the reign of the Zhengde Emperor, Ming dynasty rebel leader Zhu Zhifan is defeated by commander Qiu Yue, ending the Prince of Anhua rebellion.", "*1536 – King Henry VIII of England marries Jane Seymour, a lady-in-waiting to his first two wives.", "*1539 – In Florida, Hernando de Soto lands at Tampa Bay with 600 soldiers with the goal of finding gold.", "*1574 – Henry III becomes King of France.", "*1588 – The last ship of the Spanish Armada sets sail from Lisbon heading for the English Channel.===1601–1900===*1631 – Publication of ''Gazette de France'', the first French newspaper.", "*1635 – Thirty Years' War: The Peace of Prague is signed.", "*1642 – From this date all honors granted by Charles I of England are retroactively annulled by Parliament.", "*1723 – Johann Sebastian Bach assumed the office of Thomaskantor in Leipzig, presenting his first new cantata, , in the St. Nicholas Church on the first Sunday after Trinity.", "*1806 – Future U.S. President Andrew Jackson kills Charles Dickinson in a duel.", "*1814 – The First Treaty of Paris is signed, returning the French frontiers to their 1792 extent, and restoring the House of Bourbon to power.", "*1815 – The East Indiaman ''Arniston'' is wrecked during a storm at Waenhuiskrans, near Cape Agulhas, in present-day South Africa, with the loss of 372 lives.", "*1834 – Minister of Justice Joaquim António de Aguiar issues a law seizing \"all convents, monasteries, colleges, hospices and any other houses\" from the Catholic religious orders in Portugal, earning him the nickname of \"The Friar-Killer\".", "*1842 – John Francis attempts to murder Queen Victoria as she drives down Constitution Hill in London with Prince Albert.", "*1845 – The ''Fatel Razack'' coming from India, lands in the Gulf of Paria in Trinidad and Tobago carrying the first Indians to the country.", "*1854 – The Kansas–Nebraska Act becomes law establishing the U.S. territories of Kansas and Nebraska.", "*1866 – Bedrich Smetana's comic opera ''The Bartered Bride'' premiered in Prague.", "*1868 – Decoration Day (the predecessor of the modern \"Memorial Day\") is observed in the United States for the first time after a proclamation by John A. Logan, head of the Grand Army of the Republic (a veterans group).", "*1876 – Ottoman sultan Abdülaziz is deposed and succeeded by his nephew Murad V.*1883 – In New York City, a stampede on the recently opened Brooklyn Bridge killed twelve people.", "*1899 – Pearl Hart, a female outlaw of the Old West, robs a stage coach 30 miles southeast of Globe, Arizona.===1901–present===*1911 – At the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, the first Indianapolis 500 ends with Ray Harroun in his Marmon ''Wasp'' becoming the first winner of the 500-mile auto race.", "*1913 – The Treaty of London is signed, ending the First Balkan War; Albania becomes an independent nation.", "*1914 – The new, and then the largest, Cunard ocean liner , 45,647 tons, sets sails on her maiden voyage from Liverpool, England, to New York City.", "*1922 – The Lincoln Memorial is dedicated in Washington, D.C..*1925 – May Thirtieth Movement: Shanghai Municipal Police Force shoot and kill 13 protesting workers.", "*1937 – Memorial Day massacre: Chicago police shoot and kill ten labor demonstrators.", "*1941 – World War II: Manolis Glezos and Apostolos Santas climb the Athenian Acropolis and tear down the German flag.", "*1942 – World War II: One thousand British bombers launch a 90-minute attack on Cologne, Germany.", "*1943 – The Holocaust: Josef Mengele becomes chief medical officer of the ''Zigeunerfamilienlager'' (Romani family camp) at Auschwitz concentration camp.", "*1948 – A dike along the flooding Columbia River breaks, obliterating Vanport, Oregon within minutes.", "Fifteen people die and tens of thousands are left homeless.", "*1958 – Memorial Day: The remains of two unidentified American servicemen, killed in action during World War II and the Korean War respectively, are buried at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington National Cemetery.", "*1959 – The Auckland Harbour Bridge, crossing the Waitemata Harbour in Auckland, New Zealand, is officially opened by Governor-General Charles Lyttelton, 10th Viscount Cobham.", "*1961 – The long-time Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo is assassinated in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.", "* 1961 – Viasa Flight 897 crashes after takeoff from Lisbon Airport, killing 61.", "*1963 – A protest against pro-Catholic discrimination during the Buddhist crisis is held outside South Vietnam's National Assembly, the first open demonstration during the eight-year presidency of Ngo Dinh Diem.", "*1966 – Former Congolese Prime Minister, Évariste Kimba, and several other politicians are publicly executed in Kinshasa on the orders of President Joseph Mobutu.", "*1967 – The Nigerian Eastern Region declares independence as the Republic of Biafra, sparking a civil war.", "*1968 – Charles de Gaulle reappears publicly after his flight to Baden-Baden, Germany, and dissolves the French National Assembly by a radio appeal.", "Immediately after, less than one million of his supporters march on the Champs-Élysées in Paris.", "This is the turning point of May 1968 events in France.", "*1971 – Mariner program: ''Mariner 9'' is launched to map 70% of the surface, and to study temporal changes in the atmosphere and surface, of Mars.", "*1972 – The Angry Brigade goes on trial over a series of 25 bombings throughout the United Kingdom.", "* 1972 – In Ben Gurion Airport (at the time: Lod Airport), Israel, members of the Japanese Red Army carry out the Lod Airport massacre, killing 24 people and injuring 78 others.", "*1974 – The Airbus A300 passenger aircraft first enters service.", "*1975 – European Space Agency is established.", "*1979 – Downeast Flight 46 crashes on approach to Knox County Regional Airport in Rockland, Maine, killing 17.", "*1982 – Cold War: Spain joins NATO.", "*1989 – Tiananmen Square protests of 1989: The 10-metre high \"Goddess of Democracy\" statue is unveiled in Tiananmen Square by student demonstrators.", "*1990 – Croatian Parliament is constituted after the first free, multi-party elections, today celebrated as the National Day of Croatia.", "*1998 – The 6.5 Afghanistan earthquake shook the Takhar Province of northern Afghanistan with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII (''Very strong''), killing around 4,000–4,500.", "* 1998 – Nuclear Testing: Pakistan conducts an underground test in the Kharan Desert.", "It is reported to be a plutonium device with yield of 20kt TNT equivalent.", "*2003 – Depayin massacre: At least 70 people associated with the National League for Democracy are killed by government-sponsored mob in Burma.", "Aung San Suu Kyi flees the scene, but is arrested soon afterwards.", "*2008 – Convention on Cluster Munitions is adopted.", "* 2008 – TACA Flight 390 overshoots the runway at Toncontín International Airport in Tegucigalpa, Honduras and crashes, killing five people.", "*2012 – Former Liberian president Charles Taylor is sentenced to 50 years in prison for his role in atrocities committed during the Sierra Leone Civil War.", "*2013 – Nigeria passes a law banning same-sex marriage.", "*2020 – The Crew Dragon Demo-2 launches from the Kennedy Space Center, becoming the first crewed orbital spacecraft to launch from the United States since 2011 and the first commercial flight to the International Space Station." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1010 – Ren Zong, Chinese emperor (d. 1063)*1201 – Theobald IV, count of Champagne (d. 1253)*1423 – Georg von Peuerbach, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1461)*1464 – Barbara of Brandenburg, Bohemian queen (d. 1515)*1580 – Fadrique de Toledo, 1st Marquis of Villanueva de Valdueza (d. 1634)*1599 – Samuel Bochart, French Protestant biblical scholar (d. 1667)===1601–1900===*1623 – John Egerton, 2nd Earl of Bridgewater, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire (d. 1686)*1686 – Antonina Houbraken, Dutch illustrator (d. 1736)*1718 – Wills Hill, 1st Marquess of Downshire, English politician, Secretary of State for the Colonies (d. 1793)*1719 – Roger Newdigate, English politician (d. 1806)*1757 – Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1844)*1768 – Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty, French general (d. 1815)*1797 – Georg Amadeus Carl Friedrich Naumann, German mineralogist and geologist (d. 1873)*1800 – Henri-Marie-Gaston Boisnormand de Bonnechose, French cardinal (d. 1883)*1814 – Mikhail Bakunin, Russian philosopher and theorist (d. 1876)* 1814 – Eugène Charles Catalan, Belgian-French mathematician and academic (d. 1894)*1819 – William McMurdo, English general (d. 1894)*1820 – Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Premier of Quebec (d. 1890)*1835 – Alfred Austin, English author, poet, and playwright (d. 1913)*1844 – Félix Arnaudin, French poet and photographer (d. 1921)*1845 – Amadeo I, Spanish king (d. 1890)*1846 – Peter Carl Fabergé, Russian goldsmith and jeweler (d. 1920)*1862 – Mirza Alakbar Sabir, Azerbaijani philosopher and poet (d. 1911)*1869 – Grace Andrews, American mathematician (d. 1951)*1874 – Ernest Duchesne, French physician (d. 1912)*1875 – Giovanni Gentile, Italian philosopher and academic (d. 1944)*1879 – Colin Blythe, English cricketer and soldier (d. 1917)* 1879 – Konstantin Ramul, Estonian psychologist and academic (d. 1975)*1881 – Georg von Küchler, German field marshal (d. 1968)*1882 – Wyndham Halswelle, English runner and soldier (d. 1915)*1883 – Sandy Pearce, Australian rugby league player (d. 1930)*1884 – Siegmund Glücksmann, German soldier and politician (d. 1942)*1885 – Villem Grünthal-Ridala, Estonian poet and linguist (d. 1942)*1886 – Laurent Barré, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1964)* 1886 – Randolph Bourne, American theorist and author (d. 1918)*1887 – Alexander Archipenko, Ukrainian-American sculptor and illustrator (d. 1964)* 1887 – Emil Reesen, Danish pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1964)*1890 – Roger Salengro, French soldier and politician, French Minister of the Interior (d. 1936)*1892 – Fernando Amorsolo, Filipino painter (d. 1972)*1894 – Hubertus van Mook, Dutch politician, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1965)*1895 – Maurice Tate, English cricketer (d. 1956)*1896 – Howard Hawks, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1977)*1897 – Frank Wise, Australian politician, 16th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1986)*1898 – John Gilroy, English artist and illustrator (d. 1985)*1899 – Irving Thalberg, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1936)===1901–present===*1901 – Alfred Karindi, Estonian pianist and composer (d. 1969)* 1901 – Cornelia Otis Skinner, American actress and author (d. 1979)*1902 – Stepin Fetchit, American actor and dancer (d. 1985)*1903 – Countee Cullen, American poet and author (d. 1946)*1906 – Bruno Gröning, German mystic and author (d. 1959)*1907 – Germaine Tillion, French anthropologist and academic (d. 2008)*1908 – Hannes Alfvén, Swedish physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995)* 1908 – Mel Blanc, American voice actor (d. 1989)*1909 – Jacques Canetti, French music executive and talent agent (d. 1997)* 1909 – Freddie Frith, English motorcycle road racer (d. 1988)* 1909 – Benny Goodman, American clarinet player, songwriter, and bandleader (d. 1986)*1910 – Harry Bernstein, English-American journalist and author (d. 2011)*1912 – Julius Axelrod, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)* 1912 – Erich Bagge, German physicist and academic (d. 1996)* 1912 – Hugh Griffith, Welsh actor (d. 1980)* 1912 – Millicent Selsam, American author and academic (d. 1996)* 1912 – Joseph Stein, American playwright and author (d. 2010)*1914 – Akinoumi Setsuo, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 37th Yokozuna (d. 1979)*1915 – Len Carney, English footballer and soldier (d. 1996)*1916 – Justin Catayée, French soldier and politician (d. 1962)* 1916 – Mort Meskin, American illustrator (d. 1995)*1918 – Pita Amor, Mexican poet and author (d. 2000)* 1918 – Bob Evans, American businessman, founded Bob Evans Restaurants (d. 2007)*1919 – René Barrientos, Bolivian general and politician, 55th President of Bolivia (d. 1969)*1920 – Franklin J. Schaffner, Japanese-American director and producer (d. 1989)*1922 – Hal Clement, American author and educator (d. 2003)*1924 – Anthony Dryden Marshall, American CIA officer and diplomat (d. 2014)*1925 – John Henry Marks, English physician and author (d. 2022)*1926 – Johnny Gimble, American country/western swing musician (d. 2015)*1927 – Joan Birman, American mathematician* 1927 – Clint Walker, American actor and singer (d. 2018)* 1927 – Billy Wilson, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 1993)*1928 – Pro Hart, Australian painter (d. 2006)* 1928 – Agnès Varda, Belgian-French director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2019)*1929 – Georges Gilson, French archbishop*1930 – Mark Birley, English businessman, founded Annabel's (d. 2007)* 1930 – Robert Ryman, American painter (d. 2019)*1931 – Larry Silverstein, American real estate magnate *1932 – Ray Cooney, English actor and playwright* 1932 – Pauline Oliveros, American accordion player and composer (d. 2016)* 1932 – Ivor Richard, Baron Richard, Welsh politician and diplomat, British Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 2018)*1934 – Alexei Leonov, Russian general, pilot, and cosmonaut (d. 2019)* 1934 – Alketas Panagoulias, Greek footballer and manager (d. 2012)*1935 – Ruta Lee, Canadian-American actress and dancer* 1935 – Guy Tardif, Canadian academic and politician (d. 2005)*1936 – Keir Dullea, American actor*1937 – Christopher Haskins, Anglo-Irish businessman, life peer, and British politician* 1937 – Rick Mather, American-English architect (d. 2013)*1938 – Billie Letts, American author and educator (d. 2014)*1939 – Michael J. Pollard, American actor (d. 2019)* 1939 – Dieter Quester, Austrian race car driver* 1939 – Tim Waterstone, Scottish businessman, founded Waterstones*1940 – Jagmohan Dalmiya, Indian cricket administrator (d. 2015)* 1940 – Gilles Villemure, Canadian-American ice hockey player*1942 – John Gladwin, English bishop* 1942 – Carole Stone, English journalist and author*1943 – James Chaney, American civil rights activist (d. 1964)* 1943 – Anders Michanek, Swedish motorcycle racer* 1943 – Gale Sayers, American football player and philanthropist (d. 2020)*1944 – Lenny Davidson, English guitarist and songwriter* 1944 – Meredith MacRae, American actress (d. 2000)* 1944 – Stav Prodromou, Greek-American engineer and businessman*1945 – Gladys Horton, American singer (d. 2011)*1946 – Allan Chapman, English historian and author* 1946 – Dragan Džajić, Serbian and Yugoslav footballer*1947 – Jocelyne Bourassa, Canadian golfer (d. 2021)*1948 – Johan De Muynck, Belgian former professional road racing cyclist* 1948 – Michael Piller, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2005)* 1948 – David Thorpe, Australian rules footballer*1949 – P.J.", "Carlesimo, American basketball player and coach* 1949 – Paul Coleridge, English lawyer and judge* 1949 – Bob Willis, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2019)*1950 – Bertrand Delanoë, French politician, 14th Mayor of Paris* 1950 – Paresh Rawal, Indian actor, producer, and politician* 1950 – Joshua Rozenberg, English lawyer, journalist, and author*1951 – Zdravko Čolić, Bosnian Serb singer-songwriter * 1951 – Fernando Lugo, Paraguayan bishop and politician, President of Paraguay* 1951 – Stephen Tobolowsky, American actor, singer, and director*1952 – Daniel Grodnik, American screenwriter and producer* 1952 – Kerry Fraser, Canadian ice hockey player, referee, and sportscaster*1953 – Jim Hunter, Canadian skier* 1953 – Colm Meaney, Irish actor*1954 – Jake Roberts, American wrestler*1955 – Topper Headon, English drummer and songwriter* 1955 – Jacqueline McGlade, English-Canadian biologist, ecologist, and academic * 1955 – Caroline Swift, English lawyer and judge* 1955 – Colm Tóibín, Irish novelist, poet, playwright, and critic*1956 – Tim Lucas, American author, screenwriter, and critic*1957 – Mike Clayton, Australian golfer*1958 – Eugene Belliveau, Canadian football player* 1958 – Marie Fredriksson, Swedish singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2019)* 1958 – Steve Israel, American lawyer and politician* 1958 – Michael López-Alegría, Spanish-American captain, pilot, and astronaut* 1958 – Ted McGinley, American actor*1959 – Phil Brown, English footballer, coach, and manager* 1959 – Randy Ferbey, Canadian curler* 1959 – Frank Vanhecke, Belgian politician*1961 – Harry Enfield, English actor, director, and screenwriter* 1961 – Bob Yari, Iranian-American director and producer*1962 – Kevin Eastman, American author and illustrator, co-created the ''Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles'' * 1962 – Richard Fuller, English lawyer and politician* 1962 – Tim Loughton, English businessman and politician* 1962 – Tonya Pinkins, American actress and singer*1963 – Michel Langevin, Canadian drummer and songwriter * 1963 – Élise Lucet, French journalist* 1963 – Helen Sharman, English chemist and astronaut *1964 – Wynonna Judd, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress * 1964 – Andrea Montermini, Italian race car driver* 1964 – Tom Morello, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor *1965 – Troy Coker, Australian rugby player* 1965 – Billy Donovan, American basketball player and coach* 1965 – Iginio Straffi, Italian animator and producer, founded Rainbow S.r.l.", "*1966 – Thomas Häßler, German footballer and manager* 1966 – Stephen Malkmus, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1967 – Tim Burgess, English singer-songwriter * 1967 – Rechelle Hawkes, Australian hockey player* 1967 – Sven Pipien, German-American bass player *1968 – Jason Kenney, Canadian lawyer and politician, 18th Premier of Alberta* 1968 – Zacarias Moussaoui, French citizen, sentenced to life in prison related to September 11 attacks*1969 – Naomi Kawase, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter* 1969 – Ryuhei Kitamura, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter *1971 – Paul Grayson, English rugby player and coach* 1971 – Duncan Jones, English director, producer, and screenwriter* 1971 – Idina Menzel, American singer-songwriter and actress* 1971 – Jiří Šlégr, Czech ice hockey player and politician* 1971 – Adrian Vowles, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster*1972 – Manny Ramirez, Dominican-American baseball player and coach*1974 – Big L, American rapper (d. 1999)* 1974 – Kostas Chalkias, Greek footballer* 1974 – David Wilkie, American ice hockey player and coach*1975 – Evan Eschmeyer, American basketball player* 1975 – Brian Fair, American singer-songwriter * 1975 – Andy Farrell, English rugby player and coach* 1975 – CeeLo Green, American singer-songwriter* 1975 – Marissa Mayer, American computer scientist and businesswoman*1976 – Rasho Nesterović, basketball player* 1976 – Magnus Norman, Swedish tennis player and coach* 1976 – Margaret Okayo, Kenyan runner*1977 – Rachael Stirling, English actress* 1977 – Federico Vilar, Argentinian-Italian footballer *1979 – Mike Bishai, Canadian ice hockey player* 1979 – Clint Bowyer, American race car driver* 1979 – Francis Lessard, Canadian ice hockey player*1980 – Steven Gerrard, English international footballer and manager* 1980 – Ilona Korstin, Russian basketball player* 1980 – Ryōgo Narita, Japanese author*1981 – Devendra Banhart, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1981 – Gianmaria Bruni, Italian race car driver* 1981 – Ahmad Elrich, Australian footballer* 1981 – Remy Ma, American rapper * 1981 – Lars Møller Madsen, Danish handball player* 1981 – Hisanori Takada, Japanese footballer*1982 – Eddie Griffin, American basketball player (d. 2007)* 1982 – James Simpson-Daniel, English rugby player*1984 – Sham Kwok Fai, Hong Kong footballer* 1984 – Matt Maguire, Australian footballer* 1984 – Alexander Sulzer, German ice hockey player*1985 – Igor Kurnosov, Russian chess player (d. 2013)* 1985 – Igor Lewczuk, Polish footballer* 1985 – Aaron Volpatti, Canadian ice hockey player*1986 – Nikolay Bodurov, Bulgarian international footballer*1989 – Ailee, Korean-American singer and songwriter* 1989 – Lesia Tsurenko, Ukrainian tennis player*1990 – Im Yoon-ah, South Korean singer and actress* 1990 – Andrei Loktionov, Russian ice hockey player* 1990 – Zack Wheeler, American baseball player*1991 – Jonathan Fox, English swimmer*1992 – Harrison Barnes, American basketball player* 1992 – Danielle Harold, English actress*1994 – Scott Laughton, Canadian ice hockey player*1996 – Beatriz Haddad Maia, Brazilian tennis player*1997 – Jung Eun-bi, South Korean singer and actress*1999 – Eddie Nketiah, English footballer* 1999 – Guanyu Zhou, Chinese race car driver" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 531 – Xiao Tong, prince of the Liang Dynasty (b.", "501)*727 – Hubertus, bishop Liège* 947 – Ma Xifan, king of Chu (b.", "899)*1035 – Baldwin IV, count of Flanders (b.", "980)*1159 – Władysław II the Exile, High Duke of Poland and Duke of Silesia (b.", "1105)*1252 – Ferdinand III, king of Castile and León (b.", "1199)*1347 – John Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy de Knayth, English peer (b.", "1290)*1376 – Joan of Ponthieu, Dame of Epernon, French noblewoman *1416 – Jerome of Prague, Czech martyr and theologian (b.", "1379)*1431 – Joan of Arc, French martyr and saint (b.", "1412)*1434 – Prokop the Great, Czech general (b.", "1380)*1469 – Lope de Barrientos, Castilian bishop (b.", "1389)*1472 – Jacquetta of Luxembourg, daughter of Pierre de Luxembourg (b.", "1416)*1574 – Charles IX of France (b.", "1550)*1593 – Christopher Marlowe, English poet and playwright (b.", "1564)===1601–1900===*1606 – Guru Arjan Dev, fifth of the Sikh gurus (b.", "1563)*1640 – Peter Paul Rubens, German-Belgian painter (b.", "1577)*1696 – Henry Capell, 1st Baron Capell of Tewkesbury, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b.", "1638)*1670 – John Davenport, English minister, co-founded the New Haven Colony (b.", "1597)*1712 – Andrea Lanzani, Italian painter (b.", "1645)*1718 – Arnold van Keppel, 1st Earl of Albemarle, Dutch-English general (b.", "1670)*1744 – Alexander Pope, English poet, essayist, and translator (b.", "1688)*1770 – François Boucher, French painter and set designer (b.", "1703)*1778 – Voltaire, French philosopher and author (b.", "1694)* 1778 – José de la Borda, French/Spanish mining magnate in colonial Mexico (b. ca.", "1700)*1829 – Philibert Jean-Baptiste Curial, French general (b.", "1774)*1832 – James Mackintosh, Scottish historian, jurist, and politician (b.", "1765)*1855 – Mary Reibey, Australian businesswoman, (b.", "1777)*1873 – Karamat Ali Jaunpuri, Indian Muslim scholar, (b.", "1800)*1892 – Mary Hannah Gray Clarke, American author, correspondent, and poet (b.", "1835)*1865 – John Catron, American lawyer and judge (b.", "1786)*1867 – Ramón Castilla, Peruvian military leader and politician, President of Peru (b.", "1797)===1901–present===*1901 – Victor D'Hondt, Belgian mathematician, lawyer, and jurist (b.", "1841)*1911 – Milton Bradley, American businessman, founded the Milton Bradley Company (b.", "1836)*1912 – Wilbur Wright, American pilot and businessman, co-founded the Wright Company (b.", "1867)*1918 – Georgi Plekhanov, Russian philosopher and theorist (b.", "1856)*1920 – Mirza Muhammad Yusuf Ali, Bengali writer and social activist (b.", "1858)*1925 – Arthur Moeller van den Bruck, German historian and author (b.", "1876)*1926 – Vladimir Steklov, Russian mathematician and physicist (b.", "1864)*1934 – Tōgō Heihachirō, Japanese admiral (b.", "1848)*1939 – Floyd Roberts, American race car driver (b.", "1904)*1941 – Prajadhipok, Thai king (b.", "1893)*1946 – Louis Slotin, Canadian physicist and chemist (b.", "1910)*1947 – Georg von Trapp, Austrian captain (b.", "1880)*1948 – József Klekl, Slovene-Hungarian priest and politician (b.", "1874)*1949 – Emmanuel Célestin Suhard, French cardinal (b.", "1874)*1951 – Hermann Broch, Austrian-American author (b.", "1886)*1953 – Dooley Wilson, American actor and singer (b.", "1886)*1955 – Bill Vukovich, American race car driver (b.", "1918)*1957 – Piero Carini, Italian race car driver (b.", "1921)*1960 – Boris Pasternak, Russian poet, novelist, and literary translator, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1890)*1961 – Rafael Trujillo, Dominican soldier and politician, 36th President of the Dominican Republic (b.", "1891)*1964 – Isaac Babalola Akinyele, Nigerian king (b.", "1882)* 1964 – Eddie Sachs, American race car driver (b.", "1927)* 1964 – Leó Szilárd, Hungarian-American physicist and engineer (b.", "1898)*1965 – Louis Hjelmslev, Danish linguist and academic (b.", "1899)*1967 – Claude Rains, English-American actor (b.", "1889)*1971 – Marcel Dupré, French organist and composer (b.", "1886)*1975 – Steve Prefontaine, American runner (b.", "1951)* 1975 – Tatsuo Shimabuku, Japanese martial artist, founded Isshin-ryū (b.", "1908)* 1975 – Michel Simon, Swiss-born French actor (b.", "1895) *1976 – Max Carey, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1890)* 1976 – Mitsuo Fuchida, Japanese captain (b.", "1902)*1978 – Jean Deslauriers, Canadian violinist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1909)*1980 – Carl Radle, American bass player and producer (b.", "1942)*1981 – Don Ashby, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1955)* 1981 – Ziaur Rahman, Bangladeshi general and politician, 7th President of Bangladesh (b.", "1936)*1982 – Albert Norden, German journalist and politician (b.", "1904)*1986 – Perry Ellis, American fashion designer, founded his own eponymous fashion brand (b.", "1940)*1993 – Sun Ra, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b.", "1914)*1994 – Ezra Taft Benson, American religious leader, 13th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b.", "1899)* 1994 – Marcel Bich, Italian-French businessman, co-founded Société Bic (b.", "1914)* 1994 – Agostino Di Bartolomei, Italian footballer (b.", "1955)*1995 – Ted Drake, English footballer and manager (b.", "1912)* 1995 – Lofty England, English-Austrian engineer (b.", "1911)* 1995 – Bobby Stokes, English footballer (b.", "1951)*1996 – Léon-Étienne Duval, French cardinal (b.", "1903)* 1996 – Alo Mattiisen, Estonian composer (b.", "1961) *1999 – Kalju Lepik, Estonian poet and author (b.", "1920)*2000 – Tex Beneke, American saxophonist and bandleader (b.", "1914)*2001 – Denis Whitaker, Canadian general and historian (b.", "1915)*2005 – Gérald Leblanc, Acadian poet (b.", "1945)* 2005 – Tomasz Pacyński, Polish journalist and author (b.", "1958)* 2005 – Alma Ziegler, American baseball player and stenographer (b.", "1918)*2006 – Shohei Imamura, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1926)* 2006 – David Lloyd, New Zealand biologist and academic (b.", "1938)* 2006 – Robert Sterling, American actor (b.", "1917)*2007 – Jean-Claude Brialy, Algerian-French actor and director (b.", "1933)* 2007 – Birgit Dalland, Norwegian politician (b.", "1907)* 2007 – Gunturu Seshendra Sarma, Indian poet and critic (b.", "1927)*2009 – Torsten Andersson, Swedish painter and illustrator (b.", "1926)* 2009 – Susanna Haapoja, Finnish politician (b.", "1966)* 2009 – Ephraim Katzir, Israeli biophysicist and politician, 4th President of Israel (b.", "1916)*2010 – Yuri Chesnokov, Russian volleyball player and coach (b.", "1933)* 2010 – Dufferin Roblin, Canadian commander and politician, 14th Premier of Manitoba (b.", "1917)*2011 – Isikia Savua, Fijian police officer and diplomat (b.", "1952)* 2011 – Saleem Shahzad, Pakistani journalist (b.", "1970)* 2011 – Marek Siemek, Polish philosopher and historian (b.", "1942)* 2011 – Clarice Taylor, American actress (b.", "1917)* 2011 – Rosalyn Sussman Yalow, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1921) *2012 – John Fox, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b.", "1957)* 2012 – Andrew Huxley, English physiologist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1917)* 2012 – Gerhard Pohl, German economist and politician (b.", "1937)* 2012 – Jack Twyman, American basketball player and sportscaster (b.", "1934) *2013 – Jayalath Jayawardena, Sri Lankan physician and politician (b.", "1953)* 2013 – Larry Jones, American football player and coach (b.", "1933)*2014 – Hienadz Buraukin, Belarusian poet, journalist, and diplomat (b.", "1936)* 2014 – Henning Carlsen, Danish director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1927)* 2014 – Joan Lorring, British actress (b.", "1926)* 2014 – Leonidas Vasilikopoulos, Greek admiral (b.", "1932)*2015 – Beau Biden, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 44th Attorney General of Delaware (b.", "1969)* 2015 – Joël Champetier, Canadian author and screenwriter (b.", "1957)* 2015 – L. Tom Perry, American religious leader and member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b.", "1922)*2016 – Tom Lysiak, Polish-Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1953)* 2016 – Rick MacLeish, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1950)*2019 – Thad Cochran, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1937) * 2019 – Jason Marcano, Trinidadian footballer (b.", "1983)*2020 – Michael Angelis, British actor (b.", "1944)*2021 – Jason Dupasquier, Swiss motorcycle road racer (b.", "2001)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Anguilla Day, commemorates the beginning of the Anguillian Revolution in 1967.", "(Anguilla)*Canary Islands Day (Spain)*Christian feast day:**Ferdinand III of Castile**Isaac of Dalmatia**Joan of Arc **Joseph Marello**May 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Indian Arrival Day (Trinidad and Tobago)*Lod Massacre Remembrance Day *Mother's Day (Nicaragua)*Statehood Day (Croatia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 30" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 23" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1430 – Joan of Arc is captured at the Siege of Compiègne by troops from the Burgundian faction.", "*1498 – Girolamo Savonarola is burned at the stake in Florence, Italy.", "*1533 – The marriage of King Henry VIII to Catherine of Aragon is declared null and void.", "*1568 – Dutch rebels led by Louis of Nassau, defeat Jean de Ligne, Duke of Arenberg, and his loyalist troops in the Battle of Heiligerlee, opening the Eighty Years' War.===1601–1900===*1609 – Official ratification of the Second Virginia Charter takes place.", "*1618 – The Second Defenestration of Prague precipitates the Thirty Years' War.", "*1706 – John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, defeats a French army under Marshal François de Neufville, duc de Villeroy at the Battle of Ramillies.", "*1788 – South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the United States Constitution.", "*1793 – Battle of Famars during the Flanders Campaign of the War of the First Coalition.", "*1829 – Accordion patent granted to Cyrill Demian in Vienna, Austrian Empire.", "*1844 – Báb: A merchant of Shiraz announces that he is a Prophet and founds a religious movement.", "He is considered to be a forerunner of the Baháʼí Faith.", "*1846 – Mexican–American War: President Mariano Paredes of Mexico unofficially declares war on the United States.", "*1863 – The General German Workers' Association, a precursor of the modern Social Democratic Party of Germany, is founded in Leipzig, Kingdom of Saxony.", "*1873 – The Canadian Parliament establishes the North-West Mounted Police, the forerunner of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.", "*1900 – American Civil War: Sergeant William Harvey Carney is awarded the Medal of Honor for his heroism in the Assault on the Battery Wagner in 1863.===1901–present===*1905 – Sultan Abdul Hamid II publicly announces the creation of the Ullah millet for the Aromanians of the empire, which had been established one day earlier.", "For this reason, the Aromanian National Day is usually celebrated on May 23, although some do so on May 22 instead.", "*1907 – The unicameral Parliament of Finland gathers for its first plenary session.", "*1911 – The New York Public Library is dedicated.", "*1915 – World War I: Italy joins the Allies, fulfilling its part of the Treaty of London.", "*1932 – In Brazil, four students are shot and killed during a manifestation against the Brazilian dictator Getúlio Vargas, which resulted in the outbreak of the Constitutionalist Revolution several weeks later.", "*1934 – American bank robbers Bonnie and Clyde are ambushed by police and killed in Bienville Parish, Louisiana.", "* 1934 – The Auto-Lite strike culminates in the \"Battle of Toledo\", a five-day melée between 1,300 troops of the Ohio National Guard and 6,000 picketers.", "*1939 – The U.S. Navy submarine USS ''Squalus'' sinks off the coast of New Hampshire during a test dive, causing the death of 24 sailors and two civilian technicians.", "The remaining 32 sailors and one civilian naval architect are rescued the following day.", "*1945 – World War II: Heinrich Himmler, head of the Schutzstaffel, commits suicide while in Allied custody.", "* 1945 – World War II: Germany's Flensburg Government under Karl Dönitz is dissolved when its members are arrested by British forces.", "*1946 – The start of a two-day tornado outbreak across the Central United States that spawned at least 15 significant tornadoes.", "*1948 – Thomas C. Wasson, the US Consul-General, is assassinated in Jerusalem, Israel.", "*1949 – Cold War: The Western occupying powers approve the Basic Law and establish a new German state, the Federal Republic of Germany.", "*1951 – Tibetans sign the Seventeen Point Agreement with China.", "*1960 – A tsunami caused by an earthquake in Chile the previous day kills 61 people in Hilo, Hawaii.", "*1971 – Seventy-eight people are killed when Aviogenex Flight 130 crashes on approach to Rijeka Airport in present-day Rijeka, Croatia (then the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia).", "* 1971 – The Intercontinental Hotel in Bucharest opens, becoming the second-tallest building in the city.", "*1992 – Italy's most prominent anti-mafia judge Giovanni Falcone, his wife and three body guards are killed by the Corleonesi clan with a half-ton bomb near Capaci, Sicily.", "His friend and colleague Paolo Borsellino will be assassinated less than two months later, making 1992 a turning point in the history of Italian Mafia prosecutions.", "*1995 – The first version of the Java programming language is released.", "*1998 – The Good Friday Agreement is accepted in a referendum in Northern Ireland with roughly 75% voting yes.", "*2002 – The \"55 parties\" clause of the Kyoto Protocol is reached after its ratification by Iceland.", "*2006 – Alaskan stratovolcano Mount Cleveland erupts.", "*2008 – The International Court of Justice (ICJ) awards Middle Rocks to Malaysia and Pedra Branca (Pulau Batu Puteh) to Singapore, ending a 29-year territorial dispute between the two countries.", "*2013 – A freeway bridge carrying Interstate 5 over the Skagit River collapses in Mount Vernon, Washington.", "*2014 – Seven people, including the perpetrator, are killed and another 14 injured in a killing spree near the campus of University of California, Santa Barbara.", "*2015 – At least 30 people are killed as a result of floods and tornadoes in Texas, Oklahoma, and northern Mexico.", "*2016 – Two suicide bombings, conducted by the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, kill at least 45 potential army recruits in Aden, Yemen.", "* 2016 – Eight bombings are carried out by the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria in Jableh and Tartus, coastline cities in Syria.", "One hundred eighty-four people are killed and at least 200 people injured.", "*2017 – Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte declares martial law in Mindanao, following the Maute's attack in Marawi.", "*2021 – A cable car falls from a mountain near Lake Maggiore in northern Italy, killing 14 people.", "* 2021 – Ryanair Flight 4978 is forced to land by Belarusian authorities to detain dissident journalist Roman Protasevich.", "*2022 – Anthony Albanese of the Australian Labor Party is sworn in as the 31st Prime Minister of Australia after winning the 2022 Australian federal election, ending 9 years of conservative rule." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 635 – K'inich Kan Bahlam II, Mayan king (d. 702)* 675 – Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar II, King of Mutharaiyar dynasty, Tamil Nadu, India*1052 – Philip I of France (d. 1108)*1100 – Emperor Qinzong of Song (d. 1161)*1127 – Uijong of Goryeo, Korean monarch of the Goryeo dynasty (d. 1173)*1330 – Gongmin of Goryeo, Korean ruler (d. 1374)*1586 – Paul Siefert, German composer and organist (d. 1666)===1601–1900===*1606 – Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz, Spanish mathematician and philosopher (d. 1682)*1614 – Bertholet Flemalle, Flemish Baroque painter (d. 1675)*1617 – Elias Ashmole, English astrologer and politician (d. 1692)*1629 – William VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, noble of Hesse-Kassel (d. 1663)*1707 – Carl Linnaeus, Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist (d. 1778)*1718 – William Hunter, Scottish-English anatomist and physician (d. 1783)*1729 – Giuseppe Parini, Italian poet and educator (d. 1799)*1730 – Prince Augustus Ferdinand of Prussia, Prussian prince and general (d. 1813)*1734 – Franz Mesmer, German physician and astrologer (d. 1815)*1741 – Andrea Luchesi, Italian organist and composer (d. 1801)*1789 – Franz Schlik, Austrian earl and general (d. 1862)*1790 – Jules Dumont d'Urville, French admiral and explorer (d. 1842)* 1790 – James Pradier, French neoclassical sculptor (d. 1852)*1794 – Ignaz Moscheles, Czech pianist and composer (d. 1870)*1795 – Charles Barry, English architect, designed the Upper Brook Street Chapel and Halifax Town Hall (d. 1860)*1800 – Rómulo Díaz de la Vega, Mexican general and president (1855) (d. 1877)*1810 – Margaret Fuller, American journalist and critic (d. 1850)*1817 – Manuel Robles Pezuela, Unconstitutional Mexican interim president (d. 1862) *1820 – James Buchanan Eads, American engineer, designed the Eads Bridge (d. 1887)* 1820 – Lorenzo Sawyer, American lawyer and judge (d. 1891)*1824 – Ambrose Burnside, American general and politician, 30th Governor of Rhode Island (d. 1881)*1834 – Jānis Frīdrihs Baumanis, Latvian architect (d. 1891)* 1834 – Carl Bloch, Danish painter and academic (d. 1890)*1837 – Anatole Mallet, Swiss mechanical engineer and inventor (d. 1919)* 1837 – Józef Wieniawski, Polish pianist and composer (d. 1912)*1838 – Amaldus Nielsen, Norwegian painter (d. 1932)*1840 – George Throssell, Irish-Australian politician, 2nd Premier of Western Australia (d. 1910)*1844 – `Abdu'l-Bahá, Iranian religious leader (d. 1921)*1848 – Otto Lilienthal, German pilot and engineer (d. 1896)*1855 – Isabella Ford, English author and activist (d. 1924)*1861 – József Rippl-Rónai, Hungarian painter (d. 1927)*1863 – Władysław Horodecki, Polish architect (d. 1930)*1864 – William O'Connor, American fencer (d. 1939)*1865 – Epitácio Pessoa, Brazilian jurist and politician, 11th President of Brazil (d. 1942)*1875 – Alfred P. Sloan, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1966)*1882 – William Halpenny, Canadian pole vaulter (d. 1960)*1883 – Douglas Fairbanks, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1939)*1884 – Corrado Gini, Italian sociologist and demographer (d. 1965)*1887 – Thoralf Skolem, Norwegian mathematician and theorist (d. 1963)* 1887 – Nikolai Vekšin, Estonian-Russian sailor and captain (d. 1951)* 1887 – C. R. M. F. Cruttwell, English historian (d. 1941)*1888 – Adriaan Roland Holst, Dutch writer (d. 1976)* 1888 – Zack Wheat, American baseball player and police officer (d. 1972)*1889 – Ernst Niekisch, German educator and politician (d. 1967)*1890 – Herbert Marshall, English-American actor and singer (d. 1966)*1891 – Pär Lagerkvist, Swedish novelist, playwright, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974)*1892 – Albert Spencer, 7th Earl Spencer, British peer (d. 1975)*1896 – Felix Steiner, Russian-German SS officer (d. 1966)*1897 – Jimmie Guthrie, Scottish motorcycle racer (d. 1937)*1898 – Scott O'Dell, American soldier, journalist, and author (d. 1989)* 1898 – Josef Terboven, German soldier and politician (d. 1945)*1899 – Jeralean Talley, American super-centenarian (d. 2015)*1900 – Hans Frank, German lawyer and politician (d. 1946)* 1900 – Franz Leopold Neumann, German lawyer and theorist (d. 1954)===1901–present===*1908 – John Bardeen, American physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991)* 1908 – Hélène Boucher, French pilot (d. 1934)* 1908 – Annemarie Schwarzenbach, Swiss author and photographer (d. 1942)*1910 – Margaret Wise Brown, American author and educator (d. 1952)* 1910 – Hugh Casson, English architect and academic (d. 1999)* 1910 – Scatman Crothers, American actor and comedian (d. 1986)* 1910 – Franz Kline, American painter and academic (d. 1962)* 1910 – Artie Shaw, American clarinet player, composer, and bandleader (d. 2004)*1911 – Lou Brouillard, Canadian boxer (d. 1984)* 1911 – Paul Augustin Mayer, German cardinal (d. 2010)* 1911 – Betty Nuthall, English tennis player (d. 1983)*1912 – Jean Françaix, French pianist and composer (d. 1997)* 1912 – John Payne, American actor (d. 1989)*1914 – Harold Hitchcock, English visionary landscape artist (d. 2009)* 1914 – Celestine Sibley, American journalist and author (d. 1999)* 1914 – Barbara Ward, Baroness Jackson of Lodsworth, English economist, journalist, and prominent Catholic layperson (d. 1981)*1915 – S. Donald Stookey, American physicist and chemist, invented CorningWare (d. 2014)*1917 – Edward Norton Lorenz, American mathematician and meteorologist (d. 2008)*1918 – Denis Compton, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1997)*1919 – Robert Bernstein, American author and playwright (d. 1988)* 1919 – Ruth Fernández, Puerto Rican contralto and a member of the Puerto Rican Senate (d. 2012)* 1919 – Betty Garrett, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2011)*1920 – Helen O'Connell, American singer (d. 1993)*1921 – Humphrey Lyttelton, British jazz musician and broadcaster (d. 2008)*1923 – Alicia de Larrocha, Catalan-Spanish pianist (d. 2009)* 1923 – Irving Millman, American virologist and microbiologist (d. 2012)*1924 – Karlheinz Deschner, German author and activist (d. 2014)*1925 – Joshua Lederberg, American biologist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008)*1926 – Basil Salvadore D'Souza, Indian bishop (d. 1996)* 1926 – Joe Slovo, Lithuanian-South African activist and politician (d. 1995)*1928 – Rosemary Clooney, American singer and actress (d. 2002)* 1928 – Nigel Davenport, English actor (d. 2013)* 1928 – Nina Otkalenko, Russian runner (d. 2015)*1929 – Ulla Jacobsson, Swedish-Austrian actress (d. 1982)*1930 – Friedrich Achleitner, German poet and critic (d. 2019)*1931 – Barbara Barrie, American actress *1932 – Kevork Ajemian, Syrian-French journalist and author (d. 1998)*1933 – Joan Collins, English actress* 1933 – Ove Fundin, Swedish motorcycle racer*1934 – Robert Moog, electronic engineer and inventor of the Moog synthesizer (d. 2005)*1935 – Lasse Strömstedt, Swedish author (d. 2009)*1936 – Ingeborg Hallstein, German soprano and actress* 1936 – Charles Kimbrough, American actor *1939 – Michel Colombier, French-American composer and conductor (d. 2004)* 1939 – Reinhard Hauff, German director and screenwriter*1940 – Bjorn Johansen, Norwegian saxophonist (d. 2002)* 1940 – Gérard Larrousse, French race car driver* 1940 – Cora Sadosky, Argentinian mathematician and academic (d. 2010)*1941 – Zalman King, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012)* 1941 – Rod Thorn, American basketball player, coach, and executive*1942 – Gabriel Liiceanu, Romanian philosopher, author, and academic* 1942 – Kovelamudi Raghavendra Rao, Indian director, screenwriter, and choreographer*1943 – Peter Kenilorea, Solomon Islands politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands (d. 2016)*1944 – John Newcombe, Australian tennis player and sportscaster*1945 – Padmarajan, Indian director, screenwriter, and author (d. 1991)*1946 – David Graham, Australian golfer*1947 – Jane Kenyon, American poet and translator (d. 1995)*1948 – Myriam Boyer, French actress, director, and producer*1949 – Daniel DiNardo, American cardinal* 1949 – Alan García, Peruvian lawyer and politician, 61st and 64th President of Peru (d. 2019)*1950 – Martin McGuinness, Irish republican and Sinn Féin politician, Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 2017)*1951 – Anatoly Karpov, Russian chess player* 1951 – Antonis Samaras, Greek economist and politician, 185th Prime Minister of Greece*1952 – Martin Parr, English photographer and journalist*1954 – Gerry Armstrong, Northern Irish international footballer * 1954 – Marvelous Marvin Hagler, American boxer and actor (d. 2021)*1955 – Luka Bloom, Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist*1956 – Andrea Pazienza, Italian illustrator and painter (d. 1988)* 1956 – Ursula Plassnik, Austrian politician and diplomat, Foreign Minister of Austria* 1956 – Buck Showalter, American baseball player, coach, and manager*1958 – Mitch Albom, American journalist, author, and screenwriter* 1958 – Drew Carey, American actor, game show host, and entrepreneur* 1958 – Lea DeLaria, American actress and singer*1959 – Marcella Mesker, Dutch tennis player and sportscaster*1960 – Linden Ashby, American actor*1961 – Daniele Massaro, Italian footballer and manager * 1961 – Norrie May-Welby, Scottish Australian gender activist *1962 – Karen Duffy, American actress *1963 – Viviane Baladi, Swiss mathematician*1964 – Ruth Metzler, Swiss lawyer and politician*1965 – Manuel Sanchís Hontiyuelo, Spanish footballer* 1965 – Tom Tykwer, German director, producer, screenwriter, and composer* 1965 – Melissa McBride, American actress* 1965 – Paul Sironen, Australian rugby league player*1966 – Graeme Hick, Zimbabwean-English cricketer and coach* 1966 – Gary Roberts, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1967 – Luís Roberto Alves, Mexican footballer* 1967 – Anna Ibrisagic, Swedish politician*1968 – Guinevere Turner, American actress and screenwriter*1970 – Bryan Herta, American race car driver and businessman, co-founded Bryan Herta Autosport*1971 – George Osborne, English journalist and politician, former Chancellor of the Exchequer*1972 – Rubens Barrichello, Brazilian race car driver* 1972 – Poppy King, Australian entrepreneur* 1972 – Martin Saggers, English cricketer and umpire*1973 – Maxwell, American singer-songwriter and producer*1974 – Jewel, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, actress, and poet* 1974 – Manuela Schwesig, German politician, German Federal Minister of Family Affairs*1976 – Ricardinho, Brazilian footballer and manager*1977 – Richard Ayoade, British actor, director and writer*1977 – Ilia Kulik, Russian figure skater*1978 – Scott Raynor, American drummer *1979 – Rasual Butler, American basketball player (d. 2018)* 1979 – Brian Campbell, Canadian ice hockey player*1980 – Theofanis Gekas, Greek footballer * 1980 – Ben Ross, Australian rugby league player *1983 – Silvio Proto, Belgian-Italian footballer*1984 – Hugo Almeida, Portuguese footballer*1985 – Sebastián Fernández, Uruguayan footballer* 1985 – Teymuraz Gabashvili, Russian tennis player * 1985 – Wim Stroetinga, Dutch cyclist* 1985 – Ross Wallace, Scottish footballer*1986 – Ryan Coogler, American film director and screenwriter* 1986 – Alexei Sitnikov, Russian-Azerbaijani figure skater* 1986 – Alice Tait, Australian swimmer* 1986 – Ruben Zadkovich, Australian footballer*1987 – Gracie Otto, Australian actress, director, producer, and screenwriter* 1987 – Bray Wyatt, American wrestler (d. 2023)*1988 – Rosanna Crawford, Canadian biathlete* 1988 – Angelo Ogbonna, Italian footballer* 1988 – Morgan Pressel, American golfer*1989 – Ezequiel Schelotto, Italian footballer*1990 – Dan Evans, British tennis player * 1990 – Kristina Kucova, Slovakian tennis player* 1990 – Oliver Venno, Estonian volleyball player *1991 – Aaron Donald, American football player * 1991 – Lena Meyer-Landrut, German singer-songwriter* 1991 – César Pinares, Chilean footballer *1996 – Katharina Althaus, German ski jumper* 1996 – Emmanuel Boateng, Ghanaian footballer* 1996 – Razvan Marin, Romanian footballer*1997 – Pedro Chirivella, Spanish footballer* 1997 – Coy Craft, American footballer* 1997 – Joe Gomez, English footballer* 1997 – Gustaf Nilsson, Swedish footballer* 1997 – Sam Timmins, New Zealand basketball player *1998 – Sérgio Sette Câmara, Brazilian racing driver * 1998 – Salwa Eid Naser, Bahraini track and field sprinter*1999 – James Charles, American internet personality* 1999 – Trinidad Cardona, American singer and songwriter*2000 – Felipe Drugovich, Brazilian-Italian racing driver" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 230 – Urban I, pope of the Catholic Church* 922 – Li Sizhao, Chinese general and governor* 962 – Guibert of Gembloux, Frankish abbot (b.", "892)*1125 – Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "1086)*1304 – Jehan de Lescurel, French poet and composer*1338 – Alice de Warenne, Countess of Arundel, English noble (b.", "1287)*1370 – Toghon Temür, Mongol emperor (b.", "1320)*1423 – Antipope Benedict XIII (b.", "1328)*1498 – Girolamo Savonarola, Italian friar and preacher (b.", "1452)*1523 – Ashikaga Yoshitane, Japanese shōgun (b.", "1466)*1524 – Ismail I, First Emperor of Safavid Empire (b.", "1487)*1591 – John Blitheman, English organist and composer (b.", "1525)===1601–1900===*1662 – John Gauden, English bishop (b.", "1605)*1670 – Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b.", "1610)*1691 – Adrien Auzout, French astronomer and instrument maker (b.", "1622)*1701 – William Kidd, Scottish pirate (b.", "1645)*1749 – Abraham ben Abraham, Polish martyr (b.", "1700)*1752 – William Bradford, English-American printer (b.", "1663)*1754 – John Wood, the Elder, English architect, designed The Circus and Queen Square (b.", "1704)*1783 – James Otis, Jr., American lawyer and politician (b.", "1725)*1813 – Géraud Duroc, French general and diplomat (b.", "1772)*1815 – Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst Muhlenberg, American clergyman and botanist (b.", "1753)*1841 – Franz Xaver von Baader, German philosopher and theologian (b.", "1765)*1855 – Charles Robert Malden, English lieutenant and explorer (b.", "1797)*1857 – Augustin-Louis Cauchy, French mathematician and academic (b.", "1789)*1868 – Kit Carson, American general (b.", "1809)*1886 – Leopold von Ranke, German historian and academic (b.", "1795)*1893 – Anton von Schmerling, Austrian politician (b.", "1805)*1895 – Franz Ernst Neumann, German mineralogist, physicist, and mathematician (b.", "1798)===1901–present===*1906 – Henrik Ibsen, Norwegian director, playwright, and poet (b.", "1828)*1908 – François Coppée, French poet and author (b.", "1842)*1920 – Svetozar Boroević, Croatian-Austrian field marshal (b.", "1856)*1921 – August Nilsson, Swedish shot putter and tug of war competitor (b.", "1872)*1934 – Clyde Barrow, American criminal (b.", "1909)* 1934 – Mihkel Martna, Estonian journalist and politician (b.", "1860)* 1934 – Bonnie Parker, American criminal (b.", "1910)*1937 – John D. Rockefeller, American businessman and philanthropist, founded the Standard Oil Company and Rockefeller University (b.", "1839)*1938 – Frederick Ruple, Swiss-American painter (b.", "1871)*1942 – Panagiotis Toundas, Greek composer and conductor (b.", "1886)*1945 – Heinrich Himmler, German commander and politician, Reich Minister of the Interior (b.", "1900)*1947 – Charles-Ferdinand Ramuz, Swiss author and poet (b.", "1878)*1949 – Jan Frans De Boever, Belgian painter and illustrator (b.", "1872)*1956 – Gustav Suits, Latvian-Estonian poet and politician (b.", "1883)*1960 – Georges Claude, French engineer and inventor, created Neon lighting (b.", "1870)*1962 – Louis Coatalen, French engineer (b.", "1879)*1963 – August Jakobson, Estonian author and politician (b.", "1904)*1965 – David Smith, American sculptor (b.", "1906)*1975 – Moms Mabley, American comedian and actor (b.", "1894)*1979 – S. Selvanayagam, Sri Lankan geographer and academic (b.", "1932)*1981 – Gene Green, American baseball player (b.", "1933)* 1981 – Rayner Heppenstall, English author and poet (b.", "1911)* 1981 – George Jessel, American actor, singer, and producer (b.", "1898)* 1981 – David Lewis, Belarusian-Canadian lawyer and politician (b.", "1909)*1986 – Sterling Hayden, American actor (b.", "1916)*1989 – Georgy Tovstonogov, Russian director and producer (b.", "1915)* 1989 – Karl Koch, German computer hacker (b.", "1965)*1991 – Wilhelm Kempff, German pianist and composer (b.", "1895)* 1991 – Jean Van Houtte, Belgian academic and politician, 50th Prime Minister of Belgium (b.", "1907)* 1991 – Fletcher Markle, Canadian director, screenwriter, and producer (b.", "1921)*1992 – Kostas Davourlis, Greek footballer (b.", "1948)* 1992 – Giovanni Falcone, Italian lawyer and judge (b.", "1939)*1994 – Olav Hauge, Norwegian poet (b.", "1908)*1996 – Kronid Lyubarsky, Russian journalist and activist (b.", "1934)*1998 – Telford Taylor, American general and lawyer (b.", "1908)*1999 – Owen Hart, Canadian-American wrestler (b.", "1965)*2002 – Big Bill Neidjie, Australian activist and last speaker of the Gaagudju language (b.", ")* 2002 – Sam Snead, American golfer and journalist (b.", "1912)*2006 – Lloyd Bentsen, American colonel and politician, 69th United States Secretary of the Treasury (b.", "1921)* 2006 – Kazimierz Górski, Polish footballer and manager (b.", "1921)*2008 – Iñaki Ochoa de Olza, Spanish mountaineer (b.", "1967)* 2008 – Utah Phillips, American singer-songwriter and poet (b.", "1935)*2009 – Roh Moo-hyun, South Korean soldier and politician, 9th President of South Korea (b.", "1946)*2010 – José Lima, Dominican-American baseball player (b.", "1972)* 2010 – Simon Monjack, English director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1970)*2011 – Xavier Tondo, Spanish cyclist (b.", "1978)*2012 – Paul Fussell, American historian, author, and academic (b.", "1924)*2013 – Epy Guerrero, Dominican baseball player, coach, and scout (b.", "1942)* 2013 – Hayri Kozakçıoğlu, Turkish police officer and politician, 15th Governor of Istanbul Province (b.", "1938)* 2013 – Georges Moustaki, Egyptian-French singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1934)* 2013 – Flynn Robinson, American basketball player (b.", "1941)*2014 – Mikhail Egorovich Alekseev, Russian linguist and academic (b.", "1949)* 2014 – Madhav Mantri, Indian cricketer (b.", "1921)*2015 – Anne Meara, American actress, comedian and playwright (b.", "1929)* 2015 – Aleksey Mozgovoy, Ukrainian sergeant (b.", "1975)* 2015 – Alicia Nash, Salvadoran-American physicist and engineer (b.", "1933)* 2015 – John Forbes Nash, Jr., American mathematician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1928)*2017 – Roger Moore, English actor (b.", "1927)*2020 – Hana Kimura, Japanese professional wrestler (b.", "1997)*2021 – Ron Hill, English long-distance runner (b.", "1938)* 2021 – Eric Carle, American children's book designer, illustrator, and writer best known for ''The Very Hungry Caterpillar'' (b.", "1929)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Aromanian National Day*Christian feast day:**Aaron the Illustrious (Syriac Orthodox Church)**Desiderius of Vienne**Giovanni Battista de' Rossi**Julia of Corsica**Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler (Episcopal Church (USA))**Quintian, Lucius and Julian**William of Perth**May 23 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Constitution Day (Germany)*Labour Day (Jamaica)*Students' Day (Mexico)*World Turtle Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 23" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 16" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 946 – Emperor Suzaku abdicates the throne in favor of his brother Murakami who becomes the 62nd emperor of Japan.", "*1204 – Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders is crowned as the first Emperor of the Latin Empire.", "*1364 – Hundred Years' War: Bertrand du Guesclin and a French army defeat the Anglo-Navarrese army of Charles the Bad at Cocherel.", "*1426 – Gov.", "Thado of Mohnyin becomes king of Ava.", "*1527 – The Florentines drive out the Medici for a second time and Florence re-establishes itself as a republic.", "*1532 – Sir Thomas More resigns as Lord Chancellor of England.", "*1568 – Mary, Queen of Scots, flees to England.", "*1584 – Santiago de Vera becomes sixth Governor-General of the Spanish colony of the Philippines.===1601–1900===*1739 – The Battle of Vasai concludes as the Marathas defeat the Portuguese army.", "*1770 – The 14-year-old Marie Antoinette marries 15-year-old Louis-Auguste, who later becomes king of France.", "*1771 – The Battle of Alamance, a pre-American Revolutionary War battle between local militia and a group of rebels called The \"Regulators\", occurs in present-day Alamance County, North Carolina.", "*1811 – Peninsular War: The allies Spain, Portugal and United Kingdom fight an inconclusive battle against the French at the Albuera.", "It is, in proportion to the numbers involved, the bloodiest battle of the war.", "*1812 – Imperial Russia signs the Treaty of Bucharest, ending the Russo-Turkish War.", "The Ottoman Empire cedes Bessarabia to Russia.", "*1822 – Greek War of Independence: The Turks capture the Greek town of Souli.", "*1832 – Juan Godoy discovers the rich silver outcrops of Chañarcillo sparking the Chilean silver rush.", "*1834 – The Battle of Asseiceira is fought; it was the final and decisive engagement of the Liberal Wars in Portugal.", "*1842 – The first major wagon train heading for the Pacific Northwest sets out on the Oregon Trail from Elm Grove, Missouri, with 100 pioneers.", "*1866 – The United States Congress establishes the nickel.", "*1868 – The United States Senate fails to convict President Andrew Johnson by one vote.", "*1874 – A flood on the Mill River in Massachusetts destroys much of four villages and kills 139 people.", "*1877 – The 16 May 1877 crisis occurs in France, ending with the dissolution of the National Assembly 22 June and affirming the interpretation of the Constitution of 1875 as a parliamentary rather than presidential system.", "The elections held in October 1877 led to the defeat of the royalists as a formal political movement in France.", "*1888 – Nikola Tesla delivers a lecture describing the equipment which will allow efficient generation and use of alternating currents to transmit electric power over long distances.", "*1891 – The International Electrotechnical Exhibition opened in Frankfurt, Germany, featuring the world's first long-distance transmission of high-power, three-phase electric current (the most common form today).===1901–present===*1916 – The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the French Third Republic sign the secret wartime Sykes-Picot Agreement partitioning former Ottoman territories such as Iraq and Syria.", "*1918 – The Sedition Act of 1918 is passed by the U.S. Congress, making criticism of the government during wartime an imprisonable offense.", "It will be repealed less than two years later.", "*1919 – A naval Curtiss NC-4 aircraft commanded by Albert Cushing Read leaves Trepassey, Newfoundland, for Lisbon via the Azores on the first transatlantic flight.", "*1920 – In Rome, Pope Benedict XV canonizes Joan of Arc.", "*1925 – The first modern performance of Claudio Monteverdi's opera ''Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria'' occurred in Paris.", "*1929 – In Hollywood, the first Academy Awards ceremony takes place.", "*1943 – The Holocaust: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ends.", "*1943 – Operation Chastise is undertaken by RAF Bomber Command with specially equipped Avro Lancasters to destroy the Mohne, Sorpe, and Eder dams in the Ruhr valley.", "*1945 – Beginning of the Levant Crisis between Britain and France in Syria.", "The latter try to quell nationalist protests but backs down after threat of military action by the British.", "*1951 – The first regularly scheduled transatlantic flights begin between Idlewild Airport (now John F Kennedy International Airport) in New York City and Heathrow Airport in London, operated by El Al Israel Airlines.", "*1959 – The Tritons' Fountain in Valletta, Malta is turned on for the first time.", "*1960 – Theodore Maiman operates the first optical laser (a ruby laser), at Hughes Research Laboratories in Malibu, California.", "*1961 – Park Chung Hee leads a coup d'état to overthrow the Second Republic of South Korea.", "*1966 – The Chinese Communist Party issues the \"May 16 Notice\", marking the beginning of the Cultural Revolution.", "*1969 – Venera program: ''Venera 5'', a Soviet space probe, lands on Venus.", "*1974 – Josip Broz Tito is elected president for life of Yugoslavia.", "*1975 – Junko Tabei from Japan becomes the first woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest.", "*1988 – A report by the Surgeon General of the United States C. Everett Koop states that the addictive properties of nicotine are similar to those of heroin and cocaine.", "*1991 – Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom addresses a joint session of the United States Congress.", "She is the first British monarch to address the U.S.", "Congress.", "*1997 – Mobutu Sese Seko, the President of Zaire, flees the country.", "*2003 – In Morocco, 33 civilians are killed and more than 100 people are injured in the Casablanca terrorist attacks.", "*2005 – Kuwait permits women's suffrage in a 35–23 National Assembly vote.", "*2011 – STS-134 (ISS assembly flight ULF6), launched from the Kennedy Space Center on the 25th and final flight for .", "*2014 – Twelve people are killed in two explosions in the Gikomba market area of Nairobi, Kenya." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1418 – John II of Cyprus, King of Cyprus and Armenia and also titular King of Jerusalem from 1432 to 1458 (probable; d. 1458)*1455 – Wolfgang I of Oettingen, German count (d. 1522)*1542 – Anna Sibylle of Hanau-Lichtenberg, German noblewoman (d. 1580)===1601–1900===*1606 – John Bulwer, British doctor (d. 1656)*1611 – Pope Innocent XI (d. 1689)*1641 – Dudley North, English economist and politician (d. 1691)*1710 – William Talbot, 1st Earl Talbot, English politician, Lord Steward of the Household (d. 1782)*1718 – Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Italian mathematician and philosopher (d. 1799)*1763 – Louis Nicolas Vauquelin, French pharmacist and chemist (d. 1829)*1788 – Friedrich Rückert, German poet and translator (d. 1866)*1801 – William H. Seward, American lawyer and politician, 24th United States Secretary of State (d. 1872)*1804 – Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, American educator who founded the first U.S. kindergarten (d. 1894)*1819 – Johann Voldemar Jannsen, Estonian journalist and poet (d. 1890)*1821 – Pafnuty Chebyshev, Russian mathematician and statistician (d. 1894)*1824 – Levi P. Morton, American banker and politician, 22nd United States Vice President (d. 1920)* 1824 – Edmund Kirby Smith, American general (d. 1893)*1827 – Pierre Cuypers, Dutch architect, designed the Amsterdam Centraal railway station and Rijksmuseum (d. 1921)*1831 – David Edward Hughes, Welsh-American physicist, co-invented the microphone (d. 1900)*1859 – Horace Hutchinson, English golfer (d. 1932)*1862 – Margaret Fountaine, English lepidopterist and diarist (d. 1940)*1876 – Fred Conrad Koch, American biochemist and endocrinologist (d. 1948)*1879 – Pierre Gilliard, Swiss author and academic (d. 1962)*1882 – Simeon Price, American golfer (d. 1945)*1883 – Celâl Bayar, Turkish politician, 3rd President of Turkey (d. 1986)*1887 – Maria Lacerda de Moura, Brazilian teacher and anarcha-feminist (d. 1945)*1888 – Royal Rife, American microbiologist and instrument maker (d. 1971)*1890 – Edith Grace White, American ichthyologist (d. 1975)*1892 – Osgood Perkins, American actor (d. 1937)*1894 – Walter Yust, American journalist and writer (d. 1960)*1897 – Zvi Sliternik, Israeli entomologist and academic (d. 1994)*1898 – Tamara de Lempicka, Polish-American painter (d. 1980)* 1898 – Desanka Maksimović, Serbian poet and academic (d. 1993)* 1898 – Kenji Mizoguchi, Japanese director and screenwriter (d. 1956)===1901–present===*1903 – Charles F. Brannock, American inventor and manufacturer (d. 1992)*1905 – Henry Fonda, American actor (d. 1982)*1906 – Ernie McCormick, Australian cricketer (d. 1991)* 1906 – Alfred Pellan, Canadian painter and educator (d. 1988)* 1906 – Arturo Uslar Pietri, Venezuelan lawyer, journalist, and author (d. 2001)* 1906 – Margret Rey, German author and illustrator (d. 1996)*1907 – Bob Tisdall, Irish hurdler (d. 2004)*1909 – Margaret Sullavan, American actress and singer (d. 1960)* 1909 – Luigi Villoresi, Italian race car driver (d. 1997)*1910 – Olga Bergholz, Russian poet and author (d. 1975)* 1910 – Higashifushimi Kunihide, Japanese monk and educator (d. 2014)* 1910 – Aleksandr Ivanovich Laktionov, Russian painter and educator (d. 1972)*1912 – Studs Terkel, American historian and author (d. 2008)*1913 – Gordon Chalk, Australian politician, 30th Premier of Queensland (d. 1991)*1913 – Woody Herman, American singer, saxophonist, and clarinet player (d. 1987)*1914 – Edward T. Hall, American anthropologist and author (d. 2009)*1915 – Mario Monicelli, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 2010)*1916 – Ephraim Katzir, Israeli biophysicist and politician, 4th President of Israel (d. 2009)*1917 – Ben Kuroki, American sergeant and pilot (d. 2015)* 1917 – James C. Murray, American lawyer and politician (d. 1999)* 1917 – Juan Rulfo, Mexican author and photographer (d. 1986)*1918 – Wilf Mannion, English footballer and manager (d. 2000)*1919 – Liberace, American pianist and entertainer (d. 1987)* 1919 – Ramon Margalef, Spanish ecologist and biologist (d. 2004)*1920 – Martine Carol, French actress (d. 1967)*1921 – Harry Carey Jr., American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012)*1923 – Victoria Fromkin, American linguist and academic (d. 2000)* 1923 – Merton Miller, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2000)* 1923 – Peter Underwood, English parapsychologist and author (d. 2014)*1924 – Barbara Bachmann, American microbiologist (d. 1999)* 1924 – Dawda Jawara, 1st President of the Gambia (d. 2019)*1925 – Nancy Roman, American astronomer (d. 2018)* 1925 – Ola Vincent, Nigerian banker and economist (d. 2012)* 1925 – Nílton Santos, Brazilian footballer (d. 2013)*1928 – Billy Martin, American baseball player and coach (d. 1989)*1929 – Betty Carter, American singer-songwriter (d. 1998)* 1929 – John Conyers, American lawyer and politician (d. 2019)* 1929 – Claude Morin, Canadian academic and politician* 1929 – Adrienne Rich, American poet, essayist, and feminist (d. 2012)*1930 – Friedrich Gulda, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 2000)*1931 – Vujadin Boškov, Serbian footballer, coach, and manager (d. 2014)* 1931 – Hana Brady, Jewish-Czech Holocaust victim (d. 1944)* 1931 – K. Natwar Singh, Indian scholar and politician, Indian Minister of External Affairs* 1931 – Lowell P. Weicker Jr., American soldier and politician, 85th Governor of Connecticut (d. 2023)*1934 – Kenneth O. Morgan, Welsh historian and author* 1934 – Antony Walker, English general (d. 2023)*1935 – Floyd Smith, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1936 – Karl Lehmann, German cardinal (d. 2018)*1937 – Yvonne Craig, American ballet dancer and actress (d. 2015)*1938 – Stuart Bell, English lawyer and politician (d. 2012)* 1938 – Ivan Sutherland, American computer scientist and academic* 1938 – Marco Aurelio Denegri, Peruvian television host and sexologist (d. 2018)*1939 – Mario Segni, Italian professor and politician*1941 – Denis Hart, Australian archbishop*1942 – David Penry-Davey, English lawyer and judge (d. 2015)*1943 – Kay Andrews, Baroness Andrews, English politician* 1943 – Dan Coats, American politician and diplomat, 29th United States Ambassador to Germany* 1943 – Wieteke van Dort, Dutch actress, comedian, singer, writer and artist*1944 – Billy Cobham, Panamanian-American drummer, composer, and bandleader * 1944 – Antal Nagy, Hungarian footballer* 1944 – Danny Trejo, American actor *1946 – John Law, English sociologist and academic* 1946 – Robert Fripp, English guitarist, songwriter and producer*1947 – Cheryl Clarke, American writer* 1947 – Darrell Sweet, Scottish drummer (d. 1999)* 1947 – Roch Thériault, Canadian religious leader (d. 2011)*1948 – Jesper Christensen, Danish actor, director, and producer* 1948 – Judy Finnigan, English talk show host and author* 1948 – Enrico Fumia, Italian automobile and product designer*1948 – Jimmy Hood, Scottish engineer and politician (d. 2017)* 1948 – Emma Georgina Rothschild, English historian and academic* 1948 – Staf Van Roosbroeck, Belgian cyclist*1949 – Rick Reuschel, American baseball player*1950 – Georg Bednorz, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1950 – Ray Condo, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2004)* 1950 – Bruce Coville, American author*1951 – Christian Lacroix, French fashion designer* 1951 – Jonathan Richman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1951 – Janet Soskice, Canadian philosopher and theologian*1953 – Pierce Brosnan, Irish-American actor and producer* 1953 – Peter Onorati, American actor* 1953 – Richard Page, American singer-songwriter and bass player * 1953 – Kitanoumi Toshimitsu, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 55th Yokozuna (d. 2015)* 1953 – David Maclean, Scottish politician* 1953 – Stephen Woolman, Lord Woolman, Scottish judge and academic*1954 – Dafydd Williams, Canadian physician and astronaut*1955 – Olga Korbut, Soviet gymnast* 1955 – Jack Morris, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1955 – Hazel O'Connor, English-born Irish singer-songwriter and actress* 1955 – Páidí Ó Sé, Irish footballer and manager (d. 2012)* 1955 – Debra Winger, American actress * 1956 – Loretta Schrijver, Dutch television host, news anchor*1957 – Joan Benoit, American runner* 1957 – Benjamin Mancroft, 3rd Baron Mancroft, English politician* 1957 – Yuri Shevchuk, Russian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1957 – Anthony St John, 22nd Baron St John of Bletso, English lawyer and businessman* 1957 – Bob Suter, American ice hockey player and coach (d. 2014)*1959 – Mitch Webster, American baseball player* 1959 – Mare Winningham, American actress and singer-songwriter*1960 – Landon Deireragea, Nauruan politician, Nauruan Speaker of Parliament* 1960 – Bruce Norris, playwright* 1960 – S. Shanmuganathan, Sri Lankan commander and politician (d. 1998)*1961 – Kevin McDonald, Canadian actor and screenwriter* 1961 – Charles Wright, American wrestler* 1962 – Helga Radtke, German long jumper*1963 – Rachel Griffith, Anglo-American economist* 1963 – David Wilkinson, English theologian and academic*1964 – John Salley, American basketball player and actor* 1964 – Boyd Tinsley, American singer-songwriter and violinist * 1964 – Milton Jones, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter*1965 – Krist Novoselic, American bass player, songwriter, author, and activist* 1965 – Tanel Tammet, Estonian computer scientist, engineer, and academic*1966 – Janet Jackson, American singer-songwriter actress* 1966 – Scott Reeves, American singer-songwriter and actor * 1966 – Thurman Thomas, American football player*1967 – Doug Brocail, American baseball player and coach* 1967 – Susan Williams, Baroness Williams of Trafford, British politician*1968 – Ralph Tresvant, American singer and producer *1969 – David Boreanaz, American actor* 1969 – Tucker Carlson, American journalist, co-founded ''The Daily Caller''* 1969 – Steve Lewis, American sprinter*1970 – Gabriela Sabatini, Argentinian tennis player* 1970 – Danielle Spencer, Australian singer-songwriter and actress*1971 – Phil Clarke, English rugby league player and sportscaster* 1971 – Rachel Goswell, English singer-songwriter and guitarist *1972 – Christian Califano, French rugby player* 1972 – Matthew Hart, New Zealand cricketer*1973 – Tori Spelling, American actress, reality television personality, and author*1974 – Laura Pausini, Italian singer-songwriter and producer* 1974 – Sonny Sandoval, American singer-songwriter and rapper*1975 – Tony Kakko, Finnish musician, composer, and vocalist* 1975 – Simon Whitfield, Canadian triathlete*1976 – Dirk Nannes, Australian-Dutch cricketer*1977 – Melanie Lynskey, New Zealand actress* 1977 – Emilíana Torrini, Icelandic singer-songwriter*1978 – Scott Nicholls, English motorcycle racer* 1978 – Lionel Scaloni, Argentinian footballer*1980 – Nuria Llagostera Vives, Spanish tennis player*1981 – Ricardo Costa, Portuguese footballer*1982 – Łukasz Kubot, Polish tennis player*1983 – Daniel Kerr, Australian footballer* 1983 – Kyle Wellwood, Canadian ice hockey player*1984 – Darío Cvitanich, Argentinian footballer* 1984 – Tomáš Fleischmann, Czech ice hockey player* 1984 – Jensen Lewis, American baseball player* 1984 – Rick Rypien, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2011)*1985 – Anja Mittag, German footballer* 1985 – Rodrigo Peters Marques, Brazilian footballer* 1985 – Corey Perry, Canadian ice hockey player*1986 – Megan Fox, American actress* 1986 – Andy Keogh, Irish footballer* 1986 – Shamcey Supsup, Filipino model and architect*1987 – Tom Onslow-Cole, English race car driver*1988 – Jesús Castillo, Mexican footballer* 1988 – Martynas Gecevičius, Lithuanian basketball player* 1988 – Jaak Põldma, Estonian tennis player*1989 – Behati Prinsloo, Namibian model*1990 – Amanda Carreras, Gibraltarian tennis player* 1990 – Thomas Brodie-Sangster, English actor* 1990 – Darko Šarović, Serbian sprinter* 1990 – Omar Strong, American basketball player*1991 – Grigor Dimitrov, Bulgarian tennis player* 1991 – Joey Graceffa, American internet celebrity * 1991 – Ashley Wagner, American figure skater*1992 – Jeff Skinner, Canadian ice hockey player* 1992 – Kirstin Maldonado, American singer and songwriter*1993 – Johannes Thingnes Bø, Norwegian biathlete* 1993 – Karol Mets, Estonian footballer* 1993 – IU, Korean singer-songwriter and actress*1994 – Kathinka von Deichmann, Liechtenstein tennis player*1995 – Elizabeth Ralston, Australian footballer*1996 – Louisa Chirico, American tennis player*2000 – Luis Garcia, Dominican-American baseball player*2002 – Ryan Gravenberch, Dutch footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 290 – Emperor Wu of Jin, Chinese emperor (b.", "236)* 895 – Qian Kuan, Chinese nobleman* 934 – Meng Hanqiong, eunuch official of Later Tang* 995 – Fujiwara no Michitaka, Japanese nobleman (b.", "953)*1182 – John Komnenos Vatatzes, Byzantine general (b.", "1132)*1265 – Simon Stock, English-French saint (b.", "1165)*1375 – Liu Bowen, Chinese military strategist, officer, statesman and poet (b.", "1311)*1412 – Gian Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan (b.", "1388)*1561 – Jan Tarnowski, Polish noble and statesman (b.", "1488)===1601–1900===*1620 – William Adams, English sailor and navigator (b.", "1564)*1657 – Andrew Bobola, Polish missionary and martyr (b.", "1591)*1667 – Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton, English politician, Lord High Treasurer (b.", "1607)*1669 – Pietro da Cortona, Italian painter and architect, designed the Santi Luca e Martina (b.", "1596)*1691 – Jacob Leisler, German-American politician, 8th Colonial Governor of New York (b.", "1640)*1696 – Mariana of Austria, Queen consort of Spain (b.", "1634)*1703 – Charles Perrault, French author and academic (b.", "1628)*1778 – Robert Darcy, 4th Earl of Holderness, English politician, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (b.", "1718)*1790 – Philip Yorke, 2nd Earl of Hardwicke, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Cambridgeshire (b.", "1720)*1818 – Matthew Lewis, English author and playwright (b.", "1775)*1823 – Grace Elliott, Scottish courtesan and spy (b.", ")*1830 – Joseph Fourier, French mathematician and physicist (b.", "1768)*1861 – John Stevens Henslow, British priest, geologist and doctoral advisor to Charles Darwin (b.", "1796)*1862 – Edward Gibbon Wakefield, English politician (b.", "1796)*1882 – Reuben Chapman, American lawyer and politician, 13th Governor of Alabama (b.", "1799)*1890 – Mihkel Veske, Estonian poet, linguist and theologist (b.", "1843)*1891 – Ion C. Brătianu, Romanian politician, 14th Prime Minister of Romania (b.", "1821)===1901–present===*1910 – Henri-Edmond Cross, French Neo-Impressionist painter (b.", "1856)*1913 – Louis Perrier, Swiss architect and politician (b.", "1849)*1920 – Levi P. Morton, American politician, 22nd United States Vice President (b.", "1824)*1926 – Mehmed VI, the 36th and last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (b.", "1861)*1936 – Leonidas Paraskevopoulos, Greek general and politician (b.", "1860)*1938 – Joseph Strauss, American engineer, co designed The Golden Gate Bridge (b.", "1870)*1943 – Alfred Hoche, German psychiatrist and academic (b.", "1865)*1943 – Nigger, black labrador retriever belonging to Wing Commander Guy Gibson of the Royal Air Force, and the mascot of No.", "617 Squadron.", "*1944 – George Ade, American journalist, author, and playwright (b.", "1866)* 1944 – Filip Mișea, Aromanian activist, physician and politician (b.", "1873)*1946 – Bruno Tesch, German chemist and businessman (b.", "1890)*1947 – Frederick Gowland Hopkins, English biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1861)* 1947 – Kalle Hakala, Finnish politician (b.", "1880)* 1947 – Zhang Lingfu, Chinese general (b.", "1903)*1953 – Django Reinhardt, Belgian guitarist and composer (b.", "1910)*1954 – Clemens Krauss, Austrian conductor and manager (b.", "1893)*1955 – James Agee, American novelist, screenwriter, and critic(b.", "1909)* 1955 – Manny Ayulo, American race car driver (b.", "1921)*1956 – H. B. Reese, American candy-maker and businessman, created Reese's Peanut Butter Cups (b.", "1876)*1957 – Eliot Ness, American federal agent (b.", "1903)*1961 – George A. Malcolm, American lawyer and jurist (b.", "1881)*1977 – Modibo Keïta, Malian politician, 1st President of Mali (b.", "1915)*1979 – A. Philip Randolph, American union leader and activist (b.", "1889)*1981 – Ernie Freeman, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b.", "1922)* 1981 – Willy Hartner, German physician and academic (b.", "1905)*1984 – Andy Kaufman, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter (b.", "1949)* 1984 – Irwin Shaw, American playwright, screenwriter, novelist, and short story writer (b.", "1913)*1985 – Margaret Hamilton, American actress (b.", "1902)*1989 – Leila Kasra, Iranian poet and songwriter (b.", "1939)*1990 – Sammy Davis Jr., American singer, dancer, and actor (b.", "1925)* 1990 – Jim Henson, American puppeteer, director, producer, and screenwriter, created The Muppets (b.", "1936)*1993 – Marv Johnson, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1938)*1994 – Alain Cuny, French actor (b.", "1908)*1996 – Jeremy Michael Boorda, American admiral (b.", "1939)*1997 – Elbridge Durbrow, American diplomat (b.", "1903)*2002 – Alec Campbell, Australian soldier (b.", "1899)*2003 – Mark McCormack, American lawyer and sports agent, founded IMG (b.", "1930)*2005 – Andrew Goodpaster, American general (b.", "1915)*2008 – Robert Mondavi, American winemaker, co-founded the Opus One Winery (b.", "1913)*2010 – Ronnie James Dio, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1942)* 2010 – Hank Jones, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b.", "1918)*2011 – Ralph Barker, English author (b.", "1917) * 2011 – Bob Davis, Australian footballer and coach (b.", "1928)* 2011 – Edward Hardwicke, English actor (b.", "1932)* 2011 – Kiyoshi Kodama, Japanese actor (b.", "1934)*2012 – Patricia Aakhus, American author and academic (b.", "1952)* 2012 – James Abdnor, American soldier and politician (b.", "1923)* 2012 – Chuck Brown, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1936)* 2012 – Ernie Chan, Filipino-American illustrator (b.", "1940)* 2012 – Kevin Hickey, American baseball player (b.", "1956)*2013 – Angelo Errichetti, American politician (b.", "1928)* 2013 – Bryan Illerbrun, Canadian football player (b.", "1957)* 2013 – Frankie Librán, Puerto Rican-American baseball player (b.", "1948)* 2013 – Heinrich Rohrer, Swiss physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1933)* 2013 – Paul Shane, British actor and comedian (b.", "1940)* 2013 – Dick Trickle, American race car driver (b.", "1941)* 2013 – Bernard Waber, American author and illustrator (b.", "1921)*2014 – Chris Duckworth, Zimbabwean-South African cricketer (b.", "1933)* 2014 – Vito Favero, Italian cyclist (b.", "1932)* 2014 – Bud Hollowell, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1943)* 2014 – Clyde Snow, American anthropologist and author (b.", "1928)*2015 – Prashant Bhargava, American director and producer (b.", "1973)* 2015 – Moshe Levinger, Israeli rabbi and author (b.", "1935)* 2015 – Flora MacNeil, Scottish Gaelic singer (b.", "1928)*2019 – Piet Blauw, Dutch politician (b.", "1937)* 2019 – Bob Hawke, Australian politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Australia (b.", "1929)* 2019 – I. M. Pei, Chinese-American architect (b.", "1917) *2021 – Bruno Covas, Brazilian lawyer, politician (b.", "1980) *2023 – Norm Green, American long-distance runner (b.", "1932)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Aaron (Coptic Church)** Abda and Abdjesus, and companions:*** Abdas of Susa** Andrew Bobola** Brendan the Navigator (Roman Catholic Church, Anglican Communion, Eastern Orthodox Church)** Caroline Chisholm (Church of England)** Gemma Galgani (Passionists Calendar)** Germerius** Honoratus of Amiens** John of Nepomuk** Margaret of Cortona** Peregrine of Auxerre** Simon Stock** Ubald (see Saint Ubaldo Day)** May 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Martyrs of Sudan (Episcopal Church (USA))* Mass Graves Day (Iraq)* National Day, declared by Salva Kiir Mayardit (South Sudan)* Teachers' Day (Malaysia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 16" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 22" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 192 – Dong Zhuo is assassinated by his adopted son Lü Bu.", "* 760 – Fourteenth recorded perihelion passage of Halley's Comet.", "* 853 – A Byzantine fleet sacks and destroys undefended Damietta in Egypt.", "*1176 – The Hashshashin (Assassins) attempt to assassinate Saladin near Aleppo.", "*1200 – King John of England and King Philip II of France sign the Treaty of Le Goulet.", "*1246 – Henry Raspe is elected anti-king of the Kingdom of Germany in opposition to Conrad IV.", "*1254 – Serbian King Stefan Uroš I and the Republic of Venice sign a peace treaty.", "*1370 – Brussels massacre: Between six and twenty Jews are murdered and the rest of the Jewish community is banished from Brussels, Belgium, for allegedly desecrating consecrated Host.", "*1377 – Pope Gregory XI issues five papal bulls to denounce the doctrines of English theologian John Wycliffe.", "*1455 – Start of the Wars of the Roses: At the First Battle of St Albans, Richard, Duke of York, defeats and captures King Henry VI of England.", "*1520 – The massacre at the festival of Tóxcatl takes place during the Fall of Tenochtitlan, resulting in turning the Aztecs against the Spanish.===1601–1900===*1629 – Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II and Danish King Christian IV sign the Treaty of Lübeck ending Danish intervention in the Thirty Years' War.", "*1762 – Sweden and Prussia sign the Treaty of Hamburg.", "* 1762 – Trevi Fountain is officially completed and inaugurated in Rome.", "*1766 – A large earthquake causes heavy damage and loss of life in Istanbul and the Marmara region.", "*1804 – The Lewis and Clark Expedition officially begins as the Corps of Discovery departs from St. Charles, Missouri.", "*1807 – A grand jury indicts former Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr on a charge of treason.", "*1809 – On the second and last day of the Battle of Aspern-Essling (near Vienna, Austria), Napoleon I is defeated in a major battle for the first time in his career, and repelled by an enemy army for the first time in a decade.", "*1816 – A mob in Littleport, Cambridgeshire, England, riots over high unemployment and rising grain costs, and the riots spread to Ely the next day.", "*1819 – leaves port at Savannah, Georgia, United States, on a voyage to become the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean.", "*1826 – departs on its first voyage.", "*1840 – The penal transportation of British convicts to the New South Wales colony is abolished.", "*1846 – The Associated Press is formed in New York City as a non-profit news cooperative.", "*1848 – Slavery is abolished in Martinique.", "*1849 – Future U.S. President Abraham Lincoln is issued a patent for an invention to lift boats, making him the only U.S. president to ever hold a patent.", "*1856 – Congressman Preston Brooks of South Carolina severely beats Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts with a cane in the hall of the United States Senate for a speech Sumner had made regarding Southerners and slavery.", "*1863 – American Civil War: Union forces begin the Siege of Port Hudson which lasts 48 days, the longest siege in U.S. military history.", "*1864 – American Civil War: After ten weeks, the Union Army's Red River Campaign ends in failure.", "*1866 – Oliver Winchester founded the Winchester Repeating Arms*1872 – Reconstruction Era: President Ulysses S. Grant signs the Amnesty Act into law, restoring full civil and political rights to all but about 500 Confederate sympathizers.===1901–present===*1905 – The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire Abdul Hamid II establishes the Ullah millet for the Aromanians of the empire.", "For this reason, the Aromanian National Day is sometimes celebrated on this day, although most do so on May 23 instead, which is when this event was publicly announced.", "*1906 – The Wright brothers are granted U.S. patent number 821,393 for their \"Flying-Machine\".", "*1915 – Lassen Peak erupts with a powerful force, the only volcano besides Mount St. Helens to erupt in the contiguous U.S. during the 20th century.", "* 1915 – Three trains collide in the Quintinshill rail disaster near Gretna Green, Scotland, killing 227 people and injuring 246.", "*1926 – Chiang Kai-shek replaces the communists in Kuomintang China.", "*1927 – Near Xining, China, an 8.3 magnitude earthquake causes 200,000 deaths in one of the world's most destructive earthquakes.", "*1939 – World War II: Germany and Italy sign the Pact of Steel.", "*1941 – During the Anglo-Iraqi War, British troops take Fallujah.", "*1942 – Mexico enters the Second World War on the side of the Allies.", "*1943 – Joseph Stalin disbands the Comintern.", "*1947 – Cold War: The Truman Doctrine goes into effect, aiding Turkey and Greece.", "*1948 – Finnish President J. K. Paasikivi releases Yrjö Leino from his duties as interior minister in 1948 after the Finnish parliament adopted a motion of censure of Leino with connection to his illegal handing over of nineteen people to the Soviet Union in 1945.", "*1957 – South Africa's government approves of racial separation in universities.", "*1958 – The 1958 riots in Ceylon become a watershed in the race relations of various ethnic communities of Sri Lanka.", "The total deaths are estimated at 300, mostly Tamils.", "*1960 – The Great Chilean earthquake, measuring 9.5 on the moment magnitude scale, hits southern Chile, becoming the most powerful earthquake ever recorded.", "*1962 – Continental Airlines Flight 11 crashes in Unionville, Missouri after bombs explode on board, killing 45.", "*1963 – Greek left-wing politician Grigoris Lambrakis is clubbed over the head, causing his death five days later.", "*1964 – U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson launches his Great Society program.", "*1967 – Egypt closes the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping.", "* 1967 – L'Innovation department store in Brussels, Belgium, burns down, resulting in 323 dead or missing and 150 injured, the most devastating fire in Belgian history.", "*1968 – The nuclear-powered submarine sinks with 99 men aboard, 400 miles southwest of the Azores.", "*1969 – Apollo 10's lunar module flies within of the moon's surface.", "*1972 – Ceylon adopts a new constitution, becoming a republic and changing its name to Sri Lanka.", "* 1972 – Over 400 women in Derry, Northern Ireland attack the offices of Sinn Féin following the shooting by the Irish Republican Army of a young British soldier on leave.", "*1987 – Hashimpura massacre occurs in Meerut, India.", "* 1987 – First ever Rugby World Cup kicks off with New Zealand playing Italy at Eden Park in Auckland, New Zealand.", "*1990 – North and South Yemen are unified to create the Republic of Yemen.", "*1992 – Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia join the United Nations.", "*1994 – A worldwide trade embargo against Haiti goes into effect to punish its military rulers for not reinstating the country's ousted elected leader, Jean-Bertrand Aristide.", "*1996 – The Burmese military regime jails 71 supporters of Aung San Suu Kyi in a bid to block a pro-democracy meeting.", "*1998 – A U.S. federal judge rules that U.S. Secret Service agents can be compelled to testify before a grand jury concerning the Lewinsky scandal involving President Bill Clinton.", "*2000 – In Sri Lanka, over 150 Tamil rebels are killed over two days of fighting for control in Jaffna.", "*2002 – Civil rights movement: A jury in Birmingham, Alabama, convicts former Ku Klux Klan member Bobby Frank Cherry of the 1963 murder of four girls in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing.", "*2010 – Air India Express Flight 812, a Boeing 737 crashes over a cliff upon landing at Mangalore, India, killing 158 of 166 people on board, becoming the deadliest crash involving a Boeing 737 until the crash of Lion Air Flight 610.", "* 2010 – Inter Milan beat Bayern Munich 2–0 in the UEFA Champions League final in Madrid, Spain to become the first, and so far only, Italian team to win the historic treble (Serie A, Coppa Italia, Champions League).", "*2011 – An EF5 tornado strikes Joplin, Missouri, killing 158 people and wreaking $2.8 billion in damages, the costliest and seventh-deadliest single tornado in U.S.", "history.", "*2012 – Tokyo Skytree opens to the public.", "It is the tallest tower in the world (634 m), and the second tallest man-made structure on Earth after Burj Khalifa (829.8 m).", "* 2012 – SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 2 launches a Dragon capsule on a Falcon 9 rocket in the first commercial flight to the International Space Station.", "*2014 – General Prayut Chan-o-cha becomes interim leader of Thailand in a military coup d'état, following six months of political turmoil.", "* 2014 – An explosion occurs in Ürümqi, capital of China's far-western Xinjiang region, resulting in at least 43 deaths and 91 injuries.", "*2015 – The Republic of Ireland becomes the first nation in the world to legalize gay marriage in a public referendum.", "*2017 – Twenty-two people are killed at an Ariana Grande concert in the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing.", "* 2017 – United States President Donald Trump visits the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and becomes the first sitting U.S. president to visit the Western Wall.", "*2020 – Pakistan International Airlines Flight 8303 crashes in Model Colony near Jinnah International Airport in Karachi, Pakistan, killing 98 people.", "*2021 – Hypothermia kills 21 runners in the 100 km (60-mile) Gansu ultramarathon disaster in China." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 626 – Itzam K'an Ahk I, Mayan king (d. 686)*1009 – Su Xun, Chinese writer (d. 1066)*1408 – Annamacharya, Hindu saint (d. 1503)*1539 – Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford (d. 1621)===1601–1900===*1622 – Louis de Buade de Frontenac, French soldier and governor (d. 1698)*1644 – Gabriël Grupello, Flemish Baroque sculptor (d. 1730)*1650 – Richard Brakenburgh, Dutch Golden Age painter (d. 1702)*1665 – Magnus Stenbock, Swedish field marshal and Royal Councillor (d. 1717)*1694 – Daniel Gran, Austrian painter (d. 1757)*1715 – François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis, French cardinal and diplomat (d. 1794)*1733 – Hubert Robert, French painter (d. 1808)*1752 – Louis Legendre, French butcher and politician (d. 1797)*1762 – Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst, English politician (d. 1834)*1770 – Princess Elizabeth of the United Kingdom (d. 1840)*1772 – Ram Mohan Roy, Indian philosopher and reformer (d. 1833)*1779 – Johann Nepomuk Schödlberger, Austrian painter (d. 1853)*1782 – Hirose Tansō, Japanese neo-Confucian scholar, teacher, writer (d. 1856)*1783 – William Sturgeon, English physicist and inventor, invented the electromagnet and electric motor (d. 1850)*1808 – Gérard de Nerval, French poet and translator (d. 1855)*1811 – Giulia Grisi, Italian soprano (d. 1869)* 1811 – Henry Pelham-Clinton, 5th Duke of Newcastle, English politician (d. 1864)*1813 – Richard Wagner, German composer (d. 1883)*1814 – Amalia Lindegren, Swedish painter (d. 1891)*1820 – Worthington Whittredge, American painter (d. 1910)*1828 – Albrecht von Graefe, German ophthalmologist and academic (d. 1870)*1831 – Henry Vandyke Carter, English anatomist and surgeon (d. 1897)*1833 – Félix Bracquemond, French painter and etcher (d. 1914)* 1833 – Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla, Spanish politician, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1895)*1841 – Catulle Mendès, French poet, author, and playwright (d. 1909)*1844 – Mary Cassatt, American painter and educator (d. 1926)*1846 – Rita Cetina Gutiérrez, Mexican poet, educator, and activist (d. 1908)*1848 – Fritz von Uhde, German painter and educator (d. 1911)*1849 – Aston Webb, English architect and academic (d. 1930)*1858 – Belmiro de Almeida, Brazilian painter, illustrator, sculptor (d. 1935)*1859 – Arthur Conan Doyle, British writer (d. 1930)* 1859 – Tsubouchi Shōyō, Japanese author, playwright, and educator (d. 1935)*1864 – Willy Stöwer, German author and illustrator (d. 1931)*1868 – Augusto Pestana, Brazilian engineer and politician (d. 1934)*1874 – Daniel François Malan, South African clergyman and politician, 5th Prime Minister of South Africa (d. 1959)*1876 – Julius Klinger, Austrian painter and illustrator (d. 1942)*1879 – Warwick Armstrong, Australian cricketer and journalist (d. 1947)* 1879 – Jean Cras, French admiral and composer (d. 1932)* 1879 – Symon Petliura, Ukrainian statesman and independence leader (d. 1926)*1880 – Francis de Miomandre, French author and translator (d. 1959)*1884 – Wilhelmina Hay Abbott, Scottish suffragist and feminist (d. 1957)*1885 – Giacomo Matteotti, Italian lawyer and politician (d. 1924)* 1885 – Soemu Toyoda, Japanese admiral (d. 1957)*1887 – A. W. Sandberg, Danish film director and screenwriter (d. 1938)*1891 – Johannes R. Becher, German politician, novelist, and poet (d. 1958)*1894 – Friedrich Pollock, German sociologist and philosopher (d. 1970)*1897 – Robert Neumann, German and English-speaking author (d. 1975)*1900 – Juan Arvizu, Mexican lyric opera tenor and bolero vocalist (d.1985)===1901–present===*1901 – Maurice J. Tobin, American politician, 6th United States Secretary of Labor (d. 1953)*1902 – Jack Lambert, English footballer and manager (d. 1940) * 1902 – Al Simmons, American baseball player and coach (d. 1956)*1904 – Uno Lamm, Swedish electrical engineer and inventor (d. 1989)*1905 – Bodo von Borries, German physicist and academic, co-invented the electron microscope (d. 1956)* 1905 – Tom Driberg, British politician (d. 1976)*1907 – Hergé, Belgian author and illustrator (d. 1983)* 1907 – Laurence Olivier, English actor, director, and producer (d. 1989)*1908 – Horton Smith, American golfer and captain (d. 1963)*1909 – Bob Dyer, American-Australian radio and television host (d. 1984)* 1909 – Margaret Mee, English illustrator and educator (d. 1988)*1912 – Herbert C. Brown, English-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)*1913 – Rafael Gil, Spanish director and screenwriter (d. 1986)* 1913 – Dominique Rolin, Belgian author (d. 2012)*1914 – Max Kohnstamm, Dutch historian and diplomat (d. 2010)* 1914 – Sun Ra, American pianist, composer, bandleader, poet (d. 1993)*1917 – George Aratani, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013)* 1917 – Jean-Louis Curtis, French author (d. 1995)*1919 – Paul Vanden Boeynants, Belgian businessman and politician, 55th Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2001)*1920 – Thomas Gold, Austrian-American astrophysicist and academic (d. 2004)*1921 – George S. Hammond, American scientist (d. 2005)*1922 – Quinn Martin, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1987)*1924 – Charles Aznavour, French-Armenian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2018)*1925 – Jean Tinguely, Swiss painter and sculptor (d. 1991)*1927 – Michael Constantine, American actor (d. 2021)* 1927 – Peter Matthiessen, American novelist, short story writer, editor, co-founded ''The Paris Review'' (d. 2014)* 1927 – George Andrew Olah, Hungarian-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017)*1928 – Serge Doubrovsky, French theorist and author (d. 2017)* 1928 – John Mackenzie, Scottish director and producer (d. 2011)* 1928 – T. Boone Pickens, American businessman (d. 2019)* 1928 – Hiroshi Sano, Japanese novelist (d. 2013)*1929 – Ahmed Fouad Negm, Egyptian poet (d. 2013)*1930 – Kenny Ball, English jazz trumpet player, vocalist, and bandleader (d. 2013) * 1930 – Marisol Escobar, French-American sculptor (d. 2016)* 1930 – Harvey Milk, American lieutenant and politician (d. 1978)*1932 – Robert Spitzer, American psychiatrist and academic (d. 2015)*1933 – Fred Anderson, Australian-South African rugby league player (d. 2012)* 1933 – Chen Jingrun, Chinese mathematician and academic (d. 1996)*1934 – Peter Nero, American pianist and conductor (d. 2023)*1935 – Billy Rayner, Australian rugby league player (d. 2006)*1936 – George H. Heilmeier, American engineer (d. 2014)*1937 – Facundo Cabral, Argentinian singer-songwriter (d. 2011)*1937 – Tomáš Janovic, Slovak writer (d.2023)*1938 – Richard Benjamin, American actor and director* 1938 – Susan Strasberg, American actress (d. 1999)*1939 – Paul Winfield, American actor (d. 2004)*1940 – Kieth Merrill, American filmmaker* 1940 – E. A. S. Prasanna, Indian cricketer* 1940 – Michael Sarrazin, Canadian actor (d. 2011)* 1940 – Bernard Shaw, American journalist (d. 2022)* 1940 – Mick Tingelhoff, American football player (d. 2021)*1941 – Menzies Campbell, Scottish sprinter and politician*1942 – Roger Brown, American basketball player (d. 1997)* 1942 – Ted Kaczynski, American academic and mathematician turned anarchist and serial murderer (Unabomber) (d. 2023)* 1942 – Barbara Parkins, Canadian actress* 1942 – Richard Oakes, Native American civil rights activist (d. 1972)*1943 – Betty Williams, Northern Irish peace activist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2020)* 1943 – Tommy John, American baseball player*1944 – John Flanagan, Australian fantasy author*1945 – Bob Katter, Australian politician*1946 – George Best, Northern Irish footballer and manager (d. 2005)* 1946 – Michael Green, English physicist and academic* 1946 – Howard Kendall, English footballer and manager (d. 2015)* 1946 – Andrei Marga, Romanian philosopher, political scientist, politician* 1946 – Lyudmila Zhuravleva, Russian-Ukrainian astronomer*1948 – Tomás Sánchez, Cuban painter and engraver* 1948 – Nedumudi Venu, Indian actor and screenwriter (d. 2021)*1949 – Cheryl Campbell, English actress* 1949 – Valentin Inzko, Austrian diplomat*1950 – Bernie Taupin, English singer-songwriter and poet*1951 – Kenneth Bianchi, American serial killer and rapist*1953 – François Bon, French writer* 1953 – Cha Bum-kun, South Korean footballer and manager* 1953 – Paul Mariner, English footballer, coach, and manager (d. 2021)*1954 – Barbara May Cameron, Native American human rights activist (d. 2002)* 1954 – Shuji Nakamura, Japanese-American physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate*1955 – Iva Davies, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist*1956 – Lucie Brock-Broido, American poet (d. 2018)*1957 – Lisa Murkowski, American lawyer and politician*1959 – David Blatt, Israeli-American basketball player and coach* 1959 – Olin Browne, American golfer* 1959 – Morrissey, English singer-songwriter and performer * 1959 – Kwak Jae-yong, South Korean director and screenwriter* 1959 – Mehbooba Mufti, Indian politician*1960 – Hideaki Anno, Japanese animator, director, and screenwriter*1962 – Andrew Magee, French-American golfer* 1962 – Brian Pillman, American football player and wrestler (d. 1997)*1963 – Claude Closky, French contemporary artist*1965 – Jay Carney, American journalist, 29th White House Press Secretary*1966 – Johnny Gill, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1966 – Wang Xiaoshuai, Chinese director and screenwriter*1968 – Graham Linehan, Irish comedy writer and activist*1969 – Michael Kelly, American actor* 1969 – Cathy McMorris Rodgers, American lawyer and politician*1970 – Naomi Campbell, English model* 1970 – Brody Stevens, American comedian and actor (d. 2019)*1972 – Max Brooks, American author and screenwriter*1973 – Nikolaj Lie Kaas, Danish actor*1974 – Sean Gunn, American actor* 1974 – Garba Lawal, Nigerian footballer* 1974 – Henrietta Ónodi, Hungarian Olympic gymnast* 1974 – Arseniy Yatsenyuk, Ukrainian politician* 1974 – Canek Sánchez Guevara, Cuban author and dissident (d. 2015)*1975 – Salva Ballesta, Spanish footballer and manager*1976 – Christian Vande Velde, American cyclist\t*1977 – Pat Smullen, Irish jockey (d. 2020)*1978 – Ginnifer Goodwin, American actress* 1978 – Katie Price, English television personality and glamour model*1979 – Nazanin Boniadi, Iranian-American actress* 1979 – Tihomir Dovramadjiev, Bulgarian Chess boxer* 1979 – Maggie Q, American actress*1980 – Tarin Bradford, Australian rugby league player* 1980 – Sharice Davids, American politician* 1980 – Lucy Gordon, British actress and model (d. 2009)*1981 – Daniel Bryan, American wrestler* 1981 – Bassel Khartabil, Syrian computer programmer and engineer (d. 2015)* 1981 – Jürgen Melzer, Austrian tennis player* 1981 – Mark O'Meley, Australian rugby league player*1982 – Erin McNaught, Australian model and actress* 1982 – Apolo Ohno, American speed skater* 1982 – Hong Yong-jo, North Korean footballer*1983 – Natasha Kai, American soccer player and Olympic medalist*1984 – Clara Amfo, English television and radio presenter* 1984 – Karoline Herfurth, German actress* 1984 – Didier Ya Konan, Ivorian footballer* 1984 – Dustin Moskovitz, American entrepreneur, co-founder of Facebook*1985 – Tranquillo Barnetta, Swiss footballer* 1985 – Tao Okamoto, Japanese model and actress*1986 – Julian Edelman, American football player * 1986 – Matt Jarvis, English footballer* 1986 – Tatiana Volosozhar, Russian figure skater*1987 – Novak Djokovic, Serbian tennis player* 1987 – Arturo Vidal, Chilean footballer*1988 – Heida Reed, Icelandic-British actress*1989 – Corey Dickerson, American baseball player*1990 – Wyatt Roy, Australian politician*1991 – Joel Obi, Nigerian footballer* 1991 – Suho, South Korean singer and actor*1992 – Anna Baryshnikov, American actress*1994 – Florian Luger, Austrian male model* 1994 – Athena Manoukian, Greek-Armenian singer and songwriter*1998 – Samile Bermannelli, Brazilian fashion model*1999 – Femke Huijzer, Dutch model* 1999 – Hōshōryū Tomokatsu, Mongolian sumo wrestler*2001 – Emma Chamberlain, American internet personality*2004 – Peyton Elizabeth Lee, American actress" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 192 – Dong Zhuo, Chinese warlord and politician (b.", "138)* 337 – Constantine the Great, Roman emperor (b.", "272)* 748 – Empress Genshō of Japan (b.", "683)*1068 – Emperor Go-Reizei of Japan (b.", "1025)*1310 – Saint Humility, founder of the Vallumbrosan religious order of nuns (b. c.1226)*1409 – Blanche of England, sister of King Henry V (b.", "1392)*1455 – Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, English commander (b.", "1406)* 1455 – Thomas Clifford, 8th Baron de Clifford, Lancastrian commander (b.", "1414)* 1455 – Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland, English commander (b.", "1393)*1457 – Rita of Cascia, Italian nun and saint (b.", "1381)*1490 – Edmund Grey, 1st Earl of Kent, English administrator, nobleman and magnate (b.", "1416)*1538 – John Forest, English friar and martyr (b.", "1471)*1540 – Francesco Guicciardini, Italian historian and politician (b.", "1483)*1545 – Sher Shah Suri, Indian ruler (b.", "1486)*1553 – Giovanni Bernardi, Italian sculptor and engraver (b.", "1495)===1601–1900===*1602 – Renata of Lorraine (b.", "1544)*1609 – Pieter Willemsz.", "Verhoeff, Dutch captain (b.", "1573)*1666 – Gaspar Schott, German physicist and mathematician (b.", "1608)*1667 – Pope Alexander VII (b.", "1599)*1745 – François-Marie, 1st duc de Broglie, French general (b.", "1671)*1760 – Baal Shem Tov, Polish rabbi and author (b.", "1700)*1772 – Durastante Natalucci, Italian historian and academic (b.", "1687)*1795 – Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg, Prussian politician, Foreign Minister of Prussia (b.", "1725)*1802 – Martha Washington, First, First Lady of the United States (b.", "1731)*1851 – Mordecai Manuel Noah, American journalist and diplomat (b.", "1755)*1859 – Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies (b.", "1810)*1861 – Thornsbury Bailey Brown, American soldier (b.", "1829)*1868 – Julius Plücker, German mathematician and physicist (b.", "1801)*1885 – Victor Hugo, French novelist, poet, and playwright (b.", "1802)===1901–present===*1901 – Gaetano Bresci, Italian-American anarchist, assassin of Umberto I of Italy (b.", "1869)*1910 – Jules Renard, French author and playwright (b.", "1864)*1932 – Augusta, Lady Gregory, Anglo-Irish activist, landlord, and playwright, co-founded the Abbey Theatre (b.", "1852)*1933 – Tsengeltiin Jigjidjav, Mongolian politician, 10th Prime Minister of Mongolia (b.", "1894)*1938 – William Glackens, American painter and illustrator (b.", "1870)*1939 – Ernst Toller, German playwright and author (b.", "1893)* 1939 – Jiří Mahen, Czech author and playwright (b.", "1882)*1948 – Claude McKay, Jamaican writer and poet (b.", "1889)*1954 – Chief Bender, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1884)*1965 – Christopher Stone, English radio host (b.", "1882)*1966 – Tom Goddard, English cricketer (b.", "1900)*1967 – Langston Hughes, American poet, social activist, novelist, and playwright (b.", "1902)* 1967 – Charlotte Serber, American Librarian of the Manhattan Project's Los Alamos site (b.", "1911)*1972 – Cecil Day-Lewis, Anglo-Irish poet and author (b.", "1904)* 1972 – Margaret Rutherford, English actress (b.", "1892)*1974 – Irmgard Flügge-Lotz, German-American mathematician and aerospace engineer (b.", "1903)*1975 – Lefty Grove, American baseball player (b.", "1900)*1982 – Cevdet Sunay, Turkish general and politician, 5th President of Turkey (b.", "1899)*1983 – Albert Claude, Belgian biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1899)* 1983 – Erna Scheffler, German lawyer and justice of the Federal Constitutional Court (b.", "1893)*1984 – Karl-August Fagerholm, Finnish politician, ''valtioneuvos'', the Speaker of the Parliament and the Prime Minister of Finland (b.", "1901)*1985 – Wolfgang Reitherman, German-American animator, director, and producer (b.", "1909)*1988 – Giorgio Almirante, Italian journalist and politician (b.", "1914)*1989 – Steven De Groote, South African pianist and educator (b.", "1953)*1990 – Rocky Graziano, American boxer (b.", "1922)*1991 – Lino Brocka, Filipino director and screenwriter (b.", "1939)* 1991 – Shripad Amrit Dange, Indian lawyer and politician (b.", "1899)* 1991 – Stan Mortensen, English footballer and manager (b.", "1921)*1992 – Zellig Harris, American linguist and academic (b.", "1909)*1993 – Mieczysław Horszowski, Polish-American pianist and composer (b.", "1892)*1997 – Alziro Bergonzo, Italian architect and painter (b.", "1906)* 1997 – Alfred Hershey, American biochemist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1908)*1998 – John Derek, American actor, director, and photographer (b.", "1926)* 1998 – José Enrique Moyal, Israeli physicist and engineer (b.", "1910)*2000 – Davie Fulton, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician (b.", "1916)*2004 – Richard Biggs, American actor (b.", "1960)* 2004 – Mikhail Voronin, Russian gymnast (b.", "1945)*2005 – Charilaos Florakis, Greek politician (b.", "1914)* 2005 – Thurl Ravenscroft, American voice actor and singer (b.", "1914)*2006 – Lee Jong-wook, South Korean physician and diplomat (b.", "1945)*2007 – Pemba Doma Sherpa, Nepalese mountaineer (b.", "1970)*2008 – Robert Asprin, American soldier and author (b.", "1946)*2010 – Martin Gardner, American mathematician, cryptographer, and author (b.", "1914)*2011 – Joseph Brooks, American director, producer, screenwriter, and composer (b.", "1938)*2012 – Muzafar Bhutto, Pakistani politician (b.", "1970)* 2012 – Wesley A.", "Brown, American lieutenant and engineer (b.", "1927)*2013 – Sigurd Ottovich Schmidt, Russian historian and ethnographer (b.", "1922)*2015 – Marques Haynes, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Vladimir Katriuk, Ukrainian-Canadian SS officer (b.", "1921)*2016 – Velimir \"Bata\" Živojinović, Serbian actor and politician (b.", "1933)*2017 – Nicky Hayden, American motorcycle racer (b.", "1981)*2019 – Judith Kerr, German-born British writer and illustrator (b.", "1923)*2020 – Denise Cronenberg, Canadian costume designer (b.", "1938)*2022 – Dervla Murphy, Irish touring cyclist and author (b.", "1931)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Abolition Day (Martinique)*Aromanian National Day (marginal, celebration on May 23 is more common)*Christian feast day:**Castus and Emilius**Fulk**Humilita**Michael Hồ Đình Hy (one of Vietnamese Martyrs) **Quiteria**Rita of Cascia**Romanus of Subiaco**May 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Harvey Milk Day (California)*International Day for Biological Diversity (International)*United States National Maritime Day*National Sovereignty Day (Haiti)*Republic Day (Sri Lanka)*Translation of the Relics of Saint Nicholas from Myra to Bari (Ukraine)*Unity Day (Yemen), celebrates the unification of North and South Yemen into the Republic of Yemen in 1990.", "*World Goth Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 22" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mean value theorem" ], [ "Introduction", "For any function that is continuous on and differentiable on there exists some in the interval such that the secant joining the endpoints of the interval is parallel to the tangent at .In mathematics, the '''mean value theorem''' (or '''Lagrange theorem''') states, roughly, that for a given planar arc between two endpoints, there is at least one point at which the tangent to the arc is parallel to the secant through its endpoints.", "It is one of the most important results in real analysis.", "This theorem is used to prove statements about a function on an interval starting from local hypotheses about derivatives at points of the interval.More precisely, the theorem states that if is a continuous function on the closed interval and differentiable on the open interval , then there exists a point in such that the tangent at is parallel to the secant line through the endpoints and , that is,:" ], [ "History", "A special case of this theorem for inverse interpolation of the sine was first described by Parameshvara (1380–1460), from the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics in India, in his commentaries on Govindasvāmi and Bhāskara II.", "A restricted form of the theorem was proved by Michel Rolle in 1691; the result was what is now known as Rolle's theorem, and was proved only for polynomials, without the techniques of calculus.", "The mean value theorem in its modern form was stated and proved by Augustin Louis Cauchy in 1823.Many variations of this theorem have been proved since then." ], [ "Formal statement", "The function attains the slope of the secant between and as the derivative at the point .It is also possible that there are multiple tangents parallel to the secant.Let be a continuous function on the closed interval and differentiable on the open interval where Then there exists some in such that:The mean value theorem is a generalization of Rolle's theorem, which assumes , so that the right-hand side above is zero.The mean value theorem is still valid in a slightly more general setting.", "One only needs to assume that is continuous on , and that for every in the limit:exists as a finite number or equals or .", "If finite, that limit equals .", "An example where this version of the theorem applies is given by the real-valued cube root function mapping , whose derivative tends to infinity at the origin.The theorem, as stated, is false if a differentiable function is complex-valued instead of real-valued.", "For example, define for all real Then:while for any real These formal statements are also known as '''Lagrange's''' Mean Value '''Theorem'''." ], [ "Proof", "The expression gives the slope of the line joining the points and , which is a chord of the graph of , while gives the slope of the tangent to the curve at the point .", "Thus the mean value theorem says that given any chord of a smooth curve, we can find a point on the curve lying between the end-points of the chord such that the tangent of the curve at that point is parallel to the chord.", "The following proof illustrates this idea.Define , where is a constant.", "Since is continuous on and differentiable on , the same is true for .", "We now want to choose so that satisfies the conditions of Rolle's theorem.", "Namely:By Rolle's theorem, since is differentiable and , there is some in for which , and it follows from the equality that,:" ], [ "Implications", "'''Theorem 1:''' Assume that is a continuous, real-valued function, defined on an arbitrary interval of the real line.", "If the derivative of at every interior point of the interval exists and is zero, then is constant in the interior.", "'''Proof:''' Assume the derivative of at every interior point of the interval exists and is zero.", "Let be an arbitrary open interval in .", "By the mean value theorem, there exists a point in such that:This implies that .", "Thus, is constant on the interior of and thus is constant on by continuity.", "(See below for a multivariable version of this result.", ")'''Remarks:''' * Only continuity of , not differentiability, is needed at the endpoints of the interval .", "No hypothesis of continuity needs to be stated if is an open interval, since the existence of a derivative at a point implies the continuity at this point.", "(See the section continuity and differentiability of the article derivative.", ")* The differentiability of can be relaxed to one-sided differentiability, a proof is given in the article on semi-differentiability.", "'''Theorem 2:''' If for all in an interval of the domain of these functions, then is constant, i.e.", "where is a constant on .", "'''Proof:''' Let , then on the interval , so the above theorem 1 tells that is a constant or .", "'''Theorem 3:''' If is an antiderivative of on an interval , then the most general antiderivative of on is where is a constant.", "'''Proof:''' It directly follows from the theorem 2 above." ], [ "Cauchy's mean value theorem", "'''Cauchy's mean value theorem''', also known as the '''extended mean value theorem''', is a generalization of the mean value theorem.", "It states: if the functions and are both continuous on the closed interval and differentiable on the open interval , then there exists some , such thatGeometrical meaning of Cauchy's theorem:Of course, if and , this is equivalent to::Geometrically, this means that there is some tangent to the graph of the curve:which is parallel to the line defined by the points and .", "However, Cauchy's theorem does not claim the existence of such a tangent in all cases where and are distinct points, since it might be satisfied only for some value with , in other words a value for which the mentioned curve is stationary; in such points no tangent to the curve is likely to be defined at all.", "An example of this situation is the curve given by:which on the interval goes from the point to , yet never has a horizontal tangent; however it has a stationary point (in fact a cusp) at .Cauchy's mean value theorem can be used to prove L'Hôpital's rule.", "The mean value theorem is the special case of Cauchy's mean value theorem when .===Proof of Cauchy's mean value theorem===The proof of Cauchy's mean value theorem is based on the same idea as the proof of the mean value theorem.Suppose .", "Define , where is fixed in such a way that , namely:Since and are continuous on and differentiable on , the same is true for .", "All in all, satisfies the conditions of Rolle's theorem: consequently, there is some in for which .", "Now using the definition of we have::Therefore::which implies the result.If , then, applying Rolle's theorem to , it follows that there exists in for which .", "Using this choice of , Cauchy's mean value theorem (trivially) holds." ], [ "Generalization for determinants", "Assume that and are differentiable functions on that are continuous on .", "Define:There exists such that .Notice that:and if we place , we get '''Cauchy's mean value theorem'''.", "If we place and we get '''Lagrange's mean value theorem'''.The proof of the generalization is quite simple: each of and are determinants with two identical rows, hence .", "The Rolle's theorem implies that there exists such that ." ], [ "Mean value theorem in several variables", "The mean value theorem generalizes to real functions of multiple variables.", "The trick is to use parametrization to create a real function of one variable, and then apply the one-variable theorem.Let be an open subset of , and let be a differentiable function.", "Fix points such that the line segment between lies in , and define .", "Since is a differentiable function in one variable, the mean value theorem gives::for some between 0 and 1.But since and , computing explicitly we have::where denotes a gradient and a dot product.", "This is an exact analog of the theorem in one variable (in the case this ''is'' the theorem in one variable).", "By the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, the equation gives the estimate::In particular, when the partial derivatives of are bounded, is Lipschitz continuous (and therefore uniformly continuous).As an application of the above, we prove that is constant if the open subset is connected and every partial derivative of is 0.Pick some point , and let .", "We want to show for every .", "For that, let .", "Then ''E'' is closed and nonempty.", "It is open too: for every ,:for every in some neighborhood of .", "(Here, it is crucial that and are sufficiently close to each other.)", "Since is connected, we conclude .The above arguments are made in a coordinate-free manner; hence, they generalize to the case when is a subset of a Banach space." ], [ "Mean value theorem for vector-valued functions", "There is no exact analog of the mean value theorem for vector-valued functions (see below).", "However, there is an inequality which can be applied to many of the same situations to which the mean value theorem is applicable in the one dimensional case:The theorem follows from the mean value theorem.", "Indeed, take .", "Then is real-valued and thus, by the mean value theorem,:for some .", "Now, and Hence, using the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, from the above equation, we get::If , the theorem is trivial (any ''c'' works).", "Otherwise, dividing both sides by yields the theorem.", "Jean Dieudonné in his classic treatise ''Foundations of Modern Analysis'' discards the mean value theorem and replaces it by mean inequality (which is given below) as the proof is not constructive and one cannot find the mean value and in applications one only needs mean inequality.", "Serge Lang in ''Analysis I ''uses the mean value theorem, in integral form, as an instant reflex but this use requires the continuity of the derivative.", "If one uses the Henstock–Kurzweil integral one can have the mean value theorem in integral form without the additional assumption that derivative should be continuous as every derivative is Henstock–Kurzweil integrable.The reason why there is no analog of mean value equality is the following: If is a differentiable function (where is open) and if , is the line segment in question (lying inside ), then one can apply the above parametrization procedure to each of the component functions of ''f'' (in the above notation set ).", "In doing so one finds points on the line segment satisfying:But generally there will not be a ''single'' point on the line segment satisfying:for all ''simultaneously''.", "For example, define::Then , but and are never simultaneously zero as ranges over .The above theorem implies the following:In fact, the above statement suffices for many applications and can be proved directly as follows.", "(We shall write for for readability.)", "First assume is differentiable at too.", "If is unbounded on , there is nothing to prove.", "Thus, assume .", "Let be some real number.", "Let:We want to show .", "By continuity of , the set is closed.", "It is also nonempty as is in it.", "Hence, the set has the largest element .", "If , then and we are done.", "Thus suppose otherwise.", "For ,:Let be such that .", "By the differentiability of at (note may be 0), if is sufficiently close to , the first term is .", "The second term is .", "The third term is .", "Hence, summing the estimates up, we get: , a contradiction to the maximality of .", "Hence, and that means::Since is arbitrary, this then implies the assertion.", "Finally, if is not differentiable at , let and apply the first case to restricted on , giving us::since .", "Letting finishes the proof.", "For some applications of mean value inequality to establish basic results in calculus, see also Calculus on Euclidean space#Basic notions.A certain type of generalization of the mean value theorem to vector-valued functions is obtained as follows: Let be a continuously differentiable real-valued function defined on an open interval , and let as well as be points of .", "The mean value theorem in one variable tells us that there exists some between 0 and 1 such that:On the other hand, we have, by the fundamental theorem of calculus followed by a change of variables,:Thus, the value at the particular point has been replaced by the mean value:This last version can be generalized to vector valued functions:'''Proof.'''", "Let ''f''1, …, ''fm'' denote the components of and define::Then we have: The claim follows since is the matrix consisting of the components .", "The mean value inequality can then be obtained as a corollary of the above proposition (though under the assumption the derivatives are continuous)." ], [ "Cases where the theorem cannot be applied", "Both conditions for the mean value theorem are necessary:# ''' is differentiable on ''' # ''' is continuous on '''Where one of the above conditions is not satisfied, the mean value theorem is not valid in general, and so it cannot be applied.===Function is differentiable on open interval a,b===The necessity of the first condition can be seen by the counterexample where the function on -1,1 is not differentiable.===Function is continuous on closed interval a,b===The necessity of the second condition can be seen by the counterexample where the function satisfies criteria 1 since on But not criteria 2 since and for all so no such existsthumb" ], [ "Mean value theorems for definite integrals", "===First mean value theorem for definite integrals===Geometrically: interpreting f(c) as the height of a rectangle and ''b''–''a'' as the width, this rectangle has the same area as the region below the curve from ''a'' to ''b''Let ''f'' : ''a'', ''b'' → '''R''' be a continuous function.", "Then there exists ''c'' in (''a'', ''b'') such that:Since the mean value of ''f'' on ''a'', ''b'' is defined as:we can interpret the conclusion as ''f'' achieves its mean value at some ''c'' in (''a'', ''b'').In general, if ''f'' : ''a'', ''b'' → '''R''' is continuous and ''g'' is an integrable function that does not change sign on ''a'', ''b'', then there exists ''c'' in (''a'', ''b'') such that:===Proof that there is some ''c'' in ''a'', ''b'' ===Suppose ''f'' : ''a'', ''b'' → '''R''' is continuous and ''g'' is a nonnegative integrable function on ''a'', ''b''.", "By the extreme value theorem, there exists ''m'' and ''M'' such that for each ''x'' in ''a'', ''b'', and .", "Since ''g'' is nonnegative,:Now let:If , we're done since:means:so for any ''c'' in (''a'', ''b''),:If ''I'' ≠ 0, then:By the intermediate value theorem, ''f'' attains every value of the interval ''m'', ''M'', so for some ''c'' in ''a'', ''b'':that is,:Finally, if ''g'' is negative on ''a'', ''b'', then:and we still get the same result as above.QED===Second mean value theorem for definite integrals===There are various slightly different theorems called the '''second mean value theorem for definite integrals'''.", "A commonly found version is as follows::If is a positive monotonically decreasing function and is an integrable function, then there exists a number ''x'' in (''a'', ''b'' such that::Here stands for , the existence of which follows from the conditions.", "Note that it is essential that the interval (''a'', ''b'' contains ''b''.", "A variant not having this requirement is::If is a monotonic (not necessarily decreasing and positive) function and is an integrable function, then there exists a number ''x'' in (''a'', ''b'') such that::=== Mean value theorem for integration fails for vector-valued functions ===If the function returns a multi-dimensional vector, then the MVT for integration is not true, even if the domain of is also multi-dimensional.For example, consider the following 2-dimensional function defined on an -dimensional cube::Then, by symmetry it is easy to see that the mean value of over its domain is (0,0)::However, there is no point in which , because everywhere." ], [ "A probabilistic analogue of the mean value theorem", "Let ''X'' and ''Y'' be non-negative random variables such that E''X'' < E''Y'' < ∞ and (i.e.", "''X'' is smaller than ''Y'' in the usual stochastic order).", "Then there exists an absolutely continuous non-negative random variable ''Z'' having probability density function:Let ''g'' be a measurable and differentiable function such that E''g''(''X''), E''g''(''Y'') < ∞, and let its derivative ''g′'' be measurable and Riemann-integrable on the interval ''x'', ''y'' for all ''y'' ≥ ''x'' ≥ 0.Then, E''g′''(''Z'') is finite and:" ], [ "Mean value theorem in complex variables", "As noted above, the theorem does not hold for differentiable complex-valued functions.", "Instead, a generalization of the theorem is stated such:Let ''f'' : Ω → '''C''' be a holomorphic function on the open convex set Ω, and let ''a'' and ''b'' be distinct points in Ω.", "Then there exist points ''u'', ''v'' on the interior of the line segment from ''a'' to ''b'' such that::Where Re() is the real part and Im() is the imaginary part of a complex-valued function." ], [ "See also", "* Newmark-beta method* Mean value theorem (divided differences)* Racetrack principle* Stolarsky mean" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * PlanetMath: Mean-Value Theorem* * * \"Mean Value Theorem: Intuition behind the Mean Value Theorem\" at the Khan Academy" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mallow" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mallow''' or '''mallows''' may refer to:" ], [ "Nature", "*Malvaceae, a family of plants; in particular the following genera:** ''Abelmoschus'', a genus of about fifteen species of flowering plants** ''Althaea (plant)'', marsh mallow** ''Callirhoe (plant)'', poppy mallow** ''Corchorus'', mallow, molokia, mlukhia** ''Eremalche'', flowering plants endemic to the US desert southwest** ''Hibiscus'', rosemallow** ''Kosteletzkya'', seashore mallow** ''Lavatera'', tree mallow or rose mallow** ''Malacothamnus'', bush-mallow** ''Malva'', mallow** ''Malvaviscus'', Turk's cap mallow, wax mallow** ''Sidalcea'', Greek mallow, chequer-mallow** ''Sphaeralcea'', globemallow*Insects:** ''Larentia clavaria'', mallow, species of moth** Mallow skipper, butterfly" ], [ "Places", "* Mallow, Alberta, a locality in Alberta, Canada* Mallow, County Cork, a town in the Republic of Ireland** Mallow (Parliament of Ireland constituency), 1613–1800** Mallow (UK Parliament constituency), 1801–1885** Mallow GAA, a Gaelic football and hurling club** Mallow railway station* Mallow, Iran, a village in Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran* Mallow, Virginia, United States* Mallows Bay, Maryland, United States* The Mallows, a historic home located at Head of the Harbor in Suffolk County, New York" ], [ "People", "* Dave Mallow (born 1948), U.S. voice actor, also known as Colin Phillips* Johannes Mallow (born 1981), German memory-sports competitor* Charles Edward Mallows (1864–1915), English architect and landscape architect* Colin Lingwood Mallows (1930–2023), English statistician" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Fictional characters===* Mallow, cook and one of the Trial Captains of Akala Island in ''Pokémon Sun & Moon''* Hober Mallow, character in the ''Foundation'' series of novels of Isaac Asimov* Prince Mallow, a playable cloud-like character in ''Super Mario RPG'', a 1996 adventure/console role-playing game===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===* Mallows, a toy line by Shocker Toys* \"Rakes of Mallow\", a traditional Irish song and polka" ], [ "Transportation", "* Beriev Be-10, Soviet jet-engined flying boat (NATO reporting name \"Mallow\")* HMS ''Mallow''* (later HMAS ''Mallow''), sloop launched in 1915* , corvette from World War II" ], [ "Other uses", "* Mauve (also known as mallow), a color* Mallows's ''Cp'', in statistics, a stopping rule for stepwise regression* Malvi language, or Mallow, the language of the Malwa region of India* Marshmallow, a sweet originally made from the marsh mallow" ], [ "See also", "* Mallo (disambiguation)* Mallos (disambiguation)* Malov, a surname* Malloué, a commune in Calvados department, France" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marc Bloch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marc Léopold Benjamin Bloch''' (; ; 6 July 1886 – 16 June 1944) was a French historian.", "He was a founding member of the Annales School of French social history.", "Bloch specialised in medieval history and published widely on Medieval France over the course of his career.", "As an academic, he worked at the University of Strasbourg (1920 to 1936), the University of Paris (1936 to 1939), and the University of Montpellier (1941 to 1944).Born in Lyon to an Alsatian Jewish family, Bloch was raised in Paris, where his father—the classical historian Gustave Bloch—worked at Sorbonne University.", "Bloch was educated at various Parisian lycées and the École Normale Supérieure, and from an early age was affected by the antisemitism of the Dreyfus affair.", "During the First World War, he served in the French Army and fought at the First Battle of the Marne and the Somme.", "After the war, he was awarded his doctorate in 1918 and became a lecturer at the University of Strasbourg.", "There, he formed an intellectual partnership with modern historian Lucien Febvre.", "Together they founded the Annales School and began publishing the journal ''Annales d'histoire économique et sociale'' in 1929.Bloch was a modernist in his historiographical approach, and repeatedly emphasised the importance of a multidisciplinary engagement towards history, particularly blending his research with that on geography, sociology and economics, which was his subject when he was offered a post at the University of Paris in 1936.During the Second World War Bloch volunteered for service, and was a logistician during the Phoney War.", "Involved in the Battle of Dunkirk and spending a brief time in Britain, he unsuccessfully attempted to secure passage to the United States.", "Back in France, where his ability to work was curtailed by new antisemitic regulations, he applied for and received one of the few permits available allowing Jews to continue working in the French university system.", "He had to leave Paris, and complained that the Nazi German authorities looted his apartment and stole his books; he was also forced to relinquish his position on the editorial board of ''Annales''.", "Bloch worked in Montpellier until November 1942 when Germany invaded Vichy France.", "He then joined the French Resistance, acting predominantly as a courier and translator.", "In 1944, he was captured in Lyon and executed by firing squad.", "Several works—including influential studies like ''The Historian's Craft'' and ''Strange Defeat''—were published posthumously.His historical studies and his death as a member of the Resistance together made Bloch highly regarded by generations of post-war French historians; he came to be called \"the greatest historian of all time\".", "By the end of the 20th century, historians were making a more sober assessment of Bloch's abilities, influence, and legacy, arguing that there were flaws to his approach." ], [ "Youth and upbringing", "=== Family ===Marc Bloch was born in Lyon on 6 July 1886, one of two children to Gustave and Sarah Bloch, née Ebstein.", "Bloch's family were Alsatian Jews: secular, liberal and loyal to the French Republic.", "They \"struck a balance\", says the historian Carole Fink, between both \"fierce Jacobin patriotism and the antinationalism of the left\".", "His family had lived in Alsace for five generations under French rule.", "In 1871, France was forced to cede the region to Germany following its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.", "The year after Bloch's birth, his father was appointed professor of Roman History at the Sorbonne, and the family moved to Paris—\"the glittering capital of the Third Republic\".", "Marc had a brother, Louis Constant Alexandre, seven years his senior.", "The two were close, although Bloch later described Louis as being occasionally somewhat intimidating.", "The Bloch family lived at 72, Rue d'Alésia, in the 14th arrondissement of Paris.", "Gustave began teaching Marc history while he was still a boy, with a secular, rather than Jewish, education intended to prepare him for a career in professional French society.", "Bloch's later close collaborator, Lucien Febvre, visited the Bloch family at home in 1902; although the reason for Febvre's visit is now unknown, he later wrote of Bloch that \"from this fleeting meeting, I have kept the memory of a slender adolescent with eyes brilliant with intelligence and timid cheeks—a little lost then in the radiance of his older brother, future doctor of great prestige\".=== Upbringing and education ===Bloch's biographer Katherine Stirling ascribed significance to the era in which Bloch was born: the middle of the French Third Republic, so \"after those who had founded it and before the generation that would aggressively challenge it\".", "When Bloch was nine-years-old, the Dreyfus affair broke out in France.", "As the first major display of political antisemitism in Europe, it was probably a formative event of Bloch's youth, along with, more generally, the atmosphere of ''fin de siècle'' Paris.", "Bloch was 11 when Émile Zola published ''J'Accuse…!", "'', his indictment of the French establishment's antisemitism and corruption.", "Bloch was greatly affected by the Dreyfus affair, but even more affected was nineteenth-century France generally, and his father's employer, the École Normale Supérieure, saw existing divides in French society reinforced in every debate.", "Gustave Bloch was closely involved in the Dreyfusard movement and his son agreed with the cause.Bloch was educated at the prestigious Lycée Louis-le-Grand for three years, where he was consistently head of his class and won prizes in French, history, Latin, and natural history.", "He passed his ''baccalauréat'', in Letters and Philosophy, in July 1903, being graded ''trés bien'' (very good).", "The following year, he received a scholarship and undertook postgraduate study there for the École normale supérieure (ÉNS) (where his father had been appointed ''maître de conferences'' in 1887).", "His father had been nicknamed ''le Méga'' by his students at the ÉNS and the moniker ''Microméga'' was bestowed upon Bloch.", "Here he was taught history by Christian Pfister and Charles Seignobos, who led a relatively new school of historical thought which saw history as broad themes punctuated by tumultuous events.", "Another important influence on Bloch from this period was his father's contemporary, the sociologist Émile Durkheim, who pre-figured Bloch's own later emphasis on cross-disciplinary research.", "The same year, Bloch visited England; he later recalled being struck more by the number of homeless people on the Victoria Embankment than the new Entente Cordiale relationship between the two countries.The Dreyfus affair had soured Bloch's views of the French Army, and he considered it laden with \"snobbery, anti-semitism and anti-republicanism\".", "National service had been made compulsory for all French adult males in 1905, with an enlistment term of two years.", "Bloch joined the 46th Infantry Regiment based at Pithiviers from 1905 to 1906.=== Early research ===l'École Normale Supérieure'' in 1908 for a 10-year periodBy this time, changes were taking place in French academia.", "In Bloch's own speciality of history, attempts were being made at instilling a more scientific methodology.", "In other, newer departments such a sociology, efforts were made at establishing an independent identity.", "Bloch graduated in 1908 with degrees in both geography and history (Davies notes, given Bloch's later divergent interests, the significance of the two qualifications).", "He had a high respect for historical geography, then a speciality of French historiography, as practised by his tutor Vidal de la Blache whose ''Tableau de la géographie'' Bloch had studied at the ÉNS, and Lucien Gallois.", "Bloch applied unsuccessfully for a fellowship at the ''Fondation Thiers''.", "As a result, he travelled to Germany in 1909 where he studied demography under Karl Bücher in Leipzig and religion under Adolf Harnack in Berlin; he did not, however, particularly socialise with fellow students while in Germany.", "He returned to France the following year and again applied to the ''Fondation'', this time successfully.", "Bloch researched the medieval Île-de-France in preparation for his thesis.", "This research was Bloch's first focus on rural history.", "His parents had moved house and now resided at the Avenue d'Orleans, not far from Bloch's quarters.Bloch's research at the Fondation—especially his research into the Capetian kings—laid the groundwork for his career.", "He began by creating maps of the Paris area illustrating where serfdom had thrived and where it had not.", "He also investigated the nature of serfdom, the culture of which, he discovered, was founded almost completely on custom and practice.", "His studies of this period formed Bloch into a mature scholar and first brought him into contact with other disciplines whose relevance he was to emphasise for most of his career.", "Serfdom as a topic was so broad that he touched on commerce, currency, popular religion, the nobility, as well as art, architecture, and literature.", "His doctoral thesis—a study of 10th-century French serfdom—was titled ''Rois et Serfs, un Chapitre d'Histoire Capétienne''.", "Although it helped mould Bloch's ideas for the future, it did not, says Bryce Loyn, give any indication of the originality of thought that Bloch would later be known for, and was not vastly different to what others had written on the subject.", "Following his graduation, he taught at two lycées, first in Montpelier, a minor university town of 66,000 inhabitants.", "With Bloch working over 16 hours a week on his classes, there was little time for him to work on his thesis.", "He also taught at the University of Amiens.", "While there, he wrote a review of Febvre's first book, ''Histoire de Franche-Comté''.", "Bloch intended to turn his thesis into a book, but the First World War intervened." ], [ "First World War", "Both Marc and Louis Bloch volunteered for service in the French Army.", "Although the Dreyfus Affair had soured Bloch's views of the French Army, he later wrote that his criticisms were only of the officers; he \"had respect only for the men\".", "Bloch was one of over 800 ÉNS students who enlisted; 239 were to be killed in action.", "On 2 August 1914 he was assigned to the 272nd Reserve Regiment.", "Within eight days he was stationed on the Belgian border where he fought in the Battle of the Meuse later that month.", "His regiment took part in the general retreat on the 25th, and the following day they were in Barricourt, in the Argonne.", "The march westward continued towards the river Marne—with a temporary recuperative halt in Termes—which they reached in early September.", "During the First Battle of the Marne, Bloch's troop was responsible for the assault and capture of Florent before advancing on La Gruerie.", "Bloch led his troop with shouts of \"Forward the 18th!\"", "They suffered heavy casualties: 89 men were either missing or known to be dead.", "Bloch enjoyed the early days of the war; like most of his generation, he had expected a short but glorious conflict.", "Gustave Bloch remained in France, wishing to be close to his sons at the front.Chevalier de Légion d'honneur on Marc Bloch, 8 November 1920|alt=Blch's appointment to the Legion of honourExcept for two months in hospital followed by another three recuperating, he spent the war in the infantry; he joined as a sergeant and rose to become the head of his section.", "Bloch kept a war diary from his enlistment.", "Very detailed in the first few months, it rapidly became more general in its observations.", "However, says the historian Daniel Hochedez, Bloch was aware of his role as both a \"witness and narrator\" to events and wanted as detailed a basis for his historiographical understanding as possible.", "The historian Rees Davies notes that although Bloch served in the war with \"considerable distinction\", it had come at the worst possible time both for his intellectual development and his study of medieval society.For the first time in his life, Bloch later wrote, he worked and lived alongside people he had never had close contact with before, such as shop workers and labourers, with whom he developed a great camaraderie.", "It was a completely different world to the one he was used to, being \"a world where differences were settled not by words but by bullets\".", "His experiences made him rethink his views on history, and influenced his subsequent approach to the world in general.", "He was particularly moved by the collective psychology he witnessed in the trenches.", "He later declared he knew of no better men than \"the men of the Nord and the Pas de Calais\" with whom he had spent four years in close quarters.", "His few references to the French generals were sparse and sardonic.Apart from the Marne, Bloch fought at the battles of the Somme, the Argonne, and the final German assault on Paris.", "He survived the war, which he later described as having been an \"honour\" to have served through.", "He had, however, lost many friends and colleagues.", "Among the closest of them, all killed in action, were: Maxime David (died 1914), Antoine-Jules Bianconi (died 1915) and Ernest babut (died 1916).", "Bloch himself was wounded twice and decorated for courage, receiving the Croix de Guerre and the Légion d'Honneur.", "He had joined as a non-commissioned officer, received an officer's commission after the Marne, and had been promoted to warrant officer and finally a captain in the fuel service, (''Service des essences)'' before the war ended.", "He was clearly, says Loyn, both a good and a brave soldier; he later wrote, \"I know only one way to persuade a troop to brave danger: brave it yourself\".While on front-line service, Bloch contracted severe arthritis which required him to retire regularly to the thermal baths of Aix-les-Bains for treatment.", "He later remembered very little of the historical events he found himself in, writing only that his memories were \"a discontinuous series of images, vivid in themselves, but badly arranged, like a reel of motion picture film containing some large gaps and some reversals of certain scenes\".", "Bloch later described the war, in a detached style, as having been a \"gigantic social experience, of unbelievable richness\".", "For example, he had a habit of noting the different coloured smoke that different shells made — percussion bombs had black smoke, timed bombs were brown.", "He also remembered both the \"friends killed at our side ... of the intoxication which had taken hold of us when we saw the enemy in flight\".", "He also considered it to have been \"four years of fighting idleness\".", "Following the Armistice in November 1918, Bloch was demobilised on 13 March 1919." ], [ "Career", "=== Early career ===The war was fundamental in re-arranging Bloch's approach to history, although he never acknowledged it as a turning point.", "In the years following the war, a disillusioned Bloch rejected the ideas and the traditions that had formed his scholarly training.", "He rejected the political and biographical history which up until that point was the norm, along with what the historian George Huppert has described as a \"laborious cult of facts\" that accompanied it.", "In 1920, with the opening of the University of Strasbourg, Bloch was appointed ''chargé de cours'' (assistant lecturer) of medieval history.", "Alsace-Lorraine had been returned to France with the Treaty of Versailles; the status of the region was a contentious political issue in Strasbourg, its capital, which had a large German population.", "Bloch, however, refused to take either side in the debate; indeed, he appears to have avoided politics entirely.", "Under Wilhelmine Germany, Strasbourg had rivalled Berlin as a centre for intellectual advancement, and the University of Strasbourg possessed the largest academic library in the world.", "Thus, says Stephan R. Epstein of the London School of Economics, \"Bloch's unrivalled knowledge of the European Middle Ages was ... built on and around the French University of Strasbourg's inherited German treasures\".", "Bloch also taught French to the few German students who were still at the Centre d'Études Germaniques at the University of Mainz during the Occupation of the Rhineland.", "He refrained from taking a public position when France occupied the Ruhr in 1923 over Germany's perceived failure to pay war reparations.Bloch began working energetically, and later said that the most productive years of his life were spent at Strasbourg.", "In his teaching, his delivery was halting.", "His approach sometimes appeared cold and distant—caustic enough to be upsetting—but conversely, he could be also both charismatic and forceful.", "Durkheim died in 1917, but the movement he began against the \"smugness\" that pervaded French intellectual thinking continued.", "Bloch had been greatly influenced by him, as Durkheim also considered the connections between historians and sociologists to be greater than their differences.", "Not only did he openly acknowledge Durkheim's influence, but Bloch \"repeatedly seized any opportunity to reiterate\" it, according to R. C. Rhodes.At Strasbourg, he again met Febvre, who was now a leading historian of the 16th century.", "Modern and medieval seminars were adjacent to each other at Strasbourg, and attendance often overlapped.", "Their meeting has been called a \"germinal event for 20th-century historiography\", and they were to work closely together for the rest of Bloch's life.", "Febvre was some years older than Bloch and was probably a great influence on him.", "They lived in the same area of Strasbourg and became kindred spirits, often going on walking trips across the Vosges and other excursions.Bloch's fundamental views on the nature and purpose of the study of history were established by 1920.That same year he defended, and subsequently published, his thesis.", "It was not as extensive a work as had been intended due to the war.", "There was a provision in French further education for doctoral candidates for whom the war had interrupted their research to submit only a small portion of the full-length thesis usually required.", "It sufficed, however, to demonstrate his credentials as a medievalist in the eyes of his contemporaries.", "He began publishing articles in Henri Berr's ''Revue de Synthèse Historique''.", "Bloch also published his first major work, ''Les Rois thaumaturges'', which he later described as \"''ce gros enfant''\" (this big child).", "In 1928, Bloch was invited to lecture at the Institute for the Comparative Study of Civilizations in Oslo.", "Here he first expounded publicly his theories on total, comparative history: \"it was a compelling plea for breaking out of national barriers that circumscribed historical research, for jumping out of geographical frameworks, for escaping from a world of artificiality, for making both horizontal and vertical comparisons of societies, and for enlisting the assistance of other disciplines\".=== Comparative history and the ''Annales'' ===Bloch's friend and colleague for most of his life, Lucien Febvre, at an unknown dateHis Oslo lecture, called \"Towards a Comparative History of Europe\", formed the basis of his next book, ''Les Caractères Originaux de l'Histoire Rurale Française''.", "In the same year he founded the historical journal ''Annales'' with Febvre.", "One of its aims was to counteract the administrative school of history, which Davies says had \"committed the arch error of emptying history of human element\".", "As Bloch saw it, it was his duty to correct that tendency.", "Both Bloch and Febvre were keen to refocus French historical scholarship on social rather than political history and to promote the use of sociological techniques.", "The journal avoided narrative history almost completely.The inaugural issue of the ''Annales'' stated the editors' basic aims: to counteract the arbitrary and artificial division of history into periods, to re-unite history and social science as a single body of thought, and to promote the acceptance of all other schools of thought into historiography.", "As a result, the ''Annales'' often contained commentary on contemporary, rather than exclusively historical, events.", "Editing the journal led to Bloch forming close professional relationships with scholars in different fields across Europe.", "The ''Annales'' was the only academic journal to boast a preconceived methodological perspective.", "Neither Bloch nor Febvre wanted to present a neutral facade.", "During the decade it was published it maintained a staunchly left-wing position.", "Henri Pirenne, a Belgian historian who wrote comparative history, closely supported the new journal.", "Before the war he had acted in an unofficial capacity as a conduit between French and German schools of historiography.", "Fernand Braudel—who was himself to become an important member of the Annales School after the Second World War—later described the journal's management as being a chief executive officer—Bloch—with a minister of foreign affairs—Febvre.Utilizing comparative methodology allowed Bloch to discover instances of uniqueness within aspects of society, and he advocated it as a new kind of history.", "According to Bryce Lyon, Braudel and Febvre, \"promising to perform all the burdensome tasks\" themselves, asked Pirenne to become editor-in-chief of ''Annales'' to no avail.", "Pirenne remained a strong supporter, however, and had an article published in the first volume in 1929.He became close friends with both Bloch and Febvre.", "He was particularly influential on Bloch, who later said that Pirenne's approach should be the model for historians and that \"at the time his country was fighting beside mine for justice and civilisation, wrote in captivity a history of Europe\".", "The three men kept up a regular correspondence until Pirenne's death in 1935.In 1923, Bloch attended the inaugural meeting of the International Congress on Historical Studies (ICHS) in Brussels, which was opened by Pirenne.", "Bloch was a prolific reviewer for ''Annales'', and during the 1920s and 1930s he contributed over 700 reviews.", "These included criticisms of specific works, but more generally, represented his own fluid thinking during this period.", "The reviews demonstrate the extent to which he shifted his thinking on particular subjects.=== Move to Paris ===In 1930, both keen to make a move to Paris, Febvre and Bloch applied to the ''École pratique des hautes études'' for a position: both failed.", "Three years later Febvre was elected to the Collège de France.", "He moved to Paris, and in doing so, says Fink, became all the more aloof.", "This placed a strain on Bloch's and his relations, although they communicated regularly by letter and much of their correspondence is preserved.", "In 1934, Bloch was invited to speak at the London School of Economics.", "There he met Eileen Power, R. H. Tawney and Michael Postan, among others.", "While in London, he was asked to write a section of the ''Cambridge Economic History of Europe;'' at the same time, he also attempted to foster interest in the ''Annales'' among British historians.", "He later told Febvre in some ways he felt he had a closer affinity with academic life in England than that of France.", "For example, in comparing the ''Bibliothèque Nationale'' with the British Museum, he said thatDuring this period he supported the Popular Front politically.", "Although he did not believe it would do any good, he signed Alain's—Émile Chartier's pseudonym—petition against Paul Boncour's Militarisation laws in 1935.While he was opposed to the rise of European fascism, he also objected to attempting to counter the ideology through \"demagogic appeals to the masses,\" as the Communist Party was doing.", "Febvre and Bloch were both firmly on the left, although with different emphases.", "Febvre, for example, was more militantly Marxist than Bloch, while the latter criticised both the pacifist left and corporate trade unionism.In 1934, Étienne Gilson sponsored Bloch's candidacy for a chair at the Collège de France.", "The college, says the historian Eugen Weber, was Bloch's \"dream\" appointment—although one never to be realised—as it was one of the few (possibly the only) institutions in France where personal research was central to lecturing.", "Camille Jullian had died the previous year, and his position was now available.", "While he had lived, Julian had wished for his chair to go to one of his students, Albert Grenier, and after his death, his colleagues generally agreed with him.", "However, Gilson proposed that not only should Bloch be appointed, but that the position be redesignated the study of comparative history.", "Bloch, says Weber, enjoyed and welcomed new schools of thought and ideas, but mistakenly believed the college should do so also; the college did not.", "The contest between Bloch and Grenier was not just the struggle for one post between two historians; it was also a struggle to determine which path historiography within the college would take for the next generation.", "To complicate the situation further, the country was in both political and economic crises, and the college's budget was slashed by 10%.", "No matter who filled it, this made another new chair financially unviable.", "By the end of the year, and with further retirements, the college had lost four professors: it could replace only one, and Bloch was not appointed.", "Bloch personally suspected his failure was due to antisemitism and Jewish quotas.", "At the time, Febvre blamed it on a distrust of Bloch's approach to scholarship by the academic establishment, although Epstein has argued that this could not have been an over-riding fear as Bloch's next appointment indicated.=== Joins the Sorbonne ===Henri Hauser retired from the Sorbonne in 1936, and his chair in economic history was up for appointment.", "Bloch—\"distancing himself from the encroaching threat of Nazi Germany\"—applied and was approved for his position.", "This was a more demanding position than the one he had applied for at the college.", "Weber has suggested Bloch was appointed because unlike at the college, he had not come into conflict with many faculty members.", "Weber researched the archives of the college in 1991 and discovered that Bloch had indicated an interest in working there as early as 1928, even though that would have meant him being appointed to the chair in numismatics rather than history.", "In a letter to the recruitment board written the same year, Bloch indicated that although he was not officially applying, he felt that \"this kind of work (which he claimed to be alone in doing) deserves to have its place one day in our great foundation of free scientific research\".", "H. Stuart Hughes says of Bloch's Sorbonne appointment: \"In another country, it might have occasioned surprise that a medievalist like Bloch should have been named to such a chair with so little previous preparation.", "In France it was only to be expected: no one else was better qualified\".", "His first lecture was on the theme of never-ending history, a process, a never-to-be-finished thing.", "Davies says his years at the Sorbonne were to be \"the most fruitful\" of Bloch's career, and according to Epstein he was by now the most significant French historian of his age.", "In 1936, Friedman says he considered using Marx in his teachings, with the intention of bringing \"some fresh air\" into the Sorbonne.The same year, Bloch and his family visited Venice, where they were chaperoned by the Italian historian Gino Luzzatto.", "During this period they were living in the Sèvres – Babylone area of Paris, next to the Hôtel Lutetia.By now, ''Annales'' was being published six times a year to keep on top of current affairs, however, its \"outlook was gloomy\".", "In 1938, the publishers withdrew support and, experiencing financial hardship, the journal moved to cheaper offices, raised its prices, and returned to publishing quarterly.", "Febvre increasingly opposed the direction Bloch wanted to take the journal.", "Febvre wanted it to be a \"journal of ideas\", whereas Bloch saw it as a vehicle for the exchange of information to different areas of scholarship.By early 1939, war was known to be imminent.", "Bloch, in spite of his age, which automatically exempted him, had a reserve commission for the army holding the rank of captain.", "He had already been mobilised twice in false alarms.", "In August 1939, he and his wife Simonne intended to travel to the ICHS in Bucharest.", "In autumn 1939, just before the outbreak of war, Bloch published the first volume of ''Feudal Society''." ], [ "Second World War", "On 24 August 1939, at the age of 53, Bloch was mobilised for a third time.", "He was responsible for the mobilisation of the French Army's massive motorised units which involved him undertaking such a detailed assessment of the French fuel supply that he later wrote he was able to \"count petrol tins and ration every drop\" of fuel he obtained.", "During the first few months of the war, called the Phoney War, he was stationed in Alsace, this time lacking the eager patriotism he had shown in the war.", "He also evacuated civilians to behind the Maginot Line and for a while he worked with British Intelligence.Bloch began but did not complete writing a history of France.", "At one point he expected to be invited to neutral Belgium to deliver a series of lectures in Liège, on Belgian neutrality.", "Some academics had escaped France for The New School in New York City, and the School also invited Bloch.", "He refused, possibly because of difficulties in obtaining visas: the US government would not grant visas to every member of his family.===Fall of France===Plaque commemorating Bloch in the Marc Bloch University, Strasbourg, now part of the refounded University of StrasbourgIn May 1940, the German army forced the French to withdraw.", "Bloch fought at the Battle of Dunkirk in May–June 1940, being evacuated to England.", "Although he could have remained in Britain, he chose to return to France because his family was still there.", "To Bloch, France collapsed because her generals failed to capitalise on the best qualities humanity possessed—character and intelligence—because of their own \"sluggish and intractable\" progress since the First World War.", "Two-thirds of France was occupied by Germany.", "Bloch was demobilised soon after Philippe Pétain's government signed the Armistice of 22 June 1940 forming Vichy France.", "Bloch received a permit to work despite being Jewish.", "This was probably due to Bloch's pre-eminence in the field of history.", "He worked at several institutions including Montpellier.", "This, further south, was beneficial to his wife's health, which was in decline.", "The dean of faculty at Montpellier was an antisemite but who also disliked Bloch for having once given him a poor review.", "The Vichy government was attempting to promote itself as a return to traditional French values.", "Bloch condemned this as propaganda; the rural idyll that Vichy said it would return France to was impossible, he said, \"because the idyllic, docile peasant life of the French right had never existed\".=== Declining relationship with Febvre ===Bloch's professional relationship with Febvre was also under strain.", "The Nazis wanted French editorial boards to be stripped of Jews in accordance with German racial policies; Bloch advocated disobedience, while Febvre was passionate about the survival of ''Annales'' at any cost.", "He believed that it was worth making concessions to keep the journal afloat and to keep France's intellectual life alive.", "Bloch, forced to accede, turned the ''Annales'' over to the sole editorship of Febvre, who then changed the journal's name to ''Mélanges d'Histoire Sociale''.", "Bloch was forced to write for it under the pseudonym Marc Fougères.The Annalist historian André Burguière suggests Febvre did not really understand the position Bloch, or any French Jew, was in.", "Already damaged by this disagreement, Bloch's and Febvre's relationship declined further when the former had been forced to leave his library and papers in his Paris apartment following his move to Vichy.", "He had attempted to have them transported to his Creuse residence, but the Nazis looted his rooms and confiscated his library in 1942.Bloch held Febvre responsible, believing he could have done more to prevent it.Bloch's mother had recently died, and his wife was ill; he faced daily harassment.", "On 18 March 1941, Bloch made his will in Clermont-Ferrand.", "The Polish social historian Bronisław Geremek suggests that this document hints at Bloch in some way foreseeing his death, as he emphasised that nobody had the right to avoid fighting for their country.", "===French resistance===Exterior of Montluc Prison, where Bloch and his comrades were held before their deaths; the mural is modern.In November 1942 Germany occupied the territory previously under direct Vichy rule.", "This was the catalyst for Bloch's decision to join the French Resistance by March 1943.Bloch had previously expressed the view that \"there can be no salvation where there is not some sacrifice\".", "He sent his family away and returned to Lyon to join the underground, although he found this difficult because of his age.", "Bloch used his professional and military skills on their behalf, writing propaganda and organising supplies and materiel in the region.", "Often on the move, Bloch used archival research as his excuse for travelling.", "The journalist-turned-resistance fighter Georges Altman later told how he knew Bloch as, although originally \"a man, made for the creative silence of gentle study, with a cabinet full of books\" was now \"running from street to street, deciphering secret letters in some Lyonaisse Resistance garret\".", "For the first time, suggests Lyon, Bloch was forced to consider the role of the individual in history, rather than the collective; perhaps by then even realising he should have done so earlier.====Death====Bloch was arrested at the Place de Pont, Lyon, on 8 March 1944, and handed over to the Gestapo.", "A radio transmitter and many papers were found in his apartment and he was imprisoned in Montluc prison.", "For being a strong Resistance associate, he was tortured, suffering beatings and ice-baths and his ribs and wrists were broken.", "It was later claimed that he gave away no information to his interrogators, and while incarcerated taught French history to other inmates.Monument des Roussilles; Bloch is commemorated on the far-left panel.In the meantime, the allies had invaded Normandy on 6 June 1944 and Nazis wanted to evacuate Vichy and \"liquidate their holdings\".", "This meant disposing of as many prisoners as they could.", "Between May and June 1944 the Nazi occupying forces shot around 700 prisoners.", "Among those killed was Bloch, on the night of 16 June 1944.In a field near Saint-Didier-de-Formans, they were shot by the Gestapo in groups of four.", "The bodies were discovered on 26 June.", "For some time Bloch's death was merely a \"dark rumour\" until it was confirmed to Febvre.At Bloch's burial he acknowledged his Jewish ancestry while identifying foremost as a Frenchman.", "According to his instructions, on his grave was to be carved his epitaph ''dilexi veritatem'' (\"I have loved the truth\")." ], [ "Bibliography", "*'A Contribution towards a Comparative History of European Societies', in ''Land and Work in Medieval Europe''.", "London, 1967.", "*'Memoire collective', ''Revue de synthese historique'' 40 (1925): 73-83.", "*'Technical Change as a Problem of Collective Psychology', ''Journal of Normal and Pathological Psychology'' (1948): 104-15.Reprinted in Bloch, 1967, 124-35.", "*''Apologie pour l'histoire''.", "Paris, 1949.English trans., ''The Historian's Craft''.", "Manchester, 1954.", "*''L'Etrange defaite'', Paris, 1946.English trans., ''Strange Defeat''.", "London, 1949.", "*''L'Ile de France'' Paris, 1913.English trans., The Ile de France.", "London, 1971.", "*''La Societe feodale'', 2 vols.", "Paris, 1939-40.English trans., ''Feudal Society'', 2 vols.", "London, 1961.", "*''Land and Work in Medieval Europe''.", "London, 1967" ], [ "Historical method and approach", "Davies says Bloch was \"no mean disputant\" in historiographical debate, often reducing an opponent's argument to its most basic weaknesses.", "His approach was a reaction against the prevailing ideas within French historiography of the day which, when he was young, were still very much based on that of the German School, pioneered by Leopold von Ranke.", "Within French historiography this led to a forensic focus on administrative history as expounded by historians such as Ernest Lavisse.", "While he acknowledged his and his generation of historians' debt to their predecessors, he considered that they treated historical research as being little more meaningful than detective work.", "Bloch later wrote how, in his view, \"There is no waste more criminal than that of erudition running ... in neutral gear, nor any pride more vainly misplaced than that in a tool valued as an end in itself\".", "He believed it was wrong for historians to focus on the evidence rather than the human condition of whatever period they were discussing.", "Administrative historians, he said, understood every element of a government department without understanding anything of those who worked in it.Bloch was very much influenced by Ferdinand Lot, who had already written comparative history, and by the work of Jules Michelet and Fustel de Coulanges with their emphasis on social history, Durkheim's sociological methodology, François Simiand's social economics, and Henri Bergson's philosophy of collectivism.", "Bloch's emphasis on using comparative history harked back to the Enlightenment, when writers such as Voltaire and Montesquieu decried the notion that history was a linear narrative of individuals and pushed for greater use of philosophy in studying the past.", "Bloch condemned the \"German-dominated\" school of political economy, which he considered \"analytically unsophisticated and riddled with distortions\".", "Equally condemned were then-fashionable ideas on racial theories of national identity.", "Bloch believed that political history on its own could not explain deeper socioeconomics trends and influences.Bloch did not see social history as being a separate field within historical research.", "Rather, he saw all aspects of history to be inherently a part of social history.", "By definition, all history was social history, an approach he and Febvre termed ''\"histoire totale\"'', not a focus on points of fact such as dates of battles, reigns, and changes of leaders and ministries, and a general confinement by the historian to what he can identify and verify.", "Bloch explained in a letter to Pirenne that, in Bloch's eyes, the historian's most important quality was the ability to be surprised by what he found—\"I am more and more convinced of this\", he said; \"damn those of us who believe everything is normal!", "\"Bloch identified two types of historical eras: the generational era and the era of civilisation: these were defined by the speed with which they underwent change and development.", "In the latter type of period, which changed gradually, Bloch included physical, structural, and psychological aspects of society, while the generational era could experience fundamental change over a relatively few generations.", "Bloch founded what modern French historians call the \"regressive method\" of historical scholarship.", "This method avoids the necessity of relying solely on historical documents as a source, by looking at the issues visible in later historical periods and drawing from them what they may have looked like centuries earlier.", "Davies says this was particularly useful in Bloch's study of village communities as \"the strength of communal traditions often preserves earlier customs in a more or less fossilized state\".", "Bloch studied peasant tools in museums, observed their use in work, and discussed the objects with the people who used them.", "He believed that in observing a plough or an annual harvest one was observing history, as more often than not both the technology and the technique were much the same as they had been hundreds of years earlier.", "However, the individuals themselves were not his focus; instead, he focused on \"the collectivity, the community, the society\".", "He wrote about the peasantry, rather than the individual peasant; says Lyon, \"he roamed the provinces to become familiar with French agriculture over the long term, with the contours of peasant villages, with agrarian routine, its sounds and smells.", "Bloch claimed that both fighting alongside the peasantry in the war and his historical research into their history had shown him \"the vigorous and unwearied quickness\" of their minds.Bloch described his area of study as the comparative history of European society and explained why he did not identify himself as a medievalist: \"I refuse to do so.", "I have no interest in changing labels, nor in clever labels themselves, or those that are thought to be so.\"", "He did not leave a full study of his methodology, although it can be effectively reconstructed piecemeal.", "He believed that history was the \"science of movement\", but did not accept, for example, the aphorism that one could protect against the future by studying the past.", "His work did not use a revolutionary approach to historiography; rather, he wished to combine the schools of thinking that preceded him into a new broad approach to history and, as he wrote in 1926, to bring to history \"ce murmure qui n'était pas de la mort\", (\"the whisper that was not death').", "He criticised what he called the \"idol of the origins\", where historians concentrate overly hard on the formation of something to the detriment of studying the thing itself.Bloch's comparative history led him to tie his researches in with those of many other schools: social sciences, linguistics, philology, comparative literature, folklore, geography, and agronomy.", "Similarly, he did not restrict himself to French history.", "At various points in his writings, Bloch commented on medieval Corsican, Finnish, Japanese, Norwegian and Welsh history.", "R. R. Davies has compared Bloch's intelligence with what he calls that of \"the Maitland of the 1890s\", regarding his breadth of reading, use of language and multidisciplinary approach.", "Unlike Maitland, however, Bloch also wished to synthesise scientific history with narrative history.", "According to Stirling, he managed to achieve \"an imperfect and volatile imbalance\" between them.", "Bloch did not believe that it was possible to understand or recreate the past by the mere act of compiling facts from sources; rather, he described a source as a witness, \"and like most witnesses\", he wrote, \"it rarely speaks until one begins to question it\".", "Likewise, he viewed historians as detectives who gathered evidence and testimony, as ''juges d'instruction'' (examining magistrates) \"charged with a vast enquiry of the past\".===Areas of interest===Bloch was not only interested in periods or aspects of history but in the importance of history as a subject, regardless of the period, of intellectual exercise.", "Davies writes, \"he was certainly not afraid of repeating himself; and, unlike most English historians, he felt it his duty to reflect on the aims and purposes of history\".", "Bloch considered it a mistake for the historian to confine himself overly rigidly to his own discipline.", "Much of his editorialising in ''Annales'' emphasised the importance of parallel evidence to be found in neighbouring fields of study, especially archaeology, ethnography, geography, literature, psychology, sociology, technology, air photography, ecology, pollen analysis and statistics.", "In Bloch's view, this allowed not just a broader field of study, but a far more comprehensive understanding of the past than would be possible from relying solely on historical sources.", "Bloch's favourite example of how technology impacts society was the watermill.", "This can be summed up as illustrating how it was known of but little used in the classical period; it became an economic necessity in the early medieval period; and finally, in the later Middle Ages, it represented a scarce resource increasingly concentrated in the nobility's hands.Bloch also emphasised the importance of geography in the study of history, and particularly in the study of rural history.", "He suggested that, fundamentally, they were the same subjects, although he criticised geographers for failing to take historical chronology or human agency into account.", "Using a farmer's field as an example, he described it as \"fundamentally, a human work, built from generation to generation\".", "Bloch also condemned the view that rural life was immobile.", "He believed that the Gallic farmer of the Roman period was inherently different from his 18th-century descendants, cultivating different plants, in a different way.", "He saw England and France's agricultural history as developing similarly, and, indeed, discovered an Enclosure Movement in France throughout the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries on the basis that it had been occurring in England in similar circumstances.", "Bloch also took a deep interest in the field of linguistics and their use of the comparative method.", "He believed that using the method in historical research could prevent the historian from ignoring the broader context in the course of his detailed local researches: \"a simple application of the comparative method exploded the ethnic theories of historical institutions, beloved of so many German historians\".Block was multilingual, and impressed contemporaries with the breadth of his knowledge and erudition and his facility in both ancient and modern languages.", "His clear prose and his methodology of formulating historical issues in social terms left a strong impact on the discipline of history.", "Bloch dreamed of a borderless world, where the constraints of geography, time, and academic discipline could be dismantled and history could be addressed from a global perspective." ], [ "Personal life", "Bloch's signature on \"La ministérialité en France et en Allemagne\" in ''Revue historique de droit français et étranger'', 1928; Bloch offered the book to Maurice Halbwachs and it is now held in the Human and Social Sciences Library Paris Descartes-CNRSBloch was not a tall man, being in height and an elegant dresser.", "Eugen Weber has described Bloch's handwriting as \"impossible\".", "He had expressive blue eyes, which could be \"mischievous, inquisitive, ironic and sharp\".", "Febvre later said that when he first met Bloch in 1902, he found a slender young man with \"a timid face\".", "Bloch was proud of his family's history of defending France: he later wrote, \"My great-grandfather was a serving soldier in 1793; ... my father was one of the defenders of Strasbourg in 1870 ...", "I was brought up in the traditions of patriotism which found no more fervent champions than the Jews of the Alsatian exodus\".Bloch was a committed supporter of the Third Republic and politically left-wing.", "He was not a Marxist, although he was impressed by Karl Marx himself, whom he thought was a great historian if possibly \"an unbearable man\" personally.", "He viewed contemporary politics as purely moral decisions to be made.", "He did not, however, let it enter into his work; indeed, he questioned the very idea of a historian studying politics.", "He believed that society should be governed by the young, and, although politically he was a moderate, he noted that revolutions generally promote the young over the old: \"even the Nazis had done this, while the French had done the reverse, bringing to power a generation of the past\".", "According to Epstein, following the First World War, Bloch presented a \"curious lack of empathy and comprehension for the horrors of modern warfare\", while John Lewis Gaddis has found Bloch's failure to condemn Stalinism in the 1930s \"disturbing\".", "Gaddis suggests that Bloch had ample evidence of Stalin's crimes and yet sought to shroud them in utilitarian calculations about the price of what he called 'progress'\".Although Bloch was very reserved—and later acknowledged that he had generally been old-fashioned and \"timid\" with women—he was good friends with Lucien Febvre and Christian Pfister.", "In July 1919 he married Simonne Vidal, a \"cultivated and discreet, timid and energetic\" woman, at a Jewish wedding.", "Her father was the ''Inspecteur-Général de Ponts et Chaussées'', and a very prosperous and influential man.", "Undoubtedly, says Friedman, his wife's family wealth allowed Bloch to focus on his research without having to depend on the income he made from it.", "Bloch was later to say he had found great happiness with her, and that he believed her to have also found it with him.", "They had six children together, four sons and two daughters.", "The eldest two were a daughter Alice, and a son, Étienne.", "As his father had done with him, Bloch took a great interest in his children's education, and regularly helped with their homework.", "He could, though, be \"caustically critical\" of his children, particularly Étienne.", "Bloch accused him in one of his wartime letters of having poor manners, being lazy and stubborn, and of being possessed occasionally by \"evil demons\".", "Regarding the facts of life, Bloch told Etienne to attempt always to avoid what Bloch termed \"contaminated females\".Bloch was agnostic, if not atheist, in matters of religion.", "His son Étienne later said of his father, \"in his life as well as his writings not even the slightest trace of a supposed Jewish identity\" can be found.", "\"Marc Bloch was simply French\".", "Some of his pupils believed him to be an Orthodox Jew, but Loyn says this is incorrect.", "While Bloch's Jewish roots were important to him, this was the result of the political tumult of the Dreyfuss years, said Loyn: that \"it was only anti-semitism that made him want to affirm his Jewishness\".Bloch's brother Louis became a doctor, and eventually the head of the diphtheria section of the Hôpital des Enfants-Malades.", "Louis died prematurely in 1922.Their father died in March the following year.", "Following these deaths, Bloch took on responsibility for his aging mother as well as his brother's widow and children.", "Eugen Weber has suggested that Bloch was probably a monomaniac who, in Bloch's own words, \"abhorred falsehood\".", "He also abhorred, as a result of both the Franco-Prussian war and more recently the First World War, German nationalism.", "This extended to that country's culture and scholarship, and is probably the reason he never debated with German historians.", "Indeed, in Bloch's later career, he rarely mentioned even those German historians with whom he must, professionally, have felt an affinity, such as Karl Lamprecht.", "Lyon says Lamprecht had denounced what he saw as the German obsession with political history and had focused on art and comparative history, thus \"infuriating the ''Rankianer''\".", "Bloch once commented, on English historians, that \"en Angleterre, rien qu'en Angleterre\" (\"in England, only England\").", "He was not, though, particularly critical of English historiography, and respected the long tradition of rural history in that country as well as more materially the government funding that went into historical research there." ], [ "Legacy", "Plaque Marc Bloch, 17 rue de Sèvres, Paris 6eIt is possible, argues Weber, that had Bloch survived the war, he would have been a candidate for Minister of Education in a post-war government and would have reformed the education system he had condemned for losing France the war in 1940.Instead, in 1948, his son Étienne offered the Archives Nationales his father's papers for their repository, but they rejected the offer.", "As a result, the material was placed in the vaults of the École Normale Supérieure, \"where it lay untouched for decades\".Intellectual historian Peter Burke named Bloch the leader of what he called the \"French Historical Revolution\", and Bloch became an icon for the post-war generation of new historians.", "Although he has been described as being, to some extent, the object of a cult in both England and France—\"one of the most influential historians of the twentieth century\" by Stirling, and \"the greatest historian of modern times\" by John H. Plumb—this is a reputation mostly acquired postmortem.", "Henry Loyn suggests it is also one which would have amused and amazed Bloch.", "According to Stirling, this posed a particular problem within French historiography when Bloch effectively had martyrdom bestowed upon him after the war, leading to much of his work being overshadowed by the last months of his life.", "This led to \"indiscriminate heaps of praise under which he is now almost hopelessly buried\".", "This is partly at least the fault of historians themselves, who have not critically re-examined Bloch's work but rather treat him as a fixed and immutable aspect of the historiographical background.At the turn of the millennium \"there is a woeful lack of critical engagement with Marc Bloch's writing in contemporary academic circles\" according to Stirling.", "His legacy has been further complicated by the fact that the second generation of Annalists led by Fernand Braudel has \"co-opted his memory\", combining Bloch's academic work and Resistance involvement to create \"a founding myth\".", "The aspects of his life which made Bloch easy to beatify have been summed up by Henry Loyn as \"Frenchman and Jew, scholar and soldier, staff officer and Resistance worker ... articulate on the present as well as the past\".arrondissement of Paris, is one of the streets to have been named after him.The first critical biography of Bloch did not appear until Carole Fink's ''Marc Bloch: A Life in History'' was published in 1989.This, wrote S. R. Epstein, was the \"professional, extensively researched and documented\" story of Bloch's life, and, he commented, probably had to \"overcome a strong sense of protectiveness among the guardians of Bloch's and the ''Annales'' memory\".", "Since then, continuing scholarship—such as that by Stirling, who calls Bloch a visionary, although a \"flawed\" one—has been more critically objective of Bloch's recognisable weaknesses.", "For example, although he was a keen advocate for chronological precision and textual accuracy, his only major work in this area, a discussion of Osbert of Clare's ''Life of Edward the Confessor'', was subsequently \"seriously criticised\" by later experts in the field such as R. W. Southern and Frank Barlow; Epstein later suggested Bloch was \"a mediocre theoretician but an adept artisan of method\".", "Colleagues who worked with him occasionally complained that Bloch's manner could be \"cold, distant, and both timid and hypocritical\" due to the strong views he had held on the failure of the French education system.", "Bloch's reduction of the role of individuals, and their personal beliefs, in changing society or making history has been challenged.", "Even Febvre, reviewing ''Feudal Society'' on its post-war publication, suggested that Bloch had unnecessarily ignored the individual's role in societal development.Bloch has also been accused of ignoring unanswered questions and presenting complete answers when they are perhaps not deserved, and of sometimes ignoring internal inconsistencies.", "Andrew Wallace-Hadrill has also criticised Bloch's division of the feudal period into two distinct times as artificial.", "He also says Bloch's theory on the transformation of blood ties into feudal bonds does not correspond with either chronological evidence or what is known of the nature of the early family unit.", "Bloch seems to have occasionally ignored, whether accidentally or deliberately, important contemporaries in his field.", "Richard Lefebvre des Noëttes, for example, who founded the history of technology as a new discipline, built new harnesses from medieval illustrations, and drew histographical conclusions.", "Bloch, though, does not seem to have acknowledged the similarities between his and Lefebvre's approaches to physical research, even though he cited much earlier historians.", "Davies argued that there was a sociological aspect to Bloch's work which often neutralised the precision of his historical writing; as a result, he says, those of Bloch's works with a sociological conception, such as ''Feudal Society'', have not always \"stood the test of time\".Comparative history, too, still proved controversial many years after Bloch's death, and Bryce Lyon has posited that, had Bloch survived the war, it is very likely that his views on history—already changing in the early years of the second war, just as they had done in the aftermath of the first—would have re-adjusted themselves against the very school he had founded.", "Stirling suggests what distinguished Bloch from his predecessors was that he effectively became a new kind of historian, who \"strove primarily for transparency of methodology where his predecessors had striven for transparency of data\" while continuously critiquing himself at the same time.", "Davies suggests his legacy lies not so much in the body of work he left behind him, which is not always as definitive as it has been made out to be, but the influence he had on \"a whole generation of French historical scholarship\".", "Bloch's emphasis on how rural and village society has been neglected by historians in favour of the lords and manorial courts that ruled them influenced later historians such as R. H. Hilton in the study of the economics of peasant society.", "Bloch's combination of economics, history, and sociology was \"forty years before it became fashionable\", argues Daniel Chirot, which he says could make Bloch a founding father of post-war sociology scholarship.The English-language journal ''Past & Present'', published by Oxford University Press, was a direct successor to the ''Annales'', suggests Loyn.", "Michel Foucault said of the Annales School, \"what Bloch, Febvre and Braudel have shown for history, we can show, I believe, for the history of ideas\".", "Bloch's influence spread beyond historiography after his death.", "In the 2007 French presidential election, Bloch was quoted many times.", "For example, candidates Nicolas Sarkozy and Marine Le Pen both cited Bloch's lines from ''Strange Defeat'': \"there are two categories of Frenchmen who will never really grasp the significance of French history: those who refuse to be thrilled by the Consecration of our Kings at Reims, and those who can read unmoved the account of the Festival of Federation\".", "In 1977, Bloch received a state reburial; streets schools and universities have been named after him, and the centennial of Bloch's birth was celebrated at a conference held in Paris in June 1986.It was attended by academics of various disciplines, particularly historians and anthropologists.=== Awards ===* Knight of the Legion of Honour* Croix de Guerre 1914-1918, 4 mentions in despatches (2 bronze and 2 silver)* Croix de Guerre 1939-1945, 1 mention in despatches (1 silver-gilt)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* , Images of documents held by the Archives Nationales relating to Bloch's war service.", "* Centre Marc Bloch * Université Marc Bloch * www.marcbloch.fr Association Marc Bloch - website no longer active * History Heroes : Marc Bloch (Smithsonian Magazine) * Episode on Marc Bloch from the Wittenberg to Westphalia podcast (in English).", "* Description of Bloch's archives (in French)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Michael Ventris" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Michael George Francis Ventris''', (; 12 July 1922 – 6 September 1956) was an English architect, classicist and philologist who deciphered Linear B, the ancient Mycenaean Greek script.", "A student of languages, Ventris had pursued decipherment as a personal vocation since his adolescence.", "After creating a new field of study, Ventris died in a car crash a few weeks before the publication of ''Documents in Mycenaean Greek'', written with John Chadwick." ], [ "Early life and education", "Ventris was born into a traditional army family.", "His grandfather, Francis Ventris, was a major-general and Commander of British Forces in China.", "His father, Edward Francis Vereker Ventris, was a lieutenant-colonel in the Indian Army, who retired early due to ill health.", "Edward Ventris married Anna Dorothea (Dora) Janasz, who was from a wealthy Jewish and Polish paternal background.", "Michael Ventris was their only child.The family moved to Switzerland for eight years, seeking a healthy environment for Colonel Ventris.", "Young Michael started school in Gstaad, where classes were taught in French and German.", "He soon was fluent in both languages and showing proficiency for Swiss German.", "He was capable of learning a language within a matter of weeks, which allowed him to acquire fluency in a dozen languages.", "His mother often spoke Polish to him, and he was fluent by the age of eight.", "At this time, he was reading Adolf Erman's ''Die Hieroglyphen'' in German.Stowe School in August 2005In 1931, the Ventris family returned home.", "From 1931 to 1935 Ventris was sent to Bickley Hill School in Stowe.", "His parents divorced in 1935.At this time, he secured a scholarship to Stowe School.", "At Stowe he learned some Latin and Ancient Greek.", "He did not do outstanding work there – by then he was spending most of his spare time learning as much as he could about Linear B, some of his study time being spent under the covers at night with a torch.", "When he was not boarding at school, Ventris lived with his mother, before 1935 in coastal hotels, and then in the avant garde Berthold Lubetkin's Highpoint modernist apartments in Highgate, north London.", "His mother's acquaintances, who frequented the house, included many sculptors, painters, and writers of the day.", "The flat was furnished with the works of Marcel Breuer.", "The money for her artistic patronage came from Polish estates." ], [ "Young adult", "Ventris's father died in 1938 and his mother, Dora, became administrator of the estate.", "With the German invasion of Poland in 1939, Dora lost her private income, and in 1940 her father died.", "Ventris lost his mother to clinical depression and an overdose of barbiturates.", "He never spoke of her, assuming instead an ebullient and energetic manner in whatever he decided to do, a trait which won him numerous friends.A friend of the family, Russian sculptor Naum Gabo, took Ventris under his wing.", "Ventris later said that Gabo was the most family he had ever had.", "It may have been at Gabo's house that he began the study of Russian.", "He decided on architecture as a career, and enrolled in the Architectural Association School of Architecture.", "There he met his wife-to-be Lois Knox-Niven, known as Betty, daughter of pilot Lois Butler and stepdaughter of Alan Samuel Butler, chairman of the De Havilland Aircraft Company.", "A fellow architecture student, her social background was similar to Ventris's: her family was well-to-do, she had travelled in Europe, and she was interested in architecture.", "She was also popular and very beautiful.Halifax in flight, 1942Ventris did not complete his architecture studies, being conscripted in 1942.He chose the Royal Air Force (RAF).", "His preference was for navigator rather than pilot, and he completed the extensive training in the UK and Canada, to qualify early in 1944 and be commissioned.", "While training, he studied Russian intensively for several weeks, the purpose of which is not clear.", "He took part in the bombing of Germany, as aircrew on the Handley Page Halifax with No.", "76 Squadron RAF, initially at RAF Breighton and then at RAF Holme-on-Spalding Moor, both in East Yorkshire.", "After the conclusion of the war, he served out the rest of his term on the ground in Germany, for which he was chosen because of his knowledge of Russian.", "His duties are unclear.", "His friends assumed he was on intelligence duties, interpreting his denials as part of a legal gag.", "No evidence of such assignments has emerged in the decades since.", "There is also no evidence that he was ever part of any code-breaking unit, as was Chadwick, even though the public has readily believed this explanation of his genius and success with Linear B." ], [ "Architect and palaeographer", "Ventris's home, 1952–1956, which he and his wife, Lois, also an architect, designedAfter the war he worked briefly in Sweden, learning enough Swedish to communicate with scholars.", "Then he came home to complete his architectural education with honours in 1948 and settled down with Lois working as an architect.", "He designed schools for the Ministry of Education.", "He and his wife personally designed their family home, 19 North End, Hampstead.", "Ventris and his wife had two children: a son, Nikki (1942–1984), and a daughter, Tessa (born 1946).Ventris continued with his efforts on Linear B, discovering in 1952 that it was an archaic form of Greek." ], [ "Decipherment", "At the beginning of the 20th century, archaeologist Arthur Evans began excavating an ancient site at Knossos, on the island of Crete.", "In doing so he uncovered a great many clay tablets inscribed with two unknown scripts, Linear A and Linear B. Evans attempted to decipher both in the following decades, with little success.In 1936, Evans hosted an exhibition on Cretan archaeology at Burlington House in London, home of the Royal Academy.", "It was the jubilee anniversary (50 years) of the British School of Archaeology in Athens, owners and managers of the Knossos site.", "Evans had gifted them the site with his Villa Ariadne house some years previously.", "Boys from Stowe School were in attendance at one lecture and tour conducted by the 85-year-old Evans himself.", "Ventris, aged 14 at the time, was present and remembered Evans walking with a stick, probably the cane named Prodger which Evans carried all his life to assist him with his short-sightedness and night blindness.", "Evans held up tablets of the unknown scripts for the audience to see.", "During the interview period following the lecture, Ventris spoke up to confirm that Linear B was as yet undeciphered, and he determined to decipher it.In 1940, the 18-year-old Ventris had an article \"Introducing the Minoan Language\" published in the ''American Journal of Archaeology''.", "Ventris's initial theory was that Etruscan and Linear B were related and that this might provide a key to decipherment.", "Although this proved incorrect, it was a link he continued to explore until the early 1950s.Shortly after Evans died, Alice Kober noted that certain words in Linear B inscriptions had changing word endings – perhaps declensions in the manner of Latin or Greek.", "Using this basis, Ventris constructed a series of grids associating the symbols on the tablets with consonants and vowels.", "While ''which'' consonants and vowels these were remained mysterious, Ventris learned enough about the structure of the underlying language to begin experimenting.Shortly before World War II, American archaeologist Carl Blegen discovered a further 600 or so tablets of Linear B in the Mycenaean palace of Pylos on the Greek mainland.", "Photographs of these tablets by archaeologist Alison Frantz facilitated Ventris's later decipherment of the Linear B script.In 1948 Sir John Myres invited a group of academics to help him transcribe Linear B material.", "Amongst them were Dr. Kober and Ventris.", "Although they did not collaborate further, Kober's work was essential in providing the foundational understanding from which Ventris built his theories on Linear B.Comparing the Linear B tablets discovered on the Greek mainland, and noting that certain symbol groups appeared only in the Cretan texts, Ventris made the inspired guess that those were place names on the island.", "This proved to be correct.", "Armed with the symbols he could decipher from this, Ventris soon unlocked much of the text and determined that the underlying language of Linear B, a syllabic script, was in fact Greek.", "On 1 July 1952, Ventris announced his preliminary findings on a BBC radio talk which was heard by John Chadwick, a classicist at the University of Cambridge who had been involved in code breaking at Bletchley Park during the Second World War.", "The two men began to collaborate on further research into deciphering Linear B.", "In 1953 further Linear B tablets were discovered at ancient Mycenae and ancient Pylos on the Greek mainland, with one of the tablets (PY Ta 641) showing a pictographic tripod cauldron next to Linear B symbols which were translated by Ventris and Chadwick as \"ti-ri-po-de\", tripod being a Greek word.", "This led to wider international collaboration with other classical scholars and between 1953 and 1956 Ventris and Chadwick published joint papers.", "This overturned Evans's theories of Minoan history by establishing that Cretan civilization, at least in the later periods associated with the Linear B tablets, had been part of Mycenean Greece." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Ventris was awarded an OBE in 1955 for \"services to Mycenaean paleography.", "\"In 1956 Ventris, who lived in Hampstead, died instantly in a late-night collision in Hatfield, Hertfordshire, with a parked lorry while driving home, aged 34.The coroner's verdict was accidental death.", "In 1959 he was posthumously awarded the British Academy's Kenyon Medal.Initially there was some academic scepticism about the decipherment, continuing into the 1960s.", "Today the Mycenaean Greek attribution is universally accepted by academics.An English Heritage blue plaque commemorates Ventris at his home in North End, Hampstead and a street in Heraklion, the capital of the Greek island of Crete, was named in his honor.The Ventris crater on the far side of the Moon was named in his honor by the IAU in 1970." ], [ "Bibliography", "*Ventris, M. G. F. ''Introducing the Minoan Language'', essay article in ''American Journal of Archaeology XLIV/4'' October–December 1940.", "* * * * * Ventris, Michael ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'' Volume LXXVI 1956 p. 146 Review of two Russian language works by V. I.", "Georgiev.", "* * *" ], [ "See also", "* Emmett Bennett" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maniac Mansion" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Maniac Mansion''''' is a 1987 graphic adventure video game developed and published by Lucasfilm Games.", "It follows teenage protagonist Dave Miller as he attempts to rescue his girlfriend Sandy Pantz from a mad scientist, whose mind has been enslaved by a sentient meteor.", "The player uses a point-and-click interface to guide Dave and two of his six playable friends through the scientist's mansion while solving puzzles and avoiding dangers.", "Gameplay is non-linear, and the game must be completed in different ways based on the player's choice of characters.", "Initially released for the Commodore 64 and Apple II, ''Maniac Mansion'' was Lucasfilm Games' first self-published product.The game was conceived in 1985 by Ron Gilbert and Gary Winnick, who sought to tell a comedic story based on horror film and B-movie clichés.", "They mapped out the project as a paper-and-pencil game before coding commenced.", "While earlier adventure titles had relied on command lines, Gilbert disliked such systems, and he developed ''Maniac Mansion''s simpler point-and-click interface as a replacement.", "To speed up production, he created a game engine called SCUMM, which was used in many later LucasArts titles.", "After its release, ''Maniac Mansion'' was ported to several platforms.", "A port for the Nintendo Entertainment System had to be reworked heavily, in response to Nintendo of America’s concerns that the game was inappropriate for children.", "''Maniac Mansion'' was critically acclaimed: reviewers lauded its graphics, cutscenes, animation, and humor.", "Writer Orson Scott Card praised it as a step toward \"computer games becoming a valid storytelling art\".", "It influenced numerous graphic adventure titles, and its point-and-click interface became a standard feature in the genre.", "The game's success solidified Lucasfilm as a serious rival to adventure game studios such as Sierra On-Line.", "In 1990, ''Maniac Mansion'' was adapted into a three-season television series of the same name, written by Eugene Levy and starring Joe Flaherty.", "A sequel to the game, ''Day of the Tentacle'', was released in 1993." ], [ "Overview", "Bernard and Dave visit the green tentacle in the mansion.", "The game displays dialogue above the scene and the point-and-click command interface below it.", "''Maniac Mansion'' is a graphic adventure game in which the player uses a point-and-click interface to guide characters through a two-dimensional game world and to solve puzzles.", "Fifteen action commands, such as \"Walk To\" and \"Unlock\", may be selected by the player from a menu on the screen's lower half.", "The player starts the game by choosing two out of six characters to accompany protagonist Dave Miller: Bernard, Jeff, Michael, Razor, Syd, and Wendy.", "Each character possesses unique abilities: for example, Syd and Razor can play musical instruments, while Bernard can repair appliances.", "The game may be completed with any combination of characters; but, since many puzzles are solvable only by certain characters, different paths must be taken based on the group's composition.", "''Maniac Mansion'' features cutscenes, a word coined by Ron Gilbert, that interrupt gameplay to advance the story and inform the player about offscreen events.The game takes place in the mansion of the fictional Edison family: Dr. Fred, a mad scientist; Nurse Edna, his wife; and their son Weird Ed.", "Living with the Edisons are two large, disembodied tentacles, one purple and the other green.", "The intro sequence shows that a sentient meteor crashed near the mansion twenty years earlier; it brainwashed the Edisons and directed Dr. Fred to obtain human brains for use in experiments.", "The game begins as Dave Miller prepares to enter the mansion to rescue his girlfriend, Sandy Pantz, who had been kidnapped by Dr. Fred.", "With the exception of the green tentacle, the mansion's inhabitants are hostile, and will throw the player characters into the dungeon—or, in some situations, kill them—if they see them.", "When a character dies, the player must continue with the remaining of the three selected characters; the game ends if all characters are killed.", "''Maniac Mansion'' has five possible endings, based on which characters are chosen, which survive, and what the characters accomplish." ], [ "Development", "===Conception===Ron Gilbert (pictured) co-wrote and co-designed ''Maniac Mansion'' with Gary Winnick; they were both puzzle and graphic adventure game fans.", "''Maniac Mansion'' was conceived in 1985 when Lucasfilm Games employees Ron Gilbert and Gary Winnick were assigned to create an original game.", "Gilbert had been hired the previous year as a programmer for the game ''Koronis Rift''.", "He befriended Winnick over their similar tastes in humor, film, and television.", "Company management provided little oversight in the creation of ''Maniac Mansion'', a trend to which Gilbert credited the success of several of his games for Lucasfilm.Gilbert and Winnick co-wrote and co-designed the project, and also worked separately with Gilbert on programming and Winnick on visuals.", "As both of them enjoyed B horror films, they decided to make a comedy-horror game set in a haunted house.", "They drew inspiration from a film whose name Winnick could not recall.", "He described it as \"a ridiculous teen horror movie\", in which teenagers inside a building were killed one by one without any thought of leaving.", "This film, combined with clichés from popular horror movies such as ''Friday the 13th'' and ''A Nightmare on Elm Street'', became the basis for the game's setting.", "Early work on the game progressed organically: according to Gilbert, \"very little was written down.", "Gary and I just talked and laughed a lot, and out it came\".", "Lucasfilm Games relocated to the Stable House at Skywalker Ranch during ''Maniac Mansion''s conception period, and the ranch's Main House was used as a model for the mansion.", "Several rooms from the Main House received exact reproductions in the game, such as a library with a spiral staircase and a media room with a large-screen TV and grand piano.Story and characters were a primary concern for Gilbert and Winnick.", "The pair based the game's cast on friends, family members, acquaintances, and stereotypes.", "For example, Winnick's girlfriend Ray was the inspiration for Razor, while Dave and Wendy were based, respectively, on Gilbert and a fellow Lucasfilm employee named Wendy.", "According to Winnick, the Edison family was shaped after characters from EC Comics and Warren Publishing magazines.", "The sentient meteor that brainwashes Dr. Fred was inspired by a segment from the 1982 anthology film ''Creepshow''.", "The man-eating plant is similar to that of ''Little Shop of Horrors''.", "The developers sought to strike a balance between tension and humor with the game's story.The Main House at Skywalker Ranch inspired the design of ''Maniac Mansion''s setting.Initially, Gilbert and Winnick struggled to choose a gameplay genre for ''Maniac Mansion''.", "While visiting relatives over Christmas, Gilbert saw his cousin play ''King's Quest: Quest for the Crown'', an adventure game by Sierra On-Line.", "Although he was a fan of text adventures, this was Gilbert's first experience with a graphic adventure, and he used the holiday to play the game and familiarize himself with the format.", "As a result, he decided to develop his and Winnick's ideas into a graphic adventure game.", "''Maniac Mansion''s story and structure were designed before coding commenced.", "The project's earliest incarnation was a paper-and-pencil board game, in which the mansion's floor plan was used as a game board, and cards represented events and characters.", "Lines connected the rooms to illustrate pathways by which characters could travel.", "Strips of cellulose acetate were used to map out the game's puzzles by tracking which items worked together when used by certain characters.", "Impressed by the map's complexity, Winnick included it in the final game as a poster hung on a wall.", "Because each character contributes different skills and resources, the pair spent months working on the event combinations that could occur.", "This extended the game's production time beyond that of previous Lucasfilm Games projects, which almost led to Gilbert's firing.", "The game's dialogue, written by David Fox, was not created until after programming had begun.===Production and SCUMM===Gilbert started programming ''Maniac Mansion'' in 6502 assembly language, but he quickly decided that the project was too large and complex for this method.", "He decided that a new game engine would have to be created.", "Its coding language was initially planned to be Lisp-inspired, but Gilbert opted for one similar to C and Yacc.", "Lucasfilm employee Chip Morningstar contributed the base code for the engine, which Gilbert then built on.", "Gilbert hoped to create a \"system that could be used on many adventure games, cutting down the time it took to make them\".", "''Maniac Mansion''s first six-to-nine months of production were dedicated largely to engine development.", "The game was developed around the Commodore 64 home computer, an 8-bit system with only 64 KB of memory.", "The team wanted to include scrolling screens, but as it was normally impossible to scroll bitmap graphics on the Commodore 64, they had to use lower-detail tile graphics.", "Winnick gave each character a large head made of three stacked sprites to make them recognizable.Although Gilbert wrote much of the foundational code for ''Maniac Mansion'', the majority of the game's events were programmed by Lucasfilm employee David Fox.", "Fox was between projects and planned to work on the game only for a month, but he remained with the team for six months.", "With Gilbert, he wrote the characters' dialog and choreographed the action.", "Winnick's concept art inspired him to add new elements to the game: for example, Fox allowed the player to place a hamster inside the kitchen's microwave.The team wanted to avoid punishing the player for applying everyday logic in ''Maniac Mansion''.", "Fox noted that one Sierra game features a scene in which the player, without prior warning, may encounter a game over screen simply by picking up a shard of glass.", "He characterized such game design as \"sadistic\", and he commented: \"I know that in the real world I can successfully pick up a broken piece of mirror without dying\".", "Because of the project's nonlinear puzzle design, the team struggled to prevent no-win scenarios, in which the player unexpectedly became unable to complete the game.", "As a result of this problem, Gilbert later explained: \"We were constantly fighting against the desire just to rip out all the endings and just go with three characters, or even sometimes just one character\".", "Lucasfilm Games had only one playtester, and many dead-ends went undetected as a result.", "Further playtesting was provided by Gilbert's uncle, to whom Gilbert mailed a floppy disk of the game's latest version each week.The ''Maniac Mansion'' team wanted to retain the structure of a text-based adventure game, but without the standard command-line interface.", "Gilbert and Winnick were frustrated by the genre's text parsers and frequent game over screens.", "While in college, Gilbert had enjoyed ''Colossal Cave Adventure'' and the games of Infocom, but he disliked their lack of visuals.", "He found the inclusion of graphics in Sierra On-Line games, such as ''King's Quest'', to be a step in the right direction, but these games still require the player to type, and to guess which commands must be input.", "In response, Gilbert programmed a point-and-click graphical user interface that displays every possible command.", "Fox had made a similar attempt to streamline Lucasfilm's earlier ''Labyrinth: The Computer Game'' and he conceived the entirety of ''Maniac Mansion''s interface, according to Gilbert.", "Forty input commands were planned at first, but the number was gradually reduced to 12.Gilbert finished the ''Maniac Mansion'' engine—which he later named \"Script Creation Utility for Maniac Mansion\" (SCUMM)—after roughly one year of work.", "Although the game was designed for the Commodore 64, the SCUMM engine allowed it to be ported easily to other platforms.After 18 to 24 months of development, ''Maniac Mansion'' debuted at the 1987 Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago.", "The game was released for the Commodore 64 and Apple II in October 1987.While previous Lucasfilm Games products had been published by outside companies, ''Maniac Mansion'' was self-published.", "This became a trend at Lucasfilm.", "The company hired Ken Macklin, an acquaintance of Winnick's, to design the game's packaging artwork.", "Gilbert and Winnick collaborated with the marketing department to design the back cover.", "The two also created an insert that includes hints, a backstory, and jokes.", "An MS-DOS port was released in early 1988, developed in part by Lucasfilm employees Aric Wilmunder and Brad Taylor.", "Ports for the Amiga, Atari ST and Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) followed, with the Amiga and Atari ST ports in 1989 and the NES port in 1990.The 16-bit versions of Maniac Mansion featured a copy protection system requiring the user to enter graphical symbols out of a code book included with the game.", "This was not present in the Commodore 64 and Apple versions due to lack of disk space, so those instead used an on-disk copy protection." ], [ "Nintendo Entertainment System version", "There were two separate versions of the game developed for the NES.", "The first port was handled and published by Jaleco only in Japan.", "Released on June 23, 1988, it featured characters redrawn in a cute art style and generally shrunken rooms.", "No scrolling is present, leading to rooms larger than a single screen to be displayed via flip-screens.", "Many of the background details are missing, and instead of a save feature a password, over 100 characters long, is required to save progress.In September 1990 Jaleco released an American version of ''Maniac Mansion'' as the first NES title developed by Lucasfilm Games in cooperation with Realtime Associates.", "Generally, this port is regarded as being far closer to the original game than the Japanese effort.Company management was occupied with other projects, and so the port received little attention until employee Douglas Crockford volunteered to direct it.", "The team used a modified version of the SCUMM engine called \"NES SCUMM\" for the port.", "According to Crockford, \"one of the main differences between the NES and PCs is that the NES can do certain things much faster\".", "The graphics had to be entirely redrawn to match the NES's display resolution.", "Tim Schafer, who later designed ''Maniac Mansion''s sequel ''Day of the Tentacle'', received his first professional credit as a playtester for the NES version of ''Maniac Mansion''.During ''Maniac Mansion''s development for the Commodore 64, Lucasfilm had censored profanity in the script: for instance, the early line of dialogue \"Don't be a shit head\" became \"Don't be a tuna head\".", "Additional content was removed from the NES version to make it suitable for a younger audience, and to conform with Nintendo's policies.", "Jaleco USA president Howie Rubin warned Crockford about content to which Nintendo might object, such as the word \"kill\".", "After reading the NES Game Standards Policy for himself, Crockford suspected that further elements of ''Maniac Mansion'' could be problematic, and he sent a list of questionable content to Jaleco.", "When the company replied that the content was reasonable, Lucasfilm Games submitted ''Maniac Mansion'' for approval.One month later, Nintendo of America was concerned that its content was objectionable, believing it was inappropriate for children, and contacted Lucasfilm Games to request they tone down the inappropriate content, particularly profanity and nudity.", "Crockford censored this content but attempted to leave the game's essence intact.", "For example, Nintendo wanted graffiti in one room, which provided an important hint to players, removed from the game.", "Unable to comply without simultaneously removing the hint, the team simply shortened it.", "Sexually suggestive and otherwise \"graphic\" dialogue was edited, including a remark from Dr. Fred about \"pretty brains being sucked out\".", "The nudity described by Nintendo encompassed a swimsuit calendar, a classical sculpture and a poster of a mummy in a Playmate pose.", "After a brief fight to keep the sculpture, the team ultimately removed all three.", "The phrase \"NES SCUMM System\" in the credits sequence was censored.George \"The Fat Man\" Sanger and his band contributed to the NES port's music.Lucasfilm Games re-submitted the edited version of ''Maniac Mansion'' to Nintendo, which then manufactured 250,000 cartridges.", "Each cartridge was fitted with a battery-powered back-up to save data.", "Nintendo announced the port through its official magazine in early 1990, and it provided further coverage later that year.", "The ability to microwave a hamster remained in the game, which Crockford cited as an example of the censors' contradictory criteria.", "Nintendo later noticed it, and after the first batch of cartridges was sold, Jaleco was forced to remove the content from future shipments.", "Ultimately, the game didn’t sell well enough within the U.S. market to justify a second printing, so the content removal was only applied to international releases.Late in development, Jaleco commissioned Realtime Associates to provide background music, which no previous version of ''Maniac Mansion'' had featured.", "Realtime Associates' founder and president David Warhol noted that \"video games at that time had to have 'wall to wall' music\".", "He brought in George \"The Fat Man\" Sanger and his band, along with David Hayes, to compose the score.", "Their goal was to create songs that suited each character, such as a punk rock theme for Razor, an electronic rock theme for Bernard and a version of Thin Lizzy's \"The Boys Are Back in Town\" for Dave Miller.", "Warhol translated their work into NES chiptune music." ], [ "Reception", "According to Stuart Hunt of ''Retro Gamer'', ''Maniac Mansion'' received highly positive reviews from critics.", "Nevertheless, Ron Gilbert noted that \"it wasn't a huge hit\" commercially.", "In 2011, Hunt wrote that \"as so often tends to be the way with cult classics, the popularity it saw was slow in coming\".Keith Farrell of ''Compute!", "'s Gazette'' was struck by ''Maniac Mansion''s similarity to film, particularly in its use of cutscenes to impart \"information or urgency\".", "He lauded the game's graphics, animation and high level of detail.", "''Commodore User''s Bill Scolding and three reviewers from ''Zzap!64'' compared the game to ''The Rocky Horror Picture Show''.", "Further comparisons were drawn to ''Psycho'', ''Friday the 13th'', ''The Texas Chain Saw Massacre'', ''The Addams Family'' and ''Scooby-Doo''.", "Russ Ceccola of ''Commodore Magazine'' found the cutscenes to be creative and well made, and he commented that the \"characters are distinctively Lucasfilm's, bringing facial expressions and personality to each individual character\".", "In ''Compute!", "'', Orson Scott Card praised the game's humor, cinematic storytelling and lack of violence.", "He called it \"compellingly good\" and evidence of Lucasfilm's push \"to make computer games a valid storytelling art\".", "In describing ''Maniac Mansion'' as Lucasfilms' \"breakthrough game\", Matthew Castillo of ''Asimov's Science Fiction'' magazine praised the \"B-movie\" horror elements, the use of cutscenes and the visuals.German magazine ''Happy-Computer'' commended the point-and-click interface and likened it to that of ''Uninvited'' by ICOM Simulations.", "The publication highlighted ''Maniac Mansion''s graphics, originality, and overall enjoyability: one of the writers called it the best adventure title yet released.", "''Happy-Computer'' later reported that ''Maniac Mansion'' was the highest-selling video game in West Germany for three consecutive months.", "The game's humor received praise from ''Zzap!64'', whose reviewers called the point-and-click controls \"tremendous\" and the total package \"innovative and polished\".", "Shay Addams of ''Questbusters: The Adventurer's Newsletter'' preferred ''Maniac Mansion''s interface to that of ''Labyrinth: The Computer Game''.", "He considered the game to be Lucasfilm's best, and he recommended it to Commodore 64 and Apple II users unable to run titles with better visuals, such as those from Sierra On-Line.", "A writer for ''ACE'' enjoyed the game's animation and depth, but he noted that fans of text-based adventures would dislike the game's simplicity.===Ports===''PC Computing'' in 1988 wrote that ''Maniac Mansion'' for the PC had a clever story but \"grade B animation\", concluding that \"the result falls short of the magic we expect from George Lucas\".", "Reviewing the MS-DOS and Atari ST ports, a critic from ''The Games Machine'' called ''Maniac Mansion'' \"an enjoyable romp\" that was structurally superior to later LucasArts adventure games.", "The writer noticed poor pathfinding and disliked the limited audio.", "Reviewers for ''The Deseret News'' lauded the audiovisuals and considered the product \"wonderful fun\".", "''Computer Gaming World''s Charles Ardai praised the game for attaining \"the necessary and precarious balance between laughs and suspense that so many comic horror films and novels lack\".", "Although he faulted the control system's limited options, he hailed it as \"one of the most comfortable ever devised\".", "Writing for ''VideoGames & Computer Entertainment'', Bill Kunkel and Joyce Worley stated that the game's plot and premise were typical of the horror genre, but they praised the interface and execution.Reviewing ''Maniac Mansion''s Amiga version four years after its release, Simon Byron of ''The One Amiga'' praised the game for retaining \"charm and humour\", but suggested that its art direction had become \"tacky\" compared to more recent titles.", "Stephen Bradly of ''Amiga Format'' found the game derivative, but encountered \"loads of visual humour\" in it, adding: \"Strangely, it's quite compelling after a while\".", "Michael Labiner of Germany's ''Amiga Joker'' considered ''Maniac Mansion'' to be one of the best adventure games for the system.", "He noted minor graphical flaws, such as a limited color palette, but he argued that the gameplay made up for such shortcomings.", "Writing for ''Datormagazin'' in Sweden, Ingela Palmér commented that the Amiga and Commodore 64 versions of ''Maniac Mansion'' were nearly identical.", "She criticized the graphics and gameplay of both releases but felt the game to be highly enjoyable regardless.Reviewing the NES release, ''Entertainment Weekly'' named it the #20 greatest game released that season: \"The graphics are merely okay and the music is Nintendo at its tinniest, but Maniac Mansion's plot is enough to overcome these faults.", "In this command-driven game — adapted from the computer hit — three buddies venture into a sinister haunted mansion and wind up juggling a bunch of wacky story lines\".", "British magazine ''Mean Machines'' commended the game's presentation, playability, and replay value.", "The publication also noted undetailed graphics and \"ear-bashing tunes\".", "The magazine's Julian Rignall compared ''Maniac Mansion'' to the title ''Shadowgate'', but he preferred the former's controls and lack of \"death-without-warning situations\".", "Writers for Germany's ''Video Games'' referred to the NES version as a \"classic\".", "Co-reviewer Heinrich Lenhardt stated that ''Maniac Mansion'' was unlike any other NES adventure game, and that it was no less enjoyable than its home computer releases.", "Co-reviewer Winnie Forster found it to be \"one of the most original representatives of the adventure game genre\".", "In retrospective features, ''Edge'' magazine called the NES version \"somewhat neutered\" and ''GamesTM'' referred to it as \"infamous\" and \"heavily censored\"." ], [ "TV adaptation and game sequel", "Lucasfilm conceived the idea for a television adaptation of ''Maniac Mansion'', the rights to which were purchased by The Family Channel in 1990.The two companies collaborated with Atlantis Films to produce a sitcom named after the game, which debuted in September of that year.", "It aired on YTV in Canada and The Family Channel in the United States.", "Based in part on the video game, the series focuses on the Edison family's life and stars Joe Flaherty as Dr. Fred.", "Its writing staff was led by Eugene Levy.", "Gilbert later said that the premise of the series changed during production until it differed heavily from the game's original plot.", "Upon its debut, the adaptation received positive reviews from ''Variety'', ''Entertainment Weekly'' and the ''Los Angeles Times''.", "''Time'' named it one of the year's best new series.", "Ken Tucker of ''Entertainment Weekly'' questioned the decision to air the series on The Family Channel, given Flaherty's subversive humor.", "Discussing the series in retrospect, Richard Cobbett of ''PC Gamer'' criticized its generic storylines and lack of relevance to the game.", "The series lasted for three seasons; sixty-six episodes were filmed.In the early 1990s, LucasArts tasked Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer, both of whom had worked on the ''Monkey Island'' series, with designing a sequel to ''Maniac Mansion''.", "Gilbert and Winnick initially assisted with the project's writing.", "The team included voice acting and more detailed graphics, which Gilbert had originally envisioned for ''Maniac Mansion''.", "The first game's nonlinear design was discarded, and the team implemented a Chuck Jones-inspired visual style, alongside numerous puzzles based on time travel.", "Bernard and the Edison family were retained.", "The sequel ''Day of the Tentacle'' was released in 1993, and came with a fully playable copy of ''Maniac Mansion'' hidden as an Easter egg within the game." ], [ "Impact and legacy", "In 2010, the staff of ''GamesTM'' dubbed ''Maniac Mansion'' a \"seminal\" title that overhauled the gameplay of the graphic adventure genre.", "Removing the need to guess syntax allowed players to concentrate on the story and puzzles, which created a smoother and more enjoyable experience, according to the magazine.", "Eurogamer's Kristan Reed agreed: he believed that the design was \"infinitely more elegant and intuitive\" than its predecessors and that it freed players from \"guessing-game frustration\".", "Designer Dave Grossman, who worked on Lucasfilm Games' later ''Day of the Tentacle'' and ''The Secret of Monkey Island'', felt that ''Maniac Mansion'' had revolutionized the adventure game genre.", "Although 1985's ''Uninvited'' had featured a point-and-click interface, it was not influential.", "''Maniac Mansion''s implementation of the concept was widely imitated in other adventure titles.", "Writing in the game studies journal ''Kinephanos'', Jonathan Lessard argued that ''Maniac Mansion'' led a \"Casual Revolution\" in the late 1980s, which opened the adventure genre to a wider audience.", "Similarly, Christopher Buecheler of GameSpy called the game a contributor to its genre's subsequent critical adoration and commercial success.Reed highlighted the \"wonderfully ambitious\" design of ''Maniac Mansion'', in reference to its writing, interface, and cast of characters.", "Game designer Sheri Graner Ray believed the game to challenge \"damsel in distress\" stereotypes through its inclusion of female protagonists.", "Conversely, writer Mark Dery argued that the goal of rescuing a kidnapped cheerleader reinforced negative gender roles.", "The Lucasfilm team built on their experiences from ''Maniac Mansion'' and became increasingly ambitious in subsequent titles.", "Gilbert admitted to making mistakes—such as the inclusion of no-win situations—in ''Maniac Mansion'', and he applied these lessons to future projects.", "For example, the game relies on timers rather than events to trigger cutscenes, which occasionally results in awkward transitions: Gilbert worked to avoid this flaw with the ''Monkey Island'' series.", "Because of ''Maniac Mansion''s imperfections, Gilbert considers it his favorite among the games he made.According to writers Mike and Sandie Morrison, Lucasfilm Games became \"serious competition\" in the adventure genre after the release of ''Maniac Mansion''.", "The game's success solidified Lucasfilm as one of the leading producers of adventure games: authors Rusel DeMaria and Johnny Wilson described it as a \"landmark title\" for the company.", "In their view, ''Maniac Mansion''—along with ''Space Quest: The Sarien Encounter'' and ''Leisure Suit Larry in the Land of the Lounge Lizards''—inaugurated a \"new era of humor-based adventure games\".", "This belief was shared by Reed, who wrote that ''Maniac Mansion'' \"set in motion a captivating chapter in the history of gaming\" that encompassed wit, invention, and style.", "The SCUMM engine was reused by Lucasfilm in eleven later titles; improvements were made to its code with each game.", "Over time, rival adventure game developers adopted this paradigm in their own software.", "''GamesTM'' attributed the change to a desire to streamline production and create enjoyable games.", "Following his 1992 departure from LucasArts—a conglomeration of Lucasfilm Games, ILM and Skywalker Sound formed in 1990—Gilbert used SCUMM to create adventure games and ''Backyard Sports'' titles for Humongous Entertainment.In 2011, Richard Cobbett summarized ''Maniac Mansion'' as \"one of the most intricate and important adventure games ever made\".", "''Retro Gamer'' ranked it as one of the ten best Commodore 64 games in 2006, and IGN later named it one of the ten best LucasArts adventure games.", "Seven years after the NES version's debut, ''Nintendo Power'' named it the 61st best game ever.", "The publication dubbed it the 16th best NES title in 2008.The game's uniqueness and clever writing were praised by ''Nintendo Power'': in 2010, the magazine's Chris Hoffman stated that the game is \"unlike anything else out there — a point-and-click adventure with an awesome sense of humor and multiple solutions to almost every puzzle\".", "In its retrospective coverage, ''Nintendo Power'' several times noted the ability to microwave a hamster, which the staff considered to be an iconic scene.", "In March 2012, ''Retro Gamer'' listed the hamster incident as one of the \"100 Classic Gaming Moments\".", "''Maniac Mansion'' enthusiasts have drawn fan art of its characters, participated in tentacle-themed cosplay and produced a trailer for a fictitious film adaptation of the game.", "German fan Sascha Borisow created a fan game remake, titled ''Maniac Mansion Deluxe'', with enhanced audio and visuals.", "He used the Adventure Game Studio engine to develop the project, which he distributed free of charge on the Internet.", "By the end of 2004, the remake had over 200,000 downloads.", "A remake with three-dimensional graphics called ''Meteor Mess'' was created by the German developer Vampyr Games, and, as of 2011, another group in Germany produced one with art direction similar to that of ''Day of the Tentacle''.", "Fans have created an episodic series of games based on ''Maniac Mansion''.", "Gilbert has said that he would like to see an official remake, similar in its graphics and gameplay to ''The Secret of Monkey Island: Special Edition'' and ''Monkey Island 2 Special Edition: LeChuck's Revenge''.", "He also expressed doubts about its potential quality, in light of George Lucas's enhanced remakes of the original ''Star Wars'' trilogy.", "In December 2017, Disney, which gained rights to the LucasArts games following its acquisition of Lucasfilm, published ''Maniac Mansion'' running atop the ScummVM virtual machine to various digital storefronts.", "Physical re-releases of the NES and PC versions are scheduled for release by Limited Run Games.", "A musical that parodied the main arc of the video game, ''Mansión Maniática, Pablo Flores Torres'' was released in Argentina in 2023." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Maniac Mansion'' at Classicgaming.cc* ''Maniac Mansion'' at c64-wiki.com* Images of ''Maniac Mansion'' box and manual at C64Sets.com* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marx Brothers" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Marx Brothers''' were an American family comedy act that was successful in vaudeville, on Broadway, and in 14 motion pictures from 1905 to 1949.Five of the Marx Brothers' fourteen feature films were selected by the American Film Institute (AFI) as among the top 100 comedy films, with two of them, ''Duck Soup'' (1933) and ''A Night at the Opera'' (1935), in the top fifteen.", "They are widely considered by critics, scholars and fans to be among the greatest and most influential comedians of the 20th century.", "The brothers were included in AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars list of the 25 greatest male stars of Classical Hollywood cinema, the only performers to be included collectively.The brothers are almost universally known by their stage names: Chico, Harpo, Groucho, Gummo, and Zeppo.", "There was a sixth brother, the firstborn, named Manfred (Mannie), who died in infancy; Zeppo was given the middle name Manfred in his memory.The core of the act was the three elder brothers: Chico, Harpo, and Groucho, each of whom developed a highly distinctive stage persona.", "After the group essentially disbanded in 1950, Groucho went on to a successful second career in television, while Harpo and Chico appeared less prominently.", "The two younger brothers, Gummo and Zeppo, never developed their stage characters to the same extent as the elder three.", "Both left the act to pursue business careers at which they were successful, and for a time ran a large theatrical agency through which they represented their brothers and others.", "Gummo was not in any of the movies; Zeppo appeared in the first five films in relatively straight (non-comedic) roles.", "The early performing lives of the brothers owed much to their mother, Minnie Marx (the sister of vaudeville comic Al Shean), who acted as their manager until her death in 1929." ], [ "Family background and early life", "Groucho, Gummo, Minnie (mother), Zeppo, Sam (father), Chico, and Harpo.The Marx Brothers were born in New York City, the sons of Jewish immigrants from Germany and France.", "Their mother Miene \"Minnie\" Schoenberg (professionally known as Minnie Palmer, later the brothers' manager) was from Dornum in East Frisia.", "She came from a family of performers.", "Her mother was a yodeling harpist and her father a ventriloquist; both were funfair entertainers.", "Around 1880, the family emigrated to New York City, where Minnie married Sam Marx in 1884.Samuel (\"Sam\"; born Simon) Marx was a native of Mertzwiller, a small Alsatian village, and worked as a tailor.", "His name was changed to Samuel Marx, and he was nicknamed \"Frenchy\".", "The family lived in the New York City's Upper East Side in the Yorkville, Manhattan district centered in the Irish, German and Italian quarters.The Marx Brothers also had an older sister (actually a cousin, born in January 1885) who had been adopted by Minnie and Frenchie.", "Her name was Pauline, or \"Polly\".Julius Henry Marx (Groucho, left) and Adolph Marx (Harpo) holding a rat terrier dog, c. 1906Leonard Joseph \"Chico\" Marx was the eldest of the brothers, born in 1887.Adolph \"Harpo\" Marx was born in 1888, Julius Henry \"Groucho\" Marx in 1890, Milton \"Gummo\" Marx in 1892, and the youngest Herbert Manfred \"Zeppo\" Marx in 1901.Family lore told privately of the firstborn son, Manny, born in 1886 but surviving for only three months, and dying of tuberculosis.", "Some members of the Marx family wondered whether he was real, but Manfred's death certificate from the Borough of Manhattan reveals that he died, aged seven months, on July 17, 1886, of enterocolitis, with \"asthenia\" contributing, i.e., probably a victim of influenza.", "He is buried in Washington Cemetery (Brooklyn, NY), beside his grandmother, Fanny Sophie Schönberg (née Salomons), who died on April 10, 1901.During the early 20th century, Minnie helped her younger brother Abraham Elieser Adolf Schönberg (stage name Al Shean) to enter show business; he became highly successful in vaudeville and on Broadway as half of the musical comedy double act Gallagher and Shean, and this gave the brothers an entrée to musical comedy, vaudeville and Broadway at Minnie's instigation.", "Minnie also acted as the brothers' manager, using the name Minnie Palmer so that agents did not realize that she was also their mother.", "All the brothers confirmed that Minnie Marx had been the head of the family and the driving force in getting the troupe launched, the only person who could keep them in order; she was said to be a hard bargainer with theatre management.As the comedy act developed, it increasingly focused on the stage characters created by the elder brothers Chico, Harpo, and Groucho, leaving little room for the younger brothers.", "Gummo and Zeppo both became successful businessmen: Gummo left the act early and gained success through his talent agency activities and a raincoat business, Zeppo stayed with the act through its Broadway years and the beginnings of its film career, but then quit and later became a multi-millionaire through his engineering business." ], [ "Stage beginnings", "Al Shean, Sam J. Curtis, Arthur F. Williams, Ed C. Mackthe original Manhattan Comedy Four in \"It's Nudding\" 1898–991911 newspaper advertisement for a Marx Brothers appearance (l–r: Harpo, Groucho, Gummo)The brothers were from a family of artists, and their musical talent was encouraged from an early age.", "Harpo was particularly talented, learning to play an estimated six different instruments throughout his career.", "He became a dedicated harpist, which gave him his nickname.", "Chico was an excellent pianist, Groucho a guitarist and singer, and Zeppo a vocalist.They got their start in vaudeville, where their uncle Albert Schönberg performed as Al Shean of Gallagher and Shean.", "Groucho's debut was in 1905, mainly as a singer.", "By 1907, he and Gummo were singing together as \"The Three Nightingales\" with Mabel O'Donnell.", "The next year, Harpo became the fourth Nightingale and by 1910, the group briefly expanded to include their mother Minnie and their Aunt Hannah.", "The troupe was renamed \"The Six Mascots\".===Comedy===One evening in 1912, a performance at the Opera House in Nacogdoches, Texas, was interrupted by shouts from outside about a runaway mule.", "The audience hurried out to see what was happening.", "Groucho was angered by the interruption and, when the audience returned, he made snide comments at their expense, including \"Nacogdoches is full of roaches\" and \"the jackass is the flower of Tex-ass\".", "Instead of becoming angry, the audience laughed.", "The family then realized that it had potential as a comic troupe.", "(However, in his autobiography ''Harpo Speaks'', Harpo Marx stated that the runaway mule incident occurred in Ada, Oklahoma.", "A 1930 article in the ''San Antonio Express'' newspaper stated that the incident took place in Marshall, Texas.", ")The act slowly evolved from singing with comedy to comedy with music.", "The brothers' sketch \"Fun in Hi Skule\" featured Groucho as a German-accented teacher presiding over a classroom that included students Harpo, Gummo, and Chico.", "The last version of the school act was titled ''Home Again'' and was written by their uncle Al Shean.", "The ''Home Again'' tour reached Flint, Michigan, in 1915, where 14-year-old Zeppo joined his four brothers for what is believed to be the only time that all five Marx Brothers appeared together on stage.", "Gummo then left to serve in World War I, reasoning that \"anything is better than being an actor!\"", "Zeppo replaced him in their final vaudeville years and in the jump to Broadway, and then to Paramount films.Sheet music published in 1917 for the song, \"Sailing Away on the Henry Clay\"; from left: Harpo, Gummo, Chico, GrouchoDuring World War I, anti-German sentiments were common, and the family tried to conceal its German origin.", "Upon Minnie Marx learning that farmers were excluded from the draft, she purchased a poultry farm near Countryside, Illinois; Stefan Kanfer wrote that \"Each night, rats made off with the day’s eggs.\"", "During this time, Groucho discontinued his \"German\" stage personality.", "In 1917, the Selective Service caught up with Marxes, and each was rejected except Gummo, who was drafted; he spent the war serving in Illinois.", "Following this, Zeppo (the youngest brother) joined the team.By this time, \"The Four Marx Brothers\" had begun to incorporate their unique style of comedy into their act and to develop their characters.", "Both Groucho's and Harpo's memoirs say that their now-famous on-stage personae were created by Al Shean.", "Groucho began to wear his trademark greasepaint mustache and to use a stooped walk.", "Harpo stopped speaking onstage and began to wear a red fright wig and carry a taxi-cab horn.", "Chico spoke with a fake Italian accent, developed off-stage to deal with neighborhood toughs, while Zeppo adopted the role of the romantic (and \"peerlessly cheesy\", according to James Agee) straight man.", "The on-stage personalities of Groucho, Chico, and Harpo were said to have been based on their actual traits.", "Zeppo, on the other hand, was considered the funniest brother offstage, despite his straight stage roles.", "He was the youngest and had grown up watching his brothers, so he could fill in for and imitate any of the others when illness kept them from performing.", "\"He was so good as Captain Spaulding in ''Animal Crackers'' that I would have let him play the part indefinitely, if they had allowed me to smoke in the audience,\" Groucho recalled.", "(Zeppo stood in for Groucho in the film version of ''Animal Crackers''.", "Groucho was unavailable to film the scene in which the Beaugard painting is stolen, so the script was contrived to include a power failure, which allowed Zeppo to play the Spaulding part in near-darkness.)", "In December 1917, the Marx brothers were noted in an advertisement playing in a musical comedy act \"Home Again\".By the 1920s, the Marx Brothers had become one of America's favorite theatrical acts, with their sharp and bizarre sense of humor.", "They satirized high society and human hypocrisy, and they became famous for their improvisational comedy in free-form scenarios.", "A famous early instance was when Harpo arranged to chase a fleeing chorus girl across the stage during the middle of a Groucho monologue, to see if Groucho would be thrown off.", "However, to the audience's delight, Groucho merely reacted by commenting, \"First time I ever saw a taxi hail a passenger.\"", "When Harpo chased the girl back in the other direction, Groucho calmly checked his watch and ad-libbed, \"The 9:20's right on time.", "You can set your watch by the Lehigh Valley.", "\"The brothers' vaudeville act had made them stars on Broadway under Chico's management and with Groucho's creative direction, with the musical revue ''I'll Say She Is'' (1924–1925).", "Its success helped secure playwright George S. Kaufman and songwriter Irving Berlin—two of Broadway's best talents—for the musical comedy ''The Cocoanuts'' (1925–1926) and later ''Animal Crackers'' (1928–1929).Out of their distinctive costumes, the brothers looked alike, even down to their receding hairlines.", "Zeppo could pass for a younger Groucho and played the role of Groucho's son in ''Horse Feathers''.", "A scene in ''Duck Soup'' finds Groucho, Harpo, and Chico all appearing in the famous greasepaint eyebrows, mustache, and round glasses while wearing nightcaps; the three are indistinguishable, enabling them to carry off the \"mirror scene\" perfectly." ], [ "Origin of the stage names", "The stage names of the brothers (except Zeppo) were coined by monologist Art Fisher during a poker game in Galesburg, Illinois, based both on the brothers' personalities and Gus Mager's ''Sherlocko the Monk'', a popular comic strip of the day that included a supporting character named \"Groucho\".", "As Fisher dealt each brother a card, he addressed them, for the very first time, by the names they kept for the rest of their lives.The reasons behind Chico's and Harpo's stage names are undisputed, and Gummo's is fairly well established.", "Groucho's and Zeppo's are far less clear.", "Arthur was named Harpo because he played the harp, and Leonard became Chico (pronounced \"Chick-o\") because he was, in the slang of the period, a \"chicken-chaser\".", "(\"Chickens\"later \"chicks\"was period slang for women.", "\"In England now,\" said Groucho, \"they were called 'birds'.", "\")In his autobiography, Harpo explained that Milton became Gummo because he crept about the theater like a gumshoe detective.", "Other sources reported that Gummo was the family's hypochondriac, having been the sickliest of the brothers in childhood, and therefore wore rubber overshoes, called gumshoes, in all kinds of weather.", "Still others reported that Milton was the troupe's best dancer, and dance shoes tended to have rubber soles.", "Groucho stated that the source of the name was Gummo wearing galoshes.", "Whatever the details, the name relates to rubber-soled shoes.The reason that Julius was named Groucho is perhaps the most disputed.", "There are three explanations:* Julius' temperament: Maxine, Chico's daughter and Groucho's niece, said in the documentary ''The Unknown Marx Brothers'' that Julius was named \"Groucho\" simply because he was grouchy most or all of the time.", "Robert B. Weide, a director known for his knowledge of Marx Brothers history, said in ''Remarks On Marx'' (a documentary short included with the DVD of ''A Night at the Opera'') that, among the competing explanations, he found this one to be the most believable.", "Steve Allen said in ''Funny People'' that the name made no sense; Groucho might have been impudent and impertinent, but not grouchyat least not around Allen.", "However, at the very end of his life, Groucho finally admitted that Fisher had named him Groucho because he was the \"moody one\".", "* The grouch bag: This explanation appears in Harpo's biography; it was voiced by Chico in a TV appearance included on ''The Unknown Marx Brothers''; and it was offered by George Fenneman, Groucho's sidekick on his TV game show ''You Bet Your Life''.", "A grouch bag was a small drawstring bag worn around the neck in which a traveler could keep money and other valuables so that it would be very difficult for anyone to steal them.", "Most of Groucho's friends and associates stated that Groucho was extremely stingy, especially after losing all his money in the 1929 stock market crash, so naming him for the grouch bag may have been a comment on this trait.", "Groucho insisted that this was not the case in chapter six of his first autobiography:I kept my money in a 'grouch bag'.", "This was a small chamois bag that actors used to wear around their neck to keep other hungry actors from pinching their dough.", "Naturally, you're going to think that's where I got my name from.", "But that's not so.", "Grouch bags were worn on manly chests long before there was a Groucho.", "* Groucho's explanation: Groucho himself insisted that he was named for a character in the comic strip ''Knocko the Monk'', which inspired the craze for nicknames ending in \"o\"; in fact, there was a character in that strip named \"Groucho\".", "However, he is the ''only'' Marx or Marx associate who defended this theory and, as he is not an unbiased witness, few biographers take the claim seriously.", ":Groucho himself was no help on this point; he was discussing the Brothers' names during his Carnegie Hall concert, and he said of his own, \"My name, of course, I never did understand.\"", "He goes on to mention the possibility that he was named after his unemployed uncle Julius, who lived with his family.", "The family believed that he was a rich uncle hiding a fortune, and Groucho claimed that he may have been named after him by the family trying to get into the will.", "\"And he finally died, and he left us his will, and in that will he left three razor blades, an 8-ball, a celluloid dicky, and he owed my father $85 beside.", "\"Herbert was not nicknamed by Art Fisher, since he did not join the act until Gummo had departed.", "As with Groucho, three explanations exist for Herbert's name \"Zeppo\":* Harpo's explanation: Harpo said in ''Harpo Speaks!''", "that the brothers had named Herbert for Mr. Zippo, a chimpanzee that was part of another performer's act.", "Herbert found the nickname very unflattering, and when it came time for him to join the act, he put his foot down and refused to be called \"Zippo\".", "The brothers compromised on \"Zeppo\".", "* Chico's explanation: Chico never wrote an autobiography and gave fewer interviews than his brothers, but his daughter Maxine said in ''The Unknown Marx Brothers'' that, when the brothers lived in Chicago, a popular style of humor was the \"Zeke and Zeb\" joke, which made fun of slow-witted Midwesterners in much the same way that Boudreaux and Thibodeaux jokes mock Cajuns and Ole and Lena jokes mock Minnesotans.", "One day, Chico returned home to find Herbert sitting on the fence.", "Herbert greeted him by saying \"Hi, Zeke!\"", "Chico responded with \"Hi, Zeb!\"", "and the name stuck.", "The brothers thereafter called him \"Zeb\" and, when he joined the act, they floated the idea of \"Zebbo\", eventually preferring \"Zeppo\".", "* Groucho's explanation: In a tape-recorded interview excerpted on ''The Unknown Marx Brothers'', Groucho said that Zeppo was so named because he was born when the first zeppelins started crossing the ocean.", "He stated this in his Carnegie Hall concert, around 1972.The first zeppelin flew in July 1900, and Herbert was born seven months later in February 1901.However, the first transatlantic zeppelin flight was not until 1924, long after Herbert's birth.Maxine Marx reported in ''The Unknown Marx Brothers'' that the brothers listed their ''real'' names (Julius, Leonard, Adolph, Milton, and Herbert) on playbills and in programs, and only used the nicknames behind the scenes, until Alexander Woollcott overheard them calling one another by the nicknames.", "He asked them why they used their real names publicly when they had such wonderful nicknames, and they replied, \"That wouldn't be dignified.\"", "Woollcott answered with a belly laugh.", "Woollcott did not meet the Marx Brothers until the premiere of ''I'll Say She Is'', which was their first Broadway show, so this would mean that they used their real names throughout their vaudeville days, and that the name \"Gummo\" never appeared in print during his time in the act.", "Other sources reported that the Marx Brothers went by their nicknames during their vaudeville era, but briefly listed themselves by their given names when ''I'll Say She Is'' opened because they were worried that a Broadway audience would reject a vaudeville act if they were perceived as low class." ], [ "Motion pictures", "===Paramount===''Humor Risk'' (1921), now long-lost, was the first Marx Brothers' film.", "Pictured in a photograph the same year, from (left to right), are Zeppo, Groucho, Harpo, and Chico.The Marx Brothers' stage shows became popular just as motion pictures were evolving to \"talkies\".", "They signed a contract with Paramount Pictures and embarked on their film career at Paramount's studios in New York City's Astoria section.", "Their first two released films (after an unreleased short silent film titled ''Humor Risk'') were adaptations of the Broadway shows ''The Cocoanuts'' (1929) and ''Animal Crackers'' (1930).", "Both were written by George S. Kaufman and Morrie Ryskind.Production then shifted to Hollywood, beginning with a short film that was included in Paramount's twentieth anniversary documentary, ''The House That Shadows Built'' (1931), in which they adapted a scene from ''I'll Say She Is''.", "Their third feature-length film, ''Monkey Business'' (1931), was their first movie not based on a stage production.Time'' (volume 20 issue 7, August 15, 1932)''Horse Feathers'' (1932), in which the brothers satirized the American college system and Prohibition, was their most popular film yet, and won them the cover of ''Time'' magazine.", "It included a running gag from their stage work, in which Harpo produces a ludicrous array of props from inside his coat, including a wooden mallet, a fish, a coiled rope, a tie, a poster of a woman in her underwear, a cup of hot coffee, a sword and (just after Groucho warns him that he \"can't burn the candle at both ends\") a candle burning at both ends.During this period Chico and Groucho starred in a radio comedy series, ''Flywheel, Shyster and Flywheel''.", "Though the series was short lived, much of the material developed for it was used in subsequent films.", "The show's scripts and recordings were believed lost until copies of the scripts were found in the Library of Congress in the 1980s.", "After publication in a book they were performed with Marx Brothers' impersonators for BBC Radio.Their last Paramount film, ''Duck Soup'' (1933), directed by the highly regarded Leo McCarey, is the highest rated of the five Marx Brothers films on the American Film Institute's \"100 years ... 100 Movies\" list.", "It did not do as well financially as ''Horse Feathers'', but was the sixth-highest grosser of 1933.The film sparked a dispute between the Marxes and the village of Fredonia, New York.", "\"Freedonia\" was the name of a fictional country in the script, and the city fathers wrote to Paramount and asked the studio to remove all references to Freedonia because \"it is hurting our town's image\".", "Groucho fired back a sarcastic retort asking them to change the name of their town, because \"it's hurting our picture\".===MGM, RKO, and United Artists===''A Night in Casablanca'' (1946)On March 11, 1933, the Marx Brothers founded a production company, the \"International Amalgamated Consolidated Affiliated World Wide Film Productions Company Incorporated, of North Dakota\".After expiration of the Paramount contract Zeppo left the act to become an agent.", "He and brother Gummo went on to build one of the biggest talent agencies in Hollywood, working with the likes of Jack Benny and Lana Turner.", "Groucho and Chico did radio, and there was talk of returning to Broadway.", "At a bridge game with Chico, Irving Thalberg began discussing the possibility of the Marxes joining Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.", "They signed, now billed in films before the title as \"Groucho — Chico — Harpo — Marx Bros\", with the same ordering in the cast list.Unlike the free-for-all scripts at Paramount, Thalberg insisted on a strong story structure that made the brothers more sympathetic characters, interweaving their comedy with romantic plots and non-comic musical numbers, and targeting their mischief-making at obvious villains.", "Thalberg was adamant that scripts include a \"low point\", where all seems lost for both the Marxes and the romantic leads.", "He instituted the innovation of testing the film's script before live audiences before filming began, to perfect the comic timing, and to retain jokes that earned laughs and replace those that did not.", "Thalberg restored Harpo's harp solos and Chico's piano solos, which had been omitted from ''Duck Soup''.The Three Marx Brothers''photo by Yousuf Karsh, 1948''The first Marx Brothers/Thalberg film was ''A Night at the Opera'' (1935), a satire on the world of opera, where the brothers help two young singers in love by throwing a production of ''Il Trovatore'' into chaos.", "The film, including its famous scene where an absurd number of people crowd into a tiny stateroom on a ship, was a great success.", "It was followed two years later by an even bigger hit, ''A Day at the Races'' (1937), in which the brothers cause mayhem in a sanitarium and at a horse race.", "The film features Groucho and Chico's famous \"Tootsie Frootsie Ice Cream\" sketch.", "In a 1969 interview with Dick Cavett, Groucho said that the two movies made with Thalberg were the best that they ever produced.", "Despite the Thalberg films' success, the brothers left MGM in 1937; Thalberg had died suddenly on September 14, 1936, two weeks after filming began on ''A Day at the Races'', leaving the Marxes without an advocate at the studio.After a short experience at RKO (''Room Service'', 1938), the Marx Brothers returned to MGM and made three more films: ''At the Circus'' (1939), ''Go West'' (1940) and ''The Big Store'' (1941).", "Prior to the release of ''The Big Store'' the team announced they were retiring from the screen.", "Four years later, however, Chico persuaded his brothers to make two additional films, ''A Night in Casablanca'' (1946) and ''Love Happy'' (1949), to alleviate his severe gambling debts.", "Both pictures were released by United Artists.===Later years===From the 1940s onward Chico and Harpo appeared separately and together in nightclubs and casinos.", "Chico fronted a big band, the Chico Marx Orchestra (with 17-year-old Mel Tormé as a vocalist).", "Groucho made several radio appearances during the 1940s and starred in ''You Bet Your Life'', which ran from 1947 to 1961 on NBC radio and television.", "He authored several books, including ''Groucho and Me'' (1959), ''Memoirs of a Mangy Lover'' (1964) and ''The Groucho Letters'' (1967).Groucho and Chico briefly appeared in a 1957 color short film promoting ''The Saturday Evening Post'' entitled ''Showdown at Ulcer Gulch'', directed by animator Shamus Culhane, Chico's son-in-law.", "Groucho, Chico, and Harpo worked together (in separate scenes) in ''The Story of Mankind'' (1957).", "In 1959, the three began production of ''Deputy Seraph'', a TV series starring Harpo and Chico as blundering angels, and Groucho (in every third episode) as their boss, the \"Deputy Seraph\".", "The project was abandoned when Chico was found to be uninsurable (and incapable of memorizing his lines) due to severe arteriosclerosis.", "On March 8 of that year, Chico and Harpo starred as bumbling thieves in ''The Incredible Jewel Robbery'', a half-hour pantomimed episode of the ''General Electric Theater'' on CBS.", "Groucho made a cameo appearance (uncredited, because of constraints in his NBC contract) in the last scene, and delivered the only line of dialogue (\"We won't talk until we see our lawyer!", "\").The five brothers, just prior to their only television appearance together, on the ''Tonight!", "America After Dark'', hosted by Jack Lescoulie, February 18, 1957.From left: Harpo, Zeppo, Chico, Groucho, and Gummo.According to a September 1947 article in ''Newsweek'', Groucho, Harpo, Chico, and Zeppo all signed to appear as themselves in a biographical film entitled ''The Life and Times of the Marx Brothers''.", "In addition to being a non-fiction biography of the Marxes, the film would have featured the brothers re-enacting much of their previously unfilmed material from both their vaudeville and Broadway eras.", "The film, had it been made, would have been the first performance by the Brothers as a quartet since 1933.The five brothers made only one television appearance together, in 1957, on an early incarnation of ''The Tonight Show'' called ''Tonight!", "America After Dark'', hosted by Jack Lescoulie.", "Five years later (October 1, 1962) after Jack Paar's tenure, Groucho made a guest appearance to introduce the ''Tonight Show's'' new host, Johnny Carson.Around 1960, the acclaimed director Billy Wilder considered writing and directing a new Marx Brothers' film.", "Tentatively titled ''A Day at the U.N.'', it was to be a comedy of international intrigue set around the United Nations building in New York.", "Wilder had discussions with Groucho and Gummo, but the project was put on hold because of Harpo's ill-health, and abandoned when Chico died on October 11, 1961, from arteriosclerosis, when he was 74.Three years later after Chico's death, Harpo died on September 28, 1964, at the age of 75, following a heart attack one day after heart surgery.In 1966, Filmation produced a pilot for a Marx Brothers' cartoon.", "Groucho's voice was supplied by Pat Harrington Jr. and other voices were done by Ted Knight and Joe Besser (of The Three Stooges fame).In 1969, audio excerpts of dialogue from all five of the Marx Brothers' Paramount films were collected and released on an LP album, ''The Original Voice Tracks from Their Greatest Movies'', by Decca Records.", "The excerpts were interspersed with voice-over introductions by disc jockey and voice actor Gary Owens.", "The album was praised by ''Billboard'' as \"a program of zany antics\"; the magazine highlighted the excerpts of Groucho, who was \"way ahead of his time in spoofing the 'establishment', and at his hilarious biting best with his film soundtrack one-line zingers on his love life, his son, politics, big business, society, etc.\".", "''Village Voice'' critic Robert Christgau was less enthusiastic, however, grading the LP a C-plus and recommending it only to fanatics of the comedy group, also expressing displeasure with the interspersing of small portions of \"annoying music\" and Owens's commentary.", "In 1970, the four Marx Brothers had a brief reunion of sorts in the animated ABC television special ''The Mad, Mad, Mad Comedians'', produced by Rankin-Bass animation (of ''Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer'' fame).", "The special featured animated re-workings of various famous comedians' acts, including W. C. Fields, Jack Benny, George Burns, Henny Youngman, the Smothers Brothers, Flip Wilson, Phyllis Diller, Jack E. Leonard, George Jessel and the Marx Brothers.", "Most of the comedians provided their own voices for their animated counterparts, except for Fields and Chico Marx (both of whom had died) and Zeppo Marx (who had left show business in 1933).", "Voice actor Paul Frees filled in for all three (no voice was needed for Harpo).", "The Marx Brothers' segment was a re-working of a scene from their Broadway play ''I'll Say She Is'', a parody of Napoleon that Groucho considered among the brothers' funniest routines.", "The sketch featured animated representationsif not the voicesof all four brothers.", "Romeo Muller is credited as having written special material for the show, but the script for the classic \"Napoleon Scene\" was probably supplied by Groucho." ], [ "Influence on modern entertainment", "On January 16, 1977, the Marx Brothers were inducted into the Motion Picture Hall of Fame.", "With the deaths of Gummo in April 1977, Groucho in August 1977, and Zeppo in November 1979, the brothers were gone.", "But their effect on the entertainment community continues well into the 21st century.", "Among famous comedians who have cited them as influences on their style have been Woody Allen, Alan Alda, Gabe Kaplan, Judd Apatow, Mel Brooks, John Cleese, Elliott Gould, Spike Milligan, Monty Python, Carl Reiner, as well as David Zucker, Jerry Zucker and Jim Abrahams.", "Comedian Frank Ferrante made impersonations of Groucho a career.", "Other celebrity fans of the comedy ensemble have been Antonin Artaud, The Beatles, Anthony Burgess, Alice Cooper, Robert Crumb, Salvador Dalí, Eugene Ionesco, George Gershwin (who dressed up as Groucho once), René Goscinny, Cédric Klapisch, J. D. Salinger and Kurt Vonnegut.===Art===Salvador Dalí once made a drawing depicting Harpo.The epic graphic novel, Cerebus the Aardvark, by Dave Sim, includes a character Lord Julius who is based on Groucho's stage persona.===Film===Peter Sellers imitates Groucho in ''Let's Go Crazy'' (1951).In ''The Way We Were'' (1973) the main characters attend a party, dressed as the Marx Brothers.", "The real Groucho Marx also visited the set, of which a photograph was taken by David F. Smith.Woody Allen is a staunch Marx Brothers fan, and frequently references them in his films.", "In ''Take the Money and Run'' (1969) Virgil's parents give an interview while wearing Groucho masks.", "''Annie Hall'' (1977) starts off with a Groucho Marx joke, which is referred to again later.", "In ''Manhattan'' (1979), he names the Marx Brothers as the first thing that makes life worth living.", "In ''Stardust Memories'' there is a huge Groucho poster in the main character's flat.", "In ''Hannah and Her Sisters'' (1986), Woody's character, after a suicide attempt, is inspired to go on living after seeing a revival showing of ''Duck Soup''.", "In ''Everyone Says I Love You'' (1996) (the title itself a reference to Groucho's famous song), Woody Allen and Goldie Hawn dress as Groucho for a Marx Brothers celebration in France, and the song \"Hooray for Captain Spaulding\", from ''Animal Crackers'', is performed, with various actors dressed as the brothers, striking poses famous to Marx fans.", "(The film itself is named after a song from ''Horse Feathers'', a version of which plays over the opening credits.)", "In ''Mighty Aphrodite'' Woody suggests Harpo and Groucho as names for his son.In Terry Gilliam's ''Brazil'' (1985) a woman in a bathtub is watching ''The Cocoanuts'' when troops break into her house.", "In ''Twelve Monkeys'' (1996) the inmates of an insane asylum watch ''Monkey Business'' on TV.In the 1989 film ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'', Professor Henry Jones (Sean Connery) mails his diary to his son Indiana Jones (Harrison Ford) to keep it out of Nazi hands.", "When Indy misconstrues the purpose of being sent it and returns it to his father instead, his father berates him by saying \"I should have mailed it to the Marx Brothers!", "\"The 1992 film ''Brain Donors'', directed by Dennis Dugan and produced by David Zucker and Jerry Zucker, paid tribute to the Marx Brothers films ''A Day at the Races'' and ''A Night at the Opera''.", "The film starred John Turturro, Mel Smith, and comedian Bob Nelson as loosely imitating Groucho, Chico, and Harpo.Danny DeVitos Jersey Films planned to make a movie about the early lives of the Marx Brothers.In Rob Zombie's 2003 film ''House of 1000 Corpses'', the clown Captain Spaulding, as well as many other characters, are named after various Marx brothers characters.", "In the sequel, ''The Devil's Rejects'', a Marx Brothers expert is brought in to try to help the police get in to the minds of the fugitives who use their character names.===Animation===In the Fleischer Brothers' ''Betty Boop'' cartoon ''Betty in Blunderland'' (1934) Betty sings ''Everyone Says I Love You'', a song owned by Paramount Pictures, which also owned Betty's cartoons as well as the Marx Brothers film it was taken from: ''Horse Feathers''.The Marx Brothers have cameos in the Disney cartoons ''The Bird Store'' (1932), ''Mickey's Gala Premier'' (1932), ''Mickey's Polo Team'' (1936), ''Mother Goose Goes Hollywood'' (1938) and ''The Autograph Hound'' (1939).", "Dopey in ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'' was inspired by Harpo's mute performances.Tex Avery's cartoon ''Hollywood Steps Out'' (1941) features appearances by Harpo and Groucho.", "Bugs Bunny impersonated Groucho Marx in the 1947 cartoon ''Slick Hare'' (with Elmer Fudd dressing up as Harpo and chasing him with a cleaver), and in ''Wideo Wabbit'' (1956) he again impersonated Groucho hosting a TV show called \"You Beat Your Wife\", asking Elmer Fudd if he had stopped beating his wife.Many television shows and movies have used Marx Brothers references.", "''Animaniacs'' and ''Tiny Toons'', for example, have featured Marx Brothers jokes and skits.The Genie imitates the Marx Brothers in ''Aladdin and the King of Thieves''.An episode of ''Histeria!''", "about Communism portrays Groucho and Chico, respectively, as Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.The Marx Brothers, as cartoon characters, appear in the final cartoon released in the Flip The Frog series, in October 1933 as well as other characters such as Buster Keaton, Laurel & Hardy, Mae West, and Jimmy Durante.===Live-action television===Harpo Marx appeared as himself on a 1955 episode of ''I Love Lucy'' in which first, he performed \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\" on his harp, then, he and Lucille Ball reprised the mirror routine from ''Duck Soup'', with Lucy dressed up as Harpo.", "Lucy had worked with the Marxes when she appeared in a supporting role in an earlier Marx Brothers film, ''Room Service''.", "Chico once appeared on ''I've Got a Secret'' dressed up as Harpo; his secret was shown in a caption reading, \"I'm pretending to be Harpo Marx (I'm Chico)\".Hawkeye Pierce (Alan Alda) on ''M*A*S*H'' occasionally put on a fake nose and glasses, and, holding a cigar, did a Groucho impersonation to amuse patients recovering from surgery.", "Early episodes also featured a singing and off-scene character named Captain Spaulding as a tribute.In the second episode of ''The Muppet Show'' Kermit the Frog sings \"Lydia the Tattooed Lady.", "\"In the ''Airwolf'' episode \"Condemned\", four anti-virus formulae for a deadly plague were named after the four Marx Brothers.In ''All in the Family'', Rob Reiner often did imitations of Groucho, and Sally Struthers dressed as Harpo in one episode in which she (as Gloria Stivic) and Rob (as Mike Stivic) were going to a Marx Brothers film festival, with Reiner dressing as Groucho.The \"Sweathogs\" of the ABC-TV series ''Welcome Back Kotter'' (John Travolta, Robert Hegyes, Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs, and Ron Palillo) patterned much of their on-camera banter in that series after the Marx Brothers.", "Series star Gabe Kaplan was reputedly a big Marx Brothers fan, and did many Groucho imitations on the show.", "Hegyes sometimes imitated both Chico and Harpo.In an episode of ''The Mary Tyler Moore Show'' Murray calls the new station owner at home late at night to complain when the song \"Hooray for Captain Spaulding\" is cut from a showing of ''Animal Crackers'' because of the new owners' policy to cut more and more from shows to sell more ad time, putting his job on the line.In 1990 three puppets were made of Groucho, Harpo and Chico for the satirical TV show ''Spitting Image''.", "They were later used to portray the hunters in a 1994 TV production of ''Peter and the Wolf'', with Sting as narrator and puppets from the series as characters.===Theatre===The Marx Brothers' early years were chronicled in the 1970 Broadway musical ''Minnie's Boys''.", "The show received a brief Off-Broadway revival in 2008.A reconstructed version of the brothers' first Broadway musical, ''I'll Say She Is'', was produced off-Broadway in June 2016.The other two Marx Brothers Broadway shows, ''The Cocoanuts'' and ''Animal Crackers'', have occasionally been revived by regional theatre companies.The Marx Brothers were spoofed in the second act of the 1980 Broadway Review ''A Day in Hollywood/A Night in the Ukraine''.In the 1996 musical ''By Jeeves'', based on the Jeeves stories by P.G.", "Wodehouse, during \"The Hallo Song\", Gussie Fink-Nottle suggests \"You're either Pablo Picasso\", to which Cyrus Budge III replies \"or maybe Harpo Marx!", "\"In 2010, ''The Most Ridiculous Thing You Ever Hoid'' debuted as part of the New York Musical Theatre Festival.", "The production was based on the Marx Brothers' radio show, ''Flywheel, Shyster and Flywheel''''.", "''===Music===Jacques Brel's song \"Le Gaz\" was inspired by the cabin scene in ''A Night at the Opera''.Comedy troupe The Firesign Theatre placed an image of Groucho Marx next to one of John Lennon on a banner reading \"All Hail Marx Lennon\" for the cover of their second comedy record ''How Can You Be in Two Places at Once When You're Not Anywhere at All'' (1969).Rock band Queen named two of their albums after Marx Brothers films; ''A Night at the Opera'' (1975) and ''A Day at the Races'' (1976), and in Freddie Mercury's solo album ''Mr.", "Bad Guy '' in the song titled \"Living on My Own\" he sings; \"I ain't got no time for no Monkey Business.\"", "In 2002 the band Blind Guardian would also name an album ''A Night at the Opera''.The 1979 UK top five hit single \"Reasons to Be Cheerful, Part 3\" by Ian Dury and the Blockheads lists 'Harpo, Groucho, Chico' as reasons to be cheerful.Groucho Marx can be seen on the cover of ''Alice Cooper's Greatest Hits'' by Alice Cooper.", "English punk band The Damned named their single \"There Ain't No Sanity Clause\" (1980), in reference to a famous quote from ''A Night at the Opera''.", "On the 1988 album ''Modern Lovers '88'' by Modern Lovers there is a track called \"When Harpo Played His Harp\".", "The band Karl and the Marx Brothers takes their name from them.Harpo Marx is depicted on the cover of the album ''Everybody's in Show-Biz'' by The Kinks in 1972.Early versions of the record showed Groucho, but as he was still alive at the time, he was replaced on later pressings with Harpo, who had died in 1964 and wouldn't require clearance.The band Sparks had originally been named The Sparks Brothers, as a reference to The Marx Brothers.", "The recent Edgar Wright documentary ''The Sparks Brothers'' retains this title.===Literature===Jack Kerouac wrote a poem ''To Harpo Marx''.Ron Goulart wrote six books between 1998 and 2005 where Groucho Marx was a detective.In the 2018 alternate history e-book ''Hail!", "Hail!''", "by Harry Turtledove, The Marx Brothers are transported back in time to 1826 and participate in the Fredonian Rebellion.===Advertising===In the Vlasic Pickles commercials, the stork associated with the product holds a pickle the way Groucho held a cigar and, in a Groucho voice, says, \"Now that's the best tastin' pickle I ever heard!\"", "and bites into the pickle." ], [ "Filmography", "Broadway stage:* I'll Say She Is (1924–1925)* The Cocoanuts (1925–1926)* Animal Crackers (1928–1929)Films with the four Marx Brothers in New York:* ''Humor Risk'' (1921), made by the Marxes, previewed once and never released; film is lost* ''The Cocoanuts'' (1929), released by Paramount Pictures; based on a 1925 Marx Brothers Broadway musical* ''Animal Crackers'' (1930), released by Paramount; based on a 1928 Marx Brothers Broadway musicalFilms with the four Marx Brothers in California:* ''The House That Shadows Built'' (1931), released by Paramount ** features a sequence, from the opening audition scene of the revue ''I'll Say She Is'', with the Marx Brothers* ''Monkey Business'' (1931), released by Paramount* ''Horse Feathers'' (1932), released by Paramount* ''Duck Soup'' (1933), released by ParamountFilms with the three Marx Brothers (post-Zeppo):* ''A Night at the Opera'' (1935), released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer* ''A Day at the Races'' (1937), released by MGM* ''Room Service'' (1938), released by RKO Radio Pictures; based on a 1937 Broadway play that did not star the Marx Brothers* ''At the Circus'' (1939), released by MGM* ''Go West'' (1940), released by MGM* ''The Big Store'' (1941), released by MGM (intended to be their last film)* ''A Night in Casablanca'' (1946), released by United Artists* ''Love Happy'' (1949), released by United Artists* ''The Story of Mankind'' (1957), released by Warner Bros. (not a Marx Brothers film, but the three brothers perform separate cameos)* ''The Incredible Jewel Robbery'' (1959), an episode of the TV series General Electric Theater starring Harpo and Chico with an uncredited Groucho in a cameo roleSolo endeavors:* Groucho:** ''Copacabana'' (1947), released by United Artists** ''Mr.", "Music'' (1951), released by Paramount** ''Double Dynamite'' (1951), released by RKO** ''A Girl in Every Port'' (1952), released by RKO** ''Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter?''", "(1957), released by 20th Century Fox (uncredited)** ''You Bet Your Life'' (ABC Radio, CBS Radio, NBC-TV 1947–1961)** ''The Mikado'' (1960), made for television** ''Tell It To Groucho'' (CBS-TV 1962)** ''Time For Elizabeth'' (NBC-TV Bob Hope Chrysler Theater special 1964)** ''Groucho'' (ITV London 1965)** ''Skidoo'' (1968), released by Paramount.", "* Harpo:** ''Too Many Kisses'' (1925), released by Paramount** ''La Fiesta de Santa Barbara'' (1935) released by MGM** ''Stage Door Canteen'' (1943), released by United Artists (cameo)* Chico:** ''Papa Romani'' (1950), television pilot** ''The College Bowl'' (ABC-TV 1950–1951)* Zeppo:** ''A Kiss in the Dark'' (1925), released by Paramount (cameo)===Characters=== Film Director Year Groucho Chico Harpo Zeppo ''Humor Risk'' Dick Smith 1921 ''Too Many Kisses'' Paul Sloane 1925 The Village Peter Pan ''The Cocoanuts'' Robert Florey, Joseph Santley 1929 Mr. Hammer Chico Harpo Jamison ''Animal Crackers'' Victor Heerman 1930 Captain Geoffrey T. Spaulding Signor Emmanuel Ravelli The Professor Horatio Jamison ''The House That Shadows Built'' Adolph Zukor, Jesse L. Lasky 1931 Caesar's Ghost Tomalio The Merchant of Weiners Sammy Brown ''Monkey Business'' Norman Z. McLeod 1931 Groucho Chico Harpo Zeppo ''Horse Feathers'' Norman Z. McLeod 1932 Professor Quincy Adams Wagstaff Baravelli Pinky Frank Wagstaff ''Duck Soup'' Leo McCarey 1933 Rufus T. Firefly Chicolini Pinky Lt. Bob Roland ''A Night at the Opera'' Sam Wood 1935 Otis B. Driftwood Fiorello Tomasso ''A Day at the Races'' Sam Wood 1937 Dr. Hugo Z. Hackenbush Tony Stuffy ''Room Service'' William A. Seiter 1938 Gordon Miller Harry Binelli Faker Englund ''At the Circus'' Edward Buzzell 1939 J. Cheever Loophole Antonio Pirelli Punchy ''Go West'' Edward Buzzell 1940 S. Quentin Quale Joe Panello Rusty Panello ''The Big Store'' Charles Reisner 1941 Wolf J. Flywheel Ravelli Wacky ''Stage Door Canteen'' Frank Borzage 1943 Harpo ''A Night in Casablanca'' Archie Mayo 1946 Ronald Kornblow Corbaccio Rusty ''Copacabana'' Alfred E. Green 1947 Lionel Q. Devereaux ''Love Happy'' David Miller 1949 Sam Grunion Faustino the Great Harpo ''Mr.", "Music'' Richard Haydn 1951 Himself ''Double Dynamite'' Irving Cummings 1951 Emile J. Keck ''A Girl in Every Port'' Chester Erskine 1952 Benjamin Franklin 'Benny' Linn ''Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter?''", "Frank Tashlin 1957 George Schmidlap ''The Story of Mankind'' Irwin Allen 1957 Peter Minuit Monk Sir Isaac Newton \"The Incredible Jewel Robbery\" (episode of ''General Electric Theater'') Mitchell Leisen 1959 Suspect in a police lineup Nick Harry \"The Mikado\" (episode of ''The Bell Telephone Hour'') Norman Campbell, Martyn Green 1960 Ko-Ko ''Skidoo'' Otto Preminger 1968 God" ], [ "Legacy", "===Awards and honors===Chico, Groucho, Harpo, and Zeppo's block in the forecourt of Grauman's Chinese Theatre.In February 1933, Chico, Groucho, Harpo, and Zeppo were honored with a block in the forecourt of Grauman's Chinese Theatre.In the 1974 Academy Awards telecast, Jack Lemmon presented Groucho with an honorary Academy Award to a standing ovation.", "The award was also on behalf of Harpo, Chico, and Zeppo, whom Lemmon mentioned by name.", "It was one of Groucho's final major public appearances.", "\"I wish that Harpo and Chico could be here to share with me this great honor\", he said, naming the two deceased brothers (Zeppo was still alive at the time and in the audience).", "Groucho also praised the late Margaret Dumont as a great straight woman who never understood any of his jokes.The Marx Brothers were collectively named No.", "20 on AFI's list of the Top 25 American male screen legends of Classic Hollywood.", "They are the only group to be so honored." ], [ "See also", "* Margaret Dumont, an actress frequently double-acting with the Marx Brothers, especially Groucho* Thelma Todd, another actress frequently appearing alongside the Marx Brothers" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", ";Memoir:* Marx, Groucho, ''Beds'' (1930) Farrar & Rinehart, (1976) Bobbs-Merrill* Marx, Groucho, ''Many Happy Returns'' (1942) Simon & Schuster* Marx, Arthur, ''Life with Groucho'' (1954) Simon & Schuster, (revised as ''My Life with Groucho: A Son's Eye View'', 1988) * Marx, Groucho, ''Groucho and Me'' (1959) Random House, (1989) Fireside Books * Marx, Harpo (with Barber, Rowland), ''Harpo Speaks!''", "(1961) Bernard Geis Associates, (1985) Limelight Editions * Marx, Groucho, ''Memoirs of a Mangy Lover'' (1963) Bernard Geis Associates, (2002) Da Capo Press * Marx, Groucho, ''The Groucho Letters: Letters from and to Groucho Marx'' (1967, 2007) Simon & Schuster * Marx, Arthur, ''Son of Groucho'' (1972) David McKay Co. * Marx, Groucho, ''The Groucho Phile'' (1976) Bobbs-Merrill Co.* Marx, Groucho (with Arce, Hector), ''The Secret Word Is GROUCHO'' (1976) G.P.", "Putnam's Sons* Marx, Maxine, ''Growing Up with Chico'' (1980) Prentice-Hall, (1984) Simon & Schuster* Allen, Miriam Marx, ''Love, Groucho: Letters from Groucho Marx to His Daughter Miriam'' (1992) Faber & Faber ;Biography:* Crichton, Kyle, ''The Marx Brothers'' (1950) Doubleday & Co.* Zimmerman, Paul D., ''The Marx Brothers at the Movies'' (1968) G.P.", "Putnam's Sons* Eyles, Allen, ''The Marx Brothers: Their World of Comedy'' (1969) A.S. Barnes* Robinson, David, ''The Great Funnies: A History of Film Comedy'' (1969) E.P.", "Dutton* Durgnat, Raymond, \"Four Against Alienation\" from ''The Crazy Mirror: Hollywood Comedy and the American Image'' (1970) Dell* Maltin, Leonard, ''Movie Comedy Teams'' (1970, revised 1985) New American Library* Anobile, Richard J.", "(ed.", "), ''Why a Duck?", ": Visual and Verbal Gems from the Marx Brothers Movies'' (1971) Avon Books* Bergman, Andrew, \"Some Anarcho-Nihilist Laff Riots\" from ''We're in the Money: Depression America and Its Films'' (1971) New York University Press* Adamson, Joe, ''Groucho, Harpo, Chico and Sometimes Zeppo'' (1973, 1983) Simon & Schuster* Kalmar, Bert, and Perelman, S. J., ''The Four Marx Brothers in Monkey Business and Duck Soup'' (Classic Film Scripts) (1973) Simon & Schuster* Mast, Gerald, ''The Comic Mind: Comedy and the Movies'' (1973, 2nd ed.", "1979) University of Chicago Press* McCaffrey, Donald W., \"Zanies in a Stage-Movieland\" from ''The Golden Age of Sound Comedy'' (1973) A. S. Barnes* Anobile, Richard J.", "(ed.", "), ''Hooray for Captain Spaulding!", ": Verbal and Visual Gems from Animal Crackers'' (1974) Avon Books* Anobile, Richard J., ''The Marx Bros. Scrapbook'' (1974) Grosset & Dunlap, (1975) Warner Books* Wolf, William, ''The Marx Brothers'' (1975) Pyramid Library* Byron, Stuart and Weis, Elizabeth (eds.", "), ''The National Society of Film Critics on Movie Comedy'' (1977) Grossman/Viking* Maltin, Leonard, ''The Great Movie Comedians'' (1978) Crown Publishers* Arce, Hector, ''Groucho'' (1979) G. P. Putnam's Sons* Chandler, Charlotte, ''Hello, I Must Be Going: Groucho & His Friends'' (1978) Doubleday & Co., (2007) Simon & Schuster * Weales, Gerald, ''Canned Goods as Caviar: American Film Comedy of the 1930s'' (1985) University of Chicago Press* Gehring, Wes D., ''The Marx Brothers: A Bio-Bibliography'' (1987) Greenwood Press* Barson, Michael (ed.", "), ''Flywheel, Shyster and Flywheel: The Marx Brothers Lost Radio Show'' (1988) Pantheon Books* Eyles, Allen, ''The Complete Films of the Marx Brothers'' (1992) Carol Publishing Group* Gehring, Wes D., ''Groucho and W.C. Fields: Huckster Comedians'' (1994) University Press of Mississippi* Mitchell, Glenn, ''The Marx Brothers Encyclopedia'' (1996) B.T.", "Batsford Ltd., (revised 2003) Reynolds & Hearn ( )* Stoliar, Steve, ''Raised Eyebrows: My Years Inside Groucho's House'' (1996) General Publishing Group * Dwan, Robert, ''As Long As They're Laughing!", ": Groucho Marx and You Bet Your Life'' (2000) Midnight Marquee Press, Inc.* Kanfer, Stefan, ''Groucho: The Life and Times of Julius Henry Marx'' (2000) Alfred A. Knopf * Bego, Mark, ''The Marx Brothers'' (2001) Pocket Essentials* Louvish, Simon, ''Monkey Business: The Lives and Legends of the Marx Brothers'' (2001) Thomas Dunne Books * Gehring, Wes D., ''Film Clowns of the Depression'' (2007) McFarland & Co.* Keesey, Douglas, with Duncan, Paul (ed.", "), ''Marx Bros.'' (2007) Movie Icons series, Taschen* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Stars of Bedlam: The Rise & Fall of the Marx Brothers (Part 1...11) July 2022* Frank M. Bland.", "Marx Brothers resource – whyaduck* Robert B. Weide.", "The Marx Brothers In A Nutshell* Robert S. Bader.", "2016.The Marx Brothers: From Vaudeville to Hollywood – marxbrothers.net" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 28" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*585 BC – A solar eclipse occurs, as predicted by the Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling Cyaxares in the Battle of the Eclipse, leading to a truce.", "This is one of the cardinal dates from which other dates can be calculated.", "It is also the earliest event of which the precise date is known.", "* 621 – Battle of Hulao: Li Shimin, the son of the Chinese emperor Gaozu, defeats the numerically superior forces of Dou Jiande near the Hulao Pass (Henan).", "This victory decides the outcome of the civil war that followed the Sui dynasty's collapse in favour of the Tang dynasty.", "* 1242 – Avignonet massacre, when a group of Cathars with the probable connivance of Count Raymond VII of Toulouse murdered the inquisitor William Arnaud and eleven of his companions*1533 – The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, declares the marriage of King Henry VIII of England to Anne Boleyn valid.", "*1588 – The Spanish Armada, with 130 ships and 30,000 men, sets sail from Lisbon, Portugal, heading for the English Channel.", "(It will take until May 30 for all ships to leave port.", ")===1601–1900===*1644 – English Civil War: Bolton Massacre by Royalist troops under the command of James Stanley, 7th Earl of Derby.", "*1754 – French and Indian War: In the first engagement of the war, Virginia militia under the 22-year-old Lieutenant colonel George Washington defeat a French reconnaissance party in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in what is now Fayette County in southwestern Pennsylvania.", "*1802 – In Guadeloupe, 400 rebellious slaves, led by Louis Delgrès, blow themselves up rather than submit to Napoleon's troops.", "*1830 – U.S. President Andrew Jackson signs the Indian Removal Act which denies Native Americans their land rights and forcibly relocates them.", "*1871 – The Paris Commune falls after two months.", "*1892 – In San Francisco, John Muir organizes the Sierra Club.===1901–present===*1905 – Russo-Japanese War: The Battle of Tsushima ends with the destruction of the Russian Baltic Fleet by Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō and the Imperial Japanese Navy.", "*1907 – The first Isle of Man TT race is held.", "*1918 – The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and the First Republic of Armenia declare their independence.", "*1926 – The 28 May 1926 coup d'état: Ditadura Nacional is established in Portugal to suppress the unrest of the First Republic.", "*1932 – In the Netherlands, construction of the Afsluitdijk is completed and the Zuiderzee bay is converted to the freshwater IJsselmeer.", "*1934 – Near Callander, Ontario, Canada, the Dionne quintuplets are born to Oliva and Elzire Dionne; they will be the first quintuplets to survive infancy.", "*1936 – Alan Turing submits ''On Computable Numbers'' for publication.", "*1937 – Volkswagen, the German automobile manufacturer, is founded.", "*1940 – World War II: Belgium surrenders to Nazi Germany to end the Battle of Belgium.", "* 1940 – World War II: Norwegian, French, Polish and British forces recapture Narvik in Norway.", "This is the first Allied infantry victory of the War.", "*1948 – Daniel François Malan is elected as Prime Minister of South Africa.", "He later goes on to implement Apartheid.", "*1958 – Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement, heavily reinforced by Frank Pais Militia, overwhelm an army post in El Uvero.", "*1961 – Peter Benenson's article ''The Forgotten Prisoners'' is published in several internationally read newspapers.", "This will later be thought of as the founding of the human rights organization Amnesty International.", "*1964 – The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) is founded, with Yasser Arafat elected as its first leader.", "*1968 – Garuda Indonesian Airways Flight 892 crashes near Nala Sopara in India, killing 30.", "*1974 – Northern Ireland's power-sharing Sunningdale Agreement collapses following a general strike by loyalists.", "*1975 – Fifteen West African countries sign the Treaty of Lagos, creating the Economic Community of West African States.", "*1977 – In Southgate, Kentucky, the Beverly Hills Supper Club is engulfed in fire, killing 165 people inside.", "*1979 – Konstantinos Karamanlis signs the full treaty of the accession of Greece with the European Economic Community.", "*1987 – An 18-year-old West German pilot, Mathias Rust, evades Soviet Union air defences and lands a private plane in Red Square in Moscow, Russia.", "*1991 – The capital city of Addis Ababa falls to the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front, ending both the Derg regime in Ethiopia and the Ethiopian Civil War.", "*1995 – The 7.0 Neftegorsk earthquake shakes the former Russian settlement of Neftegorsk with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (''Violent'').", "Total damage was $64.1–300 million, with 1,989 deaths and 750 injured.", "The settlement was not rebuilt.", "*1996 – U.S. President Bill Clinton's former business partners in the Whitewater land deal, Jim McDougal and Susan McDougal, and the Governor of Arkansas, Jim Guy Tucker, are convicted of fraud.", "*1998 – Nuclear testing: Pakistan responds to a series of nuclear tests by India with five of its own codenamed ''Chagai-I'', prompting the United States, Japan, and other nations to impose economic sanctions.", "Pakistan celebrates Youm-e-Takbir annually.", "*1999 – In Milan, Italy, after 22 years of restoration work, Leonardo da Vinci's masterpiece ''The Last Supper'' is put back on display.", "*2002 – The last steel girder is removed from the original World Trade Center site.", "Cleanup duties officially end with closing ceremonies at Ground Zero in Manhattan, New York City.", "*2003 – Peter Hollingworth resigns as Governor-General of Australia following criticism of his handling of child sexual abuse allegations during his tenure as Anglican Archbishop of Brisbane.", "*2004 – The Iraqi Governing Council chooses Ayad Allawi, a longtime anti-Saddam Hussein exile, as prime minister of Iraq's interim government.", "*2008 – The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly of Nepal formally declares Nepal a republic, ending the 240-year reign of the Shah dynasty.", "*2010 – In West Bengal, India, the Jnaneswari Express train derailment and subsequent collision kills 148 passengers.", "*2011 – Malta votes on the introduction of divorce; the proposal was approved by 53% of voters, resulting in a law allowing divorce under certain conditions being enacted later in the year.", "*2016 – Harambe, a gorilla, is shot to death after grabbing a three-year-old boy in his enclosure at the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden, resulting in widespread criticism and sparking various internet memes.", "*2017 – Former Formula One driver Takuma Sato wins his first Indianapolis 500, the first Japanese and Asian driver to do so.", "Double world champion Fernando Alonso retires from an engine issue in his first entry of the event." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1140 – Xin Qiji, Chinese poet, general, and politician (d. 1207)*1371 – John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1419)*1588 – Pierre Séguier, French politician, Lord Chancellor of France (d. 1672)*1589 – Robert Arnauld d'Andilly, French writer (d. 1674)===1601–1900===*1663 – António Manoel de Vilhena, Grand Master of the Order of Saint John (d. 1736)*1676 – Jacopo Riccati, Italian mathematician and academic (d. 1754)*1692 – Geminiano Giacomelli, Italian composer (d. 1740)*1738 – Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, French physician (d. 1814)*1759 – William Pitt the Younger, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1806)*1763 – Manuel Alberti, Argentinian priest and journalist (d. 1811)*1764 – Edward Livingston, American jurist and politician, 11th United States Secretary of State (d. 1836)*1779 – Thomas Moore, Irish poet and composer (d. 1852)*1807 – Louis Agassiz, Swiss-American paleontologist and geologist (d. 1873)*1818 – P. G. T. Beauregard, American general (d. 1893)*1836 – Friedrich Baumfelder, German pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1916)* 1836 – Alexander Mitscherlich, German chemist and academic (d. 1918)*1837 – George Ashlin, Irish architect, co-designed St Colman's Cathedral (d. 1921)* 1837 – Tony Pastor, American impresario, variety performer and theatre owner (d. 1908)*1841 – Sakaigawa Namiemon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 14th Yokozuna (d. 1887)*1853 – Carl Larsson, Swedish painter and author (d. 1919)*1858 – Carl Richard Nyberg, Swedish inventor and businessman, developed the blow torch (d. 1939)*1872 – Marian Smoluchowski, Polish physicist and mountaineer (d. 1917)*1878 – Paul Pelliot, French sinologist and explorer (d. 1945)*1879 – Milutin Milanković, Serbian mathematician, astronomer, and geophysicist (d. 1958)*1883 – Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Indian poet and politician (d. 1966)* 1883 – Clough Williams-Ellis, English-Welsh architect, designed the Portmeirion Village (d. 1978)*1884 – Edvard Beneš, Czech academic and politician, 2nd and 4th President of Czechoslovakia (d. 1948)*1886 – Santo Trafficante, Sr., Italian-American mobster (d. 1954)*1888 – Kaarel Eenpalu, Estonian journalist and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Estonia (d. 1942)* 1888 – Vivienne Haigh-Wood Eliot, English author and educator (d. 1947)* 1888 – Jim Thorpe, American decathlete, football player, and coach (d. 1953)*1889 – Richard Réti, Slovak-Czech chess player and author (d. 1929)*1892 – Minna Gombell, American actress (d. 1973)*1900 – Tommy Ladnier, American trumpet player (d. 1939)===1901–present===*1903 – S. L. Kirloskar, Indian businessman, founded Kirloskar Group (d. 1994)*1906 – Henry Thambiah, Sri Lankan lawyer, judge, and diplomat, Sri Lankan High Commissioner to Canada (d. 1997)*1908 – Léo Cadieux, Canadian journalist and politician, 17th Canadian Minister of National Defence (d. 2005)* 1908 – Ian Fleming, English journalist and author, created ''James Bond'' (d. 1964)*1909 – Red Horner, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2005)*1910 – Georg Gaßmann, German politician, Mayor of Marburg (d. 1987)* 1910 – Rachel Kempson, English actress (d. 2003)* 1910 – T-Bone Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1975)*1911 – Bob Crisp, South African cricketer (d. 1994)* 1911 – Thora Hird, English actress (d. 2003)* 1911 – Fritz Hochwälder, Austrian playwright (d. 1986)*1912 – Herman Johannes, Indonesian scientist, academic, and politician (d. 1992)* 1912 – Ruby Payne-Scott, Australian physicist and astronomer (d. 1981)* 1912 – Patrick White, Australian novelist, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1990)*1914 – W. G. G. Duncan Smith, English captain and pilot (d. 1996)*1915 – Joseph Greenberg, American linguist and academic (d. 2001)*1916 – Walker Percy, American novelist and essayist (d. 1990)*1917 – Barry Commoner, American biologist, academic, and politician (d. 2012)*1918 – Johnny Wayne, Canadian comedian (d. 1990) *1921 – D. V. Paluskar, Indian Hindustani classical musician (d. 1955)* 1921 – Heinz G. Konsalik, German journalist and author (d. 1999)* 1921 – Tom Uren, Australian soldier, boxer, and politician (d. 2015)*1922 – Lou Duva, American boxer, trainer, and manager (d. 2017)* 1922 – Roger Fisher, American author and academic (d. 2012)* 1922 – Tuomas Gerdt, Finnish soldier (d. 2020)*1923 – György Ligeti, Hungarian-Austrian composer and educator (d. 2006)* 1923 – N. T. Rama Rao, Indian actor, director, producer, and politician, 10th Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh (d. 1996)*1924 – Edward du Cann, English naval officer and politician (d. 2017)* 1924 – Paul Hébert, Canadian actor (d. 2017)*1925 – Bülent Ecevit, Turkish journalist, scholar, and politician, 16th Prime Minister of Turkey (d. 2006)* 1925 – Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, German opera singer and conductor (d. 2012)*1928 – Sally Forrest, American actress and dancer (d. 2015)*1929 – Patrick McNair-Wilson, English politician*1930 – Edward Seaga, American-Jamaican academic and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Jamaica (d. 2019)*1931 – Carroll Baker, American actress* 1931 – Gordon Willis, American cinematographer (d. 2014)*1932 – Tim Renton, Baron Renton of Mount Harry, English politician, Minister for Culture, Communications and Creative Industries (d. 2020)*1933 – John Karlen, American actor (d. 2020)* 1933 – Zelda Rubinstein, American actress and activist (d. 2010)*1936 – Claude Forget, Canadian academic and politician* 1936 – Ole K. Sara, Norwegian politician (d. 2013)* 1936 – Betty Shabazz, American educator and activist (d. 1997)*1938 – Jerry West, American basketball player, coach, and executive*1939 – Maeve Binchy, Irish novelist (d. 2012)*1940 – David Brewer, English politician, Lord-Lieutenant of Greater London (d. 2023)* 1940 – Shlomo Riskin, American rabbi and academic, founded the Lincoln Square Synagogue*1941 – Beth Howland, American actress and singer (d. 2015)*1942 – Stanley B. Prusiner, American neurologist and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate*1943 – Terry Crisp, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1944 – Faith Brown, English actress and singer* 1944 – Rudy Giuliani, American lawyer and politician, 107th mayor of New York City* 1944 – Gladys Knight, American singer-songwriter and actress* 1944 – Sondra Locke, American actress and director (d. 2018)* 1944 – Rita MacNeil, Canadian singer and actress (d. 2013)* 1944 – Gary Stewart, American singer-songwriter (d. 2003)* 1944 – Billy Vera, American singer-songwriter and actor*1945 – Patch Adams, American physician and author, founded the Gesundheit!", "Institute* 1945 – John N. Bambacus, American military veteran (USMC) and politician* 1945 – John Fogerty, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1945 – Jean Perrault, Canadian politician, Mayor of Sherbrooke, Quebec* 1945 – Helena Shovelton, English physician*1946 – Bruce Alexander, English actor* 1946 – Skip Jutze, American baseball player* 1946 – Janet Paraskeva, Welsh politician* 1946 – K. Satchidanandan, Indian poet and critic* 1946 – William Shawcross, English journalist and author*1947 – Zahi Hawass, Egyptian archaeologist and academic* 1947 – Lynn Johnston, Canadian author and illustrator* 1947 – Leland Sklar, American singer-songwriter and bass player*1948 – Michael Field, Australian politician, 38th Premier of Tasmania * 1948 – Pierre Rapsat, Belgian singer and songwriter (d. 2002)*1949 – Martin Kelner, English journalist, author, comedian, singer, actor and radio presenter* 1949 – Wendy O. Williams, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress (d. 1998)*1952 – Roger Briggs, American pianist, composer, conductor, and educator*1953 – Pierre Gauthier, Canadian ice hockey player and manager*1954 – João Carlos de Oliveira, Brazilian jumper (d. 1999)* 1954 – Youri Egorov, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1988)* 1954 – Charles Saumarez Smith, English historian and academic* 1954 – Péter Szilágyi, Hungarian conductor and politician (d. 2013)* 1954 – John Tory, Canadian lawyer and politician, 65th Mayor of Toronto*1955 – Laura Amy Schlitz, American author and librarian*1956 – Jerry Douglas, American guitarist and producer * 1956 – Jeff Dujon, Jamaican cricketer * 1956 – Markus Höttinger, Austrian racing driver (d. 1980)* 1956 – Peter Wilkinson, English admiral*1957 – Colin Barnes, English footballer* 1957 – Kirk Gibson, American baseball player and manager* 1957 – Ben Howland, American basketball player and coach*1959 – Risto Mannisenmäki, Finnish racing driver*1960 – Mark Sanford, American military veteran (USAF) and politician, 115th Governor of South Carolina* 1960 – Mary Portas, English journalist and author*1963 – Houman Younessi, Australian-American biologist and academic (d. 2016)*1964 – Jeff Fenech, Australian boxer and trainer* 1964 – Armen Gilliam, American basketball player and coach (d. 2011)* 1964 – Zsa Zsa Padilla, Filipino singer and actress * 1964 – Phil Vassar, American singer-songwriter*1965 – Chris Ballew, American singer-songwriter and bass player * 1965 – Mary Coughlan, Irish politician *1966 – Roger Kumble, American director, screenwriter, and playwright* 1966 – Miljenko Jergović, Bosnian novelist and journalist* 1966 – Gavin Robertson, Australian cricketer*1967 – Glen Rice, American basketball player*1968 – Kylie Minogue, Australian singer-songwriter, producer, and actress*1969 – Mike DiFelice, American baseball player and manager* 1969 – Rob Ford, Canadian politician, 64th Mayor of Toronto (d. 2016)*1970 – Glenn Quinn, American actor (d. 2002)*1971 – Isabelle Carré, French actress and singer* 1971 – Ekaterina Gordeeva, Russian figure skater and sportscaster* 1971 – Marco Rubio, American lawyer and politician*1972 – Doriva, Brazilian footballer and manager* 1972 – Michael Boogerd, Dutch cyclist and manager*1973 – Marco Paulo Faria Lemos, Portuguese footballer and manager*1974 – Hans-Jörg Butt, German footballer* 1974 – Misbah-ul-Haq, Pakistani cricketer* 1975 – Maura Johnston, American journalist, critic, and academic*1976 – Steven Bell, Australian rugby league player* 1976 – Zaza Enden, Georgian-Turkish wrestler, basketball player, and coach* 1976 – Roberto Goretti, Italian footballer* 1976 – Glenn Morrison, Australian rugby league player and coach*1977 – Elisabeth Hasselbeck, American talk show host and author*1978 – Jake Johnson, American actor*1979 – Abdulaziz al-Omari, Saudi Arabian terrorist, hijacker of American Airlines Flight 11 (d. 2001)* 1979 – Ronald Curry, American football player and coach*1980 – Miguel Pérez, Spanish footballer* 1980 – Lucy Shuker, English tennis player*1981 – Daniel Cabrera, Dominican-American baseball player* 1981 – Eric Ghiaciuc, American football player* 1981 – Adam Green, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1982 – Alexa Davalos, French-American actress* 1982 – Jhonny Peralta, Dominican-American baseball player*1983 – Steve Cronin, American soccer player* 1983 – Humberto Sánchez, Dominican-American baseball player* 1983 – Roman Atwood, American YouTube star*1985 – Colbie Caillat, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1985 – Pablo Andrés González, Argentinian footballer* 1985 – Kostas Mendrinos, Greek footballer* 1985 – Carey Mulligan, English actress and singer*1986 – Berrick Barnes, Australian rugby player* 1986 – Bryant Dunston, American-Armenian basketball player* 1986 – Michael Oher, American football player* 1986 – Seth Rollins, American wrestler* 1986 – Ingmar Vos, Dutch decathlete*1987 – T.J. Yates, American football player *1988 – NaVorro Bowman, American football player* 1988 – Percy Harvin, American football player*1990 – Kyle Walker, English footballer*1991 – Danielle Lao, American tennis player * 1991 – Kail Piho, Estonian skier*1993 – Daniel Alvaro, Australian rugby league player* 1993 – Bárbara Luz, Portuguese tennis player*1994 – John Stones, English footballer*1998 – Kim Dahyun, South Korean rapper and singer*1999 – Jodie Burrage, British tennis player*2000 – Phil Foden, English footballer* 2000 – Risi Pouri-Lane, New Zealand rugby sevens player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 576 – Germain of Paris, French bishop and saint (b.", "496)* 741 – Ucha'an K'in B'alam, Mayan king * 926 – Kong Qian, official of Later Tang* 926 – Li Jiji, prince of Later Tang*1023 – Wulfstan, English archbishop*1279 – William Wishart, Scottish bishop*1327 – Robert Baldock, Lord Privy Seal and Lord Chancellor of England*1357 – Afonso IV of Portugal (b.", "1291)*1427 – Henry IV, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg (b.", "1397)*1556 – Saitō Dōsan, Japanese samurai (b.", "1494)===1601–1900===*1626 – Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk (b.", "1561)*1651 – Henry Grey, 10th Earl of Kent, English politician (b.", "1594)*1672 – John Trevor, Welsh politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (b.", "1626)*1727 – Juan de Ayala y Escobar, Governor of Spanish Florida (1716 - 1718) (b.", "1635)*1747 – Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, French author (b.", "1715)*1750 – Emperor Sakuramachi of Japan (b.", "1720)*1787 – Leopold Mozart, Austrian violinist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1719)*1805 – Luigi Boccherini, Italian cellist and composer (b.", "1743)*1808 – Richard Hurd, English bishop (b.", "1720)*1811 – Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, Scottish lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for War (b.", "1742)*1831 – William Carnegie, 7th Earl of Northesk, Scottish-English admiral (b.", "1756)*1843 – Noah Webster, American lexicographer (b.", "1758)*1849 – Anne Brontë, English novelist and poet (b.", "1820)*1864 – Simion Bărnuțiu, Romanian historian and politician (b.", "1808)*1878 – John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1792)===1901–present===*1904 – Kicking Bear, Native American tribal leader (b.", "1846)*1916 – Ivan Franko, Ukrainian economist, journalist, and poet (b.", "1856)*1927 – Boris Kustodiev, Russian painter and stage designer (b.", "1878)*1930 – Frank Cowper, English yachtsman, author and illustrator (b.", "1849)*1937 – Alfred Adler, Austrian-Scottish ophthalmologist and psychologist (b.", "1870)*1946 – Carter Glass, American publisher and politician, 47th United States Secretary of the Treasury (b.", "1858)*1947 – August Eigruber, Austrian-German politician (b.", "1907)*1952 – Philippe Desranleau, Canadian archbishop (b.", "1882)*1953 – Tatsuo Hori, Japanese author and poet (b.", "1904)*1964 – Terry Dillon, American football player (b.", "1941)*1968 – Fyodor Okhlopkov, Russian sergeant and sniper (b.", "1908)*1971 – Audie Murphy, American soldier and actor, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1925)*1972 – Edward VIII of the United Kingdom (b.", "1894)*1975 – Ezzard Charles, American boxer (b.", "1921)*1976 – Zainul Abedin, Bangladeshi painter and sculptor (b.", "1914)*1980 – Rolf Nevanlinna, Finnish mathematician and academic (b.", "1895)*1981 – Mary Lou Williams, American pianist and composer (b.", "1910)* 1981 – Stefan Wyszyński, Polish cardinal (b.", "1901)*1982 – H. Jones, English colonel, Victoria Cross recipient (b.", "1940)*1983 – Erastus Corning 2nd, American soldier and politician, 72nd Mayor of Albany (b.", "1909)*1984 – Eric Morecambe, English actor and comedian (b.", "1926)*1986 – Edip Cansever, Turkish poet and author (b.", "1928)*1988 – Sy Oliver, American trumpet player, composer, and bandleader (b.", "1910)*1990 – Julius Eastman, American composer (b.", "1940)*1994 – Julius Boros, American golfer (b.", "1920)* 1994 – Ely Jacques Kahn, Jr., American author and academic (b.", "1916)*1998 – Phil Hartman, Canadian-American actor and comedian (b.", "1948)*1999 – Michael Barkai, Israeli commander (b.", "1935)* 1999 – B. Vittalacharya, Indian director and producer (b.", "1920)*2000 – George Irving Bell, American physicist, biologist, and mountaineer (b.", "1926)*2001 – Joe Moakley, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1927)* 2001 – Francisco Varela, Chilean biologist and philosopher (b.", "1946)*2002 – Mildred Benson, American journalist and author (b.", "1905)*2003 – Oleg Grigoryevich Makarov, Russian engineer and astronaut (b.", "1933)* 2003 – Ilya Prigogine, Russian-Belgian chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1917)* 2003 – Martha Scott, American actress (b.", "1912)*2004 – Michael Buonauro, American author and illustrator (b.", "1979)* 2004 – John Tolos, Greek-Canadian wrestler (b.", "1930)*2006 – Thorleif Schjelderup, Norwegian ski jumper and author (b.", "1920)*2007 – Jörg Immendorff, German painter, sculptor, and academic (b.", "1945)* 2007 – Toshikatsu Matsuoka, Japanese politician, Japanese Minister of Agriculture (b.", "1945)*2008 – Beryl Cook, English painter and illustrator (b.", "1926)*2010 – Gary Coleman, American actor (b.", "1968)*2011 – Gino Valenzano, Italian racing driver (b.", "1920)*2012 – Bob Edwards, English journalist (b.", "1925)* 2012 – Yuri Susloparov, Ukrainian-Russian footballer and manager (b.", "1958)*2013 – Viktor Kulikov, Russian commander (b.", "1921)* 2013 – Eddie Romero, Filipino director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Gerd Schmückle, German general (b.", "1917)*2014 – Maya Angelou, American memoirist and poet (b.", "1928)* 2014 – Stan Crowther, English footballer (b.", "1935)* 2014 – Oscar Dystel, American publisher (b.", "1912)* 2014 – Malcolm Glazer, American businessman (b.", "1928)* 2014 – Bob Houbregs, Canadian-American basketball player and manager (b.", "1932)* 2014 – Isaac Kungwane, South African footballer (b.", "1971)*2015 – Steven Gerber, American pianist and composer (b.", "1948)* 2015 – Johnny Keating, Scottish trombonist, composer, and producer (b.", "1927)* 2015 – Reynaldo Rey, American actor and screenwriter (b.", "1940)*2018 – Neale Cooper, Scottish footballer (b.", "1963)* 2018 – Jens Christian Skou, Danish medical doctor and Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1918)* 2018 – Cornelia Frances, English-Australian actress (b.", "1941)*2021 – Mark Eaton, American basketball player (b.", "1957)*2022 – Patricia Brake, English actress (b.", "1942)*2023 – David Brewer, English politician, Lord-Lieutenant of Greater London (b.", "1940)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Armed Forces Day (Croatia)*Christian feast day:**Bernard of Menthon**Germain of Paris**John Calvin (Episcopal Church)**Lanfranc**Margaret Pole**William of Gellone**May 28 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Downfall of the Derg (Ethiopia)*Flag Day (Philippines)*Menstrual Hygiene Day*Republic Day (Nepal)*TDFR Republic Day, celebrates the declaration of independence of the First Republic of Armenia and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic from the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic in 1918.", "(Azerbaijan and Armenia)*Youm-e-Takbir (Pakistan)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 28" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MP3" ], [ "Introduction", "'''MP3''' (formally '''MPEG-1 Audio Layer III''' or '''MPEG-2 Audio Layer III''') is a coding format for digital audio developed largely by the Fraunhofer Society in Germany under the lead of Karlheinz Brandenburg, with support from other digital scientists in other countries.", "Originally defined as the third audio format of the MPEG-1 standard, it was retained and further extended — defining additional bit-rates and support for more audio channels — as the third audio format of the subsequent MPEG-2 standard.", "A third version, known as MPEG-2.5 — extended to better support lower bit rates — is commonly implemented, but is not a recognized standard.", "'''MP3''' (or '''mp3''') as a file format commonly designates files containing an elementary stream of MPEG-1 Audio or MPEG-2 Audio encoded data, without other complexities of the MP3 standard.Concerning audio compression (the aspect of the standard most apparent to end-users, and for which it is best known), MP3 uses lossy data-compression to encode data using inexact approximations and the partial discarding of data.", "This allows a large reduction in file sizes when compared to uncompressed audio.", "The combination of small size and acceptable fidelity led to a boom in the distribution of music over the Internet in the mid-to-late 1990s, with MP3 serving as an enabling technology at a time when bandwidth and storage were still at a premium.", "The MP3 format soon became associated with controversies surrounding copyright infringement, music piracy, and the file ripping/sharing services MP3.com and Napster, among others.", "With the advent of portable media players, a product category also including smartphones, MP3 support remains near-universal.MP3 compression works by reducing (or approximating) the accuracy of certain components of sound that are considered (by psychoacoustic analysis) to be beyond the hearing capabilities of most humans.", "This method is commonly referred to as perceptual coding or as psychoacoustic modeling.", "The remaining audio information is then recorded in a space-efficient manner, using MDCT and FFT algorithms.", "Compared to CD-quality digital audio, MP3 compression can commonly achieve a 75 to 95% reduction in size.", "For example, an MP3 encoded at a constant bit rate of 128 kbit/s would result in a file approximately 9% of the size of the original CD audio.", "In the early 2000s, compact disc players increasingly adopted support for playback of MP3 files on data CDs.The Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) designed MP3 as part of its MPEG-1, and later MPEG-2, standards.", "MPEG-1 Audio (MPEG-1 Part 3), which included MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III, was approved as a committee draft for an ISO/IEC standard in 1991, finalized in 1992, and published in 1993 as ISO/IEC 11172-3:1993.An MPEG-2 Audio (MPEG-2 Part 3) extension with lower sample- and bit-rates was published in 1995 as ISO/IEC 13818-3:1995.It requires only minimal modifications to existing MPEG-1 decoders (recognition of the MPEG-2 bit in the header and addition of the new lower sample and bit rates)." ], [ "History", "=== Background ===The MP3 lossy audio-data compression algorithm takes advantage of a perceptual limitation of human hearing called auditory masking.", "In 1894, the American physicist Alfred M. Mayer reported that a tone could be rendered inaudible by another tone of lower frequency.", "In 1959, Richard Ehmer described a complete set of auditory curves regarding this phenomenon.", "Between 1967 and 1974, Eberhard Zwicker did work in the areas of tuning and masking of critical frequency-bands, which in turn built on the fundamental research in the area from Harvey Fletcher and his collaborators at Bell Labs.Perceptual coding was first used for speech coding compression with linear predictive coding (LPC), which has origins in the work of Fumitada Itakura (Nagoya University) and Shuzo Saito (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) in 1966.In 1978, Bishnu S. Atal and Manfred R. Schroeder at Bell Labs proposed an LPC speech codec, called adaptive predictive coding, that used a psychoacoustic coding-algorithm exploiting the masking properties of the human ear.", "Further optimization by Schroeder and Atal with J.L.", "Hall was later reported in a 1979 paper.", "That same year, a psychoacoustic masking codec was also proposed by M. A. Krasner, who published and produced hardware for speech (not usable as music bit-compression), but the publication of his results in a relatively obscure Lincoln Laboratory Technical Report did not immediately influence the mainstream of psychoacoustic codec-development.The discrete cosine transform (DCT), a type of transform coding for lossy compression, proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972, was developed by Ahmed with T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973; they published their results in 1974.This led to the development of the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), proposed by J. P. Princen, A. W. Johnson and A.", "B. Bradley in 1987, following earlier work by Princen and Bradley in 1986.The MDCT later became a core part of the MP3 algorithm.Ernst Terhardt and other collaborators constructed an algorithm describing auditory masking with high accuracy in 1982.This work added to a variety of reports from authors dating back to Fletcher, and to the work that initially determined critical ratios and critical bandwidths.In 1985, Atal and Schroeder presented code-excited linear prediction (CELP), an LPC-based perceptual speech-coding algorithm with auditory masking that achieved a significant data compression ratio for its time.", "IEEE's refereed ''Journal on Selected Areas in Communications'' reported on a wide variety of (mostly perceptual) audio compression algorithms in 1988.The \"Voice Coding for Communications\" edition published in February 1988 reported on a wide range of established, working audio bit compression technologies, some of them using auditory masking as part of their fundamental design, and several showing real-time hardware implementations.=== Development ===The genesis of the MP3 technology is fully described in a paper from Professor Hans Musmann, who chaired the ISO MPEG Audio group for several years.", "In December 1988, MPEG called for an audio coding standard.", "In June 1989, 14 audio coding algorithms were submitted.", "Because of certain similarities between these coding proposals, they were clustered into four development groups.", "The first group was ASPEC, by Fraunhofer Gesellschaft, AT&T, France Telecom, Deutsche and Thomson-Brandt.", "The second group was MUSICAM, by Matsushita, CCETT, ITT and Philips.", "The third group was ATAC (ATRAC Coding), by Fujitsu, JVC, NEC and Sony.", "And the fourth group was SB-ADPCM, by NTT and BTRL.The immediate predecessors of MP3 were \"Optimum Coding in the Frequency Domain\" (OCF), and Perceptual Transform Coding (PXFM).", "These two codecs, along with block-switching contributions from Thomson-Brandt, were merged into a codec called ASPEC, which was submitted to MPEG, and which won the quality competition, but that was mistakenly rejected as too complex to implement.", "The first practical implementation of an audio perceptual coder (OCF) in hardware (Krasner's hardware was too cumbersome and slow for practical use), was an implementation of a psychoacoustic transform coder based on Motorola 56000 DSP chips.Another predecessor of the MP3 format and technology is to be found in the perceptual codec MUSICAM based on an integer arithmetics 32 sub-bands filter bank, driven by a psychoacoustic model.", "It was primarily designed for Digital Audio Broadcasting (digital radio) and digital TV, and its basic principles were disclosed to the scientific community by CCETT (France) and IRT (Germany) in Atlanta during an IEEE-ICASSP conference in 1991, after having worked on MUSICAM with Matsushita and Philips since 1989.This codec incorporated into a broadcasting system using COFDM modulation was demonstrated on air and in the field with Radio Canada and CRC Canada during the NAB show (Las Vegas) in 1991.The implementation of the audio part of this broadcasting system was based on a two-chip encoder (one for the subband transform, one for the psychoacoustic model designed by the team of G. Stoll (IRT Germany), later known as psychoacoustic model I) and a real-time decoder using one Motorola 56001 DSP chip running an integer arithmetics software designed by Y.F.", "Dehery's team (CCETT, France).", "The simplicity of the corresponding decoder together with the high audio quality of this codec using for the first time a 48 kHz sampling rate, a 20 bits/sample input format (the highest available sampling standard in 1991, compatible with the AES/EBU professional digital input studio standard) were the main reasons to later adopt the characteristics of MUSICAM as the basic features for an advanced digital music compression codec.During the development of the MUSICAM encoding software, Stoll and Dehery's team made thorough use of a set of high-quality audio assessment material selected by a group of audio professionals from the European Broadcasting Union, and later used as a reference for the assessment of music compression codecs.", "The subband coding technique was found to be efficient, not only for the perceptual coding of high-quality sound materials but especially for the encoding of critical percussive sound materials (drums, triangle,...), due to the specific temporal masking effect of the MUSICAM sub-band filterbank (this advantage being a specific feature of short transform coding techniques).As a doctoral student at Germany's University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Karlheinz Brandenburg began working on digital music compression in the early 1980s, focusing on how people perceive music.", "He completed his doctoral work in 1989.MP3 is directly descended from OCF and PXFM, representing the outcome of the collaboration of Brandenburg — working as a postdoctoral researcher at AT&T-Bell Labs with James D. Johnston (\"JJ\") of AT&T-Bell Labs — with the Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Circuits, Erlangen (where he worked with Bernhard Grill and four other researchers – \"The Original Six\"), with relatively minor contributions from the MP2 branch of psychoacoustic sub-band coders.", "In 1990, Brandenburg became an assistant professor at Erlangen-Nuremberg.", "While there, he continued to work on music compression with scientists at the Fraunhofer Society's Heinrich Herz Institute.", "In 1993, he joined the staff of Fraunhofer HHI.", "The song \"Tom's Diner\" by Suzanne Vega was the first song used by Karlheinz Brandenburg to develop the MP3 format.", "Brandenburg adopted the song for testing purposes, listening to it again and again each time he refined the scheme, making sure it did not adversely affect the subtlety of Vega's voice.", "Accordingly, he dubbed Vega the \"Mother of MP3\".=== Standardization ===In 1991, two available proposals were assessed for an MPEG audio standard: MUSICAM (Masking pattern adapted Universal Subband Integrated Coding And Multiplexing) and ASPEC (Adaptive Spectral Perceptual Entropy Coding).", "The MUSICAM technique, proposed by Philips (Netherlands), CCETT (France), the Institute for Broadcast Technology (Germany), and Matsushita (Japan), was chosen due to its simplicity and error robustness, as well as for its high level of computational efficiency.", "The MUSICAM format, based on sub-band coding, became the basis for the MPEG Audio compression format, incorporating, for example, its frame structure, header format, sample rates, etc.While much of MUSICAM technology and ideas were incorporated into the definition of MPEG Audio Layer I and Layer II, the filter bank alone and the data structure based on 1152 samples framing (file format and byte-oriented stream) of MUSICAM remained in the Layer III (MP3) format, as part of the computationally inefficient hybrid filter bank.", "Under the chairmanship of Professor Musmann of the Leibniz University Hannover, the editing of the standard was delegated to Leon van de Kerkhof (Netherlands), Gerhard Stoll (Germany), and Yves-François Dehery (France), who worked on Layer I and Layer II.", "ASPEC was the joint proposal of AT&T Bell Laboratories, Thomson Consumer Electronics, Fraunhofer Society, and CNET.", "It provided the highest coding efficiency.A working group consisting of van de Kerkhof, Stoll, Leonardo Chiariglione (CSELT VP for Media), Yves-François Dehery, Karlheinz Brandenburg (Germany) and James D. Johnston (United States) took ideas from ASPEC, integrated the filter bank from Layer II, added some of their ideas such as the joint stereo coding of MUSICAM and created the MP3 format, which was designed to achieve the same quality at 128 kbit/s as MP2 at 192 kbit/s.The algorithms for MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III were approved in 1991 and finalized in 1992 as part of MPEG-1, the first standard suite by MPEG, which resulted in the international standard '''ISO/IEC 11172-3''' (a.k.a.", "''MPEG-1 Audio'' or ''MPEG-1 Part 3''), published in 1993.Files or data streams conforming to this standard must handle sample rates of 48k, 44100, and 32k and continue to be supported by current MP3 players and decoders.", "Thus the first generation of MP3 defined interpretations of MP3 frame data structures and size layouts.The compression efficiency of encoders is typically defined by the bit rate because the compression ratio depends on the bit depth and sampling rate of the input signal.", "Nevertheless, compression ratios are often published.", "They may use the compact disc (CD) parameters as references (44.1 kHz, 2 channels at 16 bits per channel or 2×16 bit), or sometimes the Digital Audio Tape (DAT) SP parameters (48 kHz, 2×16 bit).", "Compression ratios with this latter reference are higher, which demonstrates the problem with the use of the term ''compression ratio'' for lossy encoders.Karlheinz Brandenburg used a CD recording of Suzanne Vega's song \"Tom's Diner\" to assess and refine the MP3 compression algorithm.", "This song was chosen because of its nearly monophonic nature and wide spectral content, making it easier to hear imperfections in the compression format during playbacks.", "This particular track has an interesting property in that the two channels are almost, but not completely, the same, leading to a case where Binaural Masking Level Depression causes spatial unmasking of noise artifacts unless the encoder properly recognizes the situation and applies corrections similar to those detailed in the MPEG-2 AAC psychoacoustic model.", "Some more critical audio excerpts (glockenspiel, triangle, accordion, etc.)", "were taken from the EBU V3/SQAM reference compact disc and have been used by professional sound engineers to assess the subjective quality of the MPEG Audio formats.=== Going public ===A reference simulation software implementation, written in the C language and later known as ''ISO 11172-5'', was developed (in 1991–1996) by the members of the ISO MPEG Audio committee to produce bit-compliant MPEG Audio files (Layer 1, Layer 2, Layer 3).", "It was approved as a committee draft of the ISO/IEC technical report in March 1994 and printed as document CD 11172-5 in April 1994.It was approved as a draft technical report (DTR/DIS) in November 1994, finalized in 1996 and published as international standard ISO/IEC TR 11172-5:1998 in 1998.The reference software in C language was later published as a freely available ISO standard.", "Working in non-real time on several operating systems, it was able to demonstrate the first real-time hardware decoding (DSP based) of compressed audio.", "Some other real-time implementations of MPEG Audio encoders and decoders were available for digital broadcasting (radio DAB, television DVB) towards consumer receivers and set-top boxes.On 7 July 1994, the Fraunhofer Society released the first software MP3 encoder, called l3enc.", "The filename extension ''.mp3'' was chosen by the Fraunhofer team on 14 July 1995 (previously, the files had been named ''.bit'').", "With the first real-time software MP3 player WinPlay3 (released 9 September 1995) many people were able to encode and playback MP3 files on their PCs.", "Because of the relatively small hard drives of the era (≈500–1000 MB) lossy compression was essential to store multiple albums' worth of music on a home computer as full recordings (as opposed to MIDI notation, or tracker files which combined notation with short recordings of instruments playing single notes).==== Fraunhofer example implementation ====A hacker named SoloH discovered the source code of the \"dist10\" MPEG reference implementation shortly after the release on the servers of the University of Erlangen.", "He developed a higher-quality version and spread it on the internet.", "This code started the widespread CD ripping and digital music distribution as MP3 over the internet.=== Further versions ===Further work on MPEG audio was finalized in 1994 as part of the second suite of MPEG standards, MPEG-2, more formally known as international standard '''ISO/IEC 13818-3''' (a.k.a.", "''MPEG-2 Part 3'' or backward compatible ''MPEG-2 Audio'' or ''MPEG-2 Audio BC''), originally published in 1995.MPEG-2 Part 3 (ISO/IEC 13818-3) defined 42 additional bit rates and sample rates for MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III.", "The new sampling rates are exactly half that of those originally defined in MPEG-1 Audio.", "This reduction in sampling rates serves to cut the available frequency fidelity in half while likewise cutting the bit rate by 50%.", "MPEG-2 Part 3 also enhanced MPEG-1's audio by allowing the coding of audio programs with more than two channels, up to 5.1 multichannel.", "An MP3 coded with MPEG-2 results in half of the bandwidth reproduction of MPEG-1 appropriate for piano and singing.A third generation of \"MP3\" style data streams (files) extended the ''MPEG-2'' ideas and implementation but was named ''MPEG-2.5'' audio since MPEG-3 already had a different meaning.", "This extension was developed at Fraunhofer IIS, the registered patent holder of MP3, by reducing the frame sync field in the MP3 header from 12 to 11 bits.", "As in the transition from MPEG-1 to MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5 adds additional sampling rates exactly half of those available using MPEG-2.It thus widens the scope of MP3 to include human speech and other applications yet requires only 25% of the bandwidth (frequency reproduction) possible using MPEG-1 sampling rates.", "While not an ISO-recognized standard, MPEG-2.5 is widely supported by both inexpensive Chinese and brand-name digital audio players as well as computer software-based MP3 encoders (LAME), decoders (FFmpeg) and players (MPC) adding additional MP3 frame types.", "Each generation of MP3 thus supports 3 sampling rates exactly half that of the previous generation for a total of 9 varieties of MP3 format files.", "The sample rate comparison table between MPEG-1, 2, and 2.5 is given later in the article.", "MPEG-2.5 is supported by LAME (since 2000), Media Player Classic (MPC), iTunes, and FFmpeg.MPEG-2.5 was not developed by MPEG (see above) and was never approved as an international standard.", "MPEG-2.5 is thus an unofficial or proprietary extension to the MP3 format.", "It is nonetheless ubiquitous and especially advantageous for low-bit-rate human speech applications.+MPEG Audio Layer III versions Version International Standard First edition public release date Latest edition public release date MPEG-1 Audio Layer III ISO/IEC 11172-3 (MPEG-1 Part 3) 1993 MPEG-2 Audio Layer III ISO/IEC 13818-3 (MPEG-2 Part 3) 1995 1998 MPEG-2.5 Audio Layer III nonstandard, Fraunhofer proprietary20002008The ISO standard ISO/IEC 11172-3 (a.k.a.", "MPEG-1 Audio) defined three formats: the MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, Layer II and Layer III.", "The ISO standard ISO/IEC 13818-3 (a.k.a.", "MPEG-2 Audio) defined an extended version of MPEG-1 Audio: MPEG-2 Audio Layer I, Layer II, and Layer III.", "MPEG-2 Audio (MPEG-2 Part 3) should not be confused with MPEG-2 AAC (MPEG-2 Part 7 – ISO/IEC 13818-7).LAME is the most advanced MP3 encoder.", "LAME includes a variable bit rate (VBR) encoding which uses a quality parameter rather than a bit rate goal.", "Later versions (2008+) support an ''n.nnn'' quality goal which automatically selects MPEG-2 or MPEG-2.5 sampling rates as appropriate for human speech recordings that need only 5512 Hz bandwidth resolution.=== Internet distribution ===In the second half of the 1990s, MP3 files began to spread on the Internet, often via underground pirated song networks.", "The first known experiment in Internet distribution was organized in the early 1990s by the Internet Underground Music Archive, better known by the acronym IUMA.", "After some experiments using uncompressed audio files, this archive started to deliver on the native worldwide low-speed Internet some compressed MPEG Audio files using the MP2 (Layer II) format and later on used MP3 files when the standard was fully completed.", "The popularity of MP3s began to rise rapidly with the advent of Nullsoft's audio player Winamp, released in 1997, which still had in 2023 a community of 80 million active users.", "In 1998, the first portable solid-state digital audio player MPMan, developed by SaeHan Information Systems, which is headquartered in Seoul, South Korea, was released and the Rio PMP300 was sold afterward in 1998, despite legal suppression efforts by the RIAA.In November 1997, the website mp3.com was offering thousands of MP3s created by independent artists for free.", "The small size of MP3 files enabled widespread peer-to-peer file sharing of music ripped from CDs, which would have previously been nearly impossible.", "The first large peer-to-peer filesharing network, Napster, was launched in 1999.The ease of creating and sharing MP3s resulted in widespread copyright infringement.", "Major record companies argued that this free sharing of music reduced sales, and called it \"music piracy\".", "They reacted by pursuing lawsuits against Napster, which was eventually shut down and later sold, and against individual users who engaged in file sharing.Unauthorized MP3 file sharing continues on next-generation peer-to-peer networks.", "Some authorized services, such as Beatport, Bleep, Juno Records, eMusic, Zune Marketplace, Walmart.com, Rhapsody, the recording industry approved re-incarnation of Napster, and Amazon.com sell unrestricted music in the MP3 format." ], [ "Design", "=== File structure ===An MP3 file is made up of MP3 frames, which consist of a header and a data block.", "This sequence of frames is called an elementary stream.", "Due to the \"bit reservoir\", frames are not independent items and cannot usually be extracted on arbitrary frame boundaries.", "The MP3 Data blocks contain the (compressed) audio information in terms of frequencies and amplitudes.", "The diagram shows that the MP3 Header consists of a sync word, which is used to identify the beginning of a valid frame.", "This is followed by a bit indicating that this is the MPEG standard and two bits that indicate that layer 3 is used; hence MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3 or MP3.After this, the values will differ, depending on the MP3 file.", "''ISO/IEC 11172-3'' defines the range of values for each section of the header along with the specification of the header.", "Most MP3 files today contain ID3 metadata, which precedes or follows the MP3 frames, as noted in the diagram.", "The data stream can contain an optional checksum.Joint stereo is done only on a frame-to-frame basis.=== Encoding and decoding ===The MP3 encoding algorithm is generally split into four parts.", "Part 1 divides the audio signal into smaller pieces, called frames, and an MDCT filter is then performed on the output.", "Part 2 passes the sample into a 1024-point fast Fourier transform (FFT), then the psychoacoustic model is applied and another MDCT filter is performed on the output.", "Part 3 quantifies and encodes each sample, known as noise allocation, which adjusts itself to meet the bit rate and sound masking requirements.", "Part 4 formats the bitstream, called an audio frame, which is made up of 4 parts, the header, error check, audio data, and ancillary data.The MPEG-1 standard does not include a precise specification for an MP3 encoder but does provide examples of psychoacoustic models, rate loops, and the like in the non-normative part of the original standard.", "MPEG-2 doubles the number of sampling rates that are supported and MPEG-2.5 adds 3 more.", "When this was written, the suggested implementations were quite dated.", "Implementers of the standard were supposed to devise algorithms suitable for removing parts of the information from the audio input.", "As a result, many different MP3 encoders became available, each producing files of differing quality.", "Comparisons were widely available, so it was easy for a prospective user of an encoder to research the best choice.", "Some encoders that were proficient at encoding at higher bit rates (such as LAME) were not necessarily as good at lower bit rates.", "Over time, LAME evolved on the SourceForge website until it became the de facto CBR MP3 encoder.", "Later an ABR mode was added.", "Work progressed on true variable bit rate using a quality goal between 0 and 10.Eventually, numbers (such as -V 9.600) could generate excellent quality low bit rate voice encoding at only 41 kbit/s using the MPEG-2.5 extensions.MP3 uses an overlapping MDCT structure.", "Each MPEG-1 MP3 frame is 1152 samples, divided into two granules of 576 samples.", "These samples, initially in the time domain, are transformed in one block to 576 frequency-domain samples by MDCT.", "MP3 also allows the use of shorter blocks in a granule, down to a size of 192 samples; this feature is used when a transient is detected.", "Doing so limits the temporal spread of quantization noise accompanying the transient (see psychoacoustics).", "Frequency resolution is limited by the small long block window size, which decreases coding efficiency.", "Time resolution can be too low for highly transient signals and may cause smearing of percussive sounds.Due to the tree structure of the filter bank, pre-echo problems are made worse, as the combined impulse response of the two filter banks does not, and cannot, provide an optimum solution in time/frequency resolution.", "Additionally, the combining of the two filter banks' outputs creates aliasing problems that must be handled partially by the \"aliasing compensation\" stage; however, that creates excess energy to be coded in the frequency domain, thereby decreasing coding efficiency.Decoding, on the other hand, is carefully defined in the standard.", "Most decoders are \"bitstream compliant\", which means that the decompressed output that they produce from a given MP3 file will be the same, within a specified degree of rounding tolerance, as the output specified mathematically in the ISO/IEC high standard document (ISO/IEC 11172-3).", "Therefore, the comparison of decoders is usually based on how computationally efficient they are (i.e., how much memory or CPU time they use in the decoding process).", "Over time this concern has become less of an issue as CPU clock rates transitioned from MHz to GHz.", "Encoder/decoder overall delay is not defined, which means there is no official provision for gapless playback.", "However, some encoders such as LAME can attach additional metadata that will allow players that can handle it to deliver seamless playback.=== Quality ===When performing lossy audio encoding, such as creating an MP3 data stream, there is a trade-off between the amount of data generated and the sound quality of the results.", "The person generating an MP3 selects a bit rate, which specifies how many kilobits per second of audio is desired.", "The higher the bit rate, the larger the MP3 data stream will be, and, generally, the closer it will sound to the original recording.", "With too low a bit rate, compression artifacts (i.e., sounds that were not present in the original recording) may be audible in the reproduction.", "Some audio is hard to compress because of its randomness and sharp attacks.", "When this type of audio is compressed, artifacts such as ringing or pre-echo are usually heard.", "A sample of applause or a triangle instrument with a relatively low bit rate provides good examples of compression artifacts.", "Most subjective testings of perceptual codecs tend to avoid using these types of sound materials, however, the artifacts generated by percussive sounds are barely perceptible due to the specific temporal masking feature of the 32 sub-band filterbank of Layer II on which the format is based.Besides the bit rate of an encoded piece of audio, the quality of MP3-encoded sound also depends on the quality of the encoder algorithm as well as the complexity of the signal being encoded.", "As the MP3 standard allows quite a bit of freedom with encoding algorithms, different encoders do feature quite different quality, even with identical bit rates.", "As an example, in a public listening test featuring two early MP3 encoders set at about 128 kbit/s, one scored 3.66 on a 1–5 scale, while the other scored only 2.22.Quality is dependent on the choice of encoder and encoding parameters.This observation caused a revolution in audio encoding.", "Early on bit rate was the prime and only consideration.", "At the time MP3 files were of the very simplest type: they used the same bit rate for the entire file: this process is known as constant bit rate (CBR) encoding.", "Using a constant bit rate makes encoding simpler and less CPU-intensive.", "However, it is also possible to optimize the size of the file by creating files where the bit rate changes throughout the file.", "These are known as variable bit rate.", "The bit reservoir and VBR encoding were part of the original MPEG-1 standard.", "The concept behind them is that, in any piece of audio, some sections are easier to compress, such as silence or music containing only a few tones, while others will be more difficult to compress.", "So, the overall quality of the file may be increased by using a lower bit rate for the less complex passages and a higher one for the more complex parts.", "With some advanced MP3 encoders, it is possible to specify a given quality, and the encoder will adjust the bit rate accordingly.", "Users that desire a particular \"quality setting\" that is transparent to their ears can use this value when encoding all of their music, and generally speaking not need to worry about performing personal listening tests on each piece of music to determine the correct bit rate.Perceived quality can be influenced by the listening environment (ambient noise), listener attention, listener training, and in most cases by listener audio equipment (such as sound cards, speakers, and headphones).", "Furthermore, sufficient quality may be achieved by a lesser quality setting for lectures and human speech applications and reduces encoding time and complexity.", "A test given to new students by Stanford University Music Professor Jonathan Berger showed that student preference for MP3-quality music has risen each year.", "Berger said the students seem to prefer the 'sizzle' sounds that MP3s bring to music.An in-depth study of MP3 audio quality, sound artist and composer Ryan Maguire's project \"The Ghost in the MP3\" isolates the sounds lost during MP3 compression.", "In 2015, he released the track \"moDernisT\" (an anagram of \"Tom's Diner\"), composed exclusively from the sounds deleted during MP3 compression of the song \"Tom's Diner\", the track originally used in the formulation of the MP3 standard.", "A detailed account of the techniques used to isolate the sounds deleted during MP3 compression, along with the conceptual motivation for the project, was published in the 2014 Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference.=== Bit rate ===+MPEG Audio Layer IIIavailable bit rates (kbit/s) MPEG-1Audio Layer III MPEG-2Audio Layer III MPEG-2.5Audio Layer III – 8 8 – 16 16 – 24 24 32 32 32 40 40 40 48 48 48 56 56 56 64 64 64 80 80 – 96 96 – 112 112 – 128 128 – n/a 144 – 160 160 – 192 – – 224 – – 256 – – 320 – –+Supported sampling ratesby MPEG Audio Format MPEG-1Audio Layer III MPEG-2Audio Layer III MPEG-2.5Audio Layer III – – 8 kHz – – 11.025 kHz – – 12 kHz – 16 kHz – – 22.05 kHz – – 24 kHz – 32 kHz – – 44.1 kHz – – 48 kHz – –Bit rate is the product of the sample rate and number of bits per sample used to encode the music.", "CD audio is 44100 samples per second.", "The number of bits per sample also depends on the number of audio channels.", "The CD is stereo and 16 bits per channel.", "So, multiplying 44100 by 32 gives 1411200—the bit rate of uncompressed CD digital audio.", "MP3 was designed to encode this 1411 kbit/s data at 320 kbit/s or less.", "As less complex passages are detected by MP3 algorithms then lower bit rates may be employed.", "When using MPEG-2 instead of MPEG-1, MP3 supports only lower sampling rates (16,000, 22,050, or 24,000 samples per second) and offers choices of bit rate as low as 8 kbit/s but no higher than 160 kbit/s.", "By lowering the sampling rate, MPEG-2 layer III removes all frequencies above half the new sampling rate that may have been present in the source audio.As shown in these two tables, 14 selected bit rates are allowed in MPEG-1 Audio Layer III standard: 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 80, 96, 112, 128, 160, 192, 224, 256 and 320 kbit/s, along with the 3 highest available sampling rates of 32, 44.1 and 48 kHz.", "MPEG-2 Audio Layer III also allows 14 somewhat different (and mostly lower) bit rates of 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 80, 96, 112, 128, 144, 160 kbit/s with sampling rates of 16, 22.05 and 24 kHz which are exactly half that of MPEG-1.MPEG-2.5 Audio Layer III frames are limited to only 8 bit rates of 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56 and 64 kbit/s with 3 even lower sampling rates of 8, 11.025, and 12 kHz.", "On earlier systems that only support the MPEG-1 Audio Layer III standard, MP3 files with a bit rate below 32 kbit/s might be played back sped-up and pitched-up.Earlier systems also lack fast forwarding and rewinding playback controls on MP3.MPEG-1 frames contain the most detail in 320 kbit/s mode, the highest allowable bit rate setting, with silence and simple tones still requiring 32 kbit/s.", "MPEG-2 frames can capture up to 12 kHz sound reproductions needed up to 160 kbit/s.", "MP3 files made with MPEG-2 do not have 20 kHz bandwidth because of the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem.", "Frequency reproduction is always strictly less than half of the sampling rate, and imperfect filters require a larger margin for error (noise level versus sharpness of filter), so an 8 kHz sampling rate limits the maximum frequency to 4 kHz, while a 48 kHz sampling rate limits an MP3 to a maximum 24 kHz sound reproduction.", "MPEG-2 uses half and MPEG-2.5 only a quarter of MPEG-1 sample rates.For the general field of human speech reproduction, a bandwidth of 5, 512 Hz is sufficient to produce excellent results (for voice) using the sampling rate of 11,025 and VBR encoding from 44,100 (standard) WAV file.", "English speakers average 41–42 kbit/s with -V 9.6 setting but this may vary with the amount of silence recorded or the rate of delivery (wpm).", "Resampling to 12,000 (6K bandwidth) is selected by the LAME parameter -V 9.4.Likewise -V 9.2 selects a 16,000 sample rate and a resultant 8K lowpass filtering.", "Older versions of LAME and FFmpeg only support integer arguments for the variable bit rate quality selection parameter.", "The n.nnn quality parameter (-V) is documented at lame.sourceforge.net but is only supported in LAME with the new style VBR variable bit rate quality selector—not average bit rate (ABR).A sample rate of 44.1 kHz is commonly used for music reproduction because this is also used for CD audio, the main source used for creating MP3 files.", "A great variety of bit rates are used on the Internet.", "A bit rate of 128 kbit/s is commonly used, at a compression ratio of 11:1, offering adequate audio quality in a relatively small space.", "As Internet bandwidth availability and hard drive sizes have increased, higher bit rates up to 320 kbit/s are widespread.", "Uncompressed audio as stored on an audio-CD has a bit rate of 1,411.2 kbit/s, (16 bit/sample × 44,100 samples/second × 2 channels / 1,000 bits/kilobit), so the bit rates 128, 160, and 192 kbit/s represent compression ratios of approximately 11:1, 9:1 and 7:1 respectively.Non-standard bit rates up to 640 kbit/s can be achieved with the LAME encoder and the free format option, although few MP3 players can play those files.", "According to the ISO standard, decoders are only required to be able to decode streams up to 320 kbit/s.", "Early MPEG Layer III encoders used what is now called constant bit rate (CBR).", "The software was only able to use a uniform bit rate on all frames in an MP3 file.", "Later more sophisticated MP3 encoders were able to use the bit reservoir to target an average bit rate selecting the encoding rate for each frame based on the complexity of the sound in that portion of the recording.A more sophisticated MP3 encoder can produce variable bit rate audio.", "MPEG audio may use bit rate switching on a per-frame basis, but only layer III decoders must support it.", "VBR is used when the goal is to achieve a fixed level of quality.", "The final file size of a VBR encoding is less predictable than with constant bit rate.", "Average bit rate is a type of VBR implemented as a compromise between the two: the bit rate is allowed to vary for more consistent quality, but is controlled to remain near an average value chosen by the user, for predictable file sizes.", "Although an MP3 decoder must support VBR to be standards compliant, historically some decoders have bugs with VBR decoding, particularly before VBR encoders became widespread.", "The most evolved LAME MP3 encoder supports the generation of VBR, ABR, and even the older CBR MP3 formats.Layer III audio can also use a \"bit reservoir\", a partially full frame's ability to hold part of the next frame's audio data, allowing temporary changes in effective bit rate, even in a constant bit rate stream.", "Internal handling of the bit reservoir increases encoding delay.", "There is no scale factor band 21 (sfb21) for frequencies above approx 16 kHz, forcing the encoder to choose between less accurate representation in band 21 or less efficient storage in all bands below band 21, the latter resulting in wasted bit rate in VBR encoding.=== Ancillary data ===The ancillary data field can be used to store user-defined data.", "The ancillary data is optional and the number of bits available is not explicitly given.", "The ancillary data is located after the Huffman code bits and ranges to where the next frame's main_data_begin points to.", "Encoder mp3PRO used ancillary data to encode extra information which could improve audio quality when decoded with its algorithm.=== Metadata ===A \"tag\" in an audio file is a section of the file that contains metadata such as the title, artist, album, track number, or other information about the file's contents.", "The MP3 standards do not define tag formats for MP3 files, nor is there a standard container format that would support metadata and obviate the need for tags.", "However, several ''de facto'' standards for tag formats exist.", "As of 2010, the most widespread are ID3v1 and ID3v2, and the more recently introduced APEv2.These tags are normally embedded at the beginning or end of MP3 files, separate from the actual MP3 frame data.", "MP3 decoders either extract information from the tags or just treat them as ignorable, non-MP3 junk data.Playing and editing software often contains tag editing functionality, but there are also tag editor applications dedicated to the purpose.", "Aside from metadata about the audio content, tags may also be used for DRM.", "ReplayGain is a standard for measuring and storing the loudness of an MP3 file (audio normalization) in its metadata tag, enabling a ReplayGain-compliant player to automatically adjust the overall playback volume for each file.", "MP3Gain may be used to reversibly modify files based on ReplayGain measurements so that adjusted playback can be achieved on players without ReplayGain capability." ], [ "{{anchor|Licensing and patent issues}}Licensing, ownership, and legislation", "The basic MP3 decoding and encoding technology is patent-free in the European Union, all patents having expired there by 2012 at the latest.", "In the United States, the technology became substantially patent-free on 16 April 2017 (see below).", "MP3 patents expired in the US between 2007 and 2017.In the past, many organizations have claimed ownership of patents related to MP3 decoding or encoding.", "These claims led to several legal threats and actions from a variety of sources.", "As a result, in countries that allow software patents, uncertainty about which patents must have been licensed to create MP3 products without committing patent infringement was common in the early stages of the technology's adoption.The initial near-complete MPEG-1 standard (parts 1, 2, and 3) was publicly available on 6 December 1991 as ISO CD 11172.In most countries, patents cannot be filed after prior art has been made public, and patents expire 20 years after the initial filing date, which can be up to 12 months later for filings in other countries.", "As a result, patents required to implement MP3 expired in most countries by December 2012, 21 years after the publication of ISO CD 11172.An exception is the United States, where patents in force but filed before 8 June 1995 expire after the later of 17 years from the issue date or 20 years from the priority date.", "A lengthy patent prosecution process may result in a patent issued much later than normally expected (see submarine patents).", "The various MP3-related patents expired on dates ranging from 2007 to 2017 in the United States.", "Patents for anything disclosed in ISO CD 11172 filed a year or more after its publication are questionable.", "If only the known MP3 patents filed by December 1992 are considered, then MP3 decoding has been patent-free in the US since 22 September 2015, when , which had a PCT filing in October 1992, expired.", "If the longest-running patent mentioned in the aforementioned references is taken as a measure, then the MP3 technology became patent-free in the United States on 16 April 2017, when , held and administered by Technicolor, expired.", "As a result, many free and open-source software projects, such as the Fedora operating system, have decided to start shipping MP3 support by default, and users will no longer have to resort to installing unofficial packages maintained by third party software repositories for MP3 playback or encoding.Technicolor (formerly called Thomson Consumer Electronics) claimed to control MP3 licensing of the Layer 3 patents in many countries, including the United States, Japan, Canada, and EU countries.", "Technicolor had been actively enforcing these patents.", "MP3 license revenues from Technicolor's administration generated about €100 million for the Fraunhofer Society in 2005.In September 1998, the Fraunhofer Institute sent a letter to several developers of MP3 software stating that a license was required to \"distribute and/or sell decoders and/or encoders\".", "The letter claimed that unlicensed products \"infringe the patent rights of Fraunhofer and Thomson.", "To make, sell or distribute products using the MPEG Layer-3 standard and thus our patents, you need to obtain a license under these patents from us.\"", "This led to the situation where the LAME MP3 encoder project could not offer its users official binaries that could run on their computer.", "The project's position was that as source code, LAME was simply a description of how an MP3 encoder ''could'' be implemented.", "Unofficially, compiled binaries were available from other sources.Sisvel S.p.A., a Luxembourg-based company, administers licenses for patents applying to MPEG Audio.", "They, along with its United States subsidiary Audio MPEG, Inc. previously sued Thomson for patent infringement on MP3 technology, but those disputes were resolved in November 2005 with Sisvel granting Thomson a license to their patents.", "Motorola followed soon after and signed with Sisvel to license MP3-related patents in December 2005.Except for three patents, the US patents administered by Sisvel had all expired in 2015.The three exceptions are: , expired February 2017; , expired February 2017; and , expired 9 April 2017.As of around the first quarter of 2023, Sisvel's licensing program has become a legacy.In September 2006, German officials seized MP3 players from SanDisk's booth at the IFA show in Berlin after an Italian patents firm won an injunction on behalf of Sisvel against SanDisk in a dispute over licensing rights.", "The injunction was later reversed by a Berlin judge, but that reversal was in turn blocked the same day by another judge from the same court, \"bringing the Patent Wild West to Germany\" in the words of one commentator.", "In February 2007, Texas MP3 Technologies sued Apple, Samsung Electronics and Sandisk in eastern Texas federal court, claiming infringement of a portable MP3 player patent that Texas MP3 said it had been assigned.", "Apple, Samsung, and Sandisk all settled the claims against them in January 2009.Alcatel-Lucent has asserted several MP3 coding and compression patents, allegedly inherited from AT&T-Bell Labs, in litigation of its own.", "In November 2006, before the companies' merger, Alcatel sued Microsoft for allegedly infringing seven patents.", "On 23 February 2007, a San Diego jury awarded Alcatel-Lucent US $1.52 billion in damages for infringement of two of them.", "The court subsequently revoked the award, however, finding that one patent had not been infringed and that the other was not owned by Alcatel-Lucent; it was co-owned by AT&T and Fraunhofer, who had licensed it to Microsoft, the judge ruled.", "That defense judgment was upheld on appeal in 2008." ], [ "Alternative technologies", "Other lossy formats exist.", "Among these, Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) is the most widely used, and was designed to be the successor to MP3.There also exist other lossy formats such as mp3PRO and MP2.They are members of the same technological family as MP3 and depend on roughly similar psychoacoustic models and MDCT algorithms.", "Whereas MP3 uses a hybrid coding approach that is part MDCT and part FFT, AAC is purely MDCT, significantly improving compression efficiency.", "Many of the basic patents underlying these formats are held by Fraunhofer Society, Alcatel-Lucent, Thomson Consumer Electronics, Bell, Dolby, LG Electronics, NEC, NTT Docomo, Panasonic, Sony Corporation, ETRI, JVC Kenwood, Philips, Microsoft, and NTT.When the digital audio player market was taking off, MP3 was widely adopted as the standard hence the popular name \"MP3 player\".", "Sony was an exception and used their own ATRAC codec taken from their MiniDisc format, which Sony claimed was better.", "Following criticism and lower than expected Walkman sales, in 2004 Sony for the first time introduced native MP3 support to its Walkman players.There are also open compression formats like Opus and Vorbis that are available free of charge and without any known patent restrictions.", "Some of the newer audio compression formats, such as AAC, WMA Pro, Vorbis, and Opus, are free of some limitations inherent to the MP3 format that cannot be overcome by any MP3 encoder.Besides lossy compression methods, lossless formats are a significant alternative to MP3 because they provide unaltered audio content, though with an increased file size compared to lossy compression.", "Lossless formats include FLAC (Free Lossless Audio Codec), Apple Lossless and many others." ], [ "See also", "*MP3 Surround*MPEG-1 Audio Layer II (MP2)*Advanced Audio Coding (AAC)*Vorbis (OGG)*Windows Media Audio (WMA)*Opus*Comparison of audio coding formats*Portable media player" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * MP3-history.com, The Story of MP3: How MP3 was invented, by Fraunhofer IIS.", "* MP3 News Archive.", "– over 1000 articles from 1999 to 2011 focused on MP3 and digital audio.", "* MPEG.chiariglione.org – MPEG official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 15" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 221 – Liu Bei, Chinese warlord, proclaims himself emperor of Shu Han, the successor of the Han dynasty.", "* 392 – Emperor Valentinian II is assassinated while advancing into Gaul against the Frankish usurper Arbogast.", "He is found hanging in his residence at Vienne.", "* 589 – King Authari marries Theodelinda, daughter of the Bavarian duke Garibald I.", "A Catholic, she has great influence among the Lombard nobility.", "* 756 – Abd al-Rahman I, the founder of the Arab dynasty that ruled the greater part of Iberia for nearly three centuries, becomes emir of Cordova, Spain.", "*1252 – Pope Innocent IV issues the papal bull ''ad extirpanda'', which authorizes, but also limits, the torture of heretics in the Medieval Inquisition.", "*1525 – Insurgent peasants led by Anabaptist pastor Thomas Müntzer were defeated at the Battle of Frankenhausen, ending the German Peasants' War in the Holy Roman Empire.", "*1536 – Anne Boleyn, Queen of England, stands trial in London on charges of treason, adultery and incest; she is condemned to death by a specially-selected jury.===1601–1900===*1602 – Cape Cod is sighted by English navigator Bartholomew Gosnold.", "*1618 – Johannes Kepler confirms his previously rejected discovery of the third law of planetary motion (he first discovered it on March 8 but soon rejected the idea after some initial calculations were made).", "*1648 – The Peace of Münster is ratified, by which Spain acknowledges Dutch sovereignty.", "*1791 – French Revolution: Maximilien Robespierre proposes the Self-denying Ordinance.", "*1817 – Opening of the first private mental health hospital in the United States, the Asylum for the Relief of Persons Deprived of the Use of Their Reason (now Friends Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania).", "*1836 – Francis Baily observes \"Baily's beads\" during an annular eclipse.", "*1849 – The Sicilian revolution of 1848 is finally extinguished.", "* 1850 – The Arana–Southern Treaty is ratified, ending \"the existing differences\" between Great Britain and Argentina.", "*1851 – The first Australian gold rush is proclaimed, although the discovery had been made three months earlier.", "*1864 – American Civil War: Battle of New Market, Virginia: Students from the Virginia Military Institute fight alongside the Confederate army to force Union General Franz Sigel out of the Shenandoah Valley.", "*1891 – Pope Leo XIII defends workers' rights and property rights in the encyclical ''Rerum novarum'', the beginning of modern Catholic social teaching.===1901–present===*1905 – The city of Las Vegas is founded in Nevada, United States.", "*1911 – In ''Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States'', the United States Supreme Court declares Standard Oil to be an \"unreasonable\" monopoly under the Sherman Antitrust Act and orders the company to be broken up.", "* 1911 – More than 300 Chinese immigrants are killed in the Torreón massacre when the forces of the Mexican Revolution led by Emilio Madero take the city of Torreón from the Federales.", "*1918 – The Finnish Civil War ends when the Whites took over Fort Ino, a Russian coastal artillery base on the Karelian Isthmus, from the Russian troops.", "*1919 – The Winnipeg general strike begins.", "By 11:00, almost the whole working population of Winnipeg had walked off the job.", "* 1919 – Greek occupation of Smyrna.", "During the occupation, the Greek army kills or wounds 350 Turks; those responsible are punished by Greek commander Aristides Stergiades.", "*1929 – A fire at the Cleveland Clinic in Cleveland, Ohio kills 123.", "*1932 – In an attempted coup d'état, the Prime Minister of Japan Inukai Tsuyoshi is assassinated.", "*1933 – All military aviation organizations within or under the control of the RLM of Germany were officially merged in a covert manner to form its Wehrmacht military's air arm, the Luftwaffe.", "*1934 – A self coup by prime minister Kārlis Ulmanis succeeded in Latvia, suspending its constitution and dissolving its Saeima.", "*1940 – is recommissioned.", "It was originally the USS ''Squalus''.", "* 1940 – World War II: The Battle of the Netherlands: After fierce fighting, the poorly trained and equipped Dutch troops surrender to Germany, marking the beginning of five years of occupation.", "* 1940 – Richard and Maurice McDonald open the first McDonald's restaurant.", "*1941 – First flight of the Gloster E.28/39 the first British and Allied jet aircraft.", "*1942 – World War II: In the United States, a bill creating the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) is signed into law.", "*1943 – Joseph Stalin dissolves the Comintern (or ''Third International'').", "*1945 – World War II: The Battle of Poljana, the final skirmish in Europe is fought near Prevalje, Slovenia.", "*1948 – Following the expiration of The British Mandate for Palestine, the Kingdom of Egypt, Transjordan, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq and Saudi Arabia invade Israel thus starting the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.", "*1957 – At Malden Island in the Pacific Ocean, Britain tests its first hydrogen bomb in Operation Grapple.", "*1963 – Project Mercury: The launch of the final Mercury mission, Mercury-Atlas 9 with astronaut Gordon Cooper on board.", "He becomes the first American to spend more than a day in space, and the last American to go into space alone.", "*1970 – President Richard Nixon appoints Anna Mae Hays and Elizabeth P. Hoisington the first female United States Army generals.", "*1972 – The Ryukyu Islands, under U.S. military governance since its conquest in 1945, reverts to Japanese control.", "*1974 – Ma'alot massacre: Members of the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine attack and take hostages at an Israeli school; a total of 31 people are killed, including 22 schoolchildren.", "*1988 – Soviet–Afghan War: After more than eight years of fighting, the Soviet Army begins to withdraw 115,000 troops from Afghanistan.", "*1991 – Édith Cresson becomes France's first female Prime Minister.", "*1997 – The United States government acknowledges the existence of the \"Secret War\" in Laos and dedicates the Laos Memorial in honor of Hmong and other \"Secret War\" veterans.", "* 1997 – The Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' launches on STS-84 to dock with the Russian space station ''Mir''.", "*2001 – A CSX EMD SD40-2 rolls out of a train yard in Walbridge, Ohio, with 47 freight cars, including some tank cars with flammable chemical, after its engineer fails to reboard it after setting a yard switch.", "It travels south driverless for 66 miles (106 km) until it was brought to a halt near Kenton.", "The incident became the inspiration for the 2010 film ''Unstoppable''.", "*2004 – Arsenal F.C.", "go an entire league campaign unbeaten in the English Premier League, joining Preston North End F.C.", "with the right to claim the title \"The Invincibles\".", "*2008 – California becomes the second U.S. state after Massachusetts in 2004 to legalize same-sex marriage after the state's own Supreme Court rules a previous ban unconstitutional.", "*2010 – Jessica Watson becomes the youngest person to sail, non-stop and unassisted around the world solo.", "*2013 – An upsurge in violence in Iraq leaves more than 389 people dead over three days." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1397 – Sejong the Great, Korean king of Joseon (d. 1450)*1531 – Maria of Austria, Duchess of Jülich-Cleves-Berg (d. 1581)*1565 – Hendrick de Keyser, Dutch sculptor and architect (d. 1621)*1567 – Claudio Monteverdi, Italian priest and composer (d. 1643)===1601–1900===*1608 – René Goupil, French-American missionary and saint (d. 1642)*1633 – Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, French noble (d. 1707)*1645 – George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys, British judge (d. 1689)*1689 – Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, English writer (d. 1762)*1720 – Maximilian Hell, Hungarian priest and astronomer (d. 1792)*1749 – Levi Lincoln Sr., American lawyer and politician, 4th United States Attorney General (d. 1820)*1759 – Maria Theresia von Paradis, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1824)*1770 – Ezekiel Hart, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1843)*1773 – Klemens von Metternich, German-Austrian politician, 1st State Chancellor of the Austrian Empire (d. 1859)*1786 – Dimitris Plapoutas, Greek general and politician (d. 1864)*1803 – Juan Almonte, son of José María Morelos, was a Mexican soldier and diplomat who served as a regent in the Second Mexican Empire (d. 1869)*1805 – Samuel Carter, English railway solicitor and Member of Parliament (MP) (d. 1878)*1808 – Michael William Balfe, Irish composer and conductor (d. 1870)*1817 – Debendranath Tagore, Indian philosopher and author (d. 1905)*1841 – Clarence Dutton, American commander and geologist (d. 1912)*1845 – Élie Metchnikoff, Russian zoologist (d. 1916)*1848 – Viktor Vasnetsov, Russian painter and illustrator (d. 1926)* 1848 – Carl Wernicke, German neuropathologist.", "(d. 1905)*1854 – Ioannis Psycharis, Ukrainian-French philologist and author (d. 1929)*1856 – L. Frank Baum, American novelist (d. 1919)* 1856 – Matthias Zurbriggen, Swiss mountaineer (d. 1917)*1857 – Williamina Fleming, Scottish-American astronomer and academic (d. 1911)*1859 – Pierre Curie, French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1906)*1862 – Arthur Schnitzler, Austrian author and playwright (d. 1931)*1863 – Frank Hornby, English businessman and politician, invented Meccano (d. 1936)*1869 – Paul Probst, Swiss target shooter (d. 1945)* 1869 – John Storey, Australian politician, 20th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1921) *1873 – Oskari Tokoi, Finnish socialist and the Chairman of the Senate of Finland (d. 1963)*1882 – Walter White, Scottish international footballer (d. 1950)*1890 – Katherine Anne Porter, American short story writer, novelist, and essayist (d. 1980)*1891 – Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian novelist and playwright (d. 1940)* 1891 – Hjalmar Dahl, Finnish journalist, translator and writer (d. 1960)* 1891 – Fritz Feigl, Austrian-Brazilian chemist and academic (d. 1971)*1892 – Charles E. Rosendahl, American admiral (d. 1977)* 1892 – Jimmy Wilde, Welsh boxer (d. 1969)*1893 – José Nepomuceno, Filipino filmmaker, founder of Philippine cinema (d. 1959)*1894 – Feg Murray, American hurdler and cartoonist (d. 1973)*1895 – Prescott Bush, American captain, banker, and politician (d. 1972)* 1895 – William D. Byron, American lieutenant and politician (d. 1941)*1898 – Arletty, French model, actress, and singer (d. 1992)*1899 – Jean Étienne Valluy, French general (d. 1970)*1900 – Ida Rhodes, American mathematician, pioneer in computer programming (d. 1986) ===1901–present===*1901 – Xavier Herbert, Australian author (d. 1984)* 1901 – Luis Monti, Argentinian-Italian footballer and manager (d. 1983)*1902 – Richard J. Daley, American lawyer and politician, 48th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1976)* 1902 – Sigizmund Levanevsky, Soviet aircraft pilot of Polish origin (d. 1937)*1903 – Maria Reiche, German mathematician and archaeologist (d. 1998)*1904 – Clifton Fadiman, American game show host and author (d. 1999)*1905 – Joseph Cotten, American actor (d. 1994)* 1905 – Albert Dubout, French cartoonist, illustrator, painter, and sculptor (d. 1976)* 1905 – Abraham Zapruder, American businessman and amateur photographer, filmed the Zapruder film (d. 1970)*1907 – Sukhdev Thapar, Indian activist (d. 1931)*1909 – James Mason, English actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1984)* 1909 – Clara Solovera, Chilean singer-songwriter (d. 1992)*1910 – Constance Cummings, British-based American actress (d. 2005)*1911 – Max Frisch, Swiss playwright and novelist (d. 1991)* 1911 – Herta Oberheuser, German physician (d. 1978)*1912 – Arthur Berger, American composer and educator (d. 2003)*1914 – Turk Broda, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1972)* 1914 – Angus MacLean, Canadian farmer and politician, 25th Premier of Prince Edward Island (d. 2000)* 1914 – Norrie Paramor, English composer, producer, and conductor (d. 1979)*1915 – Hilda Bernstein, English-South African author and activist (d. 2006)* 1915 – Paul Samuelson, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2009)* 1915 – Henrik Sandberg, Danish production manager and producer (d. 1993)*1916 – Vera Gebuhr, Danish actress (d. 2014)*1918 – Eddy Arnold, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2008)* 1918 – Arthur Jackson, American lieutenant and target shooter (d. 2015)* 1918 – Joseph Wiseman, Canadian-American actor (d. 2009)*1920 – Michel Audiard, French director and screenwriter (d. 1985)*1921 – Federico Krutwig, Basque writer, member of ETA and translator (d. 1998)*1922 – Sigurd Ottovich Schmidt, Russian historian and ethnographer (d. 2013)* 1922 – Jakucho Setouchi, Japanese nun and author (d. 2021)*1923 – Richard Avedon, American sailor and photographer (d. 2004)* 1923 – John Lanchbery, English-Australian composer and conductor (d. 2003)*1924 – Maria Koepcke, German-Peruvian ornithologist and zoologist (d. 1971)*1925 – Andrei Eshpai, Russian pianist and composer (d. 2015)* 1925 – Mary F. Lyon, English geneticist and biologist (d. 2014)* 1925 – Carl Sanders, American soldier, pilot, and politician, 74th Governor of Georgia (d. 2014)* 1925 – Roy Stewart, Jamaican-English actor and stuntman (d. 2008)*1926 – Clermont Pépin, Canadian pianist, composer, and educator (d. 2006)* 1926 – Anthony Shaffer, English author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 2001)* 1926 – Peter Shaffer, English playwright and screenwriter (d. 2016)*1930 – Jasper Johns, American painter and sculptor*1931 – Ken Venturi, American golfer and sportscaster (d. 2013)* 1931 – James Fitz-Allen Mitchell, Vincentian politician and agronomist, 2nd Prime Minister of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (d. 2021)*1935 – Don Bragg, American pole vaulter (d. 2019)* 1935 – Ted Dexter, Italian-English cricketer (d. 2021)* 1935 – Utah Phillips, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2008)* 1935 – Akihiro Miwa, Japanese singer, actor, director, composer, author and drag queen*1936 – Anna Maria Alberghetti, Italian-American actress and singer* 1936 – Mart Laga, Estonian basketball player (d. 1977)* 1936 – Ralph Steadman, English painter and illustrator* 1936 – Paul Zindel, American playwright and novelist (d. 2003)*1937 – Madeleine Albright, Czech-American politician and diplomat, 64th United States Secretary of State (d. 2022)* 1937 – Karin Krog, Norwegian singer* 1937 – Trini Lopez, American singer, guitarist, and actor (d. 2020)*1938 – Mireille Darc, French actress, director, and screenwriter (d. 2017)* 1938 – Nancy Garden, American author (d. 2014)*1939 – Dorothy Shirley, English high jumper and educator*1940 – Roger Ailes, American businessman (d. 2017)* 1940 – Lainie Kazan, American actress and singer* 1940 – Don Nelson, American basketball player and coach*1941 – Jaxon, American illustrator and publisher, co-founded the ''Rip Off Press'' (d. 2006)*1942 – Lois Johnson, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014)* 1942 – Jusuf Kalla, Indonesian businessman and politician, 10th Vice President of Indonesia* 1942 – Doug Lowe, Australian politician, 35th Premier of Tasmania* 1942 – K. T. Oslin, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2020)*1943 – Paul Bégin, Canadian lawyer and politician* 1943 – Freddie Perren, American songwriter, producer, and conductor (d. 2004)*1944 – Bill Alter, American police officer and politician* 1944 – Ulrich Beck, German sociologist and academic (d. 2015)*1945 – Michael Dexter, English hematologist and academic* 1945 – Jerry Quarry, American boxer (d. 1999)*1946 – Thadeus Nguyễn Văn Lý, Vietnamese priest and activist*1947 – Graeham Goble, Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist and producer*1948 – Kate Bornstein, American author, playwright, performance artist, and gender theorist* 1948 – Yutaka Enatsu, Japanese baseball player* 1948 – Brian Eno, English singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer* 1948 – Kathleen Sebelius, American politician, 44th Governor of Kansas*1949 – Frank L. Culbertson Jr., American captain, pilot, and astronaut* 1949 – Robert S.J.", "Sparks, English geologist and academic*1950 – Jim Bacon, Australian politician, 41st Premier of Tasmania (d. 2004)* 1950 – Jim Simons, American golfer (d. 2005)*1951 – Dennis Frederiksen, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014)* 1951 – Chris Ham, English political scientist and academic* 1951 – Frank Wilczek, American mathematician and physicist, Nobel Prize laureate*1952 – Chazz Palminteri, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1953 – George Brett, American baseball player and coach* 1953 – Athene Donald, English physicist and academic* 1953 – Mike Oldfield, English-Irish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer *1954 – Diana Liverman, English-American geographer and academic* 1954 – Caroline Thomson, English journalist and broadcaster*1955 – Mohamed Brahmi, Tunisian politician (d. 2013)* 1955 – Lia Vissi, Cypriot singer-songwriter and politician*1956 – Andreas Loverdos, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Labour* 1956 – Dan Patrick, American television anchor and sportscaster * 1956 – Kevin Greenaugh, American nuclear engineer*1957 – Meg Gardiner, American-English author and academic* 1957 – Juan José Ibarretxe, Spanish politician* 1957 – Kevin Von Erich, American football player and wrestler*1958 – Jason Graae, American musical theater actor* 1958 – Ruth Marcus, American journalist* 1958 – Ron Simmons, American football player and wrestler*1959 – Khaosai Galaxy, Thai boxer and politician* 1959 – Luis Pérez-Sala, Spanish race car driver* 1959 – Beverly Jo Scott, American-Belgian singer-songwriter*1960 – Rhonda Burchmore, Australian actress, singer, and dancer* 1960 – Rob Bowman, American director and producer* 1960 – R. Kuhaneswaran, Sri Lankan politician* 1960 – Rimas Kurtinaitis, Lithuanian basketball player and coach*1961 – Giselle Fernández, Mexican-American television journalist.", "*1962 – Lisa Curry, Australian swimmer *1963 – Gavin Nebbeling, South African footballer*1964 – Lars Løkke Rasmussen, Danish lawyer and politician, 40th Prime Minister of Denmark*1965 – André Abujamra, Brazilian singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1965 – Scott Tronc, Australian rugby league player*1966 – Jiří Němec, Czech footballer*1967 – Simen Agdestein, Norwegian chess grandmaster and football player* 1967 – Laura Hillenbrand, American journalist and author* 1967 – John Smoltz, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1967 – Madhuri Dixit, Indian actress*1968 – Cecilia Malmström, Swedish academic and politician, 15th European Commissioner for Trade* 1968 – Sophie Raworth, English journalist and broadcaster*1969 – Hideki Irabu, Japanese-American baseball player (d. 2011)* 1969 – Emmitt Smith, American football player and sportscaster*1970 – Frank de Boer, Dutch footballer and manager* 1970 – Ronald de Boer, Dutch footballer and manager* 1970 – Desmond Howard, American football player and sportscaster* 1970 – Alison Jackson, English photographer, director, and screenwriter* 1970 – Rod Smith, American football player* 1970 – Ben Wallace, English captain and politician*1971 – Karin Lušnic, Slovenian tennis player*1972 – Danny Alexander, Scottish politician, Secretary of State for Scotland* 1972 – David Charvet, French actor and singer*1974 – Vasilis Kikilias, Greek basketball player and politician* 1974 – Matthew Sadler, English chess player and author* 1974 – Marko Tredup, German footballer and manager* 1974 – Ahmet Zappa, American musician and writer*1975 – Ray Lewis, American football player and sportscaster* 1975 – Ales Michalevic, Belarusian lawyer and politician* 1975 – Janne Seurujärvi, Finnish Sami politician, and the first Sami ever to be elected to the Finnish Parliament.", "*1976 – Torraye Braggs, American basketball player* 1976 – Mark Kennedy, Irish footballer* 1976 – Jacek Krzynówek, Polish footballer* 1976 – Ryan Leaf, American football player and coach* 1976 – Anže Logar, Slovenian politician* 1976 – Tyler Walker, American baseball player*1978 – Amy Chow, American gymnast and pediatrician* 1978 – Dwayne De Rosario, Canadian soccer player * 1978 – Edu, Brazilian footballer* 1978 – David Krumholtz, American actor *1979 – Adolfo Bautista, Mexican footballer* 1979 – Daniel Caines, English sprinter* 1979 – Chris Masoe, New Zealand rugby player* 1979 – Ryan Max Riley, American skier * 1979 – Robert Royal, American football player* 1979 – Dominic Scott, Irish guitarist*1980 – Josh Beckett, American baseball player*1981 – Patrice Evra, French footballer* 1981 – Paul Konchesky, English international footballer* 1981 – Justin Morneau, Canadian baseball player* 1981 – Zara Phillips, English equestrian * 1981 – Jamie-Lynn Sigler, American actress and singer*1982 – Veronica Campbell-Brown, Jamaican sprinter* 1982 – Segundo Castillo, Ecuadorian footballer* 1982 – Rafael Pérez, Dominican baseball player* 1982 – Layal Abboud, Lebanese singer*1984 – Jeff Deslauriers, Canadian ice hockey player* 1984 – Sérgio Jimenez, Brazilian race car driver* 1984 – Samantha Noble, Australian actress* 1984 – Beau Scott, Australian rugby league player* 1984 – Mr Probz, Dutch singer, songwriter, rapper, actor and record producer *1985 – Cristiane, Brazilian footballer* 1985 – Tania Cagnotto, Italian diver* 1985 – Laura Harvey, English football coach* 1985 – Tathagata Mukherjee, Indian actor* 1985 – Denis Onyango, Ugandan football goalkeeper* 1985 – Justine Robbeson, South African javelin thrower*1986 – Thomas Brown, American football player* 1986 – Matías Fernández, Chilean footballer* 1986 – Adam Moffat, Scottish footballer*1987 – David Adams, American baseball player* 1987 – Michael Brantley, American baseball player* 1987 – Brian Dozier, American baseball player* 1987 – Mark Fayne, American ice hockey player* 1987 – Ersan İlyasova, Turkish basketball player* 1987 – Leonardo Mayer, Argentinian tennis player* 1987 – Andy Murray, Scottish tennis player*1988 – Indrek Kajupank, Estonian basketball player* 1988 – Scott Laird, English footballer*1989 – Susan Soonkyu Lee, Korean-American singer and entertainer* 1989 – Mapou Yanga-Mbiwa, French footballer*1990 – Jordan Eberle, Canadian ice hockey player* 1990 – Lee Jong-hyun, Korean guitarist* 1990 – Stella Maxwell, New Zealand model *1993 – Jeremy Hawkins, New Zealand rugby league player* 1993 – Tomáš Kalas, Czech international footballer*1996 – Birdy, English singer-songwriter*1997 – Ousmane Dembélé, French footballer* 1997 – Scott Drinkwater, Australian rugby league player*1998 – Lucrezia Stefanini, Italian tennis player*1999 – Anastasia Gasanova, Russian tennis player*2000 – Dayana Yastremska, Ukrainian tennis player*2002 – Chase Hudson, American internet celebrity, singer, actor" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 392 – Valentinian II, Roman emperor (b.", "371)* 558 – Hilary of Galeata, Christian monk (b.", "476)* 884 – Marinus I, pope of the Catholic Church (b.", "830) * 913 – Hatto I, German archbishop (b.", "850)* 926 – Zhuang Zong, Chinese emperor (b.", "885)* 973 – Byrhthelm, bishop of Wells *1036 – Go-Ichijō, emperor of Japan (b.", "1008)*1157 – Yuri Dolgorukiy, Grand Prince of Kiev (b.", "1099)*1175 – Mleh, prince of Armenia*1174 – Nur ad-Din, Seljuk emir of Syria (b.", "1118)*1268 – Peter II, count of Savoy (b.", "1203)*1461 – Domenico Veneziano, Italian painter (b. c. 1410)*1464 – Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset (b.", "1436)*1470 – Charles VIII, king of Sweden (b.", "1409)*1585 – Niwa Nagahide, Japanese samurai (b.", "1535)===1601–1900===*1609 – Giovanni Croce, Italian composer and educator (b.", "1557)*1615 – Henry Bromley, English politician (b.", "1560)*1634 – Hendrick Avercamp, Dutch painter (b.", "1585)*1698 – Marie Champmeslé, French actress (b.", "1642)*1699 – Sir Edward Petre, 3rd Baronet, English politician (b.", "1631)*1700 – John Hale, American minister (b.", "1636)*1740 – Ephraim Chambers, English publisher (b.", "1680)*1773 – Alban Butler, English priest and hagiographer (b.", "1710)*1845 – Braulio Carrillo Colina, Costa Rican lawyer and politician, Head of State of Costa Rica (b.", "1800)*1879 – Gottfried Semper, German architect and educator, designed the Semper Opera House (b.", "1803)*1886 – Emily Dickinson, American poet and author (b.", "1830)===1901–present===*1914 – Ida Freund, Austrian-born chemist and educator (b.", "1863)*1919 – Hasan Tahsin, Turkish journalist (b.", "1888)*1924 – Paul-Henri-Benjamin d'Estournelles de Constant, French diplomat and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1852)*1926 – Joseph James Fletcher, Australian biologist (b.", "1850)*1928 – Umegatani Tōtarō I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 15th Yokozuna (b.", "1845)*1935 – Kazimir Malevich, Ukrainian-Russian painter and theoretician (b.", "1878)*1937 – Philip Snowden, 1st Viscount Snowden, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b.", "1864)*1945 – Kenneth J. Alford, English soldier, bandmaster, and composer (b.", "1881)* 1945 – Charles Williams, English author, poet, and critic (b.", "1886)*1948 – Edward J. Flanagan, Irish-American priest, founded Boys Town (b.", "1886)*1954 – William March, American soldier and author (b.", "1893)*1955 – Harry J. Capehart, American lawyer, politician, and businessperson (b.", "1881)*1956 – Austin Osman Spare, English painter and magician (b.", "1886)*1957 – Keith Andrews, American race car driver (b.", "1920)* 1957 – Dick Irvin, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1892)*1963 – John Aglionby, English-born Bishop of Accra and soldier (b.", "1884)*1964 – Vladko Maček, Croatian lawyer and politician (b.", "1879)*1965 – Pio Pion, Italian businessman (b.", "1887)*1967 – Edward Hopper, American painter (b.", "1882)* 1967 – Italo Mus, Italian painter (b.", "1892)*1969 – Joe Malone, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1890)*1971 – Tyrone Guthrie, English director, producer, and playwright (b.", "1900)*1978 – Robert Menzies, Australian lawyer and politician, 12th Prime Minister of Australia (b.", "1894)*1980 – Gordon Prange, American historian and author (b.", "1910)*1982 – Gordon Smiley, American race car driver (b.", "1946)*1984 – Francis Schaeffer, American pastor, theologian, and philosopher (b.", "1912)*1985 – Jackie Curtis, American actress and writer (b.", "1947)*1986 – Elio de Angelis, Italian race car driver (b.", "1958)* 1986 – Theodore H. White, American historian, journalist, and author (b.", "1915)*1989 – Johnny Green, American composer and conductor (b.", "1908)* 1989 – Luc Lacourcière, Canadian ethnographer and author (b.", "1910)*1991 – Andreas Floer, German mathematician and academic (b.", "1956)* 1991 – Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Malian ethnologist and author (b.", "1901)* 1991 – Fritz Riess, German race car driver (b.", "1922)*1993 – Salah Ahmed Ibrahim, Sudanese poet and diplomat (b.", "1933)*1994 – Gilbert Roland, American actor (b.", "1905)*1995 – Eric Porter, English actor (b.", "1928)*1996 – Charles B. Fulton, American lawyer and judge (b.", "1910)*1998 – Earl Manigault, American basketball player (b.", "1944)* 1998 – Naim Talu, Turkish economist, banker, politician, 15th Prime Minister of Turkey (b.", "1919)*2003 – June Carter Cash, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress (b.", "1929)*2006 – Nizar Abdul Zahra, Iraqi footballer (b.", "1961)*2007 – Jerry Falwell, American pastor, founded Liberty University (b.", "1933)*2008 – Tommy Burns, Scottish footballer and manager (b.", "1956)* 2008 – Alexander Courage, American composer and conductor (b.", "1919)* 2008 – Will Elder, American illustrator (b.", "1921)*2009 – Bud Tingwell, Australian actor, director, and producer (b.", "1923)* 2009 – Wayman Tisdale, American basketball player and bass player (b.", "1964)*2010 – Besian Idrizaj, Austrian footballer (b.", "1987)* 2010 – Loris Kessel, Swiss race car driver (b.", "1950)*2012 – Carlos Fuentes, Mexican novelist and essayist (b.", "1928)* 2012 – Arno Lustiger, German historian and author (b.", "1924)* 2012 – Zakaria Mohieddin, Egyptian soldier and politician, 33rd Prime Minister of Egypt (b.", "1918)*2013 – Henrique Rosa, Bissau-Guinean politician, President of Guinea-Bissau (b.", "1946)*2014 – Jean-Luc Dehaene, French-Belgian politician, 63rd Prime Minister of Belgium (b.", "1940)* 2014 – Noribumi Suzuki, Japanese director and screenwriter (b.", "1933)*2015 – Elisabeth Bing, German-American physical therapist and author (b.", "1914)* 2015 – Jackie Brookner, American sculptor and educator (b.", "1945)* 2015 – Flora MacNeil, Scottish Gaelic singer (b.", "1928)* 2015 – Garo Yepremian, Cypriot-American football player (b.", "1944)*2020 – Fred Willard, American actor, comedian, and writer (b.", "1933)*2021 – Oliver Gillie, British journalist and scientist (b.", "1937)*2022 – Frank Curry, Australian rugby league player and coach (b.", "1950)* 2022 – Kay Mellor, English actress (b.", "1951)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Aoi Matsuri (Kyoto)*Army Day (Slovenia)*Christian feast day:**Achillius of Larissa**Athanasius of Alexandria (Coptic Church)**Dymphna**Hallvard Vebjørnsson (Roman Catholic Church)**Hesychius of Cazorla**Hilary of Galeata**Isidore the Laborer, celebrated with festivals in various countries, the beginning of bullfighting season in Madrid.", "**Jean-Baptiste de La Salle (Roman Catholic Church)**Peter, Andrew, Paul, and Denise (Roman Catholic Church)**Reticius (Roman Catholic Church)**Sophia of Rome (Roman Catholic church)**May 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Constituent Assembly Day (Lithuania)*Independence Day (Paraguay), celebrates the independence of Paraguay from Spain in 1811.Celebrations for the anniversary of the independence begin on Flag Day, May 14.", "*International Conscientious Objectors Day*International Day of Families (International)*La Corsa dei Ceri begins on the eve of the feast day of Saint Ubaldo.", "(Gubbio)*Mother's Day (Paraguay)*Nakba Day (Palestinian communities)*Peace Officers Memorial Day (United States)*Republic Day (Lithuania)*Teachers' Day (Colombia, Mexico and South Korea)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 15" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 13" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1373 – Julian of Norwich has visions of Jesus while suffering from a life-threatening illness, visions which are later described and interpreted in her book ''Revelations of Divine Love''.", "*1501 – Amerigo Vespucci, this time under Portuguese flag, set sail for western lands.", "*1568 – Mary Queen of Scots is defeated at the Battle of Langside, part of the civil war between Queen Mary and the supporters of her son, James VI.===1601–1900===*1612 – Sword duel between Miyamoto Musashi and Sasaki Kojiro on the shores of Ganryū Island.", "Kojiro dies at the end.", "*1619 – Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is executed in The Hague after being convicted of treason.", "*1654 – A Venetian fleet under Admiral Cort Adeler breaks through a line of galleys and defeats the Turkish navy.", "*1779 – War of the Bavarian Succession: Russian and French mediators at the Congress of Teschen negotiate an end to the war.", "In the agreement Austria receives the part of its territory that was taken from it (the Innviertel).", "*1780 – The Cumberland Compact is signed by leaders of the settlers in the Cumberland River area of what would become the U.S. state of Tennessee, providing for democratic government and a formal system of justice.", "*1804 – Forces sent by Yusuf Karamanli of Tripoli to retake Derna from the Americans attack the city.", "*1830 – Ecuador gains its independence from Gran Colombia.", "*1846 – Mexican–American War: The United States declares war on the Federal Republic of Mexico following a dispute over the American annexation of the Republic of Texas and a Mexican military incursion.", "*1861 – American Civil War: Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom issues a \"proclamation of neutrality\" which recognizes the Confederacy as having belligerent rights.", "* 1861 – The Great Comet of 1861 is discovered by John Tebbutt of Windsor, New South Wales, Australia.", "* 1861 – Pakistan's (then a part of British India) first railway line opens, from Karachi to Kotri.", "*1862 – The , a steamer and gunship, steals through Confederate lines and is passed to the Union, by a southern slave, Robert Smalls, who later was officially appointed as captain, becoming the first black man to command a United States ship.", "*1888 – With the passage of the ''Lei Áurea'' (\"Golden Law\"), the Empire of Brazil abolishes slavery.===1901–present===*1909 – The first edition of the Giro d'Italia, a long-distance multiple-stage bicycle race, began in Milan; the Italian cyclist Luigi Ganna was the eventual winner.", "*1912 – The Royal Flying Corps, the forerunner of the Royal Air Force, is established in the United Kingdom.", "*1917 – Three children report the first apparition of Our Lady of Fátima in Fátima, Portugal.", "*1940 – World War II: Germany's conquest of France begins, as the German army crosses the Meuse.", "Winston Churchill makes his \"blood, toil, tears, and sweat\" speech to the House of Commons.", "*1941 – World War II: Yugoslav royal colonel Dragoljub Mihailović starts fighting against German occupation troops, beginning the Serbian resistance.", "*1943 – World War II: Operations Vulcan and Strike force the surrender of the last Axis troops in Tunisia.", "*1945 – World War II: Yevgeny Khaldei's photograph ''Raising a Flag over the Reichstag'' is published in ''Ogonyok'' magazine.", "*1948 – Arab–Israeli War: The Kfar Etzion massacre occurs, a day prior to the Israeli Declaration of Independence.", "*1950 – The inaugural Formula One World Championship race takes place at Silverstone Circuit.", "The race was won by Giuseppe Farina, who would go on to become the inaugural champion that year.", "*1951 – The 400th anniversary of the founding of the National University of San Marcos is commemorated by the opening of the first large-capacity stadium in Peru.", "*1952 – The Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India, holds its first sitting.", "*1954 – The anti-National Service Riots, by Chinese middle school students in Singapore, take place.", "*1958 – During a visit to Caracas, Venezuela, the US Vice President Richard Nixon's car is attacked by anti-American demonstrators.", "* 1958 – May 1958 crisis: A group of French military officers lead a coup in Algiers demanding that a government of national unity be formed with Charles de Gaulle at its head in order to defend French control of Algeria.", "* 1958 – Ben Carlin becomes the first (and only) person to circumnavigate the world by amphibious vehicle, having travelled over by sea and by land during a ten-year journey.", "*1960 – Hundreds of University of California, Berkeley students congregate for the first day of protest against a visit by the House Committee on Un-American Activities.", "*1967 – Dr. Zakir Husain becomes the third President of India.", "He is the first Muslim President of the Indian Union.", "He holds this position until August 24, 1969.", "*1969 – May 13 Incident involving sectarian violence in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.", "*1971 – Over 900 unarmed Bengali Hindus are murdered in the Demra massacre.", "*1972 – A fire occurs in the Sennichi Department Store in Osaka, Japan.", "Blocked exits and non-functional elevators result in 118 fatalities (many victims leaping to their deaths).", "* 1972 – The Troubles: A car bombing outside a crowded pub in Belfast sparks a two-day gun battle involving the Provisional IRA, Ulster Volunteer Force and British Army.", "Seven people are killed and over 66 injured.", "*1980 – An F3 tornado hits Kalamazoo County, Michigan.", "President Jimmy Carter declares it a federal disaster area.", "*1981 – Mehmet Ali Ağca attempts to assassinate Pope John Paul II in St. Peter's Square in Rome.", "The Pope is rushed to the Agostino Gemelli University Polyclinic to undergo emergency surgery and survives.", "*1985 – Police bombed MOVE headquarters in Philadelphia, killing six adults and five children, and destroying the homes of 250 city residents.", "*1989 – Large groups of students occupy Tiananmen Square and begin a hunger strike.", "*1990 – The Dinamo–Red Star riot took place at Maksimir Stadium in Zagreb, Croatia between the Bad Blue Boys (fans of Dinamo Zagreb) and the Delije (fans of Red Star Belgrade).", "*1992 – Li Hongzhi gives the first public lecture on Falun Gong in Changchun, People's Republic of China.", "*1995 – Alison Hargreaves, a 33-year-old British mother, becomes the first woman to conquer Everest without oxygen or the help of sherpas.", "*1996 – Severe thunderstorms and a tornado in Bangladesh kill 600 people.", "*1998 – Race riots break out in Jakarta, Indonesia, where shops owned by Indonesians of Chinese descent are looted and women raped.", "* 1998 – India carries out two nuclear weapon tests at Pokhran, following the three conducted on May 11.The United States and Japan impose economic sanctions on India.", "*2000 – A fireworks storage depot explodes in a residential neighborhood in Enschede, Netherlands, killing 23 people and injuring 950 others.", "*2005 – Andijan uprising, Uzbekistan; Troops open fire on crowds of protestors after a prison break; at least 187 people were killed according to official estimates.", "*2006 – São Paulo violence: Rebellions occur in several prisons in Brazil.", "*2011 – Two bombs explode in the Charsadda District of Pakistan killing 98 people and wounding 140 others.", "*2012 – Forty-nine dismembered bodies are discovered by Mexican authorities on Mexican Federal Highway 40.", "*2013 – American physician Kermit Gosnell is found guilty in Pennsylvania of murdering three infants born alive during attempted abortions, involuntary manslaughter of a woman during an abortion procedure, and other charges.", "*2014 – An explosion at an underground coal mine in southwest Turkey kills 301 miners." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1024 – Hugh of Cluny, French abbot and saint (d. 1109)*1179 – Theobald III, Count of Champagne (d. 1201)*1221 – Alexander Nevsky, Russian prince and saint (d. 1263)*1254 – Marie of Brabant, Queen of France (d. 1321)*1453 – Mary Stewart, Countess of Arran, Scottish princess (d. 1488)*1588 – Ole Worm, Danish physician and historian (d. 1654)*1597 – Cornelis Schut, Flemish painter, draughtsman and engraver (d. 1655)===1601–1900===*1638 – Richard Simon, French priest and scholar (d. 1712)*1699 – Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, Portuguese politician, Prime Minister of Portugal (d. 1782)*1712 – Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff, Danish politician and diplomat (d. 1772)*1713 – Alexis Clairaut, French mathematician, astronomer, and geophysicist (d. 1765)*1717 – Maria Theresa, Archduchess, Queen, and Empress; Austrian wife of Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1780)*1730 – Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, English politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (d. 1782)*1735 – Horace Coignet, French violinist and composer (d. 1821)*1742 – Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen (d. 1798)*1753 – Lazare Carnot, French general, mathematician, and politician, French Minister of the Interior (d. 1823)*1792 – Pope Pius IX (d. 1878)*1794 – Louis Léopold Robert, French painter (d. 1835)*1795 – Gérard Paul Deshayes, French geologist and chronologist (d. 1875)*1804 – Per Gustaf Svinhufvud af Qvalstad, Swedo-Finnish treasurer of Tavastia province, manor host, and paternal grandfather of President P. E. Svinhufvud (d. 1866)*1811 – Juan Bautista Ceballos, President of Mexico (1853) (d. 1859)*1822 – Francis, Duke of Cádiz (d. 1902)*1830 – Zebulon Baird Vance, American colonel, lawyer, and politician, 37th Governor of North Carolina (d. 1894)*1832 – Juris Alunāns, Latvian philologist and author (d. 1864)*1840 – Alphonse Daudet, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1897)*1842 – Arthur Sullivan, English composer (d. 1900)*1853 – Vaiben Louis Solomon, Australian politician, 21st Premier of South Australia (d. 1908)*1856 – Tom O'Rourke, American boxer and manager (d. 1938)*1857 – Ronald Ross, Indian-English physician and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1932)*1868 – Sumner Paine, American target shooter (d. 1904)*1869 – Mehmet Emin Yurdakul, Turkish writer (d. 1944)*1877 – Robert Hamilton, Scottish international footballer (d. 1948)*1881 – Lima Barreto, Brazilian journalist and author (d. 1922)* 1881 – Joe Forshaw, American runner (d. 1964)*1882 – Georges Braque, French painter and sculptor (d. 1963)*1883 – Georgios Papanikolaou, Greek-American pathologist, invented the pap smear (d. 1962)*1884 – Oskar Rosenfeld, Jewish-Austrian writer and Holocaust victim (d.1944) *1885 – Mikiel Gonzi, Maltese archbishop (d. 1984)*1887 – Lorna Hodgkinson, Australian educator and educational psychologist (d. 1951)*1888 – Inge Lehmann, Danish seismologist and geophysicist (d. 1993)*1894 – Ásgeir Ásgeirsson, Icelandic politician, 2nd President of Iceland (d. 1972)*1895 – Nandor Fodor, Hungarian-American psychologist, parapsychologist, and author (d. 1964)===1901–present===*1901 – Murilo Mendes, Brazilian poet and telegrapher (d. 1975)*1904 – Louis Duffus, Australian-South African cricketer and journalist (d. 1984)*1905 – Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, Indian lawyer and politician, 5th President of India (d. 1977)*1907 – Daphne du Maurier, English novelist and playwright (d. 1989)*1908 – Eugen Kapp, Estonian composer and educator (d. 1996)*1909 – Ken Darby, American composer and conductor (d. 1992)*1911 – Robert Middleton, American actor (d. 1977)* 1911 – Maxine Sullivan, American singer and actress (d. 1987)*1912 – Gil Evans, Canadian-American pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1988)* 1912 – Judah Nadich, American colonel and rabbi (d. 2007)*1913 – Robert Dorning, English actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1989)* 1913 – Theo Helfrich, German racing driver (d. 1978)* 1913 – William R. Tolbert, Jr., Liberian politician, 20th President of Liberia (d. 1980)*1914 – Joe Louis, American boxer (d. 1981)* 1914 – Johnnie Wright, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2011)* 1914 – Antonia Ferrín Moreiras, Spanish mathematician, academic, and astronomer (d. 2009)*1916 – Sachidananda Routray, Indian Oriya-language poet (d. 2004)*1918 – Balasaraswati, Indian dancer and instructor (d. 1984)* 1918 – Gwyn Howells, Australian public servant (d. 1997)*1920 – Gareth Morris, English flute player (d. 2007)*1922 – Michael Ainsworth, English cricketer (d. 1978)* 1922 – Otl Aicher, German graphic designer and typographer (d. 1991)* 1922 – Bea Arthur, American actress and singer (d. 2009)*1923 – Ruth Adler Schnee, German-American textile designer and interior designer (d. 2023)*1924 – Theodore Mann, American director and producer (d. 2012)* 1924 – Harry Schwarz, South African anti-apartheid leader, lawyer, and Ambassador (d. 2010)*1927 – Archie Scott Brown, Scottish race car driver (d. 1958)* 1927 – Fred Hellerman, American folk singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2016) * 1927 – Herbert Ross, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2001)*1928 – Enrique Bolaños, Nicaraguan politician, President of Nicaragua (d. 2021)* 1928 – Édouard Molinaro, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013)*1929 – John Galvin, American general (d. 2015)*1930 – Mike Gravel, American lieutenant and politician (d. 2021)* 1930 – José Jiménez Lozano, Spanish journalist and author (d. 2020)* 1930 – Vernon Shaw, Dominican politician, 5th President of Dominica (d. 2013)*1931 – Jim Jones, American cult leader, founder of the Peoples Temple (d. 1978)* 1931 – Sydney Lipworth, South African-English lawyer, businessman, and philanthropist*1933 – John Roseboro, American baseball player and coach (d. 2002)*1934 – Ehud Netzer, Israeli archaeologist, architect, and academic (d. 2010)* 1934 – Leon Wagner, American baseball player and actor (d. 2004)*1935 – Dominic Cossa, American opera singer* 1935 – Jan Saudek, Czech photographer and painter* 1935 – Kája Saudek, Czech author and illustrator (d. 2015)*1936 – Bill Rompkey, Canadian educator and politician (d. 2017)*1937 – Trevor Baylis, English inventor, invented the wind-up radio (d. 2018)* 1937 – Roch Carrier, Canadian librarian and author* 1937 – Zohra Lampert, American actress* 1937 – Beverley Owen, American actress (d. 2019)* 1937 – Roger Zelazny, American author and poet (d. 1995)*1938 – Giuliano Amato, Italian academic and politician, 48th Prime Minister of Italy* 1938 – Laurent Beaudoin, Canadian businessman* 1938 – Anna Cropper, British actress (d. 2007)* 1938 – Francine Pascal, American author and playwright* 1938 – Buck Taylor, American actor*1939 – Hildrun Claus, German long jumper* 1939 – Peter Frenkel, German race walker and coach* 1939 – Harvey Keitel, American actor *1940 – Bruce Chatwin, English author (d. 1989)* 1940 – Kōkichi Tsuburaya, Japanese runner (d. 1968)*1941 – Senta Berger, Austrian actress* 1941 – Joe Brown, English singer and musician* 1941 – Jody Conradt, American basketball player and coach* 1941 – Ritchie Valens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1959)*1942 – Leighton Gage, American author (d. 2013)* 1942 – Roger Young, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1943 – Anthony Clarke, Baron Clarke of Stone-cum-Ebony, English lawyer and judge* 1943 – Kurt Trampedach, Danish painter and sculptor (d. 2013)* 1943 – Mary Wells, American singer-songwriter (d. 1992)*1944 – Sir Crispin Agnew, 11th Baronet, Scottish explorer, lawyer, and judge* 1944 – Robert L. Crawford Jr., American actor* 1944 – Carolyn Franklin, American R&B singer-songwriter (d. 1988)* 1944 – Armistead Maupin, American author, screenwriter, and actor*1945 – Lasse Berghagen, Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2023)* 1945 – Magic Dick, American blues-rock harmonica, trumpet, and saxophone player* 1945 – Lou Marini, American saxophonist and composer *1946 – Tim Pigott-Smith, English actor and author (d. 2017)* 1946 – Jean Rondeau, French race car driver and constructor (d. 1985)* 1946 – Marv Wolfman, American author*1947 – Charles Baxter, American novelist, essayist, and poet* 1947 – Edgar Burcksen, Dutch-American film editor*1948 – Sheila Jeffreys, English-Australian political scientist, author, and academic* 1948 – Dean Meminger, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013)*1949 – Jane Glover, English conductor and scholar* 1949 – Dale Snodgrass, United States Naval Aviator and air show performer (d. 2021) * 1949 – Zoë Wanamaker, American-British actress* 1949 – Philip Kruse, Norwegian trumpeter and orchestra leader*1950 – Andy Cunningham, English actor (d. 2011)* 1950 – Danny Kirwan, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2018)* 1950 – Joe Johnston, American film director and effects artist* 1950 – Manning Marable, American author and academic (d. 2011)* 1950 – Bobby Valentine, American baseball player and manager* 1950 – Stevie Wonder, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer*1951 – Rosie Boycott, English journalist and author* 1951 – Sharon Sayles Belton, American politician, 45th Mayor of Minneapolis* 1951 – Anand Modak, Indian composer and director (d. 2014)* 1951 – Herman Philipse, Dutch philosopher and academic* 1951 – Selina Scott, English journalist, producer, and author* 1951 – Paul Thompson, English drummer *1952 – John Kasich, American politician, 69th Governor of Ohio* 1952 – Mary Walsh, Canadian actress, producer, and screenwriter* 1952 – Londa Schiebinger, American academic and author*1953 – Zlatko Burić, Croat-Danish actor* 1953 – Gerry Sutcliffe, English politician, Vice-Chamberlain of the Household* 1953 – Harm Wiersma, Dutch draughts player and politician* 1953 – Ruth A. David, American electrical engineer*1954 – Johnny Logan, Australian-Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist*1956 – Richard Madeley, English journalist and author* 1956 – Fred Melamed, American actor* 1956 – Kailash Vijayvargiya, National General Secretary of Bhartiya Janta Party*1957 – Alan Ball, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1957 – David Hill, English organist and conductor* 1957 – Mar Roxas, Filipino economist and politician, 24th Secretary of the Interior and Local Government*1958 – Anthony Ray Parker, American actor*1961 – Siobhan Fallon Hogan, American actress* 1961 – Dennis Rodman, American basketball player, wrestler, and actor*1962 – Paul Burstow, English politician* 1962 – Nick Hurd, English businessman and politician, Minister for Civil Society*1963 – Andrea Leadsom, English politician* 1963 – Wally Masur, Australian tennis player, coach, and sportscaster*1964 – Stephen Colbert, American comedian and talk show host* 1964 – Chris Maitland, English drummer * 1964 – Tom Verica, American actor, television director, and producer*1965 – José Antonio Delgado, Venezuelan mountaineer (d. 2006)* 1965 – Tasmin Little, English violinist and educator* 1965 – János Marozsán, Hungarian footballer* 1965 – Hikari Ōta, Japanese comedian and actor* 1965 – José Rijo, Dominican baseball player* 1965 – Lari White, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress (d. 2018)*1966 – Alison Goldfrapp, English singer-songwriter and producer* 1966 – Darius Rucker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1967 – Tish Cyrus, American actress and film producer* 1967 – Shon Greenblatt, American actor* 1967 – Tommy Gunn, pornographic actor* 1967 – Chuck Schuldiner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001)* 1967 – Melanie Thornton, American-German singer (d. 2001)*1968 – Miguel Ángel Blanco, Spanish politician (d. 1997)* 1968 – Susan Floyd, American actress* 1968 – Scott Morrison, Australian politician, 30th Prime Minister of Australia* 1968 – PMD, American rapper * 1968 – Dmitriy Shevchenko, Russian discus thrower and coach*1969 – Buckethead, American guitarist and songwriter * 1969 – Nikos Aliagas, French-Greek journalist and television host*1970 – Doug Evans, American football player* 1970 – Robert Maćkowiak, Polish sprinter*1971 – Imogen Boorman, English actress and martial artist* 1971 – Rob Fredrickson, American football player* 1971 – Espen Lind, Norwegian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1971 – Tom Nalen, American football player and sportscaster*1972 – Stefaan Maene, Belgian swimmer* 1972 – Darryl Sydor, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1972 – Pieta van Dishoeck, Dutch rower*1973 – Eric Lewis, American pianist* 1973 – Bridgett Riley, American boxer and stuntwoman*1975 – Jamie Allison, Canadian ice hockey player* 1975 – Cristian Bezzi, Italian rugby player and coach* 1975 – Brian Geraghty, American actor*1976 – Mark Delaney, Welsh footballer and manager* 1976 – Trajan Langdon, American basketball player and scout* 1976 – Ana Popović, Serbian-American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1976 – Magdalena Walach, Polish actress*1977 – Ilse DeLange, Dutch singer-songwriter * 1977 – Anthony Q. Farrell, Canadian-American actor and screenwriter* 1977 – Robby Hammock, American baseball player and coach* 1977 – Neil Hopkins, American actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1977 – James Middlebrook, English cricketer* 1977 – Samantha Morton, English actress and director* 1977 – Brian Thomas Smith, American actor and producer* 1977 – Pusha T, American rapper *1978 – Brooke Anderson, American journalist* 1978 – Mike Bibby, American basketball player and coach* 1978 – Ryan Bukvich, American baseball player* 1978 – Germán Magariños, Argentinian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter* 1978 – Dilshan Vitharana, Sri Lankan cricketer* 1978 – Barry Zito, American baseball player* 1978 – Nuwan Zoysa, Sri Lankan cricketer*1979 – Prince Carl Philip, Duke of Värmland* 1979 – Steve Mildenhall, English footballer* 1979 – Vyacheslav Shevchuk, Ukrainian footballer* 1980 – L. J. Smith, American football player*1981 – Luciana Berger, English politician* 1981 – Nicolas Jeanjean, French rugby player* 1981 – Sunny Leone, Canadian American actress, model, and pornstar* 1981 – Michael Mantenuto, American actor (d. 2017)* 1981 – Shaun Phillips, American football player* 1981 – Ryan Piers Williams, American actor and film director*1982 – Albert Crusat, Spanish footballer* 1982 – Larry Fonacier, Filipino basketball player* 1982 – Oguchi Onyewu, American soccer player*1983 – Natalie Cassidy, English actress and singer* 1983 – Anita Görbicz, Hungarian handball player* 1983 – Johnny Hoogerland, Dutch cyclist* 1983 – Grégory Lemarchal, French singer (d. 2007)* 1983 – Jacob Reynolds, American actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1983 – Yaya Touré, Ivorian footballer*1984 – J.", "B. Cox, American baseball player* 1984 – Benny Dayal, Indian singer * 1984 – Dawn Harper, American hurdler* 1984 – Caroline Rotich, Kenyan runner*1985 – Javier Balboa, Spanish-Equatoguinean footballer* 1985 – Jaroslav Halák, Slovak ice hockey player* 1985 – David Hernandez, American baseball player* 1985 – Carolina Luján, Argentine chess player* 1985 – Iwan Rheon, Welsh actor and singer* 1985 – Travis Zajac, Canadian ice hockey player*1986 – Lena Dunham, American actress, director, and screenwriter* 1986 – Eun-Hee Ji, South Korean golfer* 1986 – Robert Pattinson, English actor* 1986 – Alexander Rybak, Belarusian-Norwegian singer-songwriter, violinist, and actor* 1986 – Scott Sutter, English footballer* 1986 – Nino Schurter, Swiss cyclist* 1986 – Kris Versteeg, Canadian ice hockey player*1987 – Antonio Adán, Spanish footballer* 1987 – Hugo Becker, French actor* 1987 – Matt Doyle, American actor and singer* 1987 – Laura Izibor, Irish singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer* 1987 – Candice King, American singer-songwriter and actress* 1987 – Sandro Mareco, Argentine chess player* 1987 – Hunter Parrish, American actor and singer* 1987 – Marianne Vos, Dutch cyclist* 1987 – Charlotte Wessels, Dutch singer-songwriter* 1987 – Bobby Shuttleworth, American soccer player*1988 – Paulo Avelino, Filipino actor and singer* 1988 – Casey Donovan, Australian singer-songwriter*1989 – P. K. Subban, Canadian ice hockey player*1990 – Mychal Givens, American baseball player*1991 – Jen Beattie, Scottish footballer* 1991 – Anders Fannemel, Norwegian ski jumper*1992 – Bill Arnold, American ice hockey player* 1992 – Willson Contreras, Venezuelan baseball player* 1992 – Josh Papalii, New Zealand-Australian rugby league player* 1992 – Georgina García Pérez, Spanish tennis player*1993 – Stefan Kraft, Austrian ski jumper* 1993 – Debby Ryan, American actress and singer* 1993 – Romelu Lukaku, Belgian footballer* 1993 – Siim-Tanel Sammelselg, Estonian ski jumper* 1993 – Tones and I, Australian singer-songwriter* 1993 – Morgan Wallen, American singer-songwriter *1994 – Łukasz Moneta, Polish footballer* 1994 – Percy Tau, South African footballer*1997 – Reimis Smith, Australian rugby league player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 189 – Emperor Ling of Han, Chinese emperor (b.", "156)*1112 – Ulric II, Margrave of Carniola *1176 – Matthias I, Duke of Lorraine (b.", "1119)*1285 – Robert de Ros, 1st Baron de Ros*1312 – Theobald II, Duke of Lorraine (b.", "1263)*1573 – Takeda Shingen, Japanese daimyō (b.", "1521)===1601–1900===*1612 – Sasaki Kojirō, Japanese master swordsman (b.", "1575)*1619 – Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Dutch politician (b.", "1547)*1704 – Louis Bourdaloue, French preacher and author (b.", "1632)*1726 – Francesco Antonio Pistocchi, Italian singer (b.", "1659)*1782 – Daniel Solander, Swedish-English botanist and phycologist (b.", "1736)*1807 – Eliphalet Dyer, American colonel, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1721)*1809 – Beilby Porteus, English bishop (b.", "1731)*1832 – Georges Cuvier, French zoologist and academic (b.", "1769)*1835 – John Nash, English architect, designed the Royal Pavilion (b.", "1752)*1836 – John Littlejohn, American sheriff and Methodist preacher (b.", "1756)*1866 – Nikolai Brashman, Czech-Russian mathematician and academic (b.", "1796)*1878 – Joseph Henry, American physicist and academic (b.", "1797)*1884 – Cyrus McCormick, American businessman, co-founded the International Harvester Company (b.", "1809)*1885 – Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle, German physician, pathologist, and anatomist (b.", "1809)===1901–present===*1903 – Apolinario Mabini, Filipino lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Philippines (b.", "1864)*1916 – Sholem Aleichem, Ukrainian-American author and playwright (b.", "1859)*1921 – Jean Aicard, French author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1848)*1926 – Libert H. Boeynaems, Belgian-American bishop (b.", "1857)*1929 – Arthur Scherbius, German electrical engineer, invented the Enigma machine (b.", "1878)*1930 – Fridtjof Nansen, Norwegian scientist, explorer, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1861)*1938 – Charles Édouard Guillaume, Swiss-French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1861)*1941 – Frederick Christian, English cricketer (b.", "1877)* 1941 – Ōnishiki Uichirō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 26th Yokozuna (b.", "1891)*1945 – Tubby Hall, American drummer (b.", "1895)*1946 – Zara DuPont, American suffragist (b.", "1869)*1947 – Sukanta Bhattacharya, Indian poet and playwright (b.", "1926)*1948 – Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington (b.", "1920)*1957 – Michael Fekete, Hungarian-Israeli mathematician and academic (b.", "1886)*1961 – Gary Cooper, American actor (b.", "1901)*1962 – Henry Trendley Dean, American dentist (b.", "1893)* 1962 – Franz Kline, American painter and academic (b.", "1910)*1963 – Alois Hudal, Austrian-Italian bishop (b.", "1885)*1972 – Dan Blocker, American actor (b.", "1928)*1974 – Jaime Torres Bodet, Mexican poet and diplomat (b.", "1902)* 1974 – Arthur J. Burks, American colonel and author (b.", "1898)*1975 – Bob Wills, American singer-songwriter and actor (b.", "1905)*1977 – Mickey Spillane, American mobster (b.", "1934)*1985 – Leatrice Joy, American actress (b.", "1893)* 1985 – Richard Ellmann, American literary critic and biographer (b.", "1918)*1988 – Chet Baker, American singer and trumpet player (b.", "1929)*1992 – F. E. McWilliam, Irish sculptor (b.", "1909)*1994 – Duncan Hamilton, Irish-English race car driver (b.", "1920)* 1994 – John Swainson, Canadian-American jurist and politician, 42nd Governor of Michigan (b.", "1925)*1995 – Hao Wang, Chinese-American logician, philosopher, and mathematician (b.", "1921)*1999 – Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz, Saudi Arabian scholar and academic (b.", "1910)* 1999 – Gene Sarazen, American golfer and journalist (b.", "1902)*2000 – Paul Bartel, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1938)* 2000 – Jumbo Tsuruta, Japanese wrestler (b.", "1951)*2001 – Jason Miller, American actor and playwright (b.", "1939)*2002 – Ruth Cracknell, Australian actress and author (b.", "1925)* 2002 – Valeriy Lobanovskyi, Ukrainian footballer and manager (b.", "1939)*2005 – Eddie Barclay, French record producer, founded Barclay Records (b.", "1921)* 2005 – George Dantzig, American mathematician and academic (b.", "1914)*2006 – Jaroslav Pelikan, American historian and scholar (b.", "1923)* 2006 – Johnnie Wilder, Jr., American singer (b.", "1949)*2008 – Saad Al-Salim Al-Sabah, Kuwaiti ruler, Emir of Kuwait (b.", "1930)* 2008 – Ron Stone, American journalist and author (b.", "1936)*2009 – Frank Aletter, American actor (b.", "1926)* 2009 – Meir Brandsdorfer, Belgian rabbi (b.", "1934)* 2009 – Achille Compagnoni, Italian skier and mountaineer (b.", "1914)*2011 – Derek Boogaard, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1982)* 2011 – Stephen De Staebler, American sculptor and educator (b.", "1933)* 2011 – Wallace McCain, Canadian businessman, co-founded McCain Foods (b.", "1930)* 2011 – Bruce Ricker, American director and producer (b.", "1942)*2012 – Arsala Rahmani Daulat, Afghan politician (b.", "1937)* 2012 – Donald \"Duck\" Dunn, American bass player, songwriter, and producer (b.", "1941)* 2012 – Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz, Cuban-American theologian, author, and academic (b.", "1943)* 2012 – Lee Richardson, English speedway rider (b.", "1979)* 2012 – Don Ritchie, Australian humanitarian (b.", "1925)* 2012 – Nguyễn Văn Thiện, Vietnamese bishop (b.", "1906)*2013 – Joyce Brothers, American psychologist, author, and actress (b.", "1927)* 2013 – Otto Herrigel, Namibian lawyer and politician (b.", "1937)* 2013 – Jagdish Mali, Indian photographer (b.", "1954)* 2013 – Chuck Muncie, American football player (b.", "1953)* 2013 – Fyodor Tuvin, Russian footballer (b.", "1973)* 2013 – Lynne Woolstencroft, Canadian politician (b.", "1943)*2014 – David Malet Armstrong, Australian philosopher and author (b.", "1926)* 2014 – Malik Bendjelloul, Swedish director and producer (b.", "1977)* 2014 – J. F. Coleman, American soldier and pilot (b.", "1918)* 2014 – Ron Stevens, Canadian lawyer and politician (b.", "1949)* 2014 – Morning Glory Zell-Ravenheart, American occultist and author (b.", "1948)*2015 – Earl Averill, Jr., American baseball player (b.", "1931)* 2015 – Robert Drasnin, American clarinet player and composer (b.", "1927)* 2015 – Nina Otkalenko, Russian runner (b.", "1928)* 2015 – David Sackett, American-Canadian physician and academic (b.", "1934)* 2015 – Gainan Saidkhuzhin, Russian cyclist (b.", "1937)*2016 – Murray A. Straus, American sociologist and academic (b.", "1926)*2018 – Margot Kidder, Canadian-American actress (b.", "1948)*2019 – Doris Day, American singer and actress (b.", "1922)* 2019 – Unita Blackwell, American civil rights activist and politician (b.", "1933)*2022 – Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, 2nd President of the United Arab Emirates (b.", "1948)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Abbotsbury Garland Day (Dorset, England)* Christian feast day:** Our Lady of Fátima** Gerard of Villamagna** Glyceria** John the Silent (Roman Catholic)** Julian of Norwich (Roman Catholic)** Frances Perkins (Episcopal Church (USA))** Servatius** May 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Rotuma Day (Rotuma)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 13" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 14" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1027 – Robert II of France names his son Henry I as junior King of the Franks.", "*1097 – The Siege of Nicaea begins during the First Crusade.", "*1264 – Battle of Lewes: Henry III of England is captured and forced to sign the Mise of Lewes, making Simon de Montfort the effective ruler of England.", "*1509 – Battle of Agnadello: In northern Italy, French forces defeat the Republic of Venice.===1601–1900===*1607 – English colonists establish \"James Fort,\" which would become Jamestown, Virginia, the earliest permanent English settlement in the Americas.", "*1608 – The Protestant Union, a coalition of Protestant German states, is founded to defend the rights, land and safety of each member against the Catholic Church and Catholic German states.", "*1610 – Henry IV of France is assassinated by Catholic zealot François Ravaillac, and Louis XIII ascends the throne.", "*1643 – Four-year-old Louis XIV becomes King of France upon the death of his father, Louis XIII.", "*1747 – War of the Austrian Succession: A British fleet under Admiral George Anson defeats the French at the First Battle of Cape Finisterre.", "*1796 – Edward Jenner administers the first smallpox inoculation.", "*1800 – The 6th United States Congress recesses, and the process of moving the Federal government of the United States from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., begins the following day.", "*1804 – William Clark and 42 men depart from Camp Dubois to join Meriwether Lewis at St Charles, Missouri, marking the beginning of the Lewis and Clark Expedition historic journey up the Missouri River.", "*1811 – Paraguay: Pedro Juan Caballero, Fulgencio Yegros and José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia start actions to depose the Spanish governor.", "*1836 – The Treaties of Velasco are signed in Velasco, Texas.", "*1857 – Mindon Min was crowned as King of Burma in Mandalay, Burma.", "*1863 – American Civil War: The Battle of Jackson takes place.", "*1868 – Boshin War: The Battle of Utsunomiya Castle ends as former Tokugawa shogunate forces withdraw northward.", "*1870 – The first game of rugby in New Zealand is played in Nelson between Nelson College and the Nelson Rugby Football Club.", "*1878 – The last witchcraft trial held in the United States begins in Salem, Massachusetts, after Lucretia Brown, an adherent of Christian Science, accused Daniel Spofford of attempting to harm her through his mental powers.", "*1879 – The first group of 463 Indian indentured laborers arrives in Fiji aboard the .===1901–present===*1900 – Opening of World Amateur championship at the Paris Exposition Universelle, also known as Olympic Games.", "*1913 – Governor of New York William Sulzer approves the charter for the Rockefeller Foundation, which begins operations with a $100 million donation from John D.", "Rockefeller.", "*1915 – The May 14 Revolt takes place in Lisbon, Portugal.", "*1918 – Cape Town Mayor, Sir Harry Hands, inaugurates the Two-minute silence.", "*1931 – Five unarmed civilians are killed in the Ådalen shootings, as the Swedish military is called in to deal with protesting workers.", "*1935 – The Constitution of the Philippines is ratified by a popular vote.", "*1939 – Lina Medina becomes the youngest confirmed mother in medical history at the age of five.", "*1940 – World War II: Rotterdam, Netherlands is bombed by the Luftwaffe of Nazi Germany despite a ceasefire, killing about 900 people and destroying the historic city center.", "*1943 – World War II: A Japanese submarine sinks off the coast of Queensland.", "*1948 – Israel is declared to be an independent state and a provisional government is established.", "Immediately after the declaration, Israel is attacked by the neighboring Arab states, triggering the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.", "*1951 – Trains run on the Talyllyn Railway in Wales for the first time since preservation, making it the first railway in the world to be operated by volunteers.", "*1953 – Approximately 7,100 brewery workers in Milwaukee perform a walkout, marking the start of the 1953 Milwaukee brewery strike.", "*1955 – Cold War: Eight Communist bloc countries, including the Soviet Union, sign a mutual defense treaty called the Warsaw Pact.", "*1961 – Civil rights movement: A white mob twice attacks a Freedom Riders bus near Anniston, Alabama, before fire-bombing the bus and attacking the civil rights protesters who flee the burning vehicle.", "*1970 – Andreas Baader is freed from custody by Ulrike Meinhof, Gudrun Ensslin and others, a pivotal moment in the formation of the Red Army Faction.", "*1973 – ''Skylab'', the United States' first space station, is launched.", "*1977 – A Dan-Air Boeing 707 leased to IAS Cargo Airlines crashes on approach to Lusaka International Airport in Lusaka, Zambia, killing six people.", "*1980 – Salvadoran Civil War: the Sumpul River massacre occurs in Chalatenango, El Salvador.", "*1987 – Fijian Prime Minister Timoci Bavadra is ousted from power in a coup d'état led by Lieutenant colonel Sitiveni Rabuka.", "*1988 – Carrollton bus collision: A drunk driver traveling the wrong way on Interstate 71 near Carrollton, Kentucky hits a converted school bus carrying a church youth group.", "Twenty-seven die in the crash and ensuing fire.", "*2004 – The Constitutional Court of South Korea overturns the impeachment of President Roh Moo-hyun.", "* 2004 – Rico Linhas Aéreas Flight 4815 crashes into the Amazon rainforest during approach to Eduardo Gomes International Airport in Manaus, Brazil, killing 33 people.", "*2008 – Battle of Piccadilly Gardens in Manchester city centre between Zenit supporters and Rangers supporters and the Greater Manchester Police, 39 policemen injured, one police-dog injured and 39 arrested.", "*2010 – Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' launches on the STS-132 mission to deliver the first shuttle-launched Russian ISS component — ''Rassvet''.", "This was originally slated to be the final launch of ''Atlantis'', before Congress approved STS-135.", "*2012 – Agni Air Flight CHT crashes in Nepal after a failed go-around, killing 15 people.", "*2021 – China successfully lands ''Zhurong'', the country's first Mars rover.", "*2022 – Ten people are killed in a mass shooting in Buffalo, New York." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1316 – Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1378)*1553 – Margaret of Valois, Queen of France (d. 1615)*1574 – Francesco Rasi, Italian singer-songwriter, theorbo player, and poet (d. 1621)*1592 – Alice Barnham, wife of statesman Francis Bacon (d. 1650)===1601–1900===*1630 – Katakura Kagenaga, Japanese samurai (d. 1681)*1652 – Johann Philipp Förtsch, German composer (d. 1732)*1657 – Sambhaji, Indian emperor (d. 1689)*1666 – Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia (d. 1732)*1679 – Peder Horrebow, Danish astronomer and mathematician (d. 1764)*1699 – Hans Joachim von Zieten, Prussian general (d. 1786)*1701 – William Emerson, English mathematician and academic (d. 1782)*1710 – Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden (d. 1771)*1725 – Ludovico Manin, the last Doge of Venice (d. 1802)*1727 – Thomas Gainsborough, English painter (d. 1788)*1737 – George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney, Irish-English politician and diplomat, Governor of Grenada (d. 1806)*1752 – Timothy Dwight IV, American minister, theologian, and academic (d. 1817)* 1752 – Albrecht Thaer, German agronomist and author (d. 1828)*1761 – Samuel Dexter, American lawyer and politician, 4th United States Secretary of War, 3rd United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 1816)*1771 – Robert Owen, Welsh businessman and social reformer (d. 1858)* 1771 – Thomas Wedgwood, English photographer (d. 1805)*1781 – Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer, German historian and academic (d. 1873)*1794 – Fanny Imlay, daughter of British feminist Mary Wollstonecraft (d. 1816)*1814 – Charles Beyer, German-English engineer, co-founded Beyer, Peacock & Company (d. 1876)*1817 – Alexander Kaufmann, German poet and educator (d. 1893)*1820 – James Martin, Irish-Australian politician, 6th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1886)*1830 – Antonio Annetto Caruana, Maltese archaeologist and author (d. 1905)*1832 – Rudolf Lipschitz, German mathematician and academic (d. 1903)*1851 – Anna Laurens Dawes, American author and suffragist (d. 1938)*1852 – Henri Julien, Canadian illustrator (d. 1908)*1863 – John Charles Fields, Canadian mathematician, founder of the Fields Medal (d. 1932)*1867 – Kurt Eisner, German journalist and politician, Prime Minister of Bavaria (d. 1919)*1868 – Magnus Hirschfeld, German physician and sexologist (d. 1935)*1869 – Arthur Rostron, English captain (d. 1940)*1872 – Elia Dalla Costa, Italian cardinal (d. 1961)*1878 – J. L. Wilkinson, American baseball player and manager (d. 1964)*1879 – Fred Englehardt, American jumper (d. 1942)*1880 – Wilhelm List, German field marshal (d. 1971)*1881 – Lionel Hill, Australian politician, 30th Premier of South Australia (d. 1963)* 1881 – George Murray Hulbert, American judge and politician (d. 1950)*1885 – Otto Klemperer, German composer and conductor (d. 1973)*1887 – Ants Kurvits, Estonian general and politician, 10th Estonian Minister of War (d. 1943)*1888 – Archie Alexander, American mathematician and engineer (d. 1958)*1893 – Louis Verneuil, French actor and playwright (d. 1952)*1897 – Sidney Bechet, American saxophonist, clarinet player, and composer (d. 1959)* 1897 – Ed Ricketts, American biologist and ecologist (d. 1948)*1899 – Charlotte Auerbach, German-Scottish folklorist, geneticist, and zoologist (d. 1994)* 1899 – Pierre Victor Auger, French physicist and academic (d. 1993)* 1899 – Earle Combs, American baseball player and coach (d. 1976)*1900 – Hal Borland, American journalist and author (d. 1978)* 1900 – Walter Rehberg, Swiss pianist and composer (d. 1957)* 1900 – Cai Chang, Chinese first leader of All-China Women's Federation (d. 1990)* 1900 – Leo Smit, Dutch pianist and composer (d. 1943)* 1900 – Edgar Wind, German-English historian, author, and academic (d. 1971)===1901–present===*1901 – Robert Ritter, German psychologist and physician (d. 1951)*1903 – Billie Dove, American actress (d. 1997)*1904 – Hans Albert Einstein, Swiss-American engineer and educator (d. 1973)* 1904 – Marcel Junod, Swiss physician and anesthesiologist (d. 1961)*1905 – Jean Daniélou, French cardinal and theologian (d. 1974)* 1905 – Herbert Morrison, American soldier and journalist (d. 1989)* 1905 – Antonio Berni, Argentinian painter, illustrator, and engraver (d. 1981)*1907 – Ayub Khan, Pakistani general and politician, 2nd President of Pakistan (d. 1974)* 1907 – Hans von der Groeben, German journalist and diplomat (d. 2005)*1908 – Betty Jeffrey, Australian nurse and author (d. 2000)*1909 – Godfrey Rampling, English sprinter and colonel (d. 2009)*1910 – Ken Viljoen, South African cricketer (d. 1974)* 1910 – Ne Win, Prime Minister and President of Burma (d. 2002)*1914 – Gul Khan Nasir, Pakistani journalist, poet, and politician (d. 1983)* 1914 – William Tutte, British codebreaker and mathematician (d. 2002) *1916 – Robert F. Christy, Canadian-American physicist and astronomer (d. 2012)* 1916 – Lance Dossor, English-Australian pianist and educator (d. 2005)* 1916 – Marco Zanuso, Italian architect and designer (d. 2001)*1917 – Lou Harrison, American composer and critic (d. 2003)* 1917 – Norman Luboff, American composer and conductor (d. 1987)*1919 – Solange Chaput-Rolland, Canadian journalist and politician (d. 2001)* 1919 – John Hope, American soldier and meteorologist (d. 2002)*1921 – Richard Deacon, American actor (d. 1984)*1922 – Franjo Tuđman, Yugoslav historian; later 1st President of Croatia (d. 1999)*1923 – Adnan Pachachi, Iraqi politician, Iraqi Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2019)* 1923 – Mrinal Sen, Bangladeshi-Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018)*1925 – Sophie Kurys, American baseball player (d. 2013)* 1925 – Patrice Munsel, American soprano and actress (d. 2016)* 1925 – Boris Parsadanian, Armenian-Estonian violinist and composer (d. 1997)* 1925 – Al Porcino, American trumpet player (d. 2013)* 1925 – Ninian Sanderson, Scottish race car driver (d. 1985)*1926 – Eric Morecambe, English comedian and actor (d. 1984)*1927 – Herbert W. Franke, Austrian scientist and author (d. 2022)*1928 – Dub Jones, American R&B bass singer (d. 2000)* 1928 – Frederik H. Kreuger, Dutch engineer, author, and academic (d. 2015)* 1928 – Brian Macdonald, Canadian dancer and choreographer (d. 2014)*1929 – Barbara Branden, Canadian-American author (d. 2013)* 1929 – Henry McGee, English actor and singer (d. 2006)* 1929 – Gump Worsley, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2007)*1930 – William James, Australian general and physician (d. 2015)*1931 – Alvin Lucier, American composer and academic (d. 2021)*1932 – Robert Bechtle, American lithographer and painter (d. 2020)*1933 – Siân Phillips, Welsh actress and singer*1935 – Ethel Johnson, American professional wrestler (d. 2018)* 1935 – Rudi Šeligo, Slovenian playwright and politician (d. 2004)* 1935 – Harvey Wollman, American politician, 26th Governor of South Dakota (d. 2022)*1936 – Bobby Darin, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1973)* 1936 – Dick Howser, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1987)*1938 – Robert Boyd, English pediatrician and academic*1939 – Rupert Neudeck, German journalist and humanitarian (d. 2016)* 1939 – Troy Shondell, American singer-songwriter (d. 2016)*1940 – Chay Blyth, Scottish sailor and rower* 1940 – H. Jones, English colonel, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1982)* 1940 – George Mathewson, Scottish banker and businessman*1941 – Ada den Haan, Dutch swimmer*1942 – Valeriy Brumel, Russian high jumper (d. 2003)* 1942 – Byron Dorgan, American lawyer and politician* 1942 – Alistair McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of West Green, English businessman and politician (d. 2014)* 1942 – Tony Pérez, Cuban-American baseball player and manager* 1942 – Malise Ruthven, Irish author and academic*1943 – Jack Bruce, Scottish-English singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2014)* 1943 – L. Denis Desautels, Canadian accountant and civil servant* 1943 – Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson, Icelandic academic and politician, 5th President of Iceland* 1943 – Derek Leckenby, English pop-rock guitarist (d. 1994)* 1943 – Richard Peto, English statistician and epidemiologist*1944 – Gene Cornish, Canadian-American guitarist* 1944 – George Lucas, American director, producer, and screenwriter, founded Lucasfilm* 1944 – David Kelly, Welsh scientist (d. 2003)*1945 – Francesca Annis, English actress* 1945 – George Nicholls, English rugby player* 1945 – Yochanan Vollach, Israeli footballer*1946 – Sarah Hogg, Viscountess Hailsham, English economist and journalist*1947 – Al Ciner, American pop-rock guitarist* 1947 – Ana Martín, Mexican actress, singer, producer and former model (Miss Mexico 1963)*1948 – Timothy Stevenson, English lawyer and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Oxfordshire* 1948 – Bob Woolmer, Indian-English cricketer and coach (d. 2007)*1949 – Sverre Årnes, Norwegian author, screenwriter, and director* 1949 – Walter Day, American game designer and businessman, founded Twin Galaxies* 1949 – Johan Schans, Dutch swimmer* 1949 – Klaus-Peter Thaler, German cyclist*1951 – Jay Beckenstein, American saxophonist *1952 – David Byrne, Scottish singer-songwriter, producer, and actor * 1952 – Michael Fallon, Scottish politician, Secretary of State for Defence* 1952 – Orna Grumberg, Israeli computer scientist and academic* 1952 – Raul Mälk, Estonian politician, 22nd Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs* 1952 – Wim Mertens, Belgian composer, countertenor vocalist, pianist, guitarist, and musicologist.", "* 1952 – Donald R. McMonagle, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut* 1952 – Robert Zemeckis, American director, producer, and screenwriter *1953 – Tom Cochrane, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1953 – Hywel Williams, Welsh politician*1955 – Marie Chouinard, Canadian dancer and choreographer * 1955 – Alasdair Fraser, Scottish fiddler * 1955 – Peter Kirsten, South African cricketer and rugby player* 1955 – Dennis Martínez, Nicaraguan baseball player and coach* 1955 – Jens Sparschuh, German author and playwright* 1955 – Big Van Vader, American wrestler and football player (d. 2018)*1956 – Hazel Blears, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government* 1956 – Steve Hogarth, English singer-songwriter and keyboardist *1958 – Christine Brennan, American journalist and author* 1958 – Chris Evans, English-Australian politician, 26th Australian Minister for Employment* 1958 – Rudy Pérez, Cuban-born American composer and music producer * 1958 – Wilma Rusman, Dutch runner *1959 – Carlisle Best, Barbadian cricketer* 1959 – Patrick Bruel, French actor, singer, and poker player* 1959 – Markus Büchel, Liechtensteiner politician, 9th Prime Minister of Liechtenstein (d. 2013)* 1959 – Robert Greene, American author and translator* 1959 – John Holt, American football player (d. 2013)* 1959 – Rick Vaive, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1959 – Heather Wheeler, English politician*1960 – Anne Clark, English singer-songwriter and poet* 1960 – Alec Dankworth, English bassist and composer* 1960 – Frank Nobilo, New Zealand golfer* 1960 – Ronan Tynan, Irish tenor *1961 – David Quantick, English journalist and critic* 1961 – Tommy Rogers, American wrestler (d. 2015)* 1961 – Tim Roth, English actor and director* 1961 – Alain Vigneault, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1962 – Ian Astbury, English-Canadian singer-songwriter * 1962 – C.C.", "DeVille, American guitarist, songwriter, and actor * 1962 – Danny Huston, Italian-American actor and director*1963 – Pat Borders, American baseball player and coach* 1963 – David Yelland, English journalist and author*1964 – James M. Kelly, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut* 1964 – Suzy Kolber, American sportscaster and producer* 1964 – Alan McIndoe, Australian rugby league player* 1964 – Eric Peterson, American guitarist and songwriter*1965 – Eoin Colfer, Irish author *1966 – Marianne Denicourt, French actress, director, and screenwriter* 1966 – Mike Inez, American rock bass player and songwriter* 1966 – Fab Morvan, French singer-songwriter, dancer and model* 1966 – Raphael Saadiq, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer*1967 – Natasha Kaiser-Brown, American sprinter and coach* 1967 – Tony Siragusa, American football player and journalist (d. 2022)*1968 – Mary DePiero, Canadian diver* 1968 – Greg Davies Welsh actor, comedian, writer and presenter*1969 – Stéphane Adam, French footballer* 1969 – Cate Blanchett, Australian actress* 1969 – Sabine Schmitz, German race car driver and sportscaster (d. 2021)* 1969 – Henry Smith, English politician* 1969 – Danny Wood, American singer-songwriter, record producer, and choreographer *1971 – Deanne Bray, American actress* 1971 – Sofia Coppola, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1971 – Martin Reim, Estonian footballer and manager*1972 – Ike Moriz, German-South African singer-songwriter, producer and actor* 1972 – Kirstjen Nielsen, American attorney, 6th United States Secretary of Homeland Security*1973 – Natalie Appleton, Canadian singer and actress * 1973 – Voshon Lenard, American basketball player* 1973 – Fraser Nelson, Scottish journalist* 1973 – Hakan Ünsal, Turkish footballer and sportscaster* 1973 – Julian White, English rugby player* 1974 – Anu Välba, Estonian journalist*1975 – Nicki Sørensen, Danish cyclist *1976 – Hunter Burgan, American bass player * 1976 – Brian Lawrence, American baseball player and coach* 1976 – Martine McCutcheon, English actress and singer*1977 – Sophie Anderton, English model and actress* 1977 – Roy Halladay, American baseball player (d. 2017)* 1977 – Ada Nicodemou, Cypriot-Australian actress *1978 – Brent Harvey, Australian footballer * 1978 – Eddie House, American basketball player* 1978 – André Macanga, Angolan footballer and manager* 1978 – Gustavo Varela, Uruguayan footballer*1979 – Dan Auerbach, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1979 – Edwige Lawson-Wade, French basketball player* 1979 – Clinton Morrison, English-Irish footballer* 1979 – Carlos Tenorio, Ecuadorian footballer*1980 – Zdeněk Grygera, Czech footballer* 1980 – Pavel Londak, Estonian footballer* 1980 – Eugene Martineau, Dutch decathlete* 1980 – Júlia Sebestyén, Hungarian figure skater* 1980 – Hugo Southwell, English-Scottish rugby player* 1980 – Joe van Niekerk, South African rugby player*1981 – Pranav Mistry, Indian computer scientist, invented SixthSense*1983 – Anahí, Mexican singer-songwriter, producer, and actress * 1983 – Keeley Donovan, English journalist* 1983 – Frank Gore, American football player* 1983 – Uroš Slokar, Slovenian basketball player* 1983 – Tatenda Taibu, Zimbabwean cricketer* 1983 – Amber Tamblyn, American actress, author, model, director*1984 – Gary Ablett, Jr., Australian footballer* 1984 – Luke Gregerson, American baseball player* 1984 – Olly Murs, English singer-songwriter* 1984 – Michael Rensing, German footballer* 1984 – Indrek Siska, Estonian footballer* 1984 – Mark Zuckerberg, American computer programmer and businessman, co-founded Facebook*1985 – Dustin Lynch, American singer-songwriter* 1985 – Sam Perrett, New Zealand rugby league player* 1985 – Simona Peycheva, Bulgarian gymnast* 1985 – Zack Ryder, American wrestler*1986 – Andrea Bovo, Italian footballer* 1986 – Clay Matthews III, American football player* 1986 – Marco Motta, Italian footballer*1987 – Jeong Min-hyeong, South Korean footballer (d. 2012)* 1987 – Franck Songo'o, Cameroonian footballer* 1987 – François Steyn, South African rugby player*1988 – Jayne Appel, American basketball player*1989 – Rob Gronkowski, American football player* 1989 – Alina Talay, Belarusian hurdler*1993 – Miranda Cosgrove, American actress and singer* 1993 – Kyle Freeland, American baseball player* 1993 – Kristina Mladenovic, French tennis player* 1993 – Bence Rakaczki, Hungarian footballer (d. 2014)*1994 – Marcos Aoás Corrêa, Brazilian footballer* 1994 – Pernille Blume, Danish swimmer* 1994 – Bronte Campbell, Australian swimmer* 1994 – Dennis Praet, Belgian footballer*1995 – Bernardo Fernandes da Silva Junior, Brazilian footballer* 1995 – Rose Lavelle, American soccer player* 1995 – Jonah Placid, Australian rugby player*1996 – Blake Brockington, American trans man and activist (d. 2015)* 1996 – Martin Garrix, Dutch DJ* 1996 – Pokimane, Canadian online streamer* 1996 – TheOdd1sOut, American YouTuber and animator*1997 – Rúben Dias, Portuguese footballer*1997 – James Outman, American professional baseball player **2001 – Jack Hughes, American hockey player*2003 – Mohamed Dhaoui, Tunisian footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 649 – Pope Theodore I* 934 – Zhu Hongzhao, Chinese general and governor* 964 – Pope John XII (b.", "927)*1080 – William Walcher, Bishop of Durham*1219 – William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, English soldier and politician (b.", "1147)*1576 – Tahmasp I, Shah of Persia (b.", "1514)===1601–1900===*1603 – Magnus II, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (b.", "1543)*1608 – Charles III, Duke of Lorraine (b.", "1543)*1610 – Henry IV of France (b.", "1553)*1643 – Louis XIII of France (b.", "1601)*1649 – Friedrich Spanheim, Swiss theologian and academic (b.", "1600)*1667 – Georges de Scudéry, French author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1601)*1688 – Antoine Furetière, French scholar, lexicographer, and author (b.", "1619)*1754 – Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée, French playwright and producer (b.", "1692)*1761 – Thomas Simpson, English mathematician and academic (b.", "1710)*1847 – Fanny Mendelssohn, German pianist and composer (b.", "1805)*1860 – Ludwig Bechstein, German author (b.", "1801)*1873 – Gideon Brecher, Austrian physician and author (b.", "1797)*1878 – Ōkubo Toshimichi, Japanese samurai and politician (b.", "1830)*1881 – Mary Seacole, Jamaican-English nurse and author (b.", "1805)*1889 – Volney Howard, American lawyer, jurist, and politician (b.", "1809)*1893 – Ernst Kummer, German mathematician and academic (b.", "1810)===1901–present===*1906 – Carl Schurz, German-American general, journalist, and politician, 13th United States Secretary of the Interior (b.", "1829)*1912 – Frederik VIII of Denmark (b.", "1843)* 1912 – August Strindberg, Swedish playwright, novelist, poet, essayist (b.", "1849)*1918 – James Gordon Bennett, Jr., American journalist and publisher (b.", "1841)*1919 – Henry J. Heinz, American businessman, founded the H. J. Heinz Company (b.", "1844)*1923 – N. G. Chandavarkar, Indian jurist and politician (b.", "1855)* 1923 – Charles de Freycinet, French engineer and politician, 43rd Prime Minister of France (b.", "1828)*1931 – David Belasco, American director, producer, and playwright (b.", "1853)*1934 – Lou Criger, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1872)*1935 – Magnus Hirschfeld, German physician and sexologist (b.", "1868)*1936 – Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby, English field marshal and diplomat, British High Commissioner in Egypt (b.", "1861)*1940 – Emma Goldman, Lithuanian author and activist (b.", "1869)* 1940 – Menno ter Braak, Dutch author (b.", "1902)*1943 – Henri La Fontaine, Belgian lawyer and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1854)*1945 – Heber J.", "Grant, American religious leader, 7th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b.", "1856)* 1945 – Wolfgang Lüth, Latvian-German captain (b.", "1913)* 1945 – Isis Pogson, English astronomer and meteorologist (b.", "1852)*1953 – Yasuo Kuniyoshi, American painter and photographer (b.", "1893)*1954 – Heinz Guderian, Prussian-German general (b.", "1888)*1956 – Joan Malleson, English physician (b.", "1889)*1957 – Marie Vassilieff, Russian-French painter (b.", "1884)*1959 – Sidney Bechet, American saxophonist, clarinet player, and composer (b.", "1897)* 1959 – Infanta Maria Antonia of Portugal (b.", "1862)*1960 – Lucrezia Bori, Spanish soprano and actress (b.", "1887)*1962 – Florence Auer, American actress and screenwriter (b.", "1880)*1965 – Frances Perkins, American workers-rights advocate, U.S. Secretary of Labor (b.", "1880)*1968 – Husband E. Kimmel, American admiral (b.", "1882)*1969 – Enid Bennett, Australian-American actress (b.", "1893)* 1969 – Frederick Lane, Australian swimmer (b.", "1888)*1970 – Billie Burke, American actress and singer (b.", "1884)*1973 – Jean Gebser, German linguist, philosopher, and poet (b.", "1905)*1976 – Keith Relf, English singer-songwriter, harmonica player, and producer (b.", "1943)*1979 – Jean Rhys, Dominican-English novelist (b.", "1890)*1980 – Hugh Griffith, Welsh actor (b.", "1912)*1982 – Hugh Beaumont, American actor (b.", "1909)*1983 – Roger J. Traynor, American academic and jurist, 23rd Chief Justice of California (b.", "1900)* 1983 – Miguel Alemán Valdés, Mexican politician, 46th President of Mexico (b.", "1900)*1984 – Ted Hicks, Australian public servant and diplomat, Australian High Commissioner to New Zealand (b.", "1910)* 1984 – Walter Rauff, German SS officer (b.", "1906)*1987 – Rita Hayworth, American actress and dancer (b.", "1918)* 1987 – Vitomil Zupan, Slovenian poet and playwright (b.", "1914)*1988 – Willem Drees, Dutch politician and historian, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1948–1958) (b.", "1886)*1991 – Aladár Gerevich, Hungarian fencer (b.", "1910)* 1991 – Jiang Qing, Chinese revolutionary, actress, and politician, member of the Gang of Four (b.", "1914)*1992 – Nie Rongzhen, Chinese general and politician, Mayor of Beijing (b.", "1899)*1993 – William Randolph Hearst, Jr., American journalist and publisher (b.", "1908)*1994 – Cihat Arman, Turkish footballer and manager (b.", "1915)* 1994 – W. Graham Claytor Jr., American businessman, lieutenant, and politician, 15th United States Secretary of the Navy (b.", "1914)*1995 – Christian B. Anfinsen, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1916)*1997 – Harry Blackstone Jr., American magician and author (b.", "1934)* 1997 – Boris Parsadanian, Armenian-Estonian violinist and composer (b.", "1925)*1998 – Marjory Stoneman Douglas, American journalist and environmentalist (b.", "1890)* 1998 – Frank Sinatra, American singer and actor (b.", "1915)*2000 – Keizō Obuchi, Japanese politician, 84th Prime Minister of Japan (b.", "1937)*2001 – Paul Bénichou, French writer, intellectual, critic, and literary historian (b.", "1908)* 2001 – Gil Langley, Australian cricketer, footballer, and politician (b.", "1919)*2003 – Dave DeBusschere, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1940)* 2003 – Wendy Hiller, English actress (b.", "1912)* 2003 – Robert Stack, American actor and producer (b.", "1919)*2004 – Anna Lee, English-American actress (b.", "1913) * 2005 – Jimmy Martin, American musician (b.", "1927)*2006 – Lew Anderson, American actor and saxophonist (b.", "1922)* 2006 – Stanley Kunitz, American poet and translator (b.", "1905)* 2006 – Eva Norvind, Mexican actress, director, and producer (b.", "1944)*2007 – Mary Scheier, American sculptor and educator (b.", "1908)* 2007 – Ülo Jõgi, Estonian historian and author (b.", "1921)*2010 – Frank J. Dodd, American businessman and politician, president of the New Jersey Senate (b.", "1938)* 2010 – Norman Hand, American football player (b.", "1972)* 2010 – Goh Keng Swee, Singaporean soldier and politician, 2nd Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore (b.", "1918)*2012 – Ernst Hinterberger, Austrian author and screenwriter (b.", "1931)* 2012 – Mario Trejo, Argentinian poet, playwright, and journalist (b.", "1926)*2013 – Wayne Brown, American accountant and politician, 14th Mayor of Mesa (b.", "1936)* 2013 – Arsen Chilingaryan, Armenian footballer and manager (b.", "1962)* 2013 – Asghar Ali Engineer, Indian author and activist (b.", "1939)* 2013 – Ray Guy, Canadian journalist (b.", "1939)*2014 – Jeffrey Kruger, English-American businessman (b.", "1931)* 2014 – Emanuel Raymond Lewis, American librarian and author (b.", "1928)* 2014 – Morvin Simon, New Zealand historian, composer, and conductor (b.", "1944)*2015 – B.B.", "King, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1925)* 2015 – Micheál O'Brien, Irish footballer and hurler (b.", "1923)* 2015 – Stanton J. Peale, American astrophysicist and academic (b.", "1937)* 2015 – Franz Wright, Austrian-American poet and translator (b.", "1953)*2016 – Darwyn Cooke, American comic book writer and artist (b.", "1962)*2017 – Powers Boothe, American actor (b.", "1948)*2018 – Tom Wolfe, American author (b.", "1931)*2019 – Tim Conway, American actor, writer, and comedian (b.", "1933)* 2019 – Grumpy Cat, American cat and internet meme celebrity (b.", "2012)*2023 – Doyle Brunson, American poker player (b.", "1933)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Boniface of Tarsus** Engelmund of Velsen** Matthias the Apostle (Roman Catholic Church, Anglican Communion)** Michael Garicoïts ** Mo Chutu of Lismore (Roman Catholic Church)** Victor and Corona ** May 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Earliest day on which the first day of Sanja Matsuri can fall, while May 21 is the latest; celebrated on the third weekend of May.", "(Sensō-ji, Tokyo)* Flag Day (Paraguay)* Hastings Banda's Birthday (Malawi)* National Unification Day (Liberia)* The first day of Izumo-taisha Shrine Grand Festival.", "(Izumo-taisha)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 14" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 20" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 325 – The First Council of Nicaea is formally opened, starting the first ecumenical council of the Christian Church.", "* 491 – Empress Ariadne marries Anastasius I.", "The widowed ''Augusta'' is able to choose her successor for the Byzantine throne, after Zeno (late emperor) dies of dysentery.", "* 685 – The Battle of Dun Nechtain is fought between a Pictish army under King Bridei III and the invading Northumbrians under King Ecgfrith, who are decisively defeated.", "* 794 – While visiting the royal Mercian court at Sutton Walls with a view to marrying princess Ælfthryth, King Æthelberht II of East Anglia is taken captive and beheaded.", "*1217 – The Second Battle of Lincoln is fought near Lincoln, England, resulting in the defeat of Prince Louis of France by William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke.", "*1293 – King Sancho IV of Castile creates the Estudio de Escuelas de Generales in Alcalá de Henares.", "*1426 – King Mohnyin Thado formally ascends to the throne of Ava.", "*1449 – The Battle of Alfarrobeira is fought, establishing the House of Braganza as a principal royal family of Portugal.", "*1497 – John Cabot sets sail from Bristol, England, on his ship looking for a route to the west (other documents give a May 2 date).", "*1498 – Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama discovers the sea route to India when he arrives at Kozhikode (previously known as Calicut), India.", "*1520 – Hernan Cortés defeats Pánfilo de Narváez, sent by Spain to punish him for insubordination.", "*1521 – Ignatius of Loyola is seriously wounded in the Battle of Pampeluna.", "*1570 – Cartographer Abraham Ortelius issues ''Theatrum Orbis Terrarum'', the first modern atlas.===1601–1900===*1609 – Shakespeare's sonnets are first published in London, perhaps illicitly, by the publisher Thomas Thorpe.", "*1631 – The city of Magdeburg in Germany is seized by forces of the Holy Roman Empire and most of its inhabitants massacred, in one of the bloodiest incidents of the Thirty Years' War.", "*1645 – Yangzhou massacre: The ten day massacre of 800,000 residents of the city of Yangzhou, part of the Transition from Ming to Qing.", "*1741 – The Battle of Cartagena de Indias ends in a Spanish victory and the British begin withdrawal towards Jamaica with substantial losses.", "*1775 – The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence is allegedly signed in Charlotte, North Carolina.", "*1802 – By the Law of 20 May 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte reinstates slavery in the French colonies, revoking its abolition in the French Revolution.", "*1813 – Napoleon Bonaparte leads his French troops into the Battle of Bautzen in Saxony, Germany, against the combined armies of Russia and Prussia.", "The battle ends the next day with a French victory.", "*1861 – American Civil War: The state of Kentucky proclaims its neutrality, which will last until September 3 when Confederate forces enter the state.", "Meanwhile, the State of North Carolina secedes from the Union.", "*1862 – U.S. President Abraham Lincoln signs the Homestead Act into law, opening of public land to settlers.", "*1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Ware Bottom Church: In the Virginia Bermuda Hundred campaign, 10,000 troops fight in this Confederate victory.", "*1873 – Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis receive a U.S. patent for blue jeans with copper rivets.", "*1875 – Signing of the Metre Convention by 17 nations leading to the establishment of the International System of Units.", "*1882 – The Triple Alliance between the German Empire, Austria-Hungary and the Kingdom of Italy is formed.", "*1883 – Krakatoa begins to erupt; the volcano explodes three months later, killing more than 36,000 people.", "*1891 – History of cinema: The first public display of Thomas Edison's prototype kinetoscope.===1901–present===*1902 – Cuba gains independence from the United States.", "Tomás Estrada Palma becomes the country's first President.", "*1927 – Treaty of Jeddah: The United Kingdom recognizes the sovereignty of King Ibn Saud in the Kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd, which later merge to become the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.", "*1927 – Charles Lindbergh takes off for Paris from Roosevelt Field in Long Island, N.Y., aboard the Spirit of St. Louis on the first nonstop solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean, landing hours later.", "*1932 – Amelia Earhart takes off from Newfoundland to begin the world's first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic Ocean by a female pilot, landing in Ireland the next day.", "*1940 – The Holocaust: The first prisoners arrive at a new concentration camp at Auschwitz.", "*1941 – World War II: Battle of Crete: German paratroops invade Crete.", "*1943 – The Luttra Woman, a bog body from the Early Neolithic period (radiocarbon-dated ), was discovered near Luttra, Sweden.", "*1948 – Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek wins the 1948 Republic of China presidential election and is sworn in as the first President of the Republic of China at Nanjing.", "*1949 – In the United States, the Armed Forces Security Agency, the predecessor to the National Security Agency, is established.", "*1956 – In Operation Redwing, the first United States airborne hydrogen bomb is dropped over Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean.", "*1964 – Discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation by Robert Woodrow Wilson and Arno Penzias.", "*1965 – One hundred twenty-one people are killed when Pakistan International Airlines Flight 705 crashes at Cairo International Airport.", "*1967 – The Popular Movement of the Revolution political party is established in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "*1969 – The Battle of Hamburger Hill in Vietnam ends.", "*1971 – In the Chuknagar massacre, Pakistani forces massacre thousands, mostly Bengali Hindus.", "*1980 – In a referendum in Quebec, the population rejects, by 60% of the vote, a government proposal to move towards independence from Canada.", "*1983 – First publications of the discovery of the HIV virus that causes AIDS in the journal ''Science'' by a team of French scientists including Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, Jean-Claude Chermann, and Luc Montagnier.", "* 1983 – Church Street bombing: A car bomb planted by UMkhonto we Sizwe explodes on Church Street in South Africa's capital, Pretoria, killing 19 people and injuring 217 others.", "*1985 – Radio Martí, part of the Voice of America service, begins broadcasting to Cuba.", "*1989 – The Chinese authorities declare martial law in the face of pro-democracy demonstrations, setting the scene for the Tiananmen Square massacre.", "*1990 – The first post-Communist presidential and parliamentary elections are held in Romania.", "*1996 – Civil rights: The Supreme Court of the United States rules in ''Romer v. Evans'' against a law that would have prevented any city, town or county in the state of Colorado from taking any legislative, executive, or judicial action to protect the rights of gays and lesbians.", "*2002 – The independence of East Timor is recognized by Portugal, formally ending 23 years of Indonesian rule and three years of provisional UN administration (Portugal itself is the former colonizer of East Timor until 1976).", "*2011 – Mamata Banerjee is sworn in as the Chief Minister of West Bengal, the first woman to hold this post.", "*2012 – At least 27 people are killed and 50 others injured when a 6.0-magnitude earthquake strikes northern Italy.", "*2013 – An EF5 tornado strikes the Oklahoma City suburb of Moore, killing 24 people and injuring 377 others.", "*2016 – The government of Singapore authorised the controversial execution of convicted murderer Kho Jabing for the murder of a Chinese construction worker despite the international pleas for clemency, notably from Amnesty International and the United Nations.", "*2019 – The International System of Units (SI): The base units are redefined, making the international prototype of the kilogram obsolete.", "*2022 – Russo-Ukrainian War: Russia claims full control of the Ukrainian city of Mariupol after a nearly three-month siege." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1315 – Bonne of Luxembourg, first wife of John II of France (d. 1349)*1470 – Pietro Bembo, Italian cardinal, poet, and scholar (d. 1547)*1505 – Levinus Lemnius, Dutch writer (d. 1568)*1531 – Thado Minsaw of Ava, Viceroy of Ava (d. 1584)*1537 – Hieronymus Fabricius, Italian anatomist (d. 1619)*1575 – Robert Heath, English judge and politician (d. 1649)===1601–1900===*1664 – Andreas Schlüter, German sculptor and architect (d. 1714)*1726 – Francis Cotes, English painter and academic (d. 1770)*1759 – William Thornton, Virgin Islander-American architect, designed the United States Capitol (d. 1828)*1769 – Andreas Vokos Miaoulis, Greek admiral and politician (d. 1835)*1772 – Sir William Congreve, 2nd Baronet, English inventor and politician, developed Congreve rockets (d. 1828)*1776 – Simon Fraser, American-Canadian fur trader and explorer (d. 1862)*1795 – Pedro María de Anaya, Mexican soldier.", "President (1847–1848) (d. 1854)*1799 – Honoré de Balzac, French novelist and playwright (d. 1850)*1806 – John Stuart Mill, English economist, civil servant, and philosopher (d. 1873)*1811 – Alfred Domett, English-New Zealand poet and politician, 4th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1887)*1818 – William Fargo, American businessman and politician, co-founded Wells Fargo and American Express (d. 1881)*1822 – Frédéric Passy, French economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1912)*1824 – Cadmus M. Wilcox, Confederate States Army general (d. 1890)*1825 – Antoinette Brown Blackwell, the first woman to be ordained as a mainstream Protestant minister in the U.S. (d. 1921)*1830 – Hector Malot, French author (d. 1907)*1838 – Jules Méline, French lawyer and politician, 65th Prime Minister of France (d. 1925)*1851 – Emile Berliner, German-American inventor, invented the Gramophone record (d. 1929)*1854 – George Prendergast, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Victoria (d. 1937)*1856 – Henri-Edmond Cross, French Neo-Impressionist painter (d. 1910)*1860 – Eduard Buchner, German chemist, zymologist, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1917)*1875 – Hendrik Offerhaus, Dutch rower (d. 1953)*1877 – Pat Leahy, Irish-American jumper (d. 1927)*1879 – Hans Meerwein, German chemist (d. 1965)*1882 – Sigrid Undset, Danish-Norwegian novelist, essayist, and translator, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1949)*1883 – Faisal I of Iraq (d. 1933)*1886 – Ali Sami Yen, Turkish footballer and manager, founded the Galatasaray Sports Club (d. 1951)*1894 – Chandrashekarendra Saraswati, Indian guru and scholar (d. 1994)*1895 – R. J. Mitchell, English engineer, designed the Supermarine Spitfire and Supermarine S.6B (d. 1937)*1897 – Diego Abad de Santillán, Spanish economist and author (d. 1983)* 1897 – Malcolm Nokes, English hammer and discus thrower (d. 1986)*1898 – Eduard Ole, Estonian painter (d. 1995)*1899 – Aleksandr Deyneka, Russian painter and sculptor (d. 1969)* 1899 – John Marshall Harlan II, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1971)*1900 – Sumitranandan Pant, Indian poet and author (d. 1977)===1901–present===*1901 – Max Euwe, Dutch chess player, mathematician, and author (d. 1981)* 1901 – Doris Fleeson, American journalist (d. 1970)*1904 – Margery Allingham, English author of detective fiction (d. 1966)*1906 – Giuseppe Siri, Italian cardinal (d. 1989)*1907 – Carl Mydans, American photographer and journalist (d. 2004)*1908 – Henry Bolte, Australian politician, 38th Premier of Victoria (d. 1990)* 1908 – Louis Daquin, French actor and director (d. 1980)* 1908 – Francis Raymond Fosberg, American botanist and author (d. 1993)* 1908 – James Stewart, American actor (d. 1997)*1911 – Gardner Fox, American author (d. 1986)* 1911 – Annie M. G. Schmidt, Dutch author and playwright (d. 1995)*1913 – Teodoro Fernández, Peruvian footballer (d. 1996)* 1913 – William Redington Hewlett, American engineer, co-founded Hewlett-Packard (d. 2001)* 1913 – Carlos J. Gradin, Argentine Archaeologist (d. 2002)*1915 – Peter Copley, English actor (d. 2008)* 1915 – Moshe Dayan, Israeli general and politician, 5th Israeli Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1981)* 1915 – Joff Ellen, Australian comedian and actor (d. 1999)*1916 – Owen Chadwick, English rugby player, historian, and academic (d. 2015)* 1916 – Alexey Maresyev, Russian soldier and pilot (d. 2001)* 1916 – Ondina Valla, Italian sprinter and hurdler (d. 2006)*1917 – Tony Cliff, Israeli-English author and activist (d. 2000)* 1917 – Guy Favreau, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician, 28th Canadian Minister of Justice (d. 1967)*1918 – Alexandra Boyko, Russian tank commander (d. 1996)* 1918 – Edward B. Lewis, American biologist, geneticist, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)*1919 – George Gobel, American comedian (d. 1991)*1920 – John Cruickshank, Scottish lieutenant and banker, Victoria Cross recipient *1921 – Wolfgang Borchert, German author and playwright (d. 1947)* 1921 – Hal Newhouser, American baseball player and scout (d. 1998)* 1921 – Hao Wang, Chinese-American logician, philosopher, and mathematician (d. 1995)*1922 – Ted Hinton, Northern Irish international footballer (d. 1988) *1923 – Edith Fellows, American actress (d. 2011)* 1923 – Sam Selvon, Trinidad-born writer (d. 1994)*1924 – David Chavchavadze, English-American CIA officer and author (d. 2014)* 1924 – Zelmar Michelini, Uruguayan journalist and politician (d. 1976)*1925 – Alexei Tupolev, Russian engineer, designed the Tupolev Tu-144 (d. 2001)*1926 – Bob Sweikert, American race car driver (d. 1956)*1927 – Bud Grant, American football player and coach (d. 2023)* 1927 – David Hedison, American actor (d. 2019)* 1927 – Franciszek Macharski, Polish cardinal (d. 2016)* 1929 – Pedro Trebbau, German-born Venezuelan zoologist (d. 2021)*1929 – Gilles Loiselle, Canadian politician and diplomat, 33rd Canadian Minister of Finance (d. 2022)*1930 – Sam Etcheverry, American football player and coach (d. 2009)*1931 – Ken Boyer, American baseball player and manager (d. 1982)* 1931 – Louis Smith, American trumpeter (d. 2016)*1933 – Constance Towers, American actress and singer*1935 – José Mujica, Uruguayan guerrilla leader and politician, 40th President of Uruguay*1936 – Anthony Zerbe, American actor*1937 – Dave Hill, American golfer (d. 2011)* 1937 – Derek Lampe, English footballer *1939 – Balu Mahendra, Sri Lankan-Indian director, cinematographer, and screenwriter (d. 2014)*1940 – Shorty Long, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1969)* 1940 – Stan Mikita, Slovak-Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster (d. 2018)* 1940 – Sadaharu Oh, Japanese-Taiwanese baseball player and manager*1941 – Goh Chok Tong, Singaporean politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Singapore* 1941 – John Strasberg, American actor and teacher*1942 – Raymond Chrétien, Canadian lawyer and diplomat, Canadian Ambassador to the United States* 1942 – Lynn Davies, Welsh sprinter and long jumper* 1942 – Carlos Hathcock, American sergeant and sniper (d. 1999)* 1942 – Frew McMillan, South African tennis player*1943 – Albano Carrisi, Italian singer, actor, and winemaker* 1943 – Deryck Murray, Trinidadian cricketer*1944 – Joe Cocker, English singer-songwriter (d. 2014)* 1944 – Boudewijn de Groot, Indonesian-Dutch singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1944 – Keith Fletcher, English cricketer and manager* 1944 – Dietrich Mateschitz, Austrian businessman, co-founder of Red Bull GmbH (d. 2022)*1945 – Vladimiro Montesinos, Peruvian intelligence officer*1946 – Cher, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress* 1946 – Bobby Murcer, American baseball player, coach, manager, and sportscaster (d. 2008)*1947 – Steve Currie, English bass player (d. 1981)* 1947 – Greg Dyke, English journalist and academic*1949 – Robert Morin, Canadian director, cinematographer, and screenwriter* 1949 – Michèle Roberts, English author and poet* 1949 – Dave Thomas, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1950 – Andy Johns, English-American engineer and producer (d. 2013)* 1950 – Reinaldo Merlo, Argentinian footballer and coach* 1950 – Jane Parker-Smith, English organist (d. 2020)*1951 – Thomas Akers, American colonel, engineer, and astronaut* 1951 – Christie Blatchford, Canadian newspaper columnist, journalist and broadcaster (d. 2020)* 1951 – Mike Crapo, American lawyer and politician*1952 – Roger Milla, Cameroonian footballer and manager* 1952 – Michael Wills, English politician, British Minister of Justice*1953 – Robert Doyle, Australian educator and politician, 103rd Lord Mayor of Melbourne*1954 – David Paterson, American lawyer and politician, 55th Governor of New York* 1954 – Colin Sutherland, Lord Carloway, Scottish lawyer and judge*1955 – Steve George, American keyboard player and songwriter* 1955 – Zbigniew Preisner, Polish composer and producer*1956 – Ingvar Ambjørnsen, Norwegian-German author and critic* 1956 – Gerry Peyton, English born Irish international footballer and coach * 1956 – Douglas Preston, American journalist and author*1957 – Yoshihiko Noda, Japanese lawyer and politician, 62nd Prime Minister of Japan*1958 – Ron Reagan, American journalist and radio host* 1958 – Jane Wiedlin, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress *1959 – Susan Cowsill, American singer-songwriter*1960 – Tony Goldwyn, American actor and director*1961 – Clive Allen, English international footballer and manager * 1961 – Nick Heyward, English singer-songwriter and guitarist *1963 – David Wells, American baseball player and sportscaster*1964 – Kōichirō Genba, Japanese politician, 80th Japanese Minister for Foreign Affairs* 1964 – Edin Osmanović, Slovenian footballer, coach, and manager* 1964 – Charles Spencer, 9th Earl Spencer, English journalist and author*1965 – Ted Allen, American television host and author* 1965 – Stu Grimson, Canadian ice hockey player, sportscaster, and lawyer*1966 – Dan Abrams, American journalist and author*1967 – Graham Brady, English politician* 1967 – Gabriele Muccino, Italian director, producer, and screenwriter*1968 – Timothy Olyphant, American actor and producer*1969 – Road Dogg, American wrestler, producer, and soldier*1970 – Terrell Brandon, American basketball player* 1970 – Louis Theroux, Singaporean-English journalist and producer*1971 – Šárka Kašpárková, Czech triple jumper and coach* 1971 – Tony Stewart, American race car driver*1972 – Michael Diamond, Australian shooter* 1972 – Christophe Dominici, French rugby player (d. 2020)* 1972 – Busta Rhymes, American rapper, producer, and actor*1973 – Nathan Long, Australian rugby league player*1974 – Allison Amend, American novelist and short story writer* 1974 – Shiboprosad Mukherjee, Indian film director, writer and actor*1975 – Juan Minujín, Argentinian actor, director, and screenwriter*1976 – Ramón Hernández, Venezuelan-American baseball player* 1976 – Tomoya Satozaki, Japanese baseball player*1977 – Matt Czuchry, American actor* 1977 – Leo Franco, Argentinian footballer* 1977 – Angela Goethals, American actress* 1977 – Stirling Mortlock, Australian rugby player* 1977 – Vesa Toskala, Finnish ice hockey player*1978 – Hristos Banikas, Greek chess player* 1978 – Pavla Hamáčková-Rybová, Czech pole vaulter* 1978 – Nils Schumann, German runner*1979 – Andrew Scheer, Canadian politician, 28th Leader of the Conservative Party of Canada* 1979 – Jayson Werth, American baseball player*1980 – Austin Kearns, American baseball player* 1980 – Kassim Osgood, American football player*1981 – Iker Casillas, Spanish footballer* 1981 – Rachel Platten, American singer and songwriter * 1981 – Lindsay Taylor, American basketball player* 1981 – Mark Winterbottom, Australian race car driver*1982 – Petr Čech, Czech footballer* 1982 – Imran Farhat, Pakistani cricketer* 1982 – Jessica Raine, English actress* 1982 – Daniel Ribeiro, Brazilian director, producer, and screenwriter*1983 – Óscar Cardozo, Paraguayan footballer* 1983 – Matt Langridge, English rower*1984 – Mauro Rafael da Silva, Brazilian footballer* 1984 – Patrick Ewing Jr., American basketball player* 1984 – Keith Grennan, American football player*1985 – Chris Froome, Kenyan-English cyclist* 1985 – Brendon Goddard, Australian footballer*1986 – Dexter Blackstock, English footballer* 1986 – Stéphane Mbia, Cameroonian footballer* 1986 – Jiřina Svobodová, Czech pole vaulter*1987 – Mike Havenaar, Japanese footballer* 1987 – Julian Wright, American basketball player*1988 – Joel Moon, Australian rugby league player*1989 – Siosia Vave, Australian-Tongan rugby league player*1991 – Bastian Baker, Swiss singer, songwriter, and performer* 1991 – Emre Colak, Turkish footballer*1992 – Cate Campbell, Malawian-Australian swimmer* 1992 – Jack Gleeson, Irish actor* 1992 – Enes Kanter, Turkish basketball player*1993 – Ramy Rabia, Egyptian footballer* 1993 – Caroline Zhang, American figure skater*1996 – Brian Kelly, Australian rugby league player*1998 – Jamie Chadwick, English race car driver* 1998 – Nam Nguyen, Canadian figure skater" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 685 – Ecgfrith of Northumbria (b.", "645)* 794 – Æthelberht II, king of East Anglia* 965 – Gero the Great, Saxon ruler (b.c.", "900)*1062 – Bao Zheng, Chinese magistrate and mayor of Kaifeng (b.", "999)*1277 – Pope John XXI (b.", "1215)*1285 – John I of Cyprus (b.", "1259)*1291 – Sufi Saint Sayyid Jalaluddin Surkh-Posh Bukhari*1366 – Maria of Calabria, Empress of Constantinople (b.", "1329)*1444 – Bernardino of Siena, Italian-Spanish missionary and saint (b.", "1380)*1449 – Álvaro Vaz de Almada, 1st Count of Avranches* 1449 – Infante Pedro, Duke of Coimbra (b.", "1392)*1501 – Columba of Rieti, Italian Dominican tertiary Religious Sister (b.", "1467)*1503 – Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, Italian banker and politician (b.", "1463)*1506 – Christopher Columbus, Italian explorer, early European explorer of the Americas (b.", "1451)*1550 – Ashikaga Yoshiharu, Japanese shōgun (b.", "1510)*1579 – Isabella Markham, English courtier (b.", "1527)===1601–1900===*1622 – Osman II, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1604)*1645 – Shi Kefa, Chinese general and calligrapher (b.", "1601)*1648 – Władysław IV Vasa, Polish son of Sigismund III Vasa (b.", "1595)*1677 – George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol, Spanish-English politician, English Secretary of State (b.", "1612)*1713 – Thomas Sprat, English bishop (b.", "1635)*1717 – John Trevor, Welsh lawyer and politician, 102nd Speaker of the House of Commons (b.", "1637)*1722 – Sébastien Vaillant, French botanist and mycologist (b.", "1669)*1732 – Thomas Boston, Scottish author and educator (b.", "1676)*1782 – William Emerson, English mathematician and academic (b.", "1701)*1793 – Charles Bonnet, Swiss botanist and biologist (b.", "1720)*1812 – Count Hieronymus von Colloredo, Austrian archbishop (b.", "1732)*1834 – Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, French general (b.", "1757)*1841 – Joseph Blanco White, Spanish poet and theologian (b.", "1775)*1864 – John Clare, English poet (b.", "1793)*1873 – George-Étienne Cartier, Canadian soldier, lawyer, and politician, 9th Premier of East Canada (b.", "1814)*1880 – Ana Néri, Brazilian nurse and philanthropist (b.", "1814)*1896 – Clara Schumann, German pianist and composer (b.", "1819)===1901–present===*1909 – Ernest Hogan, American actor and composer (b.", "1859)*1917 – Valentine Fleming, Scottish soldier and politician (b.", "1887)* 1917 – Philipp von Ferrary, Italian stamp collector (b.", "1850)*1924 – Bogd Khan, Mongolian ruler (c. 1869)*1925 – Joseph Howard, Maltese politician, 1st Prime Minister of Malta (b.", "1862)*1931 – Ernest Noel, Scottish businessman and politician (b.", "1831)*1940 – Verner von Heidenstam, Swedish author and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1859)*1942 – Hector Guimard, French Architect (b.", "1867)*1946 – Jacob Ellehammer, Danish pilot and engineer (b.", "1871)*1947 – Philipp Lenard, Slovak-German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1862)* 1947 – Georgios Siantos, Greek sergeant and politician (b.", "1890)*1949 – Damaskinos of Athens, Greek archbishop and politician, 137th Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1891)*1956 – Max Beerbohm, English essayist, parodist, and caricaturist (b.", "1872)* 1956 – Zoltán Halmay, Hungarian swimmer and trainer (b.", "1881)*1961 – Josef Priller, German colonel and pilot (b.", "1915)*1964 – Rudy Lewis, American singer (b.", "1936)*1971 – Waldo Williams, Welsh poet and academic (b.", "1904)*1973 – Renzo Pasolini, Italian motorcycle racer (b.", "1938)* 1973 – Jarno Saarinen, Finnish motorcycle racer (b.", "1945)*1975 – Barbara Hepworth, English sculptor and lithographer (b.", "1903)*1976 – Syd Howe, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1911)* 1976 – Zelmar Michelini, Uruguayan journalist and politician (b.", "1924)* 1976 – Héctor Gutiérrez Ruiz, Uruguayan politician (b.", "1934)*1989 – John Hicks, English economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1904)* 1989 – Gilda Radner, American actress and comedian (b.", "1946)*1995 – Les Cowie, Australian rugby league player (b.", "1925)*1996 – Jon Pertwee, English actor, portrayed the Third Doctor (b.", "1919)*1998 – Robert Normann, Norwegian guitarist (b.", "1916)*2000 – Jean-Pierre Rampal, French flute player (b.", "1922)* 2000 – Malik Sealy, American basketball player and actor (b.", "1970)* 2000 – Yevgeny Khrunov, Russian colonel, engineer, and astronaut (b.", "1933)*2001 – Renato Carosone, Italian singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1920)*2002 – Stephen Jay Gould, American paleontologist, biologist, and academic (b.", "1941)*2005 – Paul Ricœur, French philosopher and academic (b.", "1913)* 2005 – William Seawell, American general (b.", "1918)*2007 – Norman Von Nida, Australian golfer (b.", "1914)*2008 – Hamilton Jordan, American politician, 8th White House Chief of Staff (b.", "1944)*2009 – Arthur Erickson, Canadian architect and urban planner, designed Roy Thomson Hall (b.", "1924)* 2009 – Lucy Gordon, American actress and model (b.", "1980)* 2009 – Pierre Gamarra, French author, poet, and critic (b.", "1919)*2011 – Randy Savage, American wrestler and actor (b.", "1952)*2012 – Leela Dube, Indian anthropologist and scholar (b.", "1923)* 2012 – Robin Gibb, Manx-English singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1949)* 2012 – David Littman, English-Swiss historian, author, and academic (b.", "1933)* 2012 – Ken Lyons, American bass guitarist (b.", "1953)* 2012 – Eugene Polley, American engineer, invented the remote control (b.", "1915)* 2012 – Andrew B. Steinberg, American lawyer (b.", "1958)*2013 – Flavio Costantini, Italian painter and illustrator (b.", "1926)* 2013 – Billie Dawe, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Anders Eliasson, Swedish composer (b.", "1947)* 2013 – Miloslav Kříž, Czech basketball player and coach (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Ray Manzarek, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer (b.", "1939)* 2013 – Denys Roberts, English judge and politician (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Zach Sobiech, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1995)*2014 – Sandra Bem, American psychologist and academic (b.", "1944)* 2014 – Ross Brown, New Zealand rugby player (b.", "1934)* 2014 – Robyn Denny, English-French painter (b.", "1930)* 2014 – Arthur Gelb, American journalist, author, and critic (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Prince Rupert Loewenstein, Spanish-English businessman (b.", "1933)* 2014 – Barbara Murray, English actress (b.", "1929)*2015 – Bob Belden, American saxophonist, composer, and producer (b.", "1956)* 2015 – Femi Robinson, Nigerian actor and playwright (b.", "1940)*2016 – Kho Jabing, Malaysian convicted murderer who was executed by hanging in Singapore (b.", "1984)*2019 – Niki Lauda, Austrian race car driver (b.", "1949)*2022 – Roger Angell, American sportswriter and author (b.", "1920) * 2022 – Susan Roces, Filipino actress (b.", "1941)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Abercius and Helena** Alcuin of York ** Aurea of Ostia** Austregisilus** Baudilus** Bernardino of Siena** Ivo of Chartres** Lucifer of Cagliari** Sanctan** May 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Day of Remembrance (Cambodia)* Emancipation Day (Florida)* European Maritime Day (European Council)* Independence Restoration Day, celebrates the independence of East Timor from Indonesia in 2002.", "* Josephine Baker Day (NAACP)* National Awakening Day (Indonesia), and its related observances:**Indonesian Doctor Day (Indonesia)* National Day (Cameroon)* World Bee Day* World Metrology Day" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 20" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mary Rose" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''Mary Rose''''' was a carrack in the English Tudor navy of King Henry VIII.", "She was launched in 1511 and served for 33 years in several wars against France, Scotland, and Brittany.", "After being substantially rebuilt in 1536, she saw her last action on 1545.She led the attack on the galleys of a French invasion fleet, but sank in the Solent, the strait north of the Isle of Wight.The wreck of the ''Mary Rose'' was located in 1971 and was raised on 11 October 1982 by the Mary Rose Trust in one of the most complex and expensive maritime salvage projects in history.", "The surviving section of the ship and thousands of recovered artefacts are of great value as a Tudor period time capsule.", "The excavation and raising of the ''Mary Rose'' was a milestone in the field of maritime archaeology, comparable in complexity and cost to the raising of the 17th-century Swedish warship ''Vasa'' in 1961.The ''Mary Rose'' site is designated under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 by statutory instrument 1974/55.The wreck is a Protected Wreck managed by Historic England.The finds include weapons, sailing equipment, naval supplies, and a wide array of objects used by the crew.", "Many of the artefacts are unique to the ''Mary Rose'' and have provided insights into topics ranging from naval warfare to the history of musical instruments.", "The remains of the hull have been on display at the Portsmouth Historic Dockyard since the mid-1980s while undergoing restoration.", "An extensive collection of well-preserved artefacts is on display at the Mary Rose Museum, built to display the remains of the ship and its artefacts.", "''Mary Rose'' was one of the largest ships in the English navy through more than three decades of intermittent war, and she was one of the earliest examples of a purpose-built sailing warship.", "She was armed with new types of heavy guns that could fire through the recently invented gun-ports.", "She was substantially rebuilt in 1536 and was also one of the earliest ships that could fire a broadside, although the line of battle tactics had not yet been developed.", "Several theories have sought to explain the demise of the ''Mary Rose'', based on historical records, knowledge of 16th-century shipbuilding, and modern experiments.", "The precise cause of her sinking is subject to conflicting testimonies and a lack of conclusive evidence." ], [ "Historical context", "Portrait of Henry VIII in 1509, the year of his coronation; unknown artist.In the late 15th century, England was still reeling from its dynastic wars first with France and then among its ruling families back on home soil.", "The great victories against France in the Hundred Years' War were in the past; only the small exclave of Calais in northern France remained of the vast continental holdings of the English kings.", "The War of the Rosesthe civil war between the houses of York and Lancasterhad ended with Henry VII's establishment of the House of Tudor, the new ruling dynasty of England.", "The ambitious naval policies of Henry V were not continued by his successors, and from 1422 to 1509 only six ships were built for the crown.", "The marriage alliance between Anne of Brittany and Charles VIII of France in 1491, and his successor Louis XII in 1499, left England with a weakened strategic position on its southern flank.", "Despite this, Henry VII managed to maintain a comparatively long period of peace and a small but powerful core of a navy.At the onset of the early modern period, the great European powers were France, the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.", "All three became involved in the War of the League of Cambrai in 1508.The conflict was initially aimed at the Republic of Venice but eventually turned against France.", "Through the Spanish possessions in the Low Countries, England had close economic ties with the Spanish Habsburgs, and it was the young Henry VIII's ambition to repeat the glorious martial endeavours of his predecessors.", "In 1509, six weeks into his reign, Henry married the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon and joined the League, intent on certifying his historical claim as king of both England and France.", "By 1511 Henry was part of an anti-French alliance that included Ferdinand II of Aragon, Pope Julius II and Holy Roman emperor Maximilian.The small navy that Henry VIII inherited from his father had only two sizeable ships, the carracks ''Regent'' and ''Sovereign''.", "Just months after his accession, two large ships were ordered: the ''Mary Rose'' and the ''Peter Pomegranate'' (later known as ''Peter'' after being rebuilt in 1536) of about 500 and 450 tons respectively.", "Which king ordered the building of the ''Mary Rose'' is unclear; although construction began during Henry VIII's reign, the plans for naval expansion could have been in the making earlier.", "Henry VIII oversaw the project and he ordered additional large ships to be built, most notably the ''Henry Grace à Dieu'' (\"Henry by the Grace of God\"), or ''Great Harry'' at more than 1000 tons burthen.", "By the 1520s the English state had established a ''de facto'' permanent \"Navy Royal\", the organizational ancestor of the modern Royal Navy." ], [ "Construction", "''The Embarkation of Henry VIII at Dover'', a painting that commemorated King Henry's voyage to the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, painted in 1540.The vessels in the painting are shown decorated with wooden panels similar to those that would have been used on the ''Mary Rose'' on special occasions.Construction of ''Mary Rose'' began on 29 January 1510 in Portsmouth and she was launched in July 1511.She was then towed to London and fitted with rigging and decking, and supplied with armaments.", "Other than the structural details needed to sail, stock and arm the ''Mary Rose'', she was also equipped with flags, banners and streamers (extremely elongated flags that were flown from the top of the masts) that were either painted or gilded.Constructing a warship of the size of the ''Mary Rose'' was a major undertaking, requiring vast quantities of high-quality material.", "For a state-of-the-art warship, these materials were primarily oak.", "The total amount of timber needed for the construction can only be roughly calculated since only about one third of the ship still exists.", "One estimate for the number of trees is around 600 mostly large oaks, representing about of woodland.The huge trees that had been common in Europe and the British Isles in previous centuries were by the 16th century quite rare, which meant that timbers were brought in from all over southern England.", "The largest timbers used in the construction were of roughly the same size as those used in the roofs of the largest cathedrals in the High Middle Ages.", "An unworked hull plank would have weighed over , and one of the main deck beams would have weighed close to three-quarters of a tonne.=== Naming ===The common explanation for the ship's name was that it was inspired by Henry VIII's favourite sister, Mary Tudor, Queen of France, and the rose as the emblem of the Tudors.", "According to the historians David Childs, David Loades and Peter Marsden, no direct evidence of naming the ship after the King's sister exists.", "It was far more common at the time to give ships pious Christian names, a long-standing tradition in Western Europe, or to associate them with their royal patrons.", "Names like ''Grace Dieu'' (Hallelujah) and ''Holighost'' (Holy Spirit) had been common since the 15th century and other Tudor navy ships had names like the ''Regent'' and ''Three Ostrich Feathers'' (referring to the crest of the Prince of Wales).The Virgin Mary is a more likely candidate for a namesake, and she was also associated with the Rosa Mystica (mystic rose).", "The name of the sister ship of the ''Mary Rose'', the ''Peter Pomegranate'', is believed to have been named in honour of Saint Peter, and the badge of the Queen Catharine of Aragon, a pomegranate.", "According to Childs, Loades and Marsden, the two ships, which were built around the same time, were named in honour of the king and queen, respectively." ], [ "Design", "leftThe ''Mary Rose'' was substantially rebuilt in 1536.The 1536 rebuilding turned a ship of 500 tons into one of 700 tons, and added an entire extra tier of broadside guns to the old carrack-style structure.", "By consequence, modern research is based mostly on interpretations of the concrete physical evidence of this version of the ''Mary Rose''.", "The construction of the original design from 1509 is less known.The ''Mary Rose'' was built according to the carrack-style with high \"castles\" fore and aft with a low waist of open decking in the middle.", "The hull has what is called a tumblehome shape, which reflects the ship's use as a platform for heavy guns: above the waterline, the hull gradually narrows to center the weight of the higher guns, and to make boarding more difficult.", "Since only part of the hull has survived, it is not possible to determine many of the basic dimensions with any great accuracy.", "The moulded breadth, the widest point of the ship roughly above the waterline, was about and the keel about , although the ship's overall length is uncertain.The hull had four levels separated by three decks.", "Because the terminology for these was not yet standardised in the 16th century, the terms used here are those that were applied by the Mary Rose Trust.", "The ''hold'' lay furthest down in the ship, right above the bottom planking and below the waterline.", "This is where the galley was situated and the food was cooked.", "Directly aft of the galley was the mast step, a rebate in the centre-most timber of the keelson, right above the keel, which supported the main mast, and next to it the main bilge pump.", "To increase the stability of the ship, the hold was where the ballast was placed and much of the supplies were kept.", "Right above the hold was the ''orlop'', the lowest deck.", "Like the hold, it was partitioned and was also used as a storage area for everything from food to spare sails.Above the orlop lay the ''main deck'', which housed the heaviest guns.", "The side of the hull on the main deck level had seven gunports on each side fitted with heavy lids that would have been watertight when closed.", "This was also the highest deck that was caulked and waterproof.", "Along the sides of the main deck there were cabins under the forecastle and aftercastle which have been identified as belonging to the carpenter, barber-surgeon, pilot and possibly also the master gunner and some of the officers.The top deck in the hull structure was the ''upper deck'' (or weather deck) which was exposed to the elements in the waist.", "It was a dedicated fighting deck without any known partitions and a mix of heavy and light guns.", "Over the open waist, the upper deck was entirely covered with a boarding net, a coarse netting that served as a defence measure against boarding.", "Though very little of the upper deck has survived, it has been suggested that it housed the main living quarters of the crew underneath the aftercastle.", "A drain located in this area has been identified as a possible \"piss-dale\", a general urinal to complement the regular toilets which would probably have been located in the bow.The castles of the ''Mary Rose'' had additional decks, but since almost nothing of them survives, their design has had to be reconstructed from historical records.", "Contemporary ships of equal size were consistently listed as having three decks in both castles.", "Although speculative, this layout is supported by the illustration in the Anthony Roll and the gun inventories.During the early stages of excavation of the wreck, it was erroneously believed that the ship had originally been built with clinker (or clench) planking, a technique in which the hull consisted of overlapping planks that bore the structural strength of the ship.", "Cutting gunports into a clinker-built hull would have meant weakening the ship's structural integrity, and it was assumed that she was later rebuilt to accommodate a hull with carvel edge-to-edge planking with a skeletal structure to support a hull perforated with gunports.", "Later examination indicates that the clinker planking is not present throughout the ship; only the outer structure of the sterncastle is built with overlapping planking, though not with a true clinker technique.=== Construction method ===The hull of ''Mary Rose'' is carvel built.", "The ship is an early example of this method of construction in England.", "Her hull shape is now known to have been set out using the three arc methoda geometric method similar to that used some two hundred years later, so giving a much earlier date for this technique.", "This, and studies of other ships specified in the 15th century, is suggestive that the three arc methodology was probably already in existence before the time ''Mary Rose'' was built.The construction sequence began with laying the keel and setting up the stem and sternpost.", "The midships frame and a few other frames (master frames) controlled the shape of the hull, so the floors in those positions were fastened to the top of the keel.", "Then planking started with the garboards being fastened to the keel and those floors that were already installed.", "A temporary timber batten (called a ribband) was fastened across the floors that had been fitted and the remaining floors were shaped to fit the curve delineated by the ribbands and the garboards and then fitted.", "The keelson was fastened over the top of the floors and planking continued up from the garboards to near the end of the floors.", "The first futtocks were then installed.", "The hull construction continued with phases of planking and the fitting of second and third futtocks until deck level was reached.These frame components (floors and futtocks) were generally not fastened to each other as construction continued.", "This demonstrates that the hull was not made by first building a complete framework and then adding the planking once that was complete.", "Instead planking and framing were carried out in steps, with later futtocks being added as planking carried on up to the weather deck level.", "This is in sharp contrast to the usual way of building a carvel hull today.", "The construction sequence used for Mary Rose was common for the lengthy transition period during which carvel became the main method of ship building.=== Sails and rigging ===rigging blocks raised from the ''Mary Rose''Although only the lower fittings of the rigging survive, a 1514 inventory and the only known contemporary depiction of the ship from the Anthony Roll have been used to determine how the propulsion system of the ''Mary Rose'' was designed.", "Nine, or possibly ten, sails were flown from four masts and a bowsprit: the foremast had two square sails and the mainmast three; the mizzen mast had a lateen sail and a small square sail; the bonaventure mizzen had at least one lateen sail and possibly also a square sail; and the bowsprit flew a small square spritsail.", "According to the Anthony Roll illustration (see top of this section), the yards (the spars from which the sails were set) on the foremast and mainmast were also equipped with sheerhooks – twin curved blades sharpened on the inside – that were intended to cut an enemy ship's rigging during boarding actions.The sailing capabilities of the ''Mary Rose'' were commented on by her contemporaries and were once even put to the test.", "In March 1513 a contest was arranged off The Downs, west of Kent, in which she raced against nine other ships.", "She won the contest, and Admiral Edward Howard described her enthusiastically as \"the noblest ship of sayle of any gret ship, at this howr, that I trow believe be in Cristendom\".", "Several years later, while sailing between Dover and The Downs, Vice-Admiral William Fitzwilliam noted that both the ''Henry Grace à Dieu'' and the ''Mary Rose'' performed very well, riding steadily in rough seas and that it would have been a \"hard chose\" between the two.", "Modern experts have been more sceptical of her sailing qualities, believing that ships at this time were almost incapable of sailing close to the wind, and describing the handling of the ''Mary Rose'' as being like \"a wet haystack\".=== Armament ===French edition of the Froissart Chronicle depicting the battle of Sluys in 1340.The picture clearly shows how medieval naval tactics focused on close combat fighting and boarding.The ''Mary Rose'' represented a transitional ship design in naval warfare.", "Since ancient times, war at sea had been fought much as on land: with melee weapons and bows and arrows, only on floating wooden platforms rather than battlefields.", "Though the introduction of guns was a significant change, it only slowly changed the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat.", "As guns became heavier and able to take more powerful gunpowder charges, they needed to be placed lower in the ship, closer to the water line.", "Gunports cut in the hull of ships had been introduced as early as 1501, only about a decade before the ''Mary Rose'' was built.This made broadsides – coordinated volleys from all the guns on one side of a ship – possible, at least in theory, for the first time in history.", "Naval tactics throughout the 16th century and well into the 17th century focused on countering the oar-powered galleys that were armed with heavy guns in the bow, facing forwards, which were aimed by turning the entire ship against its target.", "Combined with inefficient gunpowder and the difficulties inherent in firing accurately from moving platforms, this meant that boarding remained the primary tactic for decisive victory throughout the 16th century.==== Bronze and iron guns ====Two culverins and two demi-cannons from the ''Mary Rose'' on display at the Mary Rose Museum in PortsmouthAs the ''Mary Rose'' was built and served during a period of rapid development of heavy artillery, her armament was a mix of old designs and innovations.", "The heavy armament was a mix of older-type wrought iron and cast bronze guns, which differed considerably in size, range and design.", "The large iron guns were made up of staves or bars welded into cylinders and then reinforced by shrinking iron hoops and breech loaded and equipped with simpler gun-carriages made from hollowed-out elm logs with only one pair of wheels, or without wheels entirely.The bronze guns were cast in one piece and rested on four-wheel carriages which were essentially the same as those used until the 19th century.", "The breech-loaders were cheaper to produce and both easier and faster to reload, but could take less powerful charges than cast bronze guns.", "Generally, the bronze guns used cast iron shot and were more suited to penetrate hull sides while the iron guns used stone shot that would shatter on impact and leave large, jagged holes, but both could also fire a variety of ammunition intended to destroy rigging and light structure or injure enemy personnel.The majority of the guns were small iron guns with short range that could be aimed and fired by a single person.", "The two most common are the ''bases'', breech-loading swivel guns, most likely placed in the castles, and ''hailshot pieces'', small muzzle-loaders with rectangular bores and fin-like protrusions that were used to support the guns against the railing and allow the ship structure to take the force of the recoil.", "Though the design is unknown, there were two ''top pieces'' in a 1546 inventory (finished after the sinking) which were probably similar to a base, but placed in one or more of the fighting tops.+ Distribution and range of guns at sinking Gun type Main deck Upper deck Castle decks Fighting tops Range in metres (feet) Port pieces 12 0 0 0 130+ (425+) Culverins and demi-culverins 2 4 2 0 299–413 (980–1355) Cannons and demi-cannons 4 0 0 0 c. 225 (740) Sakers 0 2 0 0 219–323 (718–1060) Fowlers 0 6 0 0 \"short\" Falcon ?", "?", "?", "0 144–287 (472–940) Slings 0 6 0 0 \"medium\" Bases 0 0 30 0 \"close\" Hailshot pieces 0 0 20 0 \"close\" Top pieces 0 0 0 2 \"close\"Fort Nelson near PortsmouthThe ship went through several changes in her armament throughout her career, most significantly accompanying her \"rebuilding\" in 1536 (see below), when the number of anti-personnel guns was reduced and a second tier of carriage-mounted long guns fitted.", "There are three inventories that list her guns, dating to 1514, 1540 and 1546.Together with records from the armoury at the Tower of London, these show how the configuration of guns changed as gun-making technology evolved and new classifications were invented.", "In 1514, the armament consisted mostly of anti-personnel guns like the larger breech-loading iron ''murderers'' and the small ''serpentines'', ''demi-slings'' and stone guns.Only a handful of guns in the first inventory were powerful enough to hole enemy ships, and most would have been supported by the ship's structure rather than resting on carriages.", "The inventories of both the ''Mary Rose'' and the Tower had changed radically by 1540.There were now the new cast bronze ''cannons'', ''demi-cannons'', ''culverins'' and ''sakers'' and the wrought iron ''port pieces'' (a name that indicated they fired through ports), all of which required carriages, had longer range and were capable of doing serious damage to other ships.", "The analysis of the 1514 inventory combined with hints of structural changes in the ship both indicate that the gunports on the main deck were indeed a later addition.+ Type of guns Date Total Carriage-mounted Ship-supported Anti-ship Anti-personnel 1514 78 20–21 57–58 5–9 64–73 1540 96 36 60 17–22 74–79 1545 91 39 52 24 67Various types of ammunition could be used for different purposes: plain spherical shot of stone or iron smashed hulls, spiked bar shot and shot linked with chains would tear sails or damage rigging, and canister shot packed with sharp flints produced a devastating shotgun effect.", "Trials made with replicas of culverins and port pieces showed that they could penetrate wood the same thickness of the ''Mary Rose's'' hull planking, indicating a stand-off range of at least .", "The port pieces proved particularly efficient at smashing large holes in wood when firing stone shot and were a devastating anti-personnel weapon when loaded with flakes or pebbles.==== Hand-held weapons ====Some of the bollock daggers found on board the ''Mary Rose''; for most of the daggers, only the handles have remained while the blades have either rusted away or have been preserved only as concretions.To defend against being boarded, ''Mary Rose'' carried large stocks of melee weapons, including pikes and bills; 150 of each kind were stocked on the ship according to the Anthony Roll, a figure confirmed roughly by the excavations.", "Swords and daggers were personal possessions and not listed in the inventories, but the remains of both have been found in great quantities, including the earliest dated example of a British basket-hilted sword.A total of 250 longbows were carried on board, and 172 of these have so far been found, as well as almost 4,000 arrows, bracers (arm guards) and other archery-related equipment.", "Longbow archery in Tudor England was mandatory for all able adult men, and despite the introduction of field artillery and handguns, they were used alongside new missile weapons in great quantities.", "On the ''Mary Rose'', the longbows could only have been drawn and shot properly from behind protective panels in the open waist or from the top of the castles as the lower decks lacked sufficient headroom.", "There were several types of bows of various size and range.", "Lighter bows would have been used as \"sniper\" bows, while the heavier design could possibly have been used to shoot fire arrows.The inventories of both 1514 and 1546 also list several hundred heavy darts and lime pots that were designed to be thrown onto the deck of enemy ships from the fighting tops, although no physical evidence of either of these weapon types has been identified.", "Of the 50 handguns listed in the Anthony Roll, the complete stocks of five matchlock muskets and fragments of another eleven have been found.", "They had been manufactured mainly in Italy, with some originating from Germany.", "Found in storage were several ''gunshields'', a rare type of firearm consisting of a wooden shield with a small gun fixed in the middle.=== Crew ===Throughout her 33-year career, the crew of the ''Mary Rose'' changed several times and varied considerably in size.", "It would have a minimal skeleton crew of 17 men or fewer in peacetime and when she was \"laid up in ordinary\" (in reserve).", "The average wartime manning would have been about 185 soldiers, 200 sailors, 20–30 gunners and an assortment of other specialists such as surgeons, trumpeters and members of the admiral's staff, for a total of 400–450 men.", "When taking part in land invasions or raids, such as in the summer of 1512, the number of soldiers could have swelled to just over 400 for a combined total of more than 700.Even with the normal crew size of around 400, the ship was quite crowded, and with additional soldiers would have been extremely cramped.George Carew, who perished with the ''Mary Rose''; contemporary miniature by Hans Holbein the YoungerLittle is known of the identities of the men who served on the ''Mary Rose'', even when it comes to the names of the officers, who would have belonged to the gentry.", "Two admirals and four captains (including Edward and Thomas Howard, who served both positions) are known through records, as well as a few ship masters, pursers, master gunners and other specialists.", "Forensic science has been used by artists to create reconstructions of faces of eight crew members, and the results were publicised in May 2013.In addition, researchers have extracted DNA from remains in the hopes of identifying origins of crew, and potentially living descendants.Of the vast majority of the crewmen, soldiers, sailors and gunners alike, nothing has been recorded.", "The only source of information for these men has been through osteological analysis of the human bones found at the wrecksite.", "An approximate composition of some of the crew has been conjectured based on contemporary records.", "The ''Mary Rose'' would have carried a captain, a master responsible for navigation, and deck crew.", "There would also have been a purser responsible for handling payments, a boatswain, the captain's second in command, at least one carpenter, a pilot in charge of navigation, and a cook, all of whom had one or more assistants (mates).", "The ship was also staffed by a barber-surgeon who tended to the sick and wounded, along with an apprentice or mate and possibly also a junior surgeon.", "The only positively identified person who went down with the ship was Vice-Admiral George Carew.", "McKee, Stirland and several other authors have also named Roger Grenville, father of Richard Grenville of the Elizabethan-era ''Revenge'', captain during the final battle, although the accuracy of the sourcing for this has been disputed by maritime archaeologist Peter Marsden.+ Crew Date Soldiers Mariners Gunners Others Total Summer 1512 411 206 120 22 759 October 1512 ?", "120 20 20 160 1513 ?", "200 ?", "?", "200 1513 ?", "102 6 ?", "108 1522 126 244 30 2 402 1524 185 200 20 ?", "405 1545/46 185 200 30 ?", "415The bones of a total of 179 people were found during the excavations of the ''Mary Rose'', including 92 \"fairly complete skeletons\", more or less complete collections of bones associated with specific individuals.", "Analysis of these has shown that crew members were all male, most of them young adults.", "Some were no more than 11–13 years old, and the majority (81%) under 30.They were mainly of English origin and, according to archaeologist Julie Gardiner, they most likely came from the West Country; many following their aristocratic masters into maritime service.", "There were also a few people from continental Europe.", "An eyewitness testimony right after the sinking refers to a survivor who was a Fleming, and the pilot may very well have been French.", "Analysis of oxygen isotopes in teeth indicates that some were also of southern European origin.", "At least one crewmember was of African ancestry.", "In general they were strong, well-fed men, but many of the bones also reveal tell-tale signs of childhood diseases and a life of grinding toil.", "The bones also showed traces of numerous healed fractures, probably the result of on-board accidents.There are no extant written records of the make-up of the broader categories of soldiers and sailors, but since the ''Mary Rose'' carried some 300 longbows and several thousand arrows there had to be a considerable proportion of longbow archers.", "Examination of the skeletal remains has found that there was a disproportionate number of men with a condition known as ''os acromiale'', affecting their shoulder blades.", "This condition is known among modern elite archery athletes and is caused by placing considerable stress on the arm and shoulder muscles, particularly of the left arm that is used to hold the bow to brace against the pull on the bowstring.", "Among the men who died on the ship it was likely that some had practised using the longbow since childhood, and served on board as specialist archers.A group of six skeletons was found grouped close to one of the 2-tonne bronze culverins on the main deck near the bow.", "Fusing of parts of the spine and ossification, the growth of new bone, on several vertebrae evidenced all but one of these crewmen to have been strong, well-muscled men who had been engaged in heavy pulling and pushing, the exception possibly being a \"powder monkey\" not involved in heavy work.", "These have been tentatively classified as members of a complete gun crew, all having died at their battle station." ], [ "Military career", "=== First French war ===A contemporary illustration of Germain de Brie's poem ''Chordigerae navis conflagratio'' depicting the ''Cordelière'' and ''Regent'' ablaze after the explosion on board the formerThe ''Mary Rose'' first saw battle in 1512, in a joint naval operation with the Spanish against the French.", "The English were to meet the French and Breton fleets in the English Channel while the Spanish attacked them in the Bay of Biscay and then attacked Gascony.", "The 35-year-old Sir Edward Howard was appointed Lord High Admiral in April and chose the ''Mary Rose'' as his flagship.", "His first mission was to clear the seas of French naval forces between England to the northern coast of Spain to allow for the landing of supporting troops near the French border at Fuenterrabia.", "The fleet consisted of 18 ships, among them the large ships the ''Regent'' and the ''Peter Pomegranate'', carrying over 5,000 men.", "Howard's expedition led to the capture of twelve Breton ships and a four-day raiding tour of Brittany where English forces successfully fought against local forces and burned numerous settlements.The fleet returned to Southampton in June where it was visited by King Henry.", "In August the fleet sailed for Brest where it encountered a joint, but ill-coordinated, French-Breton fleet at the battle of St. Mathieu.", "The English with one of the great ships in the lead (according to Marsden the ''Mary Rose'') battered the French ships with heavy gunfire and forced them to retreat.", "The Breton flagship ''Cordelière'' put up a fight and was boarded by the 1,000-ton ''Regent''.", "By accident or through the unwillingness of the Breton crew to surrender, the powder magazine of the ''Cordelière'' caught fire and blew up in a violent explosion, setting fire to the ''Regent'' and eventually sinking her.", "About 180 English crew members saved themselves by throwing themselves into the sea; a handful of Bretons survived, only to be captured.", "The captain of the ''Regent'', 600 soldiers and sailors, the High Admiral of France and the steward of the town of Morlaix were killed in the incident, making it the focal point of several contemporary chronicles and reports.", "On , the English burnt 27 French ships, captured another five and landed forces near Brest to raid and take prisoners, but storms forced the fleet back to Dartmouth in Devon and then to Southampton for repairs.Carracks, similar to the ''Mary Rose'', attacked by highly manoeuvrable galleys; engraving by Frans Huys after a design by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, c. 1561In early 1513, the ''Mary Rose'' was once more chosen by Howard as the flagship for an expedition against the French.", "Before seeing action, she took part in a race against other ships where she was deemed to be one of the most nimble and the fastest of the great ships in the fleet (see details under \"Sails and rigging\").", "On , Howard's force arrived off Brest only to see a small enemy force join with the larger force in the safety of Brest harbour and its fortifications.", "The French had recently been reinforced by a force of galleys from the Mediterranean, which sank one English ship and seriously damaged another.", "Howard landed forces near Brest, but made no headway against the town and was by now getting low on supplies.", "Attempting to force a victory, he took a small force of small oared vessels on a daring frontal attack on the French galleys on .", "Howard himself managed to reach the ship of French admiral, Prégent de Bidoux, and led a small party to board it.", "The French fought back fiercely and cut the cables that attached the two ships, separating Howard from his men.", "It left him at the mercy of the soldiers aboard the galley, who instantly killed him.Demoralised by the loss of its admiral and seriously short of food, the fleet returned to Plymouth.", "Thomas Howard, elder brother of Edward, was assigned the new Lord Admiral, and was set to the task of arranging another attack on Brittany.", "The fleet was not able to mount the planned attack because of adverse winds and great difficulties in supplying the ships adequately and the ''Mary Rose'' took up winter quarters in Southampton.", "In August the Scots joined France in war against England, but were dealt a crushing defeat at the Battle of Flodden on 1513.A follow-up attack in early 1514 was supported by a naval force that included the ''Mary Rose'', but without any known engagements.", "The French and English mounted raids on each other throughout that summer, but achieved little, and both sides were by then exhausted.", "By autumn the war was over and a peace treaty was sealed by the marriage of Henry's sister, Mary, to French king Louis XII.After the peace ''Mary Rose'' was placed in the reserves, \"in ordinary\".", "She was laid up for maintenance along with her sister ship the ''Peter Pomegranate'' in July 1514.In 1518 she received a routine repair and caulking, waterproofing with tar and oakum (old rope fibres) and was then assigned a small skeleton crew who lived on board the ship until 1522.She served briefly on a mission with other warships to \"scour the seas\" in preparation for Henry VIII's journey across the Channel to the summit with the French king Francis I at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in June 1520.=== Second French war ===In 1522, England was once again at war with France because of a treaty with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. The plan was for an attack on two fronts with an English thrust in northern France.", "The ''Mary Rose'' participated in the escort transport of troops in June 1522, and by the Breton port of Morlaix was captured.", "The fleet sailed home and the ''Mary Rose'' berthed for the winter in Dartmouth.", "The war raged on until 1525 and saw the Scots join the French side.", "Though Charles Brandon came close to capturing Paris in 1523, there was little gained either against France or Scotland throughout the war.", "With the defeat of the French army and capture of Francis I by Charles V's forces at the Battle of Pavia on 1525, the war was effectively over without any major gains or major victories for the English side.=== Maintenance and \"in ordinary\" ===The ''Mary Rose'' was kept in reserve from 1522 to 1545.She was once more caulked and repaired in 1527 in a newly dug dock at Portsmouth and her longboat was repaired and trimmed.", "Little documentation about the ''Mary Rose'' between 1528 and 1539 exists.", "A document written by Thomas Cromwell in 1536 specifies that the ''Mary Rose'' and six other ships were \"made new\" during his service under the king, though it is unclear which years he was referring to and what \"made new\" actually meant.", "A later document from January 1536 by an anonymous author states that the ''Mary Rose'' and other ships were \"new made\", and dating of timbers from the ship confirms some type of repair being done in 1535 or 1536.This would have coincided with the controversial dissolution of the monasteries that resulted in a major influx of funds into the royal treasury.", "The nature and extent of this repair is unknown.", "Many experts, including Margaret Rule, the project leader for the raising of the ''Mary Rose'', have assumed that it meant a complete rebuilding from clinker planking to carvel planking, and that it was only after 1536 that the ship took on the form that it had when it sank and that was eventually recovered in the 20th century.", "Marsden has speculated that it could even mean that the ''Mary Rose'' was originally built in a style that was closer to 15th-century ships, with a rounded, rather than square, stern and without the main deck gunports.=== Third French war ===Drawing of the French admiral, Claude d'Annebault, commander of the French naval force that launched the attack on the Isle of Wight; François Clouet, January 1535Henry's complicated marital situation and his high-handed dissolution of the monasteries angered the Pope and Catholic rulers throughout Europe, which increased England's diplomatic isolation.", "In 1544 Henry had agreed to attack France together with Emperor Charles V, and English forces captured Boulogne at great cost in September, but soon England was left in the lurch after Charles had achieved his objectives and brokered a separate peace.In May 1545, the French had assembled a large fleet in the estuary of the Seine with the intent to land troops on English soil.", "The estimates of the size of the fleet varied considerably; between 123 and 300 vessels according to French sources; and up to 226 sailing ships and galleys according to the chronicler Edward Hall.", "In addition to the massive fleet, 50,000 troops were assembled at Havre de Grâce (modern-day Le Havre).", "An English force of 160 ships and 12,000 troops under Viscount Lisle was ready at Portsmouth by early June, before the French were ready to set sail, and an ineffective pre-emptive strike was made in the middle of the month.", "In early July the huge French force under the command of Admiral Claude d'Annebault set sail for England and entered the Solent unopposed with 128 ships on .", "The English had around 80 ships with which to oppose the French, including the flagship ''Mary Rose''.", "But since they had virtually no heavy galleys, the vessels that were at their best in sheltered waters like the Solent, the English fleet promptly retreated into Portsmouth harbour.=== Battle of the Solent ===The English were becalmed in port and unable to manoeuvre.", "On 1545, the French galleys advanced on the immobilised English fleet, and initially threatened to destroy a force of 13 small galleys, or \"rowbarges\", the only ships that were able to move against them without a wind.", "The wind picked up and the sailing ships were able to go on the offensive before the oared vessels were overwhelmed.", "Two of the largest ships, the ''Henry Grace à Dieu'' and the ''Mary Rose'', led the attack on the French galleys in the Solent.Mary Rose – Oven & CauldronEarly in the battle something went wrong.", "While engaging the French galleys the ''Mary Rose'' suddenly heeled (leaned) heavily over to her starboard (right) side and water rushed in through the open gunports.", "The crew was powerless to correct the sudden imbalance, and could only scramble for the safety of the upper deck as the ship began to sink rapidly.", "As she leaned over, equipment, ammunition, supplies and storage containers shifted and came loose, adding to the general chaos.", "The massive port side brick oven in the galley collapsed completely and the huge 360-litre (90 gallon) copper cauldron was thrown onto the orlop deck above.", "Heavy guns came free and slammed into the opposite side, impeding escape or crushing men beneath them.For those who were not injured or killed outright by moving objects, there was little time to reach safety, especially for the men who were manning the guns on the main deck or fetching ammunition and supplies in the hold.", "The companionways that connected the decks with one another would have become bottlenecks for fleeing men, something indicated by the positioning of many of the skeletons recovered from the wreck.", "What turned the sinking into a major tragedy was the anti-boarding netting that covered the upper decks in the waist (the midsection of the ship) and the sterncastle.", "With the exception of the men who were stationed in the tops in the masts, most of those who managed to get up from below deck were trapped under the netting; they would have been in view of the surface, and their colleagues above, but with little or no chance to break through, and were dragged down with the ship.", "Out of a crew of at least 400, fewer than 35 escaped, a casualty rate of over 90%.The Cowdray Engraving, depicting the Battle of the Solent.", "The main and foremasts of the recently sunken ''Mary Rose'' are in the middle; bodies, debris and rigging float in the water and men are clinging to the fighting tops." ], [ "Causes of sinking", "Southsea Castle, from where Henry VIII witnessed the last battle and demise of the ''Mary Rose''.", "The castle has been heavily altered since that time.=== Contemporary accounts ===Many accounts of the sinking have been preserved, but the only confirmed eyewitness account is the testimony of a surviving Flemish crewman written down by the Holy Roman Emperor's ambassador François van der Delft in a letter dated .", "According to the unnamed Fleming, the ship had fired all of its guns on one side and was turning to present the guns on the other side to the enemy ship, when she was caught in a strong gust of wind, heeled and took in water through the open gunports.", "In a letter to William Paget dated , former Lord High Admiral John Russel claimed that the ship had been lost because of \"rechenes and great negligence\".", "Three years after the sinking, the ''Hall's Chronicle'' gave the reason for the sinking as being caused by \"too much foly ... for she was laden with much ordinaunce, and the portes left open, which were low, & the great ordinaunce unbreached, so that when the ship should turne, the water entered, and sodainly she sanke.", "\"Later accounts repeat the explanation that the ship heeled over while going about and that the ship was brought down because of the open gunports.", "A biography of Peter Carew, brother of George Carew, written by John Hooker sometime after 1575, gives the same reason for the sinking, but adds that insubordination among the crew was to blame.", "The biography claims that George Carew noted that the ''Mary Rose'' showed signs of instability as soon as her sails were raised.", "George's uncle Gawen Carew had passed by with his own ship the ''Matthew Gonson'' during the battle to inquire about the situation of his nephew's ship.", "In reply he was told \"that he had a sorte of knaves whom he could not rule\".", "Contrary to all other accounts, Martin du Bellay, a French cavalry officer who was present at the battle, stated that the ''Mary Rose'' had been sunk by French guns.=== Modern theories ===The most common explanation for the sinking among modern historians is that the ship was unstable for a number of reasons.", "When a strong gust of wind hit the sails at a critical moment, the open gunports proved fatal, the ship flooded and quickly foundered.", "Coates offered a variant of this hypothesis, which explains why a ship which served for several decades without sinking, and which even fought in actions in the rough seas off Brittany, unexpectedly foundered: the ship had accumulated additional weight over the years in service and finally become unseaworthy.", "That the ship was turning after firing all the cannons on one side has been questioned by Marsden after examination of guns recovered in both the 19th and 20th centuries; guns from both sides were found still loaded.", "This has been interpreted to mean that something else could have gone wrong since it is assumed that an experienced crew would not have failed to secure the gunports before making a potentially risky turn.The most recent surveys of the ship indicate that the ship was modified late in her career and have lent support to the idea that the ''Mary Rose'' was altered too much to be properly seaworthy.", "Marsden has suggested that the weight of additional heavy guns would have increased her draught so much that the waterline was less than one metre (c. 3 feet) from the gunports on the main deck.Peter Carew's claim of insubordination has been given support by James Watt, former Medical Director-General of the Royal Navy, based on records of an epidemic of dysentery in Portsmouth which could have rendered the crew incapable of handling the ship properly, while historian Richard Barker has suggested that the crew actually knew that the ship was an accident waiting to happen, at which they balked and refused to follow orders.", "Marsden has noted that the Carew biography is in some details inconsistent with the sequence of events reported by both French and English eyewitnesses.", "It also reports that there were 700 men on board, an unusually high number.", "The distance in time to the event it describes may mean that it was embellished to add a dramatic touch.", "The report of French galleys sinking the ''Mary Rose'' as stated by Martin du Bellay has been described as \"the account of a courtesan\" by naval historian Maurice de Brossard.", "Du Bellay and his two brothers were close to king Francis I and du Bellay had much to gain from portraying the sinking as a French victory.", "English sources, even if biased, would have nothing to gain from portraying the sinking as the result of crew incompetence rather than conceding a victory to the much-feared gun galleys.Dominic Fontana, a geographer at the University of Portsmouth, has voiced support for du Bellay's version of the sinking based on the battle as it is depicted in the Cowdray Engraving, and modern GIS analysis of the modern scene of the battle.", "By plotting the fleets and calculating the conjectured final manoeuvres of the ''Mary Rose'', Fontana reached the conclusion that the ship had been hit low in the hull by the galleys and was destabilised after taking in water.", "He has interpreted the final heading of the ship straight due north as a failed attempt to reach the shallows at Spitbank only a few hundred metres away.", "This theory has been given partial support by Alexzandra Hildred, one of the experts who has worked with the ''Mary Rose'', though she has suggested that the close proximity to Spitbank could also indicate that the sinking occurred while trying to make a hard turn to avoid running aground.=== Experiments ===In 2000, the Channel 4 television programme ''What Sank the Mary Rose?''", "attempted to investigate the causes suggested for her sinking by means of experiments with scale models of the ship and metal weights to simulate the presence of troops on the upper decks.", "Initial tests showed that the ship was able to make the turn described by eyewitnesses without capsizing.", "In later tests, a fan was used to create a breeze similar to the one reported to have suddenly sprung up on the day of the sinking as the ''Mary Rose'' went to make the turn.", "As the model made the turn, the breeze in the upper works forced it to heel more than at calm, forcing the main deck gun ports below the waterline and foundering the model within a few seconds.", "The sequence of events closely followed what eyewitnesses had reported, particularly the suddenness with which the ship sank." ], [ "History as a shipwreck", "Charles Brandon, brother-in-law of King Henry VIII through marriage with Mary Tudor, who took charge of the failed salvage operation in 1545A salvage attempt was ordered by Secretary of State William Paget only days after the sinking, and Charles Brandon, the king's brother-in-law, took charge of practical details.", "The operation followed the standard procedure for raising ships in shallow waters: strong cables were attached to the sunken ship and fastened to two empty ships, or hulks.", "At low tide, the ropes were pulled taut with capstans.", "When the high tide came in, the hulks rose and with them the wreck.", "It would then be towed into shallower water and the procedure repeated until the whole ship could be raised completely.A list of necessary equipment was compiled by 1 August and included, among other things, massive cables, capstans, pulleys, and 40 pounds of tallow for lubrication.", "The proposed salvage team comprised 30 Venetian mariners and a Venetian carpenter with 60 English sailors to serve them.", "The two ships to be used as hulks were ''Jesus of Lübeck'' and ''Samson'', each of 700 tons burthen and similar in size to the ''Mary Rose''.", "Brandon was so confident of success that he reassured the king that it would only be a matter of days before they could raise the ''Mary Rose''.", "The optimism proved unfounded.", "Since the ship had settled at a 60-degree angle to starboard much of it was stuck deep into the clay of the seabed.", "This made it virtually impossible to pass cables under the hull and required far more lifting power than if the ship had settled on a hard seabed.", "An attempt to secure cables to the main mast appears only to have resulted in its being snapped off.Illustration from a treatise on salvaging from 1734, showing the traditional method of raising a wreck with the help of anchors and ships or hulks as pontoons, the same method that was attempted by the Tudor era salvorsThe project was successful only in raising rigging, some guns and other items.", "At least two other salvage teams in 1547 and 1549 received payment for raising more guns from the wreck.", "Despite the failure of the first salvage operation, there was still lingering belief in the possibility of retrieving the ''Mary Rose'' at least until 1546, when she was presented as part of the illustrated list of English warships called the Anthony Roll.", "When all hope of raising the complete ship was finally abandoned is not known.", "It could have been after Henry VIII's death in January 1547 or even as late as 1549, when the last guns were brought up.", "The ''Mary Rose'' was remembered well into the reign of Elizabeth I, and according to one of the queen's admirals, William Monson (1569–1643), the wreck was visible from the surface at low tide in the late 16th century.=== Deterioration ===After the sinking, the partially buried wreck created a barrier at a right angle against the currents of the Solent.", "Two scour pits, large underwater ditches, formed on either side of the wreck while silt and seaweed was deposited inside the ship.", "A deep but narrow pit formed on the upward tilting port side, while a shallower, broader pit formed on the starboard side, which had been mostly buried by the force of the impact.", "The abrasive actions of sand and silt carried by the currents and the activity of fungi, bacteria and wood-boring crustaceans and molluscs, such as the ''teredo'' \"shipworm\", began to break down the structure of the ship.", "Eventually the exposed wooden structure was weakened and gradually collapsed.", "The timbers and contents of the port side were either deposited in the scour pits and remaining ship structure or carried off by the currents.", "Following the collapse of the exposed parts of the ship, the site was levelled with the seabed and gradually covered by layers of sediment, concealing most of the remaining structure.", "During the 16th century, a hard layer of compacted clay and crushed shells formed over the ship, stabilising the site and sealing the Tudor-era deposits.", "Further layers of soft silt covered the site during the 18th and 19th centuries, but frequent changes in the tidal patterns and currents in the Solent occasionally exposed some of the timbers, leading to its accidental rediscovery in 1836 and aiding in locating the wreck in 1971.After the ship had been raised it was determined that about 40% of the original structure had survived.=== Rediscovery in 19th century ===In mid-1836, a group of five fishermen caught their nets on timbers protruding from the bottom of the Solent.", "They contacted a diver to help them remove the hindrance, and on , Henry Abbinett became the first person to see the ''Mary Rose'' in almost 300 years.", "Later, two other professional divers, John Deane and William Edwards, were employed.", "Using a recently invented rubber suit and metal diving helmet, Deane and Edwards began to examine the wreck and salvage items from it.", "Along with an assortment of timbers and wooden objects, including several longbows, they brought up several bronze and iron guns, which were sold to the Board of Ordnance for over £220.Initially, this caused a dispute between Deane (who had also brought in his brother Charles into the project), Abbinett and the fishermen who had hired them.", "The matter was eventually settled by allowing the fishermen a share of the proceeds from the sale of the first salvaged guns, while Deane received exclusive salvage rights at the expense of Abbinett.", "The wreck was soon identified as the ''Mary Rose'' from the inscriptions of one of the bronze guns manufactured in 1537.Watercolour painting of two perspectives of a sling, a wrought iron gun, complete with two-wheeled gun carriage (wheels missing) and part of another iron sling.", "The paintings were made to record some of the finds raised by the Deane brothers 1836–40.The identification of the ship led to high public interest in the salvage operation and caused a great demand for the objects that were brought up.", "Though many of the objects could not be properly conserved at the time and subsequently deteriorated, many were documented with pencil sketches and watercolour drawings, which survive to this day.", "John Deane ceased working on the wreck in 1836, but returned in 1840 with new, more destructive methods.", "With the help of condemned bomb shells filled with gunpowder acquired from the Ordnance Board, he blasted his way into parts of the wreck.", "Fragments of bombs and traces of blasting craters were found during the modern excavations, but there was no evidence that Deane managed to penetrate the hard layer that had sealed off the Tudor levels.", "Deane reported retrieving a bilge pump and the lower part of the main mast, both of which would have been located inside the ship.", "The recovery of small wooden objects like longbows suggests that Deane did manage to penetrate the Tudor levels at some point, though this has been disputed by the excavation project leader Margaret Rule.", "Newspaper reports on Deane's diving operations in October 1840 report that the ship was clinker built, but since the sterncastle is the only part of the ship with this feature, an alternative explanation has been suggested: Deane did not penetrate the hard shelly layer that covered most of the ship, but managed only to get into remains of the sterncastle that today no longer exist.", "Despite the rough handling by Deane, the ''Mary Rose'' escaped the wholesale destruction by giant rakes and explosives that was the fate of other wrecks in the Solent (such as ).=== Modern rediscovery ===The modern search for the ''Mary Rose'' was initiated by the Southsea branch of the British Sub-Aqua Club in 1965 as part of a project to locate shipwrecks in the Solent.", "The project was under the leadership of historian, journalist and amateur diver Alexander McKee.", "Another group led by Lieutenant-Commander Alan Bax of the Royal Navy, sponsored by the Committee for Nautical Archaeology in London, also formed a search team.", "Initially the two teams had differing views on where to find the wreck, but eventually joined forces.", "In February 1966 a chart from 1841 was found that marked the positions of the ''Mary Rose'' and several other wrecks.", "The charted position coincided with a trench (one of the scour pits) that had already been located by McKee's team, and a definite location was finally established at a position south of the entrance to Portsmouth Harbour () in water with a depth of (36 feet) at low tide.", "Diving on the site began in 1966 and a sonar scan by Harold Edgerton in 1967–68 revealed some type of buried feature.", "In 1970 a loose timber was located and on 1971, the first structural details of the buried hull were identified after they were partially uncovered by winter storms.A major problem for the team from the start was that wreck sites in the UK lacked any legal protection from plunderers and treasure hunters.", "Sunken ships, once being moving objects, were legally treated as chattel and were awarded to those who could first raise them.", "The Merchant Shipping Act of 1894 also stipulated that any objects raised from a wreck should be auctioned off to finance the salvage operations, and there was nothing preventing anyone from \"stealing\" the wreck and making a profit.", "The problem was handled by forming an organisation, the Mary Rose Committee, aiming \"to find, excavate, raise and preserve for all time such remains of the ship ''Mary Rose'' as may be of historical or archaeological interest\".To keep intruders at bay, the Committee arranged a lease of the seabed where the wreck lay from the Portsmouth authorities, thereby discouraging anyone from trespassing on the underwater property.", "In hindsight this was only a legalistic charade which had little chance of holding up in a court of law.", "In combination with secrecy as to the exact location of the wreck, it saved the project from interference.", "It was not until the passing of the Protection of Wrecks Act on 1973 that the ''Mary Rose'' was declared to be of national historic interest that enjoyed full legal protection from any disturbance by commercial salvage teams.", "Despite this, years after the passing of the 1973 act and the excavation of the ship, lingering conflicts with salvage legislation remained a threat to the ''Mary Rose'' project as \"personal\" finds such as chests, clothing and cooking utensils risked being confiscated and auctioned off.==== Survey and excavation ====Following the discovery of the wreck in 1971, the project became known to the general public and received increasing media attention.", "This helped bring in more donations and equipment, primarily from private sources.", "By 1974 the committee had representatives from the National Maritime Museum, the Royal Navy, the BBC and local organisations.", "In 1974 the project received royal patronage from Prince Charles, who participated in dives on the site.", "This attracted yet more publicity, and also more funding and assistance.", "The initial aims of the Mary Rose Committee were now more officially and definitely confirmed.", "The committee had become a registered charity in 1974, which made it easier to raise funds, and the application for excavation and raising of the ship had been officially approved by the UK government.By 1978 the initial excavation work had uncovered a complete and coherent site with an intact ship structure and the orientation of the hull had been positively identified as being on an almost straight northerly heading with a 60-degree heel to starboard and a slight downward tilt towards the bow.", "As no records of English shipbuilding techniques used in vessels like the ''Mary Rose'' survive, excavation of the ship would allow for a detailed survey of her design and shed new light on the construction of ships of the era.", "A full excavation also meant removing the protective layers of silt that prevented the remaining ship structure from being destroyed through biological decay and the scouring of the currents; the operation had to be completed within a predetermined timespan of a few years or it risked irreversible damage.", "It was also considered desirable to recover and preserve the remains of the hull if possible.", "For the first time, the project was faced with the practical difficulties of actually raising, conserving and preparing the hull for public display.To handle this new, considerably more complex and expensive task, it was decided that a new organisation was needed.", "The Mary Rose Trust, a limited charitable trust, with representatives from many organisations would handle the need for a larger operation and a large infusion of funds.", "In 1979 a new diving vessel was purchased to replace the previous catamaran ''Roger Greenville'' which had been used from 1971.The choice fell on the salvage vessel ''Sleipner'', the same craft that had been used as a platform for diving operations on the ''Vasa''.", "The project went from a team of only twelve volunteers working four months a year to over 50 individuals working almost around the clock nine months a year.", "In addition, there were over 500 volunteer divers and a laboratory staff of about 70 that ran the shore base and conservation facilities.", "During the four diving seasons from 1979 to 1982 over 22,000 diving hours were spent on the site, an effort that amounted to 11.8 man-years.==== Raising the ship ====The final stages of the salvage of the ''Mary Rose'' on 11 October 1982.The lifting frame (the top of the salvage cage) can be seen just below the surface of the water, about to emerge.The wreck of the ''Mary Rose'' clear of the water.People viewing the salvage cage holding the ''Mary Rose''.Raising the ''Mary Rose'' meant overcoming delicate problems that had never been encountered before.", "The raising of the Swedish warship ''Vasa'' during 1959–61 was the only comparable precedent, but it had been a relatively straightforward operation since the hull was completely intact and rested upright on the seabed.", "It had been raised with basically the same methods as were in use in Tudor England: cables were slung under the hull and attached to two pontoons on either side of the ship which was then gradually raised and towed into shallower waters.", "Only one-third of the ''Mary Rose'' was intact and she lay deeply embedded in mud.", "If the hull were raised in the conventional way, there was no guarantee that it would have enough structural strength to hold together out of water.", "Many suggestions for raising the ship were discarded, including the construction of a cofferdam around the wreck site, filling the ship with small buoyant objects (such as ping-pong balls) or even pumping brine into the seabed and freezing it so that it would float and take the hull with it.", "After lengthy discussions it was decided in February 1980 that the hull would first be emptied of all its contents and strengthened with steel braces and frames.", "It would then be lifted to the surface with floating sheerlegs attached to nylon strops passing under the hull and transferred to a cradle.", "It was also decided that the ship would be recovered before the end of the diving season in 1982.If the wreck stayed uncovered any longer it risked irreversible damage from biological decay and tidal scouring.During the last year of the operation, the massive scope of full excavation and raising was beginning to take its toll on those closely involved in the project.", "In May 1981, Alexander McKee voiced concerns about the method chosen for raising the timbers and openly questioned Margaret Rule's position as excavation leader.", "McKee felt ignored in what he viewed as a project where he had always played a central role, both as the initiator of the search for the ''Mary Rose'' and other ships in the Solent, and as an active member throughout the diving operations.", "He had several supporters who all pointed to the risk of the project's turning into an embarrassing failure if the ship were damaged during raising operations.", "To address these concerns it was suggested that the hull should be placed on top of a supporting steel cradle underwater.", "This would avoid the inherent risks of damaging the wooden structure if it were lifted out of the water without appropriate support.", "The idea of using nylon strops was also discarded in favour of drilling holes through the hull at 170 points and passing iron bolts through them to allow the attachment of wires connected to a lifting frame.In the spring of 1982, after three intense seasons of archaeological underwater work, preparations began for raising the ship.", "The operation soon ran into problems: early on there were difficulties with the custom-made lifting equipment; the method of lifting the hull had to be considerably altered as late as June.", "After the frame was properly attached to the hull, it was slowly jacked up on four legs to pull the ship off the seabed.", "The massive crane of the barge ''Tog Mor'' then moved the frame and hull, transferring them underwater to the specially designed cradle, which was padded with water-filled bags.", "On the morning of 1982, the final lift of the entire package of cradle, hull and lifting frame began.", "It was watched by the team, Prince Charles and other spectators in boats around the site.", "At 9:03 am, the first timbers of the ''Mary Rose'' broke the surface.", "A second set of bags under the hull was inflated with air, to cushion the waterlogged wood.", "Finally, the whole package was placed on a barge and taken to the shore.", "Though eventually successful, the operation was close to foundering on two occasions; first when one of the supporting legs of the lifting frame was bent and had to be removed and later when a corner of the frame, with \"an unforgettable crunch\", slipped more than a metre (3 feet) and came close to crushing part of the hull." ], [ "Archaeology", "As one of the most ambitious and expensive projects in the history of maritime archaeology, the ''Mary Rose'' project broke new ground within this field in the UK.", "Besides becoming one of the first wrecks to be protected under the new Protection of Wrecks Act in 1973 it also created several new precedents.", "It was the first time that a British privately funded project was able to apply modern scientific standards fully and without having to auction off part of the findings to finance its activities; where previous projects often had to settle for just a partial recovery of finds, everything found in connection with the ''Mary Rose'' was recovered and recorded.", "The raising of the vessel made it possible to establish the first historic shipwreck museum in the UK to receive government accreditation and funding.", "The excavation of the ''Mary Rose'' wreck site proved that it was possible to achieve a level of exactness in underwater excavations comparable to those on dry land.Throughout the 1970s, the ''Mary Rose'' was meticulously surveyed, excavated and recorded with the latest methods within the field of maritime archaeology.", "Working in an underwater environment meant that principles of land-based archaeology did not always apply.", "Mechanical excavators, airlifts and suction dredges were used in the process of locating the wreck, but as soon as it began to be uncovered in earnest, more delicate techniques were employed.", "Many objects from the ''Mary Rose'' had been well preserved in form and shape, but many were quite delicate, requiring careful handling.", "Artefacts of all sizes were supported with soft packing material, such as old plastic ice cream containers, and some of the arrows that were \"soft like cream cheese\" had to be brought up in special styrofoam containers.", "The airlifts that sucked up clay, sand and dirt off-site or to the surface were still used, but with much greater precision since they could potentially disrupt the site.", "The many layers of sediment that had accumulated on the site could be used to date artefacts in which they were found, and had to be recorded properly.", "The various types of accretions and remnants of chemicals with artefacts were essential clues to objects that had long since broken down and disappeared, and needed to be treated with considerable care.The excavation and raising of the ship in the 1970s and early 1980s meant that diving operations ceased, even though modern scaffolding and part of the bow were left on the seabed.", "The pressure on conservators to treat tens of thousands of artefacts and the high costs of conserving, storing and displaying the finds and the ship meant that there were no funds available for diving.", "In 2002, the UK Ministry of Defence announced plans to build two new aircraft carriers.", "Because of the great size of the new vessels, the outlet from Portsmouth needed to be surveyed to make sure that they could sail no matter the tide.", "The planned route for the underwater channel ran close to the ''Mary Rose'' wrecksite, which meant that funding was supplied to survey and excavate the site once more.", "Even though the planned carriers were downsized enough to not require alteration of Portsmouth outlet, the excavations had already exposed timbers and were completed in 2005.Among the most important finds was the ten-metre (32 feet) stem, the forward continuation of the keel, which provided more exact details about the original profile of the ship.=== Finds ===A mallet, brace, plane, ruler, and various other carpentry tools, most of which were found in chests stowed in one of the main deck cabins.rosaries found on the ''Mary Rose'' that once belonged to one of the lower-ranking crew membersOver 26,000 artefacts and pieces of timber were raised along with remains of about half the crew members.", "The faces of some crew members have been reconstructed.", "Analysis of the crew skeletons shows many had suffered malnutrition, and had evidence of rickets, scurvy, and other deficiency diseases.", "Crew members also developed arthritis through the stresses on their joints from heavy lifting and maritime life generally, and suffered bone fractures.As the ship was intended to function as a floating, self-contained community, it was stocked with victuals (food and drink) that could sustain its inhabitants for extended periods of time.", "The casks used for storage on the ''Mary Rose'' have been compared with those from a wreck of a trade vessel from the 1560s and have revealed that they were of better quality, more robust and reliable, an indication that supplies for the Tudor navy were given high priority, and their requirements set a high standard for cask manufacturing at the time.A Ludus Anglicorum set (a predecessor of modern backgammon), owned by the master carpenter.As a miniature society at sea, the wreck of the ''Mary Rose'' held personal objects belonging to individual crew members.", "This included clothing, games, various items for spiritual or recreational use, and objects related to mundane everyday tasks such as personal hygiene, fishing, and sewing.", "The master carpenter's chest, for example, contained an early backgammon set, a book, three plates, a sundial, and a tankard, goods suggesting he was relatively wealthy.The ship carried several skilled craftsmen and was equipped for handling both routine maintenance and repairing extensive battle damage.", "In and around one of the cabins on the main deck under the sterncastle, archaeologists found a \"collection of woodworking tools ... unprecedented in its range and size\", consisting of eight chests of carpentry tools.", "Along with loose mallets and tar pots used for caulking, this variety of tools belonged to one or several of the carpenters employed on the ''Mary Rose''.Many of the cannons and other weapons from the ''Mary Rose'' have provided invaluable physical evidence about 16th-century weapon technology.", "The surviving gunshields are almost all from the ''Mary Rose'', and the four small cast iron hailshot pieces are the only known examples of this type of weapon.Animal remains have been found in the wreck of the ''Mary Rose''.", "These include the skeletons of a rat, a frog and a dog.", "The dog, an English Toy Terrier (Black & Tan), was between eighteen months and two years in age, was found near the hatch to the ship's carpenter's cabin and is presumed to have been brought aboard as a ratter.", "Nine barrels have been found to contain bones of cattle, indicating that they contained pieces of beef butchered and stored as ship's rations.", "The bones of pigs and fish, stored in baskets, have also been found.==== Musical instruments ====Two fiddles, a bow, a still shawm or ''douçaine'', three three-hole pipes, and a tabor drum with a drumstick were found throughout the wreck.", "These would have been used for the personal enjoyment of the crew and to provide a rhythm to work on the rigging and turning the capstans on the upper decks.", "The tabor drum is the earliest known example of its kind and the drumstick is of a previously unknown design.", "The tabor pipes are considerably longer than any known examples from the period.", "Their discovery proved that contemporary illustrations, previously viewed with some suspicion, were accurate depictions of the instruments.", "Before the discovery of the ''Mary Rose'' shawm, an early predecessor to the oboe, instrument historians had been puzzled by references to \"still shawms\", or \"soft\" shawms, that were said to have a sound that was less shrill than earlier shawms.", "The still shawm disappeared from the musical scene in the 16th century, and the instrument found on the ''Mary Rose'' is the only surviving example.", "A reproduction has been made and played.", "Combined with a pipe and tabor, it provides a \"very effective bass part\" that would have produced \"rich and full sound, which would have provided excellent music for dancing on board ship\".", "Only a few other fiddle-type instruments from the 16th century exist, but none of them of the type found on the ''Mary Rose''.", "Reproductions of both fiddles have been made, though less is known of their design than the shawm since the neck and strings were missing.==== Navigation tools ====In the remains of a small cabin in the bow of the ship and in a few other locations around the wreck was found the earliest dated set of navigation instruments in Europe found so far: compasses, divider calipers, a stick used for charting, protractors, sounding leads, tide calculators and a logreel, an instrument for calculating speed.", "Several of these objects are not only unique in having such an early, definite dating, but also because they pre-date written records of their use; protractors would have reasonably been used to measure bearings and courses on maps, but sea charts are not known to have been used by English navigators during the first half of the 16th century, compasses were not depicted on English ships until the 1560s, and the first mention of a logreel is from 1574.==== Barber-surgeon's cabin ====Along with the medical equipment were also personal items belonging to the barber-surgeon, including an expensive silk velvet coif identical to those worn by the members of the Worshipful Company of Barbers in this painting by Hans Holbein the Younger from 1540.The cabin located on the main deck underneath the sterncastle is thought to have belonged to the barber-surgeon.", "He was a trained professional who saw to the health and welfare of the crew and acted as the medical expert on board.", "The most important of these finds were found in an intact wooden chest which contained over 60 objects relating to the barber-surgeon's medical practice: the wooden handles of a complete set of surgical tools and several shaving razors (although none of the steel blades had survived), a copper syringe for wound irrigation and treatment of gonorrhoea, and even a skilfully crafted feeding bottle for feeding incapacitated patients.", "More objects were found around the cabin, such as earscoops, shaving bowls and combs.", "With this wide selection of tools and medicaments the barber-surgeon, along with one or more assistants, could set bone fractures, perform amputations and deal with other acute injuries, treat a number of diseases and provide crew members with a minimal standard of personal hygiene.==== Hatch ====One of the first scientifically confirmed ratters was a terrier and whippet dog crossbreed who spent his short life on the Mary Rose.", "The dog, named Hatch by researchers, was discovered in 1981 during the underwater excavation of the ship.", "Hatch's main duty was to kill rats on board the ship.", "Based on the DNA work performed on Hatch's teeth, he was a young adult male, 18–24 months old, with a brown coat.", "Hatch's skeleton is on display in the Mary Rose Museum in Portsmouth Historic Dockyard.=== Conservation ===The ''Mary Rose'' being sprayed with water at the facility in Portsmouth in March 1984.Between December 1984 and July 1985 the steel cradle was gradually rotated to stand with the keel in an almost upright position.Preservation of the ''Mary Rose'' and her contents was an essential part of the project from the start.", "Though many artefacts, especially those that were buried in silt, had been preserved, the long exposure to an underwater environment had rendered most of them sensitive to exposure to air after recovery.", "Archaeologists and conservators had to work in tandem from the start to prevent deterioration of the artefacts.", "After recovery, finds were placed in so-called passive storage, which would prevent any immediate deterioration before the active conservation which would allow them to be stored in an open-air environment.", "Passive storage depended on the type of material that the object was made of, and could vary considerably.", "Smaller objects from the most common material, wood, were sealed in polyethylene bags to preserve moisture.", "Timbers and other objects that were too large to be wrapped were stored in unsealed water tanks.", "Growth of fungi and microbes that could degrade wood were controlled by various techniques, including low-temperature storage, chemicals, and in the case of large objects, common pond snails that consumed wood-degrading organisms but not the wood itself.Other organic materials such as leather, skin and textiles were treated similarly, by keeping them moist in tanks or sealed plastic containers.", "Bone and ivory was desalinated to prevent damage from salt crystallisation, as were glass, ceramic and stone.", "Iron, copper and copper alloy objects were kept moist in a sodium sesquicarbonate solution to prevent oxidisation and reaction with the chlorides that had penetrated the surface.", "Alloys of lead and pewter are inherently stable in the atmosphere and generally require no special treatment.", "Silver and gold were the only materials that required no special passive storage.The hull of the ''Mary Rose'' being sprayed at the facility in Portsmouth while a technician services the systemConserving the hull of the ''Mary Rose'' was the most complicated and expensive task for the project.", "In 2002 a donation of from the Heritage Lottery Fund and equivalent monetary support from the Portsmouth City and Hampshire County Councils was needed to keep the work with conservation on schedule.", "During passive conservation, the ship structure could for practical reasons not be completely sealed, so instead it was regularly sprayed with filtered, recycled water that was kept at a temperature of to keep it from drying out.", "Drying waterlogged wood that has been submerged for several centuries without appropriate conservation causes considerable shrinkage (20–50%) and leads to severe warping and cracking as water evaporates from the cellular structure of the wood.", "The substance polyethylene glycol (PEG) had been used before on archaeological wood, and was during the 1980s being used to conserve the ''Vasa''.", "After almost ten years of small-scale trials on timbers, an active three-phase conservation programme of the hull of the ''Mary Rose'' began in 1994.During the first phase, which lasted from 1994 to 2003, the wood was sprayed with low-molecular-weight PEG to replace the water in the cellular structure of the wood.", "From 2003 to 2010, a higher-molecular-weight PEG was used to strengthen the mechanical properties of the outer surface layers.", "The third phase consisted of a controlled air drying ending in 2016.Researchers are planning on using magnetic nanoparticles to remove iron in the ship's wood to reduce the production of harmful sulfuric acid that is causing deterioration.The wreck site is legally protected.", "Under the \"Protection of Wrecks Act 1973\" (1973 c. 33) any interference with the site requires a licence.", "The site is listed as being of \"historical, archaeological or artistic importance\" by Historic England." ], [ "Display", "Concept plan of the new Mary Rose Museum by Wilkinson Eyre ArchitectsAfter the decision to raise the ''Mary Rose,'' discussions ensued as to where she would eventually go on permanent display.", "The east end of Portsea Island at Eastney emerged as an early alternative, but was rejected because of parking problems and the distance from the dockyard where she was originally built.", "Placing the ship next to the famous flagship of Horatio Nelson, HMS ''Victory'', at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard was proposed in July 1981.A group called the Maritime Preservation Society even suggested Southsea Castle, where Henry VIII had witnessed the sinking, as a final resting place and there was widespread scepticism to the dockyard location.", "At one point a county councillor even threatened to withdraw promised funds if the dockyard site became more than an interim solution.", "As costs for the project mounted, there was a debate in the Council chamber and in the local paper ''The News'' as to whether the money could be spent more appropriately.", "Although author David Childs writes that in the early 1980s \"the debate was as a fiery one\", the project was never seriously threatened because of the great symbolic importance of the ''Mary Rose'' to the naval history of both Portsmouth and England.Since the mid-1980s, the hull of the ''Mary Rose'' has been kept in a covered dry dock while undergoing conservation.", "Although the hull has been open to the public for viewing, the need for keeping the ship saturated first with water and later a polyethylene glycol (PEG) solution meant that, before 2013, visitors were separated from the hull by a glass barrier.", "By 2007, the specially built ship hall had been visited by over seven million visitors since it first opened on 1983, just under a year after it was successfully raised.A separate Mary Rose Museum was housed in a structure called No.", "5 Boathouse near the ship hall and was opened to the public on 1984, containing displays explaining the history of the ship and a small number of conserved artefacts, from entire bronze cannons to household items.", "In September 2009 the temporary ''Mary Rose'' display hall was closed to visitors to facilitate construction of the new museum building, which opened to the public on 31 May 2013.The new Mary Rose Museum was designed by architects Wilkinson Eyre, Perkins+Will and built by construction firm Warings.", "The construction has been challenging because the museum has been built over the ship in the dry dock which is a listed monument.", "During construction of the museum, conservation of the hull continued inside a sealed \"hotbox\".", "In April 2013 the polyethylene glycol sprays were turned off and the process of controlled airdrying began.", "In 2016 the \"hotbox\" was removed and for the first time since 1545, the ship was revealed dry.", "This new museum displays most of the artefacts recovered from within the ship in context with the conserved hull.", "As of 2018, the new museum has been visited by over 1.8 million people and saw 189,702 visitors in 2019.File:MaryRose-wooden bowls6.JPGFile:MaryRose-wooden bucket5.JPG" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Barker, Richard, \"Shipshape for Discoveries, and Return\", ''Mariner's Mirror'' 78 (1992), pp.", "433–47* de Brossard, M., \"The French and English Versions of the Loss of the ''Mary Rose'' in 1545\", ''Mariner's Mirror'' 70 (1984), p. 387.", "* Childs, David, ''The Warship Mary Rose: The Life and Times of King Henry VIII's Flagship'' Chatham Publishing, London.", "2007.", "* Gardiner, Julie (editor), ''Before the Mast: Life and Death aboard the Mary Rose'' /The Archaeology of the ''Mary Rose'', Volume 4.The Mary Rose Trust, Portsmouth.", "2005.", "* Jones, Mark (editor), ''For Future Generations: Conservation of a Tudor Maritime Collection'' The Archaeology of the ''Mary Rose'', Volume 5.The Mary Rose Trust, Portsmouth.", "2003.", "* Knighton, C. S. and Loades, David M., ''The Anthony Roll of Henry VIII's Navy: Pepys Library 2991 and British Library Additional MS 22047 with related documents.''", "Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot.", "2000.", "* Loades, David, ''The Tudor Navy: An administrative, political and military history.''", "Scolar Press, Aldershot.", "1992.", "* McKee, Alexander, ''King Henry VIII's Mary Rose.''", "Stein and Day, New York.", "1974.", "* Marsden, Peter, ''Sealed by Time: The Loss and Recovery of the Mary Rose.''", "The Archaeology of the ''Mary Rose'', Volume 1.The Mary Rose Trust, Portsmouth.", "2003.", "* Marsden, Peter (editor), ''Your Noblest Shippe: Anatomy of a Tudor Warship.''", "The Archaeology of the ''Mary Rose'', Volume 2.The Mary Rose Trust, Portsmouth.", "2009.", "* Rodger, Nicholas A. M., ''The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649.''", "W.W. Norton & Company, New York.", "1997.", "* Rodger, Nicholas A. M., \"The Development of Broadside Gunnery, 1450–1650.\"", "''Mariner's Mirror'' 82 (1996), pp. 301–24.", "* Rule, Margaret, ''The Mary Rose: The Excavation and Raising of Henry VIII's Flagship.''", "(2nd edition) Conway Maritime Press, London.", "1983.", "* Stirland, Ann J., ''Raising the Dead: The Skeleton Crew of Henry VIII's Great Ship, the ''Mary Rose''.''", "John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.", "2000.", "* Watt, James, \"The Surgeons of the ''Mary Rose'': the practice of surgery in Tudor England\", ''Mariner's Mirror'' 69 (1983), pp. 3–19.", "* Weightman, Alfred Edwin, ''Heraldry in the Royal Navy: Crests and Badges of H.M. ships'' Gale & Polden, Aldershot.", "1957.", "* Wille, Peter, ''Sound Images of the Ocean in Research and Monitoring''.", "Berlin: Springer 2005." ], [ "Further reading", "* Bradford, Ernle, ''The Story of the Mary Rose''.", "Hamish Hamilton, 1982.", "* Hardy, Robert & Strickland, Matthew, ''The Great Warbow: From Hastings to the Mary Rose''.", "Sutton, 2005.", "* Hildred, Alexzandra (editor), ''Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose.''", "The Archaeology of the ''Mary Rose'', Volume 3.Mary Rose Trust, Portsmouth.", "2011.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Official website* \"''Mary Rose''\" National Heritage List for England" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mario Kart" ], [ "Introduction", " is a series of kart racing games and a spin-off Mario franchise developed and published by Nintendo.", "Players compete in go-kart races while using various power-up items.", "It features characters and courses mostly from the ''Mario'' series as well as other gaming franchises such as ''The Legend of Zelda'', ''Animal Crossing'', ''F-Zero'', ''Excitebike'', and ''Splatoon''.The series was launched in 1992 with ''Super Mario Kart'' on the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), to critical and commercial success.", "The ''Mario Kart'' series totals fourteen games, with six on home consoles, three on handheld consoles, four arcade games co-developed with Namco, and one for mobile phones.", "The latest game in the series, ''Mario Kart Live: Home Circuit'', was released on the Nintendo Switch in October 2020.Over 178.19 million copies in the series have been sold worldwide." ], [ "Gameplay", "In the ''Mario Kart'' series, players compete in go-kart races, controlling one of a selection of characters, mainly from the ''Mario'' franchise.", "Up to twelve characters can compete in each race (varying per game).Gameplay is enhanced by power-up items obtained by driving into item boxes laid out on the course.", "These power-ups include Mushrooms to give players a speed boost, red and green Shells to be thrown at opponents, Banana peels, and Fake Item Boxes as hazards.", "The game chooses an item based on the player's current position in the race.", "For example, players lagging far behind may receive more powerful items, such as Bullet Bills which give the player a bigger speed boost depending on the place of the player, while the leader may only receive small defensive items, such as Shells or Bananas and occasionally coins.", "Called rubber banding, this gameplay mechanism allows other racers a realistic chance to catch up to the leading racer.", "They can perform driving techniques during the race such as rocket starts, slipstreaming, drifting, and mini-turbos.Each new game has introduced new gameplay elements, such as new circuits, items, modes, and playable characters.", "* ''Mario Kart 64'' introduced 3D graphics, 4-player racing, slipstreaming, items dangling (the ability to hold bananas and shells to defend against projectiles) and introduced two new playable characters: Wario and Donkey Kong.", "It also introduced seven items: the Fake Item Box, Triple Red Shells, Triple Green Shells, Triple Mushrooms, the Banana Bunch, the Golden Mushroom, and the Spiny Shell.", "In addition to the three Grand Prix engine classes, Mirror Mode was introduced, in which tracks are flipped laterally.", "* ''Mario Kart: Super Circuit'' included all 20 ''Super Mario Kart'' tracks as unlockable content, as both games use the mode 7 effect.", "* ''Mario Kart: Double Dash'' involves 2-player driving and featured co-operative LAN play and double-manned karts.", "It also introduced double item boxes.", "It further added eleven new playable characters: Daisy, Birdo, Baby Mario, Baby Luigi, Paratroopa, Diddy Kong, Bowser Jr., Waluigi, Toadette, Petey Piranha, and King Boo.", "It introduced a revamped Spiny Shell and character exclusive items, and introduced unlockable characters and karts.", "Mirror mode is now played on 150cc.", "It also introduced new alternate battle modes: \"Shine Thief\", and \"Bob-omb Blast\".", "* ''Mario Kart DS'' featured dual-screen play to take advantage of the system's capabilities.", "It introduced custom emblems.", "It also introduced Online play via the now defunct Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, a mission mode, and proper retro tracks.", "New playable characters included Dry Bones, R.O.B., and Shy Guy (who is exclusive to DS Download Play).", "This game also added three new items, the Blooper, the Bullet Bill, and the triple bananas.", "The Bob-omb is now a normal item, no longer being Wario and Waluigi's special item.", "* ''Mario Kart Wii'' introduced motion controls, the ability to perform mid-air tricks, and bikes.", "The racer cap was raised from 8 to 12.It introduced six new playable characters: Baby Peach, Baby Daisy, Rosalina, Funky Kong, Dry Bowser, and two Mii outfits.", "It introduced three new items: the Mega Mushroom, the Thundercloud, and the POW Block, the last two of which are exclusive to this kart game.", "It also introduced a new battle mode titled \"Coin Runners\".", "* ''Mario Kart 7'' featured stereoscopic 3D graphics and the return of dual screen functionality.", "It introduced gliders and submersible karts, a first-person perspective, and full kart customization.", "It introduced four new playable characters: Metal Mario, Lakitu, Wiggler, and Honey Queen.", "In addition, Shy Guy is a fully playable character as opposed to being exclusive for Download Play.", "It also re-introduced Coins for a small speed boost, though they can now be used to unlock kart parts.", "* ''Mario Kart 8'' introduced the 200cc engine class, anti-gravity racing, ATVs, uploading highlights to YouTube, up to four local players in Grand Prix races, downloadable content, HD graphics, and fifteen new playable characters: the Koopalings (Iggy Koopa, Roy Koopa, Lemmy Koopa, Larry Koopa, Wendy O. Koopa, Ludwig von Koopa and Morton Koopa Jr.), Baby Rosalina, Pink Gold Peach, Tanooki Mario, Cat Peach, Link from ''The Legend of Zelda'', and Villager (male and female) and Isabelle from ''Animal Crossing'', the last six which are available as downloadable content.", "* ''Mario Kart 8 Deluxe'' added a revamped battle mode, which included the new \"Renegade Roundup\", the return of double item boxes, ultra mini-turbo, and added 6 characters that were absent from the original game.", "These characters include King Boo, Dry Bones, Gold Mario, Bowser Jr, and the male and female Inklings from ''Splatoon'', in addition to giving the female Villager her own character slot.", "From 2022 to the end of 2023, new race courses and returning characters are being added to the game and released in the \"Booster Course Pass\" DLC expansion pack.", "* ''Mario Kart Tour'' was the ''Mario Kart'' debut on a mobile phone, and introduced a points-based system for certain racing actions.", "It introduced Peachette, Pauline, Hammer Bro (and his boomerang, fire, and ice alts), Monty Mole, Captain Toad, Dixie Kong, Kamek, Nabbit, King Bob-omb, Chargin' Chuck, Poochy and many more alternate outfits for characters.", "The alternate outfits are rare items.", "It introduced Frenzy Mode, and before its removal in late 2022, gacha and loot box mechanics, and continuously renewing character outfits and karts.", "It reintroduced character-specific items and the Mega Mushroom.", "* ''Mario Kart Live: Home Circuit'' uses a combination of augmented reality (AR), remote-controlled karts, and cameras, to create tracks using markers in the physical world, on which onscreen opponents are raced.===Modes===Each game has a variety of modes.", "The following five modes recur most often in the series:* '''Grand Prix''' – Players compete in various \"cups\" of four courses each (five in ''Super Mario Kart'') with difficulty levels based on the size of the engine, larger engines meaning faster speeds.", "Before ''Mario Kart 8'' there were four difficulties: 50cc, 100cc, 150cc, and Mirror Mode, where all tracks were flipped horizontally.", "In ''Mario Kart 8'', a fifth difficulty level: 200cc, was added.", "Players earn points according to their finishing position in each race and the placement order gets carried over to the next race as the new starting grid.", "At the end of the cup, the top three players with the most points overall will receive a trophy in bronze, silver, and gold.", "As of ''Mario Kart DS'', players are also ranked based on how well they raced (three to one stars, A, B, C, D, and E).", "Three stars is the best rank, while E is the worst.", "* '''Time Trials''' – The player races alone in order to finish any course in the fastest time possible.", "The best time is then saved as a ghost, which the player can race against in later trials.", "''Mario Kart: Double Dash'' introduced Staff Ghosts, which are ghosts set by members of the Nintendo development team.", "* '''Match Race''' (or '''VS.''')", "– Multiple human players race on any course with customized rules such as team racing and item frequency.", "* '''Battle''' – Multiple human players use in-game offensive items (shells, etc.)", "to battle each other in a closed arena.", "In the most common battle type, balloon battle, each player starts with three balloons and loses one per hit; the last player with at least one balloon wins.", "Various battle types have been added to the series, and single-player battles with CPU controlled players.", "* '''Online Multiplayer''' – Players compete in races and battles through online services, such as Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, Nintendo Network, and Nintendo Switch Online.", "Players can share Time Trial ghosts, and participate in tournaments.", "In races and battles, players are matched by VR (VS Rating) and BR (Battle Rating) respectively, which is a number between 0 and 99,999 (9,999 in ''Mario Kart Wii'').", "Players gain or lose points based on performance in a race or battle.", "The game attempts to match players with a similar rating." ], [ "Development", "The series logo until ''Mario Kart Arcade GP 2''The debut game in the ''Mario Kart'' series was ''Super Mario Kart'' released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) in 1992.Its development was overseen by ''Mario'' creator Shigeru Miyamoto, the Japanese designer of many successful Nintendo games including ''Super Mario Bros.'' Darran Jones of NowGamer suggests that the success of ''Super Mario Kart'' resulted from the ''Super Mario'' characters, and being a new type of racing game." ], [ "Games", "===Console=== Year Game Platform Virtual Console/Nintendo Switch Online re-release Wii Wii U 3DS New 3DS Switch Android /iOS 1992 ''Super Mario Kart'' SNES 1996 ''Mario Kart 64'' Nintendo 64 2001 ''Mario Kart: Super Circuit'' Game Boy Advance 2003 ''Mario Kart: Double Dash'' Nintendo GameCube 2005 ''Mario Kart DS'' Nintendo DS 2008 ''Mario Kart Wii'' Wii 2011 ''Mario Kart 7'' Nintendo 3DS 2014 ''Mario Kart 8'' Wii U 2017 ''Mario Kart 8 Deluxe'' Nintendo Switch 2019 ''Mario Kart Tour'' Android/iOS 2020 ''Mario Kart Live: Home Circuit'' Nintendo Switch ===Arcade===Seats for ''Mario Kart'' games (left) in a Japanese arcade* ''Mario Kart Arcade GP'' (2005, developed by Namco)* ''Mario Kart Arcade GP 2'' (2007, developed by Namco Bandai Games)* ''Mario Kart Arcade GP DX'' (2013, developed by Namco Bandai Games)* ''Mario Kart Arcade GP VR'' (2017, developed by Bandai Namco Studios)===Mobile===* ''Mario Kart Tour'' (2019)===Upcoming games===In January 2022, Serkan Toto, an industry analyst for ''GamesIndustry.biz'' indicated that a new entry in the ''Mario Kart'' series (referred to by some as ''Mario Kart 9'') was \"in active development\" at Nintendo.", "The game would feature \"a new twist\".===Canceled games===* '''''VB Mario Kart''''' was scheduled for the Virtual Boy in 1995.It was revealed in a 2000 issue of German gaming magazine ''The Big N'', but was canceled early in development prior to its official announcement due to the Virtual Boy's commercial failure.", "* '''''Mario Kart XXL''''' is a Game Boy Advance tech demo developed by Denaris Entertainment Software for Nintendo in 2004.It was originally created as a non-Mario demo known as R3D-Demo before being repurposed.", "* '''''Mario Motors''''' was a planned spin-off of the ''Mario Kart'' series for the Nintendo DS.", "It was revealed for the first time at the Reboot Development Conference 2018.The game was going to be co-developed by Yoot Saito.", "The concept of the game was to build your own kart." ], [ "Reception", "The ''Mario Kart'' series is critically acclaimed.", "''Nintendo Power'' named it one of the greatest multiplayer experiences, citing the diversity in game modes and the entertainment value.", "''Guinness World Records'' listed six records set by the ''Mario Kart'' series, including \"First Console Kart Racing Game\", \"Best Selling Racing Game\", and \"Longest Running Kart Racing Franchise\".", "''Guinness World Records'' ranked ''Super Mario Kart'' number 1 of the top 50 console games of all time based on initial impact and lasting legacy.", "''Super Mario Kart'' was inducted into the World Video Game Hall of Fame in 2019.===Sales===Like the ''Super Mario'' series, the ''Mario Kart'' series is a commercial success with 178.19 million copies sold in total.", "It is currently the most successful racing game franchise of all time.", "''Super Mario Kart'' is the fourth-best-selling Super Nintendo Entertainment System game with 8.76 million copies sold.", "''Mario Kart 64'' is the second-best-selling game for the Nintendo 64 (behind ''Super Mario 64''), at 9.87 million copies.", "''Mario Kart: Double Dash'' is the second-best-selling GameCube game (next to ''Super Smash Bros. Melee'') with 6.96 million copies sold.", "''Mario Kart Wii'' is the second-best-selling in the series and is the second-best-selling Wii game (next to ''Wii Sports'') at 37.38 million copies.", "''Mario Kart 8'' is the best-selling Wii U game at 8.46 million total copies sold.", "It was the fastest-selling Wii U game with 1.2 million copies shipped in North America and Europe combined on its first few days since launch, until ''Super Smash Bros. for Wii U''.", "The enhanced port for the Nintendo Switch, ''Mario Kart 8 Deluxe'', is the fastest-selling game in the series with 459,000 units sold in the United States in one day of its launch.", "It is the highest-selling Nintendo Switch game with a total of 57.01 million copies worldwide, outperforming the Wii U version.", "Both versions have a combined total of 65.47 million copies sold, making it the best-selling game in the series, and also the best selling ''Mario'' game as a whole.The handheld games are commercial successes.", "''Mario Kart: Super Circuit'' is the fourth-best-selling Game Boy Advance game at 5.9 million copies.", "The second portable game, ''Mario Kart DS'', is the third-best-selling Nintendo DS game and the best-selling portable game in the series with a total of 23.6 million copies.", "''Mario Kart 7'' is the best-selling Nintendo 3DS game as of March 2023 at 18.98 million copies." ], [ "Legacy", "===Merchandise===The ''Mario Kart'' series has had a range of merchandise.", "This includes a slot car racer series based on ''Mario Kart DS'', which comes with Mario and Donkey Kong figures and Wario and Luigi are separate.", "A line of radio-controlled karts are controlled by Game Boy Advance-shaped controllers, and feature Mario, Donkey Kong, and Yoshi.", "There are additional, larger karts which are radio-controlled by a GameCube-shape controller.", "Many racer figurines have been made.", "Sound Drops were inspired by ''Mario Kart Wii'' with eight sounds including the Spiny Shell and the race start countdown.", "A land-line telephone features Mario holding a lightning bolt while seated in his kart.", "K'Nex released ''Mario Kart Wii'', ''Mario Kart 7'', and ''Mario Kart 8'' sets.", "LINE has released an animated sticker set with 24 stickers based on ''Mario Kart 8'' and ''Mario Kart 8 Deluxe''.", "Nintendo's own customer rewards program Club Nintendo released a ''Mario Kart 8'' soundtrack, a ''Mario Kart Wii''-themed stopwatch, and three gold trophies modeled after those in ''Mario Kart 7''.", "Before Club Nintendo, a ''Mario Kart 64'' soundtrack was offered by mail.", "In 2014, McDonald's released ''Mario Kart 8'' toys with Happy Meals.", "In 2018, Monopoly Gamer features a ''Mario Kart'' themed board game with courses from ''Mario Kart 8'' serving as properties, ten playable characters as tokens (pingas) and a special die with power-ups.", "In 2019, Hot Wheels released ''Mario Kart'' sets of cars and tracks.", "In commemoration of Mario Day celebrations for March 10, 2021, Hot Wheels also released a ''Mario Kart'' track set based on Rainbow Road on June 24, 2021.In 2020, for the ''Super Mario Bros.'' 35th Anniversary, Cold Stone Creamery released Mario themed desserts including a Rainbow Road themed ice cream cake, from September 30 to December 15.===Rental go-kart dispute===Go-karters dressed as Nintendo characters in Harajuku, TokyoIn September 2016, Nintendo filed an objection against the Japanese company MariCar, which rents go-karts modified for use on public roads in Tokyo along with costumes resembling Nintendo characters.", "MariCar's English website warned customers not to throw \"banana peels\" or \"red turtle shells\".", "The service is popular with tourists.Nintendo argued that the MariCar name was \"intended to be mistaken for or confused with\" ''Mario Kart'', citing games commonly known by abbreviations in Japan, such as ''Pokémon'' (for ''Pocket Monsters'') and Sumabura (''Super Smash Bros.'').", "In January 2017, the Japan Patent Office dismissed the objection, ruling that MariCar was not widely recognized as an abbreviation of ''Mario Kart''.In February 2017, Nintendo sued MariCar over copyright infringement for renting unauthorized costumes of Nintendo characters and using their images to promote its business.", "In September 2018, MariCar was ordered to stop using the characters and pay Nintendo ¥10 million in damages.===Theme park attraction===Universal Destinations & Experiences' immersive Super Nintendo World areas in Universal Studios Japan and Universal Studios Hollywood feature the ''Mario Kart: Bowser's Challenge'' ride as their primary \"anchor\" attraction.", "Utilizing innovative augmented reality technology and dark ride set design, guests travel through several environments from ''Mario Kart 8'', including Rainbow Road.", "The Japan version of the attraction includes a ''Mario Kart'' themed shop called \"Mario Motors\", and a nearby \"Pit Stop Popcorn\" food stand.", "The ''Bowser's Challenge'' ride is also expected to be built in Epic Universe's version of Super Nintendo World.===Formula E attack mode===Starting with its 2018–19 season, electric open wheel racing series Formula E added a so-called \"attack mode\", which allows a driver to gain a temporary speed boost if they take an alternate lane (highlighted on television via augmented reality computer graphics).", "The concept has been described by members of the press and by series CEO Alejandro Agag as inspired by ''Mario Kart''." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Module" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Module''', '''modular''' and '''modularity''' may refer to the concept of modularity.", "They may also refer to:" ], [ "Computing and engineering", "* Modular design, the engineering discipline of designing complex devices using separately designed sub-components* Modular function deployment, a method in systems engineering and product development* Module, a measure of a gear's pitch* Ontology modularization, a methodological principle in ontology engineering===Computer software===* Modular programming, a software design technique* Loadable kernel module, an object file that contains code to extend the running kernel* Environment Modules, a software tool designed to help users manage their UNIX or Linux shell environment* Modula-2 or Modula-3, programming languages which stress the use of modules===Computer hardware===* Computer module, an early packaging technique that combined several electronic components to produce a single logic element* Memory module, a physical \"stick\" of RAM, an essential piece of computer hardware* Multi-chip module, a modern technique that combines several complex computer chips into a single larger unit" ], [ "Science and mathematics", "* Module (mathematics) over a ring, a generalization of vector spaces* ''G''-module over a group ''G'', in mathematics* Modular lattice a kind of partially ordered set* Modularity theorem (formerly Taniyama–Shimura conjecture), a connection between elliptic curves and modular forms* Module, in connection with modular decomposition of a graph, a kind of generalisation of graph components* Modularity (networks), a benefit function that measures the quality of a division of a Complex network into communities* Protein module or protein domain, a section of a protein with its own distinct conformation, often conserved in evolution* A ''cis''-regulatory module, a stretch of DNA containing a number of genes that share joint regulation by the same transcription factors" ], [ "Music", "* Module (musician), the solo project of New Zealand-based musician/producer Jeramiah Ross* Module file, a family of music file formats* Modular Recordings, a record label* Modular synthesizer, a type of electronic musical instrument* Sound module, electronic musical instrument without a human-playable interface" ], [ "Other uses", "* Modular building: prefabricated building that consists of repeated sections called modules, used as house or other, some of them open source, in this case, open source hardware.", "* NTC Module, a Russian research and development center*ModulArt, a technique used in contemporary art where a large-structure painting is made up of multiple smaller modules.", "* Ford Modular engine, Ford's line of OHC V8 and V10 motors* Volvo Modular engine* Game module or expansion, an add-on publication for a role-playing game** Adventure (Dungeons & Dragons), formerly referred to as a ''module''* Vitruvian module, an architectural measure* A class, course, or unit of education covering a single topic" ], [ "See also", "* Modulus (disambiguation)* Atomicity (disambiguation)* Modul University Vienna* Modulon" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "May 21" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 293 – Roman Emperors Diocletian and Maximian appoint Galerius as ''Caesar'' to Diocletian, beginning the period of four rulers known as the Tetrarchy.", "* 878 – Syracuse, Sicily, is captured by the Muslim Aghlabids after a nine-month siege.", "* 879 – Pope John VIII gives blessings to Branimir of Croatia and to the Croatian people, considered to be international recognition of the Croatian state.", "* 996 – Sixteen-year-old Otto III is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.", "*1349 – Dušan's Code, the constitution of the Serbian Empire, is enacted by Dušan the Mighty.", "*1403 – Henry III of Castile sends Ruy González de Clavijo as ambassador to Timur to discuss the possibility of an alliance between Timur and Castile against the Ottoman Empire.", "*1554 – Queen Mary I grants a royal charter to Derby School, as a grammar school for boys in Derby, England.===1601–1900===*1659 – In the Concert of The Hague, the Dutch Republic, the Commonwealth of England and the Kingdom of France set out their views on how the Second Northern War should end.", "*1660 – The Battle of Long Sault concludes after five days in which French colonial militia, with their Huron and Algonquin allies, are defeated by the Iroquois Confederacy.", "*1674 – The nobility elect John Sobieski King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania.", "*1703 – Daniel Defoe is imprisoned on charges of seditious libel.", "*1725 – The Order of St. Alexander Nevsky is instituted in Russia by Empress Catherine I.", "It would later be discontinued and then reinstated by the Soviet government in 1942 as the Order of Alexander Nevsky.", "*1758 – Ten-year-old Mary Campbell is abducted in Pennsylvania by Lenape during the French and Indian War.", "She is returned six and a half years later.", "*1792 – A lava dome collapses on Mount Unzen, near the city of Shimbara on the Japanese island of Kyūshū, creating a deadly tsunami that killed nearly 15,000 people.", "*1809 – The first day of the Battle of Aspern-Essling between the Austrian army led by Archduke Charles and the French army led by Napoleon I of France sees the French attack across the Danube held.", "*1851 – Slavery in Colombia is abolished.", "*1856 – Lawrence, Kansas is captured and burned by pro-slavery forces.", "*1863 – American Civil War: The Union Army succeeds in closing off the last escape route from Port Hudson, Louisiana, in preparation for the coming siege.", "*1864 – Russia declares an end to the Russo-Circassian War and many Circassians are forced into exile.", "The day is designated the Circassian Day of Mourning.", "* 1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Spotsylvania Court House ends.", "* 1864 – The Ionian Islands reunite with Greece.", "*1871 – French troops invade the Paris Commune and engage its residents in street fighting.", "By the close of \"Bloody Week\", some 20,000 communards have been killed and 38,000 arrested.", "* 1871 – Opening of the first rack railway in Europe, the Rigi Bahnen on Mount Rigi.", "*1879 – War of the Pacific: Two Chilean ships blocking the harbor of Iquique (then belonging to Peru) battle two Peruvian vessels in the Battle of Iquique.", "*1881 – The American Red Cross is established by Clara Barton in Washington, D.C.*1894 – The Manchester Ship Canal in the United Kingdom is officially opened by Queen Victoria, who later knights its designer Sir Edward Leader Williams.===1901–present===*1904 – The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) is founded in Paris.", "*1911 – President of Mexico Porfirio Díaz and the revolutionary Francisco Madero sign the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez to put an end to the fighting between the forces of both men, concluding the initial phase of the Mexican Revolution.", "*1917 – The Imperial War Graves Commission is established through royal charter to mark, record, and maintain the graves and places of commemoration of the British Empire's military forces.", "* 1917 – The Great Atlanta fire of 1917 causes $5.5 million in damages, destroying some 300 acres including 2,000 homes, businesses and churches, displacing about 10,000 people but leading to only one fatality (due to heart attack).", "*1924 – University of Chicago students Richard Loeb and Nathan Leopold, Jr. murder 14-year-old Bobby Franks in a \"thrill killing\".", "*1927 – Charles Lindbergh touches down at Le Bourget Field in Paris, completing the world's first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic Ocean.", "*1932 – Bad weather forces Amelia Earhart to land in a pasture in Derry, Northern Ireland, and she thereby becomes the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean.", "*1934 – Oskaloosa, Iowa, becomes the first municipality in the United States to fingerprint all of its citizens.", "*1936 – Sada Abe is arrested after wandering the streets of Tokyo for days with her dead lover's severed genitals in her handbag.", "Her story soon becomes one of Japan's most notorious scandals.", "*1937 – A Soviet station, North Pole-1, becomes the first scientific research settlement to operate on the drift ice of the Arctic Ocean.", "*1939 – The Canadian National War Memorial is unveiled by King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.", "*1946 – Physicist Louis Slotin is fatally irradiated in a criticality incident during an experiment with the demon core at Los Alamos National Laboratory.", "*1951 – The opening of the Ninth Street Show, otherwise known as the 9th Street Art Exhibition: A gathering of a number of notable artists, and the stepping-out of the post war New York avant-garde, collectively known as the New York School.", "*1961 – American civil rights movement: Alabama Governor John Malcolm Patterson declares martial law in an attempt to restore order after race riots break out.", "*1966 – The Ulster Volunteer Force declares war on the Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland.", "*1969 – Civil unrest in Rosario, Argentina, known as ''Rosariazo'', following the death of a 15-year-old student.", "*1972 – Michelangelo's ''Pietà'' in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome is damaged by a vandal, the mentally disturbed Hungarian geologist Laszlo Toth.", "*1976 – Twenty-nine people are killed in the Yuba City bus disaster in Martinez, California.", "*1979 – White Night riots in San Francisco following the manslaughter conviction of Dan White for the assassinations of George Moscone and Harvey Milk.", "*1981 – The Italian government releases the membership list of Propaganda Due, an illegal pseudo-Masonic lodge that was implicated in numerous Italian crimes and mysteries.", "* 1981 – Transamerica Corporation agrees to sell United Artists to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer for $380 million after the box office failure of the 1980 film ''Heaven's Gate''.", "*1982 – Falklands War: A British amphibious assault during Operation Sutton leads to the Battle of San Carlos.", "*1988 – Margaret Thatcher holds her controversial Sermon on the Mound before the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.", "*1991 – Former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi is assassinated by a female suicide bomber near Madras.", "* 1991 – Mengistu Haile Mariam, president of the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, flees Ethiopia, effectively bringing the Ethiopian Civil War to an end.", "*1992 – After 30 seasons Johnny Carson hosted his penultimate episode and last featuring guests (Robin Williams and Bette Midler) of ''The Tonight Show''.", "*1994 – The Democratic Republic of Yemen unsuccessfully attempts to secede from the Republic of Yemen; a war breaks out.", "*1996 – The ferry sinks in Tanzanian waters on Lake Victoria, killing nearly 1,000.", "*1996 – The seven Trappist monks of Tibhirine that were abducted on March 27 are killed under uncertain circumstances.", "*1998 – In Miami, five abortion clinics are attacked by a butyric acid attacker.", "* 1998 – President Suharto of Indonesia resigns following the killing of students from Trisakti University earlier that week by security forces and growing mass protests in Jakarta against his ongoing corrupt rule.", "*2000 – Nineteen people are killed in a plane crash in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania.", "*2001 – French Taubira law is enacted, officially recognizing the Atlantic slave trade and slavery as crimes against humanity.", "*2003 – The 6.8 Boumerdès earthquake shakes northern Algeria with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (''Extreme'').", "More than 2,200 people were killed and a moderate tsunami sank boats at the Balearic Islands.", "*2005 – The tallest roller coaster in the world, Kingda Ka opens at Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson Township, New Jersey.", "*2006 – The Republic of Montenegro holds a referendum proposing independence from the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro; 55% of Montenegrins vote for independence.", "*2010 – JAXA, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, launches the solar-sail spacecraft IKAROS aboard an H-IIA rocket.", "The vessel would make a Venus flyby late in the year.", "*2011 – Radio broadcaster Harold Camping predicted that the world would end on this date.", "*2012 – A bus accident near Himara, Albania kills 13 people and injures 21 others.", "* 2012 – A suicide bombing kills more than 120 people in Sana'a, Yemen.", "*2014 – Random killings occurred on the Bannan Line of the Taipei MRT, killing four and injuring 24.", "*2017 – Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus performed their final show at Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1471 – Albrecht Dürer, German painter, engraver, and mathematician (d. 1528)*1497 – Al-Hattab, Muslim jurist (d. 1547)*1527 – Philip II of Spain (d. 1598)===1601–1900===*1653 – Eleonore of Austria, Queen of Poland (d. 1697)*1688 – (O.S.)", "Alexander Pope, English poet, essayist, and translator (d. 1744)*1755 – Alfred Moore, American lawyer and judge (d. 1810)*1756 – William Babington, Irish-born, English physician and mineralogist (d. 1833)*1759 – Joseph Fouché, French lawyer and politician (d. 1820)*1775 – Lucien Bonaparte, French soldier and politician (d. 1840)*1780 – Elizabeth Fry, English prison reformer, philanthropist and Quaker (d. 1845)*1790 – William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire, English politician, Lord Chamberlain of the Household (d. 1858)*1792 – Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis, French mathematician and engineer (d. 1843)*1799 – Mary Anning, English paleontologist (d. 1847)*1801 – Princess Sophie of Sweden, Swedish princess (d. 1865)*1806 – Harriet Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, Duchess of Sutherland, English duchess (d. 1868)*1808 – David de Jahacob Lopez Cardozo, Dutch Talmudist (d. 1890)*1827 – William P. Sprague, American banker and politician (d. 1899)*1828 – Rudolf Koller, Swiss painter (d. 1905)*1835 – František Chvostek, Czech-Austrian physician and academic (d. 1884)*1837 – Itagaki Taisuke, Japanese soldier and politician (d. 1919)*1843 – Charles Albert Gobat, Swiss lawyer and politician, and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1914)* 1843 – Louis Renault, French jurist, educator, and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1918)*1844 – Henri Rousseau, French painter (d. 1910)*1849 – Édouard-Henri Avril, French painter (d. 1928)*1850 – Giuseppe Mercalli, Italian priest and volcanologist (d. 1914)*1851 – Léon Bourgeois, French police officer and politician, 64th Prime Minister of France, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1925)*1853 – Jacques Marie Eugène Godefroy Cavaignac, French politician (d. 1905)*1855 – Ella Stewart Udall, American telegraphist (d. 1937)*1856 – José Batlle y Ordóñez, Uruguayan journalist and politician, President of Uruguay (d. 1929)*1858 – Édouard Goursat, French mathematician (d. 1936)*1860 – Willem Einthoven, Indonesian-Dutch physician, physiologist, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1927)*1861 – Abel Ayerza, Argentinian physician and academic (d. 1918)*1863 – Archduke Eugen of Austria (d. 1954)*1864 – Princess Stéphanie of Belgium (d. 1945)*1867 – Anne Walter Fearn, American physician (d. 1939)*1873 – Hans Berger, German neurologist and academic (d. 1941)*1878 – Glenn Curtiss, American cyclist and engineer (d. 1930)*1880 – Tudor Arghezi, Romanian journalist, author, and poet (d. 1967)*1884 – Manuel Pérez y Curis, Uruguayan poet and publisher (d. 1920)*1885 – Princess Sophie of Albania, (Princess Sophie of Schönburg-Waldenburg) (d. 1936)*1893 – Arthur Carr, English cricketer (d. 1963)* 1893 – Giles Chippindall, Australian public servant (d. 1969)*1895 – Lázaro Cárdenas, Mexican general, president (1934–1940) and father of Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas (d. 1970) *1898 – Armand Hammer, American physician and businessman, founded Occidental Petroleum (d. 1990)* 1898 – Charles Léon Hammes, Luxembourgian lawyer and judge (d. 1967)* 1898 – Carl Johnson, American long jumper (d. 1932)* 1898 – John McLaughlin, American painter and translator (d. 1976)===1901–present===*1901 – Regina M. Anderson, Multiracial playwright and librarian (d. 1993)* 1901 – Horace Heidt, American pianist, bandleader, and radio host (d. 1986)* 1901 – Sam Jaffe, American film producer and agent (d. 2000)* 1901 – Suzanne Lilar, Belgian author and playwright (d. 1992)*1902 – Earl Averill, American baseball player (d. 1983)* 1902 – Marcel Breuer, Hungarian-American architect and academic, designed the Ameritrust Tower (d. 1981)* 1902 – Anatole Litvak, Ukrainian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1974)*1903 – Manly Wade Wellman, American author (d. 1986)*1904 – Robert Montgomery, American actor and director (d. 1981)* 1904 – Fats Waller, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1943)*1907 – John C. Allen, American roller coaster designer (d. 1979)*1912 – Chen Dayu, Chinese painter and calligrapher (d. 2001)* 1912 – John Curtis Gowan, American psychologist and academic (d. 1986)* 1912 – Monty Stratton, American baseball player and coach (d. 1982)*1913 – Gina Bachauer, Greek pianist and composer (d. 1976)*1914 – Romain Gary, French novelist, diplomat, film director, aviator (d. 1980)*1915 – Chakravarthi V. Narasimhan, Indian Civil Service Officer and former Under Secretary-General of the UN (d. 2003)*1916 – Dennis Day, American singer and actor (d. 1988)* 1916 – Tinus Osendarp, Dutch sprinter and police officer (d. 2002)* 1916 – Harold Robbins, American author and screenwriter (d. 1997)*1917 – Raymond Burr, Canadian-American actor and director (d. 1993)*1919 – George P. Mitchell, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013)*1920 – Bill Barber, American tuba player and educator (d. 2007)* 1920 – Forrest White, American businessman, co-founded the Music Man Company (d. 1994)*1921 – Sandy Douglas, English computer scientist and academic, designed ''OXO'' (d. 2010)* 1921 – Andrei Sakharov, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989)*1923 – Vernon Biever, American photographer (d. 2010)* 1923 – Armand Borel, Swiss-American mathematician and academic (d. 2003)* 1923 – Ara Parseghian, American football player and coach (d. 2017)* 1923 – Dorothy Hewett, Australian feminist poet, novelist and playwright (d. 2002)* 1923 – Evelyn Ward, American actress (d. 2012)*1924 – Peggy Cass, American actress, comedian, and game show panelist (d. 1999)*1926 – Robert Creeley, American novelist, essayist, and poet (d. 2005)*1927 – Kay Kendall, English actress and comedian (d. 1959)* 1927 – Péter Zwack, Hungarian businessman and diplomat (d. 2012)*1928 – Tom Donahue, American radio host and producer (d. 1975)* 1928 – Alice Drummond, American actress (d. 2016)*1929 – Larance Marable, American drummer (d. 2012)* 1929 – Robert Welch, English silversmith and industrial designer (d. 2000)*1930 – Tommy Bryant, American bassist (d. 1982)* 1930 – Keith Davis, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2019)* 1930 – Malcolm Fraser, Australian politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2015)*1932 – Inese Jaunzeme, Latvian javelin thrower and surgeon (d. 2011)* 1932 – Leonidas Vasilikopoulos, Greek admiral and intelligence chief (d. 2014)*1933 – Maurice André, French trumpet player (d. 2012)* 1933 – Yevgeny Minayev, Russian weightlifter (d. 1993)*1934 – Jocasta Innes, Chinese-English journalist and author (d. 2013)* 1934 – Bob Northern, American horn player and bandleader (d.2020)* 1934 – Bengt I. Samuelsson, Swedish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate*1935 – Terry Lightfoot, English clarinet player and bandleader (d. 2013)*1936 – Günter Blobel, Polish-American biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2018)*1938 – Lee \"Shot\" Williams, American singer (d. 2011)*1939 – Heinz Holliger, Swiss oboist, composer, and conductor*1940 – Tony Sheridan, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013) *1941 – Martin Carthy, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1941 – Bobby Cox, American baseball player and manager* 1941 – Ambrose Greenway, 4th Baron Greenway, English photographer and politician* 1941 – Ronald Isley, American singer-songwriter and producer*1942 – David Hunt, Baron Hunt of Wirral, English politician, Secretary of State for Wales* 1942 – John Konrads, Australian swimmer (d. 2021)* 1942 – Danny Ongais, American race car driver (d. 2022)*1943 – Vincent Crane, English pianist and composer (d. 1989)* 1943 – John Dalton, English bass player* 1943 – Hilton Valentine, English guitarist and songwriter (d. 2021)*1944 – Haleh Afshar, Baroness Afshar, Iranian-English academic and politician (d. 2022)* 1944 – Marcie Blane, American singer* 1944 – Janet Dailey, American author and entrepreneur (d. 2013)* 1944 – Mary Robinson, Irish lawyer and politician, President of Ireland*1945 – Ernst Messerschmid, German physicist and astronaut* 1945 – Richard Hatch, American actor, writer, and producer (d. 2017)*1946 – Allan McKeown, English-American screenwriter and producer (d. 2013)* 1946 – Wayne Roycroft, Australian equestrian rider and coach*1947 – Bill Champlin, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1947 – Linda Laubenstein, American physician and academic (d. 1992)* 1947 – İlber Ortaylı, Turkish historian and academic*1948 – Elizabeth Buchan, English author and critic* 1948 – Joe Camilleri, Maltese-Australian singer-songwriter and saxophonist* 1948 – Jonathan Hyde, Australian-English actor* 1948 – Denis MacShane, Scottish journalist and politician, UK Minister of State for Europe* 1948 – Leo Sayer, English-Australian singer-songwriter and musician *1949 – Andrew Neil, Scottish journalist and academic* 1949 – Denis O'Connor, British police officer* 1949 – Rosalind Plowright, English soprano *1950 – Will Hutton, English economist and journalist*1951 – Al Franken, American actor, screenwriter, and politician* 1951 – Adrian Hardiman, Irish lawyer and judge (d. 2016)*1952 – Mr. T, American actor and wrestler*1953 – Nora Aunor, Filipino actress and recording artist* 1953 – Jim Devine, British politician*1954 – Marc Ribot, American guitarist and composer*1955 – Paul Barber, English field hockey player* 1955 – Stan Lynch, American drummer, songwriter, and producer *1957 – James Bailey, American basketball player* 1957 – Nadine Dorries, English nurse and politician* 1957 – Judge Reinhold, American actor and producer* 1957 – Renée Soutendijk, Dutch actress*1958 – Christian Audigier, French fashion designer (d. 2015)* 1958 – Muffy Calder, Canadian-Scottish computer scientist and academic* 1958 – Michael Crick, English journalist and author* 1958 – Naeem Khan, Indian-American fashion designer* 1958 – Jefery Levy, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1959 – Nick Cassavetes, American actor, director, and screenwriter* 1959 – Abdulla Yameen, Maldivian politician, 6th President of the Maldives*1960 – Jeffrey Dahmer, American serial killer (d. 1994)* 1960 – Kent Hrbek, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1960 – Mohanlal, Indian actor* 1960 – Mark Ridgway, Australian cricketer * 1960 – Vladimir Salnikov, Russian swimmer*1962 – David Crumb, American composer and educator*1963 – Richard Appel, American screenwriter and producer* 1963 – Patrick Grant, American musician and producer* 1963 – David Lonsdale, English actor* 1963 – Dave Specter, American guitarist* 1963 – Laurie Spina, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster*1964 – Danny Bailey, English footballer and coach* 1964 – Pete Sandoval, Salvadoran-American drummer*1966 – Lisa Edelstein, American actress and playwright* 1966 – Tatyana Ledovskaya, Belarusian hurdler*1967 – Chris Benoit, Canadian professional wrestler (d. 2007)*1968 – Ilmar Raag, Estonian director, producer, and screenwriter* 1968 – Matthias Ungemach, German-Australian rower* 1968 – Julie Vega, Filipino actress and singer (d. 1985)*1969 – Pierluigi Brivio, Italian footballer* 1969 – Georgiy Gongadze, Georgian-Ukrainian journalist and director (d. 2000)* 1969 – Masayo Kurata, Japanese voice actress and singer* 1969 – George LeMieux, American lawyer and politician* 1969 – Brian Statham, Rhodesian born English footballer and manager*1970 – Brigita Bukovec, Slovenian hurdler* 1970 – Dorsey Levens, American football player and sportscaster* 1970 – Pauline Menczer, Australian surfer* 1970 – Carl Veart, Australian footballer and coach*1972 – The Notorious B.I.G., American rapper (d. 1997)*1973 – Stewart Cink, American golfer* 1973 – Noel Fielding, English comedian, musician and television presenter*1974 – Brad Arthur, Australian rugby league coach* 1974 – Fairuza Balk, American actress* 1974 – Havoc, American rapper and producer *1975 – Anthony Mundine, Australian rugby league player and boxer*1976 – Stuart Bingham, English snooker player* 1976 – Abderrahim Goumri, Moroccan runner (d. 2013)* 1976 – Deron Miller, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1977 – Quinton Fortune, South African international footballer and coach* 1977 – Michael Fuß, German footballer* 1977 – Ricky Williams, American football player*1978 – Max B, American rapper and songwriter* 1978 – Briana Banks, German-American porn actress and model* 1978 – Jamaal Magloire, Canadian basketball player and coach*1979 – Damián Ariel Álvarez, Argentinian-Mexican footballer* 1979 – Jamie Hepburn, Scottish politician, Minister for Sport, Health Improvement and Mental Health* 1979 – James Clancy Phelan, Australian author and academic* 1979 – Scott Smith, American mixed martial artist* 1979 – Sonja Vectomov, Czech musician/composer*1980 – Gotye, Belgian-Australian singer-songwriter *1981 – Craig Anderson, American ice hockey player* 1981 – Edson Buddle, American soccer player* 1981 – Josh Hamilton, American baseball player* 1981 – Maximilian Mutzke, German singer-songwriter* 1981 – Anna Rogowska, Polish pole vaulter*1983 – Līga Dekmeijere, Latvian tennis player* 1983 – Deidson Araújo Maia, Brazilian footballer*1984 – Brandon Fields, American football player* 1984 – Sara Goller, German volleyball player*1985 – Mark Cavendish, Manx cyclist* 1985 – Alexander Dale Oen, Norwegian swimmer (d. 2012)* 1985 – Isa Guha, English cricketer and sportscaster* 1985 – Lucie Hradecká, Czech tennis player* 1985 – Kano, English rapper, producer, and actor* 1985 – Dušan Kuciak, Slovak footballer* 1985 – Heath L'Estrange, Australian rugby league player* 1985 – Andrew Miller, American baseball player*1986 – Mario Mandžukić, Croatian footballer* 1986 – Myra, American singer and actress* 1986 – Eder Sánchez, Mexican race walker* 1986 – Park Sojin, South Korean singer-songwriter and dancer* 1986 – Greg Stewart, Canadian ice hockey player* 1986 – Matt Wieters, American baseball player*1987 – Beau Falloon, Australian rugby league player*1988 – Claire Cashmore, English Paralympic swimmer* 1988 – Park Gyu-ri, South Korean singer * 1988 – Jonny Howson, English footballer* 1988 – Kaire Leibak, Estonian triple jumper*1989 – Emily Robins, New Zealand actress and singer* 1989 – Hal Robson-Kanu, Welsh footballer*1990 – Kierre Beckles, Barbadian athlete* 1990 – Rene Krhin, Slovenian footballer*1991 – Guilherme, Brazilian footballer*1992 – Hutch Dano, American actor* 1992 – Lisa Evans, Scottish footballer* 1992 – Philipp Grüneberg, German footballer* 1992 – Olivia Olson, American singer and actress*1993 – Grete Gaim, Estonian biathlete* 1993 – Luke Garbutt, English footballer* 1993 – Lynn Williams, American soccer player*1994 – Tom Daley, English diver*1995 – Diego Loyzaga, Filipino actor*1996 – Josh Allen, American football player* 1996 – Indy de Vroome, Dutch tennis player* 1996 – Karen Khachanov, Russian tennis player*1997 – Ivan De Santis, Italian footballer* 1997 – Sisca Folkertsma, Dutch footballer* 1997 – Viktoria Petryk, Ukrainian singer-songwriter* 1997 – Kevin Quinn, American actor and singer* 2002 – Elena Huelva, Spanish cancer activist and influencer (d. 2023)" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 252 – Sun Quan, Chinese emperor of Eastern Wu (b.", "182)* 954 – Feng Dao, Chinese prince and chancellor (b.", "882)* 987 – Louis V, king of West Francia (b. c. 966)*1075 – Richeza of Poland, queen of Hungary (b.", "1013)*1086 – Wang Anshi, Chinese statesman and poet (b.", "1021)*1237 – Olaf the Black, Manx son of Godred II Olafsson*1254 – Conrad IV, king of Germany (b.", "1228)*1416 – Anna of Celje, queen consort of Poland (b.", "1386)*1471 – Henry VI, king of England (b.", "1421)*1481 – Christian I, king of Denmark (b.", "1426)*1512 – Pandolfo Petrucci, Italian ruler (b.", "1452)*1524 – Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, English soldier and politician, Lord High Treasurer (b.", "1443)*1542 – Hernando de Soto, Spanish-American explorer (b.", "1496)*1563 – Martynas Mažvydas, Lithuanian writer (b.", "1510)===1601–1900===*1607 – John Rainolds, English scholar and academic (b.", "1549)*1617 – Luis Fajardo, Spanish admiral and nobleman (b.", "1556)*1619 – Hieronymus Fabricius, Italian anatomist (b.", "1537)*1639 – Tommaso Campanella, Italian astrologer, theologian, and poet (b.", "1568)*1647 – Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Dutch poet and playwright (b.", "1581)*1650 – James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, Scottish general and politician (b.", "1612)*1664 – Elizabeth Poole, English settler, founded Taunton, Massachusetts (b.", "1588)*1670 – Niccolò Zucchi, Italian astronomer and physicist (b.", "1586)*1686 – Otto von Guericke, German physicist and inventor of the Magdeburg Hemispheres (b.", "1602)*1690 – John Eliot, English-American minister and missionary (b.", "1604)*1719 – Pierre Poiret, French mystic and philosopher (b.", "1646)*1724 – Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b.", "1661)*1742 – Lars Roberg, Swedish physician and academic (b.", "1664)*1762 – Alexander Joseph Sulkowski, Polish and Saxon general (b.", "1695)*1771 – Christopher Smart, English actor, playwright, and poet (b.", "1722)*1786 – Carl Wilhelm Scheele, German-Swedish chemist and pharmacist (b.", "1742)*1790 – Thomas Warton, English poet and critic (b.", "1728)*1810 – Chevalier d'Eon, French diplomat and spy (b.", "1728)*1829 – Sikandar Jah, 3rd Nizam (b.", "1768)*1844 – Giuseppe Baini, Italian priest and composer (b.", "1775)*1858 – José de la Riva Agüero, Peruvian soldier and politician, 1st President of Peru and 2nd President of North Peru (b.", "1783)*1862 – John Drew, Irish-American actor and manager (b.", "1827)*1879 – Arturo Prat, Chilean lawyer and commander (b.", "1848)*1894 – Émile Henry, French anarchist (b.", "1872)* 1894 – August Kundt, German physicist and academic (b.", "1839)*1895 – Franz von Suppé, Austrian composer and conductor (b.", "1819)===1901–present===*1901 – Joseph Olivier, French rugby player (b.", "1874)*1911 – Williamina Fleming, Scottish-American astronomer and academic (b.", "1857)*1915 – Leonid Gobyato, Russian general and engineer (b.", "1875)*1919 – Evgraf Fedorov, Russian mathematician, crystallographer, and mineralogist (b.", "1853)*1920 – Venustiano Carranza, Mexican politician, 54th President of Mexico (b.", "1859)*1925 – Hidesaburō Ueno, Japanese agriculturalist, guardian of Hachikō (b.", "1871)*1926 – Ronald Firbank, English-Italian author (b.", "1886)*1929 – Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1847)*1932 – Marcel Boulenger, French fencer and author (b.", "1873)*1935 – Jane Addams, American activist and author, co-founded Hull House, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1860)* 1935 – Hugo de Vries, Dutch botanist and geneticist (b.", "1848)*1940 – Billy Minter, English footballer and manager (b.", "1888)*1949 – Klaus Mann, German-American novelist, playwright, and critic (b.", "1906)*1952 – John Garfield, American actor (b.", "1913)*1956 – Harry Bensley, English businessman and adventurer (b.", "1877)*1957 – Alexander Vertinsky, Ukrainian-Russian singer-songwriter, actor, and poet (b.", "1889)*1964 – James Franck, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1882)*1965 – Marguerite Bise, French chef (b.", "1898)* 1965 – Geoffrey de Havilland, English pilot and engineer, designed the de Havilland Mosquito (b.", "1882)*1968 – Doris Lloyd, English actress (b.", "1896)*1970 – E. L. Grant Watson, English-Australian biologist and author (b.", "1885)*1973 – Vaughn Monroe, American singer, trumpet player, bandleader, and actor (b.", "1911)* 1973 – Ivan Konev, Soviet Marshal and general (b.", "1897) *1981 – Raymond McCreesh, PIRA volunteer and Hunger Striker (b.", "1957)* 1981 – Patsy O'Hara, INLA volunteer and Hunger Striker (b.", "1957)*1983 – Kenneth Clark, English historian and author (b.", "1903)*1984 – Ann Little, American actress (b.", "1891)*1988 – Sammy Davis Sr., American actor and dancer (b.", "1900)*1991 – Rajiv Gandhi, Indian politician, 6th Prime Minister of India (b.", "1944)*1995 – Les Aspin, American captain and politician, 18th United States Secretary of Defense (b.", "1938)*1996 – Paul Delph, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1957) * 1996 – Lash LaRue, American actor and producer (b.", "1917)* 1996 – Villem Raam, Estonian art historian, art critic and conservator (b.", "1910)*1998 – Robert Gist, American actor and director (b.", "1917)*2000 – Barbara Cartland, English author (b.", "1901)* 2000 – John Gielgud, English actor (b.", "1904)* 2000 – Mark R. Hughes, American businessman, founded Herbalife (b.", "1956)*2002 – Niki de Saint Phalle, French-American sculptor and painter (b.", "1930)*2003 – Alejandro de Tomaso, Argentinian-Italian race car driver and businessman, founded De Tomaso (b.", "1928)* 2003 – Frank D. White, American captain, banker, and politician, 41st Governor of Arkansas (b.", "1933)*2005 – Deborah Berger, American outsider artist (b.", "1956)* 2005 – Stephen Elliott, American actor (b.", "1918)* 2005 – Howard Morris, American actor and director (b.", "1919)*2006 – Spencer Clark, American race car driver (b.", "1987)* 2006 – Katherine Dunham, American dancer, choreographer, and author (b.", "1909)* 2006 – Cherd Songsri, Thai director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1931)* 2006 – Billy Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1929)*2012 – Eddie Blazonczyk, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1941)* 2012 – Otis Clark, American butler and preacher, survivor of the Tulsa race riot (b.", "1903)* 2012 – Constantine of Irinoupolis, Metropolitan of Irinoupolis and Primate of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the USA (b.", "1936)* 2012 – Roman Dumbadze, Georgian commander (b.", "1964)* 2012 – Douglas Rodríguez, Cuban boxer (b.", "1950)* 2012 – Bill Stewart, American football player and coach (b.", "1952)* 2012 – Alan Thorne, Australian anthropologist and academic (b.", "1939)*2013 – Count Christian of Rosenborg, member of the Danish royal family (b.", "1942)* 2013 – Frank Comstock, American trombonist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1922)* 2013 – Cot Deal, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Leonard Marsh, American businessman, co-founded Snapple (b.", "1933)* 2013 – Bob Thompson, American pianist and composer (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Dominique Venner, French journalist and historian (b.", "1935)*2014 – Tunku Annuar, Malaysian son of Badlishah of Kedah (b.", "1939)* 2014 – Johnny Gray, American baseball player (b.", "1926)* 2014 – Jaime Lusinchi, Venezuelan physician and politician, President of Venezuela (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Alireza Soleimani, Iranian wrestler (b.", "1956)*2015 – Annarita Sidoti, Italian race walker (b.", "1969)* 2015 – Twinkle, English singer-songwriter (b.", "1948)* 2015 – Jassem Al-Kharafi, Kuwaiti businessman and politician, 8th Kuwaiti Speaker of the National Assembly (b.", "1940)* 2015 – Fred Gladding, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1936)* 2015 – Louis Johnson, American bass player and producer (b.", "1955)*2016 – Nick Menza, American drummer and songwriter (b.", "1964)*2019 – Rik Kuypers, Belgian film director (b.", "1925)* 2019 – Binyavanga Wainaina, Kenyan writer (b.", "1971)*2020 – Alan Merten, fifth President of George Mason University (b.", "1941)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Afro-Colombian Day (Colombia)* Christian feast day:** Arcangelo Tadini** Blessed Adílio Daronch and Manuel Gómez González** Blessed Franz Jägerstätter** Earliest day on which Corpus Christi can fall, while June 24 is the latest; held on Thursday after Trinity Sunday (often locally moved to Sunday).", "(Roman Catholic Church)** Emperor Constantine I** Eugène de Mazenod** Helena of Constantinople, also known as \"Feast of the Holy Great Sovereigns Constantine and Helen, Equal-to-the-Apostles.\"", "(Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion)** John Elliot (Episcopal Church)** Saints of the Cristero War, including Christopher Magallanes** May 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Circassian Day of Mourning (Circassians)*Day of Patriots and Military (Hungary)* Independence Day, celebrates the Montenegrin independence referendum in 2006, celebrated until the next day.", "(Montenegro)* International Tea Day (International)* Navy Day (Chile)* Saint Helena Day, celebrates the discovery of Saint Helena in 1502.", "(Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha)* World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development (International)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on May 21" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mind map" ], [ "Introduction", "A mind map about the cubital fossa or elbow pit, including an illustration of the central conceptA '''mind map''' is a diagram used to visually organize information into a hierarchy, showing relationships among pieces of the whole.", "It is often created around a single concept, drawn as an image in the center of a blank page, to which associated representations of ideas such as images, words and parts of words are added.", "Major ideas are connected directly to the central concept, and other ideas branch out from those major ideas.Mind maps can also be drawn by hand, either as \"notes\" during a lecture, meeting or planning session, for example, or as higher quality pictures when more time is available.", "Mind maps are considered to be a type of spider diagram." ], [ "Origins", "Although the term \"mind map\" was first popularized by British popular psychology author and television personality Tony Buzan, the use of diagrams that visually \"map\" information using branching and radial maps traces back centuries.", "These pictorial methods record knowledge and model systems, and have a long history in learning, brainstorming, memory, visual thinking, and problem solving by educators, engineers, psychologists, and others.", "Some of the earliest examples of such graphical records were developed by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker of the 3rd century, as he graphically visualized the concept categories of Aristotle.", "Philosopher Ramon Llull (1235–1315) also used such techniques.Buzan's specific approach, and the introduction of the term \"mind map\", started with a 1974 BBC TV series he hosted, called ''Use Your Head''.", "In this show, and companion book series, Buzan promoted his conception of radial tree, diagramming key words in a colorful, radiant, tree-like structure." ], [ "Differences from other visualizations", "* ''Concept maps'': Mind maps differ from concept maps in that mind maps are based on a radial hierarchy (tree structure) denoting relationships with a central concept, whereas concept maps can be more free-form, based on connections between concepts in more diverse patterns.", "Also, concept maps typically have text labels on the links between nodes.", "However, either can be part of a larger personal knowledge base system.", "* ''Modeling graphs'' or ''graphical modeling languages'': There is no rigorous right or wrong with mind maps, which rely on the arbitrariness of mnemonic associations to aid people's information organization and memory.", "In contrast, a modeling graph such as a UML diagram structures elements using a precise standardized iconography to aid the design of systems." ], [ "Research", "===Effectiveness===Cunningham (2005) conducted a user study in which 80% of the students thought \"mindmapping helped them understand concepts and ideas in science\".", "Other studies also report some subjective positive effects of the use of mind maps.", "Positive opinions on their effectiveness, however, were much more prominent among students of art and design than in students of computer and information technology, with 62.5% vs 34% (respectively) agreeing that they were able to understand concepts better with mind mapping software.", "Farrand, Hussain, and Hennessy (2002) found that spider diagrams (similar to concept maps) had limited, but significant, impact on memory recall in undergraduate students (a 10% increase over baseline for a 600-word text only) as compared to preferred study methods (a 6% increase over baseline).", "This improvement was only robust after a week for those in the diagram group and there was a significant decrease in motivation compared to the subjects' preferred methods of note taking.", "A meta study about concept mapping concluded that concept mapping is more effective than \"reading text passages, attending lectures, and participating in class discussions\".", "The same study also concluded that concept mapping is slightly more effective \"than other constructive activities such as writing summaries and outlines\".", "However, results were inconsistent, with the authors noting \"significant heterogeneity was found in most subsets\".", "In addition, they concluded that low-ability students may benefit more from mind mapping than high-ability students.===Features===Joeran Beel and Stefan Langer conducted a comprehensive analysis of the content of mind maps.", "They analysed 19,379 mind maps from 11,179 users of the mind mapping applications SciPlore MindMapping (now Docear) and MindMeister.", "Results include that average users create only a few mind maps (mean=2.7), average mind maps are rather small (31 nodes) with each node containing about three words (median).", "However, there were exceptions.", "One user created more than 200 mind maps, the largest mind map consisted of more than 50,000 nodes and the largest node contained ~7,500 words.", "The study also showed that between different mind mapping applications (Docear vs MindMeister) significant differences exist related to how users create mind maps.===Automatic creation===There have been some attempts to create mind maps automatically.", "Brucks & Schommer created mind maps automatically from full-text streams.", "Rothenberger et al.", "extracted the main story of a text and presented it as mind map.", "There is also a patent application about automatically creating sub-topics in mind maps." ], [ "Tools", "Mind-mapping software can be used to organize large amounts of information, combining spatial organization, dynamic hierarchical structuring and node folding.", "Software packages can extend the concept of mind-mapping by allowing individuals to map more than thoughts and ideas with information on their computers and the Internet, like spreadsheets, documents, Internet sites, images and videos.", "It has been suggested that mind-mapping can improve learning/study efficiency up to 15% over conventional note-taking." ], [ "Gallery", "The following dozen examples of mind maps show the range of styles that a mind map may take, from hand-drawn to computer-generated and from mostly text to highly illustrated.", "Despite their stylistic differences, all of the examples share a tree structure that hierarchically connects sub-topics to a main topic.File:100 PM Team.pngFile:A Mind Map on ICT and Pedagogy.jpgFile:Acid-base Disorders.pngFile:Aspirin and other Salicylates(2).pngFile:Branches of Brachial plexus.jpegFile:Cranial nerves.PNGFile:Doing-things-differently-mind-map-paul-foreman.pngFile:Economics Concepts - student flashcard.pngFile:LighthouseMap.pdfFile:MindMapGuidlines.svgFile:Spray diagram Student learning characteristics.pngFile:Tennis-mindmap.png" ], [ "See also", "* Exquisite corpse* Graph (discrete mathematics)* Idea* Knowledge representation and reasoning* Mental literacy* Nodal organizational structure* Personal wiki* Rhizome (philosophy)* Social map* Spider mapping" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Machine gun" ], [ "Introduction", "Top: IWI Negev Bottom: FN MAG (general purpose machine gun)Universal Machine gun Model 1959.50 caliber M2 machine gun: John Browning's design has been one of the longest-serving and most successful machine gun designsA '''machine gun (MG)''' is a fully automatic, rifled auto-loading firearm designed for sustained direct fire with rifle cartridges.", "Other automatic firearms such as automatic shotguns and automatic rifles (including assault rifles and battle rifles) are typically designed more for firing short bursts rather than continuous firepower and are not considered true machine guns.", "Submachine guns fire handgun cartridges rather than rifle cartridges, therefore they are not considered machine guns, while automatic firearms of caliber or more are classified as autocannons rather than machine guns.As a class of military kinetic projectile weapons, machine guns are designed to be mainly used as infantry support weapons and generally used when attached to a bipod or tripod, a fixed mount or a heavy weapons platform for stability against recoils.", "Many machine guns also use belt feeding and open bolt operation, features not normally found on other infantry firearms.Machine guns can be further categorized as light machine guns, medium machine guns, heavy machine guns, general-purpose machine guns, and squad automatic weapons." ], [ "Modern overview", "Sumitomo M2 heavy machine gun mounted at the rearUnlike semi-automatic firearms, which require one trigger pull per round fired, a machine gun is designed to continue firing for as long as the trigger is held down.", "Nowadays, the term is restricted to relatively heavy crew-served weapons, able to provide continuous or frequent bursts of automatic fire for as long as ammunition feeding is replete.", "Machine guns are used against infantry, low-flying aircraft, small boats and lightly/unarmored land vehicles, and can provide suppressive fire (either directly or indirectly) or enforce area denial over a sector of land with grazing fire.", "They are commonly mounted on fast attack vehicles such as technicals to provide heavy mobile firepower, armored vehicles such as tanks for engaging targets too small to justify the use of the primary weaponry or too fast to effectively engage with it, and on aircraft as defensive armament or for strafing ground targets, though on fighter aircraft true machine guns have mostly been supplanted by large-caliber rotary guns.Some machine guns have in practice sustained fire almost continuously for hours; other automatic weapons overheat after less than a minute of use.", "Because they become very hot, the great majority of designs fire from an open bolt, to permit air cooling from the breech between bursts.", "They also usually have either a barrel cooling system, slow-heating heavyweight barrel, or removable barrels which allow a hot barrel to be replaced.Although subdivided into \"light\", \"medium\", \"heavy\" or \"general-purpose\", even the lightest machine guns tend to be substantially larger and heavier than standard infantry arms.", "Medium and heavy machine guns are either mounted on a tripod or on a vehicle; when carried on foot, the machine gun and associated equipment (tripod, ammunition, spare barrels) require additional crew members.Light machine guns are designed to provide mobile fire support to a squad and are typically air-cooled weapons fitted with a box magazine or drum and a bipod; they may use full-size rifle rounds, but modern examples often use intermediate rounds.", "Medium machine guns use full-sized rifle rounds and are designed to be used from fixed positions mounted on a tripod.", "The heavy machine gun is a term originating in World War I to describe heavyweight medium machine guns and persisted into World War II with Japanese Hotchkiss M1914 clones; today, however, it is used to refer to automatic weapons with a caliber of at least , but less than .", "A general-purpose machine gun is usually a lightweight medium machine gun that can either be used with a bipod and drum in the light machine gun role or a tripod and belt feed in the medium machine gun role.DShK in the heavy roleMachine guns usually have simple iron sights, though the use of optics is becoming more common.", "A common aiming system for direct fire is to alternate solid (\"ball\") rounds and tracer ammunition rounds (usually one tracer round for every four ball rounds), so shooters can see the trajectory and \"walk\" the fire into the target, and direct the fire of other soldiers.Many heavy machine guns, such as the Browning M2 .50 BMG machine gun, are accurate enough to engage targets at great distances.", "During the Vietnam War, Carlos Hathcock set the record for a long-distance shot at with a .50 caliber heavy machine gun he had equipped with a telescopic sight.", "This led to the introduction of .50 caliber anti-materiel sniper rifles, such as the Barrett M82.Other automatic weapons are subdivided into several categories based on the size of the bullet used, whether the cartridge is fired from a closed bolt or an open bolt, and whether the action used is locked or is some form of blowback.Fully automatic firearms using pistol-caliber ammunition are called machine pistols or submachine guns largely on the basis of size; those using shotgun cartridges are almost always referred to as automatic shotguns.", "The term personal defense weapon (PDW) is sometimes applied to weapons firing dedicated armor-piercing rounds which would otherwise be regarded as machine pistols or SMGs, but it is not particularly strongly defined and has historically been used to describe a range of weapons from ordinary SMGs to compact assault rifles.", "Selective-fire rifles firing a full-power rifle cartridge from a closed bolt are called automatic rifles or battle rifles, while rifles that fire an intermediate cartridge are called assault rifles.Assault rifles are a compromise between the size and weight of a pistol-caliber submachine gun and a full-size battle rifle, firing intermediate cartridges and allowing semi-automatic and burst or full-automatic fire options (selective fire), sometimes with both of the latter presents." ], [ "Operation", "Direct impingementGas pistonMany machine guns are of the locked breech type, and follow this cycle:* Pulling (manually or electrically) the bolt assembly/bolt carrier rearward by way of the cocking lever to the point bolt carrier engages a sear and stays at rear position until trigger is activated making bolt carrier move forward* Loading fresh round into chamber and locking bolt* Firing round by way of a firing pin or striker (except for aircraft medium calibre using electric ignition primers) hitting the primer that ignites the powder when bolt reaches locked position.", "* Unlocking and removing the spent case from the chamber and ejecting it out of the weapon as bolt is moving rearward* Loading the next round into the firing chamber.", "Usually, the recoil spring (also known as main spring) tension pushes bolt back into battery and a cam strips the new round from a feeding device, belt or box.", "*Cycle is repeated as long as the trigger is activated by operator.", "Releasing the trigger resets the trigger mechanism by engaging a sear so the weapon stops firing with bolt carrier fully at the rear.The operation is basically the same for all locked breech automatic firearms, regardless of the means of activating these mechanisms.", "There are also multi-chambered formats, such as revolver cannon, and some types, such as the Schwarzlose machine gun etc., that do not lock the breech but instead use some type of delayed blowback." ], [ "Design", "Lewis gun reloading mechanism actionMost modern machine guns are of the locking type, and of these, most utilize the principle of gas-operated reloading, which taps off some of the propellant gas from the fired cartridge, using its mechanical pressure to unlock the bolt and cycle the action.", "The first of these was invented by the French brothers Claire, who patented a gas operated rifle, which included a gas cylinder, in 1892.The Russian PK machine gun is a more modern example.", "Another efficient and widely used format is the recoil actuated type, which uses the gun's recoil energy for the same purpose.", "Machine guns, such as the M2 Browning and MG42, are of this second kind.", "A cam, lever or actuator absorbs part of the energy of the recoil to operate the gun mechanism.An externally actuated weapon uses an external power source, such as an electric motor or hand crank, to move its mechanism through the firing sequence.", "Modern weapons of this type are often referred to as Gatling guns, after the original inventor (not only of the well-known hand-cranked 19th century proto-machine gun, but also of the first electrically powered version).", "They have several barrels each with an associated chamber and action on a rotating carousel and a system of cams that load, cock, and fire each mechanism progressively as it rotates through the sequence; essentially each barrel is a separate bolt-action rifle using a common feed source.", "The continuous nature of the rotary action and its relative immunity to overheating allow for a very high cyclic rate of fire, often several thousand rounds per minute.", "Rotary guns are less prone to jamming than a gun operated by gas or recoil, as the external power source will eject misfired rounds with no further trouble; but this is not possible in the rare cases of self-powered rotary guns.", "Rotary designs are intrinsically comparatively bulky and expensive and are therefore generally used with large rounds, 20 mm in diameter or more, often referred to as Rotary cannon – though the rifle-calibre Minigun is an exception to this.", "Whereas such weapons are highly reliable and formidably effective, one drawback is that the weight and size of the power source and driving mechanism makes them usually impractical for use outside of a vehicle or aircraft mount.Revolver cannons, such as the Mauser MK 213, were developed in World War II by the Germans to provide high-caliber cannons with a reasonable rate of fire and reliability.", "In contrast to the rotary format, such weapons have a single barrel and a recoil-operated carriage holding a revolving chamber with typically five chambers.", "As each round is fired, electrically, the carriage moves back rotating the chamber which also ejects the spent case, indexes the next live round to be fired with the barrel and loads the next round into the chamber.", "The action is very similar to that of the revolver pistols common in the 19th and 20th centuries, giving this type of weapon its name.", "A Chain gun is a specific, patented type of Revolver cannon, the name, in this case, deriving from its driving mechanism.Machine gun belt feeding mechanismAs noted above, firing a machine gun for prolonged periods produces large amounts of heat.", "In a worst-case scenario, this may cause a cartridge to overheat and detonate even when the trigger is not pulled, potentially leading to damage or causing the gun to cycle its action and keep firing until it has exhausted its ammunition supply or jammed; this is known as ''cooking off'' (as distinct from ''runaway fire'' where the sear fails to re-engage when the trigger is released).", "To guard against cook-offs occurring, some kind of cooling system or design element is required.", "Early machine guns were often water-cooled and while this technology was very effective, (and was indeed one of the sources of the notorious efficiency of machine guns during the First World War ), the water jackets also added considerable weight to an already bulky design; they were also vulnerable to the enemies' bullets themselves.", "Armour could be provided, and in WW I the Germans in particular often did this; but this added yet more weight to the guns.", "Air-cooled machine guns often feature quick-change barrels (often carried by a crew member), passive cooling fins, or in some designs forced-air cooling, such as that employed by the Lewis Gun.", "Advances in metallurgy and the use of special composites in barrel liners have allowed for greater heat absorption and dissipation during firing.", "The higher the rate of fire, the more often barrels must be changed and allowed to cool.", "To minimize this, most air-cooled guns are fired only in short bursts or at a reduced rate of fire.", "Some designs – such as the many variants of the MG42 – are capable of rates of fire in excess of 1,200 rounds per minute.", "Motorized Gatling guns can achieve the fastest firing rates of all, partly because this format involves extra energy being injected into the system from outside, instead of depending on energy derived from the propellant contained within the cartridges, partly because the next round can be inserted simultaneously with or before the ejection of the previous cartridge case, and partly because this design intrinsically deals with the unwanted heat very efficiently – effectively quick-changing the barrel and chamber after every shot.", "The multiple guns that comprise a Gatling being a much larger bulk of metal than other, single-barreled guns, they are thus much slower to rise in temperature for a given amount of heat, while at the same time they are also much better at shedding the excess, as the extra barrels provide a larger surface area from which to dissipate the unwanted thermal energy.", "In addition to that, they are in the nature of the design spun at very high speed during rapid fire, which has the benefit of producing enhanced air-cooling as a side-effect.In weapons where the round seats and fires at the same time, mechanical timing is essential for operator safety, to prevent the round from firing before it is seated properly.", "Machine guns are controlled by one or more mechanical sears.", "When a sear is in place, it effectively stops the bolt at some point in its range of motion.", "Some sears stop the bolt when it is locked to the rear.", "Other sears stop the firing pin from going forward after the round is locked into the chamber.", "Almost all machine guns have a \"safety\" sear, which simply keeps the trigger from engaging." ], [ "History", "Collection of old machine guns in the Međimurje County Museum (Čakovec, Croatia).", "From rear to front: Austro-Hungarian Schwarzlose M7/12, British Lewis, German MG 08.The first successful machine-gun designs were developed in the mid-19th century.", "The key characteristic of modern machine guns, their relatively high rate of fire and more importantly mechanical loading, first appeared in the Model 1862 Gatling gun, which was adopted by the United States Navy.", "These weapons were still powered by hand; however, this changed with Hiram Maxim's idea of harnessing recoil energy to power reloading in his Maxim machine gun.", "Dr. Gatling also experimented with electric-motor-powered models; as discussed above, this externally powered machine reloading has seen use in modern weapons as well.While technical use of the term \"machine gun\" has varied, the modern definition used by the Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute of America is \"a fully automatic firearm that loads, fires and ejects continuously when the trigger is held to the rear until the ammunition is exhausted or pressure on the trigger is released.\"", "This definition excludes most early manually operated repeating arms the Gatling gun and such as volley guns like the Nordenfelt gun.=== Medieval ===Detail of an 8-chambered matchlock revolver (Germany c. 1580)The first known ancestors of multi-shot weapons were medieval organ guns.", "An early example of an attempt at the mechanisation of one of these would be an 'engine of war' produced in the mid-1570s in England capable of firing from 160 to 320 shots 4, 8, 12 or 24 bullets at a time at a rate of fire up to roughly 3 times the rate of fire of the typical arquebusier of the day.", "It was also claimed that the gun could be reloaded 'as often as you like' and fired no matter the weather though the English government never adopted the weapon despite testing being carried out at the Tower of London.", "The first firearms to have the ability to fire multiple shots from a single barrel without a full manual reload were revolvers made in Europe in the late 1500s.", "One is a shoulder-gun-length weapon made in Nuremberg, Germany, circa 1580.Another is a revolving arquebus, produced by Hans Stopler of Nuremberg in 1597.===17th century===True repeating long arms were difficult to manufacture prior to the development of the unitary firearm cartridge; nevertheless, lever-action repeating rifles such as the Kalthoff repeater and Cookson repeater were made in small quantities in the 17th century.Perhaps the earliest examples of predecessors to the modern machine gun are to be found in East Asia.", "According to the Wu-Pei-Chih, a booklet examining Chinese military equipment produced during the first quarter of the 17th century, the Chinese army had in its arsenal the 'Po-Tzu Lien-Chu-P'ao' or 'string-of-100-bullets cannon'.", "This was a repeating cannon fed by a hopper containing balls which fired its charges sequentially.", "The way it worked was similar to the Perkins steam gun of 1824 or the Beningfield electrolysis gun of 1845 only slow-burning gunpowder was used as the propelling force in place of steam or the gases produced by electrolysis.", "Another repeating gun was produced by a Chinese commoner, Dai Zi, in the late 17th century.", "This weapon was also hopper-fed and never went into mass production.In 1655, a way of loading, aiming and shooting up to 6 wall muskets 60 times in a minute for a total rate of fire of 360 shots per minute was mentioned in ''The Century of Inventions'' by Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester, though, like all the inventions mentioned in the book, it is uncertain if it was ever built.It is sometimes claimed (i.e.", "in George Morgan Chinn's ''the Machine Gun'') that in 1663 the first mention of the automatic principle of machine guns was in a paper presented to the Royal Society of England by Palmer, an Englishman who described a volley gun capable of being operated by either recoil or gas.", "However, no one has been able to find this paper in recent times and all references to a multi-shot weapon by a Palmer during this period appear to be referring to a somewhat more common Kalthoff repeater or Lorenzoni-system gun.", "Despite this, there is a reference in 1663 to at least the concept of a genuine automatic gun that was presented to Prince Rupert, though its type and method of operation are unknown.===18th century===Replica Puckle Gun from Bucklers Hard Maritime MuseumIn 1708, it was reported from Constantinople that a French officer had invented a very light cannon that could fire from a single barrel 30 shots in 2 and a half minutes for a total rate of fire of 12 shots a minute.In 1711, a French lawyer called Barbuot presented to the parliament of Dijon a crank-operated 'war machine' made up of 10 carbine barrels and loaded via a 'drum' capable of firing in vollies.", "It was said to be accurate at 400 to 500 paces and to strike with enough force to pierce 2 or 3 men at a time when close.", "It was also claimed to be able to shoot 5 or 6 times before infantry came within musket range or cavalry within pistol range and with no more space between each shot than the time needed to prime a pistol, cock it and release the hammer as well as being nearly as manoeuvrable as cavalry.", "An alternative and heavier version was said to be able to throw grenades and it was also proposed to equip the machine with a bellows for clearing smoke that built up during firing.Another early revolving gun was created by James Puckle, a London lawyer, who patented what he called \"The Puckle Gun\" on May 15, 1718.It was a design for a manually operated 1.25 in.", "(32 mm) caliber, flintlock cannon with a revolver cylinder able to fire 6–11 rounds before reloading by swapping out the cylinder, intended for use on ships.", "It was one of the earliest weapons to be referred to as a machine gun, being called such in 1722, though its operation does not match the modern usage of the term.", "According to Puckle, it was able to fire round bullets at Christians and square bullets at Turks.", "However, it was a commercial failure and was not adopted or produced in any meaningful quantity.In 1729 a report was written in France on a machine capable of firing 600 balls in a few minutes.In 1720, a French inventor called Philippe Vayringe invented a small cannon that could fire 16 shots in succession which he demonstrated before the Duke of Lorraine.", "In 1737, it was mentioned that Jacob de Weinholtz, a Dane who was serving in the Portuguese army, had invented a cannon capable of firing 20 to 30 shots a minute though requiring 15 people to work it.", "The cannons were brought along with a Portuguese fleet sent to India to take part in a colonial war in the 1740s.", "Also in 1737 it was mentioned that a German engineer had invented a 10-pounder cannon capable of firing 20 times in a minute.", "In 1740, a cannon able to shoot 11 times per minute was developed by a Frenchman called Chevalier de Benac.", "Meanwhile, not long after in England, in 1747 a cannon able to simultaneously charge and discharge itself 20 times in a minute was invented by James Allis and presented to the Royal Society of England.", "In 1750, in Denmark a Prussian known as Captain Steuben of the Train of Artillery invented a breech-loading cannon worked by 4 people and fed by paper cartridges capable of firing 24 times in a minute and demonstrated it to the King of Denmark along with some other high-ranking officials in the same year.", "In 1764, Frenchman Ange Goudar wrote in his work ''The Chinese Spy'' that he had assisted in Paris in the proofing of a 'great gun' capable of firing 60 times in a minute.", "In 1773, another cannon capable of firing 23 or 24 times in a minute and cleaning itself after every shot was invented by Thomas Desaguliers.", "In 1775, it was mentioned that in England two large cannons invented by an unidentified matross at Woolwich had achieved a rate of fire of 59 shots in 59 and a half seconds.Also in 1775, a breech-loading volley gun, similar to the later mitrailleuse, was invented by a Frenchman called Du Perron which was worked by 3 or 4 men and capable of discharging 24 barrels 10 times a minute for a total rate of fire of 240 shots per minute.In 1776, a gun capable of charging and discharging itself 120 times 'by the motion of one hand only' in a minute was invented in England by an inventor from the county of Westmoreland.In 1777, Philadelphia gunsmith Joseph Belton offered the Continental Congress a \"new improved gun\", which was capable of firing up to twenty shots in five seconds; unlike older repeaters using complex lever-action mechanisms, it used a simpler system of superposed loads, and was loaded with a single large paper cartridge.", "Congress requested that Belton modify 100 flintlock muskets to fire eight shots in this manner, but rescinded the order when Belton's price proved too high.In 1779, a machine made up of 21 musket barrels worked by 3 men was produced by a British inventor called William Wilson Wright which he claimed could be fired 3 times quicker than a single man could load and fire a musket 3 times.In 1788, a Swiss soldier invented a machine worked by 10 men capable of discharging 300 balls in 3 minutes.Also in 1788, it was reported that a Prussian officer had invented a gun capable of firing 400 balls one after the other.In 1790, a former officer in the French military known as Joseph-François-Louis Grobert invented a 'ballistic machine' or 'pyroballistic machine' with multiple barrels operated by 4 men and a continuous rotational movement capable of firing 360 rifle shots a minute in a variety of calibers.In 1792, a French artist known as Renard invented a piece of ordnance that could be operated by one man and fired 90 shots a minute.Also in 1792, a French mechanic called Garnier invented a musket battery made up of 15 barrels capable of firing 300 shots in 2 minutes for a total rate of fire of 150 shots a minute or 10 shots per minute per barrel and of being operated by one man.===19th century===In the early and mid-19th century, a number of rapid-firing weapons appeared which offered multi-shot fire, mostly volley guns.", "Volley guns (such as the Mitrailleuse) and double-barreled pistols relied on duplicating all parts of the gun, though the Nock gun used the otherwise-undesirable \"chain fire\" phenomenon (where multiple chambers are ignited at once) to propagate a spark from a single flintlock mechanism to multiple barrels.", "Pepperbox pistols also did away with needing multiple hammers but used multiple manually operated barrels.", "Revolvers further reduced this to only needing a pre-prepared cylinder and linked advancing the cylinder to cocking the hammer.", "However, these were still manually operated.In 1805, a British inventor from Northampton designed a cannon that would prime, load and fire itself 10 times a minute.In 1806, a Viennese copper engraver and mechanic known as Mr Putz invented a machine cannon that could load, fire and clean itself once every second or potentially up to 60 times a minute though the rate of fire was limited by the overheating of the barrel.In 1819, an American inventor from Baltimore designed a gun with 11 barrels that could fire 12 times in a minute for a total rate of fire of 132 shots a minute.In 1821, a muzzle-loading repeating cannon capable of firing 30 shots in 6 minutes or 5 shots per minute was demonstrated in England by the French-American \"Fire King\" Ivan Ivanitz Chabert.", "It was worked by a \"wheel\" fed by paper cartridges from a store attached to the cannon and ignited using a match from a match-holder somewhere else on the cannon.In 1825 an Italian book attempting to catalogue all topographic features of all known countries on Earth mentioned that in France there were 'mechanical rifles' used to defend warehouses that were capable of firing 120 shots without reloading.In 1828, a swivel gun that did not need cleaning or muzzle-loading and was capable of being made to any dimensions and used as an ordinary cannon at a moment's notice and firing 40 shots a minute was invented by a native of Ireland.In France, in 1831, a mechanic from the Vosges department invented a lever-operated cannon that could fire 100 shots a minute.In 1832, a machine capable of firing 500 rifle shots a minute was devised by Hamel, a French mechanic.In the mid-1830s, a machine gun was designed by John Steuble (Swiss), who tried to sell it to the Russian, English and French governments.", "The English and Russian governments showed interest but the former refused to pay Steuble, who later sued them for this transgression, and the latter tried to imprison him.", "The French government showed interest at first and while it noted that mechanically there was nothing wrong with Steuble's invention it turned him down, stating that the machine both lacked novelty and could not be usefully employed by the army.", "The gun was reportedly breech-loading, fed by cartridges from some kind of hopper and could fire 34 barrels of one-inch calibre 4 or 6 times for a total of 136 or 204 shots a minute.A detachment of French infantry with 2 Saint-Etienne Model 1907 machine guns (c. b1914)A biography of William Lyon Mackenzie mentions that in 1839 a Detroit-based inventor was working on a cannon that could be fired 50 to 60 times in a minute.In 1842, Dr. Thomson or Thompson, an American, invented a cannon fed by pre-loaded breech-pieces with 4 barrels that was operated by means of a revolving cylinder and could be fired 50 times in as many seconds or even up to 500 times in 500 seconds.In 1846, Mr. Francis Dixon, an American, invented a cannon that loaded, primed and discharged itself through the use of a brake at a rate of fire of 30 to 40 shots a minute.", "A variation of it was worked by clockwork-like machinery and could be made to move by itself a certain distance along rails before firing 10 times and returning to its original position.Also in 1846, in Canada, inventor Simeon \"Larochelle\" Gautron, invented a cannon that was similar to a wooden model of a repeating cannon he constructed in 1836 but for which he had made a number of improvements since then which could be fired 10 or 12 times in a minute when the typical muzzle-loading cannon of the day could be fired at only a fraction of that speed, and an English newspaper reporting on it claimed it could be fired up to 60 times in the same period of time, and clean itself after every shot.", "It was worked by a crank, could be worked by one man when the typical cannon of the day required twelve or more, was fed by paper cartridges from a revolving cylinder and used separate percussion caps for ignition.", "Larochelle tried to interest the Canadian military in his invention but was turned down for reasons of complexity and expense which, while it drew some criticism from the French language Canadian press, led to the inventor discontinuing development of it in favour of more profitable activities.", "A model of Larochelle's cannon is still on display at the Musee National des Beaux-Arts du Quebec.In 1847, a short description of a prototype electrically ignited mechanical machine gun was published in Scientific American by J.R. Nichols.", "The model described is small in scale and works by rotating a series of barrels vertically so that it is feeding at the top from a \"tube\" or hopper and could be discharged immediately at any elevation after having received a charge, according to the author.In 1848, the Italian Cesare Rosaglio announced his invention of a machine gun capable of being operated by a single man and firing 300 rifle shots a minute or 12,000 in an hour after taking into account the time needed to reload the \"tanks\" of ammunition.In June 1851, a model of a 'war engine' allegedly capable of firing 10,000 ball cartridges in 10 minutes was demonstrated by a British inventor called Francis McGetrick.In 1852, a rotary cannon using a unique form of wheellock ignition was demonstrated by Delany, an Irish immigrant to America.In 1854, a British patent for a mechanically operated machine gun was filed by Henry Clarke.", "This weapon used multiple barrels arranged side by side, fed by a revolving cylinder that was in turn fed by hoppers, similar to the system used by Nichols.", "The gun could be fired by percussion or electricity, according to the author.", "Unlike other mechanically operated machine guns of the era, this weapon did not use any form of self-contained cartridge, with firing being carried out by separate percussion caps.", "A model of this weapon, said to be capable of firing 1800 shots in a minute with great precision at 2000 yards and drawn by two horses, was constructed and tested though apparently not adopted for the military.", "In the same year, water cooling was proposed for machine guns by Henry Bessemer, along with a water cleaning system, though he later abandoned this design.", "In his patent, Bessemer describes a hydropneumatic delayed-blowback-operated, fully automatic cannon.", "Part of the patent also refers to a steam-operated piston to be used with firearms but the bulk of the patent is spent detailing the former system.In America, a patent for a machine gun-type weapon was filed by John Andrus Reynolds in 1855.Another early American patent for a manually operated machine gun with a blowback-operated cocking mechanism was filed by C. E. Barnes in 1856.In France and Britain, a mechanically operated machine gun was patented in 1856 by Frenchman Francois Julien.", "This weapon was a cannon that fed from a type of open-ended tubular magazine, only using rollers and an endless chain in place of springs.The Agar Gun, otherwise known as a \"coffee-mill gun\" because of its resemblance to a coffee mill, was invented by Wilson Agar at the beginning of the US Civil War.", "The weapon featured mechanized loading using a hand crank linked to a hopper above the weapon.", "The weapon featured a single barrel and fired through the turning of the same crank; it operated using paper cartridges fitted with percussion caps and inserted into metal tubes that acted as chambers; it was therefore functionally similar to a revolver.", "The weapon was demonstrated to President Lincoln in 1861.He was so impressed with the weapon that he purchased 10 on the spot for $1,500 apiece.", "The Union Army eventually purchased a total of 54 of the weapons.", "However, due to antiquated views of the Ordnance Department the weapons, like its more famous counterpart the Gatling Gun, saw only limited use.The Gatling gun, patented in 1861 by Richard Jordan Gatling, was the first to offer controlled, sequential fire with mechanical loading.", "The design's key features were machine loading of prepared cartridges and a hand-operated crank for sequential high-speed firing.", "It first saw very limited action in the American Civil War; it was subsequently improved and used in the Franco-Prussian war and North-West Rebellion.", "Many were sold to other armies in the late 19th century and continued to be used into the early 20th century until they were gradually supplanted by Maxim guns.", "Early multi-barrel guns were approximately the size and weight of contemporary artillery pieces, and were often perceived as a replacement for cannon firing grapeshot or canister shot.", "The large wheels required to move these guns around required a high firing position, which increased the vulnerability of their crews.", "Sustained firing of gunpowder cartridges generated a cloud of smoke, making concealment impossible until smokeless powder became available in the late 19th century.", "Gatling guns were targeted by artillery they could not reach, and their crews were targeted by snipers they could not see.", "The Gatling gun was used most successfully to expand European colonial empires, since against poorly equipped indigenous armies it did not face such threats.In 1864, in the aftermath of the Second Schleswig War, Denmark started a program intended to develop a gun that used the recoil of a fired shot to reload the firearm though a working model would not be produced until 1888.In 1870, a Lt. Holsten Friberg of the Swedish army patented a fully automatic recoil-operated firearm action and may have produced firing prototypes of a derived design around 1882: this was the forerunner to the 1907 Kjellman machine gun, though, due to rapid residue buildup from the use of black powder, Friberg's design was not a practical weapon.Also in 1870, the Bavarian regiment of the Prussian army used a unique mitrailleuse-style weapon in the Franco-Prussian war.", "The weapon was made up of four barrels placed side by side that replaced the manual loading of the French mitrailleuse with a mechanical loading system featuring a hopper containing 41 cartridges at the breech of each barrel.", "Although it was used effectively at times, mechanical difficulties hindered its operation and it was ultimately abandoned shortly after the war ended (de).=== Maxim and World War I ===German machine gunner in World War I.", "He is operating an MG 08, wearing a Stahlhelm and cuirass to protect him from shell fragments, and protected by rows of barbed wire and sandbags.The first practical self-powered machine gun was invented in 1884 by Sir Hiram Maxim.", "The Maxim machine gun used the recoil power of the previously fired bullet to reload rather than being hand-powered, enabling a much higher rate of fire than was possible using earlier designs such as the Nordenfelt and Gatling weapons.", "Maxim also introduced the use of water cooling, via a water jacket around the barrel, to reduce overheating.", "Maxim's gun was widely adopted, and derivative designs were used on all sides during the First World War.", "The design required fewer crew and was lighter and more usable than the Nordenfelt and Gatling guns.", "First World War combat experience demonstrated the military importance of the machine gun.", "The United States Army issued four machine guns per regiment in 1912, but that allowance increased to 336 machine guns per regiment by 1919.British Vickers machine gun in action near Ovillers during the Battle of the Somme in 1916.The crew is wearing gas masks.Heavy guns based on the Maxim such as the Vickers machine gun were joined by many other machine weapons, which mostly had their start in the early 20th century such as the Hotchkiss machine gun.", "Submachine guns (e.g., the German MP 18) as well as lighter machine guns (the first light machine gun deployed in any significant number being the Madsen machine gun, with the Chauchat and Lewis gun soon following) saw their first major use in World War I, along with heavy use of large-caliber machine guns.", "The biggest single cause of casualties in World War I was actually artillery, but combined with wire entanglements, machine guns earned a fearsome reputation.Another fundamental development occurring before and during the war was the incorporation by gun designers of machine gun auto-loading mechanisms into handguns, giving rise to semi-automatic pistols such as the Borchardt (1890s), automatic machine pistols and later submachine guns (such as the Beretta 1918).Aircraft-mounted machine guns were first used in combat in World War I.", "Immediately this raised a fundamental problem.", "The most effective position for guns in a single-seater fighter was clearly, for the purpose of aiming, directly in front of the pilot; but this placement would obviously result in bullets striking the moving propeller.", "Early solutions, aside from simply hoping that luck was on the pilot's side with an unsynchronized forward-firing gun, involved either aircraft with pusher props like the Vickers F.B.5, Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 and Airco DH.2, wing mounts like that of the Nieuport 10 and Nieuport 11 which avoided the propeller entirely, or armored propeller blades such as those mounted on the Morane-Saulnier L which would allow the propeller to deflect unsynchronized gunfire.", "By mid 1915, the introduction of a reliable gun synchronizer by the Imperial German Flying Corps made it possible to fire a closed-bolt machine gun forward through a spinning propeller by timing the firing of the gun to miss the blades.", "The Allies had no equivalent system until 1916 and their aircraft suffered badly as a result, a period known as the Fokker Scourge, after the Fokker Eindecker, the first German plane to incorporate the new technology.=== Interwar era and World War II ===Suomi M31 submachine gun with 70-round drum magazine attached, 20- and 50-round box magazinesAs better materials became available following the First World War, light machine guns became more readily portable; designs such as the Bren light machine gun replaced bulky predecessors like the Lewis gun in the squad support weapon role, while the modern division between medium machine guns like the M1919 Browning machine gun and heavy machine guns like the Browning M2 became clearer.", "New designs largely abandoned water jacket cooling systems as both undesirable, due to a greater emphasis on mobile tactics; and unnecessary, thanks to the alternative and superior technique of preventing overheating by swapping barrels.MG 42 with retracted bipodThe interwar years also produced the first widely used and successful general-purpose machine gun, the German MG 34.While this machine gun was equally able in the light and medium roles, it proved difficult to manufacture in quantity, and experts on industrial metalworking were called in to redesign the weapon for modern tooling, creating the MG 42.This weapon was simpler, cheaper to produce, fired faster, and replaced the MG 34 in every application except vehicle mounts since the MG 42's barrel changing system could not be operated when it was mounted.=== Cold War ===GAU-17/A MinigunExperience with the MG 42 led to the US issuing a requirement to replace the aging Browning Automatic Rifle with a similar weapon, which would also replace the M1919; simply using the MG 42 itself was not possible, as the design brief required a weapon which could be fired from the hip or shoulder like the BAR.", "The resulting design, the M60 machine gun, was issued to troops during the Vietnam War.As it became clear that a high-volume-of-fire weapon would be needed for fast-moving jet aircraft to reliably hit their opponents, Gatling's work with electrically powered weapons was recalled and the 20 mm M61 Vulcan was designed; as well as a miniaturized 7.62 mm version initially known as the \"mini-Vulcan\" and quickly shortened to \"minigun\" soon in production for use on helicopters, where the volume of fire could compensate for the instability of the helicopter as a firing platform." ], [ "Human interface", "This M60 machine gun is part of an XM2 armament subsystem; it is aimed and fired from the aircraft rather than directly.The most common interface on light machine guns is a pistol grip and trigger with a buttstock attached.", "Vehicle and tripod mounted machine guns usually have spade grips.", "Earlier machine guns commonly featured hand cranks, and modern externally powered machine guns, such as miniguns, commonly use an electronic button or trigger on a joystick.", "In the late 20th century, scopes and other complex optics became more common rather than the more basic iron sights.Loading systems in early manual machine guns were often from a hopper of loose (un-linked) cartridges.", "Manually operated volley guns usually had to be reloaded all at once (each barrel reloaded by hand, or with a set of cartridges affixed to a plate that was inserted into the weapon).", "With hoppers, the rounds could often be added while the weapon was firing.", "This gradually changed to belt-fed systems, which were either held by a person (the shooter or a support person), or in a bag or box.", "Some modern vehicle machine guns use linkless feed systems.Modern machine guns are commonly mounted in one of four ways.", "The first is a bipod, often integrated with the weapon, common on light and medium machine guns.", "Another is the tripod, usually found on medium and heavy machine guns.", "On ships, vehicles, and aircraft, machine guns are usually mounted on a pintle mount, a steel post that is connected to the frame or body of the vehicle.", "The last common mounting type is as part of a vehicle's armament system, such as a tank coaxial or part of an aircraft's armament.", "These are usually electrically fired and have complex sighting systems, for example, the US Helicopter Armament Subsystems." ], [ "See also", "* Glock switch* List of firearms* List of machine guns* List of multiple barrel machine guns" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Discover Military Machine Guns* \"From Gatling to Browning\" —September 1945 article in ''Popular Science''* \"How Machine Guns Work\" – HowStuffWorks article on the operation of Machine Guns, animated diagrams are included* The REME Museum of Technology – machine guns* – A patent for an early automatic cannon* Vickers machine gun site" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monopoly (game)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Monopoly''''' is a multiplayer economics-themed board game.", "In the game, players roll two dice to move around the game board, buying and trading properties and developing them with houses and hotels.", "Players collect rent from their opponents and aim to drive them into bankruptcy.", "Money can also be gained or lost through ''Chance'' and ''Community Chest'' cards and tax squares.", "Players receive a salary every time they pass \"Go\" and can end up in jail, from which they cannot move until they have met one of three conditions.", "House rules, hundreds of different editions, many spin-offs, and related media exist.", "''Monopoly'' has become a part of international popular culture, having been licensed locally in more than 103 countries and printed in more than 37 languages.", ", it was estimated that the game had sold 275 million copies worldwide.", "The original game was based on locations in Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States with the exception of Marvin Gardens which is in Ventnor, NJ.", "''Monopoly'' is derived from ''The Landlord's Game'', created in 1903 in the US by Lizzie Magie, as a way to demonstrate that an economy rewarding individuals is better than one where monopolies hold all the wealth.", "It also served to promote the economic theories of Henry George—in particular, his ideas about taxation.", "''The Landlord's Game'' originally had two sets of rules, one with tax and another on which the current rules are mainly based.", "When Parker Brothers first published ''Monopoly'' in 1935, the game did not include the less capitalistic taxation rule, resulting in a more aggressive game.", "Parker Brothers was eventually absorbed into Hasbro in 1991.The game is named after the economic concept of a monopoly—the domination of a market by a single entity." ], [ "History", "===Early history===Lizzie Magie's 1904 board design, ''The Landlord's Game'', was a predecessor of ''Monopoly''The history of ''Monopoly'' can be traced back to 1903, when American anti-monopolist Lizzie Magie created a game that she hoped would explain the single-tax theory of Henry George.", "It was intended as an educational tool, to illustrate the negative aspects of concentrating land in private monopolies.", "She took out a patent in 1904.Her game, ''The Landlord's Game'', was self-published, beginning in 1906.Magie created two sets of rules: an anti-monopolist set in which all were rewarded when wealth was created, and a monopolist set in which the goal was to create monopolies and crush opponents.Several variant board games, based on her concept, were developed from 1906 through the 1930s; they involved both the process of buying land for its development, and the sale of any undeveloped property.", "Cardboard houses were added, and rents increased as they were added to a property.", "Magie patented the game again in 1923.According to an advertisement placed in ''The Christian Science Monitor'', Charles Todd of Philadelphia recalled the day in 1932 when his childhood friend Esther Jones and her husband, Charles Darrow, came to his house for dinner.", "After the meal, the Todds introduced Darrow to ''The Landlord's Game'', which they then played several times.", "The game was entirely new to Darrow, and he asked the Todds for a written set of the rules.", "After that night, Darrow went on to utilize it to distribute the game himself as ''Monopoly''.The Parker Brothers bought the game's copyrights from Darrow.", "When the company learned Darrow was not the sole inventor of the game, it bought the rights to Magie's patent for $500.Parker Brothers began marketing the game on November 5, 1935.Cartoonist F. O. Alexander contributed the design.", "U.S. patent number ''US 2026082 A'' was issued to Charles Darrow on December 31, 1935, for the game board design and was assigned to Parker Brothers Inc.", "The original version of the game in this format was based on the streets of Atlantic City, New Jersey.=== 1936–1970 ===Parker Brothers began licensing the game for sale outside the United States in 1936.In 1941, the British Secret Intelligence Service had John Waddington Ltd., the licensed manufacturer of the game in the United Kingdom, create a special edition for World War II prisoners of war held by the Nazis.", "Hidden inside these games were maps, compasses, real money, and other objects useful for escaping.", "They were distributed to prisoners by fake charity organizations created by the British Secret Service.===1970s–1980s===Economics professor Ralph Anspach published ''Anti-Monopoly'' in 1973, and was sued for trademark infringement by Parker Brothers in 1974.The case went to trial in 1976.Anspach won on appeals in 1979, as the 9th Circuit Court determined that the trademark ''Monopoly'' was generic and therefore unenforceable.", "The United States Supreme Court declined to hear the case, allowing the appellate court ruling to stand.", "This decision was overturned by the passage of Public Law 98-620 in 1984.With that law in place, Parker Brothers and its parent company, Hasbro, continue to hold valid trademarks for the game ''Monopoly''.", "However, ''Anti-Monopoly'' was exempted from the law and Anspach later reached a settlement with Hasbro and markets his game under license from them.===Hasbro ownership===Hasbro acquired Parker Bros. and thus ''Monopoly'' in 1991.Before the Hasbro acquisition, Parker Bros. acted as a publisher only issuing two versions at a time, a regular and deluxe.", "Hasbro moved to create and license many other versions of ''Monopoly'' and sought public input in varying the game.", "A new wave of licensed products began in 1994, when Hasbro granted a license to USAopoly to begin publishing a San Diego Edition of ''Monopoly'', which has since been followed by more than a hundred more licensees including Winning Moves Games (since 1995) and Winning Solutions, Inc. (since 2000) in the United States.The company held a national tournament on a chartered train going from Chicago to Atlantic City (see ) in 2003.Also that year, Hasbro sued the maker of Ghettopoly and won.", "In February 2005, the company sued RADGames over their Super Add-On accessory board game that fit in the center of the board.", "The judge initially issued an injunction on February 25, 2005, to halt production and sales before ruling in RADGames's favor in April 2005.The Speed Die was added to all regular Monopoly sets in 2008.After polling their Facebook followers, Hasbro Gaming took the top house rules and added them to a House Rule Edition released in the fall of 2014 and added them as optional rules in 2015.In January 2017, Hasbro invited internet users to vote on a new set of game pieces, with this new regular edition to be issued in March 2017.On May 1, 2018, the Monopoly Mansion hotel agreement was announced by Hasbro's managing director for southeast Asia, Jenny Chew Yean Nee, with M101 Holdings Sdn Bhd.", "M101 has the five-star, 225-room hotel, then under construction, located at the M101 Bukit Bintang in Kuala Lumpur and with a 1920s Gatsby feel.", "M101's Sirocco Group would manage the hotel when it opened in 2019.Hasbro announced in March 2021 that it planned to update the Community Chest cards with ones that would be more socially aware, inviting fans of the game to vote on the new versions.", "In April 2022, Hasbro announced another poll.", "This vote would see the reintroduction of one previously retired token in exchange for an existing token.", "The result would see the Thimble return and the T-Rex phased out by fall 2022." ], [ "Board", "The original 1935 ''Monopoly'' board patentThe ''Monopoly'' game board consists of forty spaces containing twenty-eight properties—twenty-two streets (grouped into eight distinct color groups), four railroads, and two utilities—three Chance spaces, three Community Chest spaces, a Luxury Tax space, an Income Tax space, and the four corner squares: GO, (In) Jail/Just Visiting, Free Parking, and Go to Jail.===US versions===There have since been some changes to the board.", "Not all of the Chance and Community Chest cards as shown in the 1935 patent were used in editions from 1936/1937 onwards.", "Graphics with the Mr.", "Monopoly character (then known as \"Rich Uncle Pennybags\") were added in that same time-frame.", "A graphic of a chest containing coins was added to the Community Chest spaces, as were the flat purchase prices of the properties.", "Traditionally, the Community Chest cards were yellow (although they were sometimes printed on blue stock) with no decoration or text on the back; the Chance cards were orange with no text or decoration on the back.Hasbro commissioned a major graphic redesign to the U.S. Standard Edition of the game in 2008 along with some minor revisions.", "Among the changes: the colors of Mediterranean and Baltic Avenues changed from purple to brown, and the colors of the GO square changed from red to black.", "The Luxury Tax amount increased to $100 from $75, and a flat $200 Income Tax was imposed (formerly the player's choice of $200 or 10% of their total holdings, which they could not calculate until after making their final decision).", "Originally the amount was $300 but was changed a year after the game's debut.", "There were also changes to the Chance and Community Chest cards; for example, the \"poor tax\", \"receive for services\", \"Xmas fund matures\", and \"grand opera opening\" cards became \"speeding fine\", \"receive $25 consultancy fee\", \"holiday fund matures\", and \"it is your birthday\", respectively; though their effects remained the same; the player must pay only $50 instead of $150 for the school tax.", "In addition, a player now gets $50 instead of $45 for sale of stock, and the Advance to Illinois Avenue card now has the added text indicating a player collects $200 if they pass Go on the way there.2014 US Monopoly boxAll the Chance and Community Chest cards received a graphic upgrade in 2008 as part of the graphic refresh of the game.", "Mr.", "Monopoly's classic line illustration was also now usually replaced by renderings of a 3D Mr.", "Monopoly model.", "The backs of the cards have their respective symbols, with Community Chest cards in blue and Chance cards in orange.Additionally, recent versions of ''Monopoly'' replace the dollar sign ($) with an M with two horizontal strokes through it.In the US versions shown below, the properties are named after locations in (or near) Atlantic City, New Jersey.Atlantic City's Illinois Avenue was renamed Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard in the 1980s.", "St. Charles Place no longer exists, as the Showboat Atlantic City was developed where it once ran.", "The values on the board reflect real estate property values of 1930s Atlantic City.", "The two cheapest properties, Baltic Avenue and Mediterranean Avenue, were situated in a low-income, African-American neighborhood; higher-value properties, such as Pennsylvania Avenue, Park Place, and Ventnor Avenue, were situated in wealthier neighborhoods.Different versions have been created based on various current consumer interests such as: ''Dog-opoly'', ''Cat-opoly'', ''Bug-opoly'', and TV/movie games among others.", "Marvin Gardens, the farthest yellow property, is a misspelling of its actual name, ''Marven Gardens''.", "The misspelling was introduced by Charles and Olive Todd, who taught the game to Charles Darrow.", "It was passed on when their homemade ''Monopoly'' board was copied by Darrow and then by Parker Brothers.", "The Todds also changed the Atlantic City Quakers' Arctic Avenue to Mediterranean, and shortened the Shore Fast Line to the Short Line.It was not until 1995 that Parker Brothers acknowledged the misspelling of ''Marvin Gardens'', formally apologizing to the residents of Marven Gardens.Short Line refers to the Shore Fast Line, a streetcar line that served Atlantic City.", "The B&O Railroad did not serve Atlantic City.", "A booklet included with the reprinted 1935 edition states that the four railroads that served Atlantic City in the mid-1930s were the Jersey Central, the Seashore Lines, the Reading Railroad (now part of Norfolk Southern & CSX), and the Pennsylvania Railroad.The Baltimore & Ohio (now part of CSX) was the parent of the Reading.", "There is a tunnel in Philadelphia where track to the south was B.", "& O. and track to the north is Reading.", "The Central of N.J. did not have a track to Atlantic City but was the daughter of the Reading (and granddaughter of the B.", "& O.)", "Their track ran from the New York City area to Delaware Bay and some trains ran on the Reading-controlled track to Atlantic City.The actual \"Electric Company\" and \"Water Works\" serving the city are respectively Atlantic City Electric Company (a subsidiary of Exelon) and the Atlantic City Municipal Utilities Authority.===UK version===In the 1930s, John Waddington Ltd., known as Waddingtons, was a printing company in Leeds that had branched out into packaging and the production of playing cards.", "Waddingtons had sent the card game ''Lexicon'' to Parker Brothers hoping to interest it in publishing the game in the United States.", "In a similar fashion, Parker Brothers sent over a copy of ''Monopoly'' to Waddingtons early in 1935 before the game had been put into production in the United States.Victor Watson, the managing director of Waddingtons, gave the game to his son Norman, head of the card games division, to test over a weekend.", "Norman was impressed by the game and persuaded his father to call Parker Brothers on Monday morning—transatlantic calls then being almost unheard of.", "This call resulted in Waddingtons obtaining a license to produce and market the game outside the United States.Watson felt that for the game to be a success in the United Kingdom, the American locations would have to be replaced, so Victor and his secretary Marjory Phillips went to London to scout out locations.", "The Angel, Islington is not a street in London but a building (which also gave its name to the road intersection where it is located, as well as an area of the city and a Tube station).", "It had been a coaching inn that stood on the Great North Road.", "By the 1930s, the inn had become a J. Lyons and Co. tea room and is today offices and a Co-operative Bank.", "Some accounts say that Marjory and Victor met at the Angel to discuss the selection and celebrated the fact by including it on the ''Monopoly'' board.", "In 2003, a plaque commemorating the naming was unveiled at the site by Victor Watson's grandson, who is also named Victor.It might be expected that the railway stations in Monopoly would have been chosen to allow travel in the four compass directions—for example: Euston, St Pancras or King's Cross (north); Liverpool Street or Fenchurch Street (east); London Bridge or Victoria (south); Paddington (west).", "However all four stations had been owned by the same company, LNER, prior to nationalisation as British Rail(ways).", "It has been suggested that Waddingtons chose LNER stations because this was the company that served Leeds where they were based.During World War II, the British Secret Service contacted Waddingtons, as the company could also print on silk, to make ''Monopoly'' sets that included escape maps, money, a compass and file, all hidden in copies of the game sent by fake POW relief charities to prisoners of war.The standard British board, produced by Waddingtons, was for many years the version most familiar to people in countries in the Commonwealth, except Canada, where the US edition with Atlantic City-area names was reprinted.", "Local variants of the board are now also found in several Commonwealth countries.In 1998, Winning Moves procured the ''Monopoly'' license from Hasbro and created new UK city and regional editions with sponsored squares.", "Initially, in December 1998, the game was sold in just a few W H Smith stores, but demand was high, with almost 50,000 games sold in the four weeks before Christmas.", "Winning Moves still produces new city and regional editions annually.The original income tax choice from the 1930s US board is replaced by a flat rate on the UK board, and the $75 Luxury Tax space is replaced with the £100 Super Tax space, the same as the current German board.", "In 2008, the US edition was changed to match the UK and various European editions, including a flat $200 Income Tax value and an increased $100 Luxury Tax amount.In cases where a national company produced the game, the $ (dollar) sign was replaced with the £ (pound), but the place names were unchanged.===Post-2005 variations===Beginning in the UK in 2005, a revised version of the game, titled ''Monopoly Here and Now'', was produced, replacing game scenarios, properties, and tokens with more modern equivalents.", "Similar boards were produced for Germany and France.", "Variants of these first editions appeared with Visa-branded debit cards taking the place of cash—the later US \"Electronic Banking\" edition has unbranded debit cards.The success of the first ''Here and Now'' editions prompted Hasbro US to allow online voting for twenty-six landmark properties across the United States to take their places along the game-board.", "The popularity of this voting, in turn, led to the creation of similar websites, and secondary game-boards per popular vote to be created in the UK, Canada, France, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and other nations.Winning Moves Games released the ''Mega Edition'', with a 30% larger game-board and revised game play, in 2006.Other streets from Atlantic City (eight, one per color group) were included, along with a third utility, the Gas Company.", "In addition, $1,000 denomination notes (first seen in Winning Moves' ''Monopoly: The Card Game'') are included.", "Game play is further changed with bus tickets (allowing non-dice-roll movement along one side of the board), a speed die (itself adopted into variants of the ''Atlantic City standard edition''; see below), skyscrapers (after houses and hotels), and train depots that can be placed on the Railroad spaces.This edition was adapted for the U.K. market in 2007, and is sold by Winning Moves UK.====''Here and Now''====The US edition of ''Monopoly Here and Now'' was released in September 2006.This edition features top landmarks across the US.", "The properties were decided by votes over the Internet in the spring of 2006.Monetary values are multiplied by 10,000 (e.g., one collects $2,000,000 instead of $200 for passing GO and pays that much for Income Tax (or 10% of their total, as this edition was launched prior to 2008), each player starts with $15,000,000 instead of $1,500, etc.).", "Also, the Chance and Community Chest cards are updated, the Railroads are replaced by Airports (Chicago O'Hare, Los Angeles International, New York City's JFK, and Atlanta's Hartsfield–Jackson), and the Utilities (Electric Company and Water Works) are replaced by Service Providers (Internet Service Provider and Cell Phone Service Provider).", "The houses and hotels are blue and silver, not green and red as in most editions of ''Monopoly''.", "The board uses the traditional US layout; the cheapest properties are purple, not brown, and \"Interest on Credit Card Debt\" replaces \"Luxury Tax\".Despite the updated Luxury Tax space, and the Income Tax space no longer using the 10% option, this edition uses paper ''Monopoly'' money, and not an electronic banking unit like the ''Here and Now World Edition''.", "However, a similar edition of ''Monopoly'', the ''Electronic Banking'' edition, does feature an electronic banking unit and bank cards, as well as a different set of tokens.", "Both ''Here and Now'' and ''Electronic Banking'' feature an updated set of tokens from the Atlantic City edition.One landmark, Texas Stadium, has been demolished and no longer exists.", "Another landmark, Jacobs Field, still exists, but was renamed Progressive Field in 2008.In 2015, in honor of the game's 80th birthday, Hasbro held an online vote to determine which cities would make it into an updated version of ''Here and Now''.", "This second edition is more a spin-off as the winning condition has changed to completing a passport instead of bankrupting opponents.", "Community Chest is replaced with Here and Now cards, while the Here and Now space replaced the railroads.", "Houses and hotels have been removed.Hasbro released a ''World'' edition with the top voted cities from all around the world, as well as at least a ''Here and Now'' edition with the voted-on U.S. cities.====''Empire''====''Monopoly Empire'' has uniquely branded tokens and places based on popular brands.", "Instead of buying properties, players buy popular brands one by one and slide their billboards onto their Empire towers.", "Instead of building houses and hotels, players collect rent from their rivals based on their tower height.", "The first player to fill their tower with billboards wins.", "Every space on the board is a brand name, such as Xbox, Coca-Cola, McDonald's and Samsung.====''Token Madness''====This version of Monopoly contains 8 of the 56 tokens from the 2017 Token Madness event.", "That includes a penguin, a television, a race car, a Mr.", "Monopoly emoji, a rubber duck, a watch, a wheel and a bunny slipper.The Penguin and Rubber Duck, alongside the T-Rex, (which was not present in ''Token Madness'') would eventually become part of the main game, replacing the Boot, Wheelbarrow and Thimble.", "The T-Rex would be replaced by the returning Thimble in the 2022 Throwback Token Vote.====''Jackpot''====During the game, players travel around the gameboard buying properties and collecting rent.", "If they land on a Chance space, or roll the Chance icon on a die, they can spin the Chance spinner to try to make more money.", "Players may hit the \"Jackpot\", go bankrupt, or be sent to Jail.", "The player who has the most cash when the bank crashes wins.====''Ultimate Banking Edition''====The 'Ultimate Banking Unit' utilized in the Ultimate Banking EditionIn this version, there is no cash.", "The Monopoly Ultimate Banking game features an electronic ultimate banking piece with touch technology.", "Players can buy properties instantly and set rents by tapping.", "Each player has a bankcard and their cash is tracked by the Ultimate Banking unit.", "It can scan the game's property cards and boost or crash the market.", "Event cards and Location spaces replace Chance and Community Chest cards.", "On an Event Space, rents may be raised or lowered, a player may earn or lose money, or someone could be sent to Jail.", "Location Spaces allow players to pay and move to any property space on the gameboard.====''Voice Banking''====In this version, there are no cash or cards.", "''Voice Banking'' allows the player to respond by voice to the Top Hat.", "The hat responds by purchasing properties, paying rent, and making buildings.====''Ms.", "Monopoly''====In this version, the spaces that players land on are replaced by inventions that women created or contributed to, and female players are given bonuses.====''Deal''====''Monopoly Deal'' is a card game derived from the board-game Monopoly introduced in 2008, produced and sold by Cartamundi under a license from Hasbro.", "Players attempt to collect three complete sets of cards representing the properties from the original board game, either by playing them directly, stealing them from other players, swapping cards with other players, or collecting them as rent for other properties they already own.", "The cards in the 110-card deck represent properties and wild cards, various denominations of Monopoly money used to pay rent, and special action cards which can either be played for their effects or banked as money instead." ], [ "Equipment", "During World War II, the dice in the United Kingdom were replaced with a spinner because of a lack of materials.All property deeds, houses, and hotels are held by the bank until bought by the players.", "A standard set of ''Monopoly'' pieces includes:===Cards===A deck of thirty-two Chance and Community Chest cards (sixteen each) which players draw when they land on the corresponding squares of the track, and follow the instructions printed on them.===Deeds===A title deed for each property is given to a player to signify ownership, and specifies purchase price, mortgage value, the cost of building houses and hotels on that property, and the various rents depending on how developed the property is.", "Properties include:* Four railroads, players collect $25 rent if they own one railroad; $50 for two; $100 for three; $200 for all four.", "These are usually replaced by railroad stations in non-U.S. editions of Monopoly.", "* Twenty-two streets divided into eight color groups of two or three streets; a player must own all of a color group to build houses or hotels.", "Once achieved, color group properties must be improved or \"broken down\" evenly.", "See the section on Rules.", "* Two utilities, rent is four times the dice value if one utility is owned, but ten times if both are owned.", "Hotels and houses cannot be built on utilities or stations.", "Some country editions have a fixed rent for utilities; for example, the Italian editions has a L. 2,000 ($20) rent if one utility is owned, or L. 10,000 ($100) if both are owned.The purchase price for properties varies from $60 to $400 on a U.S. Standard Edition set.===Dice===2 standard dice, included in the original Monopoly Board GameA pair of six-sided dice is included, with a \"speed die\" added for variation in 2007.The 1999 Millennium Edition featured two jewel-like dice which were the subject of a lawsuit from Michael Bowling, owner of dice maker Crystal Caste.", "Hasbro lost the suit in 2008 and had to pay $446,182 in royalties.", "Subsequent printings of the game reverted to normal six-sided dice.===Houses and hotels===32 houses and 12 hotels made of wood or plastic (the original and current ''Deluxe Edition'' have wooden houses and hotels; the current \"base set\" uses plastic buildings).", "Unlike money, houses and hotels have a finite supply.", "If no more are available, no substitute is allowed.", "In most editions, houses are green and hotels red.===Money===Older U.S. standard editions of the game included a total of '''$15,140''' in the following denominations:* 20 $500 bills (orange)* 20 $100 bills (beige)* 30 $50 bills (blue)* 50 $20 bills (green)* 40 $10 bills (yellow)* 40 $5 bills (pink)* 40 $1 bills (white)Newer (September 2008 and later) U.S. editions provide a total of '''$20,580'''—30 of each denomination instead.", "The colors of some of the bills are also changed: $10s are now blue instead of yellow, $20s are a brighter green than before, and $50s are now purple instead of blue.Each player begins the game with their token on the Go square, and $1,500 (or 1,500 of a localized currency) in play money ($2,500 with the Speed Die).", "Before September 2008, the money was divided with greater numbers of 20 and 10-dollar bills.", "Since then, the U.S. version has taken on the British version's initial cash distributions.", "U.S. editions prior to 2008 U.S. editions since 2008 / British editions 2 × $500 2 × $/£500 2 × $100 4 × $/£100 2 × $50 1 × $/£50 6 × $20 1 × $/£20 5 × $10 2 × $/£10 5 × $5 1 × $/£5 5 × $1 5 × $/£1Although the U.S. version is indicated as allowing eight players, the cash distribution shown above is not possible with all eight players since it requires 32 $100 bills and 40 $1 bills.", "However, the amount of cash contained in the game is enough for eight players with a slight alteration of bill distribution.====International currencies====Pre-Euro German editions of the game started with 30,000 \"Spielmark\" in eight denominations (abbreviated as \"M.\"), and later used seven denominations of the Deutsche Mark (\"DM.\").", "In the classic Italian game, each player received L. 350,000 ($3500) in a two-player game, but L. 50,000 ($500) less for each player more than two.", "Only in a six-player game does a player receive the equivalent of $1,500.The classic Italian games were played with only four denominations of currency.", "Both Spanish editions (the Barcelona and Madrid editions) started the game with 150,000 in play money, with a breakdown identical to that of the American version.====Extra currency====According to the Parker Brothers rules, Monopoly money is theoretically unlimited; if the bank runs out of money it may issue as much as needed \"by merely writing on any ordinary paper\".However, Hasbro's published Monopoly rules make no mention of this.", "Additional paper money can be bought at certain locations, notably game and hobby stores, or downloaded from various websites and printed and cut by hand.", "One such site has created a $1,000 bill; while a $1,000 bill can be found in ''Monopoly: The Mega Edition'' and ''Monopoly: The Card Game'', both published by Winning Moves Games, this note is not a standard denomination for classic versions of Monopoly.====Electronic banking====Besides demonstrating the dangers of land rents and monopolies, Lizzie Magie also intended The Landlord's Game for children as a teaching tool to learn how to add and subtract through the usage of paper money, which was inherited by Monopoly and the vast majority of its spin-offs.", "However, some Monopoly variations use bank cards instead of paper money.In these specific variations, instead of receiving paper money, each player receives a plastic bank card that is inserted into a calculator-like electronic device that keeps track of the player's balance.===Tokens=======Classic====Each player is represented by a small metal or plastic token that is moved around the edge of the board according to the roll of two six-sided dice.", "The number of tokens (and the tokens themselves) have changed over the history of the game with many appearing in special editions only, and some available with non-game purchases.", "After prints with wood tokens in 1937, a set of eight tokens was introduced.", "Two more were added in late 1937, and tokens changed again in 1942.During World War II, the game tokens were switched back to wood.", "Early localized editions of the standard edition (including some Canadian editions, which used the U.S. board layout) did not include pewter tokens but instead had generic wooden pawns identical to those that ''Sorry!''", "had.Many of the early tokens were created by companies such as Dowst Miniature Toy Company, which made metal charms and tokens designed to be used on charm bracelets.", "The battleship and cannon were also used briefly in the Parker Brothers war game ''Conflict'' (released in 1940), but after the game failed on the market, the premade pieces were recycled for ''Monopoly'' usage.", "By 1943, there were ten tokens which included the Battleship, Boot, Cannon, Horse and rider, Iron, Racecar, Scottie Dog, Thimble, Top hat, and Wheelbarrow.", "These tokens remained the same until the late 1990s, when Parker Brothers was sold to Hasbro.In 1998, a Hasbro advertising campaign asked the public to vote on a new playing piece to be added to the set.", "The candidates were a bag of money, a biplane, and a piggy bank.", "The bag ended up winning 51 percent of the vote compared to the other two which failed to go above 30%.", "This new token was added to the set in 1999, bringing the number of tokens to eleven.", "Another 1998 campaign poll asked people which monopoly token was their favorite.", "The most popular was the Race Car at 18%, followed by the Dog (16%), Cannon (14%) and Top Hat (10%).", "The least favorite in the poll was the Wheelbarrow, at 3%, followed by Thimble (7%) and the Iron (7%).", "The Cannon, and Horse and rider were both retired in 2000 with no new tokens taking their place.", "Another retirement came in 2007 with the sack of money, bringing the total token count back down to eight again.In 2013, a similar promotional campaign was launched encouraging the public to vote on one of several possible new tokens to replace an existing one.", "The choices were a guitar, a diamond ring, a helicopter, a robot, and a cat.", "This new campaign was different from the one in 1998, as the least-popular existing piece would be retired and replaced with a new one.", "Both were chosen by a vote that ran on Facebook from January 8 to February 5, 2013.The cat took the top spot with 31% of the vote, while the iron proved to be the least-popular classic piece and was swapped out for the cat.", "In January 2017, Hasbro placed the line of tokens in the regular edition with another vote which included a total of 64 options.", "The eight playable tokens at the time included the Battleship, Boot, Cat, Racecar, Scottie Dog, Thimble, Top hat, and Wheelbarrow.", "By March 17, 2017, Hasbro retired three additional tokens, namely the thimble, wheelbarrow, and boot; these were replaced by a penguin, a Tyrannosaurus and a rubber duck.", "In April 2022, it was announced that a previously retired token would return to Monopoly sets.", "The candidates for reintroduction were the wheelbarrow, thimble, iron, horse & rider, boot, and money bag.", "One existing token would also be dropped from the line-up.", "Based on the results of the vote, Hasbro announced that, starting in spring 2023, the T-Rex would be replaced by the Thimble in regular sets of Monopoly.====Special editions====Over the years, Hasbro has released tokens for special or collector's editions of the game.", "One of the first tokens to come out included the Steam Locomotive, which was only released in Deluxe Editions.", "A Director's Chair token was released in 2011 in limited edition copies of ''Under the Boardwalk: The Monopoly Story''.", "Shortly after the 2013 Facebook voting campaign, a limited-edition Golden Token set was released exclusively at various national retailers, such as Target in the U.S., and Tesco in the U.K.The set contained the Battleship, Boot, Iron, Racecar, Scottie Dog, Thimble, Top hat and Wheelbarrow as well as the iron's potential replacements.", "These replacement tokens included the cat, the guitar, the diamond ring, the helicopter, and the robot.", "Hasbro released a 64-token limited edition set in 2017 called ''Monopoly Signature Token Collection'' to include all of the candidates that were not chosen in the vote held that year." ], [ "Rules", "===Official rules===Each player starts with $1,500 in their bank.", "Players roll the dice, and whoever rolls the highest number goes first.", "On a player's turn they roll the dice and advance their piece clockwise around the board the corresponding number of squares.", "If a player roll doubles, they move again after completing that turn, unless if they roll three consecutive sets of doubles on one turn.", "Then, they have been \"caught speeding\" and are immediately sent to jail instead of moving the amount shown on the dice for the third roll.A player who lands on or passes the \"GO\" space collects $200 from the bank.", "Players who land on either Income Tax or Luxury Tax pay the indicated amount to the bank.", "In older editions of the game, two options were given for Income Tax: either pay a flat fee of $200 (or $300) or 10% of total net worth (including the current values of all the properties and buildings owned).", "No calculation could be made before the choice, and no latitude was given for reversing an unwise decision.", "In 2008, the calculation option was removed from the official rules; simultaneously, the Luxury Tax was increased from $75 to $100.Nothing happens when a player lands on Free Parking.Properties can only be developed once a player owns all the properties in that color group.", "They then must be developed equally.", "A house must be built on each property of that color before a second can be built.", "Each property within a group must be within one house level of all the others within that group.====Chance/Community Chest====If a player lands on a Chance or Community Chest space, they take the top card from the respective deck and follow its instructions.", "This may include collecting or paying money to the bank or another player or moving to a different space on the board.", "Two types of cards that involve jail, \"Go to Jail\" and \"Get Out of Jail Free\", are explained below.====Jail====A player lands in jail by:* Landing on the \"Go to Jail\" space* Throwing three consecutive doubles in one turn* Drawing a \"Go (Directly) to Jail\" card from Chance or Community ChestWhen a player is sent to Jail, they do not collect their $200 salary or pass Go.", "They move directly to the \"In Jail\" part of the \"In Jail/Just Visiting\" space, and their turn ends.", "If an ordinary dice roll (not one of the above events) ends with the player's token on the Jail corner, they are \"Just Visiting\" and can move ahead on their next turn without penalty.If a player is in Jail, they cannot move and must either pay a fine of $50 to be released, use a Chance or Community Chest Get Out of Jail Free card, or roll doubles on their next turn.", "If a player fails to roll doubles, they lose their turn.", "Failing to roll doubles for three consecutive turns requires the player to either pay the $50 fine or use a Get Out of Jail Free card, then get out of jail move ahead according to the total rolled.", "Players in Jail may not buy properties directly from the bank since they cannot move.", "This does not impede any other transaction, meaning they can: mortgage properties, sell/trade properties to other players, buy/sell houses and hotels, collect rent, and bid on property auctions.", "A player who rolls doubles to leave jail does not roll again; however, if the player pays the fine or uses a card to get out and then rolls doubles, they take another turn.The odds of rolling doubles are 6 in 36 (1 in 6) in any given roll, hence the odds of rolling into jail due to three consecutive doubles are 1 in 216 (the cube of 6.", ")====Properties====If the player lands on an unowned property, whether street, railroad, or utility, they must buy it or put it up for auction, based on the player's choice.", "If they want to buy it, they pay the listed purchase price.", "If they decline this purchase, the property is auctioned off by the bank to the highest bidder, including the player who declined to buy.", "If they land on a property that someone else owns and is unmortgaged, they must pay the owner a given rent if the landlord calls for the rent within a certain time (typically it must be called before the next one or two players have thrown the dice, depending on edition); the amount depends on whether the property is part of a set or its level of improvement.", "Players may trade properties or sell them to other players at any time in any deal that is mutually agreed upon, with the exception of buildings.", "Once the player owns an ''entire'' group, they can collect double rent for any unimproved properties within it.When a player owns all the properties in a color group and none of them are mortgaged, they can start buying houses on their turn or in between any other player's turn.", "They pay the bank the cost listed on the property deed to place a house on the property; this must be done evenly.", "Therefore, a second house cannot be built on any property within a group until all of them have one house; however, you do not have to buy them in sets of two/three at a time.", "Although houses and hotels cannot be built on railroads or utilities, the given rent increases if a player owns more than one of either type.", "If there is a housing shortage (more demand for houses to be built than what remains in the bank), then a housing auction is conducted by the bank to determine who will get to purchase each house.====Mortgaging====Properties can also be mortgaged, but buildings on a monopoly must be sold before any property of that color can be mortgaged or traded.", "The player receives half the purchase price from the bank for each mortgaged property.", "This must be repaid with 10% interest to unmortgage.", "Houses and hotels can be sold back to the bank for half their purchase price.", "Players cannot collect rent on mortgaged properties and cannot give improved property away to others; however, trading mortgaged properties is allowed, but the player receiving the mortgaged property must pay the bank the mortgage price plus 10% or keep the property mortgaged by paying just the 10% amount; if the player chooses the latter, they must pay the 10% again when they pay unmortgage.====Bankruptcy====A player who cannot pay their debts is considered bankrupt and is eliminated from the game.", "If the bankrupt player owes the bank, they must return all of their properties over to the bank.", "All properties must be put up for auction (if they have any), except buildings.", "If the debt is owed to another player, all properties are given to that opponent, except buildings, which must be returned to the bank.", "The new owner must either pay off any mortgages held by the bank on the properties received or pay a fee of 10% of the mortgaged value if they choose to leave the properties mortgaged.The winner is the player remaining after all others have gone bankrupt.", "In a 2-player game, if a player goes bankrupt to the other player or the bank, the game is over and there is no need for the bank to conduct the auction as the other player will have automatically won.", "The winning player only then needs to pay the final fees from the property transfer.If a player runs out of money but still has assets that can be converted to cash, they can do so by selling buildings, mortgaging properties, or trading with other players.", "To avoid bankruptcy, the player must be able to raise enough cash to pay the full amount owed.A player cannot choose to go bankrupt; if it is still possible to pay what they owe, even by returning all their buildings at a loss, mortgaging all their real estate and giving up all their cash, even knowing they are likely going bankrupt the next time, they must do so.===Official Short Game rules===From 1936, the rules booklet included with each Monopoly set contained a short section at the end providing rules for making the game shorter, including dealing out two Title Deed cards to each player before starting the game, by setting a time limit or by ending the game after the second player goes bankrupt.", "A later version of the rules included this variant, along with the time limit game, in the main rules booklet, omitting the last, the second bankruptcy method, as a third short game.===House rules===Many house rules have emerged for the game throughout its history.", "Well-known is the \"Free Parking jackpot rule\", where all the money collected from Income Tax, Luxury Tax, Chance and Community Chest goes to the center of the board instead of the bank.", "Many people add $500 to start each pile of Free Parking money, guaranteeing a minimum payout.", "When a player lands on Free Parking, they may take the money.", "Another rule is that if a player lands directly on Go (rather than passing by it on their turn), they collect double the usual amount ($400 instead of $200).", "Another rule is that if a player is in jail, they cannot collect rent, bid during auctions, or do any transactions.Other commonly-used house rules include: eliminating property auctions if a player declines to buy or cannot afford an unowned property on which they land; awarding additional money for rolling \"snake eyes\", allowing a player to loan money to another player; or enabling someone to grant rent immunity to someone else.Since these rules typically provide additional cash to players regardless of their property management choices, they can lengthen the game considerably and limit the role of strategy.Video game and computer game versions of ''Monopoly'' have a couple of options where popular house rules can be used.", "In 2014, Hasbro determined five popular house rules by public Facebook vote, and released a \"House Rules Edition\" of the board game.", "Rules selected include a \"Free Parking\" house rule without additional money and forcing players to traverse the board once before buying properties." ], [ "Strategy", "According to Jim Slater in ''The Mayfair Set'', the Orange property group is the best to own because players land on them more often, as a result of the Chance cards \"Go to Jail\", \"Advance to St. Charles Place (Pall Mall)\", \"Advance to Reading Railroad (Kings Cross Station)\" and \"Go Back Three Spaces\".In all, during game play, Illinois Avenue (Trafalgar Square) (Red), New York Avenue (Vine Street) (Orange), B&O Railroad (Fenchurch Street Station), and Reading Railroad (Kings Cross Station) are the most frequently landed-upon properties.", "Mediterranean Avenue (Old Kent Road) (brown), Baltic Avenue (Whitechapel Road) (brown), Park Place (Park Lane) (blue), and Oriental Avenue (The Angel, Islington) (light blue) are the least-landed-upon properties.", "Among the property groups, the Railroads are most frequently landed upon, as no other group has four properties; Orange has the next highest frequency, followed by Red.According to ''Business Insider'', the best way to get the most out of every property is to build three houses on each as quickly as possible.", "In order to do so, the player must have all the corresponding properties of the color set.", "Once every possible property has three houses, it is advised they then upgrade to hotels.=== Trading ===Trading is a vital strategy in order to accumulate all the properties in a color set.", "Obtaining all the properties in a specific color set enables the player to buy houses and hotels which increase the rent another player has to pay when they land on the property.", "According to ''Slate'', players trade to speed up the process and secure a win.", "Building at least 3 houses on each property allows the player to break even once at least one player lands on this property.===End game===One common criticism of ''Monopoly'' is that although it has carefully defined termination conditions, it may take an unlimited amount of time to reach them.", "Edward P. Parker, a former president of Parker Brothers, is quoted as saying, \"We always felt that forty-five minutes was about the right length for a game, but ''Monopoly'' could go on for hours.", "Also, a game was supposed to have a definite end somewhere.", "In ''Monopoly'' you kept going around and around.", "\"Hasbro states that the longest game of ''Monopoly'' ever played lasted 70 days." ], [ "Related games", "===Add-ons===Numerous add-ons have been produced for ''Monopoly'', sold independently from the game both before its commercialization and after, with three official ones discussed below:====''Stock Exchange''====The original ''Stock Exchange'' add-on was published by Capitol Novelty Co. of Rensselaer, New York in early 1936.It was marketed as an add-on for ''Monopoly'', ''Finance'', or ''Easy Money'' games.", "Shortly after Capitol Novelty introduced ''Stock Exchange'', Parker Brothers bought it from them then marketed their own, slightly redesigned, version as an add-on specifically for their \"new\" ''Monopoly'' game; the Parker Brothers version was available in June 1936.The Free Parking square is covered over by a new Stock Exchange space and the add-on included three Chance and three Community Chest cards directing the player to \"Advance to Stock Exchange\".The ''Stock Exchange'' add-on was later redesigned and re-released in 1992 under license by Chessex, this time including a larger number of new Chance and Community Chest cards.", "This version included ten new Chance cards (five \"Advance to Stock Exchange\" and five other related cards) and eleven new Community Chest cards (five \"Advance to Stock Exchange\" and six other related cards; the regular Community Chest card \"From sale of stock you get $45\" is removed from play when using these cards).", "Many of the original rules applied to this new version (in fact, one optional play choice allows for playing in the original form by only adding the \"Advance to Stock Exchange\" cards to each deck).A ''Monopoly Stock Exchange Edition'' was released in 2001 (although not in the U.S.), this time adding an electronic calculator-like device to keep track of the complex stock figures.", "This was a full edition, not just an add-on, that came with its own board, money and playing pieces.", "Properties on the board were replaced by companies on which shares could be floated, and offices and home offices (instead of houses and hotels) could be built.====Playmaster====Playmaster, another official add-on, released in 1982, is an electronic device that keeps track of all player movement and dice rolls as well as what properties are still available.", "It then uses this information to call random auctions and mortgages making it easier to free up cards of a color group.", "It also plays eight short tunes when key game functions occur; for example when a player lands on a railroad it plays \"I've Been Working on the Railroad\", and a police car's siren sounds when a player goes to Jail.====''Get Out of Jail'' and ''Free Parking'' Minigames====In 2009, Hasbro released two minigames that can be played as stand-alone games or combined with the ''Monopoly'' game.", "In ''Get Out of Jail'', the goal is to manipulate a spade under a jail cell to flick out various colored prisoners.", "The game can be used as an alternative to rolling doubles to get out of jail.", "In ''Free Parking'', players attempt to balance taxis on a wobbly board.", "The ''Free Parking'' add-on can also be used with the Monopoly game.", "When a player lands on the Free Parking, the player can take the Taxi Challenge, and if successful, can move to any space on the board.====Speed Die====The Speed DieFirst included in Winning Moves' ''Monopoly: The Mega Edition'' variant, this third, six-sided die is rolled with the other two, and accelerates game-play when in use.", "In 2007, Parker Brothers began releasing its standard version (also called the Speed Die Edition) of ''Monopoly'' with the same die (originally in blue, later in red).", "Its faces are: 1, 2, 3, two \"Mr.", "Monopoly\" sides, and a bus.", "The numbers behave as normal, adding to the other two dice, unless a \"triple\" is rolled, in which case the player can move to any space on the board.", "If \"Mr.", "Monopoly\" is rolled while there are unowned properties, the player advances forward to the nearest one.", "Otherwise, the player advances to the nearest property on which rent is owed.", "In the ''Monopoly: Mega Edition'', rolling the bus allows the player to take the regular dice move, then either take a bus ticket or move to the nearest draw card space.Mega rules specifies that triples do not count as doubles for going to jail as the player does not roll again.", "Used in a regular edition, the bus (properly \"get off the bus\") allows the player to use only one of the two numbered dice or the sum of both, thus a roll of 1, 5, and bus would let the player choose between moving 1, 5, or 6 spaces.", "The Speed Die is used throughout the game in the \"Mega Edition\", while in the \"Regular Edition\" it is used by any player who has passed GO at least once.", "In these editions it remains optional, although use of the Speed Die was made mandatory for use in the 2009 U.S. and World Monopoly Championship, as well as the 2015 World Championship.===Spin-offs===Parker Brothers and its licensees have also sold several spin-offs of ''Monopoly''.", "These are not add-ons, as they do not function as an addition to the ''Monopoly'' game, but are simply additional games with the flavor of ''Monopoly'':* ''Advance to Boardwalk'' board game (1985): Focusing mainly on building the most hotels along the Boardwalk.", "* ''Don't Go to Jail'': Dice game originally released by Parker Brothers; roll combinations of dice to create color groups for points before rolling the words \"GO\" \"TO\" and \"JAIL\" (which forfeits all earned points for the turn).", "* ''Monopoly Express'': A deluxe, travel edition re-release of ''Don't Go To Jail'', replacing the word dice with \"Officer Jones\" dice and adding an eleventh die, Houses & Hotels, and a self-contained game container/dice roller & keeper.", "In 2021, this game was re-released as '''''Monopoly DICED!", "''''', with the same elements and gameplay, but in a square container rather than the round one used for the ''Express'' version.", "* ''Express Monopoly'' card game (1994 U.S., 1995 U.K.): Released by Hasbro/Parker Brothers and Waddingtons in the U.K., now out of print.", "Basically a rummy-style card game based on scoring points by completing color group sections of the game-board.", "* ''Free Parking'' card game (1988) A more complex card game released by Parker Brothers, with several similarities to the card game ''Mille Bornes''.", "Uses cards to either add time to parking meters, or spend the time doing activities to earn points.", "Includes a deck of Second Chance cards that further alter game-play.", "Two editions were made; minor differences in card art and Second Chance cards in each edition.", "* ''Monopoly: The Card Game'' (2000) an updated card game released by Winning Moves Games under license from Hasbro.", "Similar, but decidedly more complex, game-play to the ''Express Monopoly'' card game.", "* ''Monopoly City'': Game-play retains similar flavor but has been made significantly more complex in this version.", "The traditional properties are replaced by \"districts\" mapped to the previously underutilized real estate in the centre of the board.", "* ''Monopoly Deal'': The card game version of ''Monopoly''.", "Players attempt to complete three property groups by playing property, cash & event cards.", "* ''Monopoly Junior'' board game (first published 1990, multiple variations since): A simplified version of the original game for young children.", "* ''Monopoly Town'' by Parker Brothers / Hasbro (2008) a young children's game of racing designed to help them learn to count.", "* ''The Mad Magazine Game'' (1979): Gameplay is similar, but the goals and directions often opposite to those of ''Monopoly''; the object is for players to lose all of their money.===Monopoly for Sore Losers==='''Monopoly for Sore Losers''' is a spin-off of Monopoly.", "It was published in 2020 by Hasbro and, according to the box, \"creates—and celebrates—sore losers\".Its main difference from standard Monopoly is the introduction of a sore loser mechanic, which allows players to temporarily assume control of a special token that protects them from most negative effects of landing on board spaces—at their opponents' expense.==== Gameplay differences from regular Monopoly ====During the initial roll to determine turn order, the player with the lowest total goes first.The main difference from standard Monopoly is the introduction of the sore loser mechanic.", "Each player is given 2 sore loser coins upon the start of the game, and the remainder are placed in the centre of the board.", "A player collects a sore loser coin from the Bank if they have to do any of the following: pay rent to another player, pay taxes and bills to the Bank, go to jail, land on a property that they own, or draw a Chance or Community Chest card that instructs them to collect a coin.", "If a player lands on Free Parking, they are allowed to steal a sore loser coin from another player, which could be traded.A player may not collect a sore loser coin if they have four.", "At the beginning of their turn, a player with four sore loser coins, may place them in the centre of the board.", "That player then takes the Mr.", "Monopoly token and replaces their token with the Mr.", "Monopoly token—their normal token being placed in the centre of the board.", "Whilst a player is Mr.", "Monopoly, they cannot collect sore loser coins, and the actions they take when landing on spaces are altered, including collecting money when landing on the properties of other players, collecting money from the bank when landing on a tax or bill space, not go to jail, and requiring other players to lose sore loser coins.Whenever any player, including Mr.", "Monopoly's owner, rolls doubles, Mr.", "Monopoly's owner is allowed to place one free house on any street on the board.", "The property selected for this free house does not need to be owned by Mr.", "Monopoly, nor does it need to be part of a complete set, and placing doubles houses unevenly is also allowed.", "However, Mr.", "Monopoly's owner may not place this free house on a street that already has four houses, nor may they upgrade to a hotel.Buildings are permanent and could not be sold.", "If a property with buildings on it is traded away, the buildings remain and start providing rent to the new owner.If Mr.", "Monopoly's dice roll makes him land on the same space as another player, the Mr.", "Monopoly token is placed over that other player's token, and Mr.", "Monopoly's owner is allowed to steal one property from the player he landed on—said property must not be part of a complete set.", "If a property with buildings on it is stolen, the buildings remain on the property and start providing rent to Mr.", "Monopoly's owner.", "In addition, whilst a player is under Mr.", "Monopoly, they are trapped—their turn will be skipped until Mr.", "Monopoly moves, but said players can still take part in auctions and trade.", "If Mr.", "Monopoly lands on the Jail space, he traps other players on both spaces.", "However, these actions could not be taken if a player becomes Mr.", "Monopoly whilst on the same space as another player.Once Mr.", "Monopoly is in play, if another player cashes in their sore loser coins to become him, the old owner restores their normal token to the space they are on, and Mr.", "Monopoly is transferred to the space of the new owner, whose token is placed in the centre of the board.If a player goes bankrupt, their sore loser coins are returned to the centre of the board.The game is ended through one of two means- bankruptcy or all of the properties have been purchased.", "If the latter happens, players must return to Go, with Mr.", "Monopoly's owner not allowed to steal a property when they land on Go for the final time.", "Players subsequently collect rent from all of their properties, according to full colour sets and development, and after that the player with the most capital is the winner.===Video games===Besides the many variants of the actual game (and the ''Monopoly Junior'' spin-off) released in either video game or computer game formats (e.g., Commodore 64, Macintosh, Windows-based PC, Game Boy, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo Entertainment System, iPad, Genesis, Super NES, etc.", "), two spin-off computer games have been created.", "An electronic hand-held version was marketed from 1997 to 2001.", "* ''Monopoly'': The iPhone game designed by Electronic Arts.", "* ''Monopoly Millionaires'': The Facebook game designed by Playfish.", "* ''Monopoly Streets'': A video game played for the Xbox 360, Wii, and PlayStation 3.The video game includes properties now played on a street.", "* ''Monopoly Tycoon'': A game where players build businesses on the properties they own.", "* ''Monopoly Plus'': A game for the Xbox One, Nintendo Switch, and PlayStation 4 with high definition graphics.", "* ''Monopoly'': The mobile game on iOS and Android devices designed by Marmalade Game Studios.===Gambling games===''Monopoly''-themed slot machines and lotteries have been produced by WMS Gaming in conjunction with International Game Technology for land-based casinos.", "WagerWorks, who have the online rights to ''Monopoly'', have created online ''Monopoly'' themed games.London's Gamesys Group have also developed ''Monopoly''-themed gambling games.", "The British quiz machine brand itbox also supports a ''Monopoly'' trivia and chance game.There was also a live, online version of ''Monopoly''.", "Six painted taxis drive around London picking up passengers.", "When the taxis reach their final destination, the region of London that they are in is displayed on the online board.", "This version takes far longer to play than board-game ''Monopoly'', with one game lasting 24 hours.", "Results and position are sent to players via e-mail at the conclusion of the game.===Play-by-mail game===Mail Games Inc. created a play-by-mail game (PBM) version of ''Monopoly'', reviewed in the August–September 1990 issue of ''White Wolf Magazine''.", "The PBM version was similar to the board game, although compared with many PBM games it was relatively simple.", "The game moderator processed players' turn orders simultaneously, but alternated the order that players' turns were initiated to allow sequential transactions as in the board game." ], [ "Media", "===Commercial promotions===The ''McDonald's Monopoly'' game is a sweepstakes advertising promotion of McDonald's and Hasbro that has been offered in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Taiwan, United Kingdom and United States.===Television game show===A short-lived ''Monopoly'' game show aired on Saturday evenings from June 16 to September 1, 1990, on ABC.", "The show was produced by Merv Griffin and hosted by Mike Reilly.", "The show was paired with a summer-long ''Super Jeopardy!''", "tournament, which also aired during this period on ABC.From 2010 to 2014, The Hub aired the game show ''Family Game Night'' with Todd Newton.", "For the first two seasons, teams earned cash in the form of \"Monopoly Crazy Cash Cards\" from the \"Monopoly Crazy Cash Corner\", which was then inserted to the \"Monopoly Crazy Cash Machine\" at the end of the show.", "In addition, beginning with Season 2, teams won \"Monopoly Party Packages\" for winning the individual games.", "For Season 3, there was a Community Chest.", "Each card on Mr.", "Monopoly had a combination of three colors.", "Teams used the combination card to unlock the chest.", "If it was the right combination, they advanced to the Crazy Cash Machine for a brand-new car.", "For the show's fourth season, a new game was added called Monopoly Remix, featuring Park Place and Boardwalk, as well as Income Tax and Luxury Tax.To honor the game's 80th anniversary, a game show in syndication on March 28, 2015, called ''Monopoly Millionaires' Club'' was launched.", "It was connected with a multi-state lottery game of the same name and hosted by comedian Billy Gardell from ''Mike & Molly''.", "The game show was filmed at the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino and at Bally's Las Vegas in Las Vegas, with players having a chance to win up to $1,000,000.However, the lottery game connected with the game show (which provided the contestants) went through multiple complications and variations, and the game show last aired at the end of April 2016.===Films===In November 2008, Ridley Scott was announced to direct Universal Pictures' film version of the game, based on a script written by Pamela Pettler.", "The film was being co-produced by Hasbro's Brian Goldner as part of a deal with Hasbro to develop movies based on the company's line of toys and games.", "The story was being developed by author Frank Beddor.", "However, Universal eventually halted development in February 2012 then opted out of the agreement and the rights reverted to Hasbro.In October 2012, Hasbro announced a new partnership with production company Emmett/Furla Films, and said they would develop a live-action version of ''Monopoly'', along with Action Man and Hungry Hungry Hippos.", "Emmett/Furla/Oasis dropped out of the production of this satire version that was to be directed by Ridley Scott.In July 2015, Hasbro announced that Lionsgate will distribute a ''Monopoly'' film with Andrew Niccol writing the film as a family-friendly action adventure film co-financed and produced by Lionsgate and Hasbro's Allspark Pictures.In January 2019, it was announced that Allspark Pictures would now be producing an untitled ''Monopoly'' film in conjunction with Kevin Hart's company HartBeat Productions and The Story Company.", "Hart is attached to star in the film and Tim Story is attached to direct.", "No logline or writer for this iteration of the long-gestating project has been announced.The documentary ''Under the Boardwalk: The MONOPOLY Story'', covering the history and players of the game, won an Audience Award for Best Documentary at the 2010 Anaheim International Film Festival.", "The film played theatrically in the U.S. beginning in March 2011 and was released on Amazon and iTunes on February 14, 2012.The television version of the film won four regional Emmy Awards from the Pacific Southwest Chapter of NATAS.", "The film is directed by Kevin Tostado and narrated by Zachary Levi.It is the subject of Stephen Ives' documentary film ''Ruthless: Monopoly's Secret History'' which first aired on ''American Experience'' on February 20, 2023." ], [ "Tournaments", "===U.S.", "National Championship===Until 1999, U.S. entrants had to win a state/district/territory competition to represent that state/district/territory at the once every four-year national championship.", "The 1999 U.S. National Tournament had 50 contestants—49 State Champions (Oklahoma was not represented) and the reigning national champion.Qualifying for the National Championship has been online since 2003.For the 2003 Championship, qualification was limited to the first fifty people who correctly completed an online quiz.", "Out of concerns that such methods of qualifying might not always ensure a competition of the best players, the 2009 Championship qualifying was expanded to include an online multiple-choice quiz (a score of 80% or better was required to advance); followed by an online five-question essay test; followed by a two-game online tournament at Pogo.com.", "The process was to have produced a field of 23 plus one: Matt McNally, the 2003 national champion, who received a bye and was not required to qualify.", "However, at the end of the online tournament, there was an eleven-way tie for the last six spots.", "The decision was made to invite all of those who had tied for said spots.", "In fact, two of those who had tied and would have otherwise been eliminated, Dale Crabtree of Indianapolis, Indiana, and Brandon Baker, of Tuscaloosa, Alabama, played in the final game and finished third and fourth respectively.The 2009 ''Monopoly'' U.S. National Championship was held on April 14–15 in Washington, D.C.", "In his first tournament ever, Richard Marinaccio, an attorney from Sloan, New York (a suburb of Buffalo), prevailed over a field that included two previous champions to be crowned the 2009 U.S. National Champion.", "In addition to the title, Marinaccio took home $20,580—the amount of money in the bank of the board game—and competed in the 2009 World Championship in Las Vegas, Nevada, on October 21–22, where he finished in third place.In 2015, Hasbro used a competition that was held solely online to determine who would be the U.S. representative to compete at the 2015 ''Monopoly'' World Championship.", "Interested players took a twenty-question quiz on ''Monopoly'' strategy and rules and submitted a hundred-word essay on how to win a ''Monopoly'' tournament.", "Hasbro then selected Brian Valentine of Washington, D.C., to be the U.S. representative.===World Championship===Hasbro conducts a worldwide ''Monopoly'' tournament.", "The first ''Monopoly'' World Championships took place in Grossinger's Resort in New York, in November 1973, but they did not include competitors from outside the United States until 1975.It has been aired in the United States by ESPN.", "In 2009, forty-one players competed for the title of ''Monopoly'' World Champion and a cash prize of $20,580 (USD)—the total amount of Monopoly money in the current Monopoly set used in the tournament.", "The most recent World Championship took place September 2015 in Macau.", "Italian Nicolò Falcone defeated the defending world champion and players from twenty-six other countries.", "A World Championship had been planned for 2021 and 2022, but Hasbro has canceled it due to the Coronavirus pandemic.DateLocationWinnerNationality1973 Liberty, New YorkLee Bayrd1974 New York CityAlvin Aldridge1975 Washington, D.C.John Mair1977 Monte CarloChong Seng Kwa1980Cesare Bernabei1983 Palm BeachGreg Jacobs1985 Atlantic CityJason Bunn1988 LondonIkuo Hyakuta1992 BerlinJoost van Orten1996 Monte CarloChristopher Woo2000 TorontoYutaka Okada2004 TokyoAntonio Zafra Fernández2009 Las VegasBjørn Halvard Knappskog2015Nicolò Falcone" ], [ "Variants", "Because ''Monopoly'' evolved in the public domain before its commercialization, ''Monopoly'' has seen many variant games.", "The game is licensed in 103 countries and printed in thirty-seven languages.", "Most of the variants are exact copies of the ''Monopoly'' games with the street names replaced with locales from a particular town, university, or fictional place.", "National boards have been released as well.", "Over the years, many specialty ''Monopoly'' editions, licensed by Parker Brothers/Hasbro, and produced by them, or their licensees (including USAopoly and Winning Moves Games) have been sold to local and national markets worldwide.", "Two well known \"families\" of -opoly like games, without licenses from Parker Brothers/Hasbro, have also been produced.Several published games like ''Monopoly'' include:* ''Anti-Monopoly'', one of several games that are a sort of ''Monopoly'' backwards.", "The name of this game led to legal action between ''Anti-Monopoly''s creator, Ralph Anspach, and the owners of ''Monopoly''.", "* ''Business'', a ''Monopoly''-like game not associated with Hasbro.", "In this version the \"properties\" to be bought are cities of India; Chance and Community Chest reference lists of results printed in the center of the board, keyed to the dice roll; and money is represented by counters, not paper.", "* ''Dostihy a sázky'', a variant sold in Czechoslovakia.", "This game comes from the authoritarian communist era (1948–1989), when private business was abolished and mortgages did not exist, so the monopoly theme was changed to a horse racing theme.", "* ''Ghettopoly'', released in 2003, was the subject of considerable outrage upon its release.", "The game, intended to be a humorous rendering of ghetto life, was decried as racist for its unflinching use of racial stereotypes.", "Hasbro sought and received an injunction against ''Ghettopoly's'' designer.", "* ''Make Your Own -OPOLY'': This game allows players considerable freedom in customizing the board, money, and rules.", "* ''Matador'': The unlicensed Danish version from BRIO with a round board instead of the square one, cars instead of tokens and includes breweries and ferries to buy.", "The game also has candy and a popular TV series ''Matador'' named after it.", "* ''Turism'', a variant sold in Romania.", "* ''Kleptopoly'', released in 2017.It was inspired by the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal.", "* ''Monopoly for Millennials'', released in 2018, where players gain experience by traveling around numerous locations, such as vegan bistros, yoga studios, and music festivals.Other unlicensed editions include: ''BibleOpoly'', ''HomoNoPolis'' and Petropolis, among others.===Games by locale or theme===There have been a large number of localized editions, broken down here by region:* List of licensed and localized editions of ''Monopoly'': Africa and Asia (including the Middle East and South-East Asia but excluding Russia and Turkey)* List of licensed and localized editions of ''Monopoly'': Europe (including Russia and Turkey)* List of licensed and localized editions of ''Monopoly'': North America (including Central America but excluding the United States of America)* List of licensed and localized editions of ''Monopoly'': Oceania (Australia and New Zealand)* List of licensed and localized editions of ''Monopoly'': South America* List of licensed and localized editions of ''Monopoly'': USA (including the United States of America and all editions based on commercial brands)===Unauthorized and parody games===This list is of unauthorized, unlicensed games based on ''Monopoly'':GhettopolyMiddopolyMemeopolis (Android app)===World editions===In 2008, Hasbro released ''Monopoly Here and Now: The World Edition''.", "This world edition features top locations of the world.", "The locations were decided by votes over the Internet.", "The result of the voting was announced on August 20, 2008.Out of these, Gdynia is especially notable, as it is by far the smallest city of those featured and won the vote as a \"wild card\" along with Taipei thanks to its residents and supporters.It is also notable that three cities (Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver) are from Canada and three other cities (Beijing, Hong Kong, and Shanghai) are from the People's Republic of China.", "No other countries are represented by more than one city.Of the 68 cities listed on Hasbro Inc.'s website for the vote, Jerusalem was chosen as one of the 20 cities to be featured in the newest ''Monopoly'' World Edition.", "Before the vote took place, a Hasbro employee in the London office eliminated the country signifier \"Israel\" after the city, in response to pressure from pro-Palestinian advocacy groups.", "After the Israeli government protested, Hasbro Inc. issued a statement that read: \"It was a bad decision, one that we rectified relatively quickly.", "This is a game.", "We never wanted to enter into any political debate.", "We apologize to our ''Monopoly'' fans.", "\"A similar online vote was held in early 2015 for an updated version of the game.", "The resulting board was released worldwide in late 2015.Lima, Peru, won the vote to hold the Boardwalk space.===Deluxe editions===Hasbro sells a ''Deluxe Edition'', which is mostly identical to the classic edition but has wooden houses and hotels and gold-toned tokens, including one token in addition to the standard eleven, a railroad locomotive.", "Other additions to the ''Deluxe Edition'' include a card carousel, which holds the title deed cards, and money printed with two colors of ink.In 1978, retailer Neiman Marcus manufactured and sold an all-chocolate edition of ''Monopoly'' through its ''Christmas Wish Book'' for that year.", "The entire set was edible, including the money, dice, hotels, properties, tokens and playing board.", "The set retailed for $600.In 2000, the FAO Schwarz store in New York City sold a custom version called ''One-Of-A-Kind Monopoly'' for $100,000.This special edition comes in a locking attaché case made with Napolino leather and lined in suede, and features include:* 18-carat (75%) gold tokens, houses, and hotels* Rosewood board* Street names written in gold leaf* Emeralds around the Chance icon* Sapphires around the Community Chest* Rubies in the brake lights of the car on the Free Parking Space* The money is real, negotiable United States currencyThe ''Guinness Book of World Records'' states that a set worth $2,000,000 and made of 23-carat gold, with rubies and sapphires atop the chimneys of the houses and hotels, is the most expensive ''Monopoly'' set ever produced.", "This set was designed by artist Sidney Mobell to honor the game's 50th anniversary in 1985, and is now in the Smithsonian Institution." ], [ "Reception", "Despite the game's legacy and forming a prominent aspect of modern culture, contemporary reviews of ''Monopoly'' are largely negative.", "On BoardGameGeek, the game is ranked in the bottom ten board games, with a mean rating of 4.4/10.", "''Wired'' magazine believes ''Monopoly'' is a poorly designed game.", "Former Wall Streeter Derk Solko explains, \"''Monopoly'' has you grinding your opponents into dust.", "It's a very negative experience.", "It's all about cackling when your opponent lands on your space and you get to take all their money.\"", "''Wired'' further observed that most of the three to four-hour average playing time is spent waiting for other players to play their turn, and there is usually little to no choice involved.", "\"Board game enthusiasts disparagingly call this a 'roll your dice, move your mice' format.\"", "FiveThirtyEight also stated that the game suffers from issues of elimination and a runaway leader, problems that \"most game designers nowadays try to avoid\".", "The Guardian also describes Monopoly as \"a collection of terrible design choices\" combined with \"an array of house rules that serve only to make the experience ever more interminable\".", "''Games'' magazine included ''Monopoly'' in their \"Top 100 Games of 1980\", praising it as \"the original landlord game in which players buy, sell, and rent Atlantic City real estate at pre-casino prices\" and noting that at the time it was \"so popular that Parker Brothers prints more paper money each year than the U.S Government\".", "''Games'' magazine included ''Monopoly'' in their \"Top 100 Games of 1981\", noting that despite having been \"Initially rejected by both Parker and Milton Bradley as containing 'fundamental errors' that the public would not accept\", it became \"one of the most popular games in the world, and deservedly so\".", "''Games'' magazine included ''Monopoly'' in their \"Top 100 Games of 1982\", commenting that \"The orange monopoly is the best ...", "Try counting how many times you land on it as you leave jail.\"" ], [ "Reviews", "*''Family Games: The 100 Best''" ], [ "Figurative language", "Monopoly's popularity has led to it spawning a number of English turns of phrase.", "These include:* Rich Uncle Pennybags, also known as \"Mr.", "Monopoly\", the game's mascot character* Get Out of Jail Free card, a popular metaphor for something that will get one out of an undesired situation* Monopoly money, a derisive term to refer to money not really worth anything, or at least not being used as if it is worth anything.", "It could also allude to colorful currency notes used in some countries, such as Canada.", "* \"Do not pass Go.", "Do not collect $200\" is a phrase used in ''Monopoly'' that has become widely used in popular culture to describe an action forced upon a person that has only negative results.", "The phrase comes from the game's Chance and Community Chest cards, which a player must draw from if they land on specific spaces.", "Each deck has a card that reads \"GO TO JAIL: Go directly to Jail.", "Do not pass Go.", "Do not collect $200.\"", "Early in the game, going to jail usually hurts a player as it prevents them from moving, which regularly leads to earning $200 from passing Go, and from landing on and buying property, though in the later game, jail prevents them from landing on others' developed property and having to pay rent.", "The cited phrase, \"Do not pass Go.", "Do not collect $200\", distinguishes the effect from other cards that move players; other cards use the phrasing \"Advance to a particular location\", which does allow the player to collect $200 if they pass Go during the advance.", "The phrase is used in popular culture to denote a situation in which there is only one immediate, highly unfavorable, irreversible outcome and has been described as a \"harsh cliché\"." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * Reader's Digest: The truth about history (2003) article \"Monopoly on ideas\".", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * Database of street names in local editions* Monopoly Nerd Blog The strategies, tactics, and math behind ''Monopoly''.", "* ''Monopoly'' Tournaments.com* Online ''Monopoly'' Simulator interactive, customizable real-world ''Monopoly'' simulator and estimated win percentage generator.", "* Over 1700 ''Monopoly'' versions, updated continuously (some unofficial)* Patent awarded to C. B. Darrow for ''Monopoly'' on December 31, 1935* What The ''Monopoly'' Properties Look Like In Real Life « Scouting NY (September 23, 2013)* worldofmonopoly.com ''Monopoly'' history, properties around the world and various editions." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Max Steiner" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Maximilian Raoul Steiner''' (May 10, 1888 – December 28, 1971) was an Austrian composer and conductor who emigrated to America and became one of Hollywood's greatest musical composers.Steiner was a child prodigy who conducted his first operetta when he was twelve and became a full-time professional, proficient at composing, arranging, and conducting, by the time he was fifteen.", "Threatened with internment in England during World War I, he fled to Broadway; and in 1929 he moved to Hollywood, where he became one of the first composers to write music scores for films.", "He is often referred to as \"the father of film music\", as Steiner played a major part in creating the tradition of writing music for films, along with composers Dimitri Tiomkin, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Franz Waxman, Alfred Newman, Bernard Herrmann, and Miklós Rózsa.Steiner composed over 300 film scores with RKO Pictures and Warner Bros., and was nominated for 24 Academy Awards, winning three: ''The Informer'' (1935); ''Now, Voyager'' (1942); and ''Since You Went Away'' (1944).", "Besides his Oscar-winning scores, some of Steiner's popular works include ''King Kong'' (1933), ''Little Women'' (1933), ''Jezebel'' (1938), and ''Casablanca'' (1942), though he did not compose its love theme, \"As Time Goes By\".", "In addition, Steiner scored ''The Searchers'' (1956), ''A Summer Place'' (1959), and ''Gone with the Wind'' (1939), which ranked second on the AFI's list of best American film scores, and is the film score for which he is best known.He was also the first recipient of the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score, which he won for his score for ''Life with Father''.", "Steiner was a frequent collaborator with some of the best known film directors in history, including Michael Curtiz, John Ford, and William Wyler, and scored many of the films with Errol Flynn, Bette Davis, Humphrey Bogart, and Fred Astaire.", "Many of his film scores are available as separate soundtrack recordings." ], [ "Biography", "===Early years (1888–1907)===Max Steiner's birthplace in Vienna today, Praterstraße 72Max Steiner was born on May 10, 1888, in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, as the only child in a wealthy business and theatrical family of Jewish heritage.", "He was named after his paternal grandfather, Maximilian Steiner (1839–1880), who was credited with first persuading Johann Strauss II to write for the theater, and was the influential manager of Vienna's historic Theater an der Wien.", "His parents were Marie Josefine/Mirjam (Hasiba) and Hungarian-Jewish (1858–1944, born in Temesvár, Kingdom of Hungary, Austrian Empire), a Viennese impresario, carnival exposition manager, and inventor, responsible for building the Wiener Riesenrad.", "His father encouraged Steiner's musical talent, and allowed him to conduct an American operetta at the age of twelve, ''The Belle of New York'', which allowed Steiner to gain early recognition by the operetta's author, Gustave Kerker.", "Steiner's mother Marie was a dancer in stage productions put on by his grandfather when she was young, but later became involved in the restaurant business.", "His godfather was the composer Richard Strauss who strongly influenced Steiner's future work.", "Steiner often credited his family for inspiring his early musical abilities.", "As early as six years old, Steiner was taking three or four piano lessons a week, yet often became bored of the lessons.", "Because of this, he would practice improvising on his own, his father encouraging him to write his music down.", "Steiner cited his early improvisation as an influence of his taste in music, particularly his interest in the music of Claude Debussy which was \"avant garde\" for the time.", "In his youth, he began his composing career through his work on marches for regimental bands and hit songs for a show put on by his father.Steiner's parents sent him to the Vienna University of Technology, but he expressed little interest in scholastic subjects.", "He enrolled in the Imperial Academy of Music in 1904, where, due to his precocious musical talents and private tutoring by Robert Fuchs, and Gustav Mahler, he completed a four-year course in only one year, winning himself a gold medal from the academy at the age of fifteen.", "He studied various instruments including violin, double bass, organ, and trumpet.", "His preferred and best instrument was the piano, but he acknowledged the importance of being familiar with what the other instruments could do.", "He also had courses in harmony, counterpoint, and composition.", "Along with Mahler and Fuchs, he cited his teachers as Felix Weingartner and Edmund Eysler.===Beginning music career (1907–1914)===The music of Edmund Eysler was an early influence in the pieces of Max Steiner; however, one of his first introductions to operettas was by Franz Lehár who worked for a time as a military bandmaster for Steiner's father's theatre.", "Steiner paid tribute to Lehár through an operetta modeled after Lehár's ''Die lustige Witwe'' which Steiner staged in 1907 in Vienna.", "Eysler was well known for his operettas though as critiqued by Richard Traubner, the libretti were poor, with a fairly simple style, the music often relying too heavily on the Viennese waltz style.", "As a result, when Steiner started writing pieces for the theater, he was interested in writing libretto as his teacher had, but had minimal success.", "However, many of his future film scores such as ''Dark Victory'' (1939), ''In This Our Life'' (1941), and ''Now, Voyager'' (1942) had frequent waltz melodies as influenced by Eysler.", "According to author of ''Max Steiner's \"Now, Voyager\"'' Kate Daubney, Steiner may also have been influenced by Felix Weingartner who conducted the Vienna Opera from 1908 to 1911.Although he took composition classes from Weingartner, as a young boy, Steiner always wanted to be a great conductor.Between 1907 and 1914, Steiner traveled between Britain and Europe to work on theatrical productions.", "Steiner first entered the world of professional music when he was fifteen.", "He wrote and conducted the operetta ''The Beautiful Greek Girl'', but his father refused to stage it saying it was not good enough.", "Steiner took the composition to competing impresario Carl Tuschl who offered to produce it.", "Much to Steiner's pleasure, it ran in the Orpheum Theatre for a year.", "This led to opportunities to conduct other shows in various cities around the world, including Moscow and Hamburg.", "Upon returning to Vienna, Steiner found his father in bankruptcy.", "Having difficulties finding work, he moved to London (in part to follow an English showgirl he had met in Vienna).", "In London, he was invited to conduct Lehar's ''The Merry Widow''.", "He stayed in London for eight years conducting musicals at Daly's Theatre, the Adelphi, the Hippodrome, the London Pavilion, and the Blackpool Winter Gardens.", "Steiner married Beatrice Tilt on September 12, 1912.The exact date of their divorce is unknown.In England, Steiner wrote and conducted theater productions and symphonies.", "But the beginning of World War I in 1914 led him to be interned as an enemy alien.", "Fortunately, he was befriended by the Duke of Westminster, who was a fan of his work, and was given exit papers to go to America, although his money was impounded.", "He arrived in New York City in December 1914, with only $32.Unable to find work, he resorted to menial jobs such as a copyist for Harms Music Publishing, which quickly led him to jobs orchestrating stage musicals.===Broadway music (1914–1929)===In New York, Max Steiner quickly acquired employment and worked for fifteen years as a musical director, arranger, orchestrator, and conductor of Broadway productions.", "These productions include operettas and musicals written by Victor Herbert, Jerome Kern, Vincent Youmans, and George Gershwin, among others.", "Steiner's credits include: ''George White's Scandals'' (1922) (director), ''Peaches'' (1923) (composer), and ''Lady, Be Good'' (1924) (conductor and orchestrator).", "At twenty-seven years old, Steiner became Fox Film's musical director in 1915.At the time, there was no specially written music for films and Steiner told studio founder William Fox his idea to write an original score for ''The Bondman'' (1916).", "Fox agreed and they put together a 110-piece orchestra to accompany the screenings.", "During his time working on Broadway, he married Audree van Lieu on April 27, 1927.They divorced on December 14, 1933.In 1927, Steiner orchestrated and conducted Harry Tierney's ''Rio Rita''.", "Tierney himself later requested RKO Pictures in Hollywood hire Steiner to work in their music production departments.", "William LeBaron, RKO's head of production, traveled to New York to watch Steiner conduct and was impressed by Steiner and his musicians, who each played several instruments.", "Eventually, Steiner became a Hollywood asset.", "Steiner's final production on Broadway was ''Sons O' Guns'' in 1929.===Scoring for RKO (1929–1937)===By request of Harry Tierney, RKO hired Max Steiner as an orchestrator and his first film job consisted of composing music for the main and end titles and occasional \"on screen\" music.", "According to Steiner, the general opinion of filmmakers during the time was that film music was a \"necessary evil\", and would often slow down production and release of the film after it was filmed.", "Steiner's first job was for the film ''Dixiana''; however, after a while, RKO decided to let him go, feeling they were not using him.", "His agent found him a job as a musical director on an operetta in Atlantic City.", "Before he left RKO, they offered him a month to month contract as the head of the music department with promise of more work in the future and he agreed.", "Because the few composers in Hollywood were unavailable, Steiner composed his first film score for ''Cimarron''.", "The score was well received and was partially credited for the success of the film.", "He turned down several offers to teach film scoring technique in Moscow and Peking in order to stay in Hollywood.", "In 1932, Steiner was asked by David O. Selznick, the new producer at RKO, to add music to ''Symphony of Six Million''.", "Steiner composed a short segment; Selznick liked it so much that he asked him to compose the theme and underscoring for the entire picture.", "Selznick was proud of the film, feeling it gave a realistic view of Jewish family life and tradition.", "\"Music until then had not been used very much for underscoring\".", "Steiner \"pioneered the use of original composition as background scoring for films\".", "The successful scoring in ''Symphony of Six Million'' was a turning point for Steiner's career and for the film industry.", "Steiner reflected that a large part of the success of ''Symphony of Six Million'' \"was attributed to the extensive use of music\" in the film.The score for ''King Kong'' (1933) became Steiner's breakthrough and represented a paradigm shift in the scoring of fantasy and adventure films.", "The score was an integral part of the film, because it added realism to an unrealistic film plot.", "The studio's bosses were initially skeptical about the need for an original score; however, since they disliked the film's contrived special effects, they let Steiner try to improve the film with music.", "The studio suggested using old tracks in order to save on the cost of the film; however, ''King Kong'' producer Merian C. Cooper asked Steiner to score the film and said he would pay for the orchestra.", "Steiner took advantage of this offer and used an eighty-piece orchestra, explaining the film \"was made for music\".", "According to Steiner, \"it was the kind of film that allowed you to do anything and everything, from weird chords and dissonances to pretty melodies.\"", "Steiner additionally scored the wild tribal music which accompanied the ceremony to sacrifice Ann to Kong.", "He wrote the score in two weeks and the music recording cost around $50,000.The film became a \"landmark of film scoring\", as it showed the power music has to manipulate audience emotions.", "Steiner constructed the score on Wagnerian leitmotif principle, which calls for special themes for leading characters and concepts.", "The theme of the monster is recognizable as a descending three-note chromatic motif.", "After the death of King Kong, the Kong theme and the Fay Wray theme converge, underlining the \"Beauty and the Beast\" type relationship between the characters.", "The music in the film's finale helped express the tender feelings Kong had for the woman without the film having to explicitly state it.", "The majority of the music is heavy and loud, but some of the music is a bit lighter.", "For example, when the ship sails into Skull Island, Steiner keeps the music calm and quiet with a small amount of texture in the harps to help characterize the ship as it cautiously moves through the misty waters.", "Steiner received a bonus from his work, as Cooper credited 25 percent of the film's success to the film score.", "Before he died, Steiner admitted ''King Kong'' was one of his favorite scores.", "''King Kong'' quickly made Steiner one of the most respected names in Hollywood.", "He continued as RKO's music director for two more years, until 1936.Max married Louise Klos, a harpist, in 1936.They had a son, Ron, together and they divorced in 1946.Steiner composed, arranged and conducted another 55 films, including most of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers' dance musicals.", "Additionally, Steiner wrote a sonata used in Katharine Hepburn's first film, ''Bill of Divorcement'' (1932).", "RKO producers, including Selznick, often came to him when they had problems with films, treating him as if he were a music \"doctor\".", "Steiner was asked to compose a score for ''Of Human Bondage'' (1934), which originally lacked music.", "He added musical touches to significant scenes.", "Director John Ford called on Steiner to score his film, ''The Lost Patrol'' (1934), which lacked tension without music.John Ford hired Steiner again to compose for his next film, ''The Informer'' (1935), before Ford began production of the film.", "Ford even asked his screenwriter to meet with Steiner during the writing phase to collaborate.", "This was unusual for Steiner who typically refused to compose a score from anything earlier than a rough cut of the film.", "Because Steiner scored the music before and during film production, Ford would sometimes shoot scenes in synchronization with the music Steiner composed rather than the usual practice of film composers synchronizing music to the film's scenes.", "Consequently, Steiner directly influenced the development of the protagonist, Gypo.", "Victor McLaglen, who played Gypo, rehearsed his walking in order to match the fumbling leitmotif Steiner had created for Gypo.", "This unique film production practice was successful; the film was nominated for six Academy Awards and won four, including Steiner's first Academy Award for Best Scoring.", "This score helped to exemplify Steiner's ability to encompass the essence of a film in a single theme.", "The main title of the film's soundtrack has three specific aspects.", "First, the heavy-march-like theme helps to describe the oppressive military and main character Gypo's inevitable downfall.", "Second, the character's theme is stern and sober and puts the audience into the correct mood for the film.", "Finally, the theme of the music contains some Irish folk song influences which serves to better characterize the Irish historical setting and influence of the film.", "The theme is not heard consistently throughout the film and serves rather as a framework for the other melodic motifs heard throughout different parts of the film.The score for this film is made up of many different themes which characterize the different personages and situations in the film.", "Steiner helps portray the genuine love Katie has for the main character Gypo.", "In one scene, Katie calls after Gypo as a solo violin echos the falling cadence of her voice.", "In another scene, Gypo sees an advertisement for a steamship to America and instead of the advertisement, sees himself holding Katie's hand on the ship.", "Wedding bells are heard along with organ music and he sees Katie wearing a veil and holding a bouquet.", "In a later scene, the Katie theme plays as a drunk Gypo sees a beautiful woman at the bar, insinuating he had mistaken her for Katie.", "Other musical themes included in the film score are an Irish folk song on French horns for Frankie McPhilip, a warm string theme for Dan and Gallagher and Mary McPhillip, and a sad theme on English horn with harp for the blind man.The most important motif in the film is the theme of betrayal relating to how Gypo betrays his friend Frankie: the \"blood-money\" motif.", "The theme is heard as the Captain throws the money on the table after Frankie is killed.", "The theme is a four note descending tune on harp; the first interval is the tritone.", "As the men are deciding who will be the executioner, the motif is repeated quietly and perpetually to establish Gypo's guilt and the musical motif is synchronized with the dripping of water in the prison.", "As it appears in the end of the film, the theme is played at a fortissimo volume as Gypo staggers into the church, ending the climax with the clap of the cymbals, indicating Gypo's penitence, no longer needing to establish his guilt.Silent film mannerisms are still seen in Steiner's composition such as when actions or consequences are accompanied by a ''sforzato'' chord immediately before it, followed by silence.", "An example of this is remarked in the part of the film when Frankie confronts Gypo looking at his reward for arrest poster.", "Steiner uses minor \"Mickey Mousing\" techniques in the film.", "Through this score, Steiner showed the potential of film music, as he attempted the show the internal struggles inside of Gypo's mind through the mixing of different themes such as the Irish \"Circassian Circle\", the \"blood-money\" motif, and Frankie's theme.", "The score concludes with an original \"Sancta Maria\" by Steiner.", "Some writers have erroneously referred to the cue as featuring Franz Schubert's \"Ave Maria\".In 1937, Steiner was hired by Frank Capra to conduct Dimitri Tiomkin's score for ''Lost Horizon'' (1937) as a safeguard in case Steiner needed to rewrite the score by an inexperienced Tiomkin; however, according to Hugo Friedhofer, Tiomkin specifically asked for Steiner, preferring him over the film studio's then music director.", "Selznick set up his own production company in 1936 and recruited Steiner to write the scores for his next three films.=== Composing for Warner Bros. (1937–1953) ===In April 1937, Steiner left RKO and signed a long-term contract with Warner Bros.; he would, however, continue to work for Selznick.", "The first film he scored for Warner Bros. was ''The Charge of the Light Brigade'' (1936).", "Steiner became a mainstay at Warner Bros., scoring 140 of their films over the next 30 years alongside Hollywood stars such as Bette Davis, Errol Flynn, Humphrey Bogart, and James Cagney.", "Steiner frequently worked with composer Hugo Friedhofer who was hired as an orchestrator for Warner Bros; Friedholfer would orchestrate more than 50 of Steiner's pieces during his career.", "In 1938, Steiner wrote and arranged the first \"composed for film\" piece, ''Symphony Moderne'' which a character plays on the piano and later plays as a theme in ''Four Daughters'' (1938) and is performed by a full orchestra in ''Four Wives'' (1939).In 1939, Steiner was borrowed from Warner Bros. by Selznick to compose the score for ''Gone with the Wind'' (1939), which became one of Steiner's most notable successes.", "Steiner was the only composer Selznick considered for scoring the film.", "Steiner was given only three months to complete the score, despite composing twelve more film scores in 1939, more than he would in any other year of his career.", "Because Selznick was concerned Steiner wouldn't have enough time to finish the score, he had Franz Waxman write an additional score in the case the Steiner didn't finish.", "To meet the deadline, Steiner sometimes worked for 20-hours straight, assisted by doctor-administered Benzedrine to stay awake.", "When the film was released, it was the longest film score ever composed, nearly three hours.", "The composition consisted of 16 main themes and nearly 300 musical segments.", "Due to the score's length, Steiner had help from four orchestrators and arrangers, including Heinz Roemheld, to work on the score.", "Selznick had asked Steiner to use only pre-existing classical music to help cut down on cost and time, but Steiner tried to convince him that filling the picture with swatches of classic concert music or popular works would not be as effective as an original score, which could be used to heighten the emotional content of scenes.", "Steiner ignored Selznick's wishes and composed an entirely new score.", "Selznick's opinion about using original scoring may have changed due to the overwhelming reaction to the film, nearly all of which contained Steiner's music.", "A year later, he even wrote a letter emphasizing the value of original film scores.", "The most well known of Steiner's themes for the score is the \"Tara\" theme for the O'Hara family plantation.", "Steiner explains Scarlett's deep-founded love for her home is why \"the 'Tara' theme begins and ends with the picture and permeates the entire score\".", "The film went on to win ten Academy Awards, although not for Best Original Score, which instead went to Herbert Stothart for ''The Wizard of Oz''.", "The score of ''Gone with the Wind'' is ranked #2 by AFI as the second greatest American film score of all time.", "''Now, Voyager'' would be the film score for which Steiner would win his second Academy Award.", "Kate Daubney attributes the success of this score to Steiner's ability to \"balance the scheme of thematic meaning with the sound of the music.\"", "Steiner used motifs and thematic elements in the music to emphasize the emotional development of the narrative.", "After finishing ''Now, Voyager'' (1942), Steiner was hired to score the music for ''Casablanca'' (1942).", "Steiner would typically wait until the film was edited before scoring it, and after watching ''Casablanca'', he decided the song \"As Time Goes By\" by Herman Hupfeld wasn't an appropriate addition to the movie and he wanted to replace it with a song of his own composition; however, Ingrid Bergman had just cut her hair short in preparation for filming ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' (1943), so she couldn't re-film the section with Steiner's song.", "Stuck with \"As Time Goes By\", Steiner embraced the song and made it the center theme of his score.", "Steiner's score for ''Casablanca'' was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture, losing to ''The Song of Bernadette'' (1943).", "Steiner received his third and final Oscar in 1944 for ''Since You Went Away'' (1944).", "Steiner actually first composed the theme from ''Since You Went Away'' while helping counterbalance Franz Waxman's moody score for ''Rebecca''.", "Producer David O. Selznick liked the theme so much, he asked Steiner to include it in ''Since You Went Away''.", "In 1947, Max married Leonette Blair.Steiner also found success with the film noir genre.", "''The Big Sleep'', ''Mildred Pierce'', and ''The Letter'' were his best film noir scores of the 1940s.", "''The Letter'' is set in Singapore, the tale of murder begins with the loud main musical theme during the credits, which sets the tense and violent mood of the film.", "The main theme characterizes Leslie, the main character, by her tragic passion.", "The main theme is heard in the confrontation between Leslie and the murdered man's wife in the Chinese shop.", "Steiner portrays this scene through the jangling of wind chimes which crescendos as the wife emerges through opium smoke.", "The jangling continues until the wife asks Leslie to take off her shawl, after which the theme blasts indicating the breaking point of emotions of these women.", "Steiner's score for ''The Letter'' was nominated for the 1941 Academy Award for Best Original Score, losing to Walt Disney's ''Pinocchio''.", "In the score for ''The Big Sleep'', Steiner uses musical thematic characterization for the characters in the film.", "The theme for Philip Marlowe (Humphrey Bogart) is beguiling and ironic, with a playful grace note at the end of the motif, portrayed mixed between major and minor.", "At the end of the film, his theme is played fully in major chords and finishes by abruptly ending the chord as the film terminates (this was an unusual film music practice in Hollywood at the time).", "According to Christopher Palmer, the love theme for Bogart's Philip and Lauren Bacall's Vivian is one of Steiner's strongest themes.", "Steiner uses the contrast of high strings and low strings and brass to emphasize Philip's feelings for Vivian opposed with the brutality of the criminal world.In 1947, Steiner scored a film noir Western, ''Pursued''.Steiner had more success with the Western genre of film, writing the scores for over twenty large-scale Westerns, most with epic-inspiring scores \"about empire building and progress\", like ''Dodge City'' (1939), ''The Oklahoma Kid'' (1939), and ''Virginia City'' (1940).", "''Dodge City'', starring Errol Flynn and Olivia de Havilland, is a good example of Steiner's handling of typical scenes of the Western genre.", "Steiner used a \"lifting, loping melody\" which reflected the movement and sounds of wagons, horses, and cattle.", "Steiner showed a love for combining Westerns and romance, as he did in ''They Died with Their Boots On'' (1941), also starring Flynn and de Havilland.", "''The Searchers'' (1956) is, today, considered his greatest Western.===Later works (1953–1965)===Although his contract ended in 1953, Steiner returned to Warner Bros. in 1958 and scored several films such as ''Band of Angels'', ''Marjorie Morningstar'', and ''John Paul Jones'', and later ventured into television.", "Steiner still preferred large orchestras and leitmotif techniques during this part of his career.", "Steiner's pace slowed significantly in the mid-1950s, and he began freelancing.", "In 1954, RCA Victor asked Steiner to prepare and conduct an orchestral suite of music from ''Gone with the Wind'' for a special LP, which was later issued on CD.", "There are also acetates of Steiner conducting the Warner Brothers studio orchestra in music from many of his film scores.", "Composer Victor Young and Steiner were good friends, and Steiner completed the film score for ''China Gate'', because Young had died before he could finish it.", "The credit frame reads: \"Music by Victor Young, extended by his old friend, Max Steiner.\"", "There are numerous soundtrack recordings of Steiner's music as soundtracks, collections, and recordings by others.", "Steiner wrote into his seventies, ailing and near blind, but his compositions \"revealed a freshness and fertility of invention.\"", "A theme for ''A Summer Place'' in 1959, written when Steiner was 71, became one of Warner Brothers' biggest hit-tunes for years and a re-recorded pop standard.", "This memorable instrumental theme spent nine weeks at #1 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 singles chart in 1960 (in an instrumental cover version by Percy Faith).", "Steiner continued to score films produced by Warner until the mid-sixties.In 1963, Steiner began writing his autobiography.", "Although it was completed, it was never published, and is the only source available on Steiner's childhood.", "A copy of the manuscript resides with the rest of the Max Steiner Collection at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah.", "Steiner scored his last piece in 1965; however, he claimed he would have scored more films had he been offered the opportunity.", "His lack of work in the last years of his life was due to Hollywood's decreased interest in his scores caused by new film producers and new taste in film music.", "Another contribution to his declining career was his failing eyesight and deteriorating health, which caused him to reluctantly retire.", "Tony Thomas cited Steiner's last score as, \"a weak coda to a mighty career.", "\"Steiner died of congestive heart failure in Hollywood, aged 83.He is entombed in the Great Mausoleum at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California." ], [ "Methods of composing", "===Music as background to dialogue===In the early days of sound, producers avoided underscoring music behind dialogue, feeling the audience would wonder where the music was coming from.", "As a result, Steiner noted, \"They began to add a little music here and there to support love scenes or silent sequences.\"", "But in scenes where music might be expected, such as a nightclub, ballroom, or theater, the orchestra fit in more naturally and was used often.", "In order to justify the addition of music in scenes where it wasn't expected, music was integrated into the scene through characters or added more conspicuously.", "For example, a shepherd boy might play a flute along with the orchestra heard in the background, or a random, wandering violinist might follow around a couple during a love scene; however, because half of the music was recorded on the set, Steiner says it led to a great deal of inconvenience and cost when scenes were later edited, because the score would often be ruined.", "As recording technology improved during this period, he was able to record the music synced to the film and could change the score after the film was edited.", "Steiner explains his own typical method of scoring:Steiner often followed his instincts and his own reasoning in creating film scores.", "For example, when he chose to go against Selznick's instruction to use classical music for ''Gone with the Wind.''", "Steiner stated:Scores from the classics were sometimes harmful to a picture, especially when they drew unwanted attention to themselves by virtue of their familiarity.", "For example, films like ''2001: A Space Odyssey'', ''The Sting'', and ''Manhattan'', had scores with recognizable tunes instead of having a preferred \"subliminal\" effect.", "Steiner, was among the first to acknowledge the need for original scores for each film.Steiner felt knowing when to start and stop was the hardest part of proper scoring, since incorrect placement of music can speed up a scene meant to be slow and vice versa: \"Knowing the difference is what makes a film composer.\"", "He also notes that many composers, contrary to his own technique, would fail to subordinate the music to the film:===Click tracks===Although some scholars cite Steiner as the inventor of the click track technique, he, along with Roy Webb were only the first to use the technique in film scoring.", "Carl W. Stalling and Scott Bradley used the technique first, in cartoon music.", "The click-track allows the composer to sync music and film together more precisely.", "The technique involves punching holes into the soundtrack film based on the mathematics of metronome speed.", "As the holes pass through a projector, the orchestra and conductor can hear the clicking sound through headphones, allowing them to record the music along the exact timing of the film.", "This technique allowed conductors and orchestras to match the music with perfection to the timing of the film, eliminating the previous necessity to cut off or stop music in the middle of recording as had been done previously.", "Popularized by Steiner in film music, this technique allowed Steiner to \"catch the action\", creating sounds for small details on screen.", "In fact, Steiner reportedly spent more of his time matching the action to the music than composing the melodies and motifs, as creating and composing came easy to him.===Leitmotifs===With Steiner's background in his European musical training largely consisting of operas and operettas and his experience with stage music, he brought with him a slew of old-fashioned techniques he contributed to the development of the Hollywood film score.", "Although Steiner has been called, \"the man who invented modern film music\", he himself claimed that, \"the idea originated with Richard Wagner ...", "If Wagner had lived in this century, he would have been the No.", "1 film composer.\"", "Wagner was the inventor of the leitmotif, and this influenced Steiner's composition.", "In his music, Steiner relied heavily on leitmotifs.", "He would also quote pre-existing, recognizable melodies in his scores, such as national anthems.", "Steiner was known and often criticized for his use of Mickey Mousing or \"catching the action\".", "This technique is characterized by the precise matching of music with the actions or gestures on screen.", "Steiner was criticized for using this technique too frequently.", "For example, in ''Of Human Bondage'', Steiner created a limping effect with his music whenever the clubfooted character walked.One of the important principles that guided Steiner whenever possible was his rule: ''Every character should have a theme.''", "\"Steiner creates a musical picture that tells us all we need to know about the character.\"", "To accomplish this, Steiner synchronized the music, the narrative action, and the leitmotif as a structural framework for his compositions.A good example of how the characters and the music worked together is best exemplified by his score for ''The Glass Menagerie'' (1950):*For the physically crippled heroine, Laura, Steiner had to \"somehow capture in sound her escape from the tawdriness of reality into her make-believe world of glass figures ...", "The result is tone-colour of an appropriately glassy quality; ... a free use of vibraphone, celesta, piano, glockenspiel and triangle enhances the fragility and beauty of the sound.", "\"*For Laura's well-traveled soldier brother: \"Tom's theme has a big-city blues-type resonance.", "It is also rich and warm ... and tells us something of Tom's good-hearted nature.", "\"*For Jim, Laura's long-awaited 'gentleman caller' who soon transforms her life: Steiner's \"clean-limbed melody reflects his likeableness and honesty ...", "Elements of Jim's theme are built into the dance-band music at the 'Paradise' as he assures her of her essential beauty and begins successfully to counter her deep-seated inferiority complex.", "Upon their return home, the music darkens the scene in preparation for Jim's disclosure that he is already committed to another girl.", "\"Another film which exemplifies the synchronizing of character and music is ''The Fountainhead'' (1949):The character of Roark, an idealist architect (played by Gary Cooper):In the same way that Steiner created a theme for each character in a film, Steiner's music developed themes to express emotional aspects of general scenes which originally lacked emotional content.", "For example:*''King Kong'' (1933): The music told the story of what was happening in the film.", "It expressed Kong's \"feelings of tenderness towards his helpless victim.\"", "The music underscores feelings that the camera simply cannot express.", "The score of the film showed \"the basic power of music to terrorize and to humanize.", "\"*''The Letter'' (1940), starring Bette Davis: The music of this film creates an atmosphere of \"tropical tension and violence\" by \"blasting the credits ''fortissimo'' across the theater.\"", "Steiner's score emphasizes the tragic and passionate themes of the film.", "*''The Big Sleep'' (1946): The music of this film \"darkens to match\" the changing atmosphere of the film.", "It creates a claustrophobic feeling by including high strings \"pitted rhythmically\" against low strings and brass.", "*''The Treasure of the Sierra Madre'' (1948): Steiner uses the music to intensify the anguish of Bogart and Holt, when they are left to dig a mine in the hot sun.", "The music \"assumes the character of a fiercely protesting funeral march.\"", "The timing of the music caves in as the mind caves in on Bogart.", "The music also serves to emphasize the theme of greed.", "It \"tells us the nature of the thoughts flashing through Holt's mind as he stands outside the ruined mine;\" however, when the warm tones of the music rise again, it reflects Holt's goodness as he saves Bogart from the collapsed mine.", "This \"climax is marked by a ''grandioso'' statement of the theme on full orchestra.", "\"===Realistic and background music===When adding a music score to a picture, Steiner used a \"spotting process\" in which he and the director of the film would watch the film in its entirety and discuss where underscoring of diegetic music would begin and end.", "Another technique Steiner used was the mixing of realistic and background music.", "For example, a character humming to himself is realistic music, and the orchestra might play his tune, creating a background music effect that ties into the film.", "Steiner was criticized for this technique as the awareness of the film music can ruin the narrative illusion of the film; however, Steiner understood the importance of letting the film take the spotlight, making the music, \"subordinate..to the picture,\" stating that, \"if it gets too decorative, it loses its emotional appeal.\"", "Before 1932, producers of sound films tried to avoid the use of background music, because viewers would wonder where the music was coming from.", "Steiner was known for writing using atmospheric music without melodic content for certain neutral scenes in music.", "Steiner designed a melodic motion to create normal-sounding music without taking too much attention away from the film.", "In contrast, Steiner sometimes used diegetic, or narrative based music, in order to emphasize certain emotions or contradict them.", "According to Steiner, there is, \"no greater counterpoint ... than gay music underlying a tragic scene or vice versa.\"" ], [ "Influence", "===Industry recognition===Plaque for Steiner at his birthplace in Praterstraße 72, ViennaThree of Max Steiner's scores won the Academy Award for Best Original Score: ''The Informer'' (1935), ''Now, Voyager'' (1942), and ''Since You Went Away'' (1944).", "Steiner received a certificate for ''The Informer''.", "He originally received plaques for ''Now, Voyager'' and ''Since You Went Away'', but those plaques were replaced with Academy Award statuettes in 1946.As an individual, Steiner was nominated for a total of 20 Academy Awards, and won two.", "Prior to 1939, the academy recognized a studio's music department, rather than the individual composer, with a nomination in the scoring category.", "During this time, five of Steiner's scores including ''The Lost Patrol'' and ''The Charge of the Light Brigade'' were nominated, but the academy does not consider these nominations to belong to Max Steiner himself.", "Consequently, even though Steiner's score for ''The Informer'' won the Academy Award in 1936, the academy does not officially consider Steiner as the individual winner of the award, as Steiner accepted the award on behalf of RKO's music department of which he was the department head.", "Steiner's 20 nominations make him the third most nominated individual in the history of the scoring categories, behind John Williams and Alfred Newman.The United States Postal Service issued its \"American Music Series\" stamps on September 16, 1999, to pay tribute to renowned Hollywood composers, including Steiner.", "After Steiner's death, Charles Gerhardt conducted the National Philharmonic Orchestra in an RCA Victor album of highlights from Steiner's career, titled ''Now Voyager''.", "He also won a Golden Globe for Best Original Score for ''Life with Father'' (1947).", "Additional selections of Steiner scores were included on other RCA classic film albums during the early 1970s.", "The quadraphonic recordings were later digitally remastered for Dolby surround sound and released on CD.", "In 1975, Steiner was honored with a star located at 1551 Vine Street on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contribution to motion pictures.", "In 1995, Steiner was inducted posthumously into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.", "In commemoration of Steiner's 100th birthday, a memorial plaque was unveiled in 1988 at Steiner's birthplace, the ''Hotel Nordbahn'' (now ''Austria Classic Hotel Wien'') on Praterstraße 72.In 1990, Steiner was one of the first to be recognized for Lifetime Achievement by an online awards site.===Legacy among composers===In Kurt London's ''Film Music'', London expressed the opinion that American film music was inferior to European film music because it lacked originality of composition; he cited the music of Steiner as an exception to the rule.", "Steiner, along with contemporaries Erich Wolfgang Korngold and Alfred Newman, set the style and forms of film music of the time period and for film scores to come.", "Known for their similar music styles, Roy Webb was also Steiner's contemporary and they were friends until Steiner's death.", "Webb's score for ''Mighty Joe Young'' was reminiscent of Steiner.", "James Bond composer John Barry cited Steiner as an influence of his work.", "James Newton Howard, who composed the score for the 2005 remake of ''King Kong'', stated that he was influenced by Steiner's score; his descending theme when Kong first appears is reminiscent of Steiner's score.", "In fact, during the tribal sacrifice scene of the 2005 version, the music playing is from Steiner's score of the same scene in the 1933 version.", "Composer of the ''Star Wars'' film score, John Williams cited Steiner as well as other European emigrant composers in the 1930s and 1940s \"Golden Age\" of film music as influences of his work.", "In fact, George Lucas wanted Williams to use the scores of Steiner and Korngold as influences for the music for ''Star Wars'', despite the rarity of grandiose film music and the lack of use of leitmotifs and full orchestrations during the 1970s.Often compared to his contemporary Erich Wolfgang Korngold, his rival and friend at Warner Bros., the music of Steiner was often seen by critics as inferior to Korngold.", "Composer David Raksin stated that the music of Korngold was, \"of a higher order with a much wider sweep;\" however, according to William Darby and Jack Du Bois's ''American Film Music'', even though other film score composers may have produced greater individual scores than Steiner, no composer ever created as many \"very good\" ones as Steiner.", "Despite the inferiority of Steiner's individual scores, his influence was largely historical.", "Steiner was one of the first composers to reintroduce music into films after the invention of talking films.", "Steiner's score for ''King Kong'' modeled the method of adding background music into a movie.", "Some of his contemporaries did not like his music.", "Miklós Rózsa criticized Steiner for his use of Mickey Mousing and did not like his music, but Rózsa conceded that Steiner had a successful career and had a good \"melodic sense\".Now referred to as the \"father of film music\" or the \"dean of film music\", Steiner had written or arranged music for over three hundred films by the end of his career.", "George Korngold, son of Erich Korngold, produced the Classic Film Score Series albums which included the music of Steiner.", "Albert K. Bender established the Max Steiner Music Society with international membership, publishing journals and newsletters and a library of audio recordings.", "When the Steiner collection went to Brigham Young University in 1981, the organization disbanded.", "The Max Steiner Memorial Society was formed in the United Kingdom continue the work of the Max Steiner Music Society." ], [ "Filmography", "The American Film Institute respectively ranked Steiner's scores for ''Gone with the Wind'' (1939) and ''King Kong'' (1933) #2 and #13 on their list of the 25 greatest film scores.", "His scores for the following films were also nominated for the list:*''The Informer'' (1935)*''Jezebel'' (1938)*''Dark Victory'' (1939)*''Casablanca'' (1942)*''Now, Voyager'' (1942)*''Adventures of Don Juan'' (1948)*''Johnny Belinda'' (1948)*''The Treasure of the Sierra Madre'' (1948)*''A Summer Place'' (1959)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "**** Max Steiner at AmericanComposers.com* The Max Steiner Pages* Max Steiner music and photographs, MSS 6131 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University* Max Steiner sound recording from The Informer, MSS 8705 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University*, documentary by Barry Kolman*, film documentary trailer*, compilation by Beny Debny* Max Steiner (in German) from the archive of the Österreichische Mediathek* Max Steiner Digital Thematic Catalog" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mercury (planet)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mercury''' is the first planet from the Sun and the smallest in the Solar System.", "In English, it is named after the Roman god (Mercury), god of commerce and communication, and the messenger of the gods.", "Mercury is classified as a terrestrial planet, with roughly the same surface gravity as Mars.", "The surface of Mercury is heavily cratered, as a result of countless impact events that have accumulated over billions of years.", "Its largest crater, Caloris Planitia, has a diameter of and one-third the diameter of the planet ().", "Similarly to the Earth's Moon, Mercury's surface displays an expansive rupes system generated from thrust faults and bright ray systems formed by impact event remnants.Mercury's sidereal year (88.0 Earth days) and sidereal day (58.65 Earth days) are in a 3:2 ratio.", "This relationship is called spin–orbit resonance, and ''sidereal'' here means \"relative to the stars\".", "Consequently, one solar day (sunrise to sunrise) on Mercury lasts for around 176 Earth days: twice the planet's sidereal year.", "This means that one side of Mercury will remain in sunlight for one Mercurian year of 88 Earth days; while during the next orbit, that side will be in darkness all the time until the next sunrise after another 88 Earth days.Combined with its high orbital eccentricity, the planet's surface has widely varying sunlight intensity and temperature, with the equatorial regions ranging from at night to during sunlight.", "Due to the very small axial tilt, the planet's poles are permanently shadowed.", "This strongly suggests that water ice could be present in the craters.", "Above the planet's surface is an extremely tenuous exosphere and a faint magnetic field that is strong enough to deflect solar winds.", "Mercury has no natural satellite.", "As of the early 2020s, many broad details of Mercury's geological history are still under investigation or pending data from space probes.", "Like other planets in the Solar System, Mercury was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago.", "Its mantle is highly homogeneous, which suggests that Mercury had a magma ocean early in its history, like the Moon.", "According to current models, Mercury may have a solid silicate crust and mantle overlying a solid outer core, a deeper liquid core layer, and a solid inner core.", "There are many competing hypotheses about Mercury's origins and development, some of which incorporate collision with planetesimals and rock vaporization." ], [ "Nomenclature", "The ancients knew Mercury by different names depending on whether it was an evening star or a morning star.", "By about 350 BC, the ancient Greeks had realized the two stars were one.", "They knew the planet as , meaning \"twinkling\", and , for its fleeting motion, a name that is retained in modern Greek ( ).", "The Romans named the planet after the swift-footed Roman messenger god, Mercury (Latin ), whom they equated with the Greek Hermes, because it moves across the sky faster than any other planet.", "The astronomical symbol for Mercury is a stylized version of Hermes' caduceus; a Christian cross was added in the 16th century:☿." ], [ "Physical characteristics", "Mercury is one of four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, which means it is a rocky body like Earth.", "It is the smallest planet in the Solar System, with an equatorial radius of .", "Mercury is also smaller—albeit more massive—than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede and Titan.", "Mercury consists of approximately 70% metallic and 30% silicate material.=== Internal structure ===Mercury's internal structure and magnetic fieldMercury appears to have a solid silicate crust and mantle overlying a solid, metallic outer core layer, a deeper liquid core layer, and a solid inner core.", "The composition of the iron-rich core remains uncertain, but it likely contains nickel, silicon and perhaps sulfur and carbon, plus trace amounts of other elements.", "The planet's density is the second highest in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm3, only slightly less than Earth's density of 5.515 g/cm3.If the effect of gravitational compression were to be factored out from both planets, the materials of which Mercury is made would be denser than those of Earth, with an uncompressed density of 5.3 g/cm3 versus Earth's 4.4 g/cm3.Mercury's density can be used to infer details of its inner structure.", "Although Earth's high density results appreciably from gravitational compression, particularly at the core, Mercury is much smaller and its inner regions are not as compressed.", "Therefore, for it to have such a high density, its core must be large and rich in iron.The radius of Mercury's core is estimated to be , based on interior models constrained to be consistent with a moment of inertia factor of .", "Hence, Mercury's core occupies about 57% of its volume; for Earth this proportion is 17%.", "Research published in 2007 suggests that Mercury has a molten core.", "The mantle-crust layer is in total thick.", "Based on data from the and ''MESSENGER'' missions, in addition to Earth-based observation, Mercury's crust is estimated to be thick.", "However, this model may be an overestimate and the crust could be thick based on an Airy isostacy model.", "One distinctive feature of Mercury's surface is the presence of numerous narrow ridges, extending up to several hundred kilometers in length.", "It is thought that these were formed as Mercury's core and mantle cooled and contracted at a time when the crust had already solidified.Mercury's core has a higher iron content than that of any other planet in the Solar System, and several theories have been proposed to explain this.", "The most widely accepted theory is that Mercury originally had a metal–silicate ratio similar to common chondrite meteorites, thought to be typical of the Solar System's rocky matter, and a mass approximately 2.25 times its current mass.", "Early in the Solar System's history, Mercury may have been struck by a planetesimal of approximately Mercury's mass and several thousand kilometers across.", "The impact would have stripped away much of the original crust and mantle, leaving the core behind as a relatively major component.", "A similar process, known as the giant impact hypothesis, has been proposed to explain the formation of Earth's Moon.Alternatively, Mercury may have formed from the solar nebula before the Sun's energy output had stabilized.", "It would initially have had twice its present mass, but as the protosun contracted, temperatures near Mercury could have been between 2,500 and 3,500 K and possibly even as high as 10,000 K. Much of Mercury's surface rock could have been vaporized at such temperatures, forming an atmosphere of \"rock vapor\" that could have been carried away by the solar wind.", "A third hypothesis proposes that the solar nebula caused drag on the particles from which Mercury was accreting, which meant that lighter particles were lost from the accreting material and not gathered by Mercury.Each hypothesis predicts a different surface composition, and two space missions have been tasked with making observations of this composition.", "The first ''MESSENGER'', which ended in 2015, found higher-than-expected potassium and sulfur levels on the surface, suggesting that the giant impact hypothesis and vaporization of the crust and mantle did not occur because said potassium and sulfur would have been driven off by the extreme heat of these events.", "''BepiColombo'', which will arrive at Mercury in 2025, will make observations to test these hypotheses.", "The findings so far would seem to favor the third hypothesis; however, further analysis of the data is needed.=== Surface geology ===Mercury's surface is similar in appearance to that of the Moon, showing extensive mare-like plains and heavy cratering, indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years.", "It is more heterogeneous than the surface of Mars or the Moon, both of which contain significant stretches of similar geology, such as maria and plateaus.", "Albedo features are areas of markedly different reflectivity, which include impact craters, the resulting ejecta, and ray systems.", "Larger albedo features correspond to higher reflectivity plains.", "Mercury has \"wrinkle-ridges\" (dorsa), Moon-like highlands, mountains (montes), plains (planitiae), escarpments (rupes), and valleys (valles).MASCS spectrum scan of Mercury's surface by ''MESSENGER''The planet's mantle is chemically heterogeneous, suggesting the planet went through a magma ocean phase early in its history.", "Crystallization of minerals and convective overturn resulted in a layered, chemically heterogeneous crust with large-scale variations in chemical composition observed on the surface.", "The crust is low in iron but high in sulfur, resulting from the stronger early chemically reducing conditions than is found on other terrestrial planets.", "The surface is dominated by iron-poor pyroxene and olivine, as represented by enstatite and forsterite, respectively, along with sodium-rich plagioclase and minerals of mixed magnesium, calcium, and iron-sulfide.", "The less reflective regions of the crust are high in carbon, most likely in the form of graphite.Names for features on Mercury come from a variety of sources and are set according to the IAU planetary nomenclature system.", "Names coming from people are limited to the deceased.", "Craters are named for artists, musicians, painters, and authors who have made outstanding or fundamental contributions to their field.", "Ridges, or dorsa, are named for scientists who have contributed to the study of Mercury.", "Depressions or fossae are named for works of architecture.", "Montes are named for the word \"hot\" in a variety of languages.", "Plains or planitiae are named for Mercury in various languages.", "Escarpments or rupēs are named for ships of scientific expeditions.", "Valleys or valles are named for abandoned cities, towns, or settlements of antiquity.==== Impact basins and craters ====Munch (left), Sander (center), and Poe (right) amid volcanic plains (orange) near Caloris BasinMercury was heavily bombarded by comets and asteroids during and shortly following its formation 4.6 billion years ago, as well as during a possibly separate subsequent episode called the Late Heavy Bombardment that ended 3.8 billion years ago.", "Mercury received impacts over its entire surface during this period of intense crater formation, facilitated by the lack of any atmosphere to slow impactors down.", "During this time Mercury was volcanically active; basins were filled by magma, producing smooth plains similar to the maria found on the Moon.", "One of the most unusual craters is Apollodorus, or \"the Spider\", which hosts a series of radiating troughs extending outwards from its impact site.Craters on Mercury range in diameter from small bowl-shaped cavities to multi-ringed impact basins hundreds of kilometers across.", "They appear in all states of degradation, from relatively fresh rayed craters to highly degraded crater remnants.", "Mercurian craters differ subtly from lunar craters in that the area blanketed by their ejecta is much smaller, a consequence of Mercury's stronger surface gravity.", "According to International Astronomical Union rules, each new crater must be named after an artist who was famous for more than fifty years, and dead for more than three years, before the date the crater is named.The largest known crater is Caloris Planitia, or Caloris Basin, with a diameter of .", "The impact that created the Caloris Basin was so powerful that it caused lava eruptions and left a concentric mountainous ring ~ tall surrounding the impact crater.", "The floor of the Caloris Basin is filled by a geologically distinct flat plain, broken up by ridges and fractures in a roughly polygonal pattern.", "It is not clear whether they were volcanic lava flows induced by the impact or a large sheet of impact melt.At the antipode of the Caloris Basin is a large region of unusual, hilly terrain known as the \"Weird Terrain\".", "One hypothesis for its origin is that shock waves generated during the Caloris impact traveled around Mercury, converging at the basin's antipode (180 degrees away).", "The resulting high stresses fractured the surface.", "Alternatively, it has been suggested that this terrain formed as a result of the convergence of ejecta at this basin's antipode.Tolstoj basin is along the bottom of this image of Mercury's limbOverall, 46 impact basins have been identified.", "A notable basin is the -wide, multi-ring Tolstoj Basin that has an ejecta blanket extending up to from its rim and a floor that has been filled by smooth plains materials.", "Beethoven Basin has a similar-sized ejecta blanket and a -diameter rim.", "Like the Moon, the surface of Mercury has likely incurred the effects of space weathering processes, including solar wind and micrometeorite impacts.==== Plains ====There are two geologically distinct plains regions on Mercury.", "Gently rolling, hilly plains in the regions between craters are Mercury's oldest visible surfaces, predating the heavily cratered terrain.", "These inter-crater plains appear to have obliterated many earlier craters, and show a general paucity of smaller craters below about in diameter.Smooth plains are widespread flat areas that fill depressions of various sizes and bear a strong resemblance to lunar maria.", "Unlike lunar maria, the smooth plains of Mercury have the same albedo as the older inter-crater plains.", "Despite a lack of unequivocally volcanic characteristics, the localisation and rounded, lobate shape of these plains strongly support volcanic origins.", "All the smooth plains of Mercury formed significantly later than the Caloris basin, as evidenced by appreciably smaller crater densities than on the Caloris ejecta blanket.==== Compressional features ====An unusual feature of Mercury's surface is the numerous compression folds, or rupes, that crisscross the plains.", "These exist on the moon, but are much more prominent on Mercury.", "As Mercury's interior cooled, it contracted and its surface began to deform, creating wrinkle ridges and lobate scarps associated with thrust faults.", "The scarps can reach lengths of and heights of .", "These compressional features can be seen on top of other features, such as craters and smooth plains, indicating they are more recent.", "Mapping of the features has suggested a total shrinkage of Mercury's radius in the range of ~.", "Most activity along the major thrust systems probably ended about 3.6–3.7 billion years ago.", "Small-scale thrust fault scarps have been found, tens of meters in height and with lengths in the range of a few kilometers, that appear to be less than 50 million years old, indicating that compression of the interior and consequent surface geological activity continue to the present.====Volcanism====Picasso crater — the large arc-shaped pit located on the eastern side of its floor is postulated to have formed when subsurface magma subsided or drained, causing the surface to collapse into the resulting void.There is evidence for pyroclastic flows on Mercury from low-profile shield volcanoes.", "Fifty-one pyroclastic deposits have been identified, where 90% of them are found within impact craters.", "A study of the degradation state of the impact craters that host pyroclastic deposits suggests that pyroclastic activity occurred on Mercury over a prolonged interval.A \"rimless depression\" inside the southwest rim of the Caloris Basin consists of at least nine overlapping volcanic vents, each individually up to in diameter.", "It is thus a \"compound volcano\".", "The vent floors are at least below their brinks and they bear a closer resemblance to volcanic craters sculpted by explosive eruptions or modified by collapse into void spaces created by magma withdrawal back down into a conduit.", "Scientists could not quantify the age of the volcanic complex system but reported that it could be on the order of a billion years.=== Surface conditions and exosphere ===Composite of the north pole of Mercury, where NASA confirmed the discovery of a large volume of water ice, in permanently dark craters that are found there.The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from .", "It never rises above 180 K at the poles, due to the absence of an atmosphere and a steep temperature gradient between the equator and the poles.", "At perihelion, the equatorial subsolar point is located at latitude 0°W or 180°W, and it climbs to a temperature of about .", "During aphelion, this occurs at 90° or 270°W and reaches only .On the dark side of the planet, temperatures average 110 K.The intensity of sunlight on Mercury's surface ranges between 4.59 and 10.61 times the solar constant (1,370 W·m−2).Although daylight temperatures at the surface of Mercury are generally extremely high, observations strongly suggest that ice (frozen water) exists on Mercury.", "The floors of deep craters at the poles are never exposed to direct sunlight, and temperatures there remain below 102 K, far lower than the global average.", "This creates a cold trap where ice can accumulate.", "Water ice strongly reflects radar, and observations by the 70-meter Goldstone Solar System Radar and the VLA in the early 1990s revealed that there are patches of high radar reflection near the poles.", "Although ice was not the only possible cause of these reflective regions, astronomers think it was the most likely.", "The presence of water ice was confirmed using ''MESSENGER'' images of craters at the north pole.The icy crater regions are estimated to contain about 1014–1015 kg of ice, and may be covered by a layer of regolith that inhibits sublimation.", "By comparison, the Antarctic ice sheet on Earth has a mass of about 4 kg, and Mars's south polar cap contains about 1016 kg of water.", "The origin of the ice on Mercury is not yet known, but the two most likely sources are from outgassing of water from the planet's interior and deposition by impacts of comets.Mercury is too small and hot for its gravity to retain any significant atmosphere over long periods of time; it does have a tenuous surface-bounded exosphere at a surface pressure of less than approximately 0.5 nPa (0.005 picobars).", "It includes hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, silicon, and hydroxide, among others.", "This exosphere is not stable—atoms are continuously lost and replenished from a variety of sources.", "Hydrogen atoms and helium atoms probably come from the solar wind, diffusing into Mercury's magnetosphere before later escaping back into space.", "The radioactive decay of elements within Mercury's crust is another source of helium, as well as sodium and potassium.", "Water vapor is present, released by a combination of processes such as comets striking its surface, sputtering creating water out of hydrogen from the solar wind and oxygen from rock, and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice in the permanently shadowed polar craters.", "The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O+, OH−, and H3O+ was a surprise.", "Because of the quantities of these ions that were detected in Mercury's space environment, scientists surmise that these molecules were blasted from the surface or exosphere by the solar wind.Sodium, potassium, and calcium were discovered in the atmosphere during the 1980s–1990s, and are thought to result primarily from the vaporization of surface rock struck by micrometeorite impacts including presently from Comet Encke.", "In 2008, magnesium was discovered by ''MESSENGER''.", "Studies indicate that, at times, sodium emissions are localized at points that correspond to the planet's magnetic poles.", "This would indicate an interaction between the magnetosphere and the planet's surface.According to NASA, Mercury is not a suitable planet for Earth-like life.", "It has a surface boundary exosphere instead of a layered atmosphere, extreme temperatures, and high solar radiation.", "It is unlikely that any living beings can withstand those conditions.", "Some parts of the subsurface of Mercury may have been habitable, and perhaps life forms, albeit likely primitive microorganisms, may have existed on the planet.=== Magnetic field and magnetosphere ===Graph showing relative strength of Mercury's magnetic fieldDespite its small size and slow 59-day-long rotation, Mercury has a significant, and apparently global, magnetic field.", "According to measurements taken by , it is about 1.1% the strength of Earth's.", "The magnetic-field strength at Mercury's equator is about .", "Like that of Earth, Mercury's magnetic field is dipolar.", "Unlike Earth's, Mercury's poles are nearly aligned with the planet's spin axis.", "Measurements from both the and ''MESSENGER'' space probes have indicated that the strength and shape of the magnetic field are stable.It is likely that this magnetic field is generated by a dynamo effect, in a manner similar to the magnetic field of Earth.", "This dynamo effect would result from the circulation of the planet's iron-rich liquid core.", "Particularly strong tidal heating effects caused by the planet's high orbital eccentricity would serve to keep part of the core in the liquid state necessary for this dynamo effect.Mercury's magnetic field is strong enough to deflect the solar wind around the planet, creating a magnetosphere.", "The planet's magnetosphere, though small enough to fit within Earth, is strong enough to trap solar wind plasma.", "This contributes to the space weathering of the planet's surface.", "Observations taken by the spacecraft detected this low energy plasma in the magnetosphere of the planet's nightside.", "Bursts of energetic particles in the planet's magnetotail indicate a dynamic quality to the planet's magnetosphere.During its second flyby of the planet on October 6, 2008, ''MESSENGER'' discovered that Mercury's magnetic field can be extremely \"leaky\".", "The spacecraft encountered magnetic \"tornadoes\" – twisted bundles of magnetic fields connecting the planetary magnetic field to interplanetary space – that were up to wide or a third of the radius of the planet.", "These twisted magnetic flux tubes, technically known as flux transfer events, form open windows in the planet's magnetic shield through which the solar wind may enter and directly impact Mercury's surface via magnetic reconnection.", "This also occurs in Earth's magnetic field.", "The ''MESSENGER'' observations showed the reconnection rate was ten times higher at Mercury, but its proximity to the Sun only accounts for about a third of the reconnection rate observed by ''MESSENGER''." ], [ "Orbit, rotation, and longitude", "Mercury has the most eccentric orbit of all the planets in the Solar System; its eccentricity is 0.21 with its distance from the Sun ranging from .", "It takes 87.969 Earth days to complete an orbit.", "The diagram illustrates the effects of the eccentricity, showing Mercury's orbit overlaid with a circular orbit having the same semi-major axis.", "Mercury's higher velocity when it is near perihelion is clear from the greater distance it covers in each 5-day interval.", "In the diagram, the varying distance of Mercury to the Sun is represented by the size of the planet, which is inversely proportional to Mercury's distance from the Sun.", "This varying distance to the Sun leads to Mercury's surface being flexed by tidal bulges raised by the Sun that are about 17 times stronger than the Moon's on Earth.", "Combined with a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance of the planet's rotation around its axis, it also results in complex variations of the surface temperature.The resonance makes a single solar day (the length between two meridian transits of the Sun) on Mercury last exactly two Mercury years, or about 176 Earth days.Mercury's orbit is inclined by 7 degrees to the plane of Earth's orbit (the ecliptic), the largest of all eight known solar planets.", "As a result, transits of Mercury across the face of the Sun can only occur when the planet is crossing the plane of the ecliptic at the time it lies between Earth and the Sun, which is in May or November.", "This occurs about every seven years on average.Mercury's axial tilt is almost zero, with the best measured value as low as 0.027 degrees.", "This is significantly smaller than that of Jupiter, which has the second smallest axial tilt of all planets at 3.1 degrees.", "This means that to an observer at Mercury's poles, the center of the Sun never rises more than 2.1 arcminutes above the horizon.", "By comparison, the angular size of the Sun as seen from Mercury ranges from to 2 degrees across.At certain points on Mercury's surface, an observer would be able to see the Sun peek up a little more than two-thirds of the way over the horizon, then reverse and set before rising again, all within the same Mercurian day.", "This is because approximately four Earth days before perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity equals its angular rotational velocity so that the Sun's apparent motion ceases; closer to perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity then exceeds the angular rotational velocity.", "Thus, to a hypothetical observer on Mercury, the Sun appears to move in a retrograde direction.", "Four Earth days after perihelion, the Sun's normal apparent motion resumes.", "A similar effect would have occurred if Mercury had been in synchronous rotation: the alternating gain and loss of rotation over a revolution would have caused a libration of 23.65° in longitude.For the same reason, there are two points on Mercury's equator, 180 degrees apart in longitude, at either of which, around perihelion in alternate Mercurian years (once a Mercurian day), the Sun passes overhead, then reverses its apparent motion and passes overhead again, then reverses a second time and passes overhead a third time, taking a total of about 16 Earth-days for this entire process.", "In the other alternate Mercurian years, the same thing happens at the other of these two points.", "The amplitude of the retrograde motion is small, so the overall effect is that, for two or three weeks, the Sun is almost stationary overhead, and is at its most brilliant because Mercury is at perihelion, its closest to the Sun.", "This prolonged exposure to the Sun at its brightest makes these two points the hottest places on Mercury.", "Maximum temperature occurs when the Sun is at an angle of about 25 degrees past noon due to diurnal temperature lag, at 0.4 Mercury days and 0.8 Mercury years past sunrise.", "Conversely, there are two other points on the equator, 90 degrees of longitude apart from the first ones, where the Sun passes overhead only when the planet is at aphelion in alternate years, when the apparent motion of the Sun in Mercury's sky is relatively rapid.", "These points, which are the ones on the equator where the apparent retrograde motion of the Sun happens when it is crossing the horizon as described in the preceding paragraph, receive much less solar heat than the first ones described above.Mercury attains an inferior conjunction (nearest approach to Earth) every 116 Earth days on average, but this interval can range from 105 days to 129 days due to the planet's eccentric orbit.", "Mercury can come as near as to Earth, and that is slowly declining: The next approach to within is in 2679, and to within in 4487, but it will not be closer to Earth than until 28,622.1.Solex 10  ( Text Output file ) 2.Gravity Simulator charts 3.JPL Horizons 1950–2200  Its period of retrograde motion as seen from Earth can vary from 8 to 15 days on either side of an inferior conjunction.", "This large range arises from the planet's high orbital eccentricity.", "Essentially, because Mercury is closest to the Sun, when taking an average over time, Mercury is most often the closest planet to the Earth, and—in that measure—it is the closest planet to each of the other planets in the Solar System.=== Longitude convention ===The longitude convention for Mercury puts the zero of longitude at one of the two hottest points on the surface, as described above.", "However, when this area was first visited, by , this zero meridian was in darkness, so it was impossible to select a feature on the surface to define the exact position of the meridian.", "Therefore, a small crater further west was chosen, called Hun Kal, which provides the exact reference point for measuring longitude.", "The center of Hun Kal defines the 20° west meridian.", "A 1970 International Astronomical Union resolution suggests that longitudes be measured positively in the westerly direction on Mercury.", "The two hottest places on the equator are therefore at longitudes 0° W and 180° W, and the coolest points on the equator are at longitudes 90° W and 270° W. However, the ''MESSENGER'' project uses an east-positive convention.=== Spin-orbit resonance ===After one orbit, Mercury has rotated 1.5 times, so after two complete orbits the same hemisphere is again illuminated.For many years it was thought that Mercury was synchronously tidally locked with the Sun, rotating once for each orbit and always keeping the same face directed towards the Sun, in the same way that the same side of the Moon always faces Earth.", "Radar observations in 1965 proved that the planet has a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, rotating three times for every two revolutions around the Sun.", "The eccentricity of Mercury's orbit makes this resonance stable—at perihelion, when the solar tide is strongest, the Sun is nearly stationary in Mercury's sky.The 3:2 resonant tidal locking is stabilized by the variance of the tidal force along Mercury's eccentric orbit, acting on a permanent dipole component of Mercury's mass distribution.", "In a circular orbit there is no such variance, so the only resonance stabilized in such an orbit is at 1:1 (e.g., Earth–Moon), when the tidal force, stretching a body along the \"center-body\" line, exerts a torque that aligns the body's axis of least inertia (the \"longest\" axis, and the axis of the aforementioned dipole) to always point at the center.", "However, with noticeable eccentricity, like that of Mercury's orbit, the tidal force has a maximum at perihelion and therefore stabilizes resonances, like 3:2, ensuring that the planet points its axis of least inertia roughly at the Sun when passing through perihelion.The original reason astronomers thought it was synchronously locked was that, whenever Mercury was best placed for observation, it was always nearly at the same point in its 3:2 resonance, hence showing the same face.", "This is because, coincidentally, Mercury's rotation period is almost exactly half of its synodic period with respect to Earth.", "Due to Mercury's 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, a solar day lasts about 176 Earth days.", "A sidereal day (the period of rotation) lasts about 58.7 Earth days.Simulations indicate that the orbital eccentricity of Mercury varies chaotically from nearly zero (circular) to more than 0.45 over millions of years due to perturbations from the other planets.", "This was thought to explain Mercury's 3:2 spin-orbit resonance (rather than the more usual 1:1), because this state is more likely to arise during a period of high eccentricity.", "However, accurate modeling based on a realistic model of tidal response has demonstrated that Mercury was captured into the 3:2 spin-orbit state at a very early stage of its history, within 20 (more likely, 10) million years after its formation.Numerical simulations show that a future secular orbital resonant interaction with the perihelion of Jupiter may cause the eccentricity of Mercury's orbit to increase to the point where there is a 1% chance that the orbit will be destabilized in the next five billion years.", "If this happens, Mercury may fall into the Sun, collide with Venus, be ejected from the Solar System, or even disrupt the rest of the inner Solar System.=== Advance of perihelion ===Apsidal precession of Mercury's orbitIn 1859, the French mathematician and astronomer Urbain Le Verrier reported that the slow precession of Mercury's orbit around the Sun could not be completely explained by Newtonian mechanics and perturbations by the known planets.", "He suggested, among possible explanations, that another planet (or perhaps instead a series of smaller \"corpuscules\") might exist in an orbit even closer to the Sun than that of Mercury, to account for this perturbation.", "Other explanations considered included a slight oblateness of the Sun.", "The success of the search for Neptune based on its perturbations of the orbit of Uranus led astronomers to place faith in this possible explanation, and the hypothetical planet was named Vulcan, but no such planet was ever found.The observed perihelion precession of Mercury is 5,600 arcseconds (1.5556°) per century relative to Earth, or per century relative to the inertial ICRF.", "Newtonian mechanics, taking into account all the effects from the other planets and including 0.0254 arcseconds per century due to the oblateness of the Sun, predicts a precession of 5,557 arcseconds (1.5436°) per century relative to Earth, or per century relative to ICRF.", "In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity provided the explanation for the observed precession, by formalizing gravitation as being mediated by the curvature of spacetime.", "The effect is small: just per century (or 0.43 arcsecond per year, or 0.1035 arcsecond per orbital period) for Mercury; it therefore requires a little over 12.5 million orbits, or 3 million years, for a full excess turn.", "Similar, but much smaller, effects exist for other Solar System bodies: 8.6247 arcseconds per century for Venus, 3.8387 for Earth, 1.351 for Mars, and 10.05 for 1566 Icarus." ], [ "Observation", "Image mosaic by , 1974Mercury's apparent magnitude is calculated to vary between −2.48 (brighter than Sirius) around superior conjunction and +7.25 (below the limit of naked-eye visibility) around inferior conjunction.", "The mean apparent magnitude is 0.23 while the standard deviation of 1.78 is the largest of any planet.", "The mean apparent magnitude at superior conjunction is −1.89 while that at inferior conjunction is +5.93.Observation of Mercury is complicated by its proximity to the Sun, as it is lost in the Sun's glare for much of the time.", "Mercury can be observed for only a brief period during either morning or evening twilight.", "Ground-based telescope observations of Mercury reveal only an illuminated partial disk with limited detail.", "The Hubble Space Telescope cannot observe Mercury at all, due to safety procedures that prevent its pointing too close to the Sun.", "Because the shift of 0.15 revolutions of Earth in a Mercurian year makes up a seven-Mercurian-year cycle (0.15 × 7 ≈ 1.0), in the seventh Mercurian year, Mercury follows almost exactly (earlier by 7 days) the sequence of phenomena it showed seven Mercurian years before.Like the Moon and Venus, Mercury exhibits phases as seen from Earth.", "It is \"new\" at inferior conjunction and \"full\" at superior conjunction.", "The planet is rendered invisible from Earth on both of these occasions because of its being obscured by the Sun, except at its new phase during a transit.", "Mercury is technically brightest as seen from Earth when it is at a full phase.", "Although Mercury is farthest from Earth when it is full, the greater illuminated area that is visible and the opposition brightness surge more than compensates for the distance.", "The opposite is true for Venus, which appears brightest when it is a crescent, because it is much closer to Earth than when gibbous.False-color map showing the maximum temperatures of the north polar regionMercury is best observed at the first and last quarter, although they are phases of lesser brightness.", "The first and last quarter phases occur at greatest elongation east and west of the Sun, respectively.", "At both of these times, Mercury's separation from the Sun ranges anywhere from 17.9° at perihelion to 27.8° at aphelion.", "At greatest ''western'' elongation, Mercury rises at its earliest before sunrise, and at greatest ''eastern'' elongation, it sets at its latest after sunset.False-color image of Carnegie Rupes, a tectonic landform—high terrain (red); low (blue).Mercury is more often and easily visible from the Southern Hemisphere than from the Northern.", "This is because Mercury's maximum western elongation occurs only during early autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, whereas its greatest eastern elongation happens only during late winter in the Southern Hemisphere.", "In both of these cases, the angle at which the planet's orbit intersects the horizon is maximized, allowing it to rise several hours before sunrise in the former instance and not set until several hours after sundown in the latter from southern mid-latitudes, such as Argentina and South Africa.An alternate method for viewing Mercury involves observing the planet with a telescope during daylight hours when conditions are clear, ideally when it is at its greatest elongation.", "This allows the planet to be found easily, even when using telescopes with apertures.", "However, great care must be taken to obstruct the Sun from sight because of the extreme risk for eye damage.", "This method bypasses the limitation of twilight observing when the ecliptic is located at a low elevation (e.g.", "on autumn evenings).", "The planet is higher in the sky and less atmospheric effects affect the view of the planet.", "Mercury can be viewed as close as 4° to the Sun near superior conjunction when it is almost at its brightest.Mercury can, like several other planets and the brightest stars, be seen during a total solar eclipse." ], [ "Observation history", "=== Ancient astronomers ===Mercury, from ''Liber astronomiae'', 1550The earliest known recorded observations of Mercury are from the MUL.APIN tablets.", "These observations were most likely made by an Assyrian astronomer around the 14th century BC.", "The cuneiform name used to designate Mercury on the MUL.APIN tablets is transcribed as UDU.IDIM.GU\\U4.UD (\"the jumping planet\").", "Babylonian records of Mercury date back to the 1st millennium BC.", "The Babylonians called the planet Nabu after the messenger to the gods in their mythology.The Greco-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy wrote about the possibility of planetary transits across the face of the Sun in his work ''Planetary Hypotheses''.", "He suggested that no transits had been observed either because planets such as Mercury were too small to see, or because transits were too infrequent.Ibn al-Shatir's model for the appearances of Mercury, showing the multiplication of epicycles using the Tusi couple, thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and equant.In ancient China, Mercury was known as \"the Hour Star\" (''Chen-xing'' ).", "It was associated with the direction north and the phase of water in the Five Phases system of metaphysics.", "Modern Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet literally as the \"water star\" (), based on the Five elements.", "Hindu mythology used the name Budha for Mercury, and this god was thought to preside over Wednesday.", "The god Odin (or Woden) of Germanic paganism was associated with the planet Mercury and Wednesday.", "The Maya may have represented Mercury as an owl (or possibly four owls; two for the morning aspect and two for the evening) that served as a messenger to the underworld.In medieval Islamic astronomy, the Andalusian astronomer Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī in the 11th century described the deferent of Mercury's geocentric orbit as being oval, like an egg or a pignon, although this insight did not influence his astronomical theory or his astronomical calculations.", "In the 12th century, Ibn Bajjah observed \"two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun\", which was later suggested as the transit of Mercury and/or Venus by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century.", "Most such medieval reports of transits were later taken as observations of sunspots.In India, the Kerala school astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji in the 15th century developed a partially heliocentric planetary model in which Mercury orbits the Sun, which in turn orbits Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century.=== Ground-based telescopic research ===Transit of Mercury.", "Mercury is visible as a black dot below and to the left of center.", "The dark area above the center of the solar disk is a sunspot.Elongation is the angle between the Sun and the planet, with Earth as the reference point.", "Mercury appears close to the Sun.The first telescopic observations of Mercury were made by Thomas Harriot and Galileo from 1610.In 1612, Simon Marius observed the brightness of Mercury varied with the planet's orbital position and concluded it had phases \"in the same way as Venus and the Moon\".", "In 1631, Pierre Gassendi made the first telescopic observations of the transit of a planet across the Sun when he saw a transit of Mercury predicted by Johannes Kepler.", "In 1639, Giovanni Zupi used a telescope to discover that the planet had orbital phases similar to Venus and the Moon.", "The observation demonstrated conclusively that Mercury orbited the Sun.A rare event in astronomy is the passage of one planet in front of another (occultation), as seen from Earth.", "Mercury and Venus occult each other every few centuries, and the event of May 28, 1737, is the only one historically observed, having been seen by John Bevis at the Royal Greenwich Observatory.", "The next occultation of Mercury by Venus will be on December 3, 2133.The difficulties inherent in observing Mercury meant that it was far less studied than the other planets.", "In 1800, Johann Schröter made observations of surface features, claiming to have observed mountains.", "Friedrich Bessel used Schröter's drawings to erroneously estimate the rotation period as 24 hours and an axial tilt of 70°.", "In the 1880s, Giovanni Schiaparelli mapped the planet more accurately, and suggested that Mercury's rotational period was 88 days, the same as its orbital period due to tidal locking.", "This phenomenon is known as synchronous rotation.", "The effort to map the surface of Mercury was continued by Eugenios Antoniadi, who published a book in 1934 that included both maps and his own observations.", "Many of the planet's surface features, particularly the albedo features, take their names from Antoniadi's map.In June 1962, Soviet scientists at the Institute of Radio-engineering and Electronics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, led by Vladimir Kotelnikov, became the first to bounce a radar signal off Mercury and receive it, starting radar observations of the planet.", "Three years later, radar observations by Americans Gordon H. Pettengill and Rolf B. Dyce, using the Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico, showed conclusively that the planet's rotational period was about 59 days.", "The theory that Mercury's rotation was synchronous had become widely held, and it was a surprise to astronomers when these radio observations were announced.", "If Mercury were tidally locked, its dark face would be extremely cold, but measurements of radio emission revealed that it was much hotter than expected.", "Astronomers were reluctant to drop the synchronous rotation theory and proposed alternative mechanisms such as powerful heat-distributing winds to explain the observations.Water ice (yellow) at Mercury's north polar regionIn 1965, Italian astronomer Giuseppe Colombo noted that the rotation value was about two-thirds of Mercury's orbital period, and proposed that the planet's orbital and rotational periods were locked into a 3:2 rather than a 1:1 resonance.", "Data from subsequently confirmed this view.", "This means that Schiaparelli's and Antoniadi's maps were not \"wrong\".", "Instead, the astronomers saw the same features during every ''second'' orbit and recorded them, but disregarded those seen in the meantime, when Mercury's other face was toward the Sun, because the orbital geometry meant that these observations were made under poor viewing conditions.Ground-based optical observations did not shed much further light on Mercury, but radio astronomers using interferometry at microwave wavelengths, a technique that enables removal of the solar radiation, were able to discern physical and chemical characteristics of the subsurface layers to a depth of several meters.", "Not until the first space probe flew past Mercury did many of its most fundamental morphological properties become known.", "Moreover, technological advances have led to improved ground-based observations.", "In 2000, high-resolution lucky imaging observations were conducted by the Mount Wilson Observatory Hale telescope.", "They provided the first views that resolved surface features on the parts of Mercury that were not imaged in the mission.", "Most of the planet has been mapped by the Arecibo radar telescope, with resolution, including polar deposits in shadowed craters of what may be water ice.=== Research with space probes ===''MESSENGER'' being prepared for launchMercury transiting the Sun as viewed by the Mars rover ''Curiosity'' (June 3, 2014).Reaching Mercury from Earth poses significant technical challenges, because it orbits so much closer to the Sun than Earth.", "A Mercury-bound spacecraft launched from Earth must travel over into the Sun's gravitational potential well.", "Mercury has an orbital speed of , whereas Earth's orbital speed is .", "Therefore, the spacecraft must make a larger change in velocity (delta-v) to get to Mercury and then enter orbit, as compared to the delta-v required for, say, Mars planetary missions.The potential energy liberated by moving down the Sun's potential well becomes kinetic energy, requiring a delta-v change to do anything other than pass by Mercury.", "Some portion of this delta-v budget can be provided from a gravity assist during one or more fly-bys of Venus.", "To land safely or enter a stable orbit the spacecraft would rely entirely on rocket motors.", "Aerobraking is ruled out because Mercury has a negligible atmosphere.", "A trip to Mercury requires more rocket fuel than that required to escape the Solar System completely.", "As a result, only three space probes have visited it so far.", "A proposed alternative approach would use a solar sail to attain a Mercury-synchronous orbit around the Sun.==== ''Mariner 10'' ====''Mariner 10'', the first probe to visit MercuryThe first spacecraft to visit Mercury was NASA's (1974–1975).", "The spacecraft used the gravity of Venus to adjust its orbital velocity so that it could approach Mercury, making it both the first spacecraft to use this gravitational \"slingshot\" effect and the first NASA mission to visit multiple planets.", "provided the first close-up images of Mercury's surface, which immediately showed its heavily cratered nature, and revealed many other types of geological features, such as the giant scarps that were later ascribed to the effect of the planet shrinking slightly as its iron core cools.", "Unfortunately, the same face of the planet was lit at each of close approaches.", "This made close observation of both sides of the planet impossible, and resulted in the mapping of less than 45% of the planet's surface.The spacecraft made three close approaches to Mercury, the closest of which took it to within of the surface.", "At the first close approach, instruments detected a magnetic field, to the great surprise of planetary geologists—Mercury's rotation was expected to be much too slow to generate a significant dynamo effect.", "The second close approach was primarily used for imaging, but at the third approach, extensive magnetic data were obtained.", "The data revealed that the planet's magnetic field is much like Earth's, which deflects the solar wind around the planet.", "For many years after the encounters, the origin of Mercury's magnetic field remained the subject of several competing theories.On March 24, 1975, just eight days after its final close approach, ran out of fuel.", "Because its orbit could no longer be accurately controlled, mission controllers instructed the probe to shut down.", "is thought to be still orbiting the Sun, passing close to Mercury every few months.==== ''MESSENGER'' ====Estimated details of the impact of ''MESSENGER'' on April 30, 2015A second NASA mission to Mercury, named ''MESSENGER'' (MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging), was launched on August 3, 2004.It made a fly-by of Earth in August 2005, and of Venus in October 2006 and June 2007 to place it onto the correct trajectory to reach an orbit around Mercury.", "A first fly-by of Mercury occurred on January 14, 2008, a second on October 6, 2008, and a third on September 29, 2009.Most of the hemisphere not imaged by was mapped during these fly-bys.", "The probe successfully entered an elliptical orbit around the planet on March 18, 2011.The first orbital image of Mercury was obtained on March 29, 2011.The probe finished a one-year mapping mission, and then entered a one-year extended mission into 2013.In addition to continued observations and mapping of Mercury, ''MESSENGER'' observed the 2012 solar maximum.Topography of Mercury based on MDIS (Mercury Dual Imaging System) data The mission was designed to clear up six key issues: Mercury's high density, its geological history, the nature of its magnetic field, the structure of its core, whether it has ice at its poles, and where its tenuous atmosphere comes from.", "To this end, the probe carried imaging devices that gathered much-higher-resolution images of much more of Mercury than , assorted spectrometers to determine the abundances of elements in the crust, and magnetometers and devices to measure velocities of charged particles.", "Measurements of changes in the probe's orbital velocity were expected to be used to infer details of the planet's interior structure.", "''MESSENGER'' final maneuver was on April 24, 2015, and it crashed into Mercury's surface on April 30, 2015.The spacecraft's impact with Mercury occurred at 3:26:01 p.m. EDT on April 30, 2015, leaving a crater estimated to be in diameter.==== ''BepiColombo'' ====The European Space Agency and the Japanese Space Agency developed and launched a joint mission called ''BepiColombo'', which will orbit Mercury with two probes: one to map the planet and the other to study its magnetosphere.", "Launched on October 20, 2018, ''BepiColombo'' is expected to reach Mercury in 2025.It will release a magnetometer probe into an elliptical orbit, then chemical rockets will fire to deposit the mapper probe into a circular orbit.", "Both probes will operate for one terrestrial year.", "The mapper probe carries an array of spectrometers similar to those on ''MESSENGER'', and will study the planet at many different wavelengths including infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma ray.", "''BepiColombo'' conducted three of its six planned Mercury flybys from October 1, 2021 to June 19, 2023." ], [ "See also", "* Astronomy on Mercury* Colonization of Mercury* Mercury in astrology* Mercury in fiction* Outline of Mercury (planet)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Mercury nomenclature and map with feature names from the USGS/IAU ''Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature''* Equirectangular map of Mercury by Applied Coherent Technology Corp* 3D globe of Mercury by Google* Mercury at Solarviews.com* Mercury by Astronomy Cast* ''MESSENGER'' mission web site* ''BepiColombo'' mission web site" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monty Python and the Holy Grail" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Monty Python and the Holy Grail''''' is a 1975 British comedy film satirizing the Arthurian legend, written and performed by the Monty Python comedy group (Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Terry Gilliam, Eric Idle, Terry Jones, and Michael Palin) and directed by Gilliam and Jones in their feature directorial debuts.", "It was conceived during the hiatus between the third and fourth series of their BBC Television series ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''.While the group's first film, ''And Now for Something Completely Different'', was a compilation of sketches from the first two television series, ''Holy Grail'' is an original story that parodies the legend of King Arthur's quest for the Holy Grail.", "Thirty years later, Idle used the film as the basis for the 2005 Tony Award-winning musical ''Spamalot''.", "''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' grossed more than any British film exhibited in the US in 1975.In the US, it was selected in 2011 as the second-best comedy of all time in the ABC special ''Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time'' behind ''Airplane!''", "In the UK, readers of ''Total Film'' magazine in 2000 ranked it the fifth-greatest comedy film of all time; a similar poll of Channel 4 viewers in 2006 placed it sixth." ], [ "Plot", "In AD 932, King Arthur and his squire, Patsy, travel Britain searching for men to join the Knights of the Round Table.", "Along the way, Arthur debates whether swallows could carry coconuts, passes through a town infected with the plague, recounts receiving Excalibur from the Lady of the Lake to two anarcho-syndicalist peasants, defeats the Black Knight, and observes an impromptu witch trial.", "He recruits Sir Bedevere the Wise, Sir Lancelot the Brave, Sir Galahad the Pure, Sir Robin the Not-Quite-So-Brave-as-Sir-Lancelot, and the aptly named Sir Not-Appearing-in-this-Film, along with their squires and Robin's minstrels.", "Arthur leads the knights to Camelot, but, after a musical number, changes his mind, deeming it \"a silly place\".", "As they turn away, God appears and orders Arthur to find the Holy Grail.Arthur and his knights arrive at a castle occupied by French soldiers, who claim to have the Grail and taunt the Britons, driving them back with a barrage of barnyard animals.", "Bedevere concocts a plan to sneak in using a Trojan Rabbit, but forgets to tell the others to hide inside it; the Knights are forced to flee when it is flung back at them.", "Arthur decides the knights should go their separate ways to search for the Grail.", "A modern-day historian filming a documentary on the Arthurian legends is killed by an unknown knight on horseback, triggering a police investigation.Arthur and Bedevere are given directions by an old man and attempt to satisfy the strange requests of the dreaded Knights Who Say \"Ni!\".", "Sir Robin avoids a fight with a Three-Headed Knight by running away while the heads are arguing among themselves.", "Sir Galahad is led by a grail-shaped beacon to Castle Anthrax, which is occupied exclusively by young women, who wish to be punished for misleading him, but he is unwillingly \"rescued\" by Lancelot.", "Lancelot receives an arrow-shot note from Swamp Castle.", "Believing the note is from a lady being forced to marry against her will, he storms the castle and slaughters several members of the wedding party, only to discover the note is from an effeminate prince.Arthur and his knights regroup and are joined by Brother Maynard, his monk brethren, and three new knights: Bors, Gawain and Ector.", "They meet Tim the Enchanter, who directs them to a cave where the location of the Grail is said to be written.", "The entrance to the cave is guarded by the Rabbit of Caerbannog.", "Underestimating it, the knights attack, but the Rabbit easily kills Bors, Gawain and Ector.", "Arthur uses the \"Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch\", provided by Brother Maynard, to destroy the creature.", "Inside the cave, they find an inscription from Joseph of Arimathea, directing them to Castle Aarrgh.A cave monster devours Brother Maynard, but Arthur and the knights escape after the animator unexpectedly suffers a fatal heart attack.", "The knights approach the Bridge of Death, where the bridge-keeper demands they answer three questions in order to pass or else be cast into the Gorge of Eternal Peril.", "Lancelot easily answers simple questions and crosses.", "An overly cocky Robin is defeated by an unexpectedly difficult question, and an indecisive Galahad fails an easy one; both are magically flung into the gorge.", "When Arthur asks for clarification on a question regarding the airspeed of an unladen swallow, the bridge-keeper cannot answer and is himself thrown into the gorge.Arthur and Bedevere cannot find Lancelot, unaware that he has been arrested by police investigating the historian's death.", "The pair reach Castle Aarrgh, but find it occupied by the French soldiers from earlier in the film.", "After being repelled by showers of manure, they summon an army of knights and prepare to assault the castle.", "As the army charges, the police arrive, arrest Arthur and Bedevere for the murder of the historian and break the camera, abruptly ending the film." ], [ "Cast", "* Graham Chapman as Arthur, King of the Britons, the hiccuping guard, and the middle head of the Three-Headed Giant, as well as the voice of God* John Cleese as Sir Lancelot the Brave, the Black Knight, French Taunter, and Tim the Enchanter, among other roles* Terry Gilliam as Patsy (Arthur's servant), the Soothsaying Bridgekeeper, the Green Knight, Sir Bors, and himself as the Weak-Hearted Animator, among other roles* Eric Idle as Sir Robin the-not-quite-so-brave-as-Sir-Lancelot, Lancelot's squire Concorde, the collector of the dead, Roger the Shrubber, and Brother Maynard, among other roles* Terry Jones as Sir Bedevere the Wise, Prince Herbert, Dennis' mother, and the left head of the Three-Headed Giant, among other roles* Michael Palin as Sir Galahad the Pure, Leader of the Knights Who Say Ni, Lord of Swamp Castle, Dennis, and the right head of the Three-Headed Giant, among other roles, and the film's narrator* Connie Booth as Miss Islington, the Witch* Carol Cleveland as Zoot and Dingo, identical twin sisters* Neil Innes as the Leader of Robin's Minstrels, Head Monk, Knight of Camelot, Servant Crushed by Rabbit.", "* Bee Duffell as the Old Crone* John Young as Frank the Historian and the Old Man* Rita Davies as Frank's Wife* Avril Stewart as Dr. Piglet* Sally Kinghorn as Dr. Winston* Sandy Johnson as a Knight Who Says Ni, Villager at Witch Burning, Musician at Wedding, Monk, and Knight in Battle* Julian Doyle as Police Sergeant (uncredited)* Charles Knode as Camp Guard and Robin's Minstrel (uncredited)* Roy Forge Smith as Inspector at End of Film (uncredited)* Maggie Weston as Page Turner (uncredited)" ], [ "Production", "===Development===The legend of the Holy Grail provided a unifying motif for the film.In January 1973 the Monty Python troupe wrote the first draft of the screenplay.", "Half of the material was set in the Middle Ages and half was set in the present day.", "The group decided to focus on the Middle Ages, focusing on the legend of the Holy Grail.", "By the fourth or fifth draft, the story was complete, and the cast joked that the fact that the Grail was never retrieved would be \"a big let-down ... a great anti-climax\".", "Graham Chapman said a challenge was incorporating scenes that did not fit the Holy Grail motif.Neither Terry Gilliam nor Terry Jones had directed a film before, and described it as a learning experience in which they would learn to make a film by making an entire full-length film.", "The cast humorously described the novice directing style as employing the level of mutual disrespect always found in Monty Python's work.A 2021 tweet by Eric Idle revealed that the film was financed by eight investors: Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Jethro Tull's Ian Anderson, ''Holy Grail'''s co-producer Michael White, Heartaches (a cricket team founded by lyricist Tim Rice), and three record companies including Charisma Records, the record label that released Python's early comedy albums.", "Idle and Terry Gilliam had previously mentioned that Elton John also contributed to the financing of the film.", "The investors contributed the entire original budget of £175,350 (about $410,000 in 1974) and also received a percentage of the proceeds from the 2005 musical ''Spamalot''.According to Gilliam, the Pythons turned to rock stars like Pink Floyd and Led Zeppelin for finance as the studios refused to fund the film and rock stars saw it as \"a good tax write-off\" because the top rate of UK income tax was \"as high as 90%\" at the time.===Filming===''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' was mostly shot on location in Scotland, particularly around Doune Castle, Glen Coe, and the privately owned Castle Stalker.", "The many castles seen throughout the film were mainly either Doune Castle shot from different angles or hanging miniatures.", "There are several exceptions to this: the very first exterior shot of a castle at the beginning of the film is Kidwelly Castle in South Wales, and the single exterior shot of the Swamp Castle during \"Tale of Sir Lancelot\" is Bodiam Castle in East Sussex; all subsequent shots of the exterior and interior of those scenes were filmed at Doune Castle.", "Production designer Julian Doyle recounted that his crew constructed walls in the forest near Doune.", "Terry Jones later recalled the crew had selected more castles around Scotland for locations, but during the two weeks prior to principal photography, the Scottish Department of the Environment declined permission for use of the castles in its jurisdiction, for fear of damage.At the start of \"The Tale of Sir Robin\", there is a slow camera zoom in on rocky scenery (that in the voice-over is described as \"the dark forest of Ewing\").", "This is actually a still photograph of the gorge at Mount Buffalo National Park in Victoria, Australia.", "Doyle stated in 2000 during an interview with ''Hotdog'' magazine that it was a still image filmed with candles underneath the frame (to give a heat haze).", "This was a low-cost method of achieving a convincing location effect.", "On the DVD audio commentary, Cleese described challenges shooting and editing Castle Anthrax in \"The Tale of Sir Galahad\", with what he felt the most comedic take being unused because an anachronistic coat was visible in it.", "Castle Anthrax was also shot in one part of Doune, where costume designer Hazel Pethig advised against nudity, dressing the girls in shifts.The scene in which the knights fight the Rabbit of Caerbannog was filmed at Tomnadashan mine.", "A real white rabbit was used, switched with puppets for its killings.", "The bite effects were done with special puppetry by both Gilliam and SFX technician John Horton.", "According to Gilliam, the rabbit was covered with red liquid to simulate blood, though its owner did not want the animal dirty and was kept unaware.", "The liquid was difficult to remove from the fur.", "Gilliam also stated that he thought, in hindsight, the crew could have just purchased their own rabbit instead.", "Regardless, the rabbit itself was unharmed.", "As chronicled in ''The Life of Python'', ''The First 20 Years of Monty Python'', and ''The Pythons' Autobiography'', Chapman suffered from acrophobia, trembling and bouts of forgetfulness during filming due to his alcoholism, prompting him to refrain from drinking while the production continued in order to remain \"on an even keel\".", "Nearly three years later, in December 1977, Chapman achieved sobriety.Originally the knight characters were going to ride real horses, but after it became clear that the film's small budget precluded real horses (except for a lone horse appearing in a couple of scenes), the Pythons decided their characters would mime horse-riding while their porters trotted behind them banging coconut shells together.", "The joke was derived from the old-fashioned sound effect used by radio shows to convey the sound of hooves clattering.", "This was later referred to in the German release of the film, which translated the title as ''Die Ritter der Kokosnuß'' (''The Knights of the Coconut'').", "Similarly, the Hungarian title ''Gyalog galopp'' translates to \"Galloping on Foot\".The opening credits of the film feature pseudo-Swedish subtitles, which soon turn into an appeal to visit Sweden and see the country's moose.", "The subtitles are soon stopped and claim that the people responsible have been sacked, but moose references continue throughout the actual credits.", "The subtitles were written by Michael Palin as a way to \"entertain the 'captive' audience\" at the beginning of the film." ], [ "Soundtrack", "In addition to several songs written by Python regular Neil Innes, several pieces of music were licensed from De Wolfe Music Library.", "These include:* \"Wide Horizon\", composed by Pierre Arvay; used during the opening titles.", "* \"Ice Floe 9\", composed by Pierre Arvay; used during the opening titles.", "* \"Countrywide\", composed by Anthony Mawer; used during the beginning titles after the first titlers are sacked.", "* \"Homeward Bound\", composed by Jack Trombey; used as King Arthur's heroic theme.", "* \"Crossed Swords\", composed by Dudley Matthew; played during King Arthur's battle with the Black Knight.", "* \"The Flying Messenger\", composed by Oliver Armstrong; played during Sir Lancelot's misguided storming of Swamp Castle.", "* \"The Promised Land\", composed by Stanley Black; used in the scene where Arthur approaches the castle on the island.", "* \"Starlet in the Starlight\", composed by Kenneth Essex; briefly used for Prince Herbert's attempt to express himself in song.", "* \"Love Theme\", composed by Peter Knight; also used briefly for Prince Herbert.", "* \"Revolt\", composed by Eric Towren; used as the army charges on Castle Aaargh.Innes was supposed to write the film's soundtrack in its entirety, but after the team watched the movie with Innes's soundtrack, they decided to go instead with \"canned\" music, music borrowed from existing stock recordings.", "One problem with Innes's music, apparently, was that they considered it too appropriate, so that, according to Python scholar Darl Larsen, it \"undercut the Pythons' attempt at undercutting the medieval world they were trying to depict\"." ], [ "Release", "''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' had its theatrical debut in the United Kingdom on 3 April 1975, followed by a United States release on 27 April 1975 at the Century Plaza Cinemas in Los Angeles.", "It was re-released on 14 October 2015 in the United Kingdom.", "It earned rentals in the US and Canada of $5.17 million.The film had its television premiere 25 February 1977 on the ''CBS Late Movie''.", "Reportedly, the Pythons were displeased to discover a number of edits were done by the network to reduce use of profanity and the showing of blood.", "The troupe pulled back the rights and thereafter had it broadcast in the United States only on PBS and later other channels such as Comedy Central and IFC, where it runs uncut.The film has been periodically re-released.", "A \"21st anniversary edition\" was released on video in 1995 with 24 seconds of extra footage.", "This version with a new stereo soundtrack was released in theatres starting 15 June 2001 in the United States.", "It was re-released together with a special \"quote-along\" version in early December 2023 to celebrate its \"48th-and-a-half anniversary\".===Box office===According to records of the NFFC, as of 31 December 1978 the distributor earned receipts of £2,358,229.===Home media===In Region 1, The Criterion Collection released a LaserDisc version of the film featuring audio commentary from directors Jones and Gilliam.In 2001, Columbia Tristar published a two-disc, special-edition DVD.", "Disc one includes the Jones and Gilliam commentary, a second commentary with Idle, Palin and Cleese, the film's screenplay on a subtitle track and \"Subtitles for People Who Don't Like the Film\"–consisting of lines taken from William Shakespeare's ''Henry IV, Part 2''.", "Disc two includes ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail in Lego'', a \"brickfilm\" version of the \"Camelot Song\" as sung by Lego minifigures.", "It was created by Spite Your Face Productions on commission from the Lego Group and Python Pictures.", "The project was conceived by the original film's respective producer and co-director, John Goldstone and Terry Gilliam.", "Disc two also includes two scenes from the film's Japanese dub, literally translated back into English through subtitles.", "\"The Quest for the Holy Grail Locations\", hosted by Palin and Jones, shows places in Scotland used for the setting titled as \"England 932 A.D.\" (as well as the two Pythons purchasing a copy of their own script as a guide).", "Also included is a who's who page, advertising galleries and sing-alongs.", "A \"Collector's Edition\" DVD release additionally included a book of the screenplay, a limited-edition film cell/senitype, and limited-edition art cards.A 35th-anniversary edition on Blu-ray was released in the US on 6 March 2012.Special features include \"The Holy Book of Days,\" a second-screen experience that can be downloaded as an app on an iOS device and played with the Blu-ray to enhance its viewing, lost animation sequences with a new intro from animator Terry Gilliam, outtakes and extended scenes with Python member and the movie's co-director Terry Jones.On the special edition DVD, the studio logos, opening credits and a brief portion of the opening scene of 1961 British Film ''Dentist on the Job'' is added to the start of the film.", "The clip ends with a spluttering, unseen \"projectionist\" realising he has played the wrong film.", "A \"slide\" then appears urging the audience to wait one moment please while the operator changes reels." ], [ "Reception and legacy", "Contemporary reviews were mixed.", "Vincent Canby of ''The New York Times'' wrote in a favourable review that the film had \"some low spots,\" but had gags which were \"nonstop, occasionally inspired and should not be divulged, though it's not giving away too much to say that I particularly liked a sequence in which the knights, to gain access to an enemy castle, come up with the idea of building a Trojan rabbit.\"", "Charles Champlin of the ''Los Angeles Times'' was also positive, writing that the film, \"like ''Mad'' comics, is not certain to please every taste.", "But its youthful exuberance and its rousing zaniness are hard not to like.", "As a matter of fact, the sense of fun is dangerously contagious.\"", "Penelope Gilliatt of ''The New Yorker'' called the film \"often recklessly funny and sometimes a matter of comic genius.", "\"Other reviews were less enthusiastic.", "''Variety'' wrote that the storyline was \"basically an excuse for set pieces, some amusing, others overdone.\"", "Gene Siskel of the ''Chicago Tribune'' gave the film two-and-a-half stars, writing that he felt \"it contained about 10 very funny moments and 70 minutes of silence.", "Too many of the jokes took too long to set up, a trait shared by both ''Blazing Saddles'' and ''Young Frankenstein''.", "I guess I prefer Monty Python in chunks, in its original, television revue format.\"", "Gary Arnold of ''The Washington Post'' called the film \"a fitfully amusing spoof of the Arthurian legends\" but \"rather poky\" in tempo, citing the running gag of Swedish subtitles in the opening credits as an example of how the Pythons \"don't know when to let go of any ''shtik''\".", "Geoff Brown of ''The Monthly Film Bulletin'' wrote in a mixed review that \"the team's visual buffooneries and verbal rigamaroles (some good, some bad, but mostly indifferent) are piled on top of each other with no attention to judicious timing or structure, and a form which began as a jaunty assault on the well-made revue sketch and an ingenious misuse of television's fragmented style of presentation, threatens to become as unyielding and unfruitful as the conventions it originally attacked.", "\"Black Knight's helmet.", "His lines, \"Tis but a scratch\" and \"It's just a flesh wound…\" are often quoted.The film's reputation grew over time.", "In 2000, readers of ''Total Film'' magazine voted ''Holy Grail'' the fifth-greatest comedy film of all time.", "The next Python film, ''Life of Brian'', was ranked first.", "A 2006 poll of Channel 4 viewers on the 50 Greatest Comedy Films saw ''Holy Grail'' placed in sixth place (with ''Life of Brian'' again topping the list).", "In 2011, an ABC prime-time special, ''Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time'', counted down the best films chosen by fans based on results of a poll conducted by ABC and ''People''.", "''Holy Grail'' was selected as the second best comedy after ''Airplane!''", "In 2016, ''Empire'' magazine ranked ''Holy Grail'' 18th in their list of the 100 best British films (''Life of Brian'' was ranked 2nd), their entry stating, \"Elvis ordered a print of this comedy classic and watched it five times.", "If it's good enough for the King, it's good enough for you.", "\"In a 2017 interview at Indiana University in Bloomington, John Cleese expressed disappointment with the film's conclusion.", "\"'The ending annoys me the most'\", he said after a screening of the film on the Indiana campus, adding that \"'It ends the way it does because we couldn't think of any other way'\".", "However, scripts for the film and notebooks that are among Michael Palin's private archive, which he donated to the British Library in 2017, do document at least one alternative ending that the troupe considered: \"a battle between the knights of Camelot, the French, and the Killer Rabbit of Caerbannog\".", "Due to the film's small production budget, that idea for a \"much pricier option\" was discarded by the Pythons in favour of the ending with \"King Arthur getting arrested\", which Palin deemed \"cheaper\" and \"funnier\".Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes offers a 96% approval rating from reviews of 83 critics, with an average rating of 8.50/10.The consensus reads, \"A cult classic as gut-bustingly hilarious as it is blithely ridiculous, ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' has lost none of its exceedingly silly charm.\"", "On Metacritic, the film has a score of 91 out of 100 based on 24 critics' reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\".=== ''Spamalot'' ===Hank Azaria in the original Broadway production of ''Spamalot''The film was adapted as the 2005 Tony Award-winning Broadway musical ''Spamalot''.", "Written primarily by Idle, the stage show offers a revised plot, while retaining many jokes from the film.In May 2018, 20th Century Fox green-lit a film adaptation of the musical.", "Idle would write the screenplay and stage director Casey Nicholaw would direct.", "Slated to begin filming in early 2019, production was delayed as a result of the acquisition of 20th Century Fox by The Walt Disney Company.", "The project announced a move to Paramount Pictures on January 6, 2020, with Idle and Nicholaw still attached as writer and director, and Dan Jinks joining as a producer.", "However, in 2021, Idle confirmed on his Twitter account that the film would not be made because two of his former colleagues opposed it.A Broadway revival began previews on October 31, 2023 at the St. James Theatre, with an official opening night of November 16, 2023.In 2013, the Pythons lost a legal case to Mark Forstater, the film's producer, owing a combined £800,000 in legal fees and back royalties to Forstater for the derivative work of ''Spamalot''.", "To help cover the cost of these royalties and fees, the group arranged and performed in a stage show, ''Monty Python Live (Mostly)'', held at the O2 Arena in London in July 2014." ], [ "See also", "* List of films considered the best* Postmodernist film* Production music" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail (Book)'', Eyre Methuen, 1977, .", "Contains screenplay, photographs, and other material.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * 2012 interview with Carol Cleveland, covering ''Holy Grail'' and the TV series* Estimating the Airspeed Velocity of an Unladen Swallow" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mutation" ], [ "Introduction", "A red tulip exhibiting a partially yellow petal due to a mutation in its genesMutation with double bloom in the Langheck Nature Reserve near Nittel, GermanyIn biology, a '''mutation''' is an alteration in the nucleic acid sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA.", "Viral genomes contain either DNA or RNA.", "Mutations result from errors during DNA or viral replication, mitosis, or meiosis or other types of damage to DNA (such as pyrimidine dimers caused by exposure to ultraviolet radiation), which then may undergo error-prone repair (especially microhomology-mediated end joining), cause an error during other forms of repair, or cause an error during replication (translesion synthesis).", "Mutations may also result from insertion or deletion of segments of DNA due to mobile genetic elements.Mutations may or may not produce detectable changes in the observable characteristics (phenotype) of an organism.", "Mutations play a part in both normal and abnormal biological processes including: evolution, cancer, and the development of the immune system, including junctional diversity.", "Mutation is the ultimate source of all genetic variation, providing the raw material on which evolutionary forces such as natural selection can act.Mutation can result in many different types of change in sequences.", "Mutations in genes can have no effect, alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning properly or completely.", "Mutations can also occur in non-genic regions.", "A 2007 study on genetic variations between different species of ''Drosophila'' suggested that, if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, the result is likely to be harmful, with an estimated 70% of amino acid polymorphisms that have damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or marginally beneficial.", "Due to the damaging effects that mutations can have on genes, organisms have mechanisms such as DNA repair to prevent or correct mutations by reverting the mutated sequence back to its original state." ], [ "Overview", "Mutations can involve the duplication of large sections of DNA, usually through genetic recombination.", "These duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes, with tens to hundreds of genes duplicated in animal genomes every million years.", "Most genes belong to larger gene families of shared ancestry, detectable by their sequence homology.", "Novel genes are produced by several methods, commonly through the duplication and mutation of an ancestral gene, or by recombining parts of different genes to form new combinations with new functions.Here, protein domains act as modules, each with a particular and independent function, that can be mixed together to produce genes encoding new proteins with novel properties.", "For example, the human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for cone cell or color vision and one for rod cell or night vision; all four arose from a single ancestral gene.", "Another advantage of duplicating a gene (or even an entire genome) is that this increases engineering redundancy; this allows one gene in the pair to acquire a new function while the other copy performs the original function.", "Other types of mutation occasionally create new genes from previously noncoding DNA.Changes in chromosome number may involve even larger mutations, where segments of the DNA within chromosomes break and then rearrange.", "For example, in the Homininae, two chromosomes fused to produce human chromosome 2; this fusion did not occur in the lineage of the other apes, and they retain these separate chromosomes.", "In evolution, the most important role of such chromosomal rearrangements may be to accelerate the divergence of a population into new species by making populations less likely to interbreed, thereby preserving genetic differences between these populations.Sequences of DNA that can move about the genome, such as transposons, make up a major fraction of the genetic material of plants and animals, and may have been important in the evolution of genomes.", "For example, more than a million copies of the Alu sequence are present in the human genome, and these sequences have now been recruited to perform functions such as regulating gene expression.", "Another effect of these mobile DNA sequences is that when they move within a genome, they can mutate or delete existing genes and thereby produce genetic diversity.Nonlethal mutations accumulate within the gene pool and increase the amount of genetic variation.", "The abundance of some genetic changes within the gene pool can be reduced by natural selection, while other \"more favorable\" mutations may accumulate and result in adaptive changes.", "''Prodryas persephone'', a Late Eocene butterflyFor example, a butterfly may produce offspring with new mutations.", "The majority of these mutations will have no effect; but one might change the color of one of the butterfly's offspring, making it harder (or easier) for predators to see.", "If this color change is advantageous, the chances of this butterfly's surviving and producing its own offspring are a little better, and over time the number of butterflies with this mutation may form a larger percentage of the population.Neutral mutations are defined as mutations whose effects do not influence the fitness of an individual.", "These can increase in frequency over time due to genetic drift.", "It is believed that the overwhelming majority of mutations have no significant effect on an organism's fitness.", "Also, DNA repair mechanisms are able to mend most changes before they become permanent mutations, and many organisms have mechanisms for eliminating otherwise-permanently mutated somatic cells.Beneficial mutations can improve reproductive success." ], [ "Causes", "Four classes of mutations are (1) spontaneous mutations (molecular decay), (2) mutations due to error-prone replication bypass of naturally occurring DNA damage (also called error-prone translesion synthesis), (3) errors introduced during DNA repair, and (4) induced mutations caused by mutagens.", "Scientists may also deliberately introduce mutant sequences through DNA manipulation for the sake of scientific experimentation.One 2017 study claimed that 66% of cancer-causing mutations are random, 29% are due to the environment (the studied population spanned 69 countries), and 5% are inherited.Humans on average pass 60 new mutations to their children but fathers pass more mutations depending on their age with every year adding two new mutations to a child.===Spontaneous mutation===''Spontaneous mutations'' occur with non-zero probability even given a healthy, uncontaminated cell.", "Naturally occurring oxidative DNA damage is estimated to occur 10,000 times per cell per day in humans and 100,000 times per cell per day in rats.", "Spontaneous mutations can be characterized by the specific change:* Tautomerism – A base is changed by the repositioning of a hydrogen atom, altering the hydrogen bonding pattern of that base, resulting in incorrect base pairing during replication.", "Theoretical results suggest that proton tunneling is an important factor in the spontaneous creation of GC tautomers.", "* Depurination – Loss of a purine base (A or G) to form an apurinic site (AP site).", "* Deamination – Hydrolysis changes a normal base to an atypical base containing a keto group in place of the original amine group.", "Examples include C → U and A → HX (hypoxanthine), which can be corrected by DNA repair mechanisms; and 5MeC (5-methylcytosine) → T, which is less likely to be detected as a mutation because thymine is a normal DNA base.", "* Slipped strand mispairing – Denaturation of the new strand from the template during replication, followed by renaturation in a different spot (\"slipping\").", "This can lead to insertions or deletions.===Error-prone replication bypass===There is increasing evidence that the majority of spontaneously arising mutations are due to error-prone replication (translesion synthesis) past DNA damage in the template strand.", "In mice, the majority of mutations are caused by translesion synthesis.", "Likewise, in yeast, Kunz et al.", "found that more than 60% of the spontaneous single base pair substitutions and deletions were caused by translesion synthesis.=== Errors introduced during DNA repair ===Although naturally occurring double-strand breaks occur at a relatively low frequency in DNA, their repair often causes mutation.", "Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) is a major pathway for repairing double-strand breaks.", "NHEJ involves removal of a few nucleotides to allow somewhat inaccurate alignment of the two ends for rejoining followed by addition of nucleotides to fill in gaps.", "As a consequence, NHEJ often introduces mutations.A covalent adduct between the metabolite of Benzo(a)pyrene|benzo''a''pyrene, the major mutagen in tobacco smoke, and DNA=== Induced mutation ===Induced mutations are alterations in the gene after it has come in contact with mutagens and environmental causes.", "''Induced mutations'' on the molecular level can be caused by:* Chemicals** Hydroxylamine** Base analogs (e.g., Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU))** Alkylating agents (e.g., ''N''-ethyl-''N''-nitrosourea (ENU).", "These agents can mutate both replicating and non-replicating DNA.", "In contrast, a base analog can mutate the DNA only when the analog is incorporated in replicating the DNA.", "Each of these classes of chemical mutagens has certain effects that then lead to transitions, transversions, or deletions.", "** Agents that form DNA adducts (e.g., ochratoxin A)** DNA intercalating agents (e.g., ethidium bromide)** DNA crosslinkers** Oxidative damage** Nitrous acid converts amine groups on A and C to diazo groups, altering their hydrogen bonding patterns, which leads to incorrect base pairing during replication.", "* Radiation** Ultraviolet light (UV) (including non-ionizing radiation).", "Two nucleotide bases in DNA—cytosine and thymine—are most vulnerable to radiation that can change their properties.", "UV light can induce adjacent pyrimidine bases in a DNA strand to become covalently joined as a pyrimidine dimer.", "UV radiation, in particular longer-wave UVA, can also cause oxidative damage to DNA.", "** Ionizing radiation.", "Exposure to ionizing radiation, such as gamma radiation, can result in mutation, possibly resulting in cancer or death.Whereas in former times mutations were assumed to occur by chance, or induced by mutagens, molecular mechanisms of mutation have been discovered in bacteria and across the tree of life.", "As S. Rosenberg states, \"These mechanisms reveal a picture of highly regulated mutagenesis, up-regulated temporally by stress responses and activated when cells/organisms are maladapted to their environments—when stressed—potentially accelerating adaptation.\"", "Since they are self-induced mutagenic mechanisms that increase the adaptation rate of organisms, they have some times been named as adaptive mutagenesis mechanisms, and include the SOS response in bacteria, ectopic intrachromosomal recombination and other chromosomal events such as duplications." ], [ "Classification of types", "===By effect on structure===Five types of chromosomal mutationsTypes of small-scale mutationsThe sequence of a gene can be altered in a number of ways.", "Gene mutations have varying effects on health depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins.Mutations in the structure of genes can be classified into several types.==== Large-scale mutations ====Large-scale mutations in chromosomal structure include:* Amplifications (or gene duplications) or repetition of a chromosomal segment or presence of extra piece of a chromosome broken piece of a chromosome may become attached to a homologous or non-homologous chromosome so that some of the genes are present in more than two doses leading to multiple copies of all chromosomal regions, increasing the dosage of the genes located within them.", "* Polyploidy, duplication of entire sets of chromosomes, potentially resulting in a separate breeding population and speciation.", "* Deletions of large chromosomal regions, leading to loss of the genes within those regions.", "* Mutations whose effect is to juxtapose previously separate pieces of DNA, potentially bringing together separate genes to form functionally distinct fusion genes (e.g., bcr-abl).", "* Large scale changes to the structure of chromosomes called chromosomal rearrangement that can lead to a decrease of fitness but also to speciation in isolated, inbred populations.", "These include:** Chromosomal translocations: interchange of genetic parts from nonhomologous chromosomes.", "** Chromosomal inversions: reversing the orientation of a chromosomal segment.", "** Non-homologous chromosomal crossover.", "** Interstitial deletions: an intra-chromosomal deletion that removes a segment of DNA from a single chromosome, thereby apposing previously distant genes.", "For example, cells isolated from a human astrocytoma, a type of brain tumor, were found to have a chromosomal deletion removing sequences between the Fused in Glioblastoma (FIG) gene and the receptor tyrosine kinase (ROS), producing a fusion protein (FIG-ROS).", "The abnormal FIG-ROS fusion protein has constitutively active kinase activity that causes oncogenic transformation (a transformation from normal cells to cancer cells).", "* Loss of heterozygosity: loss of one allele, either by a deletion or a genetic recombination event, in an organism that previously had two different alleles.==== Small-scale mutations ====Small-scale mutations affect a gene in one or a few nucleotides.", "(If only a single nucleotide is affected, they are called point mutations.)", "Small-scale mutations include:* Insertions add one or more extra nucleotides into the DNA.", "They are usually caused by transposable elements, or errors during replication of repeating elements.", "Insertions in the coding region of a gene may alter splicing of the mRNA (splice site mutation), or cause a shift in the reading frame (frameshift), both of which can significantly alter the gene product.", "Insertions can be reversed by excision of the transposable element.", "* Deletions remove one or more nucleotides from the DNA.", "Like insertions, these mutations can alter the reading frame of the gene.", "In general, they are irreversible: Though exactly the same sequence might, in theory, be restored by an insertion, transposable elements able to revert a very short deletion (say 1–2 bases) in ''any'' location either are highly unlikely to exist or do not exist at all.", "* Substitution mutations, often caused by chemicals or malfunction of DNA replication, exchange a single nucleotide for another.", "These changes are classified as transitions or transversions.", "Most common is the transition that exchanges a purine for a purine (A ↔ G) or a pyrimidine for a pyrimidine, (C ↔ T).", "A transition can be caused by nitrous acid, base mispairing, or mutagenic base analogs such as BrdU.", "Less common is a transversion, which exchanges a purine for a pyrimidine or a pyrimidine for a purine (C/T ↔ A/G).", "An example of a transversion is the conversion of adenine (A) into a cytosine (C).", "Point mutations are modifications of single base pairs of DNA or other small base pairs within a gene.", "A point mutation can be reversed by another point mutation, in which the nucleotide is changed back to its original state (true reversion) or by second-site reversion (a complementary mutation elsewhere that results in regained gene functionality).", "As discussed below, point mutations that occur within the protein coding region of a gene may be classified as synonymous or nonsynonymous substitutions, the latter of which in turn can be divided into missense or nonsense mutations.=== By impact on protein sequence ===The structure of a eukaryotic protein-coding gene.", "A mutation in the protein coding region (red) can result in a change in the amino acid sequence.", "Mutations in other areas of the gene can have diverse effects.", "Changes within regulatory sequences (yellow and blue) can effect transcriptional and translational regulation of gene expression.Point mutations classified by impact on proteinSelection of disease-causing mutations, in a standard table of the genetic code of amino acidsThe effect of a mutation on protein sequence depends in part on where in the genome it occurs, especially whether it is in a coding or non-coding region.", "Mutations in the non-coding regulatory sequences of a gene, such as promoters, enhancers, and silencers, can alter levels of gene expression, but are less likely to alter the protein sequence.", "Mutations within introns and in regions with no known biological function (e.g.", "pseudogenes, retrotransposons) are generally neutral, having no effect on phenotype – though intron mutations could alter the protein product if they affect mRNA splicing.Mutations that occur in coding regions of the genome are more likely to alter the protein product, and can be categorized by their effect on amino acid sequence:* A frameshift mutation is caused by insertion or deletion of a number of nucleotides that is not evenly divisible by three from a DNA sequence.", "Due to the triplet nature of gene expression by codons, the insertion or deletion can disrupt the reading frame, or the grouping of the codons, resulting in a completely different translation from the original.", "The earlier in the sequence the deletion or insertion occurs, the more altered the protein produced is.", "(For example, the code CCU GAC UAC CUA codes for the amino acids proline, aspartic acid, tyrosine, and leucine.", "If the U in CCU was deleted, the resulting sequence would be CCG ACU ACC UAx, which would instead code for proline, threonine, threonine, and part of another amino acid or perhaps a stop codon (where the x stands for the following nucleotide).)", "By contrast, any insertion or deletion that is evenly divisible by three is termed an ''in-frame mutation''.", "* A point substitution mutation results in a change in a single nucleotide and can be either synonymous or nonsynonymous.", "** A synonymous substitution replaces a codon with another codon that codes for the same amino acid, so that the produced amino acid sequence is not modified.", "Synonymous mutations occur due to the degenerate nature of the genetic code.", "If this mutation does not result in any phenotypic effects, then it is called silent, but not all synonymous substitutions are silent.", "(There can also be silent mutations in nucleotides outside of the coding regions, such as the introns, because the exact nucleotide sequence is not as crucial as it is in the coding regions, but these are not considered synonymous substitutions.", ")** A nonsynonymous substitution replaces a codon with another codon that codes for a different amino acid, so that the produced amino acid sequence is modified.", "Nonsynonymous substitutions can be classified as nonsense or missense mutations:*** A missense mutation changes a nucleotide to cause substitution of a different amino acid.", "This in turn can render the resulting protein nonfunctional.", "Such mutations are responsible for diseases such as Epidermolysis bullosa, sickle-cell disease, and SOD1-mediated ALS.", "On the other hand, if a missense mutation occurs in an amino acid codon that results in the use of a different, but chemically similar, amino acid, then sometimes little or no change is rendered in the protein.", "For example, a change from AAA to AGA will encode arginine, a chemically similar molecule to the intended lysine.", "In this latter case the mutation will have little or no effect on phenotype and therefore be neutral.", "*** A nonsense mutation is a point mutation in a sequence of DNA that results in a premature stop codon, or a ''nonsense codon'' in the transcribed mRNA, and possibly a truncated, and often nonfunctional protein product.", "This sort of mutation has been linked to different diseases, such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia.", "(See Stop codon.", ")===By effect on function===A mutation becomes an effect on function mutation when the exactitude of functions between a mutated protein and its direct interactor undergoes change.", "The interactors can be other proteins, molecules, nucleic acids, etc.", "There are many mutations that fall under the category of by effect on function, but depending on the specificity of the change the mutations listed below will occur.", "* Loss-of-function mutations, also called inactivating mutations, result in the gene product having less or no function (being partially or wholly inactivated).", "When the allele has a complete loss of function (null allele), it is often called an amorph or amorphic mutation in Muller's morphs schema.", "Phenotypes associated with such mutations are most often recessive.", "Exceptions are when the organism is haploid, or when the reduced dosage of a normal gene product is not enough for a normal phenotype (this is called haploinsufficiency).", "A disease that is caused by a loss-of-function mutation is Gitelman syndrome and cystic fibrosis.", "* Gain-of-function mutations also called activating mutations, change the gene product such that its effect gets stronger (enhanced activation) or even is superseded by a different and abnormal function.", "When the new allele is created, a heterozygote containing the newly created allele as well as the original will express the new allele; genetically this defines the mutations as dominant phenotypes.", "Several of Muller's morphs correspond to the gain of function, including hypermorph (increased gene expression) and neomorph (novel function).", "* Dominant negative mutations (also called anti-morphic mutations) have an altered gene product that acts antagonistically to the wild-type allele.", "These mutations usually result in an altered molecular function (often inactive) and are characterized by a dominant or semi-dominant phenotype.", "In humans, dominant negative mutations have been implicated in cancer (e.g., mutations in genes p53, ATM, CEBPA, and PPARgamma).", "Marfan syndrome is caused by mutations in the FBN1 gene, located on chromosome 15, which encodes fibrillin-1, a glycoprotein component of the extracellular matrix.", "Marfan syndrome is also an example of dominant negative mutation and haploinsufficiency.", "* Lethal mutations result in rapid organismal death when occurring during development and cause significant reductions of life expectancy for developed organisms.", "An example of a disease that is caused by a dominant lethal mutation is Huntington's disease.", "* Null mutations, also known as Amorphic mutations, are a form of loss-of-function mutations that completely prohibit the gene's function.", "The mutation leads to a complete loss of operation at the phenotypic level, also causing no gene product to be formed.", "Atopic eczema and dermatitis syndrome are common diseases caused by a null mutation of the gene that activates filaggrin.", "* Suppressor mutations are a type of mutation that causes the double mutation to appear normally.", "In suppressor mutations the phenotypic activity of a different mutation is completely suppressed, thus causing the double mutation to look normal.", "There are two types of suppressor mutations, there are intragenic and extragenic suppressor mutations.", "Intragenic mutations occur in the gene where the first mutation occurs, while extragenic mutations occur in the gene that interacts with the product of the first mutation.", "A common disease that results from this type of mutation is Alzheimer's disease.", "* Neomorphic mutations are a part of the gain-of-function mutations and are characterized by the control of new protein product synthesis.", "The newly synthesized gene normally contains a novel gene expression or molecular function.", "The result of the neomorphic mutation is the gene where the mutation occurs has a complete change in function.", "* A back mutation or reversion is a point mutation that restores the original sequence and hence the original phenotype.===By effect on fitness (harmful, beneficial, neutral mutations)===In genetics, it is sometimes useful to classify mutations as either '''harmful or beneficial''' (or '''neutral'''):* A harmful, or deleterious, mutation decreases the fitness of the organism.", "Many, but not all mutations in essential genes are harmful (if a mutation does not change the amino acid sequence in an essential protein, it is harmless in most cases).", "* A beneficial, or advantageous mutation increases the fitness of the organism.", "Examples are mutations that lead to antibiotic resistance in bacteria (which are beneficial for bacteria but usually not for humans).", "* A neutral mutation has no harmful or beneficial effect on the organism.", "Such mutations occur at a steady rate, forming the basis for the molecular clock.", "In the neutral theory of molecular evolution, neutral mutations provide genetic drift as the basis for most variation at the molecular level.", "In animals or plants, most mutations are neutral, given that the vast majority of their genomes is either non-coding or consists of repetitive sequences that have no obvious function (\"junk DNA\").", "'''Large-scale quantitative mutagenesis screens''', in which thousands of millions of mutations are tested, invariably find that a larger fraction of mutations has harmful effects but always returns a number of beneficial mutations as well.", "For instance, in a screen of all gene deletions in ''E.", "coli'', 80% of mutations were negative, but 20% were positive, even though many had a very small effect on growth (depending on condition).", "Gene ''deletions'' involve removal of whole genes, so that point mutations almost always have a much smaller effect.", "In a similar screen in ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'', but this time with transposon insertions, 76% of insertion mutants were classified as neutral, 16% had a significantly reduced fitness, but 6% were advantageous.This classification is obviously relative and somewhat artificial: a harmful mutation can quickly turn into a beneficial mutations when conditions change.", "Also, there is a gradient from harmful/beneficial to neutral, as many mutations may have small and mostly neglectable effects but under certain conditions will become relevant.", "Also, many traits are determined by hundreds of genes (or loci), so that each locus has only a minor effect.", "For instance, human height is determined by hundreds of genetic variants (\"mutations\") but each of them has a very minor effect on height, apart from the impact of nutrition.", "Height (or size) itself may be more or less beneficial as the huge range of sizes in animal or plant groups shows.==== Distribution of fitness effects (DFE) ====Attempts have been made to infer the distribution of fitness effects (DFE) using mutagenesis experiments and theoretical models applied to molecular sequence data.", "DFE, as used to determine the relative abundance of different types of mutations (i.e., strongly deleterious, nearly neutral or advantageous), is relevant to many evolutionary questions, such as the maintenance of genetic variation, the rate of genomic decay, the maintenance of outcrossing sexual reproduction as opposed to inbreeding and the evolution of sex and genetic recombination.", "DFE can also be tracked by tracking the skewness of the distribution of mutations with putatively severe effects as compared to the distribution of mutations with putatively mild or absent effect.", "In summary, the DFE plays an important role in predicting evolutionary dynamics.", "A variety of approaches have been used to study the DFE, including theoretical, experimental and analytical methods.", "* Mutagenesis experiment: The direct method to investigate the DFE is to induce mutations and then measure the mutational fitness effects, which has already been done in viruses, bacteria, yeast, and ''Drosophila''.", "For example, most studies of the DFE in viruses used site-directed mutagenesis to create point mutations and measure relative fitness of each mutant.", "In ''Escherichia coli'', one study used transposon mutagenesis to directly measure the fitness of a random insertion of a derivative of Tn10.In yeast, a combined mutagenesis and deep sequencing approach has been developed to generate high-quality systematic mutant libraries and measure fitness in high throughput.", "However, given that many mutations have effects too small to be detected and that mutagenesis experiments can detect only mutations of moderately large effect; DNA sequence analysis can provide valuable information about these mutations.The distribution of fitness effects (DFE) of mutations in vesicular stomatitis virus.", "In this experiment, random mutations were introduced into the virus by site-directed mutagenesis, and the fitness of each mutant was compared with the ancestral type.", "A fitness of zero, less than one, one, more than one, respectively, indicates that mutations are lethal, deleterious, neutral, and advantageous.", "* This figure shows a simplified version of loss-of-function, switch-of-function, gain-of-function, and conservation-of-function mutations.Molecular sequence analysis: With rapid development of DNA sequencing technology, an enormous amount of DNA sequence data is available and even more is forthcoming in the future.", "Various methods have been developed to infer the DFE from DNA sequence data.", "By examining DNA sequence differences within and between species, we are able to infer various characteristics of the DFE for neutral, deleterious and advantageous mutations.", "To be specific, the DNA sequence analysis approach allows us to estimate the effects of mutations with very small effects, which are hardly detectable through mutagenesis experiments.One of the earliest theoretical studies of the distribution of fitness effects was done by Motoo Kimura, an influential theoretical population geneticist.", "His neutral theory of molecular evolution proposes that most novel mutations will be highly deleterious, with a small fraction being neutral.", "A later proposal by Hiroshi Akashi proposed a bimodal model for the DFE, with modes centered around highly deleterious and neutral mutations.", "Both theories agree that the vast majority of novel mutations are neutral or deleterious and that advantageous mutations are rare, which has been supported by experimental results.", "One example is a study done on the DFE of random mutations in vesicular stomatitis virus.", "Out of all mutations, 39.6% were lethal, 31.2% were non-lethal deleterious, and 27.1% were neutral.", "Another example comes from a high throughput mutagenesis experiment with yeast.", "In this experiment it was shown that the overall DFE is bimodal, with a cluster of neutral mutations, and a broad distribution of deleterious mutations.Though relatively few mutations are advantageous, those that are play an important role in evolutionary changes.", "Like neutral mutations, weakly selected advantageous mutations can be lost due to random genetic drift, but strongly selected advantageous mutations are more likely to be fixed.", "Knowing the DFE of advantageous mutations may lead to increased ability to predict the evolutionary dynamics.", "Theoretical work on the DFE for advantageous mutations has been done by John H. Gillespie and H. Allen Orr.", "They proposed that the distribution for advantageous mutations should be exponential under a wide range of conditions, which, in general, has been supported by experimental studies, at least for strongly selected advantageous mutations.In general, it is accepted that the majority of mutations are neutral or deleterious, with advantageous mutations being rare; however, the proportion of types of mutations varies between species.", "This indicates two important points: first, the proportion of effectively neutral mutations is likely to vary between species, resulting from dependence on effective population size; second, the average effect of deleterious mutations varies dramatically between species.", "In addition, the DFE also differs between coding regions and noncoding regions, with the DFE of noncoding DNA containing more weakly selected mutations.===By inheritance===moss rose plant to produce flowers of different colors.", "This is a somatic mutation that may also be passed on in the germline.In multicellular organisms with dedicated reproductive cells, mutations can be subdivided into germline mutations, which can be passed on to descendants through their reproductive cells, and somatic mutations (also called acquired mutations), which involve cells outside the dedicated reproductive group and which are not usually transmitted to descendants.Diploid organisms (e.g., humans) contain two copies of each gene—a paternal and a maternal allele.", "Based on the occurrence of mutation on each chromosome, we may classify mutations into three types.", "A wild type or homozygous non-mutated organism is one in which neither allele is mutated.", "* A heterozygous mutation is a mutation of only one allele.", "* A homozygous mutation is an identical mutation of both the paternal and maternal alleles.", "* Compound heterozygous mutations or a genetic compound consists of two different mutations in the paternal and maternal alleles.==== Germline mutation ====A germline mutation in the reproductive cells of an individual gives rise to a ''constitutional mutation'' in the offspring, that is, a mutation that is present in every cell.", "A constitutional mutation can also occur very soon after fertilisation, or continue from a previous constitutional mutation in a parent.", "A germline mutation can be passed down through subsequent generations of organisms.The distinction between germline and somatic mutations is important in animals that have a dedicated germline to produce reproductive cells.", "However, it is of little value in understanding the effects of mutations in plants, which lack a dedicated germline.", "The distinction is also blurred in those animals that reproduce asexually through mechanisms such as budding, because the cells that give rise to the daughter organisms also give rise to that organism's germline.A new germline mutation not inherited from either parent is called a '''''de novo'' mutation'''.====Somatic mutation====A change in the genetic structure that is not inherited from a parent, and also not passed to offspring, is called a somatic mutation''.''", "Somatic mutations are not inherited by an organism's offspring because they do not affect the germline.", "However, they are passed down to all the progeny of a mutated cell within the same organism during mitosis.", "A major section of an organism therefore might carry the same mutation.", "These types of mutations are usually prompted by environmental causes, such as ultraviolet radiation or any exposure to certain harmful chemicals, and can cause diseases including cancer.", "''''With plants, some somatic mutations can be propagated without the need for seed production, for example, by grafting and stem cuttings.", "These type of mutation have led to new types of fruits, such as the \"Delicious\" apple and the \"Washington\" navel orange.Human and mouse somatic cells have a mutation rate more than ten times higher than the germline mutation rate for both species; mice have a higher rate of both somatic and germline mutations per cell division than humans.", "The disparity in mutation rate between the germline and somatic tissues likely reflects the greater importance of genome maintenance in the germline than in the soma.===Special classes===* '''Conditional mutation''' is a mutation that has wild-type (or less severe) phenotype under certain \"permissive\" environmental conditions and a mutant phenotype under certain \"restrictive\" conditions.", "For example, a temperature-sensitive mutation can cause cell death at high temperature (restrictive condition), but might have no deleterious consequences at a lower temperature (permissive condition).", "These mutations are non-autonomous, as their manifestation depends upon presence of certain conditions, as opposed to other mutations which appear autonomously.", "The permissive conditions may be temperature, certain chemicals, light or mutations in other parts of the genome.", "''In vivo'' mechanisms like transcriptional switches can create conditional mutations.", "For instance, association of Steroid Binding Domain can create a transcriptional switch that can change the expression of a gene based on the presence of a steroid ligand.", "Conditional mutations have applications in research as they allow control over gene expression.", "This is especially useful studying diseases in adults by allowing expression after a certain period of growth, thus eliminating the deleterious effect of gene expression seen during stages of development in model organisms.", "DNA Recombinase systems like Cre-Lox recombination used in association with promoters that are activated under certain conditions can generate conditional mutations.", "Dual Recombinase technology can be used to induce multiple conditional mutations to study the diseases which manifest as a result of simultaneous mutations in multiple genes.", "Certain inteins have been identified which splice only at certain permissive temperatures, leading to improper protein synthesis and thus, loss-of-function mutations at other temperatures.", "Conditional mutations may also be used in genetic studies associated with ageing, as the expression can be changed after a certain time period in the organism's lifespan.", "* '''Replication timing quantitative trait loci affects DNA replication.===Nomenclature===In order to categorize a mutation as such, the \"normal\" sequence must be obtained from the DNA of a \"normal\" or \"healthy\" organism (as opposed to a \"mutant\" or \"sick\" one), it should be identified and reported; ideally, it should be made publicly available for a straightforward nucleotide-by-nucleotide comparison, and agreed upon by the scientific community or by a group of expert geneticists and biologists, who have the responsibility of establishing the ''standard'' or so-called \"consensus\" sequence.", "This step requires a tremendous scientific effort.", "Once the consensus sequence is known, the mutations in a genome can be pinpointed, described, and classified.", "The committee of the Human Genome Variation Society (HGVS) has developed the standard human sequence variant nomenclature, which should be used by researchers and DNA diagnostic centers to generate unambiguous mutation descriptions.", "In principle, this nomenclature can also be used to describe mutations in other organisms.", "The nomenclature specifies the type of mutation and base or amino acid changes.", "* Nucleotide substitution (e.g., 76A>T) – The number is the position of the nucleotide from the 5' end; the first letter represents the wild-type nucleotide, and the second letter represents the nucleotide that replaced the wild type.", "In the given example, the adenine at the 76th position was replaced by a thymine.", "** If it becomes necessary to differentiate between mutations in genomic DNA, mitochondrial DNA, and RNA, a simple convention is used.", "For example, if the 100th base of a nucleotide sequence mutated from G to C, then it would be written as g.100G>C if the mutation occurred in genomic DNA, m.100G>C if the mutation occurred in mitochondrial DNA, or r.100g>c if the mutation occurred in RNA.", "Note that, for mutations in RNA, the nucleotide code is written in lower case.", "* Amino acid substitution (e.g., D111E) – The first letter is the one letter code of the wild-type amino acid, the number is the position of the amino acid from the N-terminus, and the second letter is the one letter code of the amino acid present in the mutation.", "Nonsense mutations are represented with an X for the second amino acid (e.g.", "D111X).", "* Amino acid deletion (e.g., ΔF508) – The Greek letter Δ (delta) indicates a deletion.", "The letter refers to the amino acid present in the wild type and the number is the position from the N terminus of the amino acid were it to be present as in the wild type." ], [ "Mutation rates", "Mutation rates vary substantially across species, and the evolutionary forces that generally determine mutation are the subject of ongoing investigation.In '''humans''', the mutation rate is about 50–90 ''de novo'' mutations per genome per generation, that is, each human accumulates about 50–90 novel mutations that were not present in his or her parents.", "This number has been established by sequencing thousands of human trios, that is, two parents and at least one child.The genomes of RNA viruses are based on RNA rather than DNA.", "The RNA viral genome can be double-stranded (as in DNA) or single-stranded.", "In some of these viruses (such as the single-stranded human immunodeficiency virus), replication occurs quickly, and there are no mechanisms to check the genome for accuracy.", "This error-prone process often results in mutations.The rate of de novo mutations, whether germline or somatic, vary among organisms.", "Individuals within the same species can even express varying rates of mutation.", "Overall, rates of de novo mutations are low compared to those of inherited mutations, which categorizes them as rare forms of genetic variation.", "Many observations of de novo mutation rates have associated higher rates of mutation correlated to paternal age.", "In sexually reproducing organisms, the comparatively higher frequency of cell divisions in the parental sperm donor germline drive conclusions that rates of de novo mutation can be tracked along a common basis.", "The frequency of error during the DNA replication process of gametogenesis, especially amplified in the rapid production of sperm cells, can promote more opportunities for de novo mutations to replicate unregulated by DNA repair machinery.", "This claim combines the observed effects of increased probability for mutation in rapid spermatogenesis with short periods of time between cellular divisions that limit the efficiency of repair machinery.", "Rates of de novo mutations that affect an organism during its development can also increase with certain environmental factors.", "For example, certain intensities of exposure to radioactive elements can inflict damage to an organism's genome, heightening rates of mutation.", "In humans, the appearance of skin cancer during one's lifetime is induced by overexposure to UV radiation that causes mutations in the cellular and skin genome.===Randomness of mutations===There is a widespread assumption that mutations are (entirely) \"random\" with respect to their consequences (in terms of probability).", "This was shown to be wrong as mutation frequency can vary across regions of the genome, with such DNA repair- and mutation-biases being associated with various factors.", "For instance, biologically important regions were found to be protected from mutations and mutations beneficial to the studied plant were found to be more likely – i.e.", "mutation is \"non-random in a way that benefits the plant\".", "Additionally, previous experiments typically used to demonstrate mutations being random with respect to fitness (such as the Fluctuation Test and Replica plating) have been shown to only support the weaker claim that those mutations are random with respect to external selective constraints, not fitness as a whole." ], [ "Disease causation", "Changes in DNA caused by mutation in a coding region of DNA can cause errors in protein sequence that may result in partially or completely non-functional proteins.", "Each cell, in order to function correctly, depends on thousands of proteins to function in the right places at the right times.", "When a mutation alters a protein that plays a critical role in the body, a medical condition can result.", "One study on the comparison of genes between different species of ''Drosophila'' suggests that if a mutation does change a protein, the mutation will most likely be harmful, with an estimated 70 percent of amino acid polymorphisms having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.", "Some mutations alter a gene's DNA base sequence but do not change the protein made by the gene.", "Studies have shown that only 7% of point mutations in noncoding DNA of yeast are deleterious and 12% in coding DNA are deleterious.", "The rest of the mutations are either neutral or slightly beneficial.=== Inherited disorders ===If a mutation is present in a germ cell, it can give rise to offspring that carries the mutation in all of its cells.", "This is the case in hereditary diseases.", "In particular, if there is a mutation in a DNA repair gene within a germ cell, humans carrying such germline mutations may have an increased risk of cancer.", "A list of 34 such germline mutations is given in the article DNA repair-deficiency disorder.", "An example of one is albinism, a mutation that occurs in the ''OCA1'' or ''OCA2'' gene.", "Individuals with this disorder are more prone to many types of cancers, other disorders and have impaired vision.DNA damage can cause an error when the DNA is replicated, and this error of replication can cause a gene mutation that, in turn, could cause a genetic disorder.", "DNA damages are repaired by the DNA repair system of the cell.", "Each cell has a number of pathways through which enzymes recognize and repair damages in DNA.", "Because DNA can be damaged in many ways, the process of DNA repair is an important way in which the body protects itself from disease.", "Once DNA damage has given rise to a mutation, the mutation cannot be repaired.=== Role in carcinogenesis ===On the other hand, a mutation may occur in a somatic cell of an organism.", "Such mutations will be present in all descendants of this cell within the same organism.", "The accumulation of certain mutations over generations of somatic cells is part of cause of malignant transformation, from normal cell to cancer cell.Cells with heterozygous loss-of-function mutations (one good copy of gene and one mutated copy) may function normally with the unmutated copy until the good copy has been spontaneously somatically mutated.", "This kind of mutation happens often in living organisms, but it is difficult to measure the rate.", "Measuring this rate is important in predicting the rate at which people may develop cancer.Point mutations may arise from spontaneous mutations that occur during DNA replication.", "The rate of mutation may be increased by mutagens.", "Mutagens can be physical, such as radiation from UV rays, X-rays or extreme heat, or chemical (molecules that misplace base pairs or disrupt the helical shape of DNA).", "Mutagens associated with cancers are often studied to learn about cancer and its prevention." ], [ "Beneficial mutations", "Although mutations that cause changes in protein sequences can be harmful to an organism, on occasions the effect may be positive in a given environment.", "In this case, the mutation may enable the mutant organism to withstand particular environmental stresses better than wild-type organisms, or reproduce more quickly.", "In these cases a mutation will tend to become more common in a population through natural selection.", "Examples include the following:'''HIV resistance''': a specific 32 base pair deletion in human CCR5 (CCR5-Δ32) confers HIV resistance to homozygotes and delays AIDS onset in heterozygotes.", "One possible explanation of the etiology of the relatively high frequency of CCR5-Δ32 in the European population is that it conferred resistance to the bubonic plague in mid-14th century Europe.", "People with this mutation were more likely to survive infection; thus its frequency in the population increased.", "This theory could explain why this mutation is not found in Southern Africa, which remained untouched by bubonic plague.", "A newer theory suggests that the selective pressure on the CCR5 Delta 32 mutation was caused by smallpox instead of the bubonic plague.", "'''Malaria resistance''': An example of a harmful mutation is sickle-cell disease, a blood disorder in which the body produces an abnormal type of the oxygen-carrying substance hemoglobin in the red blood cells.", "One-third of all indigenous inhabitants of Sub-Saharan Africa carry the allele, because, in areas where malaria is common, there is a survival value in carrying only a single sickle-cell allele (sickle cell trait).", "Those with only one of the two alleles of the sickle-cell disease are more resistant to malaria, since the infestation of the malaria ''Plasmodium'' is halted by the sickling of the cells that it infests.", "'''Antibiotic resistance''': Practically all bacteria develop antibiotic resistance when exposed to antibiotics.", "In fact, bacterial populations already have such mutations that get selected under antibiotic selection.", "Obviously, such mutations are only beneficial for the bacteria but not for those infected.", "'''Lactase persistence'''.", "A mutation allowed humans to express the enzyme lactase after they are naturally weaned from breast milk, allowing adults to digest lactose, which is likely one of the most beneficial mutations in recent human evolution.===Prion mutations===Prions are proteins and do not contain genetic material.", "However, prion replication has been shown to be subject to mutation and natural selection just like other forms of replication.", "The human gene PRNP codes for the major prion protein, PrP, and is subject to mutations that can give rise to disease-causing prions." ], [ "Role in evolution", "By introducing novel genetic qualities to a population of organisms, de novo mutations play a critical role in the combined forces of evolutionary change.", "However, the weight of genetic diversity generated by mutational change is often considered a generally \"weak\" evolutionary force.", "Although the random emergence of mutations alone provides the basis for genetic variation across all organic life, this force must be taken in consideration alongside all evolutionary forces at play.", "Spontaneous de novo mutations as cataclysmic events of speciation depend on factors introduced by natural selection, genetic flow, and genetic drift.", "For example, smaller populations with heavy mutational input (high rates of mutation) are prone to increases of genetic variation which lead to speciation in future generations.", "In contrast, larger populations tend to see lesser effects of newly introduced mutated traits.", "In these conditions, selective forces diminish the frequency of mutated alleles, which are most often deleterious, over time." ], [ "Compensated pathogenic deviations", "Compensated pathogenic deviations refer to amino acid residues in a protein sequence that are pathogenic in one species but are wild type residues in the functionally equivalent protein in another species.", "Although the amino acid residue is pathogenic in the first species, it is not so in the second species because its pathogenicity is compensated by one or more amino acid substitutions in the second species.", "The compensatory mutation can occur in the same protein or in another protein with which it interacts.", "It is critical to understand the effects of compensatory mutations in the context of fixed deleterious mutations due to the population fitness decreasing because of fixation.", "Effective population size refers to a population that is reproducing.", "An increase in this population size has been correlated with a decreased rate of genetic diversity.", "The position of a population relative to the critical effect population size is essential to determine the effect deleterious alleles will have on fitness.", "If the population is below the critical effective size fitness will decrease drastically, however if the population is above the critical effect size, fitness can increase regardless of deleterious mutations due to compensatory alleles.=== Compensatory mutations in RNA ===As the function of a RNA molecule is dependent on its structure, the structure of RNA molecules is evolutionarily conserved.", "Therefore, any mutation that alters the stable structure of RNA molecules must be compensated by other compensatory mutations.", "In the context of RNA, the sequence of the RNA can be considered as ' genotype' and the structure of the RNA can be considered as its 'phenotype'.", "Since RNAs have relatively simpler composition than proteins, the structure of RNA molecules can be computationally predicted with high degree of accuracy.", "Because of this convenience, compensatory mutations have been studied in computational simulations using RNA folding algorithms.=== Evolutionary mechanism of compensation ===Compensatory mutations can be explained by the genetic phenomenon epistasis whereby the phenotypic effect of one mutation is dependent upon mutation(s) at other loci.", "While epistasis was originally conceived in the context of interaction between different genes, intragenic epistasis has also been studied recently.", "Existence of compensated pathogenic deviations can be explained by 'sign epistasis', in which the effects of a deleterious mutation can be compensated by the presence of an epistatic mutation in another loci.", "For a given protein, a deleterious mutation (D) and a compensatory mutation (C) can be considered, where C can be in the same protein as D or in a different interacting protein depending on the context.", "The fitness effect of C itself could be neutral or somewhat deleterious such that it can still exist in the population, and the effect of D is deleterious to the extent that it cannot exist in the population.", "However, when C and D co-occur together, the combined fitness effect becomes neutral or positive.", "Thus, compensatory mutations can bring novelty to proteins by forging new pathways of protein evolution : it allows individuals to travel from one fitness peak to another through the valleys of lower fitness.", "DePristo et al.", "2005 outlined two models to explain the dynamics of compensatory pathogenic deviations (CPD).", "In the first hypothesis P is a pathogenic amino acid mutation that and C is a neutral compensatory mutation.", "Under these conditions, if the pathogenic mutation arises after a compensatory mutation, then P can become fixed in the population.", "The second model of CPDs states that P and C are both deleterious mutations resulting in fitness valleys when mutations occur simultaneously.", "Using publicly available, Ferrer-Costa et al.", "2007 obtained compensatory mutations and human pathogenic mutation datasets that were characterized to determine what causes CPDs.", "Results indicate that the structural constraints and the location in protein structure determine whether compensated mutations will occur.=== Experimental evidence of compensatory mutations ======= Experiment in bacteria ====Lunzer et al.", "tested the outcome of swapping divergent amino acids between two orthologous proteins of isopropymalate dehydrogenase (IMDH).", "They substituted 168 amino acids in ''Escherichia coli'' IMDH that are wild type residues in IMDH ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa''.", "They found that over one third of these substitutions compromised IMDH enzymatic activity in the ''Escherichia coli'' genetic background.", "This demonstrated that identical amino acid states can result in different phenotypic states depending on the genetic background.", "Corrigan et al.", "2011 demonstrated how staphylococcus aureus was able to grow normally without the presence of lipoteichoic acid due to compensatory mutations.", "Whole genome sequencing results revealed that when Cyclic-di-AMP phosphodiesterase (GdpP) was disrupted in this bacterium, it compensated for the disappearance of the cell wall polymer, resulting in normal cell growth.Research has shown that bacteria can gain drug resistance through compensatory mutations that do not impede or having little effect on fitness.", "Previous research from Gagneux et al.", "2006 has found that laboratory grown M. tuberculosis strains with rifampicin resistance have reduced fitness, however drug resistant clinical strains of this pathogenic bacteria do not have reduced fitness.", "Comas et al.", "2012 used whole genome comparisons between clinical strains and lab derived mutants to determine the role and contribution of compensatory mutations in drug resistance to rifampicin.", "Genome analysis reveal rifampicin resistant strains have a mutation in rpoA and rpoC.", "A similar study investigated the bacterial fitness associated with compensatory mutations in rifampin resistant Escherichia coli.", "Results obtained from this study demonstrate that drug resistance is linked to bacterial fitness as higher fitness costs are linked to greater transcription errors.==== Experiment in virus ====Gong et al.", "collected obtained genotype data of influenza nucleoprotein from different timelines and temporally ordered them according to their time of origin.", "Then they isolated 39 amino acid substitutions that occurred in different timelines and substituted them in a genetic background that approximated the ancestral genotype.", "They found that 3 of the 39 substitutions significantly reduced the fitness of the ancestral background.", "Compensatory mutations are new mutations that arise and have a positive or neutral impact on a populations fitness.", "Previous research has shown that populations have can compensate detrimental mutations.", "Burch and Chao tested Fisher's geometric model of adaptive evolution by testing whether bacteriophage φ6 evolves by small steps.", "Their results showed that bacteriophage φ6 fitness declined rapidly and recovered in small steps .", "Viral nucleoproteins have been shown to avoid cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) through arginine-to glycine substitutions.", "This substitution mutations impacts the fitness of viral nucleoproteins, however compensatory co-mutations impede fitness declines and aid the virus to avoid recognition from CTLs.", "Mutations can have three different effects; mutations can have deleterious effects, some increase fitness through compensatory mutations, and lastly mutations can be counterbalancing resulting in compensatory neutral mutations." ], [ "Application in human evolution and disease", "In the human genome, the frequency and characteristics of de novo mutations have been studied as important contextual factors to our evolution.", "Compared to the human reference genome, a typical human genome varies at approximately 4.1 to 5.0 million loci, and the majority of this genetic diversity is shared by nearly 0.5% of the population.", "The typical human genome also contains 40,000 to 200,000 rare variants observed in less than 0.5% of the population that can only have occurred from at least one de novo germline mutation in the history of human evolution.", "De novo mutations have also been researched as playing a crucial role in the persistence of genetic disease in humans.", "With recents advancements in next-generation sequencing (NGS), all types of de novo mutations within the genome can be directly studied, the detection of which provides a magnitude of insight toward the causes of both rare and common genetic disorders.", "Currently, the best estimate of the average human germline SNV mutation rate is 1.18 x 10^-8, with an approximate ~78 novel mutations per generation.", "The ability to conduct whole genome sequencing of parents and offspring allows for the comparison of mutation rates between generations, narrowing down the origin possibilities of certain genetic disorders." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * – The Mutalyzer website." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Microgyrus" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''microgyrus''' is an area of the cerebral cortex that includes only four cortical layers instead of six.Microgyria are believed by some to be part of the genetic lack of prenatal development which is a cause of, or one of the causes of, dyslexia.Albert Galaburda of Harvard Medical School noticed that language centers in dyslexic brains showed microscopic flaws known as ectopias and microgyria (Galaburda ''et al.", "'', 2006, ''Nature Neuroscience'' '''9'''(10): 1213–1217).", "Both affect the normal six-layer structure of the cortex.", "These flaws affect connectivity and functionality of the cortex in critical areas related to sound and visual processing.", "These and similar structural abnormalities may be the basis of the inevitable and hard to overcome difficulty in reading." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The neurological basis of developmental dyslexia* Another article on the subject* Birthdates of neurons in induced microgyria" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mercantilism" ], [ "Introduction", "''Seaport at sunset'', a portrait by Claude Lorrain, completed in 1639 at the height of mercantilism'''Mercantilism''' is a nationalist economic policy that is designed to maximize the exports and minimize the imports for an economy.", "In other words, it seeks to maximize the accumulation of resources within the country and use those resources for one-sided trade.", "The policy aims to reduce a possible current account deficit or reach a current account surplus, and it includes measures aimed at accumulating monetary reserves by a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods.", "Historically, such policies might have contributed to war and motivated colonial expansion.", "Mercantilist theory varies in sophistication from one writer to another and has evolved over time.Mercantilism promotes government regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers.", "High tariffs, especially on manufactured goods, were almost universally a feature of mercantilist policy.", "Before it fell into decline, mercantilism was dominant in modernized parts of Europe and some areas in Africa from the 16th to the 19th centuries, a period of proto-industrialization.", "Some commentators argue that it is still practised in the economies of industrializing countries, in the form of economic interventionism.With the efforts of supranational organizations such as the World Trade Organization to reduce tariffs globally, non-tariff barriers to trade have assumed a greater importance in neomercantilism." ], [ "History", "Merchants in upright=1.2Mercantilism became the dominant school of economic thought in Europe throughout the late Renaissance and the early-modern period (from the 15th to the 18th centuries).", "Evidence of mercantilistic practices appeared in early-modern Venice, Genoa, and Pisa regarding control of the Mediterranean trade in bullion.", "However, the empiricism of the Renaissance, which first began to quantify large-scale trade accurately, marked mercantilism's birth as a codified school of economic theories.", "The Italian economist and mercantilist Antonio Serra is considered to have written one of the first treatises on political economy with his 1613 work, ''A Short Treatise on the Wealth and Poverty of Nations''.Mercantilism in its simplest form is bullionism, yet mercantilist writers emphasize the circulation of money and reject hoarding.", "Their emphasis on monetary metals accords with current ideas regarding the money supply, such as the stimulative effect of a growing money-supply.", "Fiat money and floating exchange rates have since rendered specie concerns irrelevant.", "In time, industrial policy supplanted the heavy emphasis on money, accompanied by a shift in focus from the capacity to carry on wars to promoting general prosperity.England began the first large-scale and integrative approach to mercantilism during the Elizabethan Era (1558–1603).", "An early statement on national balance of trade appeared in ''Discourse of the Common Wealth of this Realm of England'', 1549: \"We must always take heed that we buy no more from strangers than we sell them, for so should we impoverish ourselves and enrich them.\"", "The period featured various but often disjointed efforts by the court of Queen Elizabeth (r. 1558–1603) to develop a naval and merchant fleet capable of challenging the Spanish stranglehold on trade and of expanding the growth of bullion at home.", "Queen Elizabeth promoted the Trade and Navigation Acts in Parliament and issued orders to her navy for the protection and promotion of English shipping.Authors noted most for establishing the English mercantilist system include Gerard de Malynes ( 1585–1641) and Thomas Mun (1571–1641), who first articulated the Elizabethan system (''England's Treasure by Foreign Trade or the Balance of Foreign Trade is the Rule of Our Treasure''), which Josiah Child (–1699) then developed further.", "Numerous French authors helped cement French policy around statist mercantilism in the 17th century, as King Louis XIV (reigned 1643–1715) followed the guidance of Jean Baptiste Colbert, his Controller-General of Finances from 1665 to 1683 who revised the tariff system and expanded industrial policy.", "Colbertism was based on the principle that the state should rule in the economic realm as it did in the diplomatic, and that the interests of the state as identified by the king were superior to those of merchants and of everyone else.", "Mercantilist economic policies aimed to build up the state, especially in an age of incessant warfare, and theorists charged the state with looking for ways to strengthen the economy and to weaken foreign adversaries.In Europe, academic belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late-18th century after the East India Company annexed the Mughal Bengal, a major trading nation, and the establishment of the British India through the activities of the East India Company, in light of the arguments of Adam Smith (1723–1790) and of the classical economists.", "French economic policy liberalized greatly under Napoleon (in power from 1799 to 1814/1815).", "The British Parliament's repeal of the Corn Laws under Robert Peel in 1846 symbolized the emergence of free trade as an alternative system." ], [ "Theory", "Most of the European economists who wrote between 1500 and 1750 are today generally considered mercantilists; this term was initially used solely by critics, such as Mirabeau and Smith, but historians proved quick to adopt it.", "Originally the standard English term was \"mercantile system\".", "The word \"mercantilism\" came into English from German in the early-19th century.The bulk of what is commonly called \"mercantilist literature\" appeared in the 1620s in Great Britain.", "Smith saw the English merchant Thomas Mun (1571–1641) as a major creator of the mercantile system, especially in his posthumously published ''Treasure by Foreign Trade'' (1664), which Smith considered the archetype or manifesto of the movement.", "Perhaps the last major mercantilist work was James Steuart's ''Principles of Political Economy'', published in 1767.Mercantilist literature also extended beyond England.", "Italy and France produced noted writers of mercantilist themes, including Italy's Giovanni Botero (1544–1617) and Antonio Serra (1580–?)", "and, in France, Jean Bodin and Colbert.", "Themes also existed in writers from the German historical school from List, as well as followers of the American and British systems of free-trade, thus stretching the system into the 19th century.", "However, many British writers, including Mun and Misselden, were merchants, while many of the writers from other countries were public officials.", "Beyond mercantilism as a way of understanding the wealth and power of nations, Mun and Misselden are noted for their viewpoints on a wide range of economic matters.The Austrian lawyer and scholar Philipp Wilhelm von Hornick, one of the pioneers of Cameralism, detailed a nine-point program of what he deemed effective national economy in his ''Austria Over All, If She Only Will'' of 1684, which comprehensively sums up the tenets of mercantilism:* That every little bit of a country's soil be utilized for agriculture, mining or manufacturing.", "* That all raw materials found in a country be used in domestic manufacture, since finished goods have a higher value than raw materials.", "* That a large, working population be encouraged.", "* That all exports of gold and silver be prohibited and all domestic money be kept in circulation.", "* That all imports of foreign goods be discouraged as much as possible.", "* That where certain imports are indispensable they be obtained at first hand, in exchange for other domestic goods instead of gold and silver.", "* That as much as possible, imports be confined to raw materials that can be finished in the home country.", "* That opportunities be constantly sought for selling a country's surplus manufactures to foreigners, so far as necessary, for gold and silver.", "* That no importation be allowed if such goods are sufficiently and suitably supplied at home.Other than Von Hornick, there were no mercantilist writers presenting an overarching scheme for the ideal economy, as Adam Smith would later do for classical economics.", "Rather, each mercantilist writer tended to focus on a single area of the economy.", "Only later did non-mercantilist scholars integrate these \"diverse\" ideas into what they called mercantilism.", "Some scholars thus reject the idea of mercantilism completely, arguing that it gives \"a false unity to disparate events\".", "Smith saw the mercantile system as an enormous conspiracy by manufacturers and merchants against consumers, a view that has led some authors, especially Robert E. Ekelund and Robert D. Tollison, to call mercantilism \"a rent-seeking society\".", "To a certain extent, mercantilist doctrine itself made a general theory of economics impossible.", "Mercantilists viewed the economic system as a zero-sum game, in which any gain by one party required a loss by another.", "Thus, any system of policies that benefited one group would by definition harm the other, and there was no possibility of economics being used to maximize the commonwealth, or common good.", "Mercantilists' writings were also generally created to rationalize particular practices rather than as investigations into the best policies.Mercantilist domestic policy was more fragmented than its trade policy.", "While Adam Smith portrayed mercantilism as supportive of strict controls over the economy, many mercantilists disagreed.", "The early modern era was one of letters patent and government-imposed monopolies; some mercantilists supported these, but others acknowledged the corruption and inefficiency of such systems.", "Many mercantilists also realized that the inevitable results of quotas and price ceilings were black markets.", "One notion that mercantilists widely agreed upon was the need for economic oppression of the working population; laborers and farmers were to live at the \"margins of subsistence\".", "The goal was to maximize production, with no concern for consumption.", "Extra money, free time, and education for the lower classes were seen to inevitably lead to vice and laziness, and would result in harm to the economy.The mercantilists saw a large population as a form of wealth that made possible the development of bigger markets and armies.", "Opposite to mercantilism was the doctrine of physiocracy, which predicted that mankind would outgrow its resources.", "The idea of mercantilism was to protect the markets as well as maintain agriculture and those who were dependent upon it." ], [ "Policies", "Mercantilist ideas were the dominant economic ideology of all of Europe in the early modern period, and most states embraced it to a certain degree.", "Mercantilism was centred on England and France, and it was in these states that mercantilist policies were most often enacted.The policies have included:* High tariffs, especially on manufactured goods.", "* Forbidding colonies to trade with other nations.", "* Monopolizing markets with staple ports.", "* Banning the export of gold and silver, even for payments.", "* Forbidding trade to be carried in foreign ships, as per, for example, the Navigation Acts.", "* Subsidies on exports.", "* Promoting manufacturing and industry through research or direct subsidies.", "* Limiting wages.", "* Maximizing the use of domestic resources.", "* Restricting domestic consumption through non-tariff barriers to trade.===France===French finance minister and mercantilist uprightMercantilism arose in France in the early 16th century soon after the monarchy had become the dominant force in French politics.", "In 1539, an important decree banned the import of woolen goods from Spain and some parts of Flanders.", "The next year, a number of restrictions were imposed on the export of bullion.Over the rest of the 16th century, further protectionist measures were introduced.", "The height of French mercantilism is closely associated with Jean-Baptiste Colbert, finance minister for 22 years in the 17th century, to the extent that French mercantilism is sometimes called Colbertism.", "Under Colbert, the French government became deeply involved in the economy in order to increase exports.", "Protectionist policies were enacted that limited imports and favored exports.", "Industries were organized into guilds and monopolies, and production was regulated by the state through a series of more than one thousand directives outlining how different products should be produced.To encourage industry, foreign artisans and craftsmen were imported.", "Colbert also worked to decrease internal barriers to trade, reducing internal tariffs and building an extensive network of roads and canals.", "Colbert's policies were quite successful, and France's industrial output and the economy grew considerably during this period, as France became the dominant European power.", "He was less successful in turning France into a major trading power, and Britain and the Dutch Republic remained supreme in this field.===New France===France imposed its mercantilist philosophy on its colonies in North America, especially New France.", "It sought to derive the maximum material benefit from the colony, for the homeland, with a minimum of colonial investment in the colony itself.", "The ideology was embodied in New France through the establishment under Royal Charter of a number of corporate trading monopolies including La Compagnie des Marchands, which operated from 1613 to 1621, and the Compagnie de Montmorency, from that date until 1627.It was in turn replaced by La Compagnie des Cent-Associés, created in 1627 by King Louis XIII, and the Communauté des habitants in 1643.These were the first corporations to operate in what is now Canada.===United Kingdom ===In England, mercantilism reached its peak during the Long Parliament government (1640–60).", "Mercantilist policies were also embraced throughout much of the Tudor and Stuart periods, with Robert Walpole being another major proponent.", "In Britain, government control over the domestic economy was far less extensive than on the Continent, limited by common law and the steadily increasing power of Parliament.", "Government-controlled monopolies were common, especially before the English Civil War, but were often controversial.The Anglo-Dutch Wars were fought between the English and the Dutch for control over the seas and trade routes.With respect to its colonies, British mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other European powers.", "The government protected its merchants—and kept foreign ones out—through trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm.", "The government had to fight smuggling, which became a favourite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish, or Dutch.", "The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses to benefit the government.", "The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain.", "The government spent much of its revenue on the Royal Navy, which both protected the colonies of Britain but was vital in capturing the colonies of other European powers.British mercantilist writers were themselves divided on whether domestic controls were necessary.", "British mercantilism thus mainly took the form of efforts to control trade.", "A wide array of regulations were put in place to encourage exports and discourage imports.", "Tariffs were placed on imports and bounties given for exports, and the export of some raw materials was banned completely.", "The Navigation Acts removed foreign merchants from being involved England's domestic trade.", "British policies in their American colonies led to friction with the inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies, and mercantilist policies (such as forbidding trade with other European powers and enforcing bans on smuggling) were a major irritant leading to the American Revolution.Mercantilism taught that trade was a zero-sum game, with one country's gain equivalent to a loss sustained by the trading partner.", "Overall, however, mercantilist policies had a positive impact on Britain, helping to transform the nation into the world's dominant trading power and a global hegemon.", "One domestic policy that had a lasting impact was the conversion of \"wastelands\" to agricultural use.", "Mercantilists believed that to maximize a nation's power, all land and resources had to be used to their highest and best use, and this era thus saw projects like the draining of The Fens.===Other countries===Mercantilism helped create trade patterns such as the triangular trade in the North Atlantic, in which raw materials were imported to the mother country and then processed and redistributed to other colonies.The other nations of Europe also embraced mercantilism to varying degrees.", "The Netherlands, which had become the financial centre of Europe by being its most efficient trader, had little interest in seeing trade restricted and adopted few mercantilist policies.", "Mercantilism became prominent in Central Europe and Scandinavia after the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), with Christina of Sweden, Jacob Kettler of Courland, and Christian IV of Denmark being notable proponents.The Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors had long been interested in mercantilist policies, but the vast and decentralized nature of their empire made implementing such notions difficult.", "Some constituent states of the empire did embrace mercantilism, most notably Prussia, which under Frederick the Great had perhaps the most rigidly controlled economy in Europe.Spain benefited from mercantilism early on as it brought a large amount of precious metals such as gold and silver into their treasury by way of the new world.", "In the long run, Spain's economy collapsed as it was unable to adjust to the inflation that came with the large influx of bullion.", "Heavy intervention from the crown put crippling laws for the protection of Spanish goods and services.", "Mercantilist protectionist policy in Spain caused the long-run failure of the Castilian textile industry as the efficiency severely dropped off with each passing year due to the production being held at a specific level.", "Spain's heavily protected industries led to famines as much of its agricultural land was required to be used for sheep instead of grain.", "Much of their grain was imported from the Baltic region of Europe which caused a shortage of food in the inner regions of Spain.", "Spain limiting the trade of their colonies is one of the causes that led to the separation of the Dutch from the Spanish Empire.", "The culmination of all of these policies led to Spain defaulting in 1557, 1575, and 1596.During the economic collapse of the 17th century, Spain had little coherent economic policy, but French mercantilist policies were imported by Philip V with some success.", "Ottoman Grand Vizier Kemankeş Kara Mustafa Pasha also followed some mercantilist financial policies during the reign of Ibrahim I. Russia under Peter I (Peter the Great) attempted to pursue mercantilism, but had little success because of Russia's lack of a large merchant class or an industrial base." ], [ "Wars and imperialism", "Mercantilism was the economic version of warfare using economics as a tool for warfare by other means backed up by the state apparatus and was well suited to an era of military warfare.", "Since the level of world trade was viewed as fixed, it followed that the only way to increase a nation's trade was to take it from another.", "A number of wars, most notably the Anglo-Dutch Wars and the Franco-Dutch Wars, can be linked directly to mercantilist theories.", "Most wars had other causes but they reinforced mercantilism by clearly defining the enemy, and justified damage to the enemy's economy.Mercantilism fueled the imperialism of this era, as many nations expended significant effort to conquer new colonies that would be sources of gold (as in Mexico) or sugar (as in the West Indies), as well as becoming exclusive markets.", "European power spread around the globe, often under the aegis of companies with government-guaranteed monopolies in certain defined geographical regions, such as the Dutch East India Company or the Hudson's Bay Company (operating in present-day Canada).With the establishment of overseas colonies by European powers early in the 17th century, mercantile theory gained a new and wider significance, in which its aim and ideal became both national and imperialistic.The connection between communism and mercantilism has been explored by Marxist economist and sociologist Giovanni Arrighi, who analyzed mercantilism as having three components: \"settler colonialism, capitalist slavery, and economic nationalism,\" and further noted that slavery was \"partly a condition and partly a result of the success of settler colonialism.", "\"In France, the triangular trade method was integral in the continuation of mercantilism throughout the 17th and 18th centuries.", "In order to maximize exports and minimize imports, France worked on a strict Atlantic route: France, to Africa, to the Americas and then back to France.", "By bringing African slaves to labor in the New World, their labor value increased, and France capitalized upon the market resources produced by slave labor.Mercantilism as a weapon has continued to be used by nations through the 21st century by way of modern tariffs as it puts smaller economies in a position to conform to the larger economies goals or risk economic ruin due to an imbalance in trade.", "Trade wars are often dependent on such tariffs and restrictions hurting the opposing economy." ], [ "Origins", "The term \"mercantile system\" was used by its foremost critic, Adam Smith, but Mirabeau (1715–1789) had used \"mercantilism\" earlier.", "Mercantilism functioned as the economic counterpart of the older version of political power: divine right of kings and absolute monarchy.Scholars debate over why mercantilism dominated economic ideology for 250 years.", "One group, represented by Jacob Viner, sees mercantilism as simply a straightforward, common-sense system whose logical fallacies remained opaque to people at the time, as they simply lacked the required analytical tools.The second school, supported by scholars such as Robert B. Ekelund, portrays mercantilism not as a mistake, but rather as the best possible system for those who developed it.", "This school argues that rent-seeking merchants and governments developed and enforced mercantilist policies.", "Merchants benefited greatly from the enforced monopolies, bans on foreign competition, and poverty of the workers.", "Governments benefited from the high tariffs and payments from the merchants.", "Whereas later economic ideas were often developed by academics and philosophers, almost all mercantilist writers were merchants or government officials.Monetarism offers a third explanation for mercantilism.", "European trade exported bullion to pay for goods from Asia, thus reducing the money supply and putting downward pressure on prices and economic activity.", "The evidence for this hypothesis is the lack of inflation in the British economy until the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, when paper money came into vogue.A fourth explanation lies in the increasing professionalisation and technification of the wars of the era, which turned the maintenance of adequate reserve funds (in the prospect of war) into a more and more expensive and eventually competitive business.Mercantilism developed at a time of transition for the European economy.", "Isolated feudal estates were being replaced by centralized nation-states as the focus of power.", "Technological changes in shipping and the growth of urban centers led to a rapid increase in international trade.", "Mercantilism focused on how this trade could best aid the states.", "Another important change was the introduction of double-entry bookkeeping and modern accounting.", "This accounting made extremely clear the inflow and outflow of trade, contributing to the close scrutiny given to the balance of trade.", "New markets and new mines propelled foreign trade to previously inconceivable volumes, resulting in \"the great upward movement in prices\" and an increase in \"the volume of merchant activity itself\".Prior to mercantilism, the most important economic work done in Europe was by the medieval scholastic theorists.", "The goal of these thinkers was to find an economic system compatible with Christian doctrines of piety and justice.", "They focused mainly on microeconomics and on local exchanges between individuals.", "Mercantilism was closely aligned with the other theories and ideas that began to replace the medieval worldview.", "This period saw the adoption of the very Machiavellian realpolitik and the primacy of the ''raison d'état'' in international relations.", "The mercantilist idea of all trade as a zero-sum game, in which each side was trying to best the other in a ruthless competition, was integrated into the works of Thomas Hobbes.", "This dark view of human nature also fit well with the Puritan view of the world, and some of the most stridently mercantilist legislation, such as the Navigation Ordinance of 1651, was enacted by the government of Oliver Cromwell.Jean-Baptiste Colbert's work in 17th-century France came to exemplify classical mercantilism.", "In the English-speaking world, its ideas were criticized by Adam Smith with the publication of ''The Wealth of Nations'' in 1776 and later by David Ricardo with his explanation of comparative advantage.", "Mercantilism was rejected by Britain and France by the mid-19th century.", "The British Empire embraced free trade and used its power as the financial center of the world to promote the same.", "The Guyanese historian Walter Rodney describes mercantilism as the period of the worldwide development of European commerce, which began in the 15th century with the voyages of Portuguese and Spanish explorers to Africa, Asia, and the New World." ], [ "End of mercantilism", "Adam Smith, David Hume, Edward Gibbon, Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were the founding fathers of anti-mercantilist thought.", "A number of scholars found important flaws with mercantilism long before Smith developed an ideology that could fully replace it.", "Critics like Hume, Dudley North and John Locke undermined much of mercantilism and it steadily lost favor during the 18th century.In 1690, Locke argued that prices vary in proportion to the quantity of money.", "Locke's ''Second Treatise'' also points towards the heart of the anti-mercantilist critique: that the wealth of the world is not fixed, but is created by human labor (represented embryonically by Locke's labor theory of value).", "Mercantilists failed to understand the notions of absolute advantage and comparative advantage (although this idea was only fully fleshed out in 1817 by David Ricardo) and the benefits of trade.Much of Adam Smith's ''The Wealth of Nations'' is an attack on mercantilism.Hume famously noted the impossibility of the mercantilists' goal of a constant positive balance of trade.", "As bullion flowed into one country, the supply would increase, and the value of bullion in that state would steadily decline relative to other goods.", "Conversely, in the state exporting bullion, its value would slowly rise.", "Eventually, it would no longer be cost-effective to export goods from the high-price country to the low-price country, and the balance of trade would reverse.", "Mercantilists fundamentally misunderstood this, long arguing that an increase in the money supply simply meant that everyone gets richer.The importance placed on bullion was also a central target, even if many mercantilists had themselves begun to de-emphasize the importance of gold and silver.", "Adam Smith noted that at the core of the mercantile system was the \"popular folly of confusing wealth with money\", that bullion was just the same as any other commodity, and that there was no reason to give it special treatment.", "More recently, scholars have discounted the accuracy of this critique.", "They believe Mun and Misselden were not making this mistake in the 1620s, and point to their followers Josiah Child and Charles Davenant, who in 1699 wrote, \"Gold and Silver are indeed the Measures of Trade, but that the Spring and Original of it, in all nations is the Natural or Artificial Product of the Country; that is to say, what this Land or what this Labour and Industry Produces.\"", "The critique that mercantilism was a form of rent seeking has also seen criticism, as scholars such as Jacob Viner in the 1930s pointed out that merchant mercantilists such as Mun understood that they would not gain by higher prices for English wares abroad.The first school to completely reject mercantilism was the physiocrats, who developed their theories in France.", "Their theories also had several important problems, and the replacement of mercantilism did not come until Adam Smith published ''The Wealth of Nations'' in 1776.This book outlines the basics of what is today known as classical economics.", "Smith spent a considerable portion of the book rebutting the arguments of the mercantilists, though often these are simplified or exaggerated versions of mercantilist thought.Scholars are also divided over the cause of mercantilism's end.", "Those who believe the theory was simply an error hold that its replacement was inevitable as soon as Smith's more accurate ideas were unveiled.", "Those who feel that mercantilism amounted to rent-seeking hold that it ended only when major power shifts occurred.", "In Britain, mercantilism faded as the Parliament gained the monarch's power to grant monopolies.", "While the wealthy capitalists who controlled the House of Commons benefited from these monopolies, Parliament found it difficult to implement them because of the high cost of group decision making.Mercantilist regulations were steadily removed over the course of the 18th century in Britain, and during the 19th century, the British government fully embraced free trade and Smith's laissez-faire economics.", "On the continent, the process was somewhat different.", "In France, economic control remained in the hands of the royal family, and mercantilism continued until the French Revolution.", "In Germany, mercantilism remained an important ideology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when the historical school of economics was paramount." ], [ "Legacy", "Adam Smith criticized the mercantile doctrine that prioritized production in the economy; he maintained that consumption was of prime significance.", "Additionally, the mercantile system was well liked by the traders as it was what is now referred to as rent seeking.", "John Maynard Keynes affirmed that motivating the production process was as significant as encouraging consumption, which benefited the new mercantilism.", "Keynes also affirmed that in the post-classical period the primary focus on gold and silver supplies (bullion) was rational.", "During the era before paper money, an increase in gold and silver was one of the ways of mercantilism increasing an economy's reserve or the supply of money.", "Keynes reiterated that the doctrines advocated for by mercantilism aided the improvement of both the domestic and foreign outlay—domestic because the policies lowered the domestic rate of interest, and investment by foreigners by tending to create a favorable balance of trade.", "Keynes and other economists of the 20th century also realized that the balance of payments is an important concern.", "Keynes also supported government intervention in the economy as necessary, as did mercantilism., the word \"mercantilism\" remains a pejorative term, often used to attack various forms of protectionism.", "The similarities between Keynesianism (and its successor ideas) and mercantilism have sometimes led critics to call them neomercantilism.Paul Samuelson, writing within a Keynesian framework, wrote of mercantilism, \"With employment less than full and Net National Product suboptimal, all the debunked mercantilist arguments turn out to be valid.", "\"Some other systems that copy several mercantilist policies, such as Japan's economic system, are also sometimes called neo-mercantilist.", "In an essay appearing in the May 14, 2007 issue of ''Newsweek'', business columnist Robert J. Samuelson wrote that China was pursuing an essentially neo-mercantilist trade policy that threatened to undermine the post–World War II international economic structure.Murray Rothbard, representing the Austrian School of economics, describes it this way:Rothbard viewed mercantilism not as a coherent economic theory but rather a series of post-hoc rationalizations for various economic policies by interested parties.", "In specific instances, protectionist mercantilist policies also had an important and positive impact on the state that enacted them.", "Adam Smith, for instance, praised the Navigation Acts, as they greatly expanded the British merchant fleet and played a central role in turning Britain into the world's naval and economic superpower from the 18th century onward.", "Some economists thus feel that protecting infant industries, while causing short-term harm, can be beneficial in the long term." ], [ "See also", "* Autarky* British Empire* Money-free market* Neorealism (international relations)* Crony capitalism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * Heckscher, Eli F. (1936) \"Revisions in Economic History: V.", "Mercantilism.\"", "''Economic History Review,'' 7#1 1936, pp.", "44–54.online* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Rees, J. F. \"Mercantilism\" ''History'' 24#94 (1939), pp.", "129–135 online; historiography* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Thomas Mun's ''Englands Treasure by Forraign Trade'': Adam Smith's ''Wealth of Nations''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Meat Puppets" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Meat Puppets''' are an American rock band formed in January 1980 in Phoenix, Arizona.", "The group's original lineup was Curt Kirkwood (guitar/vocals), his brother Cris Kirkwood (bass guitar/vocals), and Derrick Bostrom (drums).", "The Kirkwood brothers met Bostrom while attending Brophy Prep High School in Phoenix.", "The three then moved to Tempe, Arizona (a Phoenix suburb and home to Arizona State University), where the Kirkwood brothers purchased two adjacent houses, one of which had a shed in the back where they regularly practiced.Meat Puppets started as a punk rock band, but like most of their labelmates on SST Records, they established their own unique style, blending punk with country and psychedelic rock, and featuring Curt's warbling vocals.", "Meat Puppets later gained significant exposure when the Kirkwood brothers served as guest musicians on Nirvana's MTV Unplugged performance in 1993.The band's 1994 album ''Too High to Die'' subsequently became their most successful release.", "The band broke up twice, in 1996 and 2002, but reunited again in 2006." ], [ "History", "===Early career (1980–1990)===In the late 1970s, drummer Derrick Bostrom played with guitarist Jack Knetzger in a band called Atomic Bomb Club, which began as a duo, but would come to include bassist Cris Kirkwood.", "The band played a few local shows and recorded some demos, but began to dissolve quickly thereafter.", "Derrick and Cris began rehearsing together with Cris' brother Curt Kirkwood by learning songs from Bostrom's collection of punk rock 45s.", "After briefly toying with the name The Bastions of Immaturity, they settled on the name Meat Puppets in June, 1980 after a song by Curt of the same name which appears on their first album.", "Their earliest EP ''In A Car'' was made entirely of short hardcore punk with goofy lyrics, and attracted the attention of Joe Carducci as he was starting to work with legendary punk label SST Records.", "Carducci suggested they sign with the label, and Meat Puppets released their first album ''Meat Puppets'' in 1982, which among several new originals and a pair of heavily skewed Doc Watson and Bob Nolan covers, featured the songs \"The Gold Mine\" and \"Melons Rising\", two tunes Derrick and Cris originally had written and performed as Atomic Bomb Club previously.", "Years later, when the Meat Puppets reissued all of their albums in 1999, the five songs on In A Car would be combined with their debut album.Curt KirkwoodBy the release of 1984's ''Meat Puppets II'', the bandmembers \"were so sick of the hardcore thing,\" according to Bostrom.", "\"We were really into pissing off the crowd.\"", "Here, the band experimented with acid rock and country and western sounds, while still retaining some punk influence on the tracks \"Split Myself in Two\" and \"New Gods.\"", "This album contains some of the band's best known songs, such as \"Lake of Fire\" and \"Plateau.\"", "While the album had been recorded in early 1983, the album's release was delayed for a year by SST.", "''Meat Puppets II'' turned the band into one of the leading bands on SST Records, and along with the Violent Femmes, the Gun Club and others, helped establish the genre called \"cow punk\".Meat Puppets II was followed by 1985's ''Up on the Sun''.", "The album's psychedelic sound resembled the folk-rock of The Byrds, while the songs still retained hardcore influences in the lengths of the songs and the tempos.", "Examples of this new style are the self-titled track, \"Enchanted Porkfist\" and \"Swimming Ground.\"", "''Up On The Sun'' featured the Kirkwood brothers harmonizing their vocals for the first time.", "These two albums were mainstays of college and independent radio at that time.During the rest of the 1980s, Meat Puppets remained on SST and released a series of albums while touring relentlessly.", "Between tours they would regularly play small shows in bars around the Phoenix area such as The Mason Jar (now The Rebel Lounge) and The Sun Club in Tempe.", "After the release of the hard-rock styled ''Out My Way'' EP in 1986, however, the band was briefly sidelined by an accident when Curt's finger was broken after being slammed in their touring van's door.", "The accident delayed the band's next album, the even more psychedelic ''Mirage'', until the next year.", "The final result included synthesizers and electronic drums, and as such was considered their most polished sounding album to date.", "The tour for Mirage lasted less than 6 months, as the band found it difficult to recreate many of this album's songs in a concert atmosphere.Their next album, the ZZ-Top inspired ''Huevos'', came out less than six months afterward, in late summer of 1987.In stark contrast to its predecessor, ''Huevos'' was recorded in a swift, fiery fashion, with many first takes, and minimal second guessing.", "These recordings were completed in only a matter of days, and along with a few drawings and one of Curt's paintings taken from the wall to serve as cover art (a dish of three boiled eggs, a green pepper, and a bottle of Tabasco sauce), were all sent to SST shortly before the band returned to the road en route to their next gig.", "Curt revealed in an interview that one of the reasons for the album being called Huevos (meaning 'eggs' in Spanish) was because of the multitude of first-takers on the record, as similarly eggs can only be used once.", "''Monsters'' was released in 1989, featuring new elements to their sound with extended jams (such as \"Touchdown King\" and \"Flight of the Fire Weasel\") and heavy metal (\"Attacked by Monsters\").", "This album was mostly motivated by the Meat Puppets' desire to attract the attention of a major label, as they were becoming frustrated with SST Records by this time.===Major label career (1991–1995)===As numerous bands from the seminal SST label and other kindred punk-oriented indies had before them, Meat Puppets grappled with the decision to switch to a major label.", "Two years after their final studio recording for SST, 1989's ''Monsters'', the trio released its major-label debut, ''Forbidden Places'', on the indie-friendly London Records.", "The band chose London Records because it was the first label that ZZ Top, one of their favorite bands, was signed to.", "''Forbidden Places'' combined many elements of the band's sounds over the years (cowpunk, psychedelia, riffy heavier rock) while some songs had a more laid back early alternative sound.", "Songs include \"Sam\" and \"Whirlpool,\" and the title track.", "Despite being a fan favorite, ''Forbidden Places'' is now out of print, and as such it remains a highly sought collectible online.In 1992 following his departure from the Red Hot Chili Peppers, guitarist John Frusciante auditioned for the band.", "Cris Kirkwood stated \"He showed up with his guitar out of its case and barefoot.", "We were on a major label then, we just got signed, and those guys had blown up to where they were at and John needed to get out.", "John gets to our pad and we started getting ready to play and I said, 'You want to use my tuner?'", "He said, 'No, I'll bend it in.'", "It was so far out.", "Then we jammed but it didn't come to anything.", "Maybe he wasn't in the right place and we were a tight little unit.", "It just didn't quite happen but it could have worked.", "\"In late 1993, Meat Puppets achieved mainstream popularity when Nirvana's Kurt Cobain, who became a fan after seeing them open for Black Flag in the ‘80s, invited Cris and Curt to join him on MTV Unplugged for acoustic performances of \"Plateau\", \"Oh Me\" and \"Lake of Fire\" (all originally from ''Meat Puppets II'').", "The resulting album, ''MTV Unplugged in New York,'' served as a swan song for Nirvana, as Cobain died less than 5 months after the concert.", "\"Lake of Fire\" became a cult favorite for its particularly wrenching vocal performance from Cobain.", "Subsequently, the Nirvana exposure and the strength of the single \"Backwater\" (their highest-charting single) helped lift Meat Puppets to new commercial heights.", "The band's studio return was 1994's ''Too High To Die'', produced by Butthole Surfers guitarist Paul Leary.", "The album featured \"Backwater\", which reached #47 on the Billboard Hot 100, and a hidden-track update of \"Lake of Fire.\"", "This album features a more straightforward alternative rock style, with occasional moments of pop, country and neo-psychedelic moments.", "''Too High To Die'' earned the band a gold record (500,000 sold), outselling their previous records combined.1995's ''No Joke!''", "was the final album recorded by the original Meat Puppets lineup.", "Stylistically it is very similar to ''Too High to Die'', although much heavier and with darker lyrics.", "Examples of this are the single \"Scum\" and \"Eyeball,\" although the band's usual laid-back style is still heard on tracks like \"Chemical Garden.\"", "Though the band's drug use had long included cocaine, heroin, LSD and many others, Cris' use of heroin and crack cocaine became so bad he rarely left his house except to obtain more drugs.", "At least two people (including his wife and one of his best friends) died of overdoses at his house in Tempe, AZ during this time.", "The Kirkwood brothers had always had a legendary appetite for illegal substances and during the tour to support ''Too High To Die'' with Stone Temple Pilots, the easy availability of drugs was too much for Cris.", "When it was over, he was severely addicted to cocaine and heroin.", "When their record label discovered Cris' addictions, support for ''No Joke!''", "was subsequently dropped and it was met with poor sales figures.===First hiatus and reunion (1996–2001)===Bostrom recorded a solo EP under the moniker ''Today's Sounds'' in 1996, and later on in 1999 took charge of re-issuing the Puppets' original seven records on Rykodisc as well as putting out their first live album, ''Live in Montana.''", "Curt formed a new band in Austin, Texas called the Royal Neanderthal Orchestra''You Love Me'' in 1999, ''Golden Lies'' in 2000 and ''Live'' in 2002.The line-up was Curt (voc/git), Kyle Ellison (voc/git), Andrew Duplantis (voc/bass) and Shandon Sahm (drums).", "Sahm's father was the legendary fiddler-singer-songwriter Doug Sahm of The Sir Douglas Quintet and Texas Tornados.", "The concluding track to ''Classic Puppets'' entitled \"New Leaf\" also dates from this incarnation of the band.===Break up (2002–2005)===Around 2002, Meat Puppets dissolved after Duplantis left the band.", "Curt went on to release albums with the groups Eyes Adrift and Volcano.", "In 2005, he released his first solo album entitled ''Snow''.Bassist Cris was arrested in December 2003 for attacking a security guard at the main post office in downtown Phoenix, AZ with the guard's baton.", "The guard shot Kirkwood in the stomach at least twice during the melee, causing serious gunshot injuries requiring major surgery.", "Kirkwood was subsequently denied bail, the judge citing Kirkwood's previous drug arrests and probation violations.", "He eventually went to prison at the Arizona state prison in Florence, Arizona for felony assault.", "He was released in July 2005.Derrick Bostrom began a web site for the band about six months before the original trio stopped working together.", "The site went through many different permutations before it was essentially mothballed in 2003.In late 2005, Bostrom revamped it, this time as a \"blog\" for his recollections and as a place to share pieces of Meat Puppets history.===Second reunion (2006–present)===On March 24, 2006, Curt Kirkwood polled fans at his MySpace page with a bulletin that asked: \"Question for all !", "Would the original line up of Meat Puppets interest anyone ?", "Feedback is good – do you want a reunion!?\"", "The response from fans was overwhelmingly positive within a couple of hours, leading to speculation of a full-blown Meat Puppets reunion in the near future.", "However, a post made by Derrick Bostrom on the official Meat Puppets site dismissed the notion.In April 2006 ''Billboard'' reported that the Kirkwood brothers would reunite as Meat Puppets without original drummer Derrick Bostrom.", "Although Primus drummer Tim Alexander was announced as Bostrom's replacement, the position was later filled by Ted Marcus.", "The new lineup recorded a new full-length album, ''Rise to Your Knees'', in mid-to-late 2006.The album was released by Anodyne Records on July 17, 2007.Cris KirkwoodOn January 20, 2007, Meat Puppets brothers performed two songs during an Army of Anyone concert, at La Zona Rosa in Austin, Texas.", "The first song was played with Curt Kirkwood and Cris Kirkwood along with Army of Anyone's Ray Luzier and Dean DeLeo.", "Then the second song was played with original members Curt and Cris Kirkwood and new Meat Puppets drummer Ted Marcus.", "This was in the middle of Army of Anyone's set, which they listed as ''Meat Puppet Theatre'' on the evening's set list.", "The band performed several new songs in March at the South by Southwest festival.", "On March 28, 2007, the band announced a West Coast tour through their MySpace page.", "This is the first tour with original bassist Cris in eleven years.", "The tour continued into the east coast and midwest later in 2007.In 2008 they performed their classic second album live in its entirety at the ATP New York festival.The band parted ways with Anodyne, signed to Megaforce and began recording new material in the winter of 2008.The resulting album, entitled ''Sewn Together'', was released on May 12, 2009.In the summer of 2009 the band continued to tour across America.", "They appeared in Rochester, Minnesota outside in front of over 5,000 fans, after playing Summerfest in Milwaukee, Wisconsin the night prior.", "Meat Puppets performed at the 2009 Voodoo Music Experience in New Orleans over the Halloween weekend.Shandon SahmAs of November 2009, Shandon Sahm was back as the drummer in Meat Puppets, replacing Ted Marcus.", "The band was chosen by Animal Collective to perform the album 'Up on the Sun' live in its entirety at the All Tomorrow's Parties festival that they curated in May 2011.The band's thirteenth studio album, entitled ''Lollipop'', was released on April 12, 2011.The Dandies supported Meat Puppets on all European dates in 2011.Meat Puppets have played several gigs in their hometown since 2009, such as the Marquee show in June 2011 with Dead Confederate.As of early 2011 Elmo Kirkwood, son of Curt Kirkwood and nephew of Cris Kirkwood, was touring regularly with the band playing rhythm guitar.Meat Puppets also contributed to Spin Magazine's exclusive album ''Newermind: A Tribute to Nirvana'', playing Nirvana's \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\".In June 2012, a book titled ''Too High to Die: Meet the Meat Puppets'' by author Greg Prato was released, which featured all-new interviews with band members past and present and friends of the band (including Peter Buck, Kim Thayil, Scott Asheton, Mike Watt, and Henry Rollins, among others), and covered the band's entire career.In October 2012, it was announced that the group had just completed recording new songs.", "''Rat Farm'', the band's 14th album, was released in April 2013.In March 2013, Meat Puppets opened for Dave Grohl's Sound City Players at the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas.In April 2014, Meat Puppets completed a tour with The Moistboyz, and in the summer of 2015, they toured with Soul Asylum.", "The Meat Puppets were picked to open for an 11 show tour as support of The Dean Ween Group in October 2016 after Curt Kirkwood and drummer Chuck Treece contribute to ''The Deaner Album''.", "Also the same year, Cris either produced and/or played with the following artists for Slope Records - The Exterminators, the Linecutters, and Sad Kid.On August 17, 2017, original drummer Derrick Bostrom posted an update on his website derrickbostrom.net.", "He performed with Cris, Curt and Elmo Kirkwood at a concert honoring the Meat Puppets.", "It appears that, while Bostrom enjoyed himself, this was a one-off performance.", "On July 8, 2018, it was confirmed that Bostrom had replaced Sahm as the drummer for the band, and that keyboardist Ron Stabinsky had joined, as well.The band released their 15th studio album, ''Dusty Notes'', on March 8, 2019." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "Meat Puppets have influenced a number of rock bands, including Nirvana, Soundgarden, Dinosaur Jr, Sebadoh, Pavement, and Jawbreaker.Lou Barlow has said \"Meat Puppets are the singularly most influential band on both Dinosaur Jr. and Sebadoh.", "I kick myself for not ever emphasizing this enough.\"", "J Mascis also noted \"People thought we were a Meat Puppets rip-off at first.", "\"In 2014, ''Phoenix New Times'' named ''Meat Puppets'' one of \"The Most Influential Arizona Punk Records.", "\"The Meat Puppets were inducted into the Arizona Music & Entertainment Hall of Fame in 2017." ], [ "Members", ";Current members*Curt Kirkwood – lead vocals, guitar (1980–1996, 1999–2002, 2006–present)*Cris Kirkwood – bass, backing vocals (1980–1996, 2006–present)*Derrick Bostrom – drums (1980–1996, 2018-present)*Elmo Kirkwood – guitar (2018–present) (touring member 2011-2017)*Ron Stabinsky – keyboards (2018–present) (touring member 2017);Touring members*Troy Meiss – guitar (1994);Former members*Shandon Sahm – drums (1999–2002, 2009–2018)*Andrew Duplantis – bass (1999–2002)*Kyle Ellison – guitar (1999–2002)*Ted Marcus – drums (2006–2009);Timeline" ], [ "Discography", "* ''Meat Puppets'' (1982)* ''Meat Puppets II'' (1984)* ''Up on the Sun'' (1985)* ''Mirage'' (1987)* ''Huevos'' (1987)* ''Monsters'' (1989)* ''Forbidden Places'' (1991)* ''Too High to Die'' (1994)* ''No Joke!''", "(1995)* ''Golden Lies'' (2000)* ''Rise to Your Knees'' (2007)* ''Sewn Together'' (2009)* ''Lollipop'' (2011)* ''Rat Farm'' (2013)* ''Dusty Notes'' (2019)" ], [ "See also", "*List of alternative rock artists*List of musicians in the second wave of punk music" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of mathematics competitions" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mathematics competitions''' or '''mathematical olympiads''' are competitive events where participants complete a math test.", "These tests may require multiple choice or numeric answers, or a detailed written solution or proof." ], [ "International mathematics competitions", "* Championnat International de Jeux Mathématiques et Logiques — for all ages, mainly for French-speaking countries, but participation is not limited by language.", "* China Girls Mathematical Olympiad (CGMO) — held annually for teams of girls representing different regions within China and a few other countries.", "* European Girls' Mathematical Olympiad (EGMO) — since April 2012* Integration Bee — competition in integral calculus held in various institutions of higher learning in the United States and some other countries* International Mathematical Modeling Challenge — team contest for high school students* International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) — the oldest international Olympiad, occurring annually since 1959.", "* International Mathematics Competition for University Students (IMC) — international competition for undergraduate students.", "* Mathematical Contest in Modeling (MCM) — team contest for undergraduates* Mathematical Kangaroo — worldwide competition.", "* Mental Calculation World Cup — contest for the best mental calculators* Primary Mathematics World Contest (PMWC) — worldwide competition* Rocket City Math League (RCML) — Competition run by students at Virgil I. Grissom High School with levels ranging from Explorer (Pre-Algebra) to Discovery (Comprehensive)* Romanian Master of Mathematics and Sciences — Olympiad for the selection of the top 20 countries in the last IMO.", "* Tournament of the Towns — worldwide competition." ], [ "Multinational regional mathematics competitions", "* Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad (APMO) — Pacific rim* Balkan Mathematical Olympiad — for students from Balkan area* Baltic Way — Baltic area* ICAS-Mathematics (formerly Australasian Schools Mathematics Assessment)* Mediterranean Mathematics Competition.", "Olympiad for countries in the Mediterranean zone.", "* Nordic Mathematical Contest (NMC) — the five Nordic countries* North East Asian Mathematics Competition (NEAMC) — North-East Asia* Pan African Mathematics Olympiads (PAMO)* South East Asian Mathematics Competition (SEAMC) — South-East Asia* William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition — United States and Canada" ], [ "National mathematics olympiads", "===Australia===* Australian Mathematics Competition===Bangladesh===* Bangladesh Mathematical Olympiad (Jatio Gonit Utshob)===Belgium===* Olympiade Mathématique Belge — competition for French-speaking students in Belgium* Vlaamse Wiskunde Olympiade — competition for Dutch-speaking students in Belgium===Brazil===* Olimpíada Brasileira de Matemática (OBM) — national competition open to all students from sixth grade to university* Olimpíada Brasileira de Matemática das Escolas Públicas (OBMEP) — national competition open to public-school students from fourth grade to high school===Canada===* Canadian Open Mathematics Challenge — Canada's premier national mathematics competition open to any student with an interest in and grasp of high school math and organised by Canadian Mathematical Society* Canadian Mathematical Olympiad — competition whose top performers represent Canada at the International Mathematical Olympiad * The Centre for Education in Mathematics and Computing (CEMC) based out of the University of Waterloo hosts long-standing national competitions for grade levels 7–12* MathChallengers (formerly MathCounts BC) — for eighth, ninth, and tenth grade students===France===* Concours général — competition whose mathematics portion is open to twelfth grade students===Hong Kong===* Hong Kong Mathematics Olympiad* Hong Kong Mathematical High Achievers Selection Contest — for students from Form 1 to Form 3* Pui Ching Invitational Mathematics Competition* Primary Mathematics World Contest* Global Mathematics Elite Competition===Hungary===* Miklós Schweitzer Competition* Középiskolai Matematikai Lapok — correspondence competition for students from 9th–12th grade* National Secondary School Academic Competition – Mathematics===India===*Indian National Mathematical Olympiad===Indonesia===*National Science Olympiad (''Olimpiade Sains Nasional'') — includes mathematics along with various science topics===Kenya===*Moi National Mathematics Contest — prepared and hosted by Mang'u High School but open to students from all Kenyan high schools===Nigeria===* ''Cowbellpedia''.", "This contest is sponsored by Promasidor Nigeria.", "It is open to students from eight to eighteen, at public and private schools in Nigeria.===Russia===* Moscow Mathematical Olympiad () – founded in 1935 making it a precursor of the International Mathematical Olympiad===Saudi Arabia===* KFUPM mathematics olympiad – organized by King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM).===Singapore===* Singapore Mathematical Olympiad (SMO) — organized by the Singapore Mathematical Society, the competition is open to all pre-university students in Singapore.===South Africa===*University of Cape Town Mathematics Competition — open to students in grades 8 through 12 in the Western Cape province.===United States===* SC Mathematic Competition (SCMC) — based California, RSO@USC, United States====National elementary school competitions (K–5) and higher====* Math League (grades 4–12)* Mathematical Olympiads for Elementary and Middle Schools (MOEMS) (grades 4–6 and 7–8)====National middle school competitions (grades 6–8) and lower/higher====* American Mathematics Contest 8 (AMC->8), formerly the American Junior High School Mathematics Examination (AJHSME)* Math League (grades 4–12)* MATHCOUNTS* Mathematical Olympiads for Elementary and Middle Schools (MOEMS)* Rocket City Math League (pre-algebra to calculus)* United States of America Mathematical Talent Search (USAMTS)====National high school competitions (grade 9–12) and lower====* American Invitational Mathematics Examination (AIME)* American Mathematics Contest 10 (AMC10)* American Mathematics Contest 12 (AMC12), formerly the American High School Mathematics Examination (AHSME)* American Regions Mathematics League (ARML)* Harvard-MIT Mathematics Tournament (HMMT)* iTest* High School Mathematical Contest in Modeling (HiMCM)* Math League (grades 4–12)* Math-O-Vision (grades 9–12)* Math Prize for Girls* MathWorks Math Modeling Challenge* Mu Alpha Theta* United States of America Mathematical Olympiad (USAMO)* United States of America Mathematical Talent Search (USAMTS)* Rocket City Math League (pre-algebra to calculus)====National college competitions====* AMATYC Mathematics Contest* Mathematical Contest in Modeling (MCM)* William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition====Regional competitions====* SC Mathematic Competition (SCMC) — based California, RSO@USC, United States" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Michael Polanyi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Michael Polanyi''' ( ; ; 11 March 1891 – 22 February 1976) was a Hungarian-British polymath, who made important theoretical contributions to physical chemistry, economics, and philosophy.", "He argued that positivism is a false account of knowing.His wide-ranging research in physical science included chemical kinetics, x-ray diffraction, and adsorption of gases.", "He pioneered the theory of fibre diffraction analysis in 1921, and the dislocation theory of plastic deformation of ductile metals and other materials in 1934.He emigrated to Germany, in 1926 becoming a chemistry professor at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, and then in 1933 to England, becoming first a chemistry professor, and then a social sciences professor at the University of Manchester.", "Two of his pupils won the Nobel Prize, as well as one of his children.", "In 1944 Polanyi was elected to the Royal Society.The contributions which Polanyi made to the social sciences include the concept of a polycentric spontaneous order and his rejection of a value neutral conception of liberty.", "They were developed in the context of his opposition to central planning." ], [ "Life", "===Early life===Polanyi, born Mihály Pollacsek in Budapest, was the fifth child of Mihály and Cecília Pollacsek (born as Cecília Wohl), secular Jews from Ungvár (then in Hungary but now in Ukraine) and Wilno, then Russian Empire, respectively.", "His father's family were entrepreneurs, while his mother's father, Osher Leyzerovich Vol, was the senior teacher of Jewish history at the Vilna rabbinic seminary.", "The family moved to Budapest and Magyarized their surname to Polányi.", "His father built much of the Hungarian railway system, but lost most of his fortune in 1899 when bad weather caused a railway building project to go over budget.", "He died in 1905.Cecília Polányi established a salon that was well known among Budapest's intellectuals, and which continued until her death in 1939.His older brother was Karl Polanyi, the political economist and anthropologist, and his niece was Eva Zeisel, a world-renowned ceramist.===Education===In 1908 Polanyi graduated the teacher-training secondary school, the Minta Gymnasium.", "He then studied medicine at the University of Budapest, obtaining his medical diploma in 1914.He was an active member of the Galileo Circle.", "With the support of , professor of chemistry at the Royal Joseph University of Budapest, he obtained a scholarship to study chemistry at the Technische Hochschule in Karlsruhe, Germany.", "In the First World War, he served in the Austro-Hungarian army as a medical officer, and was sent to the Serbian front.", "While on sick-leave in 1916, he wrote a PhD thesis on adsorption.", "His research, which was encouraged by Albert Einstein, and supervised by , and in 1919 the Royal University of Pest awarded him a doctorate.===Career===In October 1918, Mihály Károlyi established the Hungarian Democratic Republic, and Polanyi became Secretary to the Minister of Health.", "When the Communists seized power in March 1919, he returned to medicine.", "When the Hungarian Soviet Republic was overthrown, Polanyi emigrated to Karlsruhe in Germany, and was invited by Fritz Haber to join the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut für Faserstoffchemie (fiber chemistry) in Berlin.", "A Christian since 1913, in a Roman Catholic ceremony he married Magda Elizabeth Kemeny.", "In 1926 he became the professorial head of department of the Institut für Physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie (now the Fritz Haber Institute).", "In 1929, Magda gave birth to their son John, who was awarded a Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1986.Their other son, George Polanyi, who predeceased him, became a well-known economist.His experience of runaway inflation and high unemployment in Weimar Germany led Polanyi to become interested in economics.", "With the coming to power in 1933 of the Nazi party, he accepted a chair in physical chemistry at the University of Manchester.", "Two of his pupils, Eugene Wigner and Melvin Calvin, went on to win the Nobel Prize.", "Because of his increasing interest in the social sciences, Manchester University created a new chair in Social Science (1948–58) for him.Polanyi was among the 2,300 names of prominent persons listed on the Nazis' Special Search List, of those who were to be arrested on the invasion of Great Britain and turned over to the Gestapo.In 1944 Polanyi was elected a member of the Royal Society, and on his retirement from the University of Manchester in 1958 he was elected a senior research fellow at Merton College, Oxford.", "In 1962 he was elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences." ], [ "Work", "===Physical chemistry===Polanyi's scientific interests were extremely diverse, including work in chemical kinetics, x-ray diffraction, and the adsorption of gases at solid surfaces.", "He is also well known for his potential adsorption theory, which was disputed for quite some time.", "In 1921, he laid the mathematical foundation of fibre diffraction analysis.", "In 1934, Polanyi, at about the same time as G. I. Taylor and Egon Orowan, realised that the plastic deformation of ductile materials could be explained in terms of the theory of dislocations developed by Vito Volterra in 1905.The insight was critical in developing the field of solid mechanics.===Freedom and community===In 1936, as a consequence of an invitation to give lectures for the Ministry of Heavy Industry in the USSR, Polanyi met Bukharin, who told him that in socialist societies all scientific research is directed to accord with the needs of the latest Five Year Plan.", "Polanyi noted what had happened to the study of genetics in the Soviet Union once the doctrines of Trofim Lysenko had gained the backing of the State.", "Demands in Britain, for example by the Marxist John Desmond Bernal, for centrally planned scientific research led Polanyi to defend the claim that science requires free debate.", "Together with John Baker, he founded the influential Society for Freedom in Science.In a series of articles, re-published in ''The Contempt of Freedom'' (1940) and ''The Logic of Liberty'' (1951), Polanyi claimed that co-operation amongst scientists is analogous to the way agents co-ordinate themselves within a free market.", "Just as consumers in a free market determine the value of products, science is a spontaneous order that arises as a consequence of open debate amongst specialists.", "Science (contrary to the claims of Bukharin) flourishes when scientists have the liberty to pursue truth as an end in itself:He derived the phrase spontaneous order from Gestalt psychology, and it was adopted by the classical liberal economist Friederich Hayek, although the concept can be traced back to at least Adam Smith.", "Polanyi unlike Hayek argued that there are higher and lower forms of spontaneous order, and he asserted that defending scientific inquiry on utilitarian or sceptical grounds undermined the practice of science.", "He extends this into a general claim about free societies.", "Polanyi defends a free society not on the negative grounds that we ought to respect \"private liberties\", but on the positive grounds that \"public liberties\" facilitate our pursuit of spiritual ends.According to Polanyi, a free society that strives to be value-neutral undermines its own justification.", "But it is not enough for the members of a free society to believe that ideals such as truth, justice, and beauty, are not simply subjective, they also have to accept that they transcend our ability to wholly capture them.", "The non-subjectivity of values must be combined with acceptance that all knowing is fallible.In ''Full Employment and Free Trade'' (1948) Polanyi analyses the way money circulates around an economy, and in a monetarist analysis that, according to Paul Craig Roberts, was thirty years ahead of its time, he argues that a free market economy should not be left to be wholly self-adjusting.", "A central bank should attempt to moderate economic booms/busts via a strict/loose monetary policy.In 1940, he produced a film, \"Unemployment and money.", "The principles involved\", perhaps the first film about economics.", "The film defended a version of Keynesianism, neutral Keynesianism, that advised the State to use budget deficit and tax reductions to increase the amount of money in the circulation in times of economic hardship but did not seek direct investment or engage in public works.===All knowing is personal===In his book ''Science, Faith and Society'' (1946), Polanyi set out his opposition to a positivist account of science, noting that among other things it ignores the role personal commitments play in the practice of science.", "Polanyi gave the Gifford Lectures in 1951–52 at Aberdeen, and a revised version of his lectures were later published as ''Personal Knowledge'' (1958).", "In this book Polanyi claims that all knowledge claims (including those that derive from rules) rely on personal judgments.", "He denies that a scientific method can yield truth mechanically.", "All knowing, no matter how formalised, relies upon commitments.", "Polanyi argued that the assumptions that underlie critical philosophy are not only false, they undermine the commitments that motivate our highest achievements.", "He advocates a fiduciary post-critical approach, in which we recognise that we believe more than we can know, and know more than we can say.A knower does not stand apart from the universe, but participates personally within it.", "Our intellectual skills are driven by passionate commitments that motivate discovery and validation.", "According to Polanyi, a great scientist not only identifies patterns, but also significant questions likely to lead to a successful resolution.", "Innovators risk their reputation by committing to a hypothesis.", "Polanyi cites the example of Copernicus, who declared that the Earth revolves around the Sun.", "He claims that Copernicus arrived at the Earth's true relation to the Sun not as a consequence of following a method, but via \"the greater intellectual satisfaction he derived from the celestial panorama as seen from the Sun instead of the Earth.\"", "His writings on the practice of science influenced Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend.Polanyi rejected the claim by British Empiricists that experience can be reduced into sense data, but he also rejects the notion that \"indwelling\" within (sometimes incompatible) interpretative frameworks traps us within them.", "Our tacit awareness connects us, albeit fallibly, with reality.", "It supplies us with the context within which our articulations have meaning.", "Contrary to the views of his colleague and friend Alan Turing, whose work at the Victoria University of Manchester prepared the way for the first modern computer, he denied that minds are reducible to collections of rules.", "His work influenced the critique by Hubert Dreyfus of \"First Generation\" artificial intelligence.It was while writing ''Personal Knowledge'' that he identified the \"structure of tacit knowing\".", "He viewed it as his most important discovery.", "He claimed that we experience the world by integrating our subsidiary awareness into a focal awareness.", "In his later work, for example his Terry Lectures, later published as ''The Tacit Dimension'' (1966), he distinguishes between the phenomenological, instrumental, semantic, and ontological aspects of tacit knowing, as discussed (but not necessarily identified as such) in his previous writing.===Critique of reductionism===In \"Life's irreducible structure\" (1968), Polanyi argues that the information contained in the DNA molecule is not reducible to the laws of physics and chemistry.", "Although a DNA molecule cannot exist without physical properties, these properties are constrained by higher-level ordering principles.", "In \"Transcendence and Self-transcendence\" (1970), Polanyi criticises the mechanistic world view that modern science inherited from Galileo.Polanyi advocates emergence i.e.", "the claim that there are several levels of reality and of causality.", "He relies on the assumption that boundary conditions supply degrees of freedom that, instead of being random, are determined by higher-level realities, whose properties are dependent on but distinct from the lower level from which they emerge.", "An example of a higher-level reality functioning as a downward causal force is consciousness – intentionality – generating meanings – intensionality.Mind is a higher-level expression of the capacity of living organisms for discrimination.", "Our pursuit of self-set ideals such as truth and justice transform our understanding of the world.", "The reductionistic attempt to reduce higher-level realities into lower-level realities generates what Polanyi calls a moral inversion, in which the higher is rejected with moral passion.", "Polanyi identifies it as a pathology of the modern mind and traces its origins to a false conception of knowledge; although it is relatively harmless in the formal sciences, that pathology generates nihilism in the humanities.", "Polanyi considered Marxism an example of moral inversion.", "The State, on the grounds of an appeal to the logic of history, uses its coercive powers in ways that disregard any appeals to morality.=== Tacit knowledge ===Tacit knowledge, as distinct from explicit knowledge, is an influential term developed by Polanyi in ''The Tacit Dimension'' to describe among other things the ability to do something without necessarily being able to articulate it: for example, being able to ride a bicycle or play a musical instrument without being able to fully explain the details of how it happens.", "He claims that not only do practical skills rely upon tacit awareness, all perception and meaning is rendered possible by agents relying upon their tacit awareness.", "Every consciousness has a subsidiary and a focal awareness, and this distinction also has an ontological dimension, because a lower and a higher dimension is how emergence takes place." ], [ "Bibliography", "* 1932.", "* 1935.''U.S.S.R.", "Economics''* 1940.", "* 1944.", "''Patent Reform''* 1945.", "* 1946.. Reprinted by the University of Chicago Press, 1964.", "* 1951.", "* 1958.", "* 1959.", "* 1960.", "* 1966.", "(University of Chicago Press.", ".", "2009 reprint)* 1969.", "* 1975 * 1997.Includes an annotated bibliography of Polanyi's publications." ], [ "See also", "* Credo ut intelligam* Knowledge management* List of Christians in science and technology* Michael Polanyi Center* George Holmes Howison's \"Personal Idealism\"" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Allen, R. T., 1991.''Polanyi''.", "London, Claridge Press.", "* Allen, R. T., 1998.", "''Beyond Liberalism: A Study in the Political Thought of F. A. Hayek and Michael Polanyi'', Rutgers, NJ, Transaction Publishers.", "* Gelwick, Richard, 1987.", "''The Way of Discovery: An Introduction to the Thought of Michael Polanyi''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Grant, Patrick.", "\"Belief in thinking: Owen Barfield and Michael Polanyi\", in ''Six Modern Authors and Problems of Belief''.", "London: MacMillan 1979.", "* Jacobs, Struan, and Allen, R. T.", "(eds.", "), 2005.", "''Emotion, Reason and Tradition: Essays on the Social, Political and Economic Thought of Michael Polanyi'', Guildford, Ashgate.", ".", "* Mitchell, Mark, 2006.", "''Michael Polanyi: The Art of Knowing (Library Modern Thinkers Series)''.", "Wilmington, Delaware: Intercollegiate Studies Institute.", ", .", "* Neidhardt, W. Jim: \"Possible Relationships Between Polanyi's Insights and Modern Findings in Psychology, Brain Research, and Theories of Science.\"", "''JASA'' 31 (March 1979): 61–62.", "* Nye, Mary Jo, 2011.", "''Michael Polanyi and His Generation: Origins of the Social Construction of Science''.", "University of Chicago Press.", ".", "* Poirier, Maben W.", "2002.", "''A Classified and Partially Annotated Bibliography of Michael Polanyi, the Anglo-Hungarian Philosopher of Science''.", "Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press.", ".", "* Scott, Drusilla, 1995.", "''Everyman Revived: The Common Sense of Michael Polanyi''.", "Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.", ".", "* Scott, William Taussig, and Moleski, Martin X., 2005.", "''Michael Polanyi, Scientist and Philosopher''.", "Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Stines, J. W.: \"Time, Chaos Theory and the Thought of Michael Polanyi.\"", "''JASA'' 44 (December 1992): 220–27.", "* Thorson, Walter R.: \"The Biblical Insights of Michael Polanyi.\"", "''JASA'' 33 (September 1981): 129–38.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Biography by Mary Jo Nye* Polanyi Society home page* The Society for Personalist and Postcritical Studies The SPCPS and its journal, \"Appraisal\", takes a special interest in Michael Polanyi.", "Archived on the Wayback Machine on 19 March 2019* Polanyi resources at erraticimpact.com* '' Polanyiana,'' Vol.", "8, Number 1–2* Smith, M. K., 2003, \" Michael Polanyi and tacit knowledge.\"", "The encyclopaedia of informal education* \"Life's Irreducible Structure\" .", "Michael Polanyi.", "''Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation''.", "Volume 22 (December 1970): 123–31.Links to Responses by Stanford Materials Science Professor Richard H. Bube and another member of the ASA Cohn Duricz.", "* * Guide to the Michael Polanyi Papers 1900–1975 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Methanol" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Methanol''' (also called '''methyl alcohol''' and '''wood spirit''', amongst other names) is an organic chemical compound and the simplest aliphatic alcohol, with the chemical formula (a methyl group linked to a hydroxyl group, often abbreviated as '''MeOH''').", "It is a light, volatile, colorless and flammable liquid with a distinctive alcoholic odour similar to that of ethanol (potable alcohol).Methanol acquired the name '''wood alcohol''' because it was once produced chiefly by the destructive distillation of wood.", "Today, methanol is mainly produced industrially by hydrogenation of carbon monoxide.", "Methanol consists of a methyl group linked to a polar hydroxyl group.", "With more than 20 million tons produced annually, it is used as a precursor to other commodity chemicals, including formaldehyde, acetic acid, methyl tert-butyl ether, methyl benzoate, anisole, peroxyacids, as well as a host of more specialised chemicals." ], [ "Occurrence", "Small amounts of methanol are present in normal, healthy human individuals.", "One study found a mean of 4.5 ppm in the exhaled breath of test subjects.", "The mean endogenous methanol in humans of 0.45 g/d may be metabolized from pectin found in fruit; one kilogram of apple produces up to 1.4 g of pectin (0.6 g of methanol.", ")Methanol is produced by anaerobic bacteria and phytoplankton.===Interstellar medium===Methanol is also found in abundant quantities in star-forming regions of space and is used in astronomy as a marker for such regions.", "It is detected through its spectral emission lines.In 2006, astronomers using the MERLIN array of radio telescopes at Jodrell Bank Observatory discovered a large cloud of methanol in space across.", "In 2016, astronomers detected methanol in a planet-forming disc around the young star TW Hydrae using the Atacama Large Millimeter Array radio telescope.==History==In their embalming process, the ancient Egyptians used a mixture of substances, including methanol, which they obtained from the pyrolysis of wood.", "Pure methanol, however, was first isolated in 1661 by Robert Boyle, when he produced it via the distillation of buxus (boxwood).", "It later became known as \"pyroxylic spirit\".", "In 1834, the French chemists Jean-Baptiste Dumas and Eugene Peligot determined its elemental composition.They also introduced the word \"methylène\" to organic chemistry, forming it from Greek ''methy'' = \"alcoholic liquid\" + ''hȳlē'' = \"forest, wood, timber, material\".", "\"Methylène\" designated a \"radical\" that was about 14% hydrogen by weight and contained one carbon atom.", "This would be , but at the time carbon was thought to have an atomic weight only six times that of hydrogen, so they gave the formula as CH.", "They then called wood alcohol (l'esprit de bois) \"bihydrate de méthylène\" (bihydrate because they thought the formula was or ).", "The term \"methyl\" was derived in about 1840 by back-formation from \"methylene\", and was then applied to describe \"methyl alcohol\".", "This was shortened to \"methanol\" in 1892 by the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature.", "The suffix -yl, which, in organic chemistry, forms names of carbon groups, is from the word ''methyl''.French chemist Paul Sabatier presented the first process that could be used to produce methanol synthetically in 1905.This process suggested that carbon dioxide and hydrogen could be reacted to produce methanol.", "German chemists Alwin Mittasch and Mathias Pier, working for Badische-Anilin & Soda-Fabrik (BASF), developed a means to convert synthesis gas (a mixture of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen) into methanol and received a patent.", "According to Bozzano and Manenti, BASF's process was first utilized in Leuna, Germany in 1923.Operating conditions consisted of \"high\" temperatures (between 300 and 400 °C) and pressures (between 250 and 350 atm) with a zinc/chromium oxide catalyst.US patent 1,569,775 () was applied for on 4 Sep 1924 and issued on 12 January 1926 to BASF; the process used a chromium and manganese oxide catalyst with extremely vigorous conditions: pressures ranging from 50 to 220 atm, and temperatures up to 450 °C.", "Modern methanol production has been made more efficient through use of catalysts (commonly copper) capable of operating at lower pressures.", "The modern low pressure methanol (LPM) process was developed by ICI in the late 1960s with the technology patent long since expired.During World War II, methanol was used as a fuel in several German military rocket designs, under the name M-Stoff, and in a roughly 50/50 mixture with hydrazine, known as C-Stoff.The use of methanol as a motor fuel received attention during the oil crises of the 1970s.", "By the mid-1990s, over 20,000 methanol \"flexible fuel vehicles\" (FFV) capable of operating on methanol or gasoline were introduced in the U.S.", "In addition, low levels of methanol were blended in gasoline fuels sold in Europe during much of the 1980s and early-1990s.", "Automakers stopped building methanol FFVs by the late-1990s, switching their attention to ethanol-fueled vehicles.", "While the methanol FFV program was a technical success, rising methanol pricing in the mid- to late-1990s during a period of slumping gasoline pump prices diminished interest in methanol fuels.In the early 1970s, a process was developed by Mobil for producing gasoline fuel from methanol.Between the 1960s and 1980s methanol emerged as a precursor to the feedstock chemicals acetic acid and acetic anhydride.", "These processes include the Monsanto acetic acid synthesis, Cativa process, and Tennessee Eastman acetic anhydride process." ], [ "Applications", "===Production of formaldehyde, acetic acid, methyl ''tert''-butyl ether===Methanol is primarily converted to formaldehyde, which is widely used in many areas, especially polymers.", "The conversion entails oxidation::Acetic acid can be produced from methanol.The Cativa process converts methanol into acetic acid.Methanol and isobutene are combined to give methyl ''tert''-butyl ether (MTBE).", "MTBE is a major octane booster in gasoline.===Methanol to hydrocarbons, olefins, gasoline===Condensation of methanol to produce hydrocarbons and even aromatic systems is the basis of several technologies related to gas to liquids.", "These include methanol-to-hydrocarbons (MtH), methanol to gasoline (MtG), methanol to olefins (MtO), and methanol to propylene (MtP).", "These conversions are catalyzed by zeolites as heterogeneous catalysts.", "The MtG process was once commercialized at Motunui in New Zealand.===Gasoline additive===The European Fuel Quality Directive allows fuel producers to blend up to 3% methanol, with an equal amount of cosolvent, with gasoline sold in Europe.", "China uses more than 4.5 billion liters of methanol per year as a transportation fuel in low level blends for conventional vehicles, and high level blends in vehicles designed for methanol fuels.===Other chemicals===Methanol is the precursor to most simple methylamines, methyl halides, and methyl ethers.", "Methyl esters are produced from methanol, including the transesterification of fats and production of biodiesel via transesterification.===Niche and potential uses=======Energy carrier====Methanol is a promising energy carrier because, as a liquid, it is easier to store than hydrogen and natural gas.", "Its energy density is, however, lower than methane, per kg.", "Its combustion energy density is 15.6 MJ/L (LHV), whereas that of ethanol is 24 and gasoline is 33 MJ/L.Further advantages for methanol is its ready biodegradability and low environmental toxicity.", "It does not persist in either aerobic (oxygen-present) or anaerobic (oxygen-absent) environments.", "The half-life for methanol in groundwater is just one to seven days, while many common gasoline components have half-lives in the hundreds of days (such as benzene at 10–730 days).", "Since methanol is miscible with water and biodegradable, it is unlikely to accumulate in groundwater, surface water, air or soil.====Fuel====Methanol is occasionally used to fuel internal combustion engines.", "It burns forming carbon dioxide and water::Methanol fuel has been proposed for ground transportation.", "The chief advantage of a methanol economy is that it could be adapted to gasoline internal combustion engines with minimum modification to the engines and to the infrastructure that delivers and stores liquid fuel.", "Its energy density, however, is less than gasoline, meaning more frequent fill ups would be required.", "However, it is equivalent to super high-octane gasoline in horsepower, and most modern computer-controlled fuel injection systems can already use it.Methanol is an alternative fuel for ships that helps the shipping industry meet increasingly strict emissions regulations.", "It significantly reduces emissions of sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter.", "Methanol can be used with high efficiency in marine diesel engines after minor modifications using a small amount of pilot fuel (dual fuel).In China, methanol fuels industrial boilers, which are used extensively to generate heat and steam for various industrial applications and residential heating.", "Its use is displacing coal, which is under pressure from increasingly stringent environmental regulations.Direct-methanol fuel cells are unique in their low temperature, atmospheric pressure operation, which lets them be greatly miniaturized.", "This, combined with the relatively easy and safe storage and handling of methanol, may open the possibility of fuel cell-powered consumer electronics, such as laptop computers and mobile phones.Methanol is also a widely used fuel in camping and boating stoves.", "Methanol burns well in an unpressurized burner, so alcohol stoves are often very simple, sometimes little more than a cup to hold fuel.", "This lack of complexity makes them a favorite of hikers who spend extended time in the wilderness.", "Similarly, the alcohol can be gelled to reduce risk of leaking or spilling, as with the brand \"Sterno\".Methanol is mixed with water and injected into high performance diesel and gasoline engines for an increase of power and a decrease in intake air temperature in a process known as water methanol injection.====Other applications====Methanol is used as a denaturant for ethanol, the product being known as \"denatured alcohol\" or \"methylated spirit\".", "This was commonly used during the U.S. prohibition to discourage consumption of bootlegged liquor, and ended up causing several deaths.Methanol is used as a solvent and as an antifreeze in pipelines and windshield washer fluid.", "Methanol was used as an automobile coolant antifreeze in the early 1900s.", "As of May 2018, methanol was banned in the EU for use in windscreen washing or defrosting due to its risk of human consumption as a result of 2012 Czech Republic methanol poisonings.In some wastewater treatment plants, a small amount of methanol is added to wastewater to provide a carbon food source for the denitrifying bacteria, which convert nitrates to nitrogen gas and reduce the nitrification of sensitive aquifers.Methanol is used as a destaining agent in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis." ], [ "Production", "===From synthesis gas===Carbon monoxide and hydrogen react over a catalyst to produce methanol.", "Today, the most widely used catalyst is a mixture of copper and zinc oxides, supported on alumina, as first used by ICI in 1966.At 5–10 MPa (50–100 atm) and , the reaction:is characterized by high selectivity (>99.8%).", "The production of synthesis gas from methane produces three moles of hydrogen for every mole of carbon monoxide, whereas the synthesis consumes only two moles of hydrogen gas per mole of carbon monoxide.", "One way of dealing with the excess hydrogen is to inject carbon dioxide into the methanol synthesis reactor, where it, too, reacts to form methanol according to the equation:In terms of mechanism, the process occurs via initial conversion of CO into , which is then hydrogenated::where the byproduct is recycled via the water-gas shift reaction:This gives an overall reaction:which is the same as listed above.", "In a process closely related to methanol production from synthesis gas, a feed of hydrogen and can be used directly.", "The main advantage of this process is that captured and hydrogen sourced from electrolysis could be used, removing the dependence on fossil fuels.===Biosynthesis===The catalytic conversion of methane to methanol is effected by enzymes including methane monooxygenases.", "These enzymes are mixed-function oxygenases, i.e.", "oxygenation is coupled with production of water and ::Both Fe- and Cu-dependent enzymes have been characterized.", "Intense but largely fruitless efforts have been undertaken to emulate this reactivity.", "Methanol is more easily oxidized than is the feedstock methane, so the reactions tend not to be selective.", "Some strategies exist to circumvent this problem.", "Examples include Shilov systems and Fe- and Cu-containing zeolites.", "These systems do not necessarily mimic the mechanisms employed by metalloenzymes, but draw some inspiration from them.", "Active sites can vary substantially from those known in the enzymes.", "For example, a dinuclear active site is proposed in the sMMO enzyme, whereas a mononuclear iron (alpha-oxygen) is proposed in the Fe-zeolite.Global emissions of methanol by plants are estimated at between 180 and 250 million tons per year.", "This is between two and three times larger than man-made industrial production of methanol." ], [ "Green methanol", "As of 2023, 0.2% of global methanol production is produced in ways that have relatively low greenhouse gas emissions; this is known as \"green\" methanol.", "Most green methanol is produced from gasification of biomass.", "Syngas is produced from biomass gasification and further converted into green methanol.Another method of producing green methanol involves combining hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and a catalyst under high heat and pressure.", "To be classified as green methanol, the hydrogen must be green hydrogen, which is produced using renewable electricity.", "Additionally, the carbon dioxide in this process must be a product of carbon capture and storage or direct air capture or biomass of recent origin.", "Some definitions of green methanol specify that the carbon dioxide must be captured during the burning of bioenergy." ], [ "Quality specifications and analysis", "Methanol is available commercially in various purity grades.", "Commercial methanol is generally classified according to ASTM purity grades A and AA.", "Both grade A and grade AA purity are 99.85% methanol by weight.", "Grade \"AA\" methanol contains trace amounts of ethanol as well.Methanol for chemical use normally corresponds to Grade AA.", "In addition to water, typical impurities include acetone and ethanol (which are very difficult to separate by distillation).", "UV-vis spectroscopy is a convenient method for detecting aromatic impurities.", "Water content can be determined by the Karl-Fischer titration." ], [ "Safety", "Methanol is highly flammable.", "Its vapours are slightly heavier than air and can travel to a distant ignition source and ignite.", "Methanol fires should be extinguished with dry chemical, carbon dioxide, water spray or alcohol-resistant foam.", "Methanol flames are invisible in daylight.", "===Toxicity===Ingesting as little as of pure methanol can cause permanent blindness by destruction of the optic nerve.", "is potentially fatal.", "The median lethal dose is , ''i.e.", "'', 1–2 mL/kg body weight of pure methanol.", "The reference dose for methanol is 0.5 mg/kg in a day.", "Toxic effects begin hours after ingestion, and antidotes can often prevent permanent damage.", "Because of its similarities in both appearance and odor to ethanol (the alcohol in beverages), it is difficult to differentiate between the two; such is also the case with denatured alcohol, adulterated liquors or very low quality alcoholic beverages.Methanol is toxic by two mechanisms.", "First, methanol can be fatal due to effects on the central nervous system, acting as a central nervous system depressant in the same manner as ethanol poisoning.", "Second, in a process of toxication, it is metabolised to formic acid (which is present as the formate ion) via formaldehyde in a process initiated by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase in the liver.", "Methanol is converted to formaldehyde via alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and formaldehyde is converted to formic acid (formate) via aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH).", "The conversion to formate via ALDH proceeds completely, with no detectable formaldehyde remaining.", "Formate is toxic because it inhibits mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase, causing hypoxia at the cellular level, and metabolic acidosis, among a variety of other metabolic disturbances.Outbreaks of methanol poisoning have occurred primarily due to contamination of drinking alcohol.", "This is more common in the developing world.", "In 2013 more than 1700 cases nonetheless occurred in the United States.", "Those affected are often adult men.", "Outcomes may be good with early treatment.", "Toxicity to methanol was described as early as 1856.Because of its toxic properties, methanol is frequently used as a denaturant additive for ethanol manufactured for industrial uses.", "This addition of methanol exempts industrial ethanol (commonly known as \"denatured alcohol\" or \"methylated spirit\") from liquor excise taxation in the U.S. and other countries." ], [ "See also", "*Aminomethanol*Methanol (data page)*Trimethyl carbinol" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Robert Boyle, ''The Sceptical Chymist'' (1661) – contains account of distillation of wood alcohol." ], [ "External links", "* * Methyl Alcohol (Methanol) CDC/NIOSH, links to safety information* CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Methyl Alcohol* Methanol Fact Sheet – National Pollutant Inventory" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Milk" ], [ "Introduction", "A glass of cow milkrotary milking parlor'''Milk''' is a white liquid food produced by the mammary glands of mammals.", "It is the primary source of nutrition for young mammals (including breastfed human infants) before they are able to digest solid food.", "Immune factors and immune-modulating components in milk contribute to milk immunity.", "Early-lactation milk, which is called colostrum, contains antibodies that strengthen the immune system and thus reduce the risk of many diseases.", "Milk contains many nutrients, including protein and lactose.As an agricultural product, dairy milk is collected from farm animals.", "In 2011, dairy farms produced around of milk from 260 million dairy cows.", "India is the world's largest producer of milk and the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, but it exports few other milk products.", "Because there is an ever-increasing demand for dairy products in India, it could eventually become a net importer of dairy products.", "New Zealand, Germany, and the Netherlands are the largest exporters of milk products.", "The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that children over the age of 12 months should have two servings of dairy milk products a day.More than six billion people worldwide consume milk and milk products, and between 750 and 900 million people live in dairy-farming households." ], [ "Etymology and terminology", "The term ''milk'' comes from \"Old English ''meoluc'' (West Saxon), ''milc'' (Anglian), from Proto-Germanic *''meluks'' \"milk\" (source also of Old Norse ''mjolk'', Old Frisian ''melok'', Old Saxon ''miluk'', Dutch ''melk'', Old High German ''miluh'', German ''Milch'', Gothic ''miluks'')\".Since 1961, the term ''milk'' has been defined under Codex Alimentarius standards as \"the normal mammary secretion of milking animals obtained from one or more milkings without either addition to it or extraction from it, intended for consumption as liquid milk or for further processing.\"", "The term ''dairy'' refers to animal milk and animal milk production." ], [ "Types of consumption", "There are two distinct categories of milk consumption: all infant mammals drink milk directly from their mothers' bodies, and it is their primary source of nutrition; and humans obtain milk from other mammals for consumption by humans of all ages, as one component of a varied diet.===Nutrition for infant mammals===Breastfeeding to provide a mother's milkA goat kid feeding on its mother's milkIn almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, either directly or by expressing the milk to be stored and consumed later.", "The early milk from mammals is called colostrum.", "Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the newborn baby as well as nutrients and growth factors.", "The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species.For humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for up to two years of age or more.", "In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer.Fresh goats' milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk, which introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, and a host of allergic reactions.===Food product for humans===Holstein Friesian cow is the dominant breed in industrialized dairy farms today.A bowl of milk for the shaman rite; Buryatia, RussiaWorld production of cow milkIn many cultures, especially in the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other mammals (especially cattle, goats and sheep) as a food product.", "Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, an enzyme necessary for digesting the lactose in milk.", "People therefore converted milk to curd, cheese, and other products to reduce the levels of lactose.", "Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in northwestern Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood.", "This mutation allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed.", "Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream, and cheese.", "Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, and many other food-additives and industrial products.Whole milk, butter, and cream have high levels of saturated fat.", "The sugar lactose is found only in milk, and possibly in forsythia flowers and a few tropical shrubs.", "Lactase, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, reaches its highest levels in the human small intestine immediately after birth, and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly.", "Those groups who continue to tolerate milk have often exercised great creativity in using the milk of domesticated ungulates, not only cattle, but also sheep, goats, yaks, water buffalo, horses, reindeer and camels.", "India is the largest producer and consumer of cattle milk and buffalo milk in the world.+Per capita consumption of milk and milk products in selected countries in 2011 Country Milk (liters) Cheese (kg) Butter (kg) 135.6 6.7 2.4 127.0 22.5 4.1 105.9 10.9 3.0 105.3 11.7 4.0 90.1 19.1 1.7 78.4 12.3 2.5 75.8 15.1 2.8 62.8 17.1 3.6 55.7 3.6 0.4 55.5 26.3 7.5 54.2 21.8 2.3 51.8 22.9 5.9 49.1 23.4 0.7 47.5 19.4 3.3 39.5 – 3.5 9.1 – 0.1" ], [ "History", "Drinking milk in Germany in 1932Humans first learned to consume the milk of other mammals regularly following the domestication of animals during the Neolithic Revolution or the development of agriculture.", "This development occurred independently in several global locations from as early as 9000–7000BC in Mesopotamia to 3500–3000BC in the Americas.", "People first domesticated the most important dairy animals – cattle, sheep and goats – in Southwest Asia, although domestic cattle had been independently derived from wild aurochs populations several times since.", "Initially animals were kept for meat, and archaeologist Andrew Sherratt has suggested that dairying, along with the exploitation of domestic animals for hair and labor, began much later in a separate secondary products revolution in the fourth millennium BC.", "Sherratt's model is not supported by recent findings, based on the analysis of lipid residue in prehistoric pottery, that shows that dairying was practiced in the early phases of agriculture in Southwest Asia, by at least the seventh millennium BC.From Southwest Asia domestic dairy animals spread to Europe (beginning around 7000 BC but did not reach Britain and Scandinavia until after 4000 BC), and South Asia (7000–5500 BC).", "The first farmers in central Europe and Britain milked their animals.", "Pastoral and pastoral nomadic economies, which rely predominantly or exclusively on domestic animals and their products rather than crop farming, were developed as European farmers moved into the Pontic–Caspian steppe in the fourth millennium BC, and subsequently spread across much of the Eurasian steppe.", "Sheep and goats were introduced to Africa from Southwest Asia, but African cattle may have been independently domesticated around 7000–6000BC.", "Camels, domesticated in central Arabia in the fourth millennium BC, have also been used as dairy animals in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.", "The earliest Egyptian records of burn treatments describe burn dressings using milk from mothers of male babies.", "In the rest of the world (i.e., East and Southeast Asia, the Americas and Australia), milk and dairy products were historically not a large part of the diet, either because they remained populated by hunter-gatherers who did not keep animals or the local agricultural economies did not include domesticated dairy species.", "Milk consumption became common in these regions comparatively recently, as a consequence of European colonialism and political domination over much of the world in the last 500 years.In the Middle Ages, milk was called the \"virtuous white liquor\" because alcoholic beverages were safer to consume than the water generally available.", "Incorrectly thought to be blood diverted from the womb to the breast, it was also known as \"white blood\", and treated like blood for religious dietary purposes and in humoral theory.James Rosier's record of the 1605 voyage made by George Weymouth to New England reported that the Wabanaki people Weymouth captured in Maine milked \"Rain-Deere and Fallo-Deere.\"", "But Journalist Avery Yale Kamila and food historians said Rosier \"misinterpreted the evidence.\"", "Historians report the Wabanaki did not domesticate deer.", "The tribes of the northern woodlands have historically been making nut milk.", "Cows were imported to New England in 1624.===Industrialization===Preserved Express Dairies three-axle milk tank wagon at the Didcot Railway Centre, based on an SR chassisThe growth in urban population, coupled with the expansion of the railway network in the mid-19th century, brought about a revolution in milk production and supply.", "Individual railway firms began transporting milk from rural areas to London from the 1840s and 1850s.", "Possibly the first such instance was in 1846, when St Thomas's Hospital in Southwark contracted with milk suppliers outside London to ship milk by rail.", "The Great Western Railway was an early and enthusiastic adopter, and began to transport milk into London from Maidenhead in 1860, despite much criticism.", "By 1900, the company was transporting over annually.", "The milk trade grew slowly through the 1860s, but went through a period of extensive, structural change in the 1870s and 1880s.Milk transportation in Salem, Tamil NaduUrban demand began to grow, as consumer purchasing power increased and milk became regarded as a required daily commodity.", "Over the last three decades of the 19th century, demand for milk in most parts of the country doubled or, in some cases, tripled.", "Legislation in 1875 made the adulteration of milk illegal– This combined with a marketing campaign to change the image of milk.", "The proportion of rural imports by rail as a percentage of total milk consumption in London grew from under 5% in the 1860s to over 96% by the early 20th century.", "By that point, the supply system for milk was the most highly organized and integrated of any food product.", "Milk was analyzed for infection with tuberculosis.", "In 1907 180 samples were tested in Birmingham and 13.3% were found to be infected.The first glass bottle packaging for milk was used in the 1870s.", "The first company to do so may have been the New York Dairy Company in 1877.The Express Dairy Company in England began glass bottle production in 1880.In 1884, Hervey Thatcher, an American inventor from New York, invented a glass milk bottle, called \"Thatcher's Common Sense Milk Jar,\" which was sealed with a waxed paper disk.", "In 1932, plastic-coated paper milk cartons were introduced commercially.In 1863, French chemist and biologist Louis Pasteur invented pasteurization, a method of killing harmful bacteria in beverages and food products.", "He developed this method while on summer vacation in Arbois, to remedy the frequent acidity of the local wines.", "He found out experimentally that it is sufficient to heat a young wine to only about for a brief time to kill the microbes, and that the wine could be nevertheless properly aged without sacrificing the final quality.", "In honor of Pasteur, the process became known as \"pasteurization\".", "Pasteurization was originally used as a way of preventing wine and beer from souring.", "Commercial pasteurizing equipment was produced in Germany in the 1880s, and producers adopted the process in Copenhagen and Stockholm by 1885." ], [ "Sources", "Modern dairy farm in NorwayThe females of all mammal species can, by definition, produce milk, but cow's milk dominates commercial production.", "In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows.", "Human milk is not produced or distributed industrially or commercially; however, human milk banks collect donated human breastmilk and redistribute it to infants who may benefit from human milk for various reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic diseases, etc.)", "but who cannot breastfeed.", "Actual inability to produce enough milk is rare, with studies showing that mothers from malnourished regions still produce amounts of milk of similar quality to that of mothers in developed countries.", "There are many reasons a mother may not produce enough breast milk.", "The amount of milk produced depends on how often the mother is nursing and/or pumping: the more the mother nurses her baby or pumps, the more milk is produced.In the Western world, cow's milk is produced on an industrial scale and is, by far, the most commonly consumed form of milk.", "Commercial dairy farming using automated milking equipment produces the vast majority of milk in developed countries.", "Dairy cattle, such as the Holstein, have been bred selectively for increased milk production.", "About 90% of the dairy cows in the United States and 85% in Great Britain are Holsteins.", "Other dairy cows in the United States include Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Jersey and Milking Shorthorn (Dairy Shorthorn).===Other animal-based sources===Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products.", "These animals include water buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak.", "The first four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011.In Russia and Sweden, small moose dairies also exist.According to the US National Bison Association, American bison (also called American buffalo) are not milked commercially; however, various sources report cows resulting from cross-breeding bison and domestic cattle are good milk producers, and have been used both during the European settlement of North America and during the development of commercial Beefalo in the 1970s and 1980s.Swine are almost never milked, even though their milk is similar to cow's milk and perfectly suitable for human consumption.", "The main reasons for this are that milking a sow's numerous small teats is very cumbersome, and that sows cannot store their milk as cows can.", "A few pig farms do sell pig cheese as a novelty item; these cheeses are exceedingly expensive." ], [ "Production worldwide", "+ Largest milk producers in the worldin 2018 Rank Country Production(metric tons) 1 – '''' '''' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 '''World''' ''''''+ Top ten cow milk producersin 2020 Rank Country Production(metric tons) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + Top ten sheep milk producersin 2020 Rank Country Production(metric tons) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + Top ten goat milk producersin 2020 Rank Country Production(metric tons) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 + Top ten buffalo milk producersin 2020 Rank Country Production(metric tons) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 In 2012, the largest producer of milk and milk products was India, followed by the United States of America, China, Pakistan and Brazil.", "All 28 European Union members together produced of milk in 2013, the largest by any politico-economic union.Increasing affluence in developing countries, as well as increased promotion of milk and milk products, has led to a rise in milk consumption in developing countries in recent years.", "In turn, the opportunities presented by these growing markets have attracted investments by multinational dairy firms.", "Nevertheless, in many countries production remains on a small scale and presents significant opportunities for diversification of income sources by small farms.", "Local milk collection centers, where milk is collected and chilled prior to being transferred to urban dairies, are a good example of where farmers have been able to work on a cooperative basis, particularly in countries such as India.===Production yields===FAO reports Israel dairy farms are the most productive in the world, with a yield of milk per cow per year.", "This survey over 2001 and 2007 was conducted by ICAR (International Committee for Animal Recording) across 17 developed countries.", "The survey found that the average herd size in these developed countries increased from 74 to 99 cows per herd between 2001 and 2007.A dairy farm had an average of 19 cows per herd in Norway, and 337 in New Zealand.", "Annual milk production in the same period increased from per cow in these developed countries.", "The lowest average production was in New Zealand at per cow.", "The milk yield per cow depended on production systems, nutrition of the cows, and only to a minor extent different genetic potential of the animals.", "What the cow ate made the most impact on the production obtained.", "New Zealand cows with the lowest yield per year grazed all year, in contrast to Israel with the highest yield where the cows ate in barns with an energy-rich mixed diet.The milk yield per cow in the United States was per year in 2010.In contrast, the milk yields per cow in India and China– the second and third largest producers– were respectively and per year.Sheep and cow milk have the third and fourth highest emissions intensity of any agricultural commodity.The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report mentions the possibility that the already recorded stagnation of dairy production in both China and West Africa can be attributed to persistent increases in heat stress caused by climate change.", "This is a plausible hypothesis, because even ''mild'' heat stress can reduce daily yields: research in Sweden found that average daily temperatures of reduce daily milk yield per cow by 0.2 kg, with the loss reaching 0.54 kg for .", "Research in a humid tropical climate describes a more linear relationship, with every unit of heat stress reducing yield by 2.13%.", "In the intensive farming systems, daily milk yield per cow declines by 1.8 kg during severe heat stress.", "In organic farming systems, the effect of heat stress on milk yields is limited, but milk ''quality'' suffers substantially, with lower fat and protein content.", "In China, daily milk production per cow is already lower than the average by between 0.7 and 4 kg in July (the hottest month of the year), and by 2070, it may decline by up to 50% (or 7.2 kg) due to climate change.", "Heatwaves can also reduce milk yield, with particularly acute impacts if the heatwave lasts for four or more days, as at that point the cow's thermoregulation capacity is usually exhausted, and its core body temperature starts to increase.", "===Price===Milk price per gallon of whole milkCorn vs ethanol production in the United StatesIt was reported in 2007 that with increased worldwide prosperity and the competition of bio-fuel production for feed stocks, both the demand for and the price of milk had substantially increased worldwide.", "Particularly notable was the rapid increase of consumption of milk in China and the rise of the price of milk in the United States above the government subsidized price.", "In 2010 the Department of Agriculture predicted farmers would receive an average of of cow's milk, which is down from 2007 and below the break-even point for many cattle farmers." ], [ "{{Anchor|Physical and chemical properties}}Composition", "Butterfat is a triglyceride (fat) formed from fatty acids such as myristic, palmitic, and oleic acids.Milk is an emulsion or colloid of butterfat globules within a water-based fluid that contains dissolved carbohydrates and protein aggregates with minerals.", "Because it is produced as a food source for the young, all of its contents provide benefits for growth.", "The principal requirements are energy (lipids, lactose, and protein), biosynthesis of non-essential amino acids supplied by proteins (essential amino acids and amino groups), essential fatty acids, vitamins and inorganic elements, and water.===pH===The pH of cow's milk, ranging from 6.7 to 6.9, is similar to other bovines and non-bovine mammals.===Lipids===Initially milk fat is secreted in the form of a fat globule surrounded by a membrane.", "Each fat globule is composed almost entirely of triacylglycerols and is surrounded by a membrane consisting of complex lipids such as phospholipids, along with proteins.", "These act as emulsifiers which keep the individual globules from coalescing and protect the contents of these globules from various enzymes in the fluid portion of the milk.", "Although 97–98% of lipids are triacylglycerols, small amounts of di- and monoacylglycerols, free cholesterol and cholesterol esters, free fatty acids, and phospholipids are also present.", "Unlike protein and carbohydrates, fat composition in milk varies widely due to genetic, lactational, and nutritional factor difference between different species.Fat globules vary in size from less than 0.2 to about 15 micrometers in diameter between different species.", "Diameter may also vary between animals within a species and at different times within a milking of a single animal.", "In unhomogenized cow's milk, the fat globules have an average diameter of two to four micrometers and with homogenization, average around 0.4 micrometers.", "The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K along with essential fatty acids such as linoleic and linolenic acid are found within the milk fat portion of the milk.+Main milk fatty acids, length, share of total Fatty acid length mol% (rounded) Butyryl C4 12 Myristyl C14 11 Palmityl C16 24 Oleyl C18:1 24 ===Proteins===Normal bovine milk contains 30–35 grams of protein per liter, of which about 80% is arranged in casein micelles.", "Total proteins in milk represent 3.2% of its composition (nutrition table).====Caseins====The largest structures in the fluid portion of the milk are \"casein micelles\": aggregates of several thousand protein molecules with superficial resemblance to a surfactant micelle, bonded with the help of nanometer-scale particles of calcium phosphate.", "Each casein micelle is roughly spherical and about a tenth of a micrometer across.", "There are four different types of casein proteins: αs1-, αs2-, β-, and κ-caseins.", "Most of the casein proteins are bound into the micelles.", "There are several competing theories regarding the precise structure of the micelles, but they share one important feature: the outermost layer consists of strands of one type of protein, k-casein, reaching out from the body of the micelle into the surrounding fluid.", "These kappa-casein molecules all have a negative electrical charge and therefore repel each other, keeping the micelles separated under normal conditions and in a stable colloidal suspension in the water-based surrounding fluid.Milk contains dozens of other types of proteins beside caseins and including enzymes.", "These other proteins are more water-soluble than caseins and do not form larger structures.", "Because the proteins remain suspended in whey, remaining when caseins coagulate into curds, they are collectively known as ''whey proteins''.", "Lactoglobulin is the most common whey protein by a large margin.", "The ratio of caseins to whey proteins varies greatly between species; for example, it is 82:18 in cows and around 32:68 in humans.+Ratio of caseins to whey proteins in milk of nine mammals Species Ratio Human 29.7:70.3 – 33.7:66.3 Bovine 82:18 Caprine 78:22 Ovine 76:24 Buffalo 82:18 Equine 52:48 Camel 73:27 – 76:24 Yak 82:18 Reindeer 80:20 – 83:17===Salts, minerals, and vitamins===Bovine milk contains a variety of cations and anions traditionally referred to as \"minerals\" or \"milk salts\".", "Calcium, phosphate, magnesium, sodium, potassium, citrate, and chloride are all included and they typically occur at concentrations of 5–40mM.", "The milk salts strongly interact with casein, most notably calcium phosphate.", "It is present in excess and often, much greater excess of solubility of solid calcium phosphate.", "In addition to calcium, milk is a good source of many other vitamins.", "Vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, K, E, thiamine, niacin, biotin, riboflavin, folates, and pantothenic acid are all present in milk.====Calcium phosphate structure====For many years the most widely accepted theory of the structure of a micelle was that it was composed of spherical casein aggregates, called submicelles, that were held together by calcium phosphate linkages.", "However, there are two recent models of the casein micelle that refute the distinct micellular structures within the micelle.The first theory, attributed to de Kruif and Holt, proposes that nanoclusters of calcium phosphate and the phosphopeptide fraction of beta-casein are the centerpiece to micellar structure.", "Specifically in this view unstructured proteins organize around the calcium phosphate, giving rise to their structure, and thus no specific structure is formed.Under the second theory, proposed by Horne, the growth of calcium phosphate nanoclusters begins the process of micelle formation, but is limited by binding phosphopeptide loop regions of the caseins.", "Once bound, protein-protein interactions are formed and polymerization occurs, in which K-casein is used as an end cap to form micelles with trapped calcium phosphate nanoclusters.Some sources indicate that the trapped calcium phosphate is in the form of Ca9(PO4)6;whereas others say it is similar to the structure of the mineral brushite, CaHPO4·2H2O.===Sugars and carbohydrates===A simplified representation of a lactose molecule being broken down into glucose (2) and galactose (1)Milk contains several different carbohydrates, including lactose, glucose, galactose, and other oligosaccharides.", "The lactose gives milk its sweet taste and contributes approximately 40% of the calories in whole cow's milk's.", "Lactose is a disaccharide composite of two simple sugars, glucose and galactose.", "Bovine milk averages 4.8% anhydrous lactose, which amounts to about 50% of the total solids of skimmed milk.", "Levels of lactose are dependent upon the type of milk as other carbohydrates can be present at higher concentrations than lactose in milks.===Miscellaneous contents===Other components found in raw cow's milk are living white blood cells, mammary gland cells, various bacteria, vitamin C, and a large number of active enzymes.===Appearance===Both the fat globules and the smaller casein micelles, which are just large enough to deflect light, contribute to the opaque white color of milk.", "The fat globules contain some yellow-orange carotene, enough in some breeds (such as Guernsey and Jersey cattle) to impart a golden or \"creamy\" hue to a glass of milk.", "The riboflavin in the whey portion of milk has a greenish color, which sometimes can be discerned in skimmed milk or whey products.", "Fat-free skimmed milk has only the casein micelles to scatter light, and they tend to scatter shorter-wavelength blue light more than they do red, giving skimmed milk a bluish tint." ], [ "Processing", "Milk products and productions relationships (click to enlarge)In most Western countries, centralized dairy facilities process milk and products obtained from milk, such as cream, butter, and cheese.", "In the US, these dairies usually are local companies, while in the Southern Hemisphere facilities may be run by large multi-national corporations such as Fonterra.===Pasteurization===Pasteurization is used to kill harmful pathogenic bacteria such as ''M.", "paratuberculosis'' and ''E.", "coli 0157:H7'' by heating the milk for a short time and then immediately cooling it.", "Types of pasteurized milk include full cream, reduced fat, skim milk, calcium enriched, flavored, and UHT.", "The standard high temperature short time (HTST) process of for 15 seconds completely kills pathogenic bacteria in milk, rendering it safe to drink for up to three weeks if continually refrigerated.", "Dairies print best before dates on each container, after which stores remove any unsold milk from their shelves.A side effect of the heating of pasteurization is that some vitamin and mineral content is lost.", "Soluble calcium and phosphorus decrease by 5%, thiamin and vitamin B12 by 10%, and vitamin C by 20% or greater (even to complete loss).", "Because losses are small in comparison to the large amount of the two B-vitamins present, milk continues to provide significant amounts of thiamin and vitamin B12.The loss of vitamin C is not nutritionally significant in a well-balanced diet, as milk is not an important dietary source of vitamin C.====Filtration====Microfiltration is a process that partially replaces pasteurization and produces milk with fewer microorganisms and longer shelf life without a change in the taste of the milk.", "In this process, cream is separated from the skimmed milk and is pasteurized in the usual way, but the skimmed milk is forced through ceramic microfilters that trap 99.9% of microorganisms in the milk (as compared to 99.999% killing of microorganisms in standard HTST pasteurization).", "The skimmed milk then is recombined with the pasteurized cream to reconstitute the original milk composition.Ultrafiltration uses finer filters than microfiltration, which allow lactose and water to pass through while retaining fats, calcium and protein.", "As with microfiltration, the fat may be removed before filtration and added back in afterwards.", "Ultrafiltered milk is used in cheesemaking, since it has reduced volume for a given protein content, and is sold directly to consumers as a higher protein, lower sugar content, and creamier alternative to regular milk.===Creaming and homogenization===A milking machine in actionUpon standing for 12 to 24 hours, fresh milk has a tendency to separate into a high-fat cream layer on top of a larger, low-fat milk layer.", "The cream often is sold as a separate product with its own uses.", "Today the separation of the cream from the milk usually is accomplished rapidly in centrifugal cream separators.", "The fat globules rise to the top of a container of milk because fat is less dense than water.The smaller the globules, the more other molecular-level forces prevent this from happening.", "The cream rises in cow's milk much more quickly than a simple model would predict: rather than isolated globules, the fat in the milk tends to form into clusters containing about a million globules, held together by a number of minor whey proteins.", "These clusters rise faster than individual globules can.", "The fat globules in milk from goats, sheep, and water buffalo do not form clusters as readily and are smaller to begin with, resulting in a slower separation of cream from these milks.Milk often is homogenized, a treatment that prevents a cream layer from separating out of the milk.", "The milk is pumped at high pressures through very narrow tubes, breaking up the fat globules through turbulence and cavitation.", "A greater number of smaller particles possess more total surface area than a smaller number of larger ones, and the original fat globule membranes cannot completely cover them.", "Casein micelles are attracted to the newly exposed fat surfaces.Nearly one-third of the micelles in the milk end up participating in this new membrane structure.", "The casein weighs down the globules and interferes with the clustering that accelerated separation.", "The exposed fat globules are vulnerable to certain enzymes present in milk, which could break down the fats and produce rancid flavors.", "To prevent this, the enzymes are inactivated by pasteurizing the milk immediately before or during homogenization.Homogenized milk tastes blander but feels creamier in the mouth than unhomogenized.", "It is whiter and more resistant to developing off flavors.", "Creamline (or cream-top) milk is unhomogenized.", "It may or may not have been pasteurized.", "Milk that has undergone high-pressure homogenization, sometimes labeled as \"ultra-homogenized\", has a longer shelf life than milk that has undergone ordinary homogenization at lower pressures.=== UHT ===Ultra Heat Treatment (UHT) is a type of milk processing where all bacteria are destroyed with high heat to extend its shelf life for up to 6 months, as long as the package is not opened.", "Milk is firstly homogenized and then is heated to 138 degrees Celsius for 2–4seconds.", "The milk is immediately cooled down and packed into a sterile container.", "As a result of this treatment, all the pathogenic bacteria within the milk are destroyed, unlike when the milk is just pasteurized.", "The treated milk will keep for up to 6 months if unopened.", "UHT milk does not need to be refrigerated until the package is opened, which makes it easier to ship and store.", "However, in this process there is a loss of vitamin B1 and vitamin C, and there is also a slight change in the taste of the milk." ], [ "Nutrition and health", "The composition of milk differs widely among species.", "Factors such as the type of protein; the proportion of protein, fat, and sugar; the levels of various vitamins and minerals; and the size of the butterfat globules, and the strength of the curd are among those that may vary.", "For example:* Human milk contains, on average, 1.1% protein, 4.2% fat, 7.0% lactose (a sugar), and supplies 72 kcal of energy per 100 grams.", "* Cow's milk contains, on average, 3.4% protein, 3.6% fat, and 4.6% lactose, 0.7% minerals and supplies 66 kcal of energy per 100 grams.", "See also Nutritional value further on in this article and more complete lists at online sources that list values and differences in categories.Donkey and horse milk have the lowest fat content, while the milk of seals and whales may contain more than 50% fat.+ Milk composition analysis, per 100 grams Constituents Unit Cow Goat Sheep Waterbuffalo Water g 87.8 88.9 83.0 81.1 Protein g 3.2 3.1 5.4 4.5 Fat g 3.9 3.5 6.0 8.0 ----Saturated fatty acids g 2.4 2.3 3.8 4.2 ----Monounsaturated fatty acids g 1.1 0.8 1.5 1.7 ----Polyunsaturated fatty acids g 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 Carbohydrate (i.e.", "the sugar form of lactose) g 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.9 Cholesterol mg 14 10 11 8 Calcium mg 120 100 170 195 Energy kcal 66 60 95 110 kJ 275 253 396 463===Cow's milk: variation by breed===These compositions vary by breed, animal, and point in the lactation period.+Milk fat percentagesCow breedApproximate percentageJersey5.2Zebu4.7Brown Swiss4.0Holstein-Friesian3.6The protein range for these four breeds is 3.3% to 3.9%, while the lactose range is 4.7% to 4.9%.Milk fat percentages may be manipulated by dairy farmers' stock diet formulation strategies.", "The infection known as mastitis, especially in dairy cattle, can cause fat levels to decline.===Nutritional value===Processed cow's milk was formulated to contain differing amounts of fat during the 1950s.", "One cup (250 mL) of 2%-fat cow's milk contains 285 mg of calcium, which represents 22% to 29% of the daily recommended intake (DRI) of calcium for an adult.", "Depending on its age, milk contains 8 grams of protein, and a number of other nutrients (either naturally or through fortification).Whole milk has a glycemic index of 39±3.A food is considered to have a low GI if it is 55 or less.For protein quality, whole milk has a Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) of 1.43, with the limiting amino acid for those groups being methionine and cysteine.", "A DIAAS of 1 or more is considered to be an excellent/high protein quality source.===Allergy===One of the most common food allergies in infants is to cow's milk.", "This is an immunologically mediated adverse reaction, rarely fatal, to one or more cow's milk proteins.", "Milk allergy affects between 2% and 3% of babies and young children.", "To reduce risk, recommendations are that babies should be exclusively breastfed for at least four months, preferably six months, before introducing cow's milk.", "The majority of children outgrow milk allergy, but for about 0.4% the condition persists into adulthood.===Lactose intolerance===Lactose intolerance is a condition in which people have symptoms due to deficiency or absence of the enzyme lactase in the small intestine, causing poor absorption of milk lactose.", "People affected vary in the amount of lactose they can tolerate before symptoms develop, which may include abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea.", "Severity depends on the amount of milk consumed.", "Those affected are usually able to drink at least one cup of milk without developing significant symptoms, with greater amounts tolerated if drunk with a meal or throughout the day." ], [ "Evolution of lactation", "The mammary gland is thought to have derived from apocrine skin glands.", "It has been suggested that the original function of lactation (milk production) was keeping eggs moist.", "Much of the argument is based on monotremes (egg-laying mammals).", "The original adaptive significance of milk secretions may have been nutrition and immunological protection.Tritylodontid cynodonts seem to have displayed lactation, based on their dental replacement patterns." ], [ "Bovine growth hormone supplementation", "Since November 1993, recombinant bovine somatotropin (rbST), also called rBGH, has been sold to dairy farmers with FDA approval.", "Cows produce bovine growth hormone naturally, but some producers administer an additional recombinant version of BGH which is produced through genetically engineered E. coli to increase milk production.", "Bovine growth hormone also stimulates liver production of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1).", "The US Food and Drug Administration, the National Institutes of Health and the World Health Organization have reported that both of these compounds are safe for human consumption at the amounts present.Milk from cows given rBST may be sold in the United States, and the FDA stated that no significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rBST-treated and that from non-rBST-treated cows.", "Milk that advertises that it comes from cows not treated with rBST, is required to state this finding on its label.Cows receiving rBGH supplements may more frequently contract an udder infection known as mastitis.", "Problems with mastitis have led to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan banning milk from rBST treated cows.", "Mastitis, among other diseases, may be responsible for the fact that levels of white blood cells in milk vary naturally.rBGH is also banned in the European Union, for reasons of animal welfare.==Varieties and brands== Glass milk bottle used for home delivery service in the UKMilk products are sold in a number of varieties based on types/degrees of:* additives (e.g.", "vitamins, flavorings)* age (e.g.", "cheddar, old cheddar)* coagulation (e.g.", "cottage cheese)* farming method (e.g.", "organic, grass-fed, haymilk)* fat content (e.g.", "half and half, 3% fat milk, 2% milk, 1% milk, skim milk)* fermentation (e.g.", "buttermilk)* flavoring (e.g.", "chocolate and strawberry)* homogenization (e.g.", "cream top)* packaging (e.g.", "bottle, carton, bag)* pasteurization (e.g.", "raw milk, pasteurized milk)* reduction or elimination of lactose* species (e.g.", "cow, goat, sheep)* sweetening (e.g., chocolate and strawberry milk)* water content (e.g.", "dry milk powder, condensed milk, ultrafiltered milk)Milk preserved by the UHT process does not need to be refrigerated before opening and has a much longer shelf life (six months) than milk in ordinary packaging.", "It is typically sold unrefrigerated in the UK, US, Europe, Latin America, and Australia.===Reduction or elimination of lactose===Lactose-free milk can be produced by passing milk over lactase enzyme bound to an inert carrier.", "Once the molecule is cleaved, there are no lactose ill effects.", "Forms are available with reduced amounts of lactose (typically 30% of normal), and alternatively with nearly 0%.", "The only noticeable difference from regular milk is a slightly sweeter taste due to the cleavage of lactose into glucose and galactose.", "Lactose-reduced milk can also be produced via ultra filtration, which removes smaller molecules such as lactose and water while leaving calcium and proteins behind.", "Milk produced via these methods has a lower sugar content than regular milk.", "To aid digestion in those with lactose intolerance, another alternative is dairy foods, milk and yogurt, with added bacterial cultures such as ''Lactobacillus acidophilus'' (\"acidophilus milk\") and bifidobacteria.", "Another milk with ''Lactococcus lactis'' bacteria cultures (\"cultured buttermilk\") often is used in cooking to replace the traditional use of naturally soured milk, which has become rare due to the ubiquity of pasteurization, which also kills the naturally occurring Lactococcus bacteria.===Additives and flavoring===Commercially sold milk commonly has vitamin D added to it to make up for lack of exposure to UVB radiation.", "Reduced-fat milks often have added vitamin A palmitate to compensate for the loss of the vitamin during fat removal; in the United States this results in reduced fat milks having a higher vitamin A content than whole milk.", "Milk often has flavoring added to it for better taste or as a means of improving sales.", "Chocolate milk has been sold for many years and has been followed more recently by strawberry milk and others.", "Some nutritionists have criticized flavored milk for adding sugar, usually in the form of high-fructose corn syrup, to the diets of children who are already commonly obese in the US.===Distribution===Returning reusable glass milk bottles, used for home delivery service in the UKDue to the short shelf life of normal milk, it used to be delivered to households daily in many countries; however, improved refrigeration at home, changing food shopping patterns because of supermarkets, and the higher cost of home delivery mean that daily deliveries by a milkman are no longer available in most countries.====Australia and New Zealand====In Australia and New Zealand, prior to metrication, milk was generally distributed in 1 pint (568mL) glass bottles.", "In Australia and Ireland there was a government funded \"free milk for school children\" program, and milk was distributed at morning recess in 1/3 pint bottles.", "With the conversion to metric measures, the milk industry was concerned that the replacement of the pint bottles with 500mL bottles would result in a 13.6% drop in milk consumption; hence, all pint bottles were recalled and replaced by 600mL bottles.", "With time, due to the steadily increasing cost of collecting, transporting, storing and cleaning glass bottles, they were replaced by cardboard cartons.", "A number of designs were used, including a tetrahedron which could be close-packed without waste space, and could not be knocked over accidentally (slogan: \"No more crying over spilt milk\").", "However, the industry eventually settled on a design similar to that used in the United States.Milk is now available in a variety of sizes in paperboard milk cartons (250 mL, 375 mL, 600 mL, 1 liter and 1.5 liters) and plastic bottles (1, 2 and 3 liters).", "A significant addition to the marketplace has been \"long-life\" milk (UHT), generally available in 1 and 2 liter rectangular cardboard cartons.", "In urban and suburban areas where there is sufficient demand, home delivery is still available, though in suburban areas this is often three times per week rather than daily.", "Another significant and popular addition to the marketplace has been flavored milks; for example, as mentioned above, Farmers Union Iced Coffee outsells Coca-Cola in South Australia.====India====Vendors in Amritsar, India transporting milk in gagar, 2019In rural India, milk is home delivered, daily, by local milkmen carrying bulk quantities in a metal container, usually on a bicycle.", "In other parts of metropolitan India, milk is usually bought or delivered in plastic bags or cartons via shops or supermarkets.The current milk chain flow in India is from milk producer to milk collection agent.", "Then it is transported to a milk chilling center and bulk transported to the processing plant, then to the sales agent and finally to the consumer.A 2011 survey by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India found that nearly 70% of samples had not conformed to the standards set for milk.", "The study found that due to lack of hygiene and sanitation in milk handling and packaging, detergents (used during cleaning operations) were not washed properly and found their way into the milk.", "About 8% of samples in the survey were found to have detergents, which are hazardous to health.====Pakistan====In Pakistan, milk is supplied in jugs.", "Milk has been a staple food, especially among the pastoral tribes in this country.====United Kingdom====Since the late 1990s, milk-buying patterns have changed drastically in the UK.", "The classic milkman, who travels his local milk round (route) using a milk float (often battery powered) during the early hours and delivers milk in 1-pint glass bottles with aluminum foil tops directly to households, has almost disappeared.", "Two of the main reasons for the decline of UK home deliveries by milkmen are household refrigerators (which lessen the need for daily milk deliveries) and private car usage (which has increased supermarket shopping).", "Another factor is that it is cheaper to purchase milk from a supermarket than from home delivery.", "In 1996, more than 2.5 billion liters of milk were still being delivered by milkmen, but by 2006 only 637 million liters (13% of milk consumed) was delivered by some 9,500 milkmen.", "By 2010, the estimated number of milkmen had dropped to 6,000.Assuming that delivery per milkman is the same as it was in 2006, this means milkmen deliveries now only account for 6–7% of all milk consumed by UK households (6.7 billion liters in 2008/2009).Almost 95% of all milk in the UK is thus sold in shops today, most of it in plastic bottles of various sizes, but some also in milk cartons.", "Milk is hardly ever sold in glass bottles in UK shops.====United States====In the United States, glass milk bottles have been replaced mostly with milk cartons and plastic jugs.", "Gallons of milk are almost always sold in jugs, while half gallons and quarts may be found in both paper cartons and plastic jugs, and smaller sizes are almost always in cartons.The \"half pint\" () milk carton is the traditional unit as a component of school lunches, though some companies have replaced that unit size with a plastic bottle, which is also available at retail in 6- and 12-pack size.===Packaging===Milk in different packetsFour liter bagged milk in Quebec, CanadaThe milk section in a Swedish grocery storeA primary school child in England drinking milk out of a glass bottle with a strawbottle of non-homogenized, organic, local milk from the US state of California.", "American milk bottles are generally rectangular in shape.rectangular milk jug design used by Costco and Sam's Club stores in the United States which allows for stacking and display of filled containers rather than being shipped to the store in milk crates and manual loading into a freezer display rackGlass milk bottles are now rare.", "Most people purchase milk in bags, plastic bottles, or plastic-coated paper cartons.", "Ultraviolet (UV) light from fluorescent lighting can alter the flavor of milk, so many companies that once distributed milk in transparent or highly translucent containers are now using thicker materials that block the UV light.Milk comes in a variety of containers with local variants:;Argentina: Commonly sold in 1-liter bags and cardboard boxes.", "The bag is then placed in a plastic jug and the corner cut off before the milk is poured.", ";Australia and New Zealand: Distributed in a variety of sizes, most commonly in aseptic cartons for up to 1.5 liters, and plastic screw-top bottles beyond that with the following volumes; 1.1 L, 2 L, and 3 L. 1-liter milk bags are starting to appear in supermarkets, but have not yet proved popular.", "Most UHT-milk is packed in 1 or 2 liter paper containers with a sealed plastic spout.", ";Brazil: Used to be sold in cooled 1-liter bags, just like in South Africa.", "Today the most common form is 1-liter aseptic cartons containing UHT skimmed, semi-skimmed or whole milk, although the plastic bags are still in use for pasteurized milk.", "Higher grades of pasteurized milk can be found in cartons or plastic bottles.", "Sizes other than 1-liter are rare.", ";Canada: 1.33 liter plastic bags (sold as 4 liters in 3 bags) are widely available in some areas (especially the Maritimes, Ontario and Quebec), although the 4 liter plastic jug has supplanted them in western Canada.", "Other common packaging sizes are 2 liter, 1 liter, 500 mL, and 250 mL cartons, as well as 4 liter, 1 liter, 250 mL aseptic cartons and 500 mL plastic jugs.", ";Chile: Distributed most commonly in aseptic cartons for up to 1 liter, but smaller, snack-sized cartons are also popular.", "The most common flavors, besides the natural presentation, are chocolate, strawberry and vanilla.", ";China: Sweetened milk is a drink popular with students of all ages and is often sold in small plastic bags complete with straw.", "Adults not wishing to drink at a banquet often drink milk served from cartons or milk tea.", ";Colombia:Sells milk in 1-liter plastic bags.", ";Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro: UHT milk (''trajno mlijeko/trajno mleko/''трајно млеко) is sold in 500 mL and 1 L (sometimes also 200 mL) aseptic cartons.", "Non-UHT pasteurized milk (''svježe mlijeko/sveže mleko/''свеже млеко) is most commonly sold in 1 L and 1.5 L PET bottles, though in Serbia one can still find milk in plastic bags.", ";Estonia: Commonly sold in 1 L bags or 0.33 L, 0.5 L, 1 L or 1.5 L cartons.", "; Parts of Europe: Sizes of 500 mL, 1 liter (the most common), 1.5 liters, 2 liters and 3 liters are commonplace.", ";Finland: Commonly sold in 1 L or 1.5 L cartons, in some places also in 2 dl and 5 dl cartons.", ";Germany: Commonly sold in 1-liter cartons.", "Sale in 1-liter plastic bags (common in the 1980s) is now rare.", ";Hong Kong: Milk is sold in glass bottles (220 mL), cartons (236 mL and 1 L), plastic jugs (2 liters) and aseptic cartons (250 mL).", ";India: Commonly sold in 500 mL plastic bags and in bottles in some parts like in the West.", "It is still customary to serve the milk boiled, despite pasteurization.", "Milk is often buffalo milk.", "Flavored milk is sold in most convenience stores in waxed cardboard containers.", "Convenience stores also sell many varieties of milk (such as flavored and ultra-pasteurized) in various sizes, usually in aseptic cartons.", ";Indonesia: Usually sold in 1-liter cartons, but smaller, snack-sized cartons are available.", ";Italy: Commonly sold in 1-liter cartons or bottles and less commonly in 0.5 or 0.25-liter cartons.", "Whole milk, semi-skimmed milk, skimmed, lactose-free, and flavored (usually in small packages) milk is available.", "Milk is sold fresh or UHT.", "Goat's milk is also available in small amounts.", "UHT semi-skimmed milk is the most sold, but cafés use almost exclusively fresh whole milk.", ";Japan: Commonly sold in 1-liter waxed paperboard cartons.", "In most city centers there is also home delivery of milk in glass jugs.", "As seen in China, sweetened and flavored milk drinks are commonly seen in vending machines.", ";Kenya:Milk in Kenya is mostly sold in plastic-coated aseptic paper cartons supplied in 300 mL, 500 mL or 1 liter volumes.", "In rural areas, milk is stored in plastic bottles or gourds.", "The standard unit of measuring milk quantity in Kenya is a liter.", ";Pakistan: Milk is supplied in 500 mL plastic bags and carried in jugs from rural to cities for selling;Philippines: Milk is supplied in 1000 mL plastic bottles and delivered from factories to cities for selling.", ";Poland: UHT milk is mostly sold in aseptic cartons (500 mL, 1 L, 2 L), and non-UHT in 1 L plastic bags or plastic bottles.", "Milk, UHT is commonly boiled, despite being pasteurized.", ";South Africa: Commonly sold in 1-liter bags.", "The bag is then placed in a plastic jug and the corner cut off before the milk is poured.", ";South Korea: Sold in cartons (180 mL, 200 mL, 500 mL 900 mL, 1 L, 1.8 L, 2.3 L), plastic jugs (1 L and 1.8 L), aseptic cartons (180 mL and 200 mL) and plastic bags (1 L).", ";Sweden: Commonly sold in 0.3 L, 1 L or 1.5 L cartons and sometimes as plastic or glass milk bottles.", ";Turkey: Commonly sold in 500 mL or 1 L cartons or special plastic bottles.", "UHT milk is more popular.", "Milkmen also serve in smaller towns and villages.", ";United Kingdom: Most stores stock imperial sizes: 1 pint (568 mL), 2 pints (1.136 L), 4 pints (2.273 L), 6 pints (3.408 L) or a combination including both metric and imperial sizes.", "Glass milk bottles delivered to the doorstep by the milkman are typically pint-sized and are returned empty by the householder for repeated reuse.", "Milk is sold at supermarkets in either aseptic cartons or HDPE bottles.", "Supermarkets have also now begun to introduce milk in bags, to be poured from a proprietary jug and nozzle.", ";United States: Commonly sold in gallon (3.78 L), half-gallon (1.89 L) and quart (0.94 L) containers of natural-colored HDPE resin, or, for sizes less than one gallon, cartons of waxed paperboard.", "Bottles made of opaque PET are also becoming commonplace for smaller, particularly metric, sizes such as one liter.", "The US single-serving size is usually the half-pint (about 240 mL).", "Less frequently, dairies deliver milk directly to consumers, from coolers filled with glass bottles which are typically half-gallon sized and returned for reuse.", "Some convenience store chains in the United States (such as Kwik Trip in the Midwest) sell milk in half-gallon bags, while another rectangular cube gallon container design used for easy stacking in shipping and displaying is used by warehouse clubs such as Costco and Sam's Club, along with some Walmart stores.", ";Uruguay: Pasteurized milk is commonly sold in 1-liter bags and ultra-pasteurized milk is sold in cardboard boxes called Tetra Briks.", "Non-pasteurized milk is forbidden.", "Until the 1960s no treatment was applied; milk was sold in bottles.", ", plastic jugs used for pouring the bags, or \"sachets\", are in common use.Practically everywhere, condensed milk and evaporated milk are distributed in metal cans, 250 and 125 mL paper containers and 100 and 200 mL squeeze tubes, and powdered milk (skim and whole) is distributed in boxes or bags.===Spoilage and fermented milk products===Yakult, a probiotic milk-like product made by fermenting a mixture of skimmed milk with a special strain of the bacterium ''Lactobacillus casei Shirota''Kalenjins to prepare a local version of fermented milk called ''mursik'' When raw milk is left standing for a while, it turns \"sour\".", "This is the result of fermentation, where lactic acid bacteria ferment the lactose in the milk into lactic acid.", "Prolonged fermentation may render the milk unpleasant to consume.", "This fermentation process is exploited by the introduction of bacterial cultures (e.g.", "''Lactobacilli sp., Streptococcus sp., Leuconostoc sp.", "'', etc.)", "to produce a variety of fermented milk products.", "The reduced pH from lactic acid accumulation denatures proteins and causes the milk to undergo a variety of different transformations in appearance and texture, ranging from an aggregate to smooth consistency.", "Some of these products include sour cream, yogurt, cheese, buttermilk, viili, kefir, and kumis.", "''See Dairy product'' for more information.Pasteurization of cow's milk initially destroys any potential pathogens and increases the shelf life, but eventually results in spoilage that makes it unsuitable for consumption.", "This causes it to assume an unpleasant odor, and the milk is deemed non-consumable due to unpleasant taste and an increased risk of food poisoning.", "In raw milk, the presence of lactic acid-producing bacteria, under suitable conditions, ferments the lactose present to lactic acid.", "The increasing acidity in turn prevents the growth of other organisms, or slows their growth significantly.", "During pasteurization, however, these lactic acid bacteria are mostly destroyed.In order to prevent spoilage, milk can be kept refrigerated and stored between in bulk tanks.", "Most milk is pasteurized by heating briefly and then refrigerated to allow transport from factory farms to local markets.", "The spoilage of milk can be forestalled by using ultra-high temperature (UHT) treatment.", "Milk so treated can be stored unrefrigerated for several months until opened but has a characteristic \"cooked\" taste.", "Condensed milk, made by removing most of the water, can be stored in cans for many years, unrefrigerated, as can evaporated milk.=== Powdered milk ===The most durable form of milk is powdered milk, which is produced from milk by removing almost all water.", "The moisture content is usually less than 5% in both drum- and spray-dried powdered milk.Freezing of milk can cause fat globule aggregation upon thawing, resulting in milky layers and butterfat lumps.", "These can be dispersed again by warming and stirring the milk.", "It can change the taste by destruction of milk-fat globule membranes, releasing oxidized flavors." ], [ "Use in other food products", "Steamed milk is used in a variety of espresso-based coffee beverages.Milk is used to make yogurt, cheese, ice milk, pudding, hot chocolate and french toast, among many other products.", "Milk is often added to dry breakfast cereal, porridge and granola.", "Milk is mixed with ice cream and flavored syrups in a blender to make milkshakes.", "Milk is often served in coffee and tea.", "Frothy steamed milk is used to prepare espresso-based drinks such as cafe latte." ], [ "In language and culture", "Hindu Abhisheka ritual in Agara, Bangalore Rural District, KarnatakaThe importance of milk in human culture is attested to by the numerous expressions embedded in our languages, for example, \"the milk of human kindness\", the expression \"there's no use crying over spilt milk\" (which means do not \"be unhappy about what cannot be undone\"), \"don't milk the ram\" (this means \"to do or attempt something futile\") and \"Why buy a cow when you can get milk for free?\"", "(which means \"why pay for something that you can get for free otherwise\").In Greek mythology, the Milky Way was formed after the trickster god Hermes suckled the infant Heracles at the breast of Hera, the queen of the gods, while she was asleep.", "When Hera awoke, she tore Heracles away from her breast and splattered her breast milk across the heavens.", "In another version of the story, Athena, the patron goddess of heroes, tricked Hera into suckling Heracles voluntarily, but he bit her nipple so hard that she flung him away, spraying milk everywhere.In many African and Asian countries, butter is traditionally made from fermented milk rather than cream.", "It can take several hours of churning to produce workable butter grains from fermented milk.Holy books have also mentioned milk.", "The Bible contains references to the \"Land of Milk and Honey\" as a metaphor for the bounty of the Promised Land.", "In the Qur'an, there is a request to wonder on milk as follows: \"And surely in the livestock there is a lesson for you, We give you to drink of that which is in their bellies from the midst of digested food and blood, pure milk palatable for the drinkers\" (16-The Honeybee, 66).", "The Ramadan fast is traditionally broken with a glass of milk and dates.Abhisheka is conducted by Hindu and Jain priests, by pouring libations on the idol of a deity being worshipped, amidst the chanting of mantras.", "Usually offerings such as milk, yogurt, ghee, honey may be poured among other offerings depending on the type of abhishekam being performed.A milksop is an \"effeminate spiritless man,\" an expression which is attested to in the late 14th century.", "Milk toast is a dish consisting of milk and toast.", "Its soft blandness served as inspiration for the name of the timid and ineffectual comic strip character Caspar Milquetoast, drawn by H. T. Webster from 1924 to 1952.Thus, the term \"milquetoast\" entered the language as the label for a timid, shrinking, apologetic person.", "Milk toast also appeared in Disney's ''Follow Me Boys'' as an undesirable breakfast for the aging main character Lem Siddons.To \"milk\" someone, in the vernacular of many English-speaking countries, is to take advantage of the person, by analogy to the way a farmer \"milks\" a cow and takes its milk.", "The word \"milk\" has had many slang meanings over time.", "In the 19th century, milk was used to describe a cheap and very poisonous alcoholic drink made from methylated spirits (methanol) mixed with water.", "The word was also used to mean defraud, to be idle, to intercept telegrams addressed to someone else, and a weakling or \"milksop.\"", "In the mid-1930s, the word was used in Australia to refer to siphoning gas from a car." ], [ "Non-culinary uses", "Besides serving as a beverage or source of food, milk has been described as used by farmers and gardeners as an organic fungicide and fertilizer, however, its effectiveness is debated.", "Diluted milk solutions have been demonstrated to provide an effective method of preventing powdery mildew on grape vines, while showing it is unlikely to harm the plant.Milk paint is a nontoxic water-based paint.", "It can be made from milk and lime, generally with pigments added for color.", "In other recipes, borax is mixed with milk's casein protein in order to activate the casein and as a preservative.A milk and rose-petal bath at a spa in ThailandMilk has been used for centuries as a hair and skin treatment.", "Hairstylist Richard Marin states that some women rinse their hair with milk to add a shiny appearance to their hair.", "Cosmetic chemist Ginger King states that milk can \"help exfoliate and remove debris from skin and make hair softer.", "Hairstylist Danny Jelaca states that milk's keratin proteins may \"add weight to the hair\".", "Some commercial hair products contain milk.A milk bath is a bath taken in milk rather than just water.", "Often additives such as oatmeal, honey, and scents such as rose, daisies and essential oils are mixed in.", "Milk baths use lactic acid, an alpha hydroxy acid, to dissolve the proteins which hold together dead skin cells." ], [ "Interspecies milk consumption", "The consumption of milk between species is not unique to humans.", "Seagulls, sheathbills, skuas, western gulls and feral cats have been reported to directly pilfer milk from the elephant seals' teats." ], [ "Jewish/Kosher milk", "Chalav Yisrael is the term of Jewish religious law regulating consumption of milk." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Angier, Natalie, \"Not Milk?\"", "(review of Anne Mendelson, ''Spoiled: The Myth of Milk as Superfood'', Columbia University Press, 2023, 396 pp.", "), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXX, no.", "16 (19 October 2023), pp.", "36, 38–39.", "\"Americans' consumption of cow's milk ... peaked in 1945, when they drank an average of forty-five gallons apiece.", "By 2001 the nation's per capita milk intake had been cut in half, to twenty-three gallons, and in 2021 the figure was down to just sixteen gallons of milk per person, or 5.6 ounces a day...", "Leading the... drop-off are members of Generation Z: people born after 1996...", "Among the eco-conscious, antipathy toward dairy milk is great enough that some high-end coffee shops feel no obligation to offer it at all.\"", "(p.", "36.)", "* Dillon, John J.", "''Seven decades of milk,: A history of New York's dairy industry'' (1941)* Innis, Harold A.", "''The dairy industry in Canada'' (1937) online* Kardashian, Kirk.", "''Milk Money: Cash, Cows, and the Death of the American Dairy Farm'' (2012) * Kurlansky, Mark.", "''Milk: A 10,000-Year History'' (2019); also published as ''Milk!", ": A 10,000-Year Food Fracas'' (2019)* * * * Smith-Howard, Kendra.", "''Pure and Modern Milk: An Environmental History Since 1900.''", "(Oxford University Press; 2013).", "* Valenze, Deborah.", "''Milk: A Local and Global History'' (Yale University Press, 2011) 368 pp.", "* Wiley, Andrea.", "''Re-imagining Milk: Cultural and Biological Perspectives'' (Routledge 2010) (Series for Creative Teaching and Learning in Anthropology)" ], [ "External links", "* * Searchable nutrition charts by various categories of milk products" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Miss Congeniality (film)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Miss Congeniality''''' is a 2000 American action comedy film directed by Donald Petrie, written by Marc Lawrence, Katie Ford, and Caryn Lucas, and produced by and starring Sandra Bullock as Gracie Hart, a tomboy agent who is asked by the FBI to go undercover as a contestant when a terrorist threatens to bomb the Miss United States pageant.", "Michael Caine, Benjamin Bratt, Candice Bergen, William Shatner, and Ernie Hudson star in supporting roles.", "''Miss Congeniality'' was released by Warner Bros. Pictures on December 22, 2000.The film was a box office hit, grossing $212 million worldwide against its $45 million budget, and earned Bullock a nomination for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical.", "It was followed by the sequel ''Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous'' in 2005." ], [ "Plot", "In 1982, a 10-year-old Gracie Hart steps into a playground fight to beat up a bully who is threatening a boy she likes.", "However, the boy feels humiliated at being rescued by a girl and rejects her rudely.", "In response, Gracie punches him in the nose and leaves to sulk alone.Eighteen years later, Gracie is now a tough special agent for the FBI.", "During a sting operation against Russian mobsters, she disobeys her superior's orders in order to save a mob boss who appears to be choking, causing one of the other agents to be shot.", "Gracie is demoted to a desk job as punishment.", "Soon after, the agency is alerted via a letter from the notorious domestic terrorist known only as \"the Citizen\" to a bomb threat at the upcoming 75th annual Miss United States beauty pageant in San Antonio, Texas.", "Gracie's partner Eric Matthews is put in charge of the mission.", "He relies on Gracie's suggestions, only to take credit for them himself.", "One of Gracie's ideas is to plant an agent undercover at the event and reach the top five so they have access to everything in the pageant.", "When all possible candidates are deemed unfit, Eric suggests that Gracie take on that role, replacing Miss New Jersey, who was to be disqualified.Beauty pageant coach Victor Melling teaches Gracie how to dress, walk and behave like a contestant.", "Although she is initially appalled, Gracie comes to appreciate Victor's thoroughness.", "Gracie enters the pageant as \"Gracie Lou Freebush\", representing New Jersey, and becomes friends with Cheryl Frasier, who is Miss Rhode Island.", "As the competition begins, Gracie impresses the judges during the talent competition with her glass harp skills and self-defense techniques.Several suspects are identified, including the current competition director and former pageant winner Kathy Morningside, her assistant Frank Tobin, the veteran MC Stan Fields, and Cheryl, who has a history of involvement with a radical animal rights activist group.", "Gracie convinces Cheryl and other contestants to go out and drink together.", "Gracie tries to dig into Cheryl's past, but inadvertently learns from the others that Kathy's past as a pageant contestant is suspect, including the fact that she won after the winning contestant suddenly came down with food poisoning.", "Gracie deduces Kathy is a \"Citizen\" copycat.", "When Gracie reports this to Eric and the team, she learns that \"the Citizen\" has been arrested on an unrelated charge, and because there is no further threat, their superior, McDonald pulls the mission.", "Gracie insists that she suspects something is wrong, but Eric and the team leave, unconvinced.", "While on their way home, Victor informs Eric that Frank is actually Kathy's son, a fact they'd tried to hide from the FBI because of his criminal record.", "Eric returns to Texas to help her continue the investigation against orders.In the final round, Gracie is stunned when she is named first runner-up.", "Cheryl is named Miss United States, but as she goes to accept the tiara, Gracie realizes that Frank impersonated \"the Citizen\" to make the pageant bomb threat, and that the bomb is in the crown.", "Gracie fights Cheryl for the crown as Eric wrestles with Frank, who is about to detonate the bomb.", "Finally, Gracie manages to throw the tiara up at the stage scenery, where it explodes and sets the stage on fire.", "As Kathy and Frank are arrested, Gracie determines that the two wanted to kill the pageant winner on stage as revenge for Kathy's termination from the Miss United States organization.", "Afterwards, Eric asks Gracie out on a date and they kiss.", "Soon after, Eric and Victor trick Gracie into attending the pageant's farewell breakfast where Cheryl names Gracie \"Miss Congeniality\".", "Gracie tearfully accepts the honor, finally understanding the true spirit of the pageant." ], [ "Cast", "* Sandra Bullock as FBI Special Agent Gracie Hart** Mary Ashleigh Green as Gracie (age 10)* Michael Caine as Victor Melling* Benjamin Bratt as FBI Agent Eric Matthews* Candice Bergen as Kathy Morningside* William Shatner as Stanley Fields* Ernie Hudson as FBI Assistant Director Harry McDonald* John DiResta as Agent Clonsky* Heather Burns as Cheryl Frasier (Miss Rhode Island)* Melissa De Sousa as Karen Krantz (Miss New York)* Deirdre Quinn as Mary Jo Wright (Miss Texas)* Steve Monroe as Frank Tobin* Wendy Raquel Robinson as Leslie Davis (Miss California)* Asia De Marcos as Alana Krewson (Miss Hawaii)" ], [ "Production", "===Development===Ellen DeGeneres claims that the writer was inspired when watching her training to walk in high heels and a dress in preparation for her role co-hosting the Emmys.", "Although DeGeneres's first time hosting the ceremony on her own was not until November 2001, nearly a year after the film had been released, she did co-host the 46th Primetime Emmy Awards in 1994 alongside Patricia Richardson.===Casting===8 actors read for the part of Eric Matthews, including Hugh Jackman.", "Matt Dillon came close to getting cast as Eric Matthews, but the part went to Benjamin Bratt.===Filming===The story is set in New York City and San Antonio.", "Scenes showing the exterior of the St. Regis New York, as well as a few street scenes, were shot on location in New York, and Weehawken, New Jersey.", "The Alamo and River Walk scenes were shot on location in San Antonio.", "The majority of the film was shot in Austin, Texas: scenes depicting the interior of the St. Regis were shot in Austin's Driskill Hotel; the pageant scenes were shot at the Bass Concert Hall at the University of Texas at Austin; and scenes depicting the pageant contestants in their hotel rooms were shot in the Omni Austin at South Park." ], [ "Distribution", "''Miss Congeniality'' was distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures in most countries, and by Roadshow Entertainment in Australia and New Zealand." ], [ "Reception", "===Box office===The film was the fifth highest-grossing film in North America on its opening weekend, making US$13.9 million.", "It had a 5% increase in earnings the following week—enough to make the film reach #3.Overall, it was a box office hit, grossing more than $106 million in the United States, and more than $212 million worldwide.===Critical response===On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 41% based on review from 116 critics.", "The critical consensus reads: \"Though critics say Bullock is funny and charming, she can't overcome a bad script that makes the movie feel too much like a fluffy, unoriginal sitcom.\"", "On Metacritic the film has a score of 43 out of 100, based on reviews from 20 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".", "Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of \"A−\".A.", "O. Scott of ''The New York Times'' described it as \"a standard-issue fish-out-of-water comedy\" which \"seems happily, deliberately second-rate, as if its ideal audience consisted of weary airline passengers\".", "Roger Ebert for the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' wrote: \"It isn't bad so much as it lacks any ambition to be more than it so obviously is\" although he had some praise for Sandra Bullock's performance.It was nominated for several awards, including two Golden Globes: Sandra Bullock for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture – Comedy/Musical, and Bosson's \"One in a Million\" for Best Original Song in a Motion Picture." ], [ "Home media", "The film's first DVD edition, released in 2001, included two audio commentaries, some deleted scenes, the theatrical trailer, and two documentaries about the making of the film.", "A deluxe-edition DVD, released in 2005, featured different cover art and contained the same features as the other DVD version plus a quiz hosted by William Shatner and a sneak peek at the upcoming sequel.", "In 2009, a double feature edition was released that included the sequel." ], [ "Sequel", "A sequel, ''Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous'', was released on March 24, 2005.The film starred Sandra Bullock, Regina King, Enrique Murciano, William Shatner, Ernie Hudson, Heather Burns, Diedrich Bader, and Treat Williams.", "The sequel was less successful both critically and commercially, earning only $101.3 million." ], [ "Soundtrack", "# \"One in a Million\" - Bosson (3:30)# \"If Everybody Looked the Same\" - Groove Armada (3:40)# \"She's a Lady (The BT Remix)\" - Tom Jones (4:21)# \"Anywhere USA\" - P.Y.T.", "(4:06)# \"Dancing Queen\" - A-Teens (3:50)# \"Let's Get It On\" - Red Venom (3:26)# \"Get Ya Party On\" - Baha Men (3:20)# \"None of Your Business\" - Salt 'N' Pepa (3:34)# \"Mustang Sally\" - The Commitments (4:59)# \"Bullets\" - Bob Schneider (4:25)# \"Liquored Up and Lacquered Down\" - Southern Culture on the Skids (2:26)# \"Miss United States (Berman Brothers Mix)\" - William Shatner (3:38)# \"One in a Million (Bostrom Mix)\" - Bosson (3:33)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Magnetism" ], [ "Introduction", "The shape of a bar magnet's magnetic field is revealed by the orientation of iron filings sprinkled on the table around it.", "'''Magnetism''' is the class of physical attributes that occur through a magnetic field, which allows objects to attract or repel each other.", "Because both electric currents and magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, magnetism is one of two aspects of electromagnetism.The most familiar effects occur in ferromagnetic materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be magnetized to become permanent magnets, producing magnetic fields themselves.", "Demagnetizing a magnet is also possible.", "Only a few substances are ferromagnetic; the most common ones are iron, cobalt, and nickel and their alloys.All substances exhibit some type of magnetism.", "Magnetic materials are classified according to their bulk susceptibility.", "Ferromagnetism is responsible for most of the effects of magnetism encountered in everyday life, but there are actually several types of magnetism.", "Paramagnetic substances, such as aluminium and oxygen, are weakly attracted to an applied magnetic field; diamagnetic substances, such as copper and carbon, are weakly repelled; while antiferromagnetic materials, such as chromium, have a more complex relationship with a magnetic field.", "The force of a magnet on paramagnetic, diamagnetic, and antiferromagnetic materials is usually too weak to be felt and can be detected only by laboratory instruments, so in everyday life, these substances are often described as non-magnetic.The strength of a magnetic field always decreases with distance from the magnetic source, though the exact mathematical relationship between strength and distance varies.", "Many factors can influence the magnetic field of an object including the magnetic moment of the material, the physical shape of the object, both the magnitude and direction of any electric current present within the object, and the temperature of the object." ], [ "History", "Lodestone, a natural magnet, attracting iron nails.", "Ancient humans discovered the property of magnetism from lodestone.An illustration from Gilbert's 1600 ''De Magnete'' showing one of the earliest methods of making a magnet.", "A blacksmith holds a piece of red-hot iron in a north–south direction and hammers it as it cools.", "The magnetic field of the Earth aligns the domains, leaving the iron a weak magnet.Drawing of a medical treatment using magnetic brushes.", "Charles Jacque 1843, France.Magnetism was first discovered in the ancient world when people noticed that lodestones, naturally magnetized pieces of the mineral magnetite, could attract iron.", "The word ''magnet'' comes from the Greek term μαγνῆτις λίθος ''magnētis lithos'', \"the Magnesian stone, lodestone\".", "In ancient Greece, Aristotle attributed the first of what could be called a scientific discussion of magnetism to the philosopher Thales of Miletus, who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC.", "The ancient Indian medical text ''Sushruta Samhita'' describes using magnetite to remove arrows embedded in a person's body.In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th-century BC book named after its author, ''Guiguzi''.The 2nd-century BC annals, ''Lüshi Chunqiu'', also notes:\"The lodestone makes iron approach; some (force) is attracting it.\"", "From the section \"''Jingtong''\" () of the \"Almanac of the Last Autumn Month\" (): \"\" The earliest mention of the attraction of a needle is in a 1st-century work ''Lunheng'' (''Balanced Inquiries''): \"A lodestone attracts a needle.\"", "The 11th-century Chinese scientist Shen Kuo was the first person to write—in the ''Dream Pool Essays''—of the magnetic needle compass and that it improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the astronomical concept of true north.By the 12th century, the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for navigation.", "They sculpted a directional spoon from lodestone in such a way that the handle of the spoon always pointed south.Alexander Neckam, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for navigation.", "In 1269, Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt wrote the ''Epistola de magnete'', the first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets.", "In 1282, the properties of magnets and the dry compasses were discussed by Al-Ashraf Umar II, a Yemeni physicist, astronomer, and geographer.Leonardo Garzoni's only extant work, the ''Due trattati sopra la natura, e le qualità della calamita'', is the first known example of a modern treatment of magnetic phenomena.", "Written in years near 1580 and never published, the treatise had a wide diffusion.", "In particular, Garzoni is referred to as an expert in magnetism by Niccolò Cabeo, whose Philosophia Magnetica (1629) is just a re-adjustment of Garzoni's work.", "Garzoni's treatise was known also to Giovanni Battista Della Porta.In 1600, William Gilbert published his ''De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure'' (''On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth'').", "In this work he describes many of his experiments with his model earth called the terrella.", "From his experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses pointed north whereas, previously, some believed that it was the pole star Polaris or a large magnetic island on the north pole that attracted the compass.An understanding of the relationship between electricity and magnetism began in 1819 with work by Hans Christian Ørsted, a professor at the University of Copenhagen, who discovered, by the accidental twitching of a compass needle near a wire, that an electric current could create a magnetic field.", "This landmark experiment is known as Ørsted's Experiment.", "Following this were several other scientists' experiments: André-Marie Ampère who in 1820 discovered that the magnetic field circulating in a closed-path was related to the current flowing through a surface enclosed by the path; Carl Friedrich Gauss; Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart, both of whom in 1820 came up with the Biot–Savart law giving an equation for the magnetic field from a current-carrying wire; Michael Faraday, who in 1831 found that a time-varying magnetic flux through a loop of wire induced a voltage; and others finding further links between magnetism and electricity.", "James Clerk Maxwell synthesized and expanded these insights into Maxwell's equations, unifying electricity, magnetism, and optics into the field of electromagnetism.", "In 1905, Albert Einstein used these laws in motivating his theory of special relativity, requiring that the laws held true in all inertial reference frames.Electromagnetism has continued to develop into the 21st century, being incorporated into the more fundamental theories of gauge theory, quantum electrodynamics, electroweak theory, and finally the standard model." ], [ "Sources", "Magnetism, at its root, arises from three sources:# Electric current# Spin magnetic moments of elementary particles# Changing electric fields The magnetic properties of materials are mainly due to the magnetic moments of their atoms' orbiting electrons.", "The magnetic moments of the nuclei of atoms are typically thousands of times smaller than the electrons' magnetic moments, so they are negligible in the context of the magnetization of materials.", "Nuclear magnetic moments are nevertheless very important in other contexts, particularly in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).Ordinarily, the enormous number of electrons in a material are arranged such that their magnetic moments (both orbital and intrinsic) cancel out.", "This is due, to some extent, to electrons combining into pairs with opposite intrinsic magnetic moments as a result of the Pauli exclusion principle (see ''electron configuration''), and combining into filled subshells with zero net orbital motion.", "In both cases, the electrons preferentially adopt arrangements in which the magnetic moment of each electron is canceled by the opposite moment of another electron.", "Moreover, even when the electron configuration ''is'' such that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled subshells, it is often the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute magnetic moments that point in different, random directions so that the material will not be magnetic.Sometimeseither spontaneously, or owing to an applied external magnetic fieldeach of the electron magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up.", "A suitable material can then produce a strong net magnetic field.The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure, particularly its electron configuration, for the reasons mentioned above, and also on the temperature.", "At high temperatures, random thermal motion makes it more difficult for the electrons to maintain alignment." ], [ "Types", "Hierarchy of types of magnetism.=== Diamagnetism ===Diamagnetism appears in all materials and is the tendency of a material to oppose an applied magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field.", "However, in a material with paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance an external magnetic field), the paramagnetic behavior dominates.", "Thus, despite its universal occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is observed only in a purely diamagnetic material.", "In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect.", "In these cases, the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood classically as follows:This description is meant only as a heuristic; the Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem shows that diamagnetism is impossible according to classical physics, and that a proper understanding requires a quantum-mechanical description.All materials undergo this orbital response.", "However, in paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the diamagnetic effect is overwhelmed by the much stronger effects caused by the unpaired electrons.=== Paramagnetism ===In a paramagnetic material there are ''unpaired electrons''; i.e., atomic or molecular orbitals with exactly one electron in them.", "While paired electrons are required by the Pauli exclusion principle to have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments pointing in opposite directions, causing their magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic moment in any direction.", "When an external magnetic field is applied, these magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it.=== Ferromagnetism ===A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons.", "However, in addition to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment's tendency to be parallel to an applied field, there is also in these materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to orient parallel to each other to maintain a lowered-energy state.", "Thus, even in the absence of an applied field, the magnetic moments of the electrons in the material spontaneously line up parallel to one another.Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature, called the Curie temperature, or Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties.", "This is because the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic order.Ferromagnetism only occurs in a few substances; common ones are iron, nickel, cobalt, their alloys, and some alloys of rare-earth metals.==== Magnetic domains ====The magnetic moments of atoms in a ferromagnetic material cause them to behave something like tiny permanent magnets.", "They stick together and align themselves into small regions of more or less uniform alignment called magnetic domains or Weiss domains.", "Magnetic domains can be observed with a magnetic force microscope to reveal magnetic domain boundaries that resemble white lines in the sketch.", "There are many scientific experiments that can physically show magnetic fields.When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes unstable and divides into two domains aligned in opposite directions so that they stick together more stably.When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move, so that the domains aligned with the magnetic field grow and dominate the structure (dotted yellow area), as shown at the left.", "When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains may not return to an unmagnetized state.", "This results in the ferromagnetic material's being magnetized, forming a permanent magnet.When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all others to result in only one single domain, the material is magnetically saturated.", "When a magnetized ferromagnetic material is heated to the Curie point temperature, the molecules are agitated to the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization, and the magnetic properties they cause cease.", "When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure spontaneously returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid can freeze into a crystalline solid.=== Antiferromagnetism ===Antiferromagnetic orderingIn an antiferromagnet, unlike a ferromagnet, there is a tendency for the intrinsic magnetic moments of neighboring valence electrons to point in ''opposite'' directions.", "When all atoms are arranged in a substance so that each neighbor is anti-parallel, the substance is '''antiferromagnetic'''.", "Antiferromagnets have a zero net magnetic moment because adjacent opposite moment cancels out, meaning that no field is produced by them.", "Antiferromagnets are less common compared to the other types of behaviors and are mostly observed at low temperatures.", "In varying temperatures, antiferromagnets can be seen to exhibit diamagnetic and ferromagnetic properties.In some materials, neighboring electrons prefer to point in opposite directions, but there is no geometrical arrangement in which ''each'' pair of neighbors is anti-aligned.", "This is called a canted antiferromagnet or spin ice and is an example of geometrical frustration.=== Ferrimagnetism ===Ferrimagnetic orderingLike ferromagnetism, '''ferrimagnets''' retain their magnetization in the absence of a field.", "However, like antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron spins tend to point in opposite directions.", "These two properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal geometrical arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of electrons that point in one direction, than from the sublattice that points in the opposite direction.Most ferrites are ferrimagnetic.", "The first discovered magnetic substance, magnetite, is a ferrite and was originally believed to be a ferromagnet; Louis Néel disproved this, however, after discovering ferrimagnetism.=== Superparamagnetism ===Magnetic orders: comparison between ferro, antiferro and ferrimagnetismWhen a ferromagnet or ferrimagnet is sufficiently small, it acts like a single magnetic spin that is subject to Brownian motion.", "Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger.=== Nagaoka magnetism ===Japanese physicist Yosuke Nagaoka conceived of a type of magnetism in a square, two-dimensional lattice where every lattice node had one electron.", "If one electron was removed under specific conditions, the lattice's energy would be minimal only when all electrons' spins were parallel.A variation on this was achieved experimentally by arranging the atoms in a triangular moiré lattice of molybdenum diselenide and tungsten disulfide monolayers.", "Applying a weak magnetic field and a voltage led to ferromagnetic behavior when 100-150% more electrons than lattice nodes were present.", "The extra electrons delocalized and paired with lattice electrons to form doublons.", "Delocalization was prevented unless the lattice electrons had aligned spins.", "The doublons thus created localized ferromagnetic regions.", "The phenomenon took place at 140 millikelvins.=== Other types of magnetism ===* Metamagnetism* Molecule-based magnets* Single-molecule magnet* Amorphous magnet" ], [ "Electromagnet", "An electromagnet attracts paper clips when current is applied creating a magnetic field.", "The electromagnet loses them when current and magnetic field are removed.An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current.", "The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off.", "Electromagnets usually consist of a large number of closely spaced turns of wire that create the magnetic field.", "The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made from a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic core concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet.The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric current in the winding.", "However, unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet requires a continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic field.Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical devices, such as motors, generators, relays, solenoids, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines, scientific instruments, and magnetic separation equipment.", "Electromagnets are also employed in industry for picking up and moving heavy iron objects such as scrap iron and steel.", "Electromagnetism was discovered in 1820." ], [ "Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity", "As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity, electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interlinked.", "Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects as length contraction, time dilation, and the fact that the magnetic force is velocity-dependent.", "However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the resulting theory (electromagnetism) is fully consistent with special relativity.", "In particular, a phenomenon that appears purely electric or purely magnetic to one observer may be a mix of both to another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of reference.", "Thus, special relativity \"mixes\" electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism, analogous to how general relativity \"mixes\" space and time into spacetime.All observations on electromagnetism apply to what might be considered to be primarily magnetism, e.g.", "perturbations in the magnetic field are necessarily accompanied by a nonzero electric field, and propagate at the speed of light." ], [ "Magnetic fields in a material", "In vacuum,: where is the vacuum permeability.In a material,: The quantity is called ''magnetic polarization''.If the field is small, the response of the magnetization in a diamagnet or paramagnet is approximately linear:: the constant of proportionality being called the magnetic susceptibility.", "If so,: In a hard magnet such as a ferromagnet, is not proportional to the field and is generally nonzero even when is zero (see Remanence)." ], [ "Magnetic force", "Magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet shown by iron filings on paperDetecting magnetic field with compass and with iron filingsThe phenomenon of magnetism is \"mediated\" by the magnetic field.", "An electric current or magnetic dipole creates a magnetic field, and that field, in turn, imparts magnetic forces on other particles that are in the fields.Maxwell's equations, which simplify to the Biot–Savart law in the case of steady currents, describe the origin and behavior of the fields that govern these forces.", "Therefore, magnetism is seen whenever electrically charged particles are in motion—for example, from movement of electrons in an electric current, or in certain cases from the orbital motion of electrons around an atom's nucleus.", "They also arise from \"intrinsic\" magnetic dipoles arising from quantum-mechanical spin.The same situations that create magnetic fields—charge moving in a current or in an atom, and intrinsic magnetic dipoles—are also the situations in which a magnetic field has an effect, creating a force.", "Following is the formula for moving charge; for the forces on an intrinsic dipole, see magnetic dipole.When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field '''B''', it feels a Lorentz force '''F''' given by the cross product:: where: is the electric charge of the particle, and: '''v''' is the velocity vector of the particleBecause this is a cross product, the force is perpendicular to both the motion of the particle and the magnetic field.", "It follows that the magnetic force does no work on the particle; it may change the direction of the particle's movement, but it cannot cause it to speed up or slow down.", "The magnitude of the force is: where is the angle between '''v''' and '''B'''.One tool for determining the direction of the velocity vector of a moving charge, the magnetic field, and the force exerted is labeling the index finger \"V\", the middle finger \"B\", and the thumb \"F\" with your right hand.", "When making a gun-like configuration, with the middle finger crossing under the index finger, the fingers represent the velocity vector, magnetic field vector, and force vector, respectively.", "See also right-hand rule." ], [ "Magnetic dipoles", "A very common source of magnetic field found in nature is a dipole, with a \"South pole\" and a \"North pole\", terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South on the globe.", "Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet.", "The Earth's North Magnetic Pole (currently in the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it attracts the north pole of a compass.A magnetic field contains energy, and physical systems move toward configurations with lower energy.", "When diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, a ''magnetic dipole'' tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the net field strength.", "When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic domains.=== Magnetic monopoles ===Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet.", "Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other.", "A monopole—if such a thing exists—would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object.", "It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa.", "Monopoles would carry \"magnetic charge\" analogous to electric charge.", "Despite systematic searches since 1931, , they have never been observed, and could very well not exist.Nevertheless, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic monopoles.", "Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts that individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable.", "Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge—that is, why the observed elementary particles carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron.Certain grand unified theories predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary particles, are solitons (localized energy packets).", "The initial results of using these models to estimate the number of monopoles created in the Big Bang contradicted cosmological observations—the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive that they would have long since halted the expansion of the universe.", "However, the idea of inflation (for which this problem served as a partial motivation) was successful in solving this problem, creating models in which monopoles existed but were rare enough to be consistent with current observations." ], [ "Units", "=== SI ====== Other ===* gauss – the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) unit of magnetic field (denoted '''B''').", "* oersted – the CGS unit of magnetizing field (denoted '''H''')* maxwell – the CGS unit for magnetic flux* gamma – a unit of ''magnetic flux density'' that was commonly used before the tesla came into use (1.0 gamma = 1.0 nanotesla)* ''μ''0 – common symbol for the permeability of free space ( newton/(ampere-turn)2)" ], [ "Living things", "mm diameter vertical bore of a Bitter solenoid in a very strong magnetic field—about 16 teslasSome organisms can detect magnetic fields, a phenomenon known as magnetoception.", "Some materials in living things are ferromagnetic, though it is unclear if the magnetic properties serve a special function or are merely a byproduct of containing iron.", "For instance, chitons, a type of marine mollusk, produce magnetite to harden their teeth, and even humans produce magnetite in bodily tissue.", "Magnetobiology studies the effects of magnetic fields on living organisms; fields naturally produced by an organism are known as biomagnetism.", "Many biological organisms are mostly made of water, and because water is diamagnetic, extremely strong magnetic fields can repel these living things." ], [ "Quantum-mechanical origin of magnetism", "While heuristic explanations based on classical physics can be formulated, diamagnetism, paramagnetism and ferromagnetism can be fully explained only using quantum theory.A successful model was developed already in 1927, by Walter Heitler and Fritz London, who derived, quantum-mechanically, how hydrogen molecules are formed from hydrogen atoms, i.e.", "from the atomic hydrogen orbitals and centered at the nuclei ''A'' and ''B'', see below.", "That this leads to magnetism is not at all obvious, but will be explained in the following.According to the Heitler–London theory, so-called two-body molecular -orbitals are formed, namely the resulting orbital is:: Here the last product means that a first electron, '''r'''1, is in an atomic hydrogen-orbital centered at the second nucleus, whereas the second electron runs around the first nucleus.", "This \"exchange\" phenomenon is an expression for the quantum-mechanical property that particles with identical properties cannot be distinguished.", "It is specific not only for the formation of chemical bonds, but also for magnetism.", "That is, in this connection the term exchange interaction arises, a term which is essential for the origin of magnetism, and which is stronger, roughly by factors 100 and even by 1000, than the energies arising from the electrodynamic dipole-dipole interaction.As for the ''spin function'' , which is responsible for the magnetism, we have the already mentioned Pauli's principle, namely that a symmetric orbital (i.e.", "with the + sign as above) must be multiplied with an antisymmetric spin function (i.e.", "with a − sign), and ''vice versa''.", "Thus:: ,I.e., not only and must be substituted by ''α'' and ''β'', respectively (the first entity means \"spin up\", the second one \"spin down\"), but also the sign + by the − sign, and finally '''r'''i by the discrete values ''s''i (= ±); thereby we have and .", "The \"singlet state\", i.e.", "the − sign, means: the spins are ''antiparallel'', i.e.", "for the solid we have antiferromagnetism, and for two-atomic molecules one has diamagnetism.", "The tendency to form a (homoeopolar) chemical bond (this means: the formation of a ''symmetric'' molecular orbital, i.e.", "with the + sign) results through the Pauli principle automatically in an ''antisymmetric'' spin state (i.e.", "with the − sign).", "In contrast, the Coulomb repulsion of the electrons, i.e.", "the tendency that they try to avoid each other by this repulsion, would lead to an ''antisymmetric'' orbital function (i.e.", "with the − sign) of these two particles, and complementary to a ''symmetric'' spin function (i.e.", "with the + sign, one of the so-called \"triplet functions\").", "Thus, now the spins would be ''parallel'' (ferromagnetism in a solid, paramagnetism in two-atomic gases).The last-mentioned tendency dominates in the metals iron, cobalt and nickel, and in some rare earths, which are ''ferromagnetic''.", "Most of the other metals, where the first-mentioned tendency dominates, are ''nonmagnetic'' (e.g.", "sodium, aluminium, and magnesium) or ''antiferromagnetic'' (e.g.", "manganese).", "Diatomic gases are also almost exclusively diamagnetic, and not paramagnetic.", "However, the oxygen molecule, because of the involvement of π-orbitals, is an exception important for the life-sciences.The Heitler-London considerations can be generalized to the Heisenberg model of magnetism (Heisenberg 1928).The explanation of the phenomena is thus essentially based on all subtleties of quantum mechanics, whereas the electrodynamics covers mainly the phenomenology." ], [ "See also", "* Coercivity* Gravitomagnetism* Magnetic hysteresis* Magnetar* Magnetic bearing* Magnetic circuit* Magnetic cooling* Magnetic field viewing film* Magnetic stirrer* Magnetic structure* Magnetism and temperature* Micromagnetism* Neodymium magnet* Plastic magnet* Rare-earth magnet* Spin wave* Spontaneous magnetization* Vibrating-sample magnetometer* Textbooks in electromagnetism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "Bibliography", "* The Exploratorium Science Snacks – Subject:Physics/Electricity & Magnetism* A collection of magnetic structures – MAGNDATA" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Filter (mathematics)" ], [ "Introduction", "The power set lattice of the set , with upper set colored dark green.", "This upper set is a , and even a .", "It is not an , because including also the light green elements extends it to the larger nontrivial filter .", "Since the latter cannot be extended further, is an ultrafilter.", "In mathematics, a '''filter''' or '''order filter''' is a special subset of a partially ordered set (poset), describing \"large\" or \"eventual\" elements.", "Filters appear in order and lattice theory, but also topology, whence they originate.", "The notion dual to a filter is an order ideal.Special cases of filters include ultrafilters, which are filters that cannot be enlarged, and describe nonconstructive techniques in mathematical logic.Filters on sets were introduced by Henri Cartan in 1937.Nicolas Bourbaki, in their book ''Topologie Générale'', popularized filters as an alternative to E. H. Moore and Herman L. Smith's 1922 notion of a net; order filters generalize this notion from the specific case of a power set under inclusion to arbitrary partially ordered sets.", "Nevertheless, the theory of power-set filters retains interest in its own right, in part for substantial applications in topology." ], [ "Motivation", "Fix a partially ordered set (poset) .", "Intuitively, a filter  is a subset of whose members are elements large enough to satisfy some criterion.", "For instance, if , then the set of elements above is a filter, called the principal filter at .", "(If and are incomparable elements of , then neither the principal filter at nor is contained in the other.", ")Similarly, a filter on a set  contains those subsets that are sufficiently large to contain some given .", "For example, if is the real line and , then the family of sets including in their interior is a filter, called the neighborhood filter at .", "The in this case is slightly larger than , but it still does not contain any other specific point of the line.The above considerations motivate the upward closure requirement in the definition below: \"large enough\" objects can always be made larger.To understand the other two conditions, reverse the roles and instead consider as a \"locating scheme\" to find .", "In this interpretation, one searches in some space , and expects to describe those subsets of that contain the goal.", "The goal must be located somewhere; thus the empty set  can never be in .", "And if two subsets both contain the goal, then should \"zoom in\" to their common region.An ultrafilter describes a \"perfect locating scheme\" where each scheme component gives new information (either \"look here\" or \"look elsewhere\").", "Compactness is the property that \"every search is fruitful,\" or, to put it another way, \"every locating scheme ends in a search result.", "\"A common use for a filter is to define properties that are satisfied by \"generic\" elements of some topological space.", "This application generalizes the \"locating scheme\" to find points that might be hard to write down explicitly." ], [ "Definition", "A subset  of a partially ordered set  is a '''filter''' or '''dual ideal''' if the following are satisfied:; Nontriviality: The set is non-empty.", "; Downward directed: For every , there is some such that and .", "; Upward closure: For every and , the condition implies .", "If, additionally, , then is said to be a '''proper filter'''.", "Authors in set theory and mathematical logic often require all filters to be proper; this article will ''eschew'' that convention.", "An ultrafilter is a filter contained in no other proper filter.=== Filter bases ===A subset  of is a '''base''' or '''basis''' for if the upper set generated by (i.e., the smallest upwards-closed set containing ) is all of .", "Every filter is a base for itself.Moreover, if is nonempty and downward directed, then generates an upper set  that is a filter (for which is a base).", "Such sets are called '''prefilters''', as well as the aforementioned '''filter base/basis''', and is said to be '''generated''' or '''spanned''' by .", "A prefilter is proper if and only if it generates a proper filter.Given , the set is the smallest filter containing , and sometimes written .", "Such a filter is called a '''principal filter'''; is said to be the '''principal element''' of , or generate .==== Refinement ====Suppose and are two prefilters on , and, for each , there is a , such that .", "Then we say that is '''''' than (or '''refines''') ; likewise, is '''coarser''' than (or '''coarsens''') .", "Refinement is a preorder on the set of prefilters.", "In fact, if also refines , then and are called '''equivalent''', for they generate the same filter.", "Thus passage from prefilter to filter is an instance of passing from a preordering to associated partial ordering." ], [ "Special cases", "Historically, filters generalized to order-theoretic lattices before arbitrary partial orders.", "In the case of lattices, downward direction can be written as closure under finite meets: for all , one has .=== Linear filters ===A linear (ultra)filter is an (ultra)filter on the lattice of vector subspaces of a given vector space, ordered by inclusion.", "Explicitly, a linear filter on a vector space  is a family  of vector subspaces of such that if and is a vector subspace of that contains , then and .A linear filter is proper if it does not contain .=== Filters on a set; subbases ===Given a set , the power set  is partially ordered by set inclusion; filters on this poset are often just called \"filters on ,\" in an abuse of terminology.", "For such posets, downward direction and upward closure reduce to:; Closure under finite intersections: If , then so too is .", "; Isotony: If and , then .A '''proper/non-degenerate''' filter is one that does not contain , and these three conditions (including non-degeneracy) are Henri Cartan's original definition of a filter.", "It is common — ''though not universal'' — to require filters on sets to be proper (whatever one's stance on poset filters); we shall again eschew this convention.Prefilters on a set are proper if and only if they do not contain either.For every subset  of , there is a smallest filter  containing .", "As with prefilters, is said to generate or span ; a base for is the set  of all finite intersections of .", "The set is said to be a '''filter subbase''' when (and thus ) is proper.Proper filters on sets have the finite intersection property.If , then admits only the improper filter .==== Free filters ====A filter is said to be a '''free''' if the intersection of its members is empty.", "A proper principal filter is not free.Since the intersection of any finite number of members of a filter is also a member, no proper filter on a finite set is free, and indeed is the principal filter generated by the common intersection of all of its members.", "But a nonprincipal filter on an infinite set is not necessarily free: a filter is free if and only if it includes the Fréchet filter (see )." ], [ "Examples", "See the image at the top of this article for a simple example of filters on the finite poset .Partially order , the space of real-valued functions on , by pointwise comparison.", "Then the set of functions \"large at infinity,\"is a filter on .", "One can generalize this construction quite far by compactifying the domain and completing the codomain: if is a set with distinguished subset  and is a poset with distinguished element , then is a filter in .The set is a filter in .", "More generally, if is any directed set, thenis a filter in , called the tail filter.", "Likewise any net  generates the eventuality filter .", "A tail filter is the eventuality filter for .The Fréchet filter on an infinite set  isIf is a measure space, then the collection is a filter.", "If , then is also a filter; the Fréchet filter is the case where is counting measure.Given an ordinal , a subset of is called a club if it is closed in the order topology of but has net-theoretic limit .", "The clubs of form a filter: the club filter, .The previous construction generalizes as follows: any club  is also a collection of dense subsets (in the ordinal topology) of , and meets each element of .", "Replacing with an arbitrary collection  of dense sets, there \"typically\" exists a filter meeting each element of , called a generic filter.", "For countable , the Rasiowa–Sikorski lemma implies that such a filter must exist; for \"small\" uncountable , the existence of such a filter can be forced through Martin's axiom.Let denote the set of partial orders of limited cardinality, modulo isomorphism.", "Partially order by: : if there exists a strictly increasing .", "Then the subset of non-atomic partial orders forms a filter.", "Likewise, if is the set of injective modules over some given commutative ring, of limited cardinality, modulo isomorphism, then a partial order on is: : if there exists an injective linear map .", "Given any infinite cardinal , the modules in that cannot be generated by fewer than elements form a filter.Every uniform structure on a set  is a filter on ." ], [ "Relationship to ideals", "The dual notion to a filter — that is, the concept obtained by reversing all and exchanging with  — is an order ideal.", "Because of this duality, any question of filters can be mechanically translated to a question about ideals and vice-versa; in particular, a '''prime''' or '''maximal''' filter is a filter whose corresponding ideal is (respectively) prime or maximal.A filter is an ultrafilter if and only if the corresponding ideal is minimal." ], [ "In model theory", "For every filter  on a set , the set function defined byis finitely additive — a \"measure,\" if that term is construed rather loosely.", "Moreover, the measures so constructed are defined everywhere if is an ultrafilter.", "Therefore, the statementcan be considered somewhat analogous to the statement that holds \"almost everywhere.\"", "That interpretation of membership in a filter is used (for motivation, not actual ) in the theory of ultraproducts in model theory, a branch of mathematical logic." ], [ "In topology", "In general topology and analysis, filters are used to define convergence in a manner similar to the role of sequences in a metric space.", "They unify the concept of a limit across the wide variety of arbitrary topological spaces.To understand the need for filters, begin with the equivalent concept of a net.", "A sequence is usually indexed by the natural numbers , which are a totally ordered set.", "Nets generalize the notion of a sequence by replacing with an arbitrary directed set.", "In certain categories of topological spaces, such as first-countable spaces, sequences characterize most topological properties, but this is not true in general.", "However, nets — as well as filters — always do characterize those topological properties.Filters do not involve any set external to the topological space , whereas sequences and nets rely on other directed sets.", "For this reason, the collection of all filters on is always a set, whereas the collection of all -valued nets is a proper class.=== Neighborhood bases ===Any point  in the topological space  defines a neighborhood filter or system : namely, the family of all sets containing in their interior.", "A set  of neighborhoods of is a neighborhood base at if generates .", "Equivalently, is a neighborhood of if and only if there exists such that .==== Convergent filters and cluster points ====A prefilter  converges to a point , written , if and only if generates a filter  that contains the neighborhood filter  — explicitly, for every neighborhood  of , there is some such that .", "Less explicitly, if and only if refines , and any neighborhood base at can replace in this condition.", "Clearly, every neighborhood base at converges to .A filter  (which generates itself) converges to if .", "The above can also be reversed to characterize the neighborhood filter : is the finest filter coarser than each filter converging to .If , then is called a limit (point) of .", "The prefilter is said to cluster at (or have as a cluster point) if and only if each element of has non-empty intersection with each neighborhood of .", "Every limit point is a cluster point but the converse is not true in general.", "However, every cluster point of an filter is a limit point." ], [ "See also", "* * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Nicolas Bourbaki, General Topology (Topologie Générale), (Ch.", "1–4): Provides a good reference for filters in general topology (Chapter I) and for Cauchy filters in uniform spaces (Chapter II)* * * * * * * * (Provides an introductory review of filters in topology and in metric spaces.", ")* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Metallurgy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Metallurgy''' is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are known as alloys.Metallurgy encompasses both the science and the technology of metals, including the production of metals and the engineering of metal components used in products for both consumers and manufacturers.", "Metallurgy is distinct from the craft of metalworking.", "Metalworking relies on metallurgy in a similar manner to how medicine relies on medical science for technical advancement.", "A specialist practitioner of metallurgy is known as a metallurgist.", "The science of metallurgy is further subdivided into two broad categories: chemical metallurgy and physical metallurgy.", "Chemical metallurgy is chiefly concerned with the reduction and oxidation of metals, and the chemical performance of metals.", "Subjects of study in chemical metallurgy include mineral processing, the extraction of metals, thermodynamics, electrochemistry, and chemical degradation (corrosion).", "In contrast, physical metallurgy focuses on the mechanical properties of metals, the physical properties of metals, and the physical performance of metals.", "Topics studied in physical metallurgy include crystallography, material characterization, mechanical metallurgy, phase transformations, and failure mechanisms.", "Historically, metallurgy has predominately focused on the production of metals.", "Metal production begins with the processing of ores to extract the metal, and includes the mixture of metals to make alloys.", "Metal alloys are often a blend of at least two different metallic elements.", "However, non-metallic elements are often added to alloys in order to achieve properties suitable for an application.", "The study of metal production is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy (also known as ''black metallurgy'') and non-ferrous metallurgy, also known as colored metallurgy.Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron, while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on other metals.", "The production of ferrous metals accounts for 95% of world metal production.Modern metallurgists work in both emerging and traditional areas as part of an interdisciplinary team alongside material scientists and other engineers.", "Some traditional areas include mineral processing, metal production, heat treatment, failure analysis, and the joining of metals (including welding, brazing, and soldering).", "Emerging areas for metallurgists include nanotechnology, superconductors, composites, biomedical materials, electronic materials (semiconductors) and surface engineering.", "Many applications, practices, and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were established in ancient India and China, such as the innovation of the wootz steel , bronze, blast furnace, cast iron, hydraulic-powered trip hammers, and double acting piston bellows." ], [ "Etymology and pronunciation", "''Metallurgy'' derives from the Ancient Greek , , \"worker in metal\", from , , \"mine, metal\" + , , \"work\" The word was originally an alchemist's term for the extraction of metals from minerals, the ending ''-urgy'' signifying a process, especially manufacturing: it was discussed in this sense in the 1797 ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.In the late 19th century, metallurgy's definition was extended to the more general scientific study of metals, alloys, and related processes.", "In English, the pronunciation is the more common one in the United Kingdom.", "The pronunciation is the more common one in the United States US and is the first-listed variant in various American dictionaries, including ''Merriam-Webster Collegiate'' and ''American Heritage''." ], [ "History", "Artefacts from the Varna Necropolis in present-day BulgariaThe mining areas of the ancient Middle East with arsenic (in brown), copper (in red), tin (in grey), iron (in reddish brown), gold (in yellow), silver (in white), lead (in black), arsenic bronze (in yellow), and tin (in bronze)The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold, which can be found free or \"native\".", "Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves dating to the late Paleolithic period, 40,000 BC.", "Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found in native form, allowing a limited amount of metalworking in early cultures.", "Certain metals, such as tin, lead, and copper can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire or blast furnace in a process known as smelting.", "The first evidence of this extractive metallurgy, dating from the 5th and 6th millennia BC, has been found at archaeological sites in Majdanpek, Jarmovac and Pločnik, in present-day Serbia.", "The earliest evidence of copper smelting is found at the Belovode site near Pločnik.", "The site produced a copper axe from 5,500 BC, belonging to the Vinča culture.The earliest use of lead was in the late neolithic settlements of Yarim Tepe and Arpachiyah in present-day Iraq.", "The artifacts suggest that lead smelting predated copper smelting.Copper smelting is also documented at this site at about the same time period (soon after 6,000 BC), although the use of lead seems to precede copper smelting.", "Early metallurgy is also documented at the nearby site of Tell Maghzaliyah, which seems to be dated even earlier, and completely lacks that pottery.", "The Balkans were the site of major Neolithic cultures, including Butmir, Vinča, Varna, Karanovo, and Hamangia.The Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria, is a burial site in the western industrial zone of Varna, approximately 4 km from the city centre, internationally considered one of the key archaeological sites in world prehistory.", "The oldest gold treasure in the world, dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC, was discovered at the site.", "The gold piece dating from 4,500 BC, found in 2019 in Durankulak, near Varna is another important example.", "Other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in Palmela, Portugal, Los Millares, Spain, and Stonehenge, United Kingdom.", "The precise beginnings, however, have not be clearly ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing.In approximately 1900 BC, ancient iron smelting sites existed in Tamil Nadu.", "In the Near East, about 3,500 BC, it was discovered that by combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze.", "This represented a major technological shift known as the Bronze Age.The extraction of iron from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin.", "The process appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, beginning the Iron Age.", "The secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines.Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations.", "This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near East, ancient Iran, ancient Egypt, ancient Nubia, and Anatolia in present-day Turkey, Ancient Nok, Carthage, the Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China, ancient and medieval India, ancient and medieval Japan, amongst others.", "Many applications, practices, and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were established in ancient China, such as the innovation of the blast furnace, cast iron, hydraulic-powered trip hammers, and double acting piston bellows.A 16th century book by Georg Agricola, ''De re metallica'', describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction, and metallurgy of the time.", "Agricola has been described as the \"father of metallurgy\"." ], [ "Extraction", "An illustration of a furnace bellows operated by waterwheels during the Yuan Dynasty in ChinaExtractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer form.", "In order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically, or electrolytically.", "Extractive metallurgists are interested in three primary streams: feed, concentrate (metal oxide/sulphide) and tailings (waste).After mining, large pieces of the ore feed are broken through crushing or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough, where each particle is either mostly valuable or mostly waste.", "Concentrating the particles of value in a form supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste products.Mining may not be necessary, if the ore body and physical environment are conducive to leaching.", "Leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched solution.", "The solution is collected and processed to extract valuable metals.", "Ore bodies often contain more than one valuable metal.Tailings of a previous process may be used as a feed in another process to extract a secondary product from the original ore. Additionally, a concentrate may contain more than one valuable metal.", "That concentrate would then be processed to separate the valuable metals into individual constituents." ], [ "Metal and its alloys", "Iron, the most common metal used in metallurgy, is shown in different forms, including cubes, chips, and nuggetsMuch effort has been placed on understanding iron–carbon alloy system, which includes steels and cast irons.", "Plain carbon steels (those that contain essentially only carbon as an alloying element) are used in low-cost, high-strength applications, where neither weight nor corrosion are a major concern.", "Cast irons, including ductile iron, are also part of the iron-carbon system.", "Iron-Manganese-Chromium alloys (Hadfield-type steels) are also used in non-magnetic applications such as directional drilling.Other engineering metals include aluminium, chromium, copper, magnesium, nickel, titanium, zinc, and silicon.", "These metals are most often used as alloys with the noted exception of silicon, which is not a metal.", "Other forms include:* Stainless steel, particularly Austenitic stainless steels, galvanized steel, nickel alloys, titanium alloys, or occasionally copper alloys are used, where resistance to corrosion is important.", "* Aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys are commonly used, when a lightweight strong part is required such as in automotive and aerospace applications.", "* Copper-nickel alloys (such as Monel) are used in highly corrosive environments and for non-magnetic applications.", "* Nickel-based superalloys like Inconel are used in high-temperature applications such as gas turbines, turbochargers, pressure vessels, and heat exchangers.", "* For extremely high temperatures, single crystal alloys are used to minimize creep.", "In modern electronics, high purity single crystal silicon is essential for metal-oxide-silicon transistors (MOS) and integrated circuits." ], [ "Production", "In production engineering, metallurgy is concerned with the production of metallic components for use in consumer or engineering products.", "This involves production of alloys, shaping, heat treatment and surface treatment of product.", "The task of the metallurgist is to achieve balance between material properties, such as cost, weight, strength, toughness, hardness, corrosion, fatigue resistance and performance in temperature extremes.", "To achieve this goal, the operating environment must be carefully considered.Determining the hardness of the metal using the Rockwell, Vickers, and Brinell hardness scales is a commonly used practice that helps better understand the metal's elasticity and plasticity for different applications and production processes.", "In a saltwater environment, most ferrous metals and some non-ferrous alloys corrode quickly.", "Metals exposed to cold or cryogenic conditions may undergo a ductile to brittle transition and lose their toughness, becoming more brittle and prone to cracking.", "Metals under continual cyclic loading can suffer from metal fatigue.", "Metals under constant stress at elevated temperatures can creep.===Metalworking processes===An open-die drop forging with two dies of an ingot, which is then further processed into a wheel* Casting – molten metal is poured into a shaped mold.", "Variants of casting include sand casting, investment casting, also called the lost wax process, die casting, and continuous castings.", "Each of these forms has advantages for certain metals and applications considering factors like magnetism and corrosion.", "* Forging – a red-hot billet is hammered into shape.", "* Rolling – a billet is passed through successively narrower rollers to create a sheet.", "* Extrusion – a hot and malleable metal is forced under pressure through a die, which shapes it before it cools.", "* Machining – lathes, milling machines and drills cut the cold metal to shape.", "* Sintering – a powdered metal is heated in a non-oxidizing environment after being compressed into a die.", "* Fabrication – sheets of metal are cut with guillotines or gas cutters and bent and welded into structural shape.", "* Laser cladding – metallic powder is blown through a movable laser beam (e.g.", "mounted on a NC 5-axis machine).", "The resulting melted metal reaches a substrate to form a melt pool.", "By moving the laser head, it is possible to stack the tracks and build up a three-dimensional piece.", "* 3D printing – Sintering or melting amorphous powder metal in a 3D space to make any object to shape.Cold-working processes, in which the product's shape is altered by rolling, fabrication or other processes, while the product is cold, can increase the strength of the product by a process called work hardening.", "Work hardening creates microscopic defects in the metal, which resist further changes of shape.===Heat treatment===A heat treating furnace at Metals can be heat-treated to alter the properties of strength, ductility, toughness, hardness and resistance to corrosion.", "Common heat treatment processes include annealing, precipitation strengthening, quenching, and tempering:* Annealing process softens the metal by heating it and then allowing it to cool very slowly, which gets rid of stresses in the metal and makes the grain structure large and soft-edged so that, when the metal is hit or stressed it dents or perhaps bends, rather than breaking; it is also easier to sand, grind, or cut annealed metal.", "* Quenching is the process of cooling metal very quickly after heating, thus \"freezing\" the metal's molecules in the very hard martensite form, which makes the metal harder.", "* Tempering relieves stresses in the metal that were caused by the hardening process; tempering makes the metal less hard while making it better able to sustain impacts without breaking.Often, mechanical and thermal treatments are combined in what are known as thermo-mechanical treatments for better properties and more efficient processing of materials.", "These processes are common to high-alloy special steels, superalloys and titanium alloys.===Plating===A simplified diagram of electroplating copper on a metalElectroplating is a chemical surface-treatment technique.", "It involves bonding a thin layer of another metal such as gold, silver, chromium or zinc to the surface of the product.", "This is done by selecting the coating material electrolyte solution, which is the material that is going to coat the workpiece (gold, silver, zinc).", "There needs to be two electrodes of different materials: one the same material as the coating material and one that is receiving the coating material.", "Two electrodes are electrically charged and the coating material is stuck to the work piece.", "It is used to reduce corrosion as well as to improve the product's aesthetic appearance.", "It is also used to make inexpensive metals look like the more expensive ones (gold, silver).=== Shot peening ===Shot peening is a cold working process used to finish metal parts.", "In the process of shot peening, small round shot is blasted against the surface of the part to be finished.", "This process is used to prolong the product life of the part, prevent stress corrosion failures, and also prevent fatigue.", "The shot leaves small dimples on the surface like a peen hammer does, which cause compression stress under the dimple.", "As the shot media strikes the material over and over, it forms many overlapping dimples throughout the piece being treated.", "The compression stress in the surface of the material strengthens the part and makes it more resistant to fatigue failure, stress failures, corrosion failure, and cracking.===Thermal spraying===Thermal spraying techniques are another popular finishing option, and often have better high temperature properties than electroplated coatings.", "Thermal spraying, also known as a spray welding process, is an industrial coating process that consists of a heat source (flame or other) and a coating material that can be in a powder or wire form, which is melted then sprayed on the surface of the material being treated at a high velocity.", "The spray treating process is known by many different names such as HVOF (High Velocity Oxygen Fuel), plasma spray, flame spray, arc spray and metalizing.=== Electroless deposition ===Electroless deposition (ED) or electroless plating is defined as the autocatalytic process through which metals and metal alloys are deposited onto nonconductive surfaces.These nonconductive surfaces include plastics, ceramics, and glass etc., which can then become decorative, anti-corrosive, and conductive depending on their final functions.", "Electroless deposition is a chemical processes that create metal coatings on various materials by autocatalytic chemical reduction of metal cations in a liquid bath." ], [ "Characterization", "Metallography allows the metallurgist to study the microstructure of metals.", "Metallurgists study the microscopic and macroscopic structure of metals using metallography, a technique invented by Henry Clifton Sorby.In metallography, an alloy of interest is ground flat and polished to a mirror finish.", "The sample can then be etched to reveal the microstructure and macrostructure of the metal.", "The sample is then examined in an optical or electron microscope, and the image contrast provides details on the composition, mechanical properties, and processing history.Crystallography, often using diffraction of x-rays or electrons, is another valuable tool available to the modern metallurgist.", "Crystallography allows identification of unknown materials and reveals the crystal structure of the sample.", "Quantitative crystallography can be used to calculate the amount of phases present as well as the degree of strain to which a sample has been subjected." ], [ "See also", "* Adrien Chenot* Archaeometallurgy* CALPHAD* Carbonyl metallurgy* Cupellation* Experimental archaeometallurgy* Goldbeating* Gold phosphine complex* Metallurgical failure analysis* Mineral industry* Pyrometallurgy" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MUMPS" ], [ "Introduction", "'''MUMPS''' (\"Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System\"), or '''M''', is an imperative, high-level programming language with an integrated transaction processing key–value database.", "It was originally developed at Massachusetts General Hospital for managing hospital laboratory information systems.MUMPS technology has since expanded as the predominant database for health information systems and electronic health records in the United States.", "MUMPS-based information systems run over 40% of the hospitals in the U.S., run across all of the U.S. federal hospitals and clinics, and provide health information services for over 54% of patients across the U.S.A unique feature of the MUMPS technology is its integrated database language, allowing direct, high-speed read-write access to permanent disk storage.", "This provides tight integration of unlimited applications within a single database, and provides extremely high performance and reliability as an online transaction processing system." ], [ "History", "=== 1960s-70s - Genesis ===MUMPS was developed by Neil Pappalardo, Robert Greenes, and Curt Marble in Dr. Octo Barnett's lab at the Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) in Boston during 1966 and 1967.It grew out of frustration, during a National Institutes of Health (NIH)-support hospital information systems project at the MGH, with the development in assembly language on a time-shared PDP-1 by primary contractor Bolt Beranek & Newman, Inc. (BBN).", "MUMPS came out of an internal \"skunkworks\" project at MGH by Pappalardo, Greenes, and Marble to create an alternative development environment.", "As a result of initial demonstration of capabilities, Dr. Barnett's proposal to NIH in 1967 for renewal of the hospital computer project grant took the bold step of proposing that the system be built in MUMPS going forward, rather than relying on the BBN approach.", "The project was funded, and serious implementation of the system in MUMPS began.The original MUMPS system was, like Unix a few years later, built on a DEC PDP-7.Octo Barnett and Neil Pappalardo obtained a backward compatible PDP-9, and began using MUMPS in the admissions cycle and laboratory test reporting.", "MUMPS was then an interpreted language, yet even then, incorporated a hierarchical database file system to standardize interaction with the data and abstract disk operations so they were only done by the MUMPS language itself.", "MUMPS was also used in its earliest days in an experimental clinical progress note entry system and a radiology report entry system.Some aspects of MUMPS can be traced from RAND Corporation's JOSS through BBN's TELCOMP and STRINGCOMP.", "The MUMPS team chose to include portability between machines as a design goal.An advanced feature of the MUMPS language not widely supported in operating systems or in computer hardware of the era was multitasking.", "Although time-sharing on mainframe computers was increasingly common in systems such as Multics, most mini-computers did not run parallel programs and threading was not available at all.", "Even on mainframes, the variant of batch processing where a program was run to completion was the most common implementation for an operating system of multi-programming.It was a few years until Unix was developed.", "The lack of memory management hardware also meant that all multi-processing was fraught with the possibility that a memory pointer could change some other process.", "MUMPS programs do not have a standard way to refer to memory directly at all, in contrast to C language, so since the multitasking was enforced by the language, not by any program written in the language it was impossible to have the risk that existed for other systems.Dan Brevik's DEC MUMPS-15 system was adapted to a DEC PDP-15, where it lived for some time.", "It was first installed at Health Data Management Systems of Denver in May 1971.The portability proved to be useful and MUMPS was awarded a government research grant, and so MUMPS was released to the public domain which was a requirement for grants.", "MUMPS was soon ported to a number of other systems including the popular DEC PDP-8, the Data General Nova and on DEC PDP-11 and the Artronix PC12 minicomputer.", "Word about MUMPS spread mostly through the medical community, and was in widespread use, often being locally modified for their own needs.Versions of the MUMPS system were rewritten by technical leaders Dennis \"Dan\" Brevik and Paul Stylos of DEC in 1970 and 1971.By the early 1970s, there were many and varied implementations of MUMPS on a range of hardware platforms.", "Another noteworthy platform was Paul Stylos' DEC MUMPS-11 on the PDP-11, and MEDITECH's MIIS.", "In the Fall of 1972, many MUMPS users attended a conference in Boston which standardized the then-fractured language, and created the '''MUMPS Users Group''' and '''MUMPS Development Committee''' (MDC) to do so.", "These efforts proved successful; a standard was complete by 1974, and was approved, on September 15, 1977, as ANSI standard, X11.1-1977.At about the same time DEC launched DSM-11 (Digital Standard MUMPS) for the PDP-11.This quickly dominated the market, and became the reference implementation of the time.", "Also, InterSystems sold ISM-11 for the PDP-11 (which was identical to DSM-11).=== 1980s ===During the early 1980s several vendors brought MUMPS-based platforms that met the ANSI standard to market.", "The most significant were:* Digital Equipment Corporation with '''DSM''' (Digital Standard MUMPS).", "For the PDP-11 series DSM-11 was released 1977.", "'''VAX DSM''' was sold in parallel after released 1978.Both hardware families as well as MUMPS versions were available until 1995 from DEC.", "The DSM-11 was ported to the Alpha in two variants: '''DSM for OpenVMS''', and as '''DSM for Ultrix'''.", "* InterSystems with '''ISM''' (InterSystems M) on VMS (M/VX), ISM-11 later M/11+ on the PDP-11 platform (1978), M/PC on MS-DOS, M/DG on Data General, M/VM on IBM VM/CMS, and M/UX on various Unixes.", "* Greystone Technology Corporation founded 1980, with a compiled version called GT.M for AIX, HP-UX, UNIX and OpenVMS* DataTree Inc. with an Intel PC-based product called '''DTM'''.", "(1982)* Micronetics Design Corporation (1980) with a product line called '''MSM.'''", "MSM-PC, MSM/386, MS-UNIX, MSM-NT, MSM/VM fo IBM, VAX/VMS platforms and OpenVMS Alpha platforms.", "* Computer Consultants (later renamed MGlobal), a Houston-based company originally created '''CCSM''' on 6800, then 6809, and eventually a port to the 68000, which later became '''MacMUMPS''', a Mac OS-based product.", "They also worked on the '''MGM''' MUMPS implementation.", "MGlobal also ported their implementation to the DOS platform.", "MGlobal MUMPS was the first commercial MUMPS for the IBM PC and the only implementation for the classic Mac OS.", "* Tandem Computers developed an implementation for their fault-tolerant computers.", "* IBM briefly sold a MUMPS implementation named '''MUMPS/VM''' which ran as a virtual machine on top of VM/370.This period also saw considerable MDC activity.", "The second revision of the ANSI standard for MUMPS (X11.1-1984) was approved on November 15, 1984.=== 1990s ===* On November 11, 1990, the third revision of the ANSI standard (X11.1-1990) was approved.", "* In 1992 the same standard was also adopted as ISO standard 11756–1992.Use of '''M''' as an alternative name for the language was approved around the same time.", "* On December 8, 1995, the fourth revision of the standard (X11.1-1995) was approved by ANSI, and by ISO in 1999 as ISO 11756:1999, which was also published by ANSI.", "The MDC finalized a further revision to the standard in 1998 but this has not been presented to ANSI for approval.", "* In 1999 the last M Standard (ISO-IEC 11756-1999) was approved.", "ISO re-affirmed this on 2020.Together with ISO/IEC 15851:1999, Open MUMPS Interconnect and ISO/IEC 15852:1999, MUMPS Windowing Application Programmers Interface.=== 2000s ===* By 1998, the middleware vendor InterSystems had become the dominant player in the MUMPS market with the purchase of several other vendors.", "Initially they acquired DataTree Inc. in 1993.On December 30, 1994, InterSystems acquired the DSM product line from DEC. InterSystems consolidated these products into a single product line, branding them, on several hardware platforms, as '''OpenM'''.", "In 1997, InterSystems launched a new product named Caché.", "This was based on their ISM product, but with influences from the other implementations.", "Micronetics Design Corporation, at this time #2 on the market, was acquired by InterSystems on June 21, 1998.InterSystems remains the dominant \"M vendor\" owning MSM, DSM, ISM, DTM and selling Caché to M developers who write applications for a variety of operating systems.", "Also Intersystems did not use the term M anymore, neither followed the M standard.", "* Greystone Technology Corporation's GT.M implementation was sold to Sanchez Computer Associates (now part of FIS) in the mid-1990s.", "On November 7, 2000, Sanchez made GT.M for Linux available under the GPL license and on October 28, 2005, GT.M for OpenVMS and Tru64 UNIX were also made available under the AGPL license.", "GT.M continues to be available on other UNIX platforms under a traditional license.", "* During 2000, Ray Newman and others released MUMPS V1, an implementation of MUMPS (initially on FreeBSD) similar to DSM-11.MUMPS V1 has since been ported to Linux, Mac OS X, and Windows (using cygwin).", "Initially only for the x86 CPU, MUMPS V1 has now been ported to the Raspberry Pi.", "* Released in April 2002 an '''MSM''' derivative called '''M21''' is offered from the Real Software Company of Rugby, UK.", "* There are also several open source implementations of MUMPS, including some research projects.", "The most notable of these is Mumps/II, by Dr. Kevin O'Kane (Professor Emeritus, University of Northern Iowa) and students' project.", "Dr. O'Kane has also ported the interpreter to Mac OS X.", "* One of the original creators of the MUMPS language, Neil Pappalardo, founded a company called MEDITECH in 1969.They extended and built on the MUMPS language, naming the new language MIIS (and later, another language named MAGIC).", "Unlike InterSystems, MEDITECH no longer sells middleware, so MIIS and MAGIC are now only used internally at MEDITECH.", "* New on the market since 2022 is MiniM from Eugene Karataev=== Name ===The chief executive of InterSystems disliked the name MUMPS and felt that it represented a serious marketing obstacle.", "Thus, favoring M to some extent became identified as alignment with InterSystems.", "The 1990 ANSI Standard was open to both M and MUMPS and after a \"world-wide\" discussion in 1992 the Mumps User Groups officially changed the name to M. The dispute also reflected rivalry between organizations (the M Technology Association, the MUMPS Development Committee, the ANSI and ISO Standards Committees) as to who determines the \"official\" name of the language.A leading authority, and the author of an open source MUMPS implementation, Professor Kevin O'Kane, uses only 'MUMPS'.The most recent standard (ISO/IEC 11756:1999, re-affirmed on 25 June 2010), still mentions both M and MUMPS as officially accepted names.Massachusetts General Hospital registered \"MUMPS\" as a trademark with the USPTO on November 28, 1971, and renewed it on November 16, 1992, but let it expire on August 30, 2003." ], [ "Design", "=== Overview ===MUMPS is a language intended for and designed to build database applications.", "Secondary language features were included to help programmers make applications using minimal computing resources.", "The original implementations were interpreted, though modern implementations may be fully or partially compiled.", "Individual \"programs\" run in memory \"partitions\".", "Early MUMPS memory partitions were limited to 2048 bytes so aggressive abbreviation greatly aided multi-programming on severely resource limited hardware, because more than one MUMPS job could fit into the very small memories extant in hardware at the time.", "The ability to provide multi-user systems was another language design feature.", "The word \"'''M'''ulti-'''P'''rogramming\" in the acronym points to this.", "Even the earliest machines running MUMPS supported multiple jobs running at the same time.", "With the change from mini-computers to micro-computers a few years later, even a \"single user PC\" with a single 8-bit CPU and 16K or 64K of memory could support multiple users, who could connect to it from (non-graphical) video display terminals.Since memory was tight originally, the language design for MUMPS valued very terse code.", "Thus, every MUMPS command or function name could be abbreviated from one to three letters in length, e.g.", "(exit program) as , = function, = command, = function.", "Spaces and end-of-line markers are significant in MUMPS because line scope promoted the same terse language design.", "Thus, a single line of program code could express, with few characters, an idea for which other programming languages could require 5 to 10 times as many characters.", "Abbreviation was a common feature of languages designed in this period (e.g., FOCAL-69, early BASICs such as Tiny BASIC, etc.).", "An unfortunate side effect of this, coupled with the early need to write minimalist code, was that MUMPS programmers routinely did not comment code and used extensive abbreviations.", "This meant that even an expert MUMPS programmer could not just skim through a page of code to see its function but would have to analyze it line by line.Database interaction is transparently built into the language.", "The MUMPS language provides a hierarchical database made up of persistent sparse arrays, which is implicitly \"opened\" for every MUMPS application.", "All variable names prefixed with the caret character () use permanent (instead of RAM) storage, will maintain their values after the application exits, and will be visible to (and modifiable by) other running applications.", "Variables using this shared and permanent storage are called ''Globals'' in MUMPS, because the scoping of these variables is \"globally available\" to all jobs on the system.", "The more recent and more common use of the name \"global variables\" in other languages is a more limited scoping of names, coming from the fact that unscoped variables are \"globally\" available to any programs running in the same process, but not shared among multiple processes.", "The MUMPS Storage mode (i.e.", "globals stored as persistent sparse arrays), gives the MUMPS database the characteristics of a document-oriented database.All variable names which are not prefixed with caret character () are temporary and private.", "Like global variables, they also have a hierarchical storage model, but are only \"locally available\" to a single job, thus they are called \"locals\".", "Both \"globals\" and \"locals\" can have child nodes (called ''subscripts'' in MUMPS terminology).", "Subscripts are not limited to numerals—any ASCII character or group of characters can be a subscript identifier.", "While this is not uncommon for modern languages such as Perl or JavaScript, it was a highly unusual feature in the late 1970s.", "This capability was not universally implemented in MUMPS systems before the 1984 ANSI standard, as only canonically numeric subscripts were required by the standard to be allowed.", "Thus, the variable named 'Car' can have subscripts \"Door\", \"Steering Wheel\", and \"Engine\", each of which can contain a value and have subscripts of their own.", "The variable could have a nested variable subscript of \"Color\" for example.", "Thus, you could saySET ^Car(\"Door\",\"Color\")=\"BLUE\"to modify a nested child node of .", "In MUMPS terms, \"Color\" is the 2nd subscript of the variable (both the names of the child-nodes and the child-nodes themselves are likewise called subscripts).", "Hierarchical variables are similar to objects with properties in many object-oriented languages.", "Additionally, the MUMPS language design requires that all subscripts of variables are automatically kept in sorted order.", "Numeric subscripts (including floating-point numbers) are stored from lowest to highest.", "All non-numeric subscripts are stored in alphabetical order following the numbers.", "In MUMPS terminology, this is ''canonical order''.", "By using only non-negative integer subscripts, the MUMPS programmer can emulate the arrays data type from other languages.", "Although MUMPS does not natively offer a full set of DBMS features such as mandatory schemas, several DBMS systems have been built on top of it that provide application developers with flat-file, relational, and network database features.Additionally, there are built-in operators which treat a delimited string (e.g., comma-separated values) as an array.", "Early MUMPS programmers would often store a structure of related information as a delimited string, parsing it after it was read in; this saved disk access time and offered considerable speed advantages on some hardware.MUMPS has no data types.", "Numbers can be treated as strings of digits, or strings can be treated as numbers by numeric operators (''coerced'', in MUMPS terminology).", "Coercion can have some odd side effects, however.", "For example, when a string is coerced, the parser turns as much of the string (starting from the left) into a number as it can, then discards the rest.", "Thus the statement IF 20 is evaluated as TRUE in MUMPS.Other features of the language are intended to help MUMPS applications interact with each other in a multi-user environment.", "Database locks, process identifiers, and atomicity of database update transactions are all required of standard MUMPS implementations.In contrast to languages in the C or Wirth traditions, some space characters between MUMPS statements are significant.", "A single space separates a command from its argument, and a space, or newline, separates each argument from the next MUMPS token.", "Commands which take no arguments (e.g., ELSE) require two following spaces.", "The concept is that one space separates the command from the (nonexistent) argument, the next separates the \"argument\" from the next command.", "Newlines are also significant; an IF, ELSE or FOR command processes (or skips) everything else till the end-of-line.", "To make those statements control multiple lines, you must use the DO command to create a code block.=== Hello, World!", "example ===A simple \"Hello, World!\"", "program in MUMPS might be: write \"Hello, World!\",!", "and would be run with the command do ^hello after it has been saved to disk.", "For direct execution of the code a kind of \"label\" (any alphanumeric string) on the first position of the program line is needed to tell the mumps interpreter where to start execution.", "Since MUMPS allows commands to be strung together on the same line, and since commands can be abbreviated to a single letter, this routine could be made more compact:w \"Hello, World!\",!", "The ',!'", "after the text generates a newline.", "This code would return to the prompt.=== Features ===ANSI X11.1-1995 gives a complete, formal description of the language; an annotated version of this standard is available online.Language features include:; Data types : There is one universal data type, which is implicitly coerced to string, integer, or floating-point data types as context requires.", "; Booleans : In IF commands and other syntax that has expressions evaluated as conditions, any string value is evaluated as a numeric value and, if that is a nonzero value, then it is interpreted as True.", "a yields 1 if a is less than b, 0 otherwise.", "; Declarations : None.", "All variables are dynamically created at the first time a value is assigned.", "; Lines : are important syntactic entities, unlike their status in languages patterned on C or Pascal.", "Multiple statements per line are allowed and are common.", "The scope of any , , and command is \"the remainder of current line.", "\"; Case sensitivity : Commands and intrinsic functions are case-insensitive.", "In contrast, variable names and labels are case-sensitive.", "There is no special meaning for upper vs. lower-case and few widely followed conventions.", "The percent sign (%) is legal as first character of variables and labels.", "; Postconditionals : execution of almost any command can be controlled by following it with a colon and a truthvalue expression.", "SET:N sets A to \"FOO\" if N is less than 10; DO:N>100 PRINTERR, performs PRINTERR if N is greater than 100.This construct provides a conditional whose scope is less than a full line.", "; Abbreviation : You can abbreviate nearly all commands and native functions to one, two, or three characters.", "; Reserved words : None.", "Since MUMPS interprets source code by context, there is no need for reserved words.", "You may use the names of language commands as variables, so the following is perfectly legal MUMPS code::GREPTHIS() NEW SET,NEW,THEN,IF,KILL,QUIT SET IF=\"KILL\",SET=\"11\",KILL=\"l1\",QUIT=\"RETURN\",THEN=\"KILL\" IF IF=THEN DO THEN QUIT:$QUIT QUIT QUIT ; (quit)THEN IF IF,SET&KILL SET SET=SET+KILL QUIT:MUMPS can be made more obfuscated by using the contracted operator syntax, as shown in this terse example derived from the example above::GREPTHIS() N S,N,T,I,K,Q S I=\"K\",S=\"11\",K=\"l1\",Q=\"R\",T=\"K\" I I=T D T Q:$Q Q QT I I,S&K S S=S+K Q; Arrays : are created dynamically, stored as B-trees, are sparse (i.e.", "use almost no space for missing nodes), can use any number of subscripts, and subscripts can be strings or numeric (including floating point).", "Arrays are always automatically stored in sorted order, so there is never any occasion to sort, pack, reorder, or otherwise reorganize the database.", "Built-in functions such as , , (deprecated), and functions provide efficient examination and traversal of the fundamental array structure, on disk or in memory.", ":for i=10000:1:12345 set sqtable(i)=i*iset address(\"Smith\",\"Daniel\")=\"[email protected]\"; Local arrays : variable names not beginning with caret (i.e.", "\"^\") are stored in memory by process, are private to the creating process, and expire when the creating process terminates.", "The available storage depends on implementation.", "For those implementations using partitions, it is limited to the partition size (a small partition might be 32K).", "For other implementations, it may be several megabytes.", "; Global arrays : ^abc, ^def.", "These are stored on disk, are available to all processes, and are persistent when the creating process terminates.", "Very large globals (for example, hundreds of gigabytes) are practical and efficient in most implementations.", "This is MUMPS' main \"database\" mechanism.", "It is used instead of calling on the operating system to create, write, and read files.", "; Indirection : in many contexts, @VBL can be used, and effectively substitutes the contents of VBL into another MUMPS statement.", "SET XYZ=\"ABC\" SET @XYZ=123 sets the variable ABC to 123.SET SUBROU=\"REPORT\" DO @SUBROU performs the subroutine named REPORT.", "This substitution allows for lazy evaluation and late binding as well as effectively the operational equivalent of \"pointers\" in other languages.", "; Piece function : This breaks variables into segmented pieces guided by a user specified separator string (sometimes called a \"delimiter\").", "Those who know awk will find this familiar.", "$PIECE(STRINGVAR,\"^\",3) means the \"third caret-separated piece of .\"", "The piece function can also appear as an assignment (SET command) target.:$PIECE(\"world.std.com\",\".", "\",2) yields .", ":After:SET X=\"[email protected]\":SET $P(X,\"@\",1)=\"office\" causes X to become \"[email protected]\" (note that is equivalent to and could be written as such).", "; Order function : This function treats its input as a structure, and finds the next index that exists which has the same structure except for the last subscript.", "It returns the sorted value that is ordered after the one given as input.", "(This treats the array reference as a content-addressable data rather than an address of a value.", "):Set stuff(6)=\"xyz\",stuff(10)=26,stuff(15)=\"\":$Order(stuff(\"\")) yields , $Order(stuff(6)) yields , $Order(stuff(8)) yields , $Order(stuff(10)) yields , $Order(stuff(15)) yields .", ":Set i=\"\" For Set i=$O(stuff(i)) Quit:i=\"\" Write !,i,10,stuff(i):Here, the argument-less repeats until stopped by a terminating .", "This line prints a table of and where is successively 6, 10, and 15.:For iterating the database, the Order function returns the next key to use.", ":GTM>S n=\"\"GTM>S n=$order(^nodex(n))GTM>zwr nn=\" building\"GTM>S n=$order(^nodex(n))GTM>zwr nn=\" name:gd\"GTM>S n=$order(^nodex(n))GTM>zwr nn=\"%kml:guid\"MUMPS supports multiple simultaneous users and processes even when the underlying operating system does not (e.g., MS-DOS).", "Additionally, there is the ability to specify an environment for a variable, such as by specifying a machine name in a variable (as in SET ^|\"DENVER\"|A(1000)=\"Foo\"), which can allow you to access data on remote machines.=== Criticism ===Some aspects of MUMPS syntax differ strongly from that of more modern languages, which can cause confusion, although those aspects vary between different versions of the language.", "On some versions, whitespace is not allowed within expressions, as it ends a statement: 2 + 3 is an error, and must be written 2+3.All operators have the same precedence and are left-associative (2+3*10 evaluates to 50).", "The operators for \"less than or equal to\" and \"greater than or equal to\" are '> and ' (that is, the boolean negation operator ' plus a strict comparison operator in the opposite direction), although some versions allow the use of the more standard and >= respectively.", "Periods (.)", "are used to indent the lines in a DO block, not whitespace.", "The ELSE command does not need a corresponding IF, as it operates by inspecting the value in the built-in system variable $test.MUMPS scoping rules are more permissive than other modern languages.", "Declared local variables are scoped using the stack.", "A routine can normally see all declared locals of the routines below it on the call stack, and routines cannot prevent routines they call from modifying their declared locals, unless the caller manually creates a new stack level (do) and aliases each of the variables they wish to protect (.", "new x,y) before calling any child routines.", "By contrast, undeclared variables (variables created by using them, rather than declaration) are in scope for all routines running in the same process, and remain in scope until the program exits.Because MUMPS database references differ from internal variable references only in the caret prefix, it is dangerously easy to unintentionally edit the database, or even to delete a database \"table\"." ], [ "Users", "The US Department of Veterans Affairs (formerly the Veterans Administration) was one of the earliest major adopters of the MUMPS language.", "Their development work (and subsequent contributions to the free MUMPS application codebase) was an influence on many medical users worldwide.", "In 1995, the Veterans Affairs' patient Admission/Tracking/Discharge system, Decentralized Hospital Computer Program (DHCP) was the recipient of the Computerworld Smithsonian Award for best use of Information Technology in Medicine.", "In July 2006, the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) / Veterans Health Administration (VHA) was the recipient of the Innovations in American Government Award presented by the Ash Institute of the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University for its extension of DHCP into the Veterans Health Information Systems and Technology Architecture (VistA).", "Nearly the entire VA hospital system in the United States, the Indian Health Service, and major parts of the Department of Defense CHCS hospital system use MUMPS databases for clinical data tracking.Other healthcare IT companies using MUMPS include:* Epic* MEDITECH* GE Healthcare (formerly IDX Systems and Centricity)* AmeriPath (part of Quest Diagnostics)* Care Centric* Allscripts* Coventry Health Care* EMIS Health* Sunquest Information Systems (formerly Misys Healthcare).", "* NetsmartMany reference laboratories, such as DASA, Quest Diagnostics, and Dynacare, use MUMPS software written by or based on Antrim Corporation code.", "Antrim was purchased by Misys Healthcare (now Sunquest Information Systems) in 2001.MUMPS is also widely used in financial applications.", "MUMPS gained an early following in the financial sector and is in use at many banks and credit unions.", "It is used by TD Ameritrade as well as by the Bank of England and Barclays Bank." ], [ "Implementations", "Since 2005, the most popular implementations of MUMPS have been Greystone Technology MUMPS (GT.M) from Fidelity National Information Services, and Caché, from Intersystems Corporation.", "The European Space Agency announced on May 13, 2010, that it will use the InterSystems Caché database to support the ''Gaia'' mission.", "This mission aims to map the Milky Way with unprecedented precision.", "InterSystems is in the process of phasing out Caché in favor of Iris.Other current implementations include:* M21* YottaDB * MiniM* Reference Standard M* FreeM" ], [ "See also", "* Profile Scripting Language* Caché ObjectScript* GT.M* InterSystems Caché" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Lewkowicz, John.", "''The Complete MUMPS: An Introduction and Reference Manual for the MUMPS Programming Language.''", "* Kirsten, Wolfgang, et al.", "(2003) ''Object-Oriented Application Development Using the Caché Postrelational Database'' ** O'Kane, K.C.", "; ''A language for implementing information retrieval software,'' Online Review, Vol 16, No 3, pp 127–137 (1992).", "* O'Kane, K.C.", "; and McColligan, E. E., ''A case study of a Mumps intranet patient record,'' Journal of the Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society, Vol 11, No 3, pp 81–95 (1997).", "* O'Kane, K.C.", "; and McColligan, E.E., ''A Web Based Mumps Virtual Machine,'' Proceedings of the American Medical Informatics Association 1997* O'Kane, K.C., The Mumps Programming Language, Createspace, , 120 pages (2010)." ], [ "External links", "* * * Mumps Programming Language Interpreter (GPL) by Kevin O'Kane, University of Northern Iowa* * M Links at Hardhats.org* Development and Operation of a MUMPS Laboratory Information System: A Decade's Experience at Johns Hopkins Hospital* IDEA Systems' technology solutions based on YottaDB (formerly FIS GT.M) and Caché* MUMPS documentation, topics, and resources (mixed Czech and English)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mercury (programming language)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mercury''' is a functional logic programming language made for real-world uses.", "The first version was developed at the University of Melbourne, Computer Science department, by Fergus Henderson, Thomas Conway, and Zoltan Somogyi, under Somogyi's supervision, and released on April 8, 1995.Mercury is a purely declarative logic programming language.", "It is related to both Prolog and Haskell.", "It features a strong, static, polymorphic type system, and a strong mode and determinism system.The official implementation, the Melbourne Mercury Compiler, is available for most Unix and Unix-like platforms, including Linux, macOS, and for Windows." ], [ "Overview", "Mercury is based on the logic programming language Prolog.", "It has the same syntax and the same basic concepts such as the selective linear definite clause resolution (SLD) algorithm.", "It can be viewed as a pure subset of Prolog with strong types and modes.", "As such, it is often compared to its predecessor in features and run-time efficiency.The language is designed using software engineering principles.", "Unlike the original implementations of Prolog, it has a separate compilation phase, rather than being directly interpreted.", "This allows a much wider range of errors to be detected before running a program.", "It features a strict static type and mode system and a module system.By using information obtained at compile time (such as type and mode), programs written in Mercury typically perform significantly faster than equivalent programs written in Prolog.", "Its authors claim that Mercury is the fastest logic language in the world, by a wide margin.Mercury is a purely declarative language, unlike Prolog, since it lacks ''extra-logical'' Prolog statements such as !", "(cut) and imperative input/output (I/O).", "This enables advanced static program analysis and program optimization, including compile-time garbage collection, but it can make certain programming constructs (such as a switch over a number of options, with a default) harder to express.", "While Mercury does allow impure functionality, it serves mainly as a way to call foreign language code.", "All impure code must be explicitly marked.", "Operations which would typically be impure (such as input/output) are expressed using pure constructs in Mercury using linear types, by threading a dummy ''world'' value through all relevant code.Notable programs written in Mercury include the Mercury compiler and the Prince XML formatter.", "The Software company ODASE has also been using Mercury to develop its Ontology-Centric software development platform, ODASE." ], [ "Back-ends", "Mercury has several back-ends, which enable compiling Mercury code into several languages, including:===Production level===* Low-level C for GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), the original Mercury back-end* High-level C* Java* C#===Past===* Assembly language via the GCC back-end* Aditi, a deductive database system also developed at the University of Melbourne.", "Mercury-0.12.2 is the last version to support Aditi.", "* Common Intermediate Language (CIL) for the .NET Framework* ErlangMercury also features a foreign language interface, allowing code in other languages (depending on the chosen back-end) to be linked with Mercury code.", "The following foreign languages are possible: Back-end Foreign language(s) C (both levels) C Java Java Erlang Erlang IL Common Intermediate Language (CIL) or C#Other languages can then be interfaced to by calling them from these languages.", "However, this means that foreign language code may need to be written several times for the different backends, otherwise portability between backends will be lost.The most commonly used back-end is the original low-level C back-end." ], [ "Examples", "Hello World: :- module hello.", ":- interface.", ":- import_module io.", ":- pred main(io::di, io::uo) is det.", ":- implementation.", "main(!IO) :- \tio.write_string(\"Hello, World!\\n\", !IO).Calculating the 10th Fibonacci number (in the most obvious way): :- module fib.", ":- interface.", ":- import_module io.", ":- pred main(io::di, io::uo) is det.", ":- implementation.", ":- import_module int.", ":- func fib(int) = int.", "fib(N) = (if N =IO is a \"state variable\", which is syntactic sugar for a pair of variables which are assigned concrete names at compilation; for example, the above is desugared to something like: main(IO0, IO) :- io.write_string(\"fib(10) = \", IO0, IO1), io.write_int(fib(10), IO1, IO2), io.nl(IO2, IO)." ], [ "Release schedule", "The stable release naming scheme was 0.1 up to 0.13 for the first thirteen stable releases.", "In February 2010 the Mercury project decided to name each stable release by using the year and month of the release.", "For example 10.04 is for a release made in April 2010.There is often also a periodic snapshot of the development system ''release of the day'' (ROTD)" ], [ "IDE and editor support", "* Developers provide support for Vim* Flycheck library for Emacs* A plugin is available for the Eclipse IDE* A plugin is available for the NetBeans IDE" ], [ "See also", "* Curry, another functional logic language* Alice, a dialect language of Standard ML* Logtalk, language, an object-oriented extension of Prolog which compiles down to Prolog* Oz/Mozart, a multiparadigm language* Visual Prolog, language, a strongly typed object-oriented extension of Prolog, with a new syntax" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Michael Faraday" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Michael Faraday''' (; 22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was an English scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.", "His main discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis.", "Although Faraday received little formal education, as a self-made man, he was one of the most influential scientists in history.", "It was by his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a direct current that Faraday established the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics.", "Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena.", "He similarly discovered the principles of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and the laws of electrolysis.", "His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became practical for use in technology.As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of the Bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and popularised terminology such as \"anode\", \"cathode\", \"electrode\" and \"ion\".", "Faraday ultimately became the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution, a lifetime position.", "Faraday was an experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple language; his mathematical abilities, however, did not extend as far as trigonometry and were limited to the simplest algebra.", "James Clerk Maxwell took the work of Faraday and others and summarized it in a set of equations which is accepted as the basis of all modern theories of electromagnetic phenomena.", "On Faraday's uses of lines of force, Maxwell wrote that they show Faraday \"to have been in reality a mathematician of a very high order – one from whom the mathematicians of the future may derive valuable and fertile methods.\"", "The SI unit of capacitance is named in his honour: the farad.Albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside pictures of Arthur Schopenhauer and James Clerk Maxwell.", "Physicist Ernest Rutherford stated, \"When we consider the magnitude and extent of his discoveries and their influence on the progress of science and of industry, there is no honour too great to pay to the memory of Faraday, one of the greatest scientific discoverers of all time.\"" ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Michael Faraday was born on 22 September 1791 in Newington Butts, Surrey (which is now part of the London Borough of Southwark).", "His family was not well off.", "His father, James, was a member of the Glasite sect of Christianity.", "James Faraday moved his wife, Margaret (née Hastwell), and two children to London during the winter of 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been an apprentice to the village blacksmith.", "Michael was born in the autumn of that year.", "The young Michael Faraday, who was the third of four children, having only the most basic school education, had to educate himself.At the age of 14 he became an apprentice to George Riebau, a local bookbinder and bookseller in Blandford Street.", "During his seven-year apprenticeship Faraday read many books, including Isaac Watts's ''The Improvement of the Mind'', and he enthusiastically implemented the principles and suggestions contained therein.", "During this period, Faraday held discussions with his peers in the City Philosophical Society where he attended lectures about various scientific topics.", "He also developed an interest in science, especially in electricity.", "Faraday was particularly inspired by the book ''Conversations on Chemistry'' by Jane Marcet.===Adult life===Portrait of Faraday in 1842 by Thomas Phillips In 1812, at the age of 20 and at the end of his apprenticeship, Faraday attended lectures by the eminent English chemist Humphry Davy of the Royal Institution and the Royal Society, and John Tatum, founder of the City Philosophical Society.", "Many of the tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance, who was one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society.", "Faraday subsequently sent Davy a 300-page book based on notes that he had taken during these lectures.", "Davy's reply was immediate, kind, and favourable.", "In 1813, when Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, he decided to employ Faraday as an assistant.", "Coincidentally one of the Royal Institution's assistants, John Payne, was sacked and Sir Humphry Davy had been asked to find a replacement; thus he appointed Faraday as Chemical Assistant at the Royal Institution on 1 March 1813.Very soon Davy entrusted Faraday with the preparation of nitrogen trichloride samples, and they both were injured in an explosion of this very sensitive substance.Faraday married Sarah Barnard (1800–1879) on 12 June 1821.They met through their families at the Sandemanian church, and he confessed his faith to the Sandemanian congregation the month after they were married.", "They had no children.Faraday was a devout Christian; his Sandemanian denomination was an offshoot of the Church of Scotland.", "Well after his marriage, he served as deacon and for two terms as an elder in the meeting house of his youth.", "His church was located at Paul's Alley in the Barbican.", "This meeting house relocated in 1862 to Barnsbury Grove, Islington; this North London location was where Faraday served the final two years of his second term as elder prior to his resignation from that post.", "Biographers have noted that \"a strong sense of the unity of God and nature pervaded Faraday's life and work.", "\"===Later life===Three Fellows of the Royal Society offering the presidency to Faraday, 1857In June 1832, the University of Oxford granted Faraday an honorary Doctor of Civil Law degree.", "During his lifetime, he was offered a knighthood in recognition for his services to science, which he turned down on religious grounds, believing that it was against the word of the Bible to accumulate riches and pursue worldly reward, and stating that he preferred to remain \"plain Mr Faraday to the end\".", "Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1824, he twice refused to become President.", "He became the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution in 1833.In 1832, Faraday was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1838.In 1840, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.", "He was one of eight foreign members elected to the French Academy of Sciences in 1844.In 1849 he was elected as associated member to the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, which two years later became the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and he was subsequently made foreign member.Faraday's grave at Highgate Cemetery, LondonFaraday had a nervous breakdown in 1839 but eventually returned to his investigations into electromagnetism.", "In 1848, as a result of representations by the Prince Consort, Faraday was awarded a grace and favour house in Hampton Court in Middlesex, free of all expenses and upkeep.", "This was the Master Mason's House, later called Faraday House, and now No.", "37 Hampton Court Road.", "In 1858 Faraday retired to live there.Having provided a number of various service projects for the British government, when asked by the government to advise on the production of chemical weapons for use in the Crimean War (1853–1856), Faraday refused to participate, citing ethical reasons.Faraday died at his house at Hampton Court on 25 August 1867, aged 75.He had some years before turned down an offer of burial in Westminster Abbey upon his death, but he has a memorial plaque there, near Isaac Newton's tomb.", "Faraday was interred in the dissenters' (non-Anglican) section of Highgate Cemetery." ], [ "Scientific achievements", "===Chemistry===Equipment used by Faraday to make glass on display at the Royal Institution in LondonFaraday's earliest chemical work was as an assistant to Humphry Davy.", "Faraday was involved in the study of chlorine; he discovered two new compounds of chlorine and carbon: hexachloroethane which he made via the chlorination of ethylene and carbon tetrachloride from the decomposition of the former.", "He also conducted the first rough experiments on the diffusion of gases, a phenomenon that was first pointed out by John Dalton.", "The physical importance of this phenomenon was more fully revealed by Thomas Graham and Joseph Loschmidt.", "Faraday succeeded in liquefying several gases, investigated the alloys of steel, and produced several new kinds of glass intended for optical purposes.", "A specimen of one of these heavy glasses subsequently became historically important; when the glass was placed in a magnetic field Faraday determined the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light.", "This specimen was also the first substance found to be repelled by the poles of a magnet.Faraday invented an early form of what was to become the Bunsen burner, which is still in practical use in science laboratories around the world as a convenient source of heat.Faraday worked extensively in the field of chemistry, discovering chemical substances such as benzene (which he called bicarburet of hydrogen) and liquefying gases such as chlorine.", "The liquefying of gases helped to establish that gases are the vapours of liquids possessing a very low boiling point and gave a more solid basis to the concept of molecular aggregation.", "In 1820 Faraday reported the first synthesis of compounds made from carbon and chlorine, C2Cl6 and CCl4, and published his results the following year.", "Faraday also determined the composition of the chlorine clathrate hydrate, which had been discovered by Humphry Davy in 1810.Faraday is also responsible for discovering the laws of electrolysis, and for popularizing terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion, terms proposed in large part by William Whewell.Faraday was the first to report what later came to be called metallic nanoparticles.", "In 1847 he discovered that the optical properties of gold colloids differed from those of the corresponding bulk metal.", "This was probably the first reported observation of the effects of quantum size, and might be considered to be the birth of nanoscience.===Electricity and magnetism===Faraday is best known for his work on electricity and magnetism.", "His first recorded experiment was the construction of a voltaic pile with seven British halfpenny coins, stacked together with seven discs of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water.", "With this pile he decomposed sulfate of magnesia (first letter to Abbott, 12 July 1812).Electromagnetic rotation experiment of Faraday, 1821, the first demonstration of the conversion of electrical energy into motionIn 1821, soon after the Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism, Davy and William Hyde Wollaston tried, but failed, to design an electric motor.", "Faraday, having discussed the problem with the two men, went on to build two devices to produce what he called \"electromagnetic rotation\".", "One of these, now known as the homopolar motor, caused a continuous circular motion that was engendered by the circular magnetic force around a wire that extended into a pool of mercury wherein was placed a magnet; the wire would then rotate around the magnet if supplied with current from a chemical battery.", "These experiments and inventions formed the foundation of modern electromagnetic technology.", "In his excitement, Faraday published results without acknowledging his work with either Wollaston or Davy.", "The resulting controversy within the Royal Society strained his mentor relationship with Davy and may well have contributed to Faraday's assignment to other activities, which consequently prevented his involvement in electromagnetic research for several years.One of Faraday's 1831 experiments demonstrating induction.", "The liquid battery ''(right)'' sends an electric current through the small coil ''(A)''.", "When it is moved in or out of the large coil ''(B)'', its magnetic field induces a momentary voltage in the coil, which is detected by the galvanometer ''(G)''.From his initial discovery in 1821, Faraday continued his laboratory work, exploring electromagnetic properties of materials and developing requisite experience.", "In 1824, Faraday briefly set up a circuit to study whether a magnetic field could regulate the flow of a current in an adjacent wire, but he found no such relationship.", "This experiment followed similar work conducted with light and magnets three years earlier that yielded identical results.", "During the next seven years, Faraday spent much of his time perfecting his recipe for optical quality (heavy) glass, borosilicate of lead, which he used in his future studies connecting light with magnetism.", "In his spare time, Faraday continued publishing his experimental work on optics and electromagnetism; he conducted correspondence with scientists whom he had met on his journeys across Europe with Davy, and who were also working on electromagnetism.", "Two years after the death of Davy, in 1831, he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction, recording in his laboratory diary on 28 October 1831 he was; \"making many experiments with the great magnet of the Royal Society\".A diagram of Faraday's iron ring-coil apparatusBuilt in 1831, the Faraday disc was the first electric generator.", "The horseshoe-shaped magnet ''(A)'' created a magnetic field through the disc ''(D)''.", "When the disc was turned, this induced an electric current radially outward from the centre toward the rim.", "The current flowed out through the sliding spring contact ''m'', through the external circuit, and back into the centre of the disc through the axle.Faraday's breakthrough came when he wrapped two insulated coils of wire around an iron ring, and found that, upon passing a current through one coil, a momentary current was induced in the other coil.", "This phenomenon is now known as mutual inductance.", "The iron ring-coil apparatus is still on display at the Royal Institution.", "In subsequent experiments, he found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire an electric current flowed in that wire.", "The current also flowed if the loop was moved over a stationary magnet.", "His demonstrations established that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field; this relation was modelled mathematically by James Clerk Maxwell as Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations, and which have in turn evolved into the generalization known today as field theory.", "Faraday would later use the principles he had discovered to construct the electric dynamo, the ancestor of modern power generators and the electric motor.John Daniell (left), founders of electrochemistryIn 1832, he completed a series of experiments aimed at investigating the fundamental nature of electricity; Faraday used \"static\", batteries, and \"animal electricity\" to produce the phenomena of electrostatic attraction, electrolysis, magnetism, etc.", "He concluded that, contrary to the scientific opinion of the time, the divisions between the various \"kinds\" of electricity were illusory.", "Faraday instead proposed that only a single \"electricity\" exists, and the changing values of quantity and intensity (current and voltage) would produce different groups of phenomena.Near the end of his career, Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor.", "This idea was rejected by his fellow scientists, and Faraday did not live to see the eventual acceptance of his proposition by the scientific community.", "Faraday's concept of lines of flux emanating from charged bodies and magnets provided a way to visualize electric and magnetic fields; that conceptual model was crucial for the successful development of the electromechanical devices that dominated engineering and industry for the remainder of the 19th century.===Diamagnetism===Faraday holding a type of glass bar he used in 1845 to show magnetism affects light in dielectric materialIn 1845, Faraday discovered that many materials exhibit a weak repulsion from a magnetic field: an effect he termed diamagnetism.Faraday also discovered that the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light can be rotated by the application of an external magnetic field aligned with the direction in which the light is moving.", "This is now termed the Faraday effect.", "In Sept 1845 he wrote in his notebook, \"I have at last succeeded in ''illuminating a magnetic curve'' or ''line of force'' and in ''magnetising a ray of light''\".Later on in his life, in 1862, Faraday used a spectroscope to search for a different alteration of light, the change of spectral lines by an applied magnetic field.", "The equipment available to him was, however, insufficient for a definite determination of spectral change.", "Pieter Zeeman later used an improved apparatus to study the same phenomenon, publishing his results in 1897 and receiving the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for his success.", "In both his 1897 paper and his Nobel acceptance speech, Zeeman made reference to Faraday's work.====Faraday cage====In his work on static electricity, Faraday's ice pail experiment demonstrated that the charge resided only on the exterior of a charged conductor, and exterior charge had no influence on anything enclosed within a conductor.", "This is because the exterior charges redistribute such that the interior fields emanating from them cancel one another.", "This shielding effect is used in what is now known as a Faraday cage.", "In January 1836, Faraday had put a wooden frame, 12 ft square, on four glass supports and added paper walls and wire mesh.", "He then stepped inside and electrified it.", "When he stepped out of his electrified cage, Faraday had shown that electricity was a force, not an imponderable fluid as was believed at the time." ], [ "Royal Institution and public service", "Michael Faraday meets Father Thames, from ''Punch'' (21 July 1855).Faraday had a long association with the Royal Institution of Great Britain.", "He was appointed Assistant Superintendent of the House of the Royal Institution in 1821.He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1824.In 1825, he became Director of the Laboratory of the Royal Institution.", "Six years later, in 1833, Faraday became the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for life without the obligation to deliver lectures.", "His sponsor and mentor was John 'Mad Jack' Fuller, who created the position at the Royal Institution for Faraday.Beyond his scientific research into areas such as chemistry, electricity, and magnetism at the Royal Institution, Faraday undertook numerous, and often time-consuming, service projects for private enterprise and the British government.", "This work included investigations of explosions in coal mines, being an expert witness in court, and along with two engineers from Chance Brothers , the preparation of high-quality optical glass, which was required by Chance for its lighthouses.", "In 1846, together with Charles Lyell, he produced a lengthy and detailed report on a serious explosion in the colliery at Haswell, County Durham, which killed 95 miners.", "Their report was a meticulous forensic investigation and indicated that coal dust contributed to the severity of the explosion.", "The first-time explosions had been linked to dust, Faraday gave a demonstration during a lecture on how ventilation could prevent it.", "The report should have warned coal owners of the hazard of coal dust explosions, but the risk was ignored for over 60 years until the 1913 Senghenydd Colliery Disaster.Lighthouse lantern room from mid-1800sAs a respected scientist in a nation with strong maritime interests, Faraday spent extensive amounts of time on projects such as the construction and operation of lighthouses and protecting the bottoms of ships from corrosion.", "His workshop still stands at Trinity Buoy Wharf above the Chain and Buoy Store, next to London's only lighthouse where he carried out the first experiments in electric lighting for lighthouses.Faraday was also active in what would now be called environmental science, or engineering.", "He investigated industrial pollution at Swansea and was consulted on air pollution at the Royal Mint.", "In July 1855, Faraday wrote a letter to ''The Times'' on the subject of the foul condition of the River Thames, which resulted in an often-reprinted cartoon in ''Punch''.", "(See also The Great Stink).ideomotor effect on table-turningFaraday assisted with the planning and judging of exhibits for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London.", "He also advised the National Gallery on the cleaning and protection of its art collection, and served on the National Gallery Site Commission in 1857.Education was another of Faraday's areas of service; he lectured on the topic in 1854 at the Royal Institution, and, in 1862, he appeared before a Public Schools Commission to give his views on education in Great Britain.", "Faraday also weighed in negatively on the public's fascination with table-turning, mesmerism, and seances, and in so doing chastised both the public and the nation's educational system.Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution in 1856Before his famous Christmas lectures, Faraday delivered chemistry lectures for the City Philosophical Society from 1816 to 1818 in order to refine the quality of his lectures.Between 1827 and 1860 at the Royal Institution in London, Faraday gave a series of nineteen Christmas lectures for young people, a series which continues today.", "The objective of the lectures was to present science to the general public in the hopes of inspiring them and generating revenue for the Royal Institution.", "They were notable events on the social calendar among London's gentry.", "Over the course of several letters to his close friend Benjamin Abbott, Faraday outlined his recommendations on the art of lecturing, writing \"a flame should be lighted at the commencement and kept alive with unremitting splendour to the end\".", "His lectures were joyful and juvenile, he delighted in filling soap bubbles with various gasses (in order to determine whether or not they are magnetic), but the lectures were also deeply philosophical.", "In his lectures he urged his audiences to consider the mechanics of his experiments: \"you know very well that ice floats upon water ... Why does the ice float?", "Think of that, and philosophise\".", "The subjects in his lectures consisted of Chemistry and Electricity, and included: 1841: ''The Rudiments of Chemistry'', 1843: ''First Principles of Electricity'', 1848: ''The Chemical History of a Candle'', 1851: ''Attractive Forces'', 1853: ''Voltaic Electricity'', 1854: ''The Chemistry of Combustion'', 1855: ''The Distinctive Properties of the Common Metals'', 1857: ''Static Electricity'', 1858: ''The Metallic Properties'', 1859: ''The Various Forces of Matter and their Relations to Each Other''." ], [ "Commemorations", "Statue of Faraday in Savoy Place, London.", "Sculptor John Henry Foley.A statue of Michael Faraday stands in Savoy Place, London, outside the Institution of Engineering and Technology.", "The Faraday Memorial, designed by brutalist architect Rodney Gordon and completed in 1961, is at the Elephant & Castle gyratory system, near Faraday's birthplace at Newington Butts, London.", "Faraday School is located on Trinity Buoy Wharf where his workshop still stands above the Chain and Buoy Store, next to London's only lighthouse.", "Faraday Gardens is a small park in Walworth, London, not far from his birthplace at Newington Butts.", "It lies within the local council ward of Faraday in the London Borough of Southwark.", "Michael Faraday Primary school is situated on the Aylesbury Estate in Walworth.A building at London South Bank University, which houses the institute's electrical engineering departments is named the Faraday Wing, due to its proximity to Faraday's birthplace in Newington Butts.", "A hall at Loughborough University was named after Faraday in 1960.Near the entrance to its dining hall is a bronze casting, which depicts the symbol of an electrical transformer, and inside there hangs a portrait, both in Faraday's honour.", "An eight-story building at the University of Edinburgh's science & engineering campus is named for Faraday, as is a recently built hall of accommodation at Brunel University, the main engineering building at Swansea University, and the instructional and experimental physics building at Northern Illinois University.", "The former UK Faraday Station in Antarctica was named after him.Streets named for Faraday can be found in many British cities (e.g., London, Fife, Swindon, Basingstoke, Nottingham, Whitby, Kirkby, Crawley, Newbury, Swansea, Aylesbury and Stevenage) as well as in France (Paris), Germany (Berlin-Dahlem, Hermsdorf), Canada (Quebec City, Quebec; Deep River, Ontario; Ottawa, Ontario), the United States (The Bronx, New York and Reston, Virginia), and New Zealand (Hawke's Bay).Plaque erected in 1876 by the Royal Society of Arts in Marylebone, LondonA Royal Society of Arts blue plaque, unveiled in 1876, commemorates Faraday at 48 Blandford Street in London's Marylebone district.", "From 1991 until 2001, Faraday's picture featured on the reverse of Series E £20 banknotes issued by the Bank of England.", "He was portrayed conducting a lecture at the Royal Institution with the magneto-electric spark apparatus.", "In 2002, Faraday was ranked number 22 in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote.Faraday has been commemorated on postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail.", "In 1991, as a pioneer of electricity he featured in their Scientific Achievements issue along with pioneers in three other fields (Charles Babbage (computing), Frank Whittle (jet engine) and Robert Watson-Watt (radar)).", "In 1999, under the title \"Faraday's Electricity\", he featured in their World Changers issue along with Charles Darwin, Edward Jenner and Alan Turing.The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion derives its name from the scientist, who saw his faith as integral to his scientific research.", "The logo of the institute is also based on Faraday's discoveries.", "It was created in 2006 by a $2,000,000 grant from the John Templeton Foundation to carry out academic research, to foster understanding of the interaction between science and religion, and to engage public understanding in both these subject areas.The Faraday Institution, an independent energy storage research institute established in 2017, also derives its name from Michael Faraday.", "The organisation serves as the UK's primary research programme to advance battery science and technology, education, public engagement and market research.Faraday's life and contributions to electromagnetics was the principal topic of the tenth episode, titled \"The Electric Boy\", of the 2014 American science documentary series, ''Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey'', which was broadcast on Fox and the National Geographic Channel.Aldous Huxley wrote about Faraday in an essay entitled, ''A Night in Pietramala'': \"He is always the natural philosopher.", "To discover truth is his sole aim and interest ... even if I could be Shakespeare, I think I should still choose to be Faraday.\"", "Calling Faraday her \"hero\", in a speech to the Royal Society, Margaret Thatcher declared: \"The value of his work must be higher than the capitalisation of all the shares on the Stock Exchange!\"", "She borrowed his bust from the Royal Institution and had it placed in the hall of 10 Downing Street." ], [ "Awards named in Faraday's honour", "In honor and remembrance of his great scientific contributions, several institutions have created prizes and awards in his name.", "This include:* The IET Faraday Medal* The Royal Society of London Michael Faraday Prize* The Institute of Physics Michael Faraday Medal and Prize* The Royal Society of Chemistry Faraday Lectureship Prize" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Michael Faraday (1791-1867).jpg|Portrait of young Michael Faraday, File:M Faraday Lab H Moore.jpg|Michael Faraday in his laboratory, File:Royal Institution - Michael Faraday's study.jpg|Michael Faraday's study at the Royal InstitutionFile:Michael Faradays Flat at Royal Institution.jpg|Michael Faraday's flat at the Royal InstitutionFile:Harriett Moore small.jpg|Artist Harriet Jane Moore who documented Faraday's life in watercolours" ], [ "Bibliography", "''Chemische Manipulation'', 1828Faraday's books, with the exception of ''Chemical Manipulation'', were collections of scientific papers or transcriptions of lectures.", "Since his death, Faraday's diary has been published, as have several large volumes of his letters and Faraday's journal from his travels with Davy in 1813–1815.", "* 2nd ed.", "1830, 3rd ed.", "1842* ; vol.", "iii.", "Richard Taylor and William Francis, 1855* * * * – published in eight volumes; see also the 2009 publication of Faraday's diary* * – volume 2, 1993; volume 3, 1996; volume 4, 1999* * Course of six lectures on the various forces of matter, and their relations to each other London; Glasgow: R. Griffin, 1860.", "* The Liquefaction of Gases, Edinburgh: W.F.", "Clay, 1896.", "* The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 1836–1862.With notes, comments and references to contemporary letters London: Williams & Norgate 1899.", "( Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf)" ], [ "See also", "* Faraday's Constant (96,485.33212 Coulombs per Mole) conversion factor* Forensic engineering* Nikola Tesla* Timeline of hydrogen technologies* Timeline of low-temperature technology* Zeeman effect" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "===Biographies===* * * * The British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers Association (1931).", "''Faraday''.", "Edinburgh: R. & R. Clark, Ltd.* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "===Biographies===* Biography at The Royal Institution of Great Britain* Faraday as a Discoverer by John Tyndall, Project Gutenberg (downloads)* The Christian Character of Michael Faraday* The Life and Discoveries of Michael Faraday by J.", "A. Crowther, London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1920===Others===* * * * Complete Correspondence of Michael Faraday Searchable full texts of all letters to and from Faraday, based on the standard edition by Frank James* Video Podcast with Sir John Cadogan talking about Benzene since Faraday* The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 1836–1862.With notes, comments and references to contemporary letters (1899) full download PDF* Faraday School, located on Trinity Buoy Wharf at the New Model School Company Limited's website* , Chemical Heritage Foundation" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marriage" ], [ "Introduction", "The wedding of Rinchen Lhamo, a Tibetan woman, and Louis King, an Englishman.|331x331px'''Marriage''', also called '''matrimony''' or '''wedlock''', is a culturally and often legally recognized union between people called spouses.", "It establishes rights and obligations between them, as well as between them and their children (if any), and between them and their in-laws.", "It is nearly a cultural universal, but the definition of marriage varies between cultures and religions, and over time.", "Marriage becomes a social construct to adjudicate the conflicts of interest between consenting individuals and a transactional means to fulfill their needs.", "Typically, it is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexual, are acknowledged or sanctioned.", "In some cultures, marriage is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing sexual activity.", "A marriage ceremony is called a wedding, while a private marriage is sometimes called an elopement.Around the world, there has been a general trend towards ensuring equal rights for women and ending discrimination and harassment against couples who are interethnic, interracial, interfaith, interdenominational, inter-caste, transnational, same-sex, and transgender as well as immigrant couples, couples with an immigrant spouse, and other minority couples.", "Debates persist regarding the legal status of married women, leniency towards violence within marriage, customs such as dowry and bride price, marriageable age, and criminalization of premarital and extramarital sex.", "Individuals may marry for several reasons, including legal, social, libidinal, emotional, financial, spiritual, economic, political, religious, and sexual purposes.", "In some areas of the world, arranged marriage, forced marriage, polygamy marriage, polyandry marriage, polygyny marriage, coverture marriage, child marriage, cousin marriage, sibling marriage, teenage marriage, and avunculate marriage are practiced and legally permissible, while others areas outlaw them to protect human rights.", "Female age at marriage has proven to be a strong indicator for female autonomy and is continuously used by economic history research.Marriage can be recognized by a state, an organization, a religious authority a tribal group, a local community, or peers.", "It is often viewed as a contract.", "A religious marriage is performed by a religious institution to recognize and create the rights and obligations intrinsic to matrimony in that religion.", "Religious marriage is known variously as ''sacramental marriage'' in Christianity (especially Catholicism), ''nikah'' in Islam, ''nissuin'' in Judaism, and various other names in other faith traditions, each with their own constraints as to what constitutes, and who can enter into, a valid religious marriage." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"marriage\" derives from Middle English '''', which first appears in 1250–1300 CE.", "This, in turn, is derived from Old French, '''' (to marry), and ultimately Latin, '''', meaning to provide with a husband or wife and '''' meaning to get married.", "The adjective '''' meaning matrimonial or nuptial could also be used in the masculine form as a noun for \"husband\" and in the feminine form for \"wife\".", "The related word \"matrimony\" derives from the Old French word '''', which appears around 1300 CE and ultimately derives from Latin '''', which combines the two concepts: '''' meaning \"mother\" and the suffix signifying \"action, state, or condition\"." ], [ "Definitions", "Anthropologists have proposed several competing definitions of marriage in an attempt to encompass the wide variety of marital practices observed across cultures.", "Even within Western culture, \"definitions of marriage have careened from one extreme to another and everywhere in between\" (as Evan Gerstmann has put it).===Relation recognized by custom or law===In ''The History of Human Marriage'' (1891), Edvard Westermarck defined marriage as \"a more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of the offspring.\"", "In ''The Future of Marriage in Western Civilization'' (1936), he rejected his earlier definition, instead provisionally defining marriage as \"a relation of one or more men to one or more women that is recognized by custom or law\".===Legitimacy of offspring===The anthropological handbook ''Notes and Queries'' (1951) defined marriage as \"a union between a man and a woman such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners.\"", "In recognition of a practice by the Nuer people of Sudan allowing women to act as a husband in certain circumstances (the ghost marriage), Kathleen Gough suggested modifying this to \"a woman and one or more other persons.", "\"In an analysis of marriage among the Nayar, a polyandrous society in India, Gough found that the group lacked a husband role in the conventional sense.", "The husband role, unitary in the west, was instead divided between a non-resident \"social father\" of the woman's children, and her lovers, who were the actual procreators.", "None of these men had legal rights to the woman's child.", "This forced Gough to disregard sexual access as a key element of marriage and to define it in terms of legitimacy of offspring alone: marriage is \"a relationship established between a woman and one or more other persons, which provides a child born to the woman under circumstances not prohibited by the rules of relationship, is accorded full birth-status rights common to normal members of his society or social stratum.", "\"Economic anthropologist Duran Bell has criticized the legitimacy-based definition on the basis that some societies do not require marriage for legitimacy.", "He argued that a legitimacy-based definition of marriage is circular in societies where illegitimacy has no other legal or social implications for a child other than the mother being unmarried.===Collection of rights===Edmund Leach criticized Gough's definition for being too restrictive in terms of recognized legitimate offspring and suggested that marriage be viewed in terms of the different types of rights it serves to establish.", "In a 1955 article in ''Man'', Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures.", "He offered a list of ten rights associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children, with specific rights differing across cultures.", "Those rights, according to Leach, included:# \"To establish a legal father of a woman's children.# To establish a legal mother of a man's children.# To give the husband a monopoly in the wife's sexuality.# To give the wife a monopoly in the husband's sexuality.# To give the husband partial or monopolistic rights to the wife's domestic and other labor services.# To give the wife partial or monopolistic rights to the husband's domestic and other labor services.# To give the husband partial or total control over property belonging or potentially accruing to the wife.# To give the wife partial or total control over property belonging or potentially accruing to the husband.# To establish a joint fund of property – a partnership – for the benefit of the children of the marriage.# To establish a socially significant 'relationship of affinity' between the husband and his wife's brothers.", "\"===Right of sexual access===In a 1997 article in ''Current Anthropology'', Duran Bell describes marriage as \"a relationship between one or more men (male or female) in severalty to one or more women that provides those men with a demand-right of sexual access within a domestic group and identifies women who bear the obligation of yielding to the demands of those specific men.\"", "In referring to \"men in severalty\", Bell is referring to corporate kin groups such as lineages which, in having paid bride price, retain a right in a woman's offspring even if her husband (a lineage member) deceases (Levirate marriage).", "In referring to \"men (male or female)\", Bell is referring to women within the lineage who may stand in as the \"social fathers\" of the wife's children born of other lovers.", "(See Nuer \"ghost marriage\".)" ], [ "Types", "===Monogamy===Ancient Sumerian depiction of the marriage of Inanna and DumuzidMonogamy is a form of marriage in which an individual has only one spouse during their lifetime or at any one time (serial monogamy).Anthropologist Jack Goody's comparative study of marriage around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas found a strong correlation between intensive plough agriculture, dowry and monogamy.", "This pattern was found in a broad swath of Eurasian societies from Japan to Ireland.", "The majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice extensive hoe agriculture, in contrast, show a correlation between \"bride price\" and polygamy.", "A further study drawing on the Ethnographic Atlas showed a statistical correlation between increasing size of the society, the belief in \"high gods\" to support human morality, and monogamy.In the countries which do not permit polygamy, a person who marries in one of those countries a person while still being lawfully married to another commits the crime of bigamy.", "In all cases, the second marriage is considered legally null and void.", "Besides the second and subsequent marriages being void, the bigamist is also liable to other penalties, which also vary between jurisdictions.====Serial monogamy====Governments that support monogamy may allow easy divorce.", "In a number of Western countries, divorce rates approach 50%.", "Those who remarry do so usually no more than three times.", "Divorce and remarriage can thus result in \"serial monogamy\", i.e.", "having multiple marriages but only one legal spouse at a time.", "This can be interpreted as a form of plural mating, as are those societies dominated by female-headed families in the Caribbean, Mauritius and Brazil where there is frequent rotation of unmarried partners.", "In all, these account for 16 to 24% of the \"monogamous\" category.Indian Hindu wedding with the bride and groom in traditional dress.Serial monogamy creates a new kind of relative, the \"ex-\".", "The \"ex-wife\", for example, may remain an active part of her \"ex-husband's\" or \"ex-wife's\" life, as they may be tied together by transfers of resources (alimony, child support), or shared child custody.", "Bob Simpson notes that in the British case, serial monogamy creates an \"extended family\" – a number of households tied together in this way, including mobile children (possible exes may include an ex-wife, an ex-brother-in-law, etc., but not an \"ex-child\").", "These \"unclear families\" do not fit the mould of the monogamous nuclear family.", "As a series of connected households, they come to resemble the polygynous model of separate households maintained by mothers with children, tied by a male to whom they are married or divorced.===Polygamy===Chinese immigrant with his three wives and fourteen children, Cairns, 1904Polygamy is a marriage which includes more than two spouses.", "When a man is married to more than one wife at a time, the relationship is called polygyny, and there is no marriage bond between the wives; and when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry, and there is no marriage bond between the husbands.", "If a marriage includes multiple husbands or wives, it can be called group marriage.A molecular genetic study of global human genetic diversity argued that sexual polygyny was typical of human reproductive patterns until the shift to sedentary farming communities approximately 10,000 to 5,000 years ago in Europe and Asia, and more recently in Africa and the Americas.", "As noted above, Anthropologist Jack Goody's comparative study of marriage around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas found that the majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice extensive hoe agriculture show a correlation between \"Bride price\" and polygamy.", "A survey of other cross-cultural samples has confirmed that the absence of the plough was the only predictor of polygamy, although other factors such as high male mortality in warfare (in non-state societies) and pathogen stress (in state societies) had some impact.Marriages are classified according to the number of legal spouses an individual has.", "The suffix \"-gamy\" refers specifically to the number of spouses, as in bi-gamy (two spouses, generally illegal in most nations), and poly-gamy (more than one spouse).Societies show variable acceptance of polygamy as a cultural ideal and practice.", "According to the Ethnographic Atlas, of 1,231 societies noted, 186 were monogamous; 453 had occasional polygyny; 588 had more frequent polygyny, and 4 had polyandry.", "However, as Miriam Zeitzen writes, social tolerance for polygamy is different from the practice of polygamy, since it requires wealth to establish multiple households for multiple wives.", "The actual practice of polygamy in a tolerant society may actually be low, with the majority of aspirant polygamists practicing monogamous marriage.", "Tracking the occurrence of polygamy is further complicated in jurisdictions where it has been banned, but continues to be practiced (''de facto polygamy'').Zeitzen also notes that Western perceptions of African society and marriage patterns are biased by \"contradictory concerns of nostalgia for traditional African culture versus critique of polygamy as oppressive to women or detrimental to development.\"", "Polygamy has been condemned as being a form of human rights abuse, with concerns arising over domestic abuse, forced marriage, and neglect.", "The vast majority of the world's countries, including virtually all of the world's developed nations, do not permit polygamy.", "There have been calls for the abolition of polygamy in developing countries.====Polygyny====Polygyny usually grants wives equal status, although the husband may have personal preferences.", "One type of de facto polygyny is concubinage, where only one woman gets a wife's rights and status, while other women remain legal house mistresses.Although a society may be classified as polygynous, not all marriages in it necessarily are; monogamous marriages may in fact predominate.", "It is to this flexibility that Anthropologist Robin Fox attributes its success as a social support system: \"This has often meant – given the imbalance in the sex ratios, the higher male infant mortality, the shorter life span of males, the loss of males in wartime, etc.", "– that often women were left without financial support from husbands.", "To correct this condition, females had to be killed at birth, remain single, become prostitutes, or be siphoned off into celibate religious orders.", "Polygynous systems have the advantage that they can promise, as did the Mormons, a home and family for every woman.", "\"Nonetheless, polygyny is a gender issue which offers men asymmetrical benefits.", "In some cases, there is a large age discrepancy (as much as a generation) between a man and his youngest wife, compounding the power differential between the two.", "Tensions not only exist ''between'' genders, but also ''within'' genders; senior and junior men compete for wives, and senior and junior wives in the same household may experience radically different life conditions, and internal hierarchy.", "Several studies have suggested that the wive's relationship with other women, including co-wives and husband's female kin, are more critical relationships than that with her husband for her productive, reproductive and personal achievement.", "In some societies, the co-wives are relatives, usually sisters, a practice called ''sororal polygyny''; the pre-existing relationship between the co-wives is thought to decrease potential tensions within the marriage.Fox argues that \"the major difference between polygyny and monogamy could be stated thus: while plural mating occurs in both systems, under polygyny several unions may be recognized as being legal marriages while under monogamy only one of the unions is so recognized.", "Often, however, it is difficult to draw a hard and fast line between the two.", "\"As polygamy in Africa is increasingly subject to legal limitations, a variant form of ''de facto'' (as opposed to legal or ''de jure'') polygyny is being practiced in urban centers.", "Although it does not involve multiple (now illegal) formal marriages, the domestic and personal arrangements follow old polygynous patterns.", "The de facto form of polygyny is found in other parts of the world as well (including some Mormon sects and Muslim families in the United States).In some societies such as the Lovedu of South Africa, or the Nuer of the Sudan, aristocratic women may become female 'husbands.'", "In the Lovedu case, this female husband may take a number of polygamous wives.", "This is not a lesbian relationship, but a means of legitimately expanding a royal lineage by attaching these wives' children to it.", "The relationships are considered polygynous, not polyandrous, because the female husband is in fact assuming masculine gendered political roles.Religious groups have differing views on the legitimacy of polygyny.", "It is allowed in Islam and Confucianism.", "Judaism and Christianity have mentioned practices involving polygyny in the past, however, outright religious acceptance of such practices was not addressed until its rejection in later passages.", "They do explicitly prohibit polygyny today.====Polyandry====Polyandry is notably more rare than polygyny, though less rare than the figure commonly cited in the ''Ethnographic Atlas'' (1980) which listed only those polyandrous societies found in the Himalayan Mountains.", "More recent studies have found 53 societies outside the 28 found in the Himalayans which practice polyandry.", "It is most common in egalitarian societies marked by high male mortality or male absenteeism.", "It is associated with ''partible paternity'', the cultural belief that a child can have more than one father.The explanation for polyandry in the Himalayan Mountains is related to the scarcity of land; the marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife (''fraternal polyandry'') allows family land to remain intact and undivided.", "If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into unsustainable small plots.", "In Europe, this was prevented through the social practice of impartible inheritance (the dis-inheriting of most siblings, some of whom went on to become celibate monks and priests).====Plural marriage====Group marriage (also known as ''multi-lateral marriage'') is a form of polyamory in which more than two persons form a family unit, with all the members of the group marriage being considered to be married to all the other members of the group marriage, and all members of the marriage share parental responsibility for any children arising from the marriage.", "No country legally condones group marriages, neither under the law nor as a common law marriage, but historically it has been practiced by some cultures of Polynesia, Asia, Papua New Guinea and the Americas – as well as in some intentional communities and alternative subcultures such as the Oneida Perfectionists in up-state New York.", "Of the 250 societies reported by the American anthropologist George Murdock in 1949, only the Kaingang of Brazil had any group marriages at all.===Child marriage===A child marriage is a marriage where one or both spouses are under the age of 18.It is related to child betrothal and teenage pregnancy.Child marriage was common throughout history, even up until the 1900s in the United States, where in 1880 CE, in the state of Delaware, the age of consent for marriage was 7 years old.", "Still, in 2017, over half of the 50 United States have no explicit minimum age to marry and several states set the age as low as 14.Today it is condemned by international human rights organizations.", "Child marriages are often arranged between the families of the future bride and groom, sometimes as soon as the girl is born.", "However, in the late 1800s in England and the United States, feminist activists began calling for raised age of consent laws, which was eventually handled in the 1920s, having been raised to 16–18.Child marriages can also occur in the context of bride kidnapping.In the year 1552 CE, John Somerford and Jane Somerford Brereton were both married at the ages of 3 and 2, respectively.", "Twelve years later, in 1564, John filed for divorce.While child marriage is observed for both boys and girls, the overwhelming majority of child spouses are girls.", "In many cases, only one marriage-partner is a child, usually the female, due to the importance placed upon female virginity.", "Causes of child marriage include poverty, bride price, dowry, laws that allow child marriages, religious and social pressures, regional customs, fear of remaining unmarried, and perceived inability of women to work for money.Today, child marriages are widespread in parts of the world; being most common in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, with more than half of the girls in some countries in those regions being married before 18.The incidence of child marriage has been falling in most parts of the world.", "In developed countries, child marriage is outlawed or restricted.Girls who marry before 18 are at greater risk of becoming victims of domestic violence, than those who marry later, especially when they are married to a much older man.===Same-sex and third-gender marriages===Unitarian Universalist FellowshipSeveral kinds of same-sex marriages have been documented in Indigenous and lineage-based cultures.", "In the Americas, We'wha (Zuni), was a ''lhamana'' (male individuals who, at least some of the time, dress and live in the roles usually filled by women in that culture); a respected artist, We'wha served as an emissary of the Zuni to Washington, where he met President Grover Cleveland.", "We'wha had at least one husband who was generally recognized as such.While it is a relatively new practice to grant same-sex couples the same form of legal marital recognition as commonly granted to mixed-sex couples, there is some history of recorded same-sex unions around the world.", "Ancient Greek same-sex relationships were like modern companionate marriages, unlike their different-sex marriages in which the spouses had few emotional ties, and the husband had freedom to engage in outside sexual liaisons.", "The Codex Theodosianus (''C.", "Th.''", "9.7.3) issued in 438 CE imposed severe penalties or death on same-sex relationships, but the exact intent of the law and its relation to social practice is unclear, as only a few examples of same-sex relationships in that culture exist.", "Same-sex unions were celebrated in some regions of China, such as Fujian.", "Possibly the earliest documented same-sex wedding in Latin Christendom occurred in Rome, Italy, at the San Giovanni a Porta Latina basilica in 1581.===Temporary marriages===Several cultures have practised temporary and conditional marriages.", "Examples include the Celtic practice of handfasting and fixed-term marriages in the Muslim community.", "Pre-Islamic Arabs practiced a form of temporary marriage that carries on today in the practice of Nikah mut'ah, a fixed-term marriage contract.", "The Islamic prophet Muhammad sanctioned a temporary marriage – sigheh in Iran and muta'a in Iraq – which can provide a legitimizing cover for sex workers.", "The same forms of temporary marriage have been used in Egypt, Lebanon and Iran to make the donation of a human ova legal for in vitro fertilisation; a woman cannot, however, use this kind of marriage to obtain a sperm donation.", "Muslim controversies related to Nikah Mut'ah have resulted in the practice being confined mostly to Shi'ite communities.", "The matrilineal Mosuo of China practice what they call \"walking marriage\".===Cohabitation===In some jurisdictions cohabitation, in certain circumstances, may constitute a common-law marriage, an unregistered partnership, or otherwise provide the unmarried partners with various rights and responsibilities; and in some countries, the laws recognize cohabitation in lieu of institutional marriage for taxation and social security benefits.", "This is the case, for example, in Australia.", "Cohabitation may be an option pursued as a form of resistance to traditional institutionalized marriage.", "However, in this context, some nations reserve the right to define the relationship as marital, or otherwise to regulate the relation, even if the relation has not been registered with the state or a religious institution.Conversely, institutionalized marriages may not involve cohabitation.", "In some cases, couples living together do not wish to be recognized as married.", "This may occur because pension or alimony rights are adversely affected; because of taxation considerations; because of immigration issues, or for other reasons.", "Such marriages have also been increasingly common in Beijing.", "Guo Jianmei, director of the center for women's studies at Beijing University, told a Newsday correspondent, \"Walking marriages reflect sweeping changes in Chinese society.\"", "A \"walking marriage\" refers to a type of temporary marriage formed by the Mosuo of China, in which male partners live elsewhere and make nightly visits.", "A similar arrangement in Saudi Arabia, called misyar marriage, also involves the husband and wife living separately but meeting regularly." ], [ "Partner selection", " In an 1828 \"Wife Wanted\" advertisement, an Englishman claiming a \"great taste for building\" pledges to apply a prospective wife's dowry-like £1000+ to build property that will be \"settled on her for life\".There is wide cross-cultural variation in the social rules governing the selection of a partner for marriage.", "There is variation in the degree to which partner selection is an individual decision by the partners or a collective decision by the partners' kin groups, and there is variation in the rules regulating which partners are valid choices.The United Nations World Fertility Report of 2003 reports that 89% of all people get married before age forty-nine.", "The percent of women and men who marry before age forty-nine drops to nearly 50% in some nations and reaches near 100% in other nations.In other cultures with less strict rules governing the groups from which a partner can be chosen the selection of a marriage partner may involve either the couple going through a selection process of courtship or the marriage may be arranged by the couple's parents or an outside party, a matchmaker.===Age difference===Some people want to marry a person that is older or younger than them.", "This may impact marital stability and partners with more than a 10-year gap in age tend to experience social disapproval In addition, older women (older than 35) have increased health risks when getting pregnant.===Social status and wealth===Swedish royal wedding clothes from 1766 at Livrustkammaren in StockholmSome people want to marry a person with higher or lower status than them.", "Others want to marry people who have similar status.", "In many societies, women marry men who are of higher social status.", "There are marriages where each party has sought a partner of similar status.", "There are other marriages in which the man is older than the woman.Some persons also wish to engage in transactional relationship for money rather than love (thus a type of marriage of convenience).", "Such people are sometimes referred to as gold diggers.", "Separate property systems can however be used to prevent property of being passed on to partners after divorce or death.Higher income men are more likely to marry and less likely to divorce.", "High income women are more likely to divorce.===The incest taboo, exogamy and endogamy===Societies have often placed restrictions on marriage to relatives, though the degree of prohibited relationship varies widely.", "Marriages between parents and children, or between full siblings, with few exceptions, have been considered incest and forbidden.", "However, marriages between more distant relatives have been much more common, with one estimate being that 80% of all marriages in history have been between second cousins or closer.", "This proportion has fallen dramatically, but still, more than 10% of all marriages are believed to be between people who are second cousins or more closely related.", "In the United States, such marriages are now highly stigmatized, and laws ban most or all first-cousin marriage in 30 states.", "Specifics vary: in South Korea, historically it was illegal to marry someone with the same last name and same ancestral line.An Avunculate marriage is a marriage that occurs between an uncle and his niece or between an aunt and her nephew.", "Such marriages are illegal in most countries due to incest restrictions.", "However, a small number of countries have legalized it, including Argentina, Australia, Austria, Malaysia, and Russia.Family chart showing relatives who, in Islamic Sharia law, would be considered ''mahrim'' (or ''maharem''): unmarriageable kin with whom sexual intercourse would be considered incestuousIn various societies, the choice of partner is often limited to suitable persons from specific social groups.", "In some societies the rule is that a partner is selected from an individual's own social group – endogamy, this is often the case in class- and caste-based societies.", "But in other societies a partner must be chosen from a different group than one's own – exogamy, this may be the case in societies practicing totemic religion where society is divided into several exogamous totemic clans, such as most Aboriginal Australian societies.", "In other societies a person is expected to marry their cross-cousin, a woman must marry her father's sister's son and a man must marry his mother's brother's daughter – this is often the case if either a society has a rule of tracing kinship exclusively through patrilineal or matrilineal descent groups as among the Akan people of West Africa.", "Another kind of marriage selection is the levirate marriage in which widows are obligated to marry their husband's brother, mostly found in societies where kinship is based on endogamous clan groups.Religion has commonly weighed in on the matter of which relatives, if any, are allowed to marry.", "Relations may be by consanguinity or affinity, meaning by blood or by marriage.", "On the marriage of cousins, Catholic policy has evolved from initial acceptance, through a long period of general prohibition, to the contemporary requirement for a dispensation.", "Islam has always allowed it, while Hindu texts vary widely.===Prescriptive marriage===An arranged marriage between Louis XIV of France and Maria Theresa of SpainIn a wide array of lineage-based societies with a classificatory kinship system, potential spouses are sought from a specific class of relative as determined by a prescriptive marriage rule.", "This rule may be expressed by anthropologists using a \"descriptive\" kinship term, such as a \"man's mother's brother's daughter\" (also known as a \"cross-cousin\").", "Such descriptive rules mask the participant's perspective: a man should marry a woman from his mother's lineage.", "Within the society's kinship terminology, such relatives are usually indicated by a specific term which sets them apart as potentially marriageable.", "Pierre Bourdieu notes, however, that very few marriages ever follow the rule, and that when they do so, it is for \"practical kinship\" reasons such as the preservation of family property, rather than the \"official kinship\" ideology.Indonesian weddingInsofar as regular marriages following prescriptive rules occur, lineages are linked together in fixed relationships; these ties between lineages may form political alliances in kinship dominated societies.", "French structural anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss developed alliance theory to account for the \"elementary\" kinship structures created by the limited number of prescriptive marriage rules possible.A pragmatic (or 'arranged') marriage is made easier by formal procedures of family or group politics.", "A responsible authority sets up or encourages the marriage; they may, indeed, engage a professional matchmaker to find a suitable spouse for an unmarried person.", "The authority figure could be parents, family, a religious official, or a group consensus.", "In some cases, the authority figure may choose a match for purposes other than marital harmony.===Forced marriage===Azeri society tradition from domestic violence to the social and political participation of women in the communityA forced marriage is a marriage in which one or both of the parties is married against their will.", "Forced marriages continue to be practiced in parts of the world, especially in South Asia and Africa.", "The line between forced marriage and consensual marriage may become blurred, because the social norms of these cultures dictate that one should never oppose the desire of one's parents/relatives in regard to the choice of a spouse; in such cultures, it is not necessary for violence, threats, intimidation etc.", "to occur, the person simply \"consents\" to the marriage even if they do not want it, out of the implied social pressure and duty.", "The customs of bride price and dowry, that exist in parts of the world, can lead to buying and selling people into marriage.In some societies, ranging from Central Asia to the Caucasus to Africa, the custom of bride kidnapping still exists, in which a woman is captured by a man and his friends.", "Sometimes this covers an elopement, but sometimes it depends on sexual violence.", "In previous times, ''raptio'' was a larger-scale version of this, with groups of women captured by groups of men, sometimes in war; the most famous example is The Rape of the Sabine Women, which provided the first citizens of Rome with their wives.Other marriage partners are more or less imposed on an individual.", "For example, widow inheritance provides a widow with another man from her late husband's brothers.In rural areas of India, child marriage is practiced, with parents often arranging the wedding, sometimes even before the child is born.", "This practice was made illegal under the Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929." ], [ "Economic considerations", "The financial aspects of marriage vary between cultures and have changed over time.In some cultures, dowries and bride wealth continue to be required today.", "In both cases, the financial arrangements are usually made between the groom (or his family) and the bride's family; with the bride often not being involved in the negotiations, and often not having a choice in whether to participate in the marriage.In Early modern Britain, the social status of the couple was supposed to be equal.", "After the marriage, all the property (called \"fortune\") and expected inheritances of the wife belonged to the husband.===Dowry===A dowry is \"a process whereby parental property is distributed to a daughter at her marriage (i.e.", "''inter vivos'') rather than at the holder's death (''mortis causa'')… A dowry establishes some variety of conjugal fund, the nature of which may vary widely.", "This fund ensures her support (or endowment) in widowhood and eventually goes to provide for her sons and daughters.", "\"In some cultures, especially in countries such as Turkey, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Morocco, Nepal, dowries continue to be expected.", "In India, thousands of dowry-related deaths have taken place on yearly basis, to counter this problem, several jurisdictions have enacted laws restricting or banning dowry (see Dowry law in India).", "In Nepal, dowry was made illegal in 2009.Some authors believe that the giving and receiving of dowry reflects the status and even the effort to climb high in social hierarchy.===Dower===Direct Dowry contrasts with bride wealth, which is paid by the groom or his family to the bride's parents, and with indirect dowry (or dower), which is property given to the bride herself by the groom at the time of marriage and which remains under her ownership and control.In the Jewish tradition, the rabbis in ancient times insisted on the marriage couple entering into a prenuptial agreement, called a ''ketubah''.", "Besides other things, the ''ketubah'' provided for an amount to be paid by the husband in the event of a divorce or his estate in the event of his death.", "This amount was a replacement of the biblical dower or bride price, which was payable at the time of the marriage by the groom to the father of the bride.", "This innovation was put in place because the biblical bride price created a major social problem: many young prospective husbands could not raise the bride price at the time when they would normally be expected to marry.", "So, to enable these young men to marry, the rabbis, in effect, delayed the time that the amount would be payable, when they would be more likely to have the sum.", "It may also be noted that both the dower and the ''ketubah'' amounts served the same purpose: the protection for the wife should her support cease, either by death or divorce.", "The only difference between the two systems was the timing of the payment.", "It is the predecessor to the wife's present-day entitlement to maintenance in the event of the breakup of marriage, and family maintenance in the event of the husband not providing adequately for the wife in his will.", "Another function performed by the ''ketubah'' amount was to provide a disincentive for the husband contemplating divorcing his wife: he would need to have the amount to be able to pay to the wife.Morning gifts, which might also be arranged by the bride's father rather than the bride, are given to the bride herself; the name derives from the Germanic tribal custom of giving them the morning after the wedding night.", "She might have control of this morning gift during the lifetime of her husband, but is entitled to it when widowed.", "If the amount of her inheritance is settled by law rather than agreement, it may be called dower.", "Depending on legal systems and the exact arrangement, she may not be entitled to dispose of it after her death, and may lose the property if she remarries.", "Morning gifts were preserved for centuries in morganatic marriage, a union where the wife's inferior social status was held to prohibit her children from inheriting a noble's titles or estates.", "In this case, the morning gift would support the wife and children.", "Another legal provision for widowhood was jointure, in which property, often land, would be held in joint tenancy, so that it would automatically go to the widow on her husband's death.Islamic tradition has similar practices.", "A 'mahr', either immediate or deferred, is the woman's portion of the groom's wealth (divorce) or estate (death).", "These amounts are usually set on the basis of the groom's own and family wealth and incomes, but in some parts these are set very high so as to provide a disincentive for the groom exercising the divorce, or the husband's family 'inheriting' a large portion of the estate, especially if there are no male offspring from the marriage.", "In some countries, including Iran, the mahr or alimony can amount to more than a man can ever hope to earn, sometimes up to US$1,000,000 (4000 official Iranian gold coins).", "If the husband cannot pay the mahr, either in case of a divorce or on demand, according to the current laws in Iran, he will have to pay it by installments.", "Failure to pay the mahr might even lead to imprisonment.===Bridewealth===Traditional, formal presentation of the bridewealth (also known as \"sin sot\") at an engagement ceremony in ThailandBridewealth is a common practice in parts of Southeast Asia (Thailand, Cambodia), parts of Central Asia, and in much of sub-Saharan Africa.", "It is also known as brideprice although this has fallen in disfavor as it implies the purchase of the bride.", "Bridewealth is the amount of money or property or wealth paid by the groom or his family to the parents of a woman upon the marriage of their daughter to the groom.", "In anthropological literature, bride price has often been explained as payment made to compensate the bride's family for the loss of her labor and fertility.", "In some cases, bridewealth is a means by which the groom's family's ties to the children of the union are recognized.===Taxation===In some countries a married person or couple benefits from various taxation advantages not available to a single person.", "For example, spouses may be allowed to average their combined incomes.", "This is advantageous to a married couple with disparate incomes.", "To compensate for this, countries may provide a higher tax bracket for the averaged income of a married couple.", "While income averaging might still benefit a married couple with a stay-at-home spouse, such averaging would cause a married couple with roughly equal personal incomes to pay more total tax than they would as two single persons.", "In the United States, this is called the marriage penalty.When the rates applied by the tax code are not based income averaging, but rather on the ''sum'' of individuals' incomes, higher rates will usually apply to each individual in a two-earner households in a progressive tax systems.", "This is most often the case with high-income taxpayers and is another situation called a marriage penalty.Conversely, when progressive tax is levied on the individual with no consideration for the partnership, dual-income couples fare much better than single-income couples with similar household incomes.", "The effect can be increased when the welfare system treats the same income as a shared income thereby denying welfare access to the non-earning spouse.", "Such systems apply in Australia and Canada, for example." ], [ "Post-marital residence", "In many Western cultures, marriage usually leads to the formation of a new household comprising the married couple, with the married couple living together in the same home, often sharing the same bed, but in some other cultures this is not the tradition.", "Among the Minangkabau of West Sumatra, residency after marriage is matrilocal, with the husband moving into the household of his wife's mother.", "Residency after marriage can also be patrilocal or avunculocal.", "In these cases, married couples may not form an independent household, but remain part of an extended family household.Early theories explaining the determinants of postmarital residence connected it with the sexual division of labor.", "However, to date, cross-cultural tests of this hypothesis using worldwide samples have failed to find any significant relationship between these two variables.", "However, Korotayev's tests show that the female contribution to subsistence does correlate significantly with matrilocal residence in general.", "However, this correlation is masked by a general polygyny factor.Although, in different-sex marriages, an increase in the female contribution to subsistence tends to lead to matrilocal residence, it also tends simultaneously to lead to general non-sororal polygyny which effectively destroys matrilocality.", "If this polygyny factor is controlled (e.g., through a multiple regression model), division of labor turns out to be a significant predictor of postmarital residence.", "Thus, Murdock's hypotheses regarding the relationships between the sexual division of labor and postmarital residence were basically correct, though the actual relationships between those two groups of variables are more complicated than he expected.There has been a trend toward the neolocal residence in western societies." ], [ "Law", "Marriage laws refer to the legal requirements which determine the validity of a marriage, which vary considerably between countries.Article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares that \"Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family.", "They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.", "Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.", "\"===Rights and obligations===A marriage bestows rights and obligations on the married parties, and sometimes on relatives as well, being the sole mechanism for the creation of affinal ties (in-laws).", "These may include, depending on jurisdiction:* Giving one spouse or his/her family control over the other spouse's sexual services, labor, and property.", "* Giving one spouse responsibility for the other's debts.", "* Giving one spouse visitation rights when the other is incarcerated or hospitalized.", "* Giving one spouse control over the other's affairs when the other is incapacitated.", "* Establishing the second legal guardian of a parent's child.", "* Establishing a joint fund of property for the benefit of children.", "* Establishing a relationship between the families of the spouses.These rights and obligations vary considerably between societies, and between groups within society.", "These might include arranged marriages, family obligations, the legal establishment of a nuclear family unit, the legal protection of children and public declaration of commitment.===Property regime===In many countries today, each marriage partner has the choice of keeping his or her property separate or combining properties.", "In the latter case, called community property, when the marriage ends by divorce each owns half.", "In lieu of a will or trust, property owned by the deceased generally is inherited by the surviving spouse.In some legal systems, the partners in a marriage are \"jointly liable\" for the debts of the marriage.", "This has a basis in a traditional legal notion called the \"Doctrine of Necessities\" whereby, in a heterosexual marriage, a husband was responsible to provide necessary things for his wife.", "Where this is the case, one partner may be sued to collect a debt for which they did not expressly contract.", "Critics of this practice note that debt collection agencies can abuse this by claiming an unreasonably wide range of debts to be expenses of the marriage.", "The cost of defense and the burden of proof is then placed on the non-contracting party to prove that the expense is not a debt of the family.", "The respective maintenance obligations, both during and eventually after a marriage, are regulated in most jurisdictions; alimony is one such method.===Restrictions===Marriage is an institution that is historically filled with restrictions.", "From age, to race, to social status, to consanguinity, to gender, restrictions are placed on marriage by society for reasons of benefiting the children, passing on healthy genes, maintaining cultural values, or because of prejudice and fear.", "Almost all cultures that recognize marriage also recognize adultery as a violation of the terms of marriage.====Age====Most jurisdictions set a minimum age for marriage; that is, a person must attain a certain age to be legally allowed to marry.", "This age may depend on circumstances, for instance exceptions from the general rule may be permitted if the parents of a young person express their consent and/or if a court decides that said marriage is in the best interest of the young person (often this applies in cases where a girl is pregnant).", "Although most age restrictions are in place in order to prevent children from being forced into marriages, especially to much older partners – marriages which can have negative education and health related consequences, and lead to child sexual abuse and other forms of violence – such child marriages remain common in parts of the world.", "According to the UN, child marriages are most common in rural sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.", "The ten countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger (75%), Chad, Central African Republic, Bangladesh, Guinea, Mozambique, Mali, Burkina Faso, South Sudan, and Malawi.====Kinship====To prohibit incest and eugenic reasons, marriage laws have set restrictions for relatives to marry.", "Direct blood relatives are usually prohibited to marry, while for branch line relatives, laws are wary.Kinship relations through marriage is also called \"affinity,\" relationships that arise in one's group of origin, can also be called one's descent group.", "Some cultures in kinship relationships may be considered to extend out to those who they have economic or political relationships with; or other forms of social connections.", "Within some cultures they may lead you back to gods or animal ancestors (totems).", "This can be conceived of on a more or less literal basis.====Race====U.S States, by the date of repeal of anti-miscegenation laws:Laws banning \"race-mixing\" were enforced in certain North American jurisdictions from 1691 until 1967, in Nazi Germany (the Nuremberg Laws) from 1935 until 1945, and in South Africa during most part of the apartheid era (1949–1985).", "All these laws primarily banned marriage between persons of different racially or ethnically defined groups, which was termed \"amalgamation\" or \"miscegenation\" in the U.S.", "The laws in Nazi Germany and many of the U.S. states, as well as South Africa, also banned sexual relations between such individuals.In the United States, laws in some but not all of the states prohibited the marriage of whites and blacks, and in many states also the intermarriage of whites with Native Americans or Asians.", "In the U.S., such laws were known as anti-miscegenation laws.", "From 1913 until 1948, 30 out of the then 48 states enforced such laws.", "Although an \"Anti-Miscegenation Amendment\" to the United States Constitution was proposed in 1871, in 1912–1913, and in 1928, no nationwide law against racially mixed marriages was ever enacted.", "In 1967, the Supreme Court of the United States unanimously ruled in ''Loving v. Virginia'' that anti-miscegenation laws are unconstitutional.", "With this ruling, these laws were no longer in effect in the remaining 16 states that still had them.The Nazi ban on interracial marriage and interracial sex was enacted in September 1935 as part of the Nuremberg Laws, the ''Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre'' (The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour).", "The Nuremberg Laws classified Jews as a race and forbade marriage and extramarital sexual relations at first with people of Jewish descent, but was later ended to the \"Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring\" and people of \"German or related blood\".", "Such relations were marked as ''Rassenschande'' (lit.", "\"race-disgrace\") and could be punished by imprisonment (usually followed by deportation to a concentration camp) and even by death.South Africa under apartheid also banned interracial marriage.", "The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1949 prohibited marriage between persons of different races, and the Immorality Act of 1950 made sexual relations with a person of a different race a crime.====Sex====Same-sex marriage is legally performed and recognized in Andorra, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Uruguay.", "Israel recognizes same-sex marriages entered into abroad as full marriages.The introduction of same-sex marriage has varied by jurisdiction, being variously accomplished through legislative change to marriage law, a court ruling based on constitutional guarantees of equality, or by direct popular vote (via ballot initiative or referendum).", "The recognition of same-sex marriage is considered to be a human right and a civil right as well as a political, social, and religious issue.", "The most prominent supporters of same-sex marriage are human rights and civil rights organizations as well as the medical and scientific communities, while the most prominent opponents are religious groups.", "Various faith communities around the world support same-sex marriage, while many religious groups oppose it.", "Polls consistently show continually rising support for the recognition of same-sex marriage in all developed democracies and in some developing democracies.The establishment of recognition in law for the marriages of same-sex couples is one of the most prominent objectives of the LGBT rights movement.====Number of spouses==== Polygyny is widely practiced in mostly Muslim and African countries.", "In the Middle Eastern region, Israel, Turkey and Tunisia are notable exceptions.In most other jurisdictions, polygamy is illegal.", "For example, In the United States, polygamy is illegal in all 50 states.In the late-19th century, citizens of the self-governing territory of what is present-day Utah were forced by the United States federal government to abandon the practice of polygamy through the vigorous enforcement of several Acts of Congress, and eventually complied.", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints formally abolished the practice in 1890, in a document labeled 'The Manifesto' (see Latter Day Saint polygamy in the late-19th century).", "Among American Muslims, a small minority of around 50,000 to 100,000 people are estimated to live in families with a husband maintaining an illegal polygamous relationship.Several countries such as India and Sri Lanka, permit only their Islamic citizens to practice polygamy.", "Some Indians have converted to Islam in order to bypass such legal restrictions.", "Predominantly Christian nations usually do not allow polygamous unions, with a handful of exceptions being the Republic of the Congo, Uganda, and Zambia.===State recognition===When a marriage is performed and carried out by a government institution in accordance with the marriage laws of the jurisdiction, without religious content, it is a civil marriage.", "Civil marriage recognizes and creates the rights and obligations intrinsic to matrimony in the eyes of the state.", "Some countries do not recognize locally performed religious marriage on its own, and require a separate civil marriage for official purposes.", "Conversely, civil marriage does not exist in some countries governed by a religious legal system, such as Saudi Arabia, where marriages contracted abroad might not be recognized if they were contracted contrary to Saudi interpretations of Islamic religious law.", "In countries governed by a mixed secular-religious legal system, such as Lebanon and Israel, locally performed civil marriage does not exist within the country, which prevents interfaith and various other marriages that contradict religious laws from being entered into in the country; however, civil marriages performed abroad may be recognized by the state even if they conflict with religious laws.", "For example, in the case of recognition of marriage in Israel, this includes recognition of not only interfaith civil marriages performed abroad, but also overseas same-sex civil marriages.In various jurisdictions, a civil marriage may take place as part of the religious marriage ceremony, although they are theoretically distinct.", "Some jurisdictions allow civil marriages in circumstances which are notably not allowed by particular religions, such as same-sex marriages or civil unions.The opposite case may happen as well.", "Partners may not have full juridical acting capacity and churches may have less strict limits than the civil jurisdictions.", "This particularly applies to minimum age, or physical infirmities.It is possible for two people to be recognized as married by a religious or other institution, but not by the state, and hence without the legal rights and obligations of marriage; or to have a civil marriage deemed invalid and sinful by a religion.", "Similarly, a couple may remain married in religious eyes after a civil divorce.Most sovereign states and other jurisdictions limit legally recognized marriage to opposite-sex couples and a diminishing number of these permit polygyny marriage, polyandry marriage, polygamy marriage, coverture marriage, arranged marriages, forced marriages, child marriages, cousin marriages, sibling marriages, teenage marriages, and avunculate marriages.", "In modern times, a growing number of countries, primarily developed democracies, have lifted bans on, and have established legal recognition for, the marriages of interethnic, interracial, interfaith, interdenominational, inter-caste, transnational, same-sex, and transgender couples as well as immigrant couples, couples with an immigrant spouse, and other minority couples.", "In some areas, child marriages and polygamy may occur in spite of national laws against the practice.====Marriage license, civil ceremony and registration====Couple married in a Shinto ceremony in Takayama, Gifu prefectureAssyrian coupleA marriage is usually formalized at a wedding or marriage ceremony.", "The ceremony may be officiated either by a religious official, by a government official or by a state approved celebrant.", "In various European and some Latin American countries, any religious ceremony must be held separately from the required civil ceremony.", "Some countries – such as Belgium, Bulgaria, France, the Netherlands, Romania and Turkey – require that a civil ceremony take place before any religious one.", "In some countries – notably the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Norway and Spain – both ceremonies can be held together; the officiant at the religious and civil ceremony also serving as agent of the state to perform the civil ceremony.", "To avoid any implication that the state is \"recognizing\" a religious marriage (which is prohibited in some countries) – the \"civil\" ceremony is said to be taking place at the same time as the religious ceremony.", "Often this involves simply signing a register during the religious ceremony.", "If the civil element of the religious ceremony is omitted, the marriage ceremony is not recognized as a marriage by government under the law.Some countries, such as Australia, permit marriages to be held in private and at any location; others, including England and Wales, require that the civil ceremony be conducted in a place open to the public and specially sanctioned by law for the purpose.", "In England, the place of marriage formerly had to be a church or register office, but this was extended to any public venue with the necessary licence.", "An exception can be made in the case of marriage by special emergency license (UK: licence), which is normally granted only when one of the parties is terminally ill. Rules about where and when persons can marry vary from place to place.", "Some regulations require one of the parties to reside within the jurisdiction of the register office (formerly parish).Each religious authority has rules for the manner in which marriages are to be conducted by their officials and members.", "Where religious marriages are recognised by the state, the officiator must also conform with the law of the jurisdiction.====Common-law marriage====In a small number of jurisdictions marriage relationships may be created by the operation of the law alone.", "Unlike the typical ceremonial marriage with legal contract, wedding ceremony, and other details, a common-law marriage may be called \"marriage by habit and repute (cohabitation).\"", "A de facto common-law marriage without a license or ceremony is legally binding in some jurisdictions but has no legal consequence in others.====Civil unions====California Proposition 8, consider civil unions an inferior alternative to legal recognition of same-sex marriage.A ''civil union'', also referred to as a ''civil partnership'', is a legally recognized form of partnership similar to marriage.", "Beginning with Denmark in 1989, civil unions under one name or another have been established by law in several countries in order to provide same-sex couples rights, benefits, and responsibilities similar (in some countries, identical) to opposite-sex civil marriage.", "In some jurisdictions, such as Brazil, New Zealand, Uruguay, Ecuador, France and the U.S. states of Hawaii and Illinois, civil unions are also open to opposite-sex couples.====\"Marriage of convenience\"====Sometimes people marry to take advantage of a certain situation, sometimes called a marriage of convenience or a sham marriage.", "In 2003, over 180,000 immigrants were admitted to the U.S. as spouses of U.S. citizens; more were admitted as fiancés of US citizens for the purpose of being married within 90 days.", "These marriages had a diverse range of motives, including obtaining permanent residency, securing an inheritance that has a marriage clause, or to enroll in health insurance, among many others.", "While all marriages have a complex combination of conveniences motivating the parties to marry, a marriage of convenience is one that is devoid of normal reasons to marry.", "In certain countries like Singapore sham marriages are punishable criminal offences.===Contemporary legal and human rights criticisms of marriage===\"''Esposas de Matrimonio''\" (\"Wedding Cuffs\"), a wedding ring sculpture expressing the criticism of marriages' effects on individual liberty.", "''Esposas'' is a play on Spanish, in which the singular form of the word ''esposa'' refers to a spouse, and the plural refers to handcuffs.People have proposed arguments against marriage for reasons that include political, philosophical and religious criticisms; concerns about the divorce rate; individual liberty and gender equality; questioning the necessity of having a personal relationship sanctioned by government or religious authorities; or the promotion of celibacy for religious or philosophical reasons.", "Research has found that unhappily married couples are at 3–25 times the risk of developing clinical depression.====Power and gender roles====Countries where married women are required by law to obey their husbands as of 2015Historically, in most cultures, married women had very few rights of their own, being considered, along with the family's children, the property of the husband; as such, they could not own or inherit property, or represent themselves legally (see, for example, coverture).", "Since the late 19th century, in some (primarily Western) countries, marriage has undergone gradual legal changes, aimed at improving the rights of the wife.", "These changes included giving wives legal identities of their own, abolishing the right of husbands to physically discipline their wives, giving wives property rights, liberalizing divorce laws, providing wives with reproductive rights of their own, and requiring a wife's consent when sexual relations occur.", "In the 21st century, there continue to be controversies regarding the legal status of married women, legal acceptance of or leniency towards violence within marriage (especially sexual violence), traditional marriage customs such as dowry and bride price, forced marriage, marriageable age, and criminalization of consensual behaviors such as premarital and extramarital sex.Feminist theory approaches opposite-sex marriage as an institution traditionally rooted in patriarchy that promotes male superiority and power over women.", "This power dynamic conceptualizes men as \"the provider operating in the public sphere\" and women as \"the caregivers operating within the private sphere\".", "\"Theoretically, women ... were defined as the property of their husbands ....", "The adultery of a woman was always treated with more severity than that of a man.\"", "\"Feminist demands for a wife's control over her own property were not met in parts of Britain until ... laws were passed in the late 19th century.", "\"Traditional heterosexual marriage imposed an obligation of the wife to be sexually available for her husband and an obligation of the husband to provide material/financial support for the wife.", "Numerous philosophers, feminists and other academic figures have commented on this throughout history, condemning the hypocrisy of legal and religious authorities in regard to sexual issues; pointing to the lack of choice of a woman in regard to controlling her own sexuality; and drawing parallels between marriage, an institution promoted as sacred, and prostitution, widely condemned and vilified (though often tolerated as a \"necessary evil\").", "Mary Wollstonecraft, in the 18th century, described marriage as \"legal prostitution\".", "Emma Goldman wrote in 1910: \"To the moralist prostitution does not consist so much in the fact that the woman sells her body, but rather that she sells it out of wedlock\".", "Bertrand Russell in his book ''Marriage and Morals'' wrote that: \"Marriage is for woman the commonest mode of livelihood, and the total amount of undesired sex endured by women is probably greater in marriage than in prostitution.\"", "Angela Carter in ''Nights at the Circus'' wrote: \"What is marriage but prostitution to one man instead of many?", "\"Some critics object to what they see as propaganda in relation to marriage – from the government, religious organizations, the media – which aggressively promote marriage as a solution for all social problems; such propaganda includes, for instance, marriage promotion in schools, where children, especially girls, are bombarded with positive information about marriage, being presented only with the information prepared by authorities.The performance of dominant gender roles by men and submissive gender roles by women influence the power dynamic of a heterosexual marriage.", "In some American households, women internalize gender role stereotypes and often assimilate into the role of \"wife\", \"mother\", and \"caretaker\" in conformity to societal norms and their male partner.", "Author bell hooks states \"within the family structure, individuals learn to accept sexist oppression as 'natural' and are primed to support other forms of oppression, including heterosexist domination.\"", "\"The cultural, economic, political and legal supremacy of the husband\" was \"traditional ... under English law\".", "This patriarchal dynamic is contrasted with a conception of egalitarian or peer marriage in which power and labour are divided equally, and not according to gender roles.In the US, studies have shown that, despite egalitarian ideals being common, less than half of respondents viewed their opposite-sex relationships as equal in power, with unequal relationships being more commonly dominated by the male partner.", "Studies also show that married couples find the highest level of satisfaction in egalitarian relationships and lowest levels of satisfaction in wife dominate relationships.", "In recent years, egalitarian or peer marriages have been receiving increasing focus and attention politically, economically and culturally in a number of countries, including the United States.====Extra-marital sex====Christ and the woman taken in adultery'' by Jan Brueghel the Elder, PinakothekMagdalene laundries were institutions that existed from the 18th to the late 20th centuries, throughout Europe and North America, where \"fallen women\", including unmarried mothers, were detained.", "Photo: Magdalene laundry in Ireland, ca.", "early 20th century.Different societies demonstrate variable tolerance of extramarital sex.", "The Standard Cross-Cultural Sample describes the occurrence of extramarital sex by gender in over 50 pre-industrial cultures.", "The occurrence of extramarital sex by men is described as \"universal\" in 6 cultures, \"moderate\" in 29 cultures, \"occasional\" in 6 cultures, and \"uncommon\" in 10 cultures.", "The occurrence of extramarital sex by women is described as \"universal\" in 6 cultures, \"moderate\" in 23 cultures, \"occasional\" in 9 cultures, and \"uncommon\" in 15 cultures.", "Three studies using nationally representative samples in the United States found that between 10 and 15% of women and 20–25% of men engage in extramarital sex.Many of the world's major religions look with disfavor on sexual relations outside marriage.", "In some non-secular Islamic countries, there are criminal penalties for sexual intercourse before marriage.", "Sexual relations by a married person with someone other than his/her spouse is known as adultery.", "Adultery is considered in many jurisdictions to be a crime and grounds for divorce.In some countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Kuwait, Maldives, Morocco, Oman, Mauritania, United Arab Emirates, Sudan, Yemen, any form of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal.In some parts of the world, women and girls accused of having sexual relations outside marriage are at risk of becoming victims of honor killings committed by their families.", "In 2011 several people were sentenced to death by stoning after being accused of adultery in Iran, Somalia, Afghanistan, Sudan, Mali and Pakistan.", "Practices such as honor killings and stoning continue to be supported by mainstream politicians and other officials in some countries.", "In Pakistan, after the 2008 Balochistan honour killings in which five women were killed by tribesmen of the Umrani Tribe of Balochistan, Pakistani Federal Minister for Postal Services Israr Ullah Zehri defended the practice; he said: \"These are centuries-old traditions, and I will continue to defend them.", "Only those who indulge in immoral acts should be afraid.", "\"====Sexual violence====An issue that is a serious concern regarding marriage and which has been the object of international scrutiny is that of sexual violence within marriage.", "Throughout much of the history, in most cultures, sex in marriage was considered a 'right', that could be taken by force (often by a man from a woman), if 'denied'.", "As the concept of human rights started to develop in the 20th century, and with the arrival of second-wave feminism, such views, and laws, have become less widely held.The legal and social concept of marital rape has developed in most industrialized countries in the mid- to late 20th century; in many other parts of the world it is not recognized as a form of abuse, socially or legally.", "Several countries in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia made marital rape illegal before 1970, and other countries in Western Europe and the English-speaking Western world outlawed it in the 1980s and 1990s.", "In England and Wales, marital rape was made illegal in 1991.Although marital rape is being increasingly criminalized in developing countries too, cultural, religious, and traditional ideologies about \"conjugal rights\" remain very strong in many parts of the world; and even in many countries that have adequate laws against rape in marriage these laws are rarely enforced.Apart from the issue of rape committed against one's spouse, marriage is, in many parts of the world, closely connected with other forms of sexual violence: in some places, like Morocco, unmarried girls and women who are raped are often forced by their families to marry their rapist.", "Because being the victim of rape and losing virginity carry extreme social stigma, and the victims are deemed to have their \"reputation\" tarnished, a marriage with the rapist is arranged.", "This is claimed to be in the advantage of both the victim – who does not remain unmarried and does not lose social status – and of the rapist, who avoids punishment.", "In 2012, after a Moroccan 16-year-old girl committed suicide after having been forced by her family to marry her rapist and enduring further abuse by the rapist after they married, there have been protests from activists against this practice which is common in Morocco.In some societies, the very high social and religious importance of marital fidelity, especially female fidelity, has as result the criminalization of adultery, often with harsh penalties such as stoning or flogging; as well as leniency towards punishment of violence related to infidelity (such as honor killings).", "In the 21st century, criminal laws against adultery have become controversial with international organizations calling for their abolition.", "Opponents of adultery laws argue that these laws are a major contributor to discrimination and violence against women, as they are enforced selectively mostly against women; that they prevent women from reporting sexual violence; and that they maintain social norms which justify violent crimes committed against women by husbands, families and communities.", "A Joint Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice states that \"Adultery as a criminal offence violates women's human rights\".", "Some human rights organizations argue that the criminalization of adultery also violates internationally recognized protections for private life, as it represents an arbitrary interference with an individual's privacy, which is not permitted under international law.====Laws, human rights and gender status====The laws surrounding heterosexual marriage in many countries have come under international scrutiny because they contradict international standards of human rights; institutionalize violence against women, child marriage and forced marriage; require the permission of a husband for his wife to work in a paid job, sign legal documents, file criminal charges against someone, sue in civil court etc.", "; sanction the use by husbands of violence to \"discipline\" their wives; and discriminate against women in divorce.Such things were legal even in many Western countries until recently: for instance, in France, married women obtained the right to work without their husband's permission in 1965, and in West Germany women obtained this right in 1977 (by comparison women in East Germany had many more rights).", "In Spain, during Franco's era, a married woman needed her husband's consent, referred to as the ''permiso marital'', for almost all economic activities, including employment, ownership of property, and even traveling away from home; the ''permiso marital'' was abolished in 1975.An absolute submission of a wife to her husband is accepted as natural in many parts of the world, for instance surveys by UNICEF have shown that the percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances is as high as 90% in Afghanistan and Jordan, 87% in Mali, 86% in Guinea and Timor-Leste, 81% in Laos, 80% in Central African Republic.", "Detailed results from Afghanistan show that 78% of women agree with a beating if the wife \"goes out without telling him the husband\" and 76% agree \"if she argues with him\".Throughout history, and still today in many countries, laws have provided for extenuating circumstances, partial or complete defenses, for men who killed their wives due to adultery, with such acts often being seen as crimes of passion and being covered by legal defenses such as provocation or defense of family honor.====Right and ability to divorce====While international law and conventions recognize the need for consent for entering a marriage – namely that people cannot be forced to get married against their will – the right to obtain a divorce is not recognized; therefore holding a person in a marriage against their will (if such person has consented to entering in it) is not considered a violation of human rights, with the issue of divorce being left at the appreciation of individual states.In the EU, the last country to allow divorce was Malta, in 2011.Around the world, the only countries to forbid divorce are Philippines and Vatican City, although in practice in many countries which use a fault-based divorce system obtaining a divorce is very difficult.", "The ability to divorce, in law and practice, has been and continues to be a controversial issue in many countries, and public discourse involves different ideologies such as feminism, social conservatism, religious interpretations.====Dowry and bridewealth====Bangalore, IndiaIn recent years, the customs of dowry and bride price have received international criticism for inciting conflicts between families and clans; contributing to violence against women; promoting materialism; increasing property crimes (where men steal goods such as cattle in order to be able to pay the bride price); and making it difficult for poor people to marry.", "African women's rights campaigners advocate the abolishing of bride price, which they argue is based on the idea that women are a form of property which can be bought.", "Bride price has also been criticized for contributing to child trafficking as impoverished parents sell their young daughters to rich older men.", "A senior Papua New Guinea police officer has called for the abolishing of bride price arguing that it is one of the main reasons for the mistreatment of women in that country.", "The opposite practice of dowry has been linked to a high level of violence (see Dowry death) and to crimes such as extortion.====Children born outside marriage====''The Outcast'', by Richard Redgrave, 1851.A patriarch casts his daughter and her illegitimate baby out of the family home.Percentage of births to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007Historically, and still in many countries, children born outside marriage suffered severe social stigma and discrimination.", "In England and Wales, such children were known as bastards and whoresons.There are significant differences between world regions in regard to the social and legal position of non-marital births, ranging from being fully accepted and uncontroversial to being severely stigmatized and discriminated.The 1975 European Convention on the Legal Status of Children Born out of Wedlock protects the rights of children born to unmarried parents.", "The convention states, among others, that: \"The father and mother of a child born out of wedlock shall have the same obligation to maintain the child as if it were born in wedlock\" and that \"A child born out of wedlock shall have the same right of succession in the estate of its father and its mother and of a member of its father's or mother's family, as if it had been born in wedlock.", "\"While in most Western countries legal inequalities between children born inside and outside marriage have largely been abolished, this is not the case in some parts of the world.The legal status of an unmarried father differs greatly from country to country.", "Without voluntary formal recognition of the child by the father, in most cases there is a need of due process of law in order to establish paternity.", "In some countries however, unmarried cohabitation of a couple for a specific period of time does create a presumption of paternity similar to that of formal marriage.", "This is the case in Australia.", "Under what circumstances can a paternity action be initiated, the rights and responsibilities of a father once paternity has been established (whether he can obtain parental responsibility and whether he can be forced to support the child) as well as the legal position of a father who voluntarily acknowledges the child, vary widely by jurisdiction.", "A special situation arises when a married woman has a child by a man other than her husband.", "Some countries, such as Israel, refuse to accept a legal challenge of paternity in such a circumstance, in order to avoid the stigmatization of the child (see Mamzer, a concept under Jewish law).", "In 2010, the European Court of Human Rights ruled in favor of a German man who had fathered twins with a married woman, granting him right of contact with the twins, despite the fact that the mother and her husband had forbidden him to see the children.The steps that an unmarried father must take in order to obtain rights to his child vary by country.", "In some countries (such as the UK – since 2003 in England and Wales, 2006 in Scotland, and 2002 in Northern Ireland) it is sufficient for the father to be listed on the birth certificate for him to have parental rights; in other countries, such as Ireland, simply being listed on the birth certificate does not offer any rights, additional legal steps must be taken (if the mother agrees, the parents can both sign a \"statutory declaration\", but if the mother does not agree, the father has to apply to court).Children born outside marriage have become more common, and in some countries, the majority.", "Recent data from Latin America showed figures for non-marital childbearing to be 74% for Colombia, 69% for Peru, 68% for Chile, 66% for Brazil, 58% for Argentina, 55% for Mexico.", "In 2012, in the European Union, 40% of births were outside marriage, and in the United States, in 2013, the figure was similar, at 41%.", "In the United Kingdom 48% of births were to unmarried women in 2012; in Ireland the figure was 35%.During the first half of the 20th century, unmarried women in some Western countries were coerced by authorities to give their children up for adoption.", "This was especially the case in Australia, through the forced adoptions in Australia, with most of these adoptions taking place between the 1950s and the 1970s.", "In 2013, Julia Gillard, then Prime Minister of Australia, offered a national apology to those affected by the forced adoptions.Some married couples choose not to have children.", "Others are unable to have children because of infertility or other factors preventing conception or the bearing of children.", "In some cultures, marriage imposes an ''obligation'' on women to bear children.", "In northern Ghana, for example, payment of bridewealth signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control face substantial threats of physical abuse and reprisals." ], [ "Religion", "A man and woman exchange ringsReligions develop in specific geographic and social milieux.", "Religious attitudes and practices relating to marriage vary, but have many similarities.===Abrahamic religions=======Baháʼí Faith====The Baháʼí Faith encourages marriage and views it as a mutually strengthening bond.", "A Baháʼí marriage is contingent on the consent of all living parents.====Christianity====Holy Matrimony in the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, an Eastern Catholic Church and a part of the Saint Thomas Christian community in IndiaChristian wedding in Kyoto, JapanRussian orthodox wedding ceremonyModern Christianity bases its views on marriage upon the teachings of Jesus and the Paul the Apostle.", "Many of the largest Christian denominations regard marriage as a sacrament, sacred institution, or covenant.The first known decrees on marriage were during the Roman Catholic Council of Trent (twenty-fourth session of 1563), decrees that made the validity of marriage dependent on the wedding occurring in the presence of a priest and two witnesses.", "The absence of a requirement of parental consent ended a debate that proceeded from the 12th century.", "In the case of a civil divorce, the innocent spouse had and has no right to marry again until the death of the other spouse terminates the still valid marriage, even if the other spouse was guilty of adultery.The Christian Church performed marriages in the narthex of the church prior to the 16th century, when the emphasis was on the marital contract and betrothal.", "Subsequently, the ceremony moved inside the sacristy of the church.Christians often marry for religious reasons, ranging from following the biblical injunction for a \"man to leave his father and mother and cleave to his wife, and the two shall become one\", to accessing the Divine grace of the Roman Catholic Sacrament.Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, as well as many Anglicans and Methodists, consider marriage termed ''holy matrimony'' to be an expression of divine grace, termed a ''sacrament'' and ''mystery'' in the first two Christian traditions.", "In Western ritual, the ministers of the sacrament are the spouses themselves, with a bishop, priest, or deacon merely witnessing the union on behalf of the Church and blessing it.", "In Eastern ritual churches, the bishop or priest functions as the actual minister of the Sacred Mystery; Eastern Orthodox deacons may not perform marriages.", "Western Christians commonly refer to marriage as a vocation, while Eastern Christians consider it an ordination and a martyrdom, though the theological emphases indicated by the various names are not excluded by the teachings of either tradition.", "Marriage is commonly celebrated in the context of a Eucharistic service (a nuptial Mass or Divine Liturgy).", "The sacrament of marriage is indicative of the relationship between Christ and the Church.The Roman Catholic tradition of the 12th and 13th centuries defined marriage as a sacrament ordained by God, signifying the mystical marriage of Christ to his Church.The matrimonial covenant, by which a man and a woman establish between themselves a partnership of the whole of life, is by its nature ordered toward the good of the spouses and the procreation and education of offspring; this covenant between baptized persons has been raised by Christ the Lord to the dignity of a sacrament.For Catholic and Methodist Christians, the mutual love between husband and wife becomes an image of the eternal love with which God loves humankind.", "In the United Methodist Church, the celebration of Holy Matrimony ideally occurs in the context of a Service of Worship, which includes the celebration of the Eucharist.", "Likewise, the celebration of marriage between two Catholics normally takes place during the public liturgical celebration of the Holy Mass, because of its sacramental connection with the unity of the Paschal mystery of Christ (Communion).", "Sacramental marriage confers a perpetual and exclusive bond between the spouses.", "By its nature, the institution of marriage and conjugal love is ordered to the procreation and upbringing of offspring.", "Marriage creates rights and duties in the Church between the spouses and towards their children: \"entering marriage with the intention of never having children is a grave wrong and more than likely grounds for an annulment\".", "According to Roman Catholic legislation, progeny of annulled relationships are considered legitimate.", "Civilly remarried persons who civilly divorced a living and lawful spouse are not separated from the Church, but they cannot receive Eucharistic Communion.Divorce and remarriage, while generally not encouraged, are regarded differently by each Christian denomination, with certain traditions, such as the Catholic Church, teaching the concept of an annulment.", "For example, the Reformed Church in America permits divorce and remarriage, while connexions such as the Evangelical Methodist Church Conference forbid divorce except in the case of fornication and do not allow for remarriage in any circumstance.", "The Eastern Orthodox Church allows divorce for a limited number of reasons, and in theory, but usually not in practice, requires that a marriage after divorce be celebrated with a penitential overtone.", "With respect to marriage between a Christian and a pagan, the early Church \"sometimes took a more lenient view, invoking the so-called Pauline privilege of permissible separation (1 Cor.", "7) as legitimate grounds for allowing a convert to divorce a pagan spouse and then marry a Christian.", "\"The Catholic Church adheres to the proscription of Jesus in ''Matthew'', 19: 6 that married spouses who have consummated their marriage \"are no longer two, but one flesh.", "Therefore, what God has joined together, no human being must separate.\"", "Consequently, the Catholic Church understands that it is wholly without authority to terminate a sacramentally valid and consummated marriage, and its ''Codex Iuris Canonici'' (1983 Code of Canon Law) confirms this in Canons 1055–7.Specifically, Canon 1056 declares that \"the essential properties of marriage are unity and ''indissolubility''; in Christian marriage they acquire a distinctive ''firmness'' by reason of the sacrament.\"", "Canon 1057, §2 declares that marriage is \"an ''irrevocable'' covenant\".", "Therefore, divorce of such a marriage is a metaphysical, moral, and legal impossibility.", "However, the Church has the authority to annul a presumed \"marriage\" by declaring it to have been invalid from the beginning, i. e., declaring it not to be and never to have been a marriage, in an annulment procedure, which is basically a fact-finding and fact-declaring effort.For Protestant denominations, the purposes of marriage include intimate companionship, rearing children, and mutual support for both spouses to fulfill their life callings.", "Most Reformed Christians did not regard marriage to the status of a sacrament \"because they did not regard matrimony as a necessary means of grace for salvation\"; nevertheless it is considered a covenant between spouses before God.cf.", "In addition, some Protestant denominations (such as the Methodist Churches) affirmed that Holy Matrimony is a \"means of grace, thus, sacramental in character\".A couple following their marriage in the Manti Utah TempleSince the 16th century, five competing models have shaped marriage in the Western tradition, as described by John Witte, Jr.:* Marriage as Sacrament in the Roman Catholic Tradition* Marriage as Social Estate in the Lutheran Reformation* Marriage as Covenant in the Reformed (and Methodist) Traditions* Marriage as Commonwealth in the Anglican Tradition* Marriage as Contract in the Enlightenment TraditionMembers of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) believe that \"marriage between a man and a woman is ordained of God and that the family is central to the Creator's plan for the eternal destiny of His children.\"", "Their view of marriage is that family relationships can endure beyond the grave.", "This is known as 'eternal marriage' which can be eternal only when authorized priesthood holders perform the sealing ordinance in sacred temples.With respect to religion, historic Christian belief emphasizes that Christian weddings should occur in a church as Christian marriage should begin where one also starts their faith journey (Christians receive the sacrament of baptism in church in the presence of their congregation).", "Catholic Christian weddings must \"take place in a church building\" as holy matrimony is a sacrament; sacraments normatively occur in the presence of Christ in the house of God, and \"members of the faith community should be present to witness the event and provide support and encouragement for those celebrating the sacrament.\"", "Bishops never grant permission \"to those requesting to be married in a garden, on the beach, or some other place outside of the church\" and a dispensation is only granted \"in extraordinary circumstances (for example, if a bride or groom is ill or disabled and unable to come to the church).\"", "Marriage in the church, for Christians, is seen as contributing to the fruit of the newlywed couple regularly attending church each Lord's Day and raising children in the faith.=====Christian attitudes to same-sex marriage=====Although many Christian denominations do not currently perform same-sex marriages, many do, such as the Presbyterian Church (USA), some dioceses of the Episcopal Church, the Metropolitan Community Church, Quakers, United Church of Canada, and United Church of Christ congregations, and some Anglican dioceses, for example.", "Same-sex marriage is recognized by various religious denominations.==== Islam ====Pakistani marriage culture videoNewlywed couples visit Timur's statues to receive wedding blessings in Uzbekistan.A Muslim bride of Pakistan origin signing the ''nikkah nama'' or marriage certificateA Muslim couple being wed alongside the Tungabhadra River at Hampi, IndiaIslam also commends marriage, with the age of marriage being whenever the individuals feel ready, financially and emotionally.In Islam, polygyny is allowed while polyandry is not, with the specific limitation that a man can have no more than four legal wives at any one time and an unlimited number of female slaves as concubines who may have rights similar wives, with the exception of not being free unless the man has children with them, with the requirement that the man is able and willing to partition his time and wealth equally among the respective wives and concubines (this practice of concubinage, as in Judaism, is not applicable in contemporary times and has been deemed by scholars as invalid due to shifts in views about the role of slavery in the world).For a Muslim wedding to take place, the bridegroom and the guardian of the bride (''wali'') must both agree on the marriage.", "Should the guardian disagree on the marriage, it may not legally take place.", "If the ''wali'' of the girl is her father or paternal grandfather, he has the right to force her into marriage even against her proclaimed will, if it is her first marriage.", "A guardian who is allowed to force the bride into marriage is called ''wali mujbir''.Nigerian Islamic weddingFrom an Islamic (Sharia) law perspective, the minimum requirements and responsibilities in a Muslim marriage are that the groom provide living expenses (housing, clothing, food, maintenance) to the bride, and in return, the bride's main responsibility is raising children to be proper Muslims.", "All other rights and responsibilities are to be decided between the husband and wife, and may even be included as stipulations in the marriage contract before the marriage actually takes place, so long as they do not go against the minimum requirements of the marriage.In Sunni Islam, marriage must take place in the presence of at least two reliable witnesses, with the consent of the guardian of the bride and the consent of the groom.", "Following the marriage, the couple may consummate the marriage.", "To create an 'urf marriage, it is sufficient that a man and a woman indicate an intention to marry each other and recite the requisite words in front of a suitable Muslim.", "The wedding party usually follows but can be held days, or months later, whenever the couple and their families want to; however, there can be no concealment of the marriage as it is regarded as public notification due to the requirement of witnesses.In Shia Islam, marriage may take place without the presence of witnesses as is often the case in temporary Nikah mut'ah (prohibited in Sunni Islam), but with the consent of both the bride and the groom.", "Following the marriage, they may consummate their marriage.====Judaism====A Jewish wedding, painting by Jozef Israëls, 1903A Ketubah in Hebrew, a Jewish marriage-contract outlining the duties of each partnerIn Judaism, marriage is based on the laws of the Torah and is a contractual bond between spouses in which the spouses agree to be consecrated to one another.", "This contract is called Kiddushin.", "Though procreation is not the sole purpose, a Jewish marriage is also expected to fulfill the commandment to have children, as it is written \"God blessed them and God said to them, 'Be fertile and increase.", "The main focus centers around the relationship between the spouses.", "Kabbalistically, marriage is understood to mean that the spouses are merging into a single soul.", "In Kabbalistic thought, a man is considered \"incomplete\" if he is not married, as his soul is only one part of a larger whole that remains to be unified.The Hebrew Bible describes a number of marriages, including those of Isaac, Jacob and Samson.", "Polygyny, or men having multiple wives at once, is one of the most common marital arrangements represented in the Hebrew Bible; another is that of concubinage (pilagshut) which was often arranged by a man, and a woman who generally enjoyed the same rights as a full legal wife.", "Other means of concubinage are observed by the author of Judges 19–20, or during war, as in Deuteronomy 21:10–12.The rabbis of the Talmud exhibited discomfort with abduction of women in war for the purpose of marriage, declaring it to be a \"compromise against man's evil inclination\" to be avoided.", "Today Ashkenazi Jews are prohibited to take more than one wife because of a ban instituted on this by Gershom ben Judah (d. 1040 CE).", "However, academic scholarship indicates that prohibitions on polygyny may have existed far earlier, based on the Damascus Covenant.Among ancient Hebrews, marriage was a domestic affair and not a religious ceremony; no officiant or witness was required by law.", "The Rambam wrote that \"before the Torah was given, when a man would meet a woman in the marketplace and he and she decided to marry, he would bring her home, conduct relations in private and thus make her his wife.\"", "Subsequently, to the Torah being handed down at Sinai, however, the Jews received the commandment that a marriage must be witnessed.Betrothal (''erusin''), which refers to the time that this binding contract is made, is distinct from marriage itself (''nissu'in''), with the time between these events varying substantially.", "In biblical times, a wife was regarded as personal property, belonging to her husband; the descriptions of the Bible suggest that she would be expected to perform tasks such as spinning, sewing, weaving, manufacture of clothing, fetching of water, baking of bread, and animal husbandry.", "A husband's obligations to his wife are 1) to provide her with food and care; 2) to supply her clothing and shelter; 3) to share a home with her; 4) to provide the ketubah (marriage contract); 5) to supply medical care if she falls ill; 6) to ransom her back if she is kidnapped; 7) to provide proper burial when she dies; 8) to provide for her materially if he predeceases her; 9) to provide for the support of their daughters until they marry or become adults; and 10) to see that their sons inherit the money specified in her ketubah, in addition to their portion of his estate.", "Men are also obligated sexually to their wives, per BT Ketubot 61b:10, with the frequency of marital relations determined in part by the occupation (and hence availability) of the husband.Per Deuteronomy 24, because a wife was regarded as property, her husband was originally free to divorce her for any reason, at any time.", "However, Talmudic sources complicate this matter significantly, with Beit Shammai stating that a man may divorce his wife only if she has committed a sexual transgression (such as adultery).", "Divorcing a woman against her will was also banned by Gershom ben Judah for Ashkenazi Jews.", "A divorced couple were permitted to remarry, unless the wife had married someone else after her divorce.===Hinduism===Hindu marriage ceremony from a Rajput weddingA Nepali Hindu couple in marriage ceremonyHinduism regards ''Vivāha'' or ''Biye'' (marriage) to be a sacred duty that entails both religious and social obligations.", "It is regarded to be an important ''samskara'', or a rite of passage.", "Hindu texts describe four ''purusharthas'' (goals of existence): ''dharma'' (righteousness), ''artha'' (wealth), ''kama'' (desire), and ''moksha'' (liberation).", "The purpose of the marriage ''samskara'' is to fulfill the goal of ''kama'', allowing an adherent to gradually advance towards the attainment of ''moksha''.", "The Manusmriti describes many different types of marriages and their categorisation, ranging from the ''gandharva vivaha'' (a consensual marriage of love between a man and a woman without the performance of rituals or witnesses) to the ''rakshasa vivaha'' (a \"demoniac\" marriage, performed by abduction of one participant by the other participant, usually, but not always, with the help of other persons).", "In the Indian subcontinent, arranged marriages, in which the spouse's parents or an older family member choose the partner, are still predominant in comparison with love marriages in the contemporary period.", "The Hindu Widow's Remarriage Act 1856 empowers a Hindu widow to remarry.===Buddhism===The Buddhist view of marriage considers marriage a secular affair and thus not a sacrament.", "Buddhists are expected to follow the civil laws regarding marriage laid out by their respective governments.", "Gautama Buddha, being a kshatriya was required by Shakyan tradition to pass a series of tests to prove himself as a warrior, before he was allowed to marry.===Sikhism===In a Sikh marriage, the couple walks around the ''Guru Granth Sahib'' holy book four times, and a holy man recites from it in the kirtan style.", "The ceremony is known as 'Anand Karaj' and represents the holy union of two souls united as one.===Wicca===Wiccan marriages are commonly known as handfastings and are a celebration held by Wiccans.", "Handfasting was originally a medieval ritual and has been revived by contemporary Pagans.", "In the ritual, the couple's wrists are tied together to symbolize the binding of two lives.", "It is commonly used in Wicca and Pagan ceremonies, but it has become more mainstream and comes up in both religious and secular vows and readings.", "Although handfastings vary for each Wiccan they often involve honoring Wiccan deities.", "Some Wiccan traditions have a marriage vow \"for as long as love lasts\" instead of the traditional Christian \"till death do us part\".", "The first Wiccan wedding took place in 1960, between Frederic Lamond and his wife, Gillian.", "Most Wiccan traditions will celebrate same-sex and different-sex handfastings.", "The length of commitment varies from a year and a day (after which the vows may be renewed), \"as long as love shall last\", for a lifetime, or for future incarnations.Consensual sex is considered sacred for Wiccans.", "Some traditions perform the Great Rite, in which a High Priest and High Priestess invoke the God and Goddess on each other before making love.", "It can be used to raise magical energy for the use of spell work.", "It can also be performed symbolically, using the athame to symbolize masculine energy and the chalice to symbolize feminine energy." ], [ "Health and income", "Nepali weddingMarriages are correlated with better outcomes for the couple and their children, including higher income for men, better health and lower mortality.", "Part of these effects is due to the fact that those with better expectations get married more often.", "According to a systematic review on research literature, a significant part of the effect seems to be due to a true causal effect.", "The reason may be that marriages make particularly men become more future-oriented and take an economic and other responsibility of the family.", "The studies eliminate the effect of selectivity in numerous ways.", "However, much of the research is of low quality in this sense.", "On the other hand, the causal effect might be even higher if money, working skills and parenting practices are endogenous.", "Married men have less drug abuse and alcohol use and are more often at home during nights.===Health===Marriage, like other close relationships, exerts considerable influence on health.", "Married people experience lower morbidity and mortality across such diverse health threats as cancer, heart attacks, and surgery.", "Research on marriage and health is part of the broader study of the benefits of social relationships.Social ties provide people with a sense of identity, purpose, belonging, and support.", "Simply being married, as well as the quality of one's marriage, have been linked to diverse measures of health.The health-protective effect of marriage is stronger for men than women.", "Marital status—the simple fact of being married—confers more health benefits to men than women.Women's health is more strongly impacted than men's by marital conflict or satisfaction, such that unhappily married women do not enjoy better health relative to their single counterparts.", "Most research on marriage and health has focused on heterosexual couples; more work is needed to clarify the health impacts of same-sex marriage." ], [ "Divorce and annulment", "In most societies, the death of one of the partners terminates the marriage, and in monogamous societies, this allows the other partner to remarry, though sometimes after a waiting or mourning period.In some societies, a marriage can be annulled, when an authority declares that a marriage never happened.", "Jurisdictions often have provisions for void marriages or voidable marriages.A marriage may also be terminated through divorce.", "Countries that have relatively recently legalized divorce are Italy (1970), Portugal (1975), Brazil (1977), Spain (1981), Argentina (1987), Paraguay (1991), Colombia (1991), Ireland (1996), Chile (2004) and Malta (2011).", "As of 2012, the Philippines and the Vatican City are the only jurisdictions which do not allow divorce (this is currently under discussion in Philippines).", "After divorce, one spouse may have to pay alimony.", "Laws concerning divorce and the ease with which a divorce can be obtained vary widely around the world.", "After a divorce or an annulment, the people concerned are free to remarry (or marry).A statutory right of two married partners to mutually consent to divorce was enacted in western nations in the mid-20th century.", "In the United States, no-fault divorce was first enacted in California in 1969 and the final state to legalize it was New York in 1989.About 45% of marriages in Britain and, according to a 2009 study, 46% of marriages in the U.S. end in divorce." ], [ "History", "The history of marriage is often considered under History of the family or legal history.===Ancient world=======Ancient Near East====Many cultures have legends concerning the origins of marriage.", "The way in which a marriage is conducted and its rules and ramifications have changed over time, as has the institution itself, depending on the culture or demographic of the time.The first recorded evidence of marriage ceremonies uniting a man and a woman dates back to approximately 2350 BC, in ancient Mesopotamia.", "Wedding ceremonies, as well as dowry and divorce, can be traced back to Mesopotamia and Babylonia.According to ancient Hebrew tradition, a wife was seen as being property of high value and was, therefore, usually, carefully looked after.", "Early nomadic communities in the Middle East practiced a form of marriage known as ''beena'', in which a wife would own a tent of her own, within which she retains complete independence from her husband; this principle appears to survive in parts of early Israelite society, as some early passages of the Bible appear to portray certain wives as each owning a tent as a personal possession (specifically, Jael, Sarah, and Jacob's wives).The husband, too, is indirectly implied to have some responsibilities to his wife.", "The Covenant Code orders \"If he take him another; her food, her clothing, and her duty of marriage, shall he not diminish (or lessen)\".", "If the husband does not provide the first wife with these things, she is to be divorced, without cost to her.", "The Talmud interprets this as a requirement for a man to provide food and clothing to, and have sex with, each of his wives.", "However, \"duty of marriage\" is also interpreted as whatever one does as a married couple, which is more than just sexual activity.", "And the term diminish, which means to lessen, shows the man must treat her as if he was not married to another.As a polygynous society, the Israelites did not have any laws that imposed marital fidelity on men.", "However, the prophet Malachi states that none should be faithless to the wife of his youth and that God hates divorce.", "Adulterous married women, adulterous betrothed women, and the men who slept with them, however, were subject to the death penalty by the biblical laws against adultery According to the Priestly Code of the Book of Numbers, if a pregnant woman was suspected of adultery, she was to be subjected to the Ordeal of Bitter Water, a form of trial by ordeal, but one that took a miracle to convict.", "The literary prophets indicate that adultery was a frequent occurrence, despite their strong protests against it, and these legal strictness's.====Classical Greece and Rome====In ancient Greece, no specific civil ceremony was required for the creation of a heterosexual marriage – only mutual agreement and the fact that the couple must regard each other as husband and wife accordingly.", "Men usually married when they were in their 20s and women in their teens.", "It has been suggested that these ages made sense for the Greeks because men were generally done with military service or financially established by their late 20s, and marrying a teenage girl ensured ample time for her to bear children, as life expectancies were significantly lower.", "Married Greek women had few rights in ancient Greek society and were expected to take care of the house and children.", "Time was an important factor in Greek marriage.", "For example, there were superstitions that being married during a full moon was good luck and Greeks married in the winter in honor of Hera.", "Inheritance was more important than feelings: a woman whose father dies without male heirs could be forced to marry her nearest male relative – even if she had to divorce her husband first.There were several types of marriages in ancient Roman society.", "The traditional (\"conventional\") form called ''conventio in manum'' required a ceremony with witnesses and was also dissolved with a ceremony.", "In this type of marriage, a woman lost her family rights of inheritance of her old family and gained them with her new one.", "She now was subject to the authority of her husband.", "There was the free marriage known as ''sine manu''.", "In this arrangement, the wife remained a member of her original family; she stayed under the authority of her father, kept her family rights of inheritance with her old family and did not gain any with the new family.", "The minimum age of marriage for girls was 12.====Germanic tribes====Seuso and his wifeAmong ancient Germanic tribes, the bride and groom were roughly the same age and generally older than their Roman counterparts, at least according to Tacitus:The youths partake late of the pleasures of love, and hence pass the age of puberty unexhausted: nor are the virgins hurried into marriage; the same maturity, the same full growth is required: the sexes unite equally matched and robust, and the children inherit the vigor of their parents.Where Aristotle had set the prime of life at 37 years for men and 18 for women, the Visigothic Code of law in the 7th century placed the prime of life at 20 years for both men and women, after which both presumably married.", "Tacitus states that ancient Germanic brides were on average about 20 and were roughly the same age as their husbands.", "Tacitus, however, had never visited the German-speaking lands and most of his information on Germania comes from secondary sources.", "In addition, Anglo-Saxon women, like those of other Germanic tribes, are marked as women from the age of 12 and older, based on archaeological finds, implying that the age of marriage coincided with puberty.===Europe===Woodcut.", "How Reymont and Melusina were betrothed / And by the bishop were blessed in their bed on their wedlock.", "From the ''Melusine'', 15th century.From the early Christian era (30 to 325 CE), marriage was thought of as primarily a private matter, with no uniform religious or other ceremony being required.", "However, bishop Ignatius of Antioch writing around 110 to bishop Polycarp of Smyrna exhorts, \"It becomes both men and women who marry, to form their union with the approval of the bishop, that their marriage may be according to God, and not after their own lust.", "\"In 12th-century Europe, women took the surname of their husbands and starting in the second half of the 16th century parental consent along with the church's consent was required for marriage.With few local exceptions, until 1545, Christian marriages in Europe were by mutual consent, declaration of intention to marry and upon the subsequent physical union of the parties.", "The couple would promise verbally to each other that they would be married to each other; the presence of a priest or witnesses was not required.", "This promise was known as the \"verbum.\"", "If freely given and made in the present tense (e.g., \"I marry you\"), it was unquestionably binding; if made in the future tense (\"I will marry you\"), it would constitute a betrothal.In 1552 a wedding took place in Zufia, Navarre, between Diego de Zufia and Mari-Miguel following the custom as it was in the realm since the Middle Ages, but the man denounced the marriage on the grounds that its validity was conditioned to \"riding\" her (\"''si te cabalgo, lo cual dixo de bascuence (...) balvin yo baneça aren senar içateko''\").", "The tribunal of the kingdom rejected the husband's claim, validating the wedding, but the husband appealed to the tribunal in Zaragoza, and this institution annulled the marriage.", "According to the Charter of Navarre, the basic union consisted of a civil marriage with no priest required and at least two witnesses, and the contract could be broken using the same formula.", "The Church in turn lashed out at those who got married twice or thrice in a row while their formers spouses were still alive.", "In 1563 the Council of Trent, twenty-fourth session, required that a valid marriage must be performed by a priest before two witnesses.One of the functions of churches from the Middle Ages was to register marriages, which was not obligatory.", "There was no state involvement in marriage and personal status, with these issues being adjudicated in ecclesiastical courts.", "During the Middle Ages marriages were arranged, sometimes as early as birth, and these early pledges to marry were often used to ensure treaties between different royal families, nobles, and heirs of fiefdoms.", "The church resisted these imposed unions, and increased the number of causes for nullification of these arrangements.", "As Christianity spread during the Roman period and the Middle Ages, the idea of free choice in selecting marriage partners increased and spread with it.In Medieval Western Europe, later marriage and higher rates of definitive celibacy (the so-called \"European marriage pattern\") helped to constrain patriarchy at its most extreme level.", "For example, Medieval England saw marriage age as variable depending on economic circumstances, with couples delaying marriage until the early twenties when times were bad and falling to the late teens after the Black Death, when there were labor shortages; by appearances, marriage of adolescents was not the norm in England.", "Where the strong influence of classical Celtic and Germanic cultures (which were not rigidly patriarchal) helped to offset the Judaeo-Roman patriarchal influence, in Eastern Europe the tradition of early and universal marriage (often in early adolescence), as well as traditional Slavic patrilocal custom, led to a greatly inferior status of women at all levels of society.The average age of marriage for most of Northwestern Europe from 1500 to 1800 was around 25 years of age; as the Church dictated that both parties had to be at least 21 years of age to marry without the consent of their parents, the bride and groom were roughly the same age, with most brides in their early twenties and most grooms two or three years older, and a substantial number of women married for the first time in their thirties and forties, particularly in urban areas, with the average age at first marriage rising and falling as circumstances dictated.", "In better times, more people could afford to marry earlier and thus fertility rose and conversely marriages were delayed or forgone when times were bad, thus restricting family size; after the Black Death, the greater availability of profitable jobs allowed more people to marry young and have more children, but the stabilization of the population in the 16th century meant fewer job opportunities and thus more people delaying marriages.The age of marriage was not absolute, however, as child marriages occurred throughout the Middle Ages and later, with just some of them including:* The 1552 CE marriage between John Somerford and Jane Somerford Brereto, at the ages of 3 and 2, respectively.", "* In the early 1900s, Magnus Hirschfeld surveyed the age of consent in about 50 countries, which he found to often range between 12 and 16.In the Vatican, the age of consent was 12.As part of the Protestant Reformation, the role of recording marriages and setting the rules for marriage passed to the state, reflecting Martin Luther's view that marriage was a \"worldly thing\".", "By the 17th century, many of the Protestant European countries had a state involvement in marriage.In England, under the Anglican Church, marriage by consent and cohabitation was valid until the passage of Lord Hardwicke's Act in 1753.This act instituted certain requirements for marriage, including the performance of a religious ceremony observed by witnesses.A marriage in 1960 in Italy.", "Photo by Paolo Monti.As part of the Counter-Reformation, in 1563 the Council of Trent decreed that a Roman Catholic marriage would be recognized only if the marriage ceremony was officiated by a priest with two witnesses.", "The council also authorized a Catechism, issued in 1566, which defined marriage as \"The conjugal union of man and woman, contracted between two qualified persons, which obliges them to live together throughout life.", "\"In the early modern period, John Calvin and his Protestant colleagues reformulated Christian marriage by enacting the Marriage Ordinance of Geneva, which imposed \"The dual requirements of state registration and church consecration to constitute marriage\" for recognition.In England and Wales, Lord Hardwicke's Marriage Act 1753 required a formal ceremony of marriage, thereby curtailing the practice of Fleet Marriage, an irregular or a clandestine marriage.", "These were clandestine or irregular marriages performed at Fleet Prison, and at hundreds of other places.", "From the 1690s until the Marriage Act of 1753 as many as 300,000 clandestine marriages were performed at Fleet Prison alone.", "The Act required a marriage ceremony to be officiated by an Anglican priest in the Anglican Church with two witnesses and registration.", "The Act did not apply to Jewish marriages or those of Quakers, whose marriages continued to be governed by their own customs.Newlyweds after a civil ceremony in the tower of Stockholm City Hall in 2016In England and Wales, since 1837, civil marriages have been recognized as a legal alternative to church marriages under the Marriage Act 1836.In Germany, civil marriages were recognized in 1875.This law permitted a declaration of the marriage before an official clerk of the civil administration, when both spouses affirm their will to marry, to constitute a legally recognized valid and effective marriage, and allowed an optional private clerical marriage ceremony.In contemporary English common law, a marriage is a voluntary contract by a man and a woman, in which by agreement they choose to become husband and wife.", "Edvard Westermarck proposed that \"the institution of marriage has probably developed out of a primeval habit\".Since the late twentieth century, major social changes in Western countries have led to changes in the demographics of marriage, with the age of first marriage increasing, fewer people marrying, and more couples choosing to cohabit rather than marry.", "For example, the number of marriages in Europe decreased by 30% from 1975 to 2005.As of 2000, the average marriage age range was 25–44 years for men and 22–39 years for women.===China===The mythological origin of Chinese marriage is a story about Nüwa and Fu Xi who invented proper marriage procedures after becoming married.", "In ancient Chinese society, people of the same surname are supposed to consult with their family trees prior to marriage to reduce the potential risk of unintentional incest.", "Marrying one's maternal relatives was generally not thought of as incest.", "Families sometimes intermarried from one generation to another.", "Over time, Chinese people became more geographically mobile.", "Individuals remained members of their biological families.", "When a couple died, the husband and the wife were buried separately in the respective clan's graveyard.", "In a maternal marriage, a male would become a son-in-law who lived in the wife's home.The New Marriage Law of 1950 radically changed Chinese marriage traditions, enforcing monogamy, equality of men and women, and choice in marriage; arranged marriages were the most common type of marriage in China until then.", "Starting October 2003, it became legal to marry or divorce without authorization from the couple's work units.", "Although people with infectious diseases such as AIDS may now marry, marriage is still illegal for the mentally ill.=== Korea ===The practice of matrilocality in Korea started in the Goguryeo period, continued through the Goryeo period and ended in the early Joseon period.", "The Korean saying that when a man gets married, he is \"entering ''jangga''\" (the house of his father-in-law), stems from the Goguryeo period." ], [ "See also", "* Avunculate marriage* Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages* List of countries by marriage rate* List of coupled cousins* Marriage certificate* Relationship science* Elopement* Collective wedding* White wedding* Black wedding* Interethnic marriage* Interracial marriage* Interfaith marriage* Interdenominational marriage* Inter-caste marriage* Transnational marriage* Gay marriage* Transgender marriage" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "** *" ], [ "External links", "* ''For Better, for Worse: British Marriages, 1600 to the Present'' John Gillis.", "1985.Oxford University Press.", "* The Council of Trent on Marriage by the Catholic Church* * \"Marriage – Its Various Forms and the Role of the State\" on BBC Radio 4's ''In Our Time'' featuring Janet Soskice, Frederik Pedersen and Christina Hardyment* Radical Principles and the Legal Institution of Marriage: Domestic Relations Law and Social Democracy in Sweden – Bradley 4 (2): 154 – International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family* Recordings & Photos from a College Historical Society debate on the role of marriage, featuring Senator David Norris and Senator Rónán Mullen.", "* Chris Knight. \"", "Early Human Kinship Was Matrilineal.\"", "In N. J. Allen, H. Callan, R. Dunbar and W. James (eds.", "), ''Early Human Kinship''.", "Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 61–82.", "* The Delights of Wisdom Concerning Marriage (\"Conjugial\") Love, After Which Follows the Pleasures of Insanity Concerning Scortatory Love.", "by Emanuel Swedenborg (Swedenborg Society 1953)" ] ]
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[ [ "Midgard" ], [ "Introduction", "The runes ''a:miþkarþi'', Old Norse ''á Miðgarði'', meaning \"in Midgard\" – \"in Middle Earth\", on the Fyrby Runestone (Sö 56) in Södermanland, Sweden.In Germanic cosmology, '''Midgard''' (an anglicised form of Old Norse ; Old English , Old Saxon , Old High German , and Gothic ''Midjun-gards''; \"middle yard\", \"middle enclosure\") is the name for Earth (equivalent in meaning to the Greek term : oikouménē, \"inhabited\") inhabited by and known to humans in early Germanic cosmology.", "The Old Norse form plays a notable role in Norse cosmology." ], [ "Etymology", "The Old Norse name is cognate with Gothic (attested in the Gospel of Luke as a translation of the Greek ), Old Saxon (in ''Heliand''), Old High German (in ''Muspilli''), and Old English .", "The latter, which appears in both prose and poetry, was transformed to or (\"Middle-earth\") in Middle English literature.All these forms stem from Common Germanic , a compound of (\"middle\") and (\"yard, enclosure\").In early Germanic cosmology, it stands alongside the term ''world'' (cf.", "Old English , Old Saxon , Old High German , Old Frisian , Old Norse ), itself from a Common Germanic compound ''*wira-alđiz'' (\"man-age\"), which refers to the inhabited world, i.e.", "the realm of humankind." ], [ "Old Norse", "In Norse mythology, ''Miðgarðr'' became applied to the wall around the world that the gods constructed from the eyebrows of the Ymir as a defense against the who lived in Jotunheim, east of ''Manheimr'', the \"home of men\", a word used to refer to the entire world.", "The gods slew the Ymir, the first created being, and put his body into the central void of the universe, creating the world out of his body: his flesh constituting the land, his blood the oceans, his bones the mountains, his teeth the cliffs, his hairs the trees, and his brains the clouds.", "Ymir's skull was held by four dwarfs, Nordri, Sudri, Austri, and Vestri, who represent the four points on the compass and became the dome of heaven.", "The sun, moon, and stars were said to be scattered sparks in the skull.The Fyrby Runestone.According to the Eddas, Midgard will be destroyed at Ragnarök, the battle at the end of the world.", "Jörmungandr (also known as the Midgard Serpent or World Serpent) will arise from the ocean, poisoning the land and sea with his venom and causing the sea to rear up and lash against the land.", "The final battle will take place on the plain of Vígríðr, following which Midgard and almost all life on it will be destroyed, with the earth sinking into the sea only to rise again, fertile and green when the cycle repeats and the creation begins again.Although most surviving instances of the word Midgard refer to spiritual matters, it was also used in more mundane situations, as in the Viking Age runestone poem from the inscription Sö 56 from Fyrby::Iak væit Hāstæin:þā Holmstæin brø̄ðr,:mænnr rȳnasta:ā Miðgarði,:sattu stæin:auk stafa marga:æftiʀ Frøystæin,:faður sinn.", ":I know Hásteinn:(and) Holmstein, brothers,:the most rune-skilled men:in Middle Earth,:placed the stone:and many letters:in memory of Freysteinn,:their father.The Danish and Swedish form or , the Norwegian or , as well as the Icelandic and Faroese form , all derive from the Old Norse term." ], [ "English", "The name ''middangeard'' occurs six times in the Old English epic poem ''Beowulf'', and is the same word as Midgard in Old Norse.", "The term is equivalent in meaning to the Greek term Oikoumene, as referring to the known and inhabited world.The concept of Midgard occurs many times in Middle English.", "The association with ''earth'' (OE ''eorðe'') in Middle English ''middellærd'', ''middelerde'' is by popular etymology; the modern English cognate of ''geard'' \"enclosure\" is ''yard''.", "An early example of this transformation is from the Ormulum:::''þatt ure Drihhtin wollde / ben borenn i þiss middellærd''::that our Lord wanted / be born in this Middle-earth.The usage of \"Middle-earth\" as a name for a setting was popularized by Old English scholar J. R. R. Tolkien in his ''The Lord of the Rings'' and other fantasy works; he was originally inspired by the references to ''middangeard'' and ''Éarendel'' in the Old English poem ''Crist A''." ], [ "Old High German and Old Saxon", "''Mittilagart'' is mentioned in the 9th-century Old High German ''Muspilli'' (v. 54) meaning \"the world\" as opposed to the sea and the heavens:::::::Sea is swallowed, flaming burn the heavens,::Moon falls, Midgard burns''Middilgard'' is also attested in the Old Saxon ''Heliand'':::::::Over the middle earth;::And all men He could help" ], [ "References" ] ]
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